THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1936


Table of Contents

List of Tables

PREFACE.

WITH this issue the “New Zealand Official Year-Book” has attained its 44th year of publication. It is trusted that, in the tradition established by its predecessors, the present edition will fulfil its object of providing a useful, authoritative, and comprehensive work of reference.

The whole of the contents have been thoroughly revised and brought up to date. Special mention may be accorded as follows : In view of the difficult position of the farming industry and the importance which attaches to it, Section XVIIA has been expanded to give an account of gross farming income, of export and consumption of farm-produce, and of recent developments in agricultural policy and in other aspects of farm economy. A new article on New Zealand flora (by Dr. W. R. 13. Oliver, D.Sc.) is contained in Section I. Section XIX, relating to fisheries, has been recast and additional information added. The establishment of air-transport services and the growth of interest in aviation generally have rendered desirable the concentration of brief references contained in former issues into a special section dealing with aviation and air transport

It is of service also to mention an important change in respect of figures given for the import trade. In previous editions import values were shown in terms of sterling, as they were, and are, recorded for Customs purposes. Difficulties in connection with their conversion to New Zealand currency have now been overcome, and import values, both for 1934 (and 1934–35) and earlier years, are now expressed throughout in our own currency. Summaries and totals of importance are given also in sterling values for convenience of reference.

In a work of the compass and magnitude of the Year-Book it would be futile to anticipate that an occasional error had not intruded nor an omission of significance been permitted. Headers who may observe any such blemishes are cordially invited to bring them under notice.

I wish to record my appreciation of the assistance rendered by other Government Departments and by officers of the Census and Statistics Office. My special thanks are due to Mr. D. J. Cruickshank, LL.B., Chief Compiler, who has supervised the preparation of the volume and carried out the editorial duties under considerable difficulties, occasioned by pressure of work and shortage of staff.

J. W. BUTCHER,

Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Office, Wellington, New Zealand, 14th December, 1935.

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

POPULATION :—Males.Females.Total.
    Estimated (inclusive of Maoris but exclusive of residents of Cook and other Pacific islands) at 30th September, 1935795,847 7136,2821,562,129
MIGRATION :—Males.Females.Total.
    Passenger arrivals, 1st April to 31st October, 19356,3405,74712,087
     Corresponding period of 19345,2034,7849,987
    Passenger departures, 1st April to 31st October, 19357,3767,12014,496
      Corresponding period of 19317,5567,27414,830
VITAL STATISTICS :—Males.Females.Total.
    Births, 1st January to 30th September, 19359,1748,63817,812
      Corresponding period of 19349,3748,73018,104
    Deaths, 1st January to 30th September, 19355,0374,1229,159
      Corresponding period of 19345,1824,1949,376
      Corresponding yearly rates per 1,000, 1935   Births, 15.99;deaths, 8.22
      Corresponding yearly rates per 1,000 1934   Births, 16.35;deaths, 8.47

TRADE (EXCLUDING SPECIE), JANUARY-OCTOBER :—

 1934.1935.
Summary—£ (Stg.)£ (N.Z.)£ (Stg.)£ (N.Z.)
  Exports33,547,00041,933,97931,116,00038,739,175
  Imports20,656,00025,819,82724,144,00030,058,663
  Excess of exports12,891,00016,114,1526,972,0008,680,512
Exports: Principal items (New Zealand produce) :— Quantity.Value.
  1934.1935.1934. £ (N.Z.)1935. £ (N.Z.)
Butterewt.2,109,6392,148,9888,121,8609,971,244
Cheesecwt.1,610,3201,377,3533,786,7983,389,065
Beef, frozen (including chilled)cwt.711,902742,516754,108870,985
Lamb, whole carcasses, frozencwt.2,387,0212,377,0637,269,1417,426,711
Mutton, whole carcasses, frozencwt.858,797968,6831,515,7551,731,801
Pork, frozencwt.327,815393,054867,7031,057,365
Veal, frozencwt.61,44890,73675,747113,557
Sausage-casingslb.4,309,8424,049,967593,985764,077
Milk, driedlb.14,450,11411,739,272275,501217,212
Appleslb.57,761,40837,784,955716,768467,347
Hides, cattle and horseNo.422,016446,792391,806370,101
Sheep-skins, with
woolNo.2,642,1572,094,906479,077299,893
Sheep - skins, without woolNo.8,720,17911,218,984696,210851,223
Woolbales704,716591,00612,134,9206,382,570
Phormium-fibretons2,9362,98939,22641,887
Grass-seedcwt.38,05765,056117,306179,650
Tallowtons25,19422,645434,086555,613
Coaltons36,31639,28447,00655,616
Kauri-gumtons2,7792,40273,93963,200
Goldoz.135,889143,9791,102,9911,212,108
Timbersup. ft.26,618,89933,331,953245,772306,837
Imports : Principal items :—1934 £ (N.Z.)1936 £ (N.Z.)
Raisins and sultanas146,957196,306
Sugar555,471574,327
Tea625,936525,110
Whisky273,458274,945
Cigarettes186,961283,746
Tobacco274,536303,965
Hosiery227,153165,121
Apparel936,0101,011,130
Boots, shoes, and slippers380,908427,021
Drapery n.e.i.272,296280,244
Carpeting, matting, and linoleum.347,438414,126
Cotton piece-goods1,380,7691,432,169
Silk and artificial silk piece-goods.808,864852,245
Woollen piece-goods609,925576,437
Motor-spirit946,334938,417
Crude petroleum, fuel oil, &c.276,868250,652
Coal85,44884,222
Paints, colours, and varnishes224,723312,841
Iron and steel—Galvanized plate and sheet273,644317,932
Iron and steel—Tubes, pipes, and fittings235,276340,961
Hardware, cutlery, and metal manufactures n.e.i.389,431511,672
Electrical machinery and equipment736,4901,036,160
Wireless apparatus325,819279,729
Timber171,049342,814
Paper, printing419,843442,802
Paper, other441,575478,421
Books, papers, and music, printed.325,916351,651
Fancy goods138,403177,810
Medicinal preparations n.e.i.244,940239,421
Phosphates280,569315,880
Motor-vehicles1,675,5852,659,075
Rubber-tires, &c, for motor-vehicles611,003612,790
SHIPPING, OVERSEAS:—Number.Tonnage.
    Inwards, 1st January to 31st October, 19355072,090,097
     Corresponding period of 19344822,142,662
    Outwards, 1st January to 31st October, 19355142,127,335
     Corresponding period of 19344792,143,123
RAILWAYS :—£
     Operating revenue, 1st April to 12th October, 19353,028,934
     Corresponding period of 19342,879,220
    Operating expenditure, 1st April to 12th October, 19352,831,641
    Corresponding period of 19342,747,928
LAND TRANSFERS : REGISTRATIONS, APRIL—OCTOBER:—NumberConsideration.
 1934.1935.1934. £1935: £
Town and suburban properties7,84210,0933,299,4254,418,204
Country properties3,1493,6984,173,5734,918,638
Totals10,99113,7917,472,9989,336,842
AGRICULTURE : AREAS SOWN :—Actually sown, 1934–35. Acres.Estimate, 1935–36. Acres.
Wheat230,523246,000
Oats336,418344,000
Barley28,73126,500
Potatoes23,00122,900
BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER TOWNS :—Number.Value. £
    New buildings, 1st January to 31st October, 19352,8602,780,983
     Corresponding period of 19341,9222,261,250
    Alterations, 1st January to 31st October, 19355,655831,361
    Corresponding period of 19344,892663,170
CONSOLIDATED FUND :—£
Receipts, 1st April to 30th September, 193510,198,828
Corresponding period of 19349,900,125
Expenditure, 1st April to 30th September, 193511,738,428
Corresponding period of 193412,860,571
SALES TAX:—£
    Net amount collected, 1st January to 31st October, 19351,942,161
     Corresponding period of 19341,708,934
 Number.Annual Value.
PENSIONS :—Oct., 1934.Oct., 1935.Oct., 1934. £Oct., 1935. £
Old-age38,77541,8401,530,3201,776,414
Widows'4,5424,405296,366324,903
Military (Maori War)74513,6262,499
Boer War53561,9022,160
War21,53122,1171,241,0831,352,474
Minors'75679457,71168,359
Epidemic45171,744782
Blind46849821,79523,273
Family allowances12,26811,987153,299147,090
MORTGAGES :—Number.Amount. £
    Registered, 1st April to 31st October, 193511,26410,465,148
     Corresponding period of 19348,6146,582,537
    Discharged, 1st April to 31st October, 193510,97710,721,332
     Corresponding period of 19348,3947,481,738
BANKRUPTCIES, JANUARY-OCTOBER :—North Island.South Island.Total.
    Persons, &c, adjudged bankrupt, 193515250202
     Corresponding period of 193419369262
    Deeds of assignment, 1935533689
     Corresponding period of 1934582987
 Number.Amount. £
ESTATES CERTIFIED FOR STAMP DUTY :—
    1st January to 31st October, 19354,47014,705,160
     Corresponding period of 19344,29913,025,022
INDEX NUMBERS OF PRICES :—Oct., 1934.Oct., 1935.
    Export prices : General index number (base :1909–13 = 1000)10421197
    Wholesale prices: General index number (base: 1909–13 = 1000) 13381446
    Retail prices, all groups: Dominion index number (base : 1926–30 = 1000)806853
Share prices : All Groups (base : 1926 = 1000)10041014
NOMINAL WAGE-RATES (ADULT MALES), SEPTEMBER QUARTER :—1934,1935.
Dominion index number (base : Year, 1914 = 1000)13651418
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, JANUARY-SEPTEMBER:—1934.1935.
    Number reported178
    Number of workers affected3,1611,329
    Approximate loss in wages£5,578£10,250
UNEMPLOYMENT(FIGURES ON REVISED BASIS) :—  
    Number of unemployed males, 26th October, 1935 39,681
    Number of unemployed males, 27th October, 1934 39,738

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS OFFICE.

Title.Latest No.Month of Issue.Price per Copy.Postage (extra)

*£1 Is. per annum (post free).

† No Census taken In 1931.

‡ Out of print.

   a.d.d.
New Zealand Official Year-Book1936Jan., 19367610
Annual Statistical Reports—     
  Population and Buildings1934–35Aug., 1935262
  Vital Statistics1933Oct., 1934508
  Justice1934Sept., 1935262
  Trade and. Shipping (Part I)1934Sept., 193520010
  Trade and Shipping (Part II)1933Oct., 1934362
  Agricultural and Pastoral Production1934–35Nov., 1935261
  Factory and Building Production1933–34Mar., 1935364
  Insurance1933Feb., 1935201
Miscellaneous (Prices, Wage-rates and Hours of Labour, Unemployment, Industrial Accidents, Tramways, Banking, Building Societies, Bankruptcy, Commercial Afforestation, Statistical Summary)1933Feb., 1935404
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand (published annually)1935July, 1935768
Monthly Abstract of Statistics ..2 6*1 
Volumes of Census Results (published quinquennially     
  Geographical Distribution1926May, 1927464
  Dependencies1920Feb., 1927161
  Ages1920Nov., 1928202
Conjugal Condition1926Feb., 1929262
  Orphan Children and Dependent Children1926Mar., 1929202
  Race Aliens1926Feb., 1929202
  Native-born and Foreign-born1926May, 1929202
  Religious Professions1926Nov., 1928200
  Industrial and Occupational Distribution1926Mar., 1930303
  Unemployment from Sickness and other Causes1926Sept., 1930202
  Incomes1926May, 1930302
  Families and Households1926April, 1931202
  Dwellings1926Feb., 1931302
  Maori and Half-caste Population1926Mar., 1929303
  Public Libraries and Places of Worship1926Mar., 1927161
  Poultry1926Mar., 1927161
  General Report1926April, 1931503

NOTE.—This list is subject to revision from time to time. Publications are obtainable! from the Government Printer, Wellington.

Chapter 1. SECTION I.—DESCRIPTIVE.

NEW ZEALAND.—AREA, LOCATION, AND BOUNDARIES.

THE Dominion of New Zealand consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. These may be classified as follows:—

(a) Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general principal purposes:—

 Square Miles
North Island and adjacent islets44,281
South Island and adjacent islets58,092
Stewart Island and adjacent islets670
Chatham Islands372
Total103,415

In all further references in this volume, unless the context indicates the contrary, Chatham Islands and Stewart Island are included with the South Island.

(b) Outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847 :—

 Square Miles.
Three Kings Islands3
Auckland Islands234
Campbell Island44
Antipodes Islands24
Bounty Islands
Snares Islands1
Solander Island

(c) Islands (total area, 293 square miles) annexed to New Zealand :— Kermadec Islands, annexed in 1887 (area, 13 square miles). Cook and other Pacific Islands, annexed in 1901 :—

Cook Islands (area, 150 square miles)—

Rarotonga.Aitutaki.
Mangaia,Mauke (or Parry).
Atiu. 
Mitiaro.Manuae and Te-Au-o-Tu (Hervey Islands).

Islands outside the Cook Group (area, 130 square miles)—

Niue (or Savage).Rakahanga (or Reirson).
Palmerston (or Avarau).Pukapuka (or Danger).
Penrhyn (or Tongareva).Suwarrow (or Anchorage).
Manihiki (or Humphrey).Nassau.

The total area of the above is 104,015 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue the aggregate area appears as 66,390,196 acres—i.e., 103,735 square miles. This covers not only the Dominion proper, but also the outlying islands and the Kermadecs. All areas given are necessarily approximations.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude : On the north, 34° 30'S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then Colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Group of islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned in the following schedule, were included as from the 11th June, 1901:—

A line commencing at a point at the intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and proceeding due north to the point of intersection of the Sth degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 170th degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; and thence due east to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich.

By mandate of the League of Nations the New Zealand Government also now administers the former German possession of Western Samoa; and, jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, holds the League's mandate over the Island of Nauru.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea (in the Antarctic regions), with the adjacent islands and territories, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887. and named the Ross Dependency. The Governor-General of New Zealand is Governor of the Ross Dependency and is vested with the administration of the dependency. The dependency is uninhabited.

By Imperial Orders in Council of the 4th November, 1925, the Union or Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofu, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them, a total area of only four square miles) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and power in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of the Sth March, 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

MOUNTAINS.

The mountainous character of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one- tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Runpehu (9,175 ft.). Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Others include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island contains much more mountainous country than is to be found in the North. Along almost its entire length runs the mighty chain known as the Southern Alps, rising to its culmination in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.). No fewer than seventeen peaks of the Southern Alps attain a height of over 10,000 ft. Owing to the snow-line being low in New Zealand, many large and beautiful glaciers exist. The Tasman Glacier (Southern Alps), which has a total length of over eighteen miles and an average width of one mile and a quarter, is the largest. On the west coast the terminal faces of the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers are but a few hundred feet above sea-level.

The following list has been compiled from various sources, and does not purport to be free of omissions :—

Mountain or Peak.Height (Feet).
North Island- 
Ruapehu9,175
Egmont8,260
Ngauruhoe7,515
Kaikoura Ranges— 
Tapuaenuku9,465
Alarm9,400
Southern Alps— 
Cook12,349
Tasman11,475
Dampier Silberhorn11,287
Silberhorn10,757
Lendenfeldt10,450
David's Dome10,443
Malte Brun10,421
Torres10,376
Teichelmann10,370
Sefton10,354
Haast10,294
Elie de Beaumont10,200
Douglas Peak10,107
La Perouse10,101
Haidinger10,059
De la Beche10,058
The Minarets10,058
Aspiring9,975
Hamilton9,915
Glacier Peak9,865
Aiguilles Rouges Nazomi9,731
Nazomi9,716
Southern Alps— 
Darwin9,715
Chudleigh9,686
Annan9,667
Lowe9,656
Haeckel9,649
Le Receveur9,562
Goldsmith9,532
Big Mae9,511
Conway Peak9,510
Bristol Top9,508
Walter9,507
Grey9,490
Green9,307
Hutton9,297
D'Archiac.9,279
Bell9,276
Hochstetter Dome9,258
Earnslaw9,250
Nathan9,200
Barnicoat9,183
Sibbald9,181
Arrowsmith9,171
Spencer9,167
The Footstool9,073
Rudolf9,039
The Dwarf9,025
Darran Range— 
Tutoko9,691
Madeline9,042

The 1931 issue of the Year-Book contained a list, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude. In this issue, the list of South Island mountains is restricted to a minimum of 9,000 ft. altitude.

MINERAL WATERS AND SPAS.

The hot springs of the North Island form one of the most remarkable features of New Zealand. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some three hundred miles; but the principal seat of hydro thermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces at Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1880, the neighbourhood was deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country — the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints —are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognized by the Government, and it is dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

There are also several small hot springs in the South Island, the best known being those at Hanmer. In addition to the major spas of Rotorua and Te Aroha, which are controlled by the Department of Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and Publicity, and of Hanmer, administered by the Department of Health, there are numerous smaller resorts which have been developed by private or municipal enterprise. In many other instances the springs are wholly or mainly undeveloped.

In his book “The Hot Springs of New Zealand,” Dr. A. S. Herbert, O.B.E., M.D., gives the following grouping of the better-known waters corresponding roughly to their mineral-water classification:—

Sulphur waters : Rotorua, Hanmer, Taupo, Wairakei, Waiotapu.

Alkaline waters : Te Aroha.

Saline waters: Helensville, Waiwera, Tarawera.

Iodine waters : Morere, Te Puia.

Calcium carbonated waters : Kamo.

Simple thermal waters : Okoroire and the Waikato springs.

The following article is by the Government Balneologist, Dr. J. D. C. Duncan, M.B., Ch.B. (Edin.), Member of the International Society of Medical Hydrology, Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society:—

INTRODUCTORY.

It has been acknowledged by the leading hydrologists in Europe that New Zealand possesses the most valuable mineral waters in existence. Not only are these mineral waters interesting from a tourist's point of view, but they are, because of their medicinal value, of great therapeutic importance, and, as a Dominion asset, worthy of the deepest scientific consideration.

From the spectacular aspect only a brief mention need be made in this article, as a full description of springs, geysers, and mud-pools has been given in Dr. Herbert's book, “The Hot Springs of New Zealand”—a book that presents a comprehensive and vivid picture of the main manifestations of thermal activity in New Zealand.

Dealing with the medical-scientific aspect of the mineral waters, the space of this article will permit only the shortest account of the treatments; and, as the Rotorua Spa is of premier importance, the article will be confined almost entirely to its operations.

Since and as the result of experience gained during the war, the subject of hydrotherapy has been recreated on modern scientific lines, and the actions of thermal mineral waters have been investigated, both chemically and physiologically, in determining their therapeutic value in the treatment of disease.

TREATMENT ESTABLISHMENTS.

The principal treatment establishments are the Main Bathhouse and the Ward Baths.

In the Main Bathhouse are a series of private bathrooms, slipper and step down, each with its dressing-room attached, and a couch for packing purposes. The baths are arranged for either “Priest” or “Rachel” waters, with under current douches and showers. There are, also, deep “Priest” pools at suitable temperatures for the treatment of chronic cases.

Off the main hall are treatment-rooms where massage and every variety of physiotherapeutic treatment can be given, and, in either wing of the building, a complete establishment for Aix-Vichy douche massage.

The Ward Bathhouse is a handsome new block of buildings which has replaced the old Pavilion Bathhouse. This building, divided into convenient sections for service and control, consists of a large main hall, swimming-pools, hot “Rachel” “pools”, “Old Priest” and “Radium” Dr. A. S. Herbert, O.B.E., M.D., gives the following grouping of the better-known waters corresponding roughly to their mineral-water classification:—

Sulphur waters : Rotorua, Hanmer, Taupo, Wairakei, Waiotapu.

Alkaline waters : Te Aroha.

Saline waters: Helensville, Waiwera, Tarawera.

Iodine waters : Morere, Te Puia.

Calcium carbonated waters : Kamo.

Simple thermal waters : Okoroire and the Waikato springs.

The following article is by the Government Balneologist, Dr. J. D. C. Duncan, M.B., Ch.B. (Edin.), Member of the International Society of Medical Hydrology, Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society:—

INTRODUCTORY.

It has been acknowledged by the leading hydrologists in Europe that New Zealand possesses the most valuable mineral waters in existence. Not only are these mineral waters interesting from a tourist's point of view, but they are, because of their medicinal value, of great therapeutic importance, and, as a Dominion asset, worthy of the deepest scientific consideration.

From the spectacular aspect only a brief mention need be made in this article, as a full description of springs, geysers, and mud-pools has been given in Dr. Herbert's book, “The Hot Springs of New Zealand”—a book that presents a comprehensive and vivid picture of the main manifestations of thermal activity in New Zealand.

Dealing with the medical-scientific aspect of the mineral waters, the space of this article will permit only the shortest account of the treatments; and, as the Rotorua Spa is of premier importance, the article will be confined almost entirely to its operations.

Since and as the result of experience gained during the war, the subject of hydrotherapy has been recreated on modern scientific lines, and the actions of thermal mineral waters have been investigated, both chemically and physiologically, in determining their therapeutic value in the treatment of disease.

TREATMENT ESTABLISHMENTS.

The principal treatment establishments are the Main Bathhouse and the Ward Baths.

In the Main Bathhouse are a series of private bathrooms, slipper and step down, each with its dressing-room attached, and a couch for packing purposes. The baths are arranged for either “Priest” or “Rachel” waters, with under current douches and showers. There are, also, deep “Priest” pools at suitable temperatures for the treatment of chronic cases.

Off the main hall are treatment-rooms where massage and every variety of physiotherapeutic treatment can be given, and, in either wing of the building, a complete establishment for Aix-Vichy douche massage.

The Ward Bathhouse is a handsome new block of buildings which has replaced the old Pavilion Bathhouse. This building, divided into convenient sections for service and control, consists of a large main hall, swimming-pools, hot “Rachel” “pools”, “Old Priest” and “Radium” baths, and a block of private “Rachel” baths.

At the back of these buildings is an attractive sunken courtyard, with fountain and formal garden, surrounded on three sides by verandas, and on the fourth by an open pergola facing the lake. In this courtyard garden patients and visitors can bask in the sunshine, protected from prevailing winds.

The swimming-pools, open to the air, are spacious baths lined with white tiles and having douches, showers, and convenient dressing-cubicles. These provide recreational facilities for patients and visitors.

The “Radium” and “Priest” baths, built on the pumice bed of the soil, contain some of the most important therapeutic waters in existence, and are invaluable in the treatment of heart conditions and cases of nervous debility. In connection with these baths are comfortable rest-rooms and convenient massage establishments.

The private baths are of the porcelain, slipper variety, and step-down tiled baths—the latter designed for helpless or crippled patients.

The swimming-pools of the new Blue Bath afford one of the most attractive playgrounds for visitors to Rotorua. There are two pools, set in T form with a colonnade between. The larger pool, 100 ft. by 40 ft., with a depth of 4 ft 6 in. to 9 ft., has unique diving-platforms. This pool is lighted under the water by twenty are lamps, which give a beautiful luminous effect to the water. The smaller pool, 70 ft. by 36 ft., is a safe and enjoyable playground for children of any age. Both pools are lined with white tiles. Convenient dressing and shower rooms surround the pools. At the entrance a luxurious lounge provides a resting- place for bathers, and above this an attractive tea-room serves refreshments to its patrons.

MINERAL WATERS.

The mineral waters which have been harnessed for therapeutic use at the Rotorua Spa are of two main varieties — viz., the “Rachel,” which is an alkaline, sulphuretted water, emollient to the skin, and sedative in reaction; and the “Priest,” or free-acid water, which, due to the presence of free sulphuric acid, is mainly stimulating and tonic in reaction. There is, in addition to the foregoing, a valuable silicious mud similar to that found in Pistany, in Czechoslavakia, which, in its own sphere in hydrotherapy, exerts its influence as a curative agent.

However, it is in the “Priest” waters that one finds one's most valuable ally in the treatment of arthritis, fibrositis (the so-called rheumatic affections), and cases of nervous debility. The “Rachel”and mud baths are used mostly in those cases of fibrositis where the condition requires a softening effect; and in the types where pain is a manifest symptom these baths are invaluable as soothing and sedative agents.

REACTIONS IN THE BATH.

In these natural acid baths the reactions are mainly stimulating, with increased hyper æmia in the parts submerged, and marked lessening of pain and swelling in the affected joints and tissues. Those waters containing free carbonic-acid gas are used for the cases of fibrositis in which the circulation requires the stimulating action of gaseous baths.

The “New Priest” waters, containing approximately 16.80 grains per gallon of free sulphuric acid, are utilized in the form of open pools, deep step-down baths, and slipper baths. They are prescribed at a suitable temperature for the individual case.

The “Old Priest” waters, containing a much lower degree of free acid (3.77 grains to the gallon), and of varying temperatures (from 84° F. to 102° F.), are used for treatment at their source. The waters percolating through their pumice-bed, are confined in pools, and contain free carbonic acid gas bubbling through the water.

The very strong “Postmaster” waters are confined within pools on the natural pumice-bed, and, by a primitive arrangement of wooden sluice-valves, are maintained at three ranges of temperature—viz., 104° 106°, and 108° F. They contain 22.29 grains of free sulphuric acid to the gallon, and are strongly counter- irritant in their reactions.

INDICATIONS AND TECHNIQUE.

In such a brief account as this one can deal only in generalizations, and the forms of treatment mentioned must necessarily be subject to wide variations. In any form of hydro-therapeutic treatment the regime must be adapted to the individual manifestations of the disease, and no routine rules or regulations can be laid down in spa operations.

The “New Priest” waters are, for the most part, prescribed for patients suffering from subacute or chronic fibrositis, subacute or chronic gout, and the various forms of arthritis. Except in cases of marked debility, those patients are given graduated baths, at temperatures ranging from 102° to 104° F,, from ten to fifteen minutes daily. Most of the baths are fitted with a subaqueous douche having a pressure of 25 lb. to the square inch, which is directed under water on the affected tissues. The bath is usually followed by a light or hot pack, according to the needs of the case.

The subthermal “Old Priest” waters (temperature 84° F.), containing a high degree of free carbonic-acid gas, are particularly valuable in the treatment of functional nervous disease, and the methods of administration are similar to those obtaining at Nauheim (Germany). The reactions are markedly stimulating through the sympathetic nervous system, and bring about, by reflex action, a tonic effect on the heart.

The “Postmaster “baths are used in the treatment of the more chronic forms of fibrositis, arthritis deformans, and gout, requiring a more or less heroic type of procedure. They are usually prescribed in combination.— i.e., a certain time in each pool, commencing with the lowest temperature. The hyperæmic reaction is most marked, and in many of the cases where pain is a predominant symptom there is a temporary paralysis of the surface nerves, as well as a strong reflex excitation of the heart. For this reason these baths are not given to patients suffering from cardiac weakness.

The mud baths being highly impregnated with silica, which has a bland, sedative effect on the tissues, are particularly indicated in cases of acute or subacute neuritis, gout, and certain skin conditions. The action of these baths is to induce an active hyperemia in the patient with an actual absorption of free sulphur, which is present in considerable quantity. Also the radio-activity of this medium (0.185 per c.c.) is possibly an active factor in the therapeutic action of these baths. In some of the cases undergoing mud-bath treatment the effect has been almost miraculous—instant relief from pain; reduction of swelling caused by inflammatory exudates—and such patients have been able to discard crutches or other adventitious aids and to walk with more or less normal comfort.

Perhaps, of more recent date, the most efficacious effects of mud treatments have been manifested in cases of skin conditions—notably psoriasis : cases which have resisted all forms of drug treatment have cleared up in an almost magical manner; and so frequently have such cures been effected that one believes that the silicious mud of Rotorua has some markedly specific action as a therapeutic agent.

The treatment of gout depends entirely on the individual manifestations. In certain subacute and chronic types fairly high temperatures (104° to 106° F., with hot packs) of “Priest” water are employed, in order to hasten the absorption of exudates and the elimination of uric acid. In cases of acute gout more sedative measures are pursued, such as “Rachel” baths at neutral temperatures, local mud packs, and rest. As soon as the conditions permit, these patients are changed over to acid water baths. Cases of chronic gout exhibiting metabolic stagnation sometimes receive considerable benefit from the counter-irritant effects of the strongly acid “Postmaster” waters.

ACCESSORY TREATMENTS.

Separate establishments, containing the most modern apparatus of sprays, douches, hot steam, &c, are available for wet massage and treatments of the Aix-Vichy type.

The massage-rooms are fitted with the latest installations of electrical equipment —Bristowe tables, diathermy, high frequency, Bergonie chair, X-ray, Schnée baths, Greville hot air, and other apparatus for carrying out the most up-to-date methods of electrical-therapeutic treatments.

The baths are administered by a trained staff of attendants, and the massage, electrical-therapy, and douches carried out by a qualified staff of operators.

In every respect the hydrotherapy treatments aim at a restoration of function, and the measures employed are, for the most part, re-educative.

SANATORIUM AND GENERAL STATISTICS.

In connection with the Rotorua Spa is a sanatorium of seventy beds, where patients whose finances are restricted can receive treatment at an exceedingly moderate cost. The institution consists of cubicles and open wards. Thermal baths and massage-rooms in the building provide for the more helpless type of invalid.

From sixty thousand to eighty thousand baths are given annually, and about thirty thousand special treatments—massage, electrical therapy, &c.—are administered each year at the Rotorua Spa. The usual course of treatment lasts from four to six weeks, and the high percentage of cures and improvements testifies to the value of the thermal, mineral waters and the hydro-therapeutic treatments obtaining in this Dominion.

RIVERS.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand by Professor R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum.

Space in this issue is, however, available only for a list of the more important rivers, with their approximate lengths, the latter being supplied by the Department of Lands and Survey. Figures in parentheses indicate the approximate discharge, in cubic feet. per minute.

NORTH ISLAND

Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—Miles.
Piako650
Waihou (or Thames)90
Rangitaiki95
Whakatane60
Waiapu55
Waipaoa50
Wairoa50
Mohaka80
Ngaururoro85
Tukituki65
Flowing into Cook Strait— 
Ruamahanga70
Hutt35
Otaki30
Flowing into Cook Strait—contd.Miles.
Manawatu (over 600,000)100
Rangitikei115
Turakina65
Wangaehu85
Wanganui (over 500,000)140
Waitotara50
Patea65
Flowing into the Tasman Sea— 
Waitara65
Mokau75
Waikato (over 800,000)220
Wairoa (over 250,000)95
Hokianga40

SOUTH ISLAND

Flowing into Cook Strait-Miles.
Aorere45
Takaka45
Motueka75
Wai-iti30
Pelorus40
Wairau105
Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean- 
Clarence125
Conway30
Waiau110
Hurunui90
Waipara40
Ashley55
Waimakariri (low water 80,000; normal flood 500,000)93
Selwyn55
Rakaia95
Ashburton67
Rangitata75
Opihi50
Pareora35
Waihao45
Waitaki135
Kakanui40
Shag45
Taieri125
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—ctd. Mies. 
Clutha (over 2,000,000)210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait- 
Mataura120
Oreti105
Aparima65
Waiau115
Flowing into the Tasman Sea— 
Cleddau and Arthur20
Hollyford50
Cascade40
Arawata45
Haast60
Karangarua30
Cook25
Waiho20
Wataroa35
Wanganui35
Waitaha25
Hokitika40
Arahura35
Taramakau45
Grey75
Buller (nearly 1,000,000)105
Mokihinui30
Karamea45
Heaphy25

LAKES.

An article on the Jakes of New Zealand, also by Professor R. Speight, will be found in the 1932 Year-Book. The more important lakes are stated below.

Lake.Length, in Miles.Greatest Breadth, in Miles.Area, in Square Miles.Drainage Area, in Square Miles.Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per Second.Height above Sea- level, in Feet.Greatest Depth, in Feet.
North Island.       
Taupo25172381,2505,0001,211534
Rotorua63215842091584
Rotoiti10¾1426500913230
Tarawera1575 1,032285
Waikaremoana12211287722,015846
Wairarapa104271,250....64
South Island.       
Rotoiti5286 1,997228
Rotoroa78146..1,470..
Brunner5416145..280357
Kanieri5811..422646
Coleridge1131870..1,067680
Tekapo124325805,0002,323620
Pukaki105315156,0001,588..
Ohau103234245,0001,720..
Hawea205485185,7001,062..
Wanaka30475960..922..
Wakatipu5231121,16213,0001,0161,242
Te Anau3361321,32012,660694906
Manapouri12656416..3961,458
Monowai1211251700600..
Hauroko203251951,800611..
Poteriteri17217162..96..
Waihola1⅛2,200..(Tidal)52
Ellesmere1610107½745..(Tidal)45

GEOLOGY.

The following article on the geology of New Zealand was prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.R.S.N.Z., Director of the Geological Survey:—

INTRODUCTION.

New Zealand is a small country, but its geological history is as complex and as ancient as that of a continent. Land, though from age to age it varied greatly in area, outline, and elevation, must have persisted in the New Zealand area from the oldest Palæzoic or earlier. Long periods during which gentle regional oscillations and warpings, aided by the slow-acting forces of denudation, brought about gradual changes were interrupted by great revolutions, when earth-stresses ridged the crust into mountains and quickly altered the whole configuration of the land and sea-floor. For New Zealand the important geological periods are those that followed the two latest mountain-building movements—the Kaikoura deformation of late Tertiary time, and the Hokonui deformation of the early Cretaceous. The deposits laid down in the intervening period of relative crustal stability cover a large proportion of the land, and contain all the coal and most of the limestone of the Dominion. The soils on which grow the forests, pastures, and crops are of post-Tertiary age, and the great bulk of the gold has been won from deposits formed during the same period.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE STRATIGRAPHY.

The oldest known fossiliferous rocks in New Zealand are the Ordovician slates and greywackes of west Nelson and south-west Otago. Lower unfossiliferous beds of the same great system extend southward from the northern area and outcrop in the Westport, Reefton, Greymouth, Ross, and Okarito districts. Above the fossil- bearing beds, but probably also of Ordovician age, are the black phyllites, quartzites, and marbles which outcrop continuously from Takaka to Mount Owen, and are again exposed in the upper basins of the Matakitaki, Maruia, and Grey Rivers. The similar rocks of western Otago probably also belong to this group. The complex of gneisses and schists of the same region, intruded by acid and basic plutonics, and usually considered of Archaean age, resembles the part of the Ordovician strata of western Nelson that has been similarly invaded and metamorphosed and may well be of early Palaeozoic age. Different authorities assign the mica, chlorite, and quartz schists of Central Otago to ages that range from the Archaean to the Triassic. They are certainly Palaeozoic or older, since they grade upward into greywackes that, at Clinton, contain Permian fossils.

Devonian rocks are certainly known only in the Baton, Wangapeka, and Reefton districts. These beds, fossils from which have lately been examined in England, cover only small areas. Rut the old Geological Survey mapped wide tracts of country in Nelson and Otago, covered with beds of the Te Anau Series, as Devonian, and the correlation may well be correct, though the rocks are entirely unfossiliferous.

The Maitai Series, which forms the ranges on the south-east side of the Nelson lowlands, are probably of Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous age. Their position in the time scale and their correlation with rocks in other parts of New Zealand have provoked much discussion. Permian strata, as already stated, occur in Otago, where the area they cover may be considerable.

Richly fossiliferous late Triassic rocks are known in the Kawhia-Mokau district, near the City of Nelson, and at several localities in Canterbury and Otago. Except in Nelson and Canterbury, strata that contain fossils referable to several stages of the Jurassic succeed without observed unconformity. The broad belt of greywacke and argillite that forms the mountains of Canterbury and Marlborough, and continues as a narrower belt through Wellington to northern Hawke's Ray, is usually referred to the Trias-Jura. Similar rocks outcrop in the centre of the North Island and at many points in North Auckland. There are Upper Triassic molluscs in these beds at several localities, and the vertebra of a saurian with Triassic rather than Permian affinities was found near Wellington. Lithologically the greywackes and argillites of this vast series differ somewhat from the rocks of similar type belonging to the Jurassic and Maitai series; they are therefore thought to be of older Triassic age, but may well range into the Permian. The schists occurring with them in the Kaimanawa, Kaikoura, Moorhouse, and Kirkliston Ranges are probably older.

The thick conglomerates conformably overlying the younger Jurassic shales of the Port Waikato, Kawhia, and Coromandel regions belong to either the youngest Jurassic or the oldest Cretaceous. Strata of early and middle Cretaceous age occur east of the main axis of New Zealand at several points from Marlborough to East Cape. Late Cretaceous beds are much more widely distributed, being known in North Auckland and in many localities along the eastern side of both Islands. They contain thick layers of black shale that give many indications of oil, which, however, has not yet been found in commercial amount. The oldest known workable coal-seams in New Zealand, those at Broken River, Malvern Hills, Shag Point, and Kaitangata, and perhaps some near Greymouth, are in young Cretaceous beds.

Tertiary rocks form the greater part of the North Island and are widely distributed in the South. As a whole they are weaker and more readily weathered than the older strata, and hence have given rise to less rugged country, now mostly cleared and grassed and forming productive pastoral land.

Eocene rocks are present in North Auckland, and probably also in the Gisborne, Hawke's Ray, and east Wellington districts. In the South Island they occur on the West Coast and in Canterbury and Otago, in which regions they contain valuable coal-seams worked at Westport, Reefton, Greymouth, Mount Somers, and Milton. Of the same age are the auriferous “cements” of the Tuapeka district that greatly. enriched the gravels of the neighbouring streams and are themselves worked for gold.

In Oligocene time the maximum subsidence during the Tertiary occurred, and but little of the New Zealand area remained above sea-level at its close. The thick limestones of the Oamaru district and the contemporaneous limestone prominent in many parts of New Zealand are the younger deposits of this age. The older beds contain the extensive coal-measures of the North Auckland, Waikato, Charleston, and other coalfields.

Miocene strata cover large areas in both islands, and also outcrop in the Wanganui, Gisborne and Hawke's Bay regions. In north Taranaki, the Murchison basin, and parts of the West Coast thick coal-measures of this age contain workable scams of brown coal.

During the Pliocene the New Zealand area, which had been intermittently rising since the close of the Oligocene, was greatly elevated and deformed. The earth blocks from which the present mountains have been carved were uplifted from, or from near, sea-level, and New Zealand as it now is was roughly shaped out. In the South Island the deposits of this period are chiefly gravels deposited in structural depressions; but in the North, and especially in its southern half, there are thick and extensive shoal-water marine sediments. These, and the underlying Miocene strata, are the source of the petroleum found at New Plymouth.

The Pleistocene was a period of regional oscillation. While the land was high the mountains of the South Island were intensely glaciated, and great ice-streams, carrying vast bodies of debris, descended into the low country; after the highlands had been reduced in height through both denudation and decided subsidence the glaciers rapidly retreated, and are today represented by comparatively small remnants far in the mountains. While the ice was melting, the rivers of the South Island were unusually active in transporting waste to the lowlands and the sea. At this time, too, as well as somewhat earlier, the volcanoes of the North Island ejected an abundant supply of fragmentary material, much of which was borne away by the streams and used in building plains.

The deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age are in New Zealand of greater economic importance than those of all other ages. The plains, river-flats, and low lands generally were formed or profoundly modified during this period, and the soils that cover them produced. During the same time practically all the gold won from the gravels of the South Island was liberated from a hard matrix and concentrated into workable deposits, and the rich bonanzas of the lodes of Hauraki were formed by secondary enrichment. The land-oscillations of the period are also of economic importance, for New Zealand's abundant water-power is derived from streams that have not yet, owing to the recency of land-uplift, cut their valleys to grade. On the other hand, land-depression has provided harbours and valuable artesian basins in many parts of the Dominion.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.

Plutonic rocks intrude many of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata, and some of the formations show evidence of contemporaneous volcanic action. Of the plutonic rocks granite is much the most prominent, and it outcrops at many points in west Nelson, Westland, Otago, and Stewart Island. In Nelson there were at least two periods of intrusion, probably corresponding with the great mountain-folding movements of the late Palaeozoic and early Cretaceous times. The auriferous lodes of Reefton and other localities on the West Coast probably originated from the cooling magmas that formed the younger granites. Basic and ultra-basic rocks, the latter now largely altered to serpentine, occur in Nelson, Westland, Otago, and, to a less extent, in North Auckland.

Though volcanoes are known to have existed in Mesozoic and Palaeozoic times, they seem to have been more active during the Tertiary than in any earlier age. The vast pile of flow and fragmental rocks that form the Hauraki Peninsula and the range that continues it southward to Tauranga belong to this period. The gold-silver veins extensively worked at Coromandel, Thames, and Waihi are in these rocks, which southward are smothered by the rhyolitic pumice that vents in the Taupo-Rotorua zone ejected during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Thick showers of pumice from this region cover a large part of the centre of the North Island and streams have carried the finer material to practically all the low-lying parts of the island. The volcanoes are still alive, as is evidenced by the steam-vents, hot springs, and geysers found in the depressed zone extending from Ruapehu to White Island. The volcanic rocks of Taranaki probably range from the Miocene to the Pleistocene in age. The basalts and scoria cones that occur so abundantly between Kawhia and the Bay of Islands belong for the most part to the late Pliocene and Pleistocene, though cones at Auckland City are probably Recent.

In the South Island the volcanoes appear to be quite dead, for the hot springs at Hanmer and near the alpine chain are due to other causes. In the middle Tertiary, however, there were outbursts at many points, the chief eruptions being at Banks Peninsula and about Dunedin.

CONCLUSION.

In a short article it is impossible to give an adequate idea of what geological workers have accomplished in New Zealand, or of what they have yet to do in order that the wisest use may be made of the country's mineral and agricultural resources. For good general accounts the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall should be consulted, and for more detailed information the bulletins of the Geological Survey and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions”of the New Zealand Institute (now the Royal Society of New Zealand).

SEISMOLOGY.

The following article dealing with earthquakes in New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. C. E. Adams, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer and Seismologist, with the assistance of Dr. J. Henderson, Director of the Geological Survey.

Earthquake and volcanic activity are manifestations of the adjustments constantly occurring in the earth's crust. In the not far distant past, geologically speaking, a more or less continuous belt of mountains was raised up round the border of the great sunken area of the Pacific, and this belt as a whole is characterized by “chronic and acute seismicity.” At times the earthquakes occur within the belt itself, though a large proportion have their epicentres on its submerged frontal slope.

The South Island of New Zealand and the eastern part of the North are on the crest of the great mountain ridge or crustal fold which forms a portion of the real border of the Pacific. This ridge maintains a relatively straight course north- north-east for 1,600 miles across the floor of the Pacific, nearly to Samoa. The Auckland Peninsula, part of a decidedly weaker fold, meets the main fold nearly at right angles in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic region. The earthquakes of this seismically sensitive district, though they may be locally severe, are not usually felt far from their points of origin. On the other hand, the tectonic earthquakes that occur along the main earth-fold shake large areas, some of them being recorded on instruments throughout the world. These are caused by the slipping of earth-blocks against their neighbours along fractures.

Many great faults and fault-zones have been traced for long distances, but a few only have been active since European occupation.. The Hawke's Bay earth quake of 1931 raised an area sixty miles long in a north-east direction and in parts ten miles wide. The uplift, was greatest along the south-east edge of the area, for miles amounting to 6 ft. or more. Numerous levels on the Heretaunga Plain and along the railway north of Napier show that the uplift decreased north- westward, so that the area was slightly tilted in that direction. The ground east of the uplifted area sank, and parts of the Napier and Wairoa fiats are over a foot lower than before the earthquake. In 1929 movement along a north-trending fault seven' miles west of Murchison raised the ground east of the fault about l5 ft., and caused it to shift north-west about 9 ft. The uplift gradually decreases eastward and dies out sixteen miles from the fault, facts indicating a slight tilt of the earth-block toward the east. Recent levellings show that the block is sinking somewhat irregularly, a. movement, no doubt, causing some of the innumerable local after-shocks felt in the area over many months. Other sensible earth- movements occurred in connection with the Taupo earthquake series of 1922,* the Amuri earthquake of 1888, the Wellington earthquake of 1855, and probably the Awatere earthquake of 1848.* There is also definite evidence of geologically recent differential movement of earth-blocks at several widely separated points in both Islands.

* P. G. Morgan: N.Z. Geological Survey; Annual Report for the year 1923, p. 10.

† Alexander McKay: Reports of Geological Explorations during 1888–89. Wellington, 1890.

New Zealand Government Gazette, Wellington, Vol. 2, No. 14, 17th October, 1855, p. 116. Sir Charles Lyell, “The Principles of Geology,” tenth edition, 1868, Vol. 2, p. 82. London : John Murray.

In previous numbers of the Year-Book the origins of earthquakes have been classified according to locality. In recent years, however, a great many more epicentres have been determined, and it is now found impossible to make a satisfactory classification according to locality.

New Zealand is traversed by an active seismic region, which, commencing in the East Cape Peninsula, runs in a general south-westerly direction, embracing the southern portion of the North Island, Cook Strait, and the northern and western portions of the South Island. Districts within this region are liable to frequent earthquakes, whilst those outside it experience occasional shocks only.

EARTH QUAKES IX 1934.

The following list gives all the important New Zealand earthquakes in the year 1934. The list includes (1) earthquakes of high intensity, (2) earthquakes felt over a wide area.

New Zealand Mean Time.Approximate Position of Epicentre.Maximum R.-F. Intensity as felt.Places reporting Maximum Intensity
South Lat.East Long.
† This earthquake was widely felt in the southern part of the South Island, but was not sufficiently well recorded on seismographs to enable the position of the epicentre to be determined.
1934d.h.m.    
Mar.5231640.95176.89South.east portion of North Island.
Mar5232741.1176.63Masterton, Paraparaumu.
Mar702340.6176.65South-east portion of North Island.
Mar10655....5.6Awarua Radio.
Mar10192740.9176.08Porangahau.
Mar10193440.6176.96.7Porangahau.
Mar10202440.6176.86.7Porangahau
Mar15221639.65177.67Northern Hawke's Bay.
Mar21212541.0172.46Takaka.
April14201840.4176.86Castlepoint.
May1211140.9175.35.6Masterton.
May86440.5176.15Dannevirke.
May9151540.8172.55Collingwood, Havelock.
May22165038.8176.55Taupo, Rakauroa.
July1203741.3172.56Collingwood.
Aug.8113540.6176.75Pahiatua.
Aug98040.6175.85Masterton.
Aug1215041.8172.16Murchison.
Oct.252235411766.7Wanganui.
Oct28211638.3175.54.5Taumarunui.
Nov.26114239.5175.86Waipawa.
Nov.2620339.6177.46Napier.
Dec.982245.4167.46South Otago.
Dec14194441.3174.26Paraparaumu, Martin-borough.

The most important seismic event in the year 1934 was the severe earthquake which occurred on the 5th March at 23 h. 16 m. N.Z.M.T. This earthquake was felt as far as Auckland in the north and Dunedin in the south. Considerable damage resulted, and the face of the country was slightly disturbed in the districts around Pahiatua and to the eastward. Coastal districts from Porangahau to Castlepoint also suffered damage, and slips occurred on the coastal cliffs. Fall of chimneys occurred over a wide area, commencing in the Wairarapa and extending into Southern Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, and in a north-westerly direction as far as Wanganui. It appears that a maximum intensity of 9 on the Rossi-Forel scale was probably reached at points in the disturbed area. The revised position of the epicentre places the origin of the earthquake about thirty miles off the east coast. of the North Island in latitude 40.95° south and longitude 176.° east, and the time of the earthquake, at the origin 1934 March 5 d. 23 h. 16 m. 12 s. N.Z.M.T.

* New Zealand Government Gazette, Auckland, Vol.1, No. 27, 13th November, 1848, and Vol. 1, No. 29, 20th November, 1848. H. S. Chapman in Westminster Review, Vol. 51, 1849.

Several strong after-shocks occurred, but these soon decreased in number and strength.

Instrumental Records. —During the year 1934 Milne-Jaggar seismographs were installed at the East Cape Lighthouse and at the. Observatory. Stratford, Taranaki. The remaining thirteen stations in New Zealand and the surrounding islands have continued in operation, with the exception of the Suva station, which was closed at the end of July on account of the difficulties of maintaining a satisfactory time service.

The New Zealand subsidiary stations are operated by officers of various Government Departments and by private individuals. Two of the stations are privately owned, the observers supplying records and reports, and thus assisting in the general seismological work. A set of Weichert seismographs with mechanical registration is installed at Apia Observatory, Western Samoa.

The Dominion Observatory, Wellington, and the Magnetic Observatory, Christchurch, publish preliminary earthquake reports each month, giving data regarding the principal earthquakes recorded. More complete reports are also published from time to time. These reports are sent to the General Secretary of the Seismological Committee of the British Association, to the Station Centrale Sismologique, Strasbourg, France, and to the principal observatories of the world.

Non-instrumental Records. —Since 1888 there has been established in New Zealand a system of observing local earthquakes depending entirely on personal observations. At first this system was confined to selected telegraph-offices throughout the Dominion, but more recently a number of lighthouse-keepers have also taken up the work, as well as many private observers. Special forms are supplied for reporting earthquakes, in which information is required concerning the observed time of the shock, the direction and the duration of the movement, and also general effects which are likely to lead to a determination of the intensity of the earthquake.

The following summary includes all earthquakes reported felt in New Zealand in 1934.—

 Number of Earthquakes reported.  
Month.North Island.South Island.Both Islands.Total for New Zealand.Maximum Intensity R.-F. Scale.Locality of Maximum.
January560115Napier, Takaka.
February1150165Taupo, Nightcaps.
March40104469South-east part of North Island.
April950146Castlepoint.
May16101255–6Masterton.
June1651204Many places.
July1451186Collingwood.
August1341166Murchison.
September860144Karamea, Murchison.
October1441176-7Wanganui
November1150166Napier, Waipawa.
December1373176Napier, Cook Strait, Otago.
Totals17072122309South-east part of North Island.

The next table gives the number of earthquakes in the year 1934 in which the maximum intensity as reported reached the various degrees of the Rossi Forel scale.

Month.Rossi-Forel Intensity.Totals.
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.
January12422      
February 2653     16
March1721732311 46
April 25511    14
May148741    25
June125111    20 
July 56421    18
August 14821    16
September..383    14  
October 25631    17
November 455 2    16
December 56213    17
Totals. 43983652212311230

The total number of earthquakes felt each of the years 1921 to 1934 (inclusive) are as follows —

Year.Number of Shocks.maximum intensity R.-F Scale.:—
1921918
1922.1,1878
1923766
1924707
1925768
19261738
1927.1078
1928808
192967810
19307488
193143210
19323138
19331087
19342309

DEATHS DUE TO EARTHQUAKES IN NEW ZEALAND.

The following table gives what is believed to be the total number of deaths recorded as due to earthquakes which have occurred since 1847 :—

Date of Earthquake.Locality.Resulting Deaths.
1848, October 19th.Wellington3
1855, January 23rdWellington3
1855, January 23rdWairarapa4
1901, March 16thCheviot1
1913, April 12thMasterton1
1914, October 17th.Gisborne1
1929, June 17thBuller17
1931, February 3rd.Hawke's Bay.255
1934, March 5thWairarapa1
Total 284

An important factor in considering the have wrought by an earthquake is the position of the epicentre with regard to the centres of population. For example, the Buller earthquake, and the Hawke's Bay earthquake were both major disturbances, but owing to the different localities in which they occurred the damage and destruction wrought by each was vastly different.

CLIMATE.

The following article on the climate of New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. E. Kidson, O.B.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.N.Z., Director of Meteorological Services:—

THE METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE.

The New Zealand Meteorological Office is located at Wellington. Weather forecasts, based on observations at 9 a.m. and 4 p.m., are issued at noon and 5 p.m. respectively. The midday forecast is telegraphed to approximately one hundred country centres, where it is displayed at the post-offices. The evening forecast is broadcasted from the New Zealand Broadcasting Board's stations at Auckland. Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin at 7 p.m. and 9 p.m. The 7 p.m. issue from Wellington includes weather reports from a series of stations as well distributed as possible over the Dominion and the surrounding area.

Rainfall data from approximately four hundred stations are printed monthly in the Government Gazette. Observations of temperature, pressure, sunshine, wind, &c., from about, forty-five stations are published annually by the Meteorological Office. Papers on various aspects of the climate and weather of the Dominion are published from time to time as “Meteorological Office Notes.”

CLIMATE : GENERAL CONDITIONS.

New Zealand lies wholly within the Temperate Zone, and, though they are stronger and more persistent farther southward, it is also wholly and at all seasons within the zone of prevailing westerly winds. Owing to its isolation and its narrowness in the direction of the prevailing winds, its climate is predominantly marine in character. Nevertheless, the modifications due to the height and continuity of the main ranges and the general high relief of the country are quite considerable, especially in the South Island. There is, for example, a very great variation in the rainfall from the western to the eastern side of the Southern Alps, and for so narrow a country features of a continental type are rather strongly developed in the interior of the South Island. By breaking up the prevailing winds and causing the air at different levels to mix, mountains tend, also, to prevent the stratification of the air into layers of different density. Consequently very extensive and persistent cloud-sheets are seldom experienced. New Zealand therefore enjoys a high percentage of sunshine, a factor of great importance in the climate of a country with so high a rainfall.

The principal current in the surrounding ocean waters is from south-west to north-east. Off the west coast of the South Island, however, the current divides, one branch turning southwards to Foveaux Strait, while others pass through Cook Strait and round the northern extremity of the Dominion. The rather small range in climate from north to south is probably accounted for by this current.

According to the widely accepted classification of climates developed by W. Koppen, New Zealand has the climatic formula Cfb, denoting a cool-temperate moist climate without marked seasonal variations in temperature or precipitation. Under the same formula are classified southern Victoria and Tasmania and parts of southern Chile in the Southern Hemisphere, much of Europe, Japan and Korea, and a strip of the west coast of North America in the Northern Hemisphere. Generally, however, it is a climate characteristic of the ocean rather than the land areas of the Temperate Zone.

Tables 1 to 10 appearing in the following pages relate to varying, but usually lengthy, periods. In Table 11 the duration covered by the respective averages is given.

RAINFALL.

Of all the climatic elements, probably the one that exerts the greatest influence on our lives is rainfall. It causes us much personal discomfort, but the production of the food by which we live depends directly on the availability of moisture from this source. Maps showing the distribution of mean annual rainfall appear in Year-Books prior to 1934.

Its control by topography in New Zealand is very conspicuous. Areas exposed to the westerly winds have heavier rains than those protected from them by mountain ranges. Next, the greater the altitude, the greater in general is the precipitation. There must be a limit beyond which precipitation begins to decrease again with altitude, but this has not yet been determined in this country. The indications are that precipitation is heaviest between 3,000 ft. and 4,000 ft. The annual total varies from about 13 in. at Galloway in Central Otago to over 200 in. in parts of the Southern Alps and on Mount Egmont.

The distribution of the precipitation throughout the year is little less important than its total amount, the effect of rainfall in winter, for example, being very different from that in summer. There are three principal factors controlling the annual variation of rainfall in New Zealand. The first of these is the proximity to the high-pressure belt in the subtropics. In this belt the rainfall year is divided into a dry summer and a wet winter season. We will call this distribution type A. As the distance from the high-pressure belt increases, the contrast between summer and winter decreases, so that by the time southern New Zealand is reached the variation due to this factor is small. The next most important factor is the influence of the prevailing westerly winds. These bring rains to the areas exposed to them, while those which are protected from them by mountain ranges have little rain when the westerlies are blowing. Now, the westerly winds are strongest in spring, the maximum flow being in October. There is a temporary drop in February, followed by a partial recovery in the autumn, but the flow is least in winter. The regime of the westerly winds, therefore, tends to produce a second type of annual variation, type C, in which the rainfall is heaviest in spring, falls somewhat in the late summer, increases again in the autumn, and falls to a minimum in winter.

The third factor is the convection which takes place during periods of light winds, clear skies, and intense sunshine, especially when the preceding winds have brought cold air over the land from the South. After conditions of the type mentioned have endured for several days, the convection is likely to be so intense as to produce local showers. These are often heavy, sometimes accompanied by thunder, and occasionally of the nature of local cloud-bursts. Rainfall of this type is most common in the interior of continents. Being caused by solar radiation, it is most frequent when solar radiation is strongest—namely, in summer. According to type B, therefore, we would have a relatively wet summer and a dry winter.

Table Table 1. MONTHLY RAINFALLS, IN INCHES.

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Cape Maria van Diemen1.712.882.033.864.824.623.993.732.842.561.611.6536.31
Auckland2.743.043.013.544.664.955.074.233.713.723.312.9144.89
Rotorua4.213.703.514.525.725.235.054.975.135.244.143.7655.18
Tolaga Bay3.214.424.735.497.716.386.706.003.603.262.963.0357.55
Riversdale, Inglewood7.566.077.128.099.7410.2910.218.809.0910.399.227.57104.75
Napier3.022.763.162.783.713.513.823.502.222.232.432.3135.45
Waitatapia, Bulls2.432.502.463.003.533.183.252.682.783.633.222.7135.37
Ditton, near Masterton3.142.903.583.675.454.985.594.783.714.363.583.0148.79
Wellington2.812.073.113.533.984.194.713.823.113.412.902.8441.08
Nelson2.802.592.902.993.063.543.523.033.093.492.992.9837.64
Marshlands, Blenheim2.192.202.252.27.943.193.582.062.712.502.351.9930.83
Hanmer3.933.193.283.304.393.504.443.414.653.873.613.9445.57
Hokitika9.897.149.749.299.719.308.879.279.2111.8310.7310.44115.42
Christchurch2.201.711.981.852.532.682.691.851.741.391.922.1524.99
Peel Forest4.844.054.383.542.512.753.422.573.773.854.014.8544.54
Oamaru2.041.741.801.761.592.011.741.751.001.731.912.2421.97
Clyde1.821.961.501.421.000.930.920.801.051.021.351.7915.26
Dunedin3.422.712.942.743.113.163.013.092.753.123.253.5436.84
Invereargill3.963.113.894.144.343.633.283.253.274.504.414.0745.85

A rainfall regime of type A in a fairly pure form is experienced in the part of the Auckland Province north, roughly, of Kawhia and Tauranga, and on the eastern side of the main ranges from Cook Strait to East Cape. It is still dominant in the lower country about the Tasman and Golden Bays, and in Marlborough and North Canterbury. Type C is developed strongly in Westland and the south-west Fiord country. It is shown fairly well by Hokitika, but much more distinctly if the data for a number of West Coast stations be combined. It is dominant in the far South, in the mountains of Nelson, and in the portion of the North Island not yet referred to. In this latter area, however, types A and C combine in varying proportions. Most districts show the effect of the westerly winds in a relatively high rainfall in October, but this is least noticeable in the low country east of the main ranges. The areas where type C dominates are those with the heaviest rainfall. Type B is dominant in the interior and southern portions of Canterbury and the central and eastern portions of Otago, and is especially characteristic of the dry areas of the provinces mentioned. The summer rains of this type are of great importance to the farming communities in the interior of Canterbury and Otago. The regime of annual rainfall experienced had an important influence in determining the nature of the primitive vegetation in the various districts.

Table Table 2. DAYS WITH RAIN

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Auckland10.39.811.114.118.719.520.919.417.010.615.911.8185.7
New Plymouth12.710.411.013.317.717.618.818.41.7018.410.314.2188.0
Napier7.87.57.78.010.411.112.011.99.88.57.7111.2 
Wellington10.78.911.212.816.417.018.117.115.11.4112.812.0160.2
Marshlands, Blenheim7.15.80.87.58.58.49.99.08.59.58.27.897.0
Hokitika13.311.414.315.215.415.315.915.610.919.217.810.3180.0
Christchurch9.77.79.29.011.712.013.211.810.09.710.39.8124.8
Clyde7.75.16.16.05.75.65.15.86.17.97.07.975.5
Dunedin14.311.212.712.813.513.013.11.3013.714.314.514.7100.8
Half.moon Bay18.516.217.818.020.419.919.71.9018.020.220.818.2227.3

Next to the amount and the annual variation of precipitation, the frequency with which it falls is its most important characteristic. In Table 2 the average number of days with rain in each month is given for some representative stations. A day with rain is one on which 0–005 in. or more is measured. Generally speaking, there is a fairly close relationship in New Zealand between the amount of rain and the number of rain days, but the latter is not directly proportional to the rainfall. There are considerable areas on the west coast of the South Island, for instance, which have ten or more times as much rain as the driest portions of the interior, but only about double the number of rain days. Marlborough seems to have a small number of wet days compared with its rainfall. To the south of New Zealand there is a rapid increase in cloudiness, showers fall with great frequency, and the number of rain days becomes high. New Zealand is extremely fortunate in that, even where the rainfall is very heavy, intervals between rains are almost everywhere sufficiently frequent and prolonged to ensure adequate drainage, while there is enough sunshine to dry the soil surface. Otherwise, large areas in the west and south would be covered with peat.

TEMPERATURE.

Temperature is no less important than rainfall in determining the living conditions of a country and the yield from its soil. But it is much less variable, and in the Southern Hemisphere especially is largely determined by latitude. Its influence is therefore taken much more for granted. The specification of the temperature of a place is, however, not so simple a matter as might appear. Many different factors are involved in the determination of the precise temperatures experienced in any locality. The sea, for instance, responds very slowly to both daily and yearly changes in the amount of heat received from the sun, while on the land the response is rapid. Consequently, the nearer a station is to. the sea the smaller are its daily and yearly fluctuations of temperature. It is to this effect that the principal difference between a continental and a marine climate is due. Although New Zealand is narrow, the high ranges shield the country to the east of them to a considerable extent, so that there is a nearer approach to continental conditions than would otherwise be expected, particularly in the interior of Canterbury and Otago. Again, on plain country the air tends to stagnate, especially at night. At night-time the surface layer cools rapidly through radiation from the ground, while during the day it becomes heated by the sun. There is less stagnation in the warm layer of the daytime than in the cold layer of the night. Consequently, stations on level plains or plateaux tend to be subject to frost and. to have a relatively low mean temperature. The effect is accentuated near the slopes of hills because the cold air flows away down the slopes to lower levels. The hills, therefore, gain freedom from frost at the expense of the plains. In windy situations, also, the susceptibility to frost is lowered owing to the prevention of stagnation. Apart from the effect* due to air-drainage and windiness, the temperature decreases with altitude. In temperate latitudes the fall is about 9° F. per kilometre. It is unsound, therefore, to compare, for example, temperatures recorded at Thorndon, Wellington, which was only 12 ft. above sea-level, with those at the present meteorological station at Kelburn, which is at an altitude of 415 ft., without making allowance for this difference in altitude. Such a procedure would lead to the erroneous conclusion that the climate had become colder. If charts of mean temperature are to be prepared it is clear that they will be very complicated, especially in a mountainous country like New Zealand, owing to this effect of altitude. It is usual, therefore, to simplify matters by applying a correction at the rate of 9° F. per kilometre or approximately 2°-7 F. per 1,000 ft. This has been done in Table 3. The Rotorua values, for example, have been increased by 2°5 F., the station being 925 ft. above sea-level. If the actual temperature is required, it can be found by reversing this process.

In New Zealand publications it has been the general practice to derive monthly mean temperatures from the means of the daily maximum and minimum. But, even on the average, the mean of the maximum and minimum differs slightly from the true mean for the day. The correction to the mean for the day has been determined from the records of thermographs with fair accuracy at Wellington and more roughly at several other places.

In Table 3, therefore, the temperatures are reduced to sea-level and mean of day. For the remainder of the temperature tables the observed readings have been used without correction. All are in Fahrenheit degrees.

Table Table 3. MEAN TEMPERATURE REDUCED TO SEA LEVEL

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Waipoua61.762.260.757.454.151.549.249.751.453.255.858.655.4
Auckland64.965.263.359.650.153.451.551.953.855.958.862.358.0
Rotorua64.764.461.456.752.449.347.848.951.955.358.062.050.1
New Plymouth62.962.901.257.854.451.449.750.152.251.256.860.450.2
Napier64.163.360.957.752.648.847.448.451.555.058.061.355.9
Taihape63.763.260.957.051.948.747.448.251.054.556.660.355.3
Masterton63.162.259.655.150.447.046.047.050.453.856.56O.554.3
Wellington61.701.059.750.252.540.447.748.451.253.050.159.554.8
Nelson61.861.458.955.160.140.345.340.349.752.95.6059.053.6
Hanmer62.562.359.654.748.344.243.145.150.154.150.560.153.4
Hokitika58.858.857.053.448.945.744.545.048.951.553.456.751.9
Christchurch60.459.957.052.747.743.142.343.948.452.455.759.051.9
Ophir62.061.557.351.442.430.037.541.440.852.154.759.450.3
Dunedin58.157.855.052.448.l45.143.845.048.951.453.355.851.4
Invercargill56.656.454.050.345.742.341.343.547.050.451.854.449.5

The stations given in the above table were chosen with a view to illustrating the effect of changing latitude, the difference between east and west coasts, especially in the South Island, and the contrast between coastal and inland conditions. Waipoua is in the Auckland Peninsula, north of Dargaville, and Ophir in Central Otago.

Table Table 4. AUCKLAND (ALBERT PARK, 160FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum72.672.970.966.962.158.657.057.860.163.266.069.364.8
Mean highest maximum78.678.676.472.267.364.062.562.865.468.672.075.779.7
Absolute Ugliest max.81.585.079.077.471.067.065.067.070.072.076.079.585.0
Mean daily minimum59.760.458.555.351.348.146.246.248.951.754.150.85.31
Mean lowest minimum51.853.051.540.442.789.538.139.1141.744.347.149.437.3
Absolute lowest min.48.048.046.041.038.036.535.036.437.841.041.043.535.0
Days of frost in screen........................0.0
Days of ground frost..........0.10.70.1........1.0

Table Table 5. TAIHAPE (2,157 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum68.067.364.659.952.848.547.448.852.857.459.664.357.6
Mean highest maximum78.077.374.469.062.258.25.7157.462.066.669.974.979.5
Absolute highest max.87.381.078.075.569.865.061.061.867.073.475.882.087.3
Mean daily minimum5.0049.848.244.940.737.630.430.039.14.2144.047.043.0
Mean lowest minimum39.539.538.234.631.929.228.028.730.03.2034.437.026.4
Absolute lowest min.31.932.034.830.027.020.424.025.425.525.031.430.220.4
Days of frost in screen......0.21.43.66.04.22.50.50.2..18.6
Days of ground frost0.20.50.62.45.38.512.011.26.02.61.00.651.1

Table Table 6. WELLINGTON (ALTITUDES VARIOUS)

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum69.369.366.962.958.354.853.l54.357.560.463.266.761.3
Mean highest maximum78.177.774.970.265.361.359.661.564.568.071.075.079.8
Absolute highest max.85.088.080.574.071.069.066.066.069.075.580.583.688.0
Mean daily minimum55.755.854.251.347.24.4142.442.845.748.450.353.84.91
Mean lowest minimum46.446.744.141.237.434.533.333.436.238.440.944.732.3
Absolute lowest min.39.440.539.135.731.929.928.029.231.034.035.838.428.6
Days of frost in screen........0.00.20.46.40.0....1.4 
Days of ground frost0.00.10.21.02.65.47.86.73.11.30.50.128.6

Table Table 7. HOKITIKA(12 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum66.466.564.761.256.853.352.653.656.458.760.663.859.5
Mean highest maximum73.572.571.367.763.759.558.659.562.364.767.070.975.9
Absolute highest max.79.082.484.574.071.563.565.067.167.669.074.179.084.5
Mean daily minimum53.253.151.047.141.938.536.838.042.345.747.951.545.6
Mean lowest minimum43.243.540.636.532.129.929.029.832.235.238.441.928.1
Absolute lowest min.35.037.03.5031.028.526.025.526.527.030.032.033.025.5
Days of frost in screen....0.00.94.06.94.60.70.1....17.2 
Days of ground frost0.20.10.52.46.912.416.113.85.92.40.70.261.9

Table Table 8. CHRISTCHURCH (22 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum70.469.266.462.155.851.150.352.357.662.465.869.261.0
Mean highest maximum86.683.781.475.768.762.561.564.970.676.179.884.088.4
Absolute highest max.95.794.189.882.377.869.370.070.081.187.886.892.395.7
Mean daily minimum52.852.549.745.039.936.035.136.340.544.047.150.844.3
Mean lowest minimum41.240.937.232.328.620.126.026.729.432.135.439.024.7
Absolute lowest min.34034.230.425.621.321.522.723.025.526.030.833.021.3
Days of frost in screen....0.74.09.210.18.22.60.50.035.4  
Days of ground frost0.30.21.45.412.316.917.717.310.46.53.60.992.9

Table Table 9. DUNEDIN (240 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum66.565.963.158.953.349.347.950.355.159.161.664.558.0
Mean highest maximum81.580.577.371.864.459.357.461.566.873.075.378.084.3
Absolute highest max.94.090.085.085.072.068.066.070.077.083.086.088.094.0
Mean daily minimum49.749.547.844.841.038.637.438.240.642.944.948.043.6
Mean lowest minimum41.341.539.136.733.831.230.531.233.034.837.040.029.4
Absolute lowest min.36.037.034.031.029.024.023.027.029.031.032.035.023.0
Days of frost in screen........0.11.41.71.10.2......4.5
Days of ground frost..0.10.00.75.911.012.49.54.71.00.30.145.7

Table Table 10. GORE (245 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum69.068.960.153.747.747.151.750.860.963.166.459.3 
Mean highest maximum84.984.380.273.864.958.457.162.068.673.077.680.987.9
Absolute highest max.93.091.589.082.070.067.062.069.076.079.086.095.095.0
Mean daily minimum46.740.044.040.435.732.431.633.237.540.842.244.939.6
Mean lowest minimum35.134.932.929.225.923.522.924.628.230.832.635.021.4
Absolute lowest min.30.030.029.025.021.018.020.018.025.027.030.031.018.0
Days of frost in screen0.10.30.51.96.713.115.411.13.71.50.30.154.7
Days of ground frost0.81.43.26.013.022.021.419.911.16.13.21.1109.2

The accompanying tables (Nos. 4 to 10) relate to temperature extremes. The first line gives the average of the maximum temperatures as observed each day, the second the average of the highest temperatures observed in each month and the year, and the third the highest yet recorded. Corresponding information regarding minimum temperatures follows. Next comes the average number of days on which the minimum temperature in the thermometer screen falls below 32° F. This gives some idea of the susceptibility to severe frosts, such as would affect fruit-trees. The last line gives the number of ground frosts. According to the British Convention, a ground frost is recorded when the grass minimum thermometer falls below 30°4 F., damage being unlikely at higher temperatures. In the preparation of these tables some of the older records have, for various reasons, been discarded.

SUNSHINE.

In Table 11 are listed for each month and the year the average number of hours of sunshine at all places from which a sufficiently long record is available. The greatest amounts are recorded at places protected from the prevailing winds by high mountain ranges. The excellence of New Zealand's climate, particularly for the growth of pasture, is undoubtedly due to the abundance of sunshine combined with a high rainfall and an absence of extreme temperatures.

Table Table 11. BRIGHT SUNSHINE (HOURS).

-Number of yearsJan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Auckland25222.5190.8181.3146.7130.8115.8120.7151.9150.9172.1191.6213.51,988.6
Waihi24.26244.7200.9191.1150.8138.3116.3123.8151.9163.4181.8209.3239.02,111.3
Rotorua22.24240.4196.6187.3147.7136.3119.8126.4145.2151.3178.5205.3220.5205.3
New Ply mouth17.19253.2224.1222.9165.7158.7133.0142.5172.9167.1177.3214.6244.12,276.7
Napier25.27260.8208.7210.4188.3156.6148.5143.7179.9206.5227.7241.5263.02,435.6
Masterton19.20231.5204.3184.5159.7126.9104.8109.7144.1l65.9189.7219.5227.82,068.4
Wellington28228.4207.5189.9154.5130.4106.6107.5139.8l62.8179.8208.0229.12,044.3
Blenheim20.21241.2211.6196.6161.2161.4138.9147.5176.7187.5203.6235.3211.52,272.4
Nelson13265.0232.4227.1184.5178.9169.6172.0192.1204.9218.9257.7258.22,546.6
Hanmer22.25208.5193.7190.1155.4125.4l06.0108.2144.5165.5181.0203.4211.11,992.8
Hokitika22213.6185.8183.4137.2135.6115.0130.0152.1149.6162.1181.8207.01,953.8
Lincoln College25.28213.3190.4177.2146.6135.9113.3117.4149.1174.1196.4214.0209.52,043.2
Ashburton15.19190.8171.3150.4121.6124.7100.0113.1127.2152.5161.1186.7189.41,800.8
Timaru10191.1173.1164.3128.8141.5124.3129.0140.4103.5165.8192.5171.01,891.9
Lake Tekapo8.10268.5234.2236.1189.7103.3125.9143.7167.3193.9224.2249.8273.42,470.0
Oamaru6.7183.7176.1l65.6120.4129.1111.4125.0140.8150.0172.4188.0160.61,829.1
Waimate17173.4177.6181.1152.1149.5133.7140.7157.2179.0182.0204.5181.42,011.0
Alexandra6235.0219.4209.9167.2134.096.0121.6153.2182.9215.9219.8233.82,189.3
Dunedin14.17184.4159.6140.4121.7100.987.999.8120.6145.5160.6169.3172.91,669.0
Gore15.17220.9180.5166.9126.9115.293.7113.7141.8159.4170.6204.0216.61,910.2
Invercargill15.17192.7153.0127.298.285.677.384.9115.3131.8144.6167.6176.01,554.2

OTHER CLIMATOLOGICAL FACTORS.

Tables giving monthly averages for a number of stations under each of the heads distinguished below will be found in the 1933 edition (at page 25) of the Year-Book.

Fog.—Fog does not play an important part in New Zealand weather. Most of the fogs recorded are shallow radiation fogs occurring only in the early morning. During the approach of cyclonic depressions, however, widespread and persistent fog is a frequent occurrence. Occasionally, parts of the coast are affected by fig in calm weather. The landlocked harbours and estuaries of North Auckland appear to be unusually susceptible.

Snow.—Snow is rare at sea-level, especially in the North Island. In the interior and at high altitudes it occurs more frequently. On the summits of the ranges in the whole length of the South Island and on the highest peaks in the North Island snow falls, on the average, on over thirty da3's per annum. In the interior of the South Island there is a considerable area of settled country which is subject to half that number. Towards the coast, however, the number falls off rapidly. Data regarding snow lying are scanty. In the North Island any snow falling on the low levels almost invariably melts as it falls, but on the high plateaux it may be, especially 1.1 the hollows, for from one to three weeks during the year. In the South Island it practically never lies at low levels on the north or west coasts, but on the east coast does so on a few days in some years. At altitudes between 500 ft. and 1,000 ft. in the interior of the South Island the average number of days appears to be between seven and fourteen. Railway traffic is interfered with by snow to an almost negligible extent.

Hail.—Hail is experienced more frequently as the latitude increases and on the west coast than on the east, the rise in frequency in the extreme south-west and about Foveaux Strait being very marked. It occurs more often in spring than at other times of the year. The majority of the hailstorms recorded, however, are harmless, the stones being quite small. Occasionally severe hailstorms are experienced in New Zealand, the stones reaching a diameter of from ½ in. upwards. These are usually associated with thunderstorms, and are probably little less numerous on the east coast than the west or in the North Island than in the South.

Thunder.—Thunderstorms are more numerous in the North than in the South and on the west than on the east side of the main ranges. They are very rare in eastern districts in winter.

Strong Winds.—Averages give the number of days of strong winds experienced per year as: Auckland, 31.5; New Plymouth, 25.7; Wellington, 57.7; Hokitika, 38-3; and Dunedin, 16.3 days. These figures include a proportion of high winds (force 7 on the Beaufort scale) as well as gales (force 8 and over). The figures for Wellington show the effect of the concentration of the winds through Cook Strait.

SUMMARY OF THE WEATHER FOR 1934.

January was a cold and stormy month. The distribution of rainfall was irregular. Most of Canterbury had very heavy rains, which did much good to crops and pastures. Nelson and Marlborough, which had been suffering from a prolonged drought, again had a very dry month. In the North Island also, apart from Taranaki and the South Taranaki Bight, the rainfall was much below average. There were numerous thunder and had storms, the latter being responsible for much local damage in Canterbury. A frost on the 23rd also did considerable damage, particularly in Nelson.

February was another cold month. Most of the North Island experienced very heavy rains, floods occurring in North Auckland, the Bay of Plenty, and Hawke's Bay. In the South Island, Nelson and Marlborough continued to experience the most severe drought on record. On the West Coast the month was a particularly dry and fine one. Elsewhere, though in some parts the rainfall was low, conditions were very humid.

March.—Towards the end of this month the drought was broken in Nelson and Marlborough. In the remainder of the South Island the rainfall was erratic in distribution, but generally fairly high. The North Island had very much less than usual. Temperatures remained below normal, but there was little wind.

April was a mild month, with an absence of strong winds. Though rainfall was below average in most districts, the atmosphere was damp and cloudy. A severe frost occurred on the 13th. On the 25th the mountain ranges received a considerable snowfall.

May.—Rainfall was below average over most of the North Island, while in most of the South, and especially Canterbury, the month was a very wet one. Temperatures were below normal, and in the. South Island there was much cloudy weather. Though most of the month was quiet, there were two rather severe storms. Between the 3rd and the 5th a deep cyclone moved southward from Cape Maria van Diemen across the North Island to Banks Peninsula. It caused north easterly gales and heavy general rains. There was much flooding in the Auckland Province, and Little River (on Banks Peninsula) had a flood of catastrophic proportions. During the second storm, from the 15th to the 17th, there were very severe north-westerly gales. Southerly gales followed, and there were very widespread snow and had storms. A tornado was experienced at New Plymouth on the 17th.

June was a rather cold and sunless month, but until the last few days there was little wind. Rainfall was, on the whole, somewhat above normal. The wet conditions interfered with farming operations in Canterbury. Stormy weather was experienced on the 27th and 28th, culminating in a very cold spell with wide spread snow and had storms.

July.—North Auckland, Otago and Southland, and districts about Cook Strait, had more than the average rainfall. Elsewhere there was less than usual, the deficits being particularly large in Canterbury. Temperatures were below normal. There were further heavy and extensive falls of snow on the 3rd and 4th.

August.—Apart from two severe cold snaps, accompanied by widespread snow falls, the month was mild and springlike. Rainfall was much above the average in the South Island, but, on the whole, rather below it in the North.

September.—A rather severe cold spell occurred from the 10th to the 12th, but otherwise the weather was mild and pleasant. The greater part of it was dry, but practically all parts of the country received good rains at some period. There was vigorous growth of vegetation, and the spring season was unusually far advanced.

October.—The first two days were cold, but after that the weather was fairly mild and equable, with less westerly wind than usual. The rainfall distribution was rather irregular, but except in eastern districts of the North Island there was no shortage of moisture. On the whole, October was one of the best spring months the country has experienced. There was a wonderful flush of growth of grass and vegetation.

November was a remarkable month. It was almost continuously warm, and resembled a summer rather than a spring month. There was little wind, and sunshine was much above the average. It was the driest November experienced for many years, especially in the South Island.

December was even more remarkable than November. Not only was it the warmest December on record, but the average departures from normal over the country have never previously been equalled in any month. Again there was continuous warmth and an absence of wind. Many places had the greatest amount of sunshine hitherto recorded in December. North Auckland, which had had a wet month in November, also had some exceptionally heavy rains and severe floods. Almost everywhere else the month was drier even than November.

Year.— Rainfall was much above the average in North Auckland, but below it over almost the whole of the remainder of the North Island. In the South Island, districts which get most of their rain in winds from a westerly quarter had a dry year, but in the eastern half the totals were generally above average. On the whole, as regards rainfall, it was a better year than the preceding four.

Mean temperatures for the year were almost everywhere above normal, though departures from normal were very slight on the cast coast and in the Bay of Plenty area. In parts of the western districts and the interior of the South Island they amounted to just over 1° F. The relatively high means were, however, completely accounted for by the very high temperatures which prevailed in November and December. With the exception of April, the first seven months were cold. The warmth in April was extremely important, since it ensured supplies of winter feed for stock, prospects for which, in parts of the South Island at any rate, had previously appeared very uncertain. The spring was mild and the growth of pasture luxurious. Stock had a good year, though at the end dairy cattle were falling away and the milk-yield decreasing. The lambing season was excellent. Crops generally were fair. The 1934–35 season was one of small numbers and large fruit so far as apples were concerned, while the wheat crop was short through the wet ground in winter preventing a certain amount of sowing. The white butterfly spread farther over the South Island and was responsible for much damage.

SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR 1934.

(The observations were taken at 9 a.m., mean time.)

Station.Temperatures in Shade. Rainfall.
Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily minimumApprox. Mean Temperature.Extremes for 1934Absolute MaximumAbsolute MinimumHours of Sun. shine.Total Fall.Number of Days.Maximum and monthMinimum and month
 °°°°  °°° Inches 
Te Paki65.151.858.477.5Feb.3O.0Aug.....2,282.361.43187
Waipoua65.549.657.679.0Dec.32.0July  1,370.771.19183
       Aug     
Riverhead65.445.755.677.0Dec.26.1July......45.94148
Auckland65.253.759.479.5Dec.38.0June85.033.22,058.043.54171
   July
Waihi64.347.455.881.5Dec.25.0July89.021.01,790.788.45127
To Aroha67.648.958.288.0Dec.25.0June95.021.0..49.71159
Tauranga65.647.650.680.8Jan.28.0May87.022.52,308.852.11144
Ruakura Farm, Hamilton66.845.156.085.4Dec.23.8July92.022.0..40.75145
Cambridge67.1....86.0Dec.25.0June....1,832.745.92127
Rotorua63.446.755.085.0Jan.27.0July98.621.61,824.451.40137
Whakarewarewa63.944.054.291.0Jan.22.0May......53.77129
New Plymouth63.550.150.878.4Nov.32.1May89.027.02,326.852.19171
 July
Karioi59.037.948.477.9Jan.14.5Aug.......39.74153
Napier63.548.055.885.0Jan.27.5July54.622.62,401.420.70125
Hastings65.943.854.887.2Dec.23.0July......23.40121
Taihape58.048.451.078.0Feb.24.0July87.820.4..32.12148
Tangimoana63.110.454.787.2Dec.25.2Aug.87.220.5..33.27122
Palmerston North63.947.455.784.0Dec.20.0June91.023.0..30.37148
Massey College; Palmerston North63.040.954.981.8Dec.21.2Aug.....2,023.635.53148
Pahiatua62.745.153.983.0Dec.22.8Aug.......44.07148
Kapiti61.650.850.280.0Dec.34.0Aug.......41.08137
Masterton65.042.753.990.0Dec.23.4Aug.95.422.42,273.032.13129
Wellington60.848.854.883.0Dec.31.9Aug.88.028.02,150.943.34151
Nelson63.347.355.383.8Jan.29.4May92.025.02,558.838.95119
Appleby63.147.155.184.8Jan.28.1July......38.83120
Blenheim65.045.455.592.5Dec.20.7Aug.....2,552.125.41116
Golden Downs62.440.851.680.0Feb.19.3July......48.5097
     Dec.       
Waihopai63.448.553.489.0Dec25.0July......40.70114
Hanmer Springs61.539.250.488.0Jan.8.2July97.08.22,029.749.05131
Balmoral62.441.852.288.0Dec.19.0July......28.94112
Hokitika60.046.153.479.0Dec.28.0July84.525.52,025.389.88176
Lake Coleridge61.542.552.087.0Dec.19.0July93.012.0..25.80113
Methven59.543.951.784.0Dec.27.0June......38.78140
       Aug     
Christchurch60.444.652.689.4Feb.24.5June95.721.31,973.020.41129
Lincoln61.944.153.088.0Dec.24.1July98.420.42,049.320.09109
The Hermitage, Mt. Cook56.038.247.482.0Nov.15.0July....1,612.9230.20160
Ashburton60.742.451.087.4Dec.22.3July94.019.81,725.732.50158
Lake Tekapo57.9....83.5Dec.11.9July....2,407.727.3389
Fairlie..................1,705.5....
Timaru60.143.751.089.2Jan.23.2Aug.99.623.61,000.725.84111
Waimate60.641.751.288.0Jan.24.5July94022.51,005.426.96150
Queenstown59.742.050.990.2Feb.20.4July....1,809.731.59124
Ophir60.439.049.794.0Dec.1.0July94.01.0..17.68113
Waipiata58.838.848.880.6Dec.5.0July90.05.02,092.018.95138
Alexandra61.041.551.288.7Feb.12.2July....2,098.215.5395
Manorburn Dam53.434.944.280.0Feb.1.6July......21.09142
Dunedin59.044.151.987.0Feb.30.0June94.02301,743.940.18151
Gore61.539.850.592.0Dec.23.0June95.018.01,791.133.23185
       July     
Invereargill58.942.950.983.0Jan27.0May90.019.01,024.038.43209
     Dec June     

For 1934 the mean pressure at 9 a.m., in inches, reduced to sea-level and standard gravity, was: Waipoua, 29.991; Auckland, 30.052; Rotorua, 30.029; Wellington, 30.023; Nelson, 30.026; Hokitika, 30.035; Christchurch, 29.982; Dunedin, 29.977.

MEAN TIME AND TIME-SERVICE.

The following article on New Zealand mean time and the time-service arrangements was prepared by Dr. C. E. Adams, F.R.A.S., Hon. F.N.Z.I.A., Dominion Astronomer and Seismologist.

One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand, called New Zealand mean time (N.Z.M.T.).

The following extract from the New Zealand Gazette of 31st October, 1868, contains the Government announcement regarding the standardizing of mean time for New Zealand :—

” Colonial Secretary's Office,

” Wellington, 30th October, 1868.

“In accordance with a resolution of the House of Representatives to the effect that New Zealand mean time be adopted throughout the colony, it is hereby notified for public information that the time corresponding to the longitude 172° 30' east of Greenwich—which is exactly 11 ½ hours in advance of Greenwich time—has been adopted as the mean time for the colony; and that from and after the second day of November the public offices of the General Government will be opened and closed in accordance therewith.

“E. W. STAFFORD.”

The meridian 172° 30' east is the approximate mean longitude of the Islands of New Zealand, and corresponds to a time 11 hours 30 minutes fast on Greenwich mean time (G.M.T.).

The use of Summer Time in New Zealand is governed by the Summer Time Act, 1929, and its amendment of 1933. For general purposes in New Zealand the clock is advanced thirty minutes during the period beginning at 2h., New Zealand mean time, on the last Sunday in September in any year, and ending at 2h., New Zealand mean time, on the last Sunday in April in the following year. Nothing in the Summer Time Act shall affect the use of New Zealand mean time for purposes of astronomy, meteorology, or navigation, or affect the construction of any document mentioning or referring to a point of time in connection with any of those purposes. The times stated in this article are N.Z.M.T. and are in accordance with the 24h. system: Oh. and 24h. = midnight; 12h. = noon.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the Dominion Observatory, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as accurate as possible by means of astronomical observations, and by comparison with wireless time signals from Bordeaux, Nauen, Honolulu, Malabar, Zikawei, Monte Grande, and Annapolis. The error in outgoing time signals can be judged from the following table of corrections for the year 1933 :—

Number of times correction did not exceed 0.25 seconds.. 416

Number of times correction between 0.26 and 0.50 seconds.. 47

Number of times correction between 0.51 and 1.00 seconds.. 1

Number of times correction exceeded 1.00 seconds.... 0

Number of time signals sent out...... 464

The following time signals are sent from the Dominion Observatory:—

(1) WIRELESS TIME SIGNALS, TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE GOVERNMENT RADIO STATION ZLW, ON A WAVE-LENGTH OF 6OO METRES I.C.W.

These signals are transmitted daily at 10h. 30m., and on Tuesdays and Fridays at 20h. 30m.

The signals are transmitted in the following manner:—

At l0h. 28m. 0s. a dash of two seconds duration is sent, followed by “ZMO” (the call sign of the Observatory). This signal is repeated three times at 15 second intervals. At 10h. 29m. 10s. a series of G's (— —) is sent, ending at 1Oh. 29m. 50s.

At l0h. 30m. Os. the time signal (a dash of three seconds duration) is sent automatically from the Observatory clock—the beginning of the dash representing the exact minute. The automatic time signal is repeated at l0h. 31m., l0h. 32m., l0h. 34ru., and l0h. 35m. There is no time signal at l0h. 33m. Between the automatic time signals, series of one-second dashes are sent in groups of one, two, four, or five, according as they precede the time signals at l0h. 31m., l0h. 32m.. l0h. 34m., or l0h. 35m. respectively. Each set of dashes ends exactly at the 50th second. The intermediate dashes are for tuning purposes only, and must not be used as time signals. The signals sent on Tuesdays and Fridays at 20h. 30m. are similar in form to those just described.

Special care is taken to ensure the accuracy of all the signals transmitted through station ZLW, and corrections to these signals are published monthly.

(2) WIRELESS TIME SIGNALS TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE NEW ZEALAND RADIO BROADCASTING BOARD'S STATIONS 2YA AND 3YA.

Time signals are supplied to station 2YA from the Observatory three times daily (at l0h. 30m., l0h. 30m., and 19h. 30m.). The signals consists of dashes of three seconds duration, transmitted at l0h. 30m.. l0h. 31m., l0h. 32m.; at l0h. 30m., l0h. 31m., 15h. 32m.; and at 19h. 30m., 19h. 31m., 19h. 32m. respectively.

At l0h. 30m., intermediate signals are also transmitted as described for ZLW in the preceding section. Intermediate signals are also transmitted at 15h. 30m., except on Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays. The beginning of the dash represents the exact minute in every case.

The signals above described are broadcast by station 2YA daily, except Sundays, when only the l0h. 30m. signal is sent out. Station 3YA rebroadcasts the signals from station 2YA. The signals are regularly supplied from the Observatory, but their actual broadcast is controlled by station 2YA. At 19h. 30m. the stations only broadcast the first of the three signals supplied.

(3) TIME SIGNAL BY LIGHTS AT WELLINGTON AND AUCKLAND.

At the Dominion Observatory (Wellington) these time signals are given daily, the lights being exhibited on a flagstaff, 6 ft. apart, white uppermost, 42 ft. above the ground, red in the centre, and green below. The green light is switched on at 20h. 10m., the red at 20h. 20m., and the white at 20h. 25m. Simultaneous extinction of all the lights at 20h. 30m. 0s. is the time signal. The green light is used only on Tuesdays and Fridays, when an officer is on duty supervising the time signals. On other evenings only the red and white lights are used.

Time-signal lights are also exhibited on the Ferry Buildings at Auckland on Tuesday and Friday evenings as follows: The green light is switched on at 19h. 40m., the red at 20h. 20m., and the white at 20h. 25m. Simultaneous extinction of all the lights at 20h. 30m. 0s. is the time signal. The lights are extinguished by direct signal from the- Dominion Observatory, Wellington. If the signal fails, the red light continues burning until 20h. 35m.

(4) TIME SIGNAL BY TIME-BALL AT LYTTELTON.

This time signal which was given by dropping the time-ball by direct signal from the Observatory at l0h. 30m. 0s., on Tuesdays and Fridays, has been discontinued. See the New Zealand Gazette No. 1, 10th January, 1935, and in Admiralty Notices to Mariners, 2nd March, 1935 (No. 351).

(5) GENERAL.

In addition to the above time signals, the Dominion Observatory also supplies time signals to the Telegraph Office and the Railways Department, by telegraph, daily at 9h. and 15h. 30m. The telegraph office transmits the Observatory time signals by telegraph-lines to some 2,300 telegraph-offices in both Islands, to Stewart Island, and to the Railways Department. Telegraphic signals are also sent at 9h. to all railway offices in New Zealand, including 221 offices by telegraph, and 257 stations by telephone.

The Dominion Observatory controls the Government Buildings (Wellington) clock, which is checked at 9h. each day by means of a special circuit between the clock and the Observatory.

The chimes of the Wellington General Post Office clock are broadcast several times every day by station 2YA. At 15h. the clock is checked by comparison with the Dominion Observatory signal clock, and the correction is published monthly. This clock may therefore be used as a time signal where very high accuracy is not required, experience having shown that it is always within a few seconds of the correct time. In using the General Post Office clock as a time signal, the first stroke of the hour should be taken as the time.

THE PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND.

The following article on the New Zealand flora is by Dr. W. R; B. Oliver. D.Sc, F.R.S.N.Z., Director of the Dominion Museum:—

Though the unique features of (he flora of New Zealand are frequently emphasized, it should not be thought that there are not other floras which might be described as having equally peculiar characteristics. Taking the plants of the whole world, differentiation has proceeded in all areas so that each is unique in some respects, and as a general rule the quality of uniqueness is most impressed in those areas which for a long time have been isolated, thus giving evolution the opportunity to proceed unhampered by intercrossing with adjacent floras. The peculiar features of a flora are consequently an expression of its past history; and so those regions, such as South Africa, Western Australia, South America, and New Zealand, which, for considerable periods in their history, have been cut off from the remainder of the world, developed floras with many characteristics of surpassing interest. New Zealand is far distant from any continental mass and has maintained such a relation for a long period, probably throughout the whole of the Tertiary Era. Briefly, the peculiar features of the plants of New Zealand are a high degree of endemism; great development of certain genera such as the koromikos (hebe), karamus (Coprosnut). wild Spaniards (Aciphylla), daisy trees (Olearia), mountain daisies (Celmisia), and native brooms (Carmicliaelia); the absence or poor development of many of the largest genera of plants, such as Astragalus, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Euphorbia, Mesembryantheinum, Sclaginclla, although some are highly developed in Australia; the presence of an element, known as Antarctic, containing species related to those in South America and the islands of the Southern Ocean : certain peculiar life-forms, such as the dense cushion plants, known as vegetable sheep : and the high proportion of species with persistent juvenile stages considerably different from the adult forms.

In the following account a select number of species are mentioned for their interest in one way or another. Among the many important discoveries of the late Dr. L. Cockayne, however, was the fact that many of the individual plants in the vegetation are in reality hybrids between the ordinary “species” of the taxonomist. The prevalence of hybrids is, in fact, much more general than is apparent to the untrained eye. In a list recently published. Cockayne and II. H. Allan record nearly five hundred native hybrids. Some, such as the crosses among the beeches (Nothofagus) and tutus (Coriaria), take, in places, a prominent part in the vegetative covering.

Taking the vascular plants—that is, flowering-plants, conifers, ferns, and lycopods —as a whole, by far the larger portion show affinities directly or indirectly with the plants of the Malayan region. coming under this head are most of the conifers, especially the kauri (Agathis) and the two principal genera of podocarps (Lacrydivm, Podocarpus), and practically all the endemic genera for which the flora is so justly famed. It is necessary to mention only such important examples as Carmicliaelia, Anistrfome, Aciphylla, Haaslia, Jlaoulia, Stilbocarpa, Entelea, and Myosotidium. The presence of this element is justification for stating that the basis of the New Zealand flora is Malayan, and that it came to the country by way of an ancient land connection. Supporting evidence of such a land bridge is found in the presence in New Zealand of some flightless species of birds and the tuatara lizard; also, in former times, of the large wingless moas.

Another important element in the New Zealand flora may be described as Australian, as it includes species either identical with or related to those found in Australia or Tasmania. Some belong to endemic genera, some are odd species belonging to large and characteristic Australian genera such as Phrbalhim, Persoonia, Myoporuni, and Epacris; and there are over 250 species common to both sides of the Tasman Sea. About a fourth of these are widely distributed in many other parts of the world. Some of the Australian species may have come to New Zealand with the Mala}an element; others may have been accidentally carried by ocean currents, wind, or birds.

Of exceptional interest is the element in the New Zealand flora known as Antarctic because of its remarkable distribution and the fact that it has given rise to much controversy among biologists. Taking any of the southern continental lands, we find a considerable number of species related to those in the other cold temperate regions. Thus, in the New Zealand region there are about 70 species of vascular plants whose relations are with those in South America and the islands of the Southern Ocean. The most conspicuous of the Antarctic plants in New Zealand are the beeches (Nothofagus), fuchsias, broadleafs (Griselinia), wild irishman (Disraria), pukatea (Laurelia), and ourisias. Some botanists explain the presence of the Antarctic element in New Zealand by an ancient southern land connection : others think that equally ancient dispersal from the north and accidental dispersal overseas are sufficient to account for them. All of these methods may have played their part.

The internal distribution of the plants of New Zealand deserves brief notice. Some species occupy quite limited areas even on the mainland. Examples are Cdssinia amoena in the North Cape Peninsula, Pittosponim near boulder Lake. Hebe oblusata north of Manukau Harbour, Copiosma obcoyika in the Wairoa Gorge, and several species in the mountains of the South Island. More often, species of limited distribution are confined to islands: in fact, most of the islands at some distance from the coast have one or more species peculiar to them. Conspicuous examples are« Homolantlms polyandrus in the Kermadec Islands. Davallia Tasniani at the Three Kings. Xeronema Callistetnon on the Poor Knights and Hen Island, Myosotidium horlensia in the Chatham Islands, and species of Pleurophyllum and Slilbocarpa in the Subantarctic Islands.

Perhaps of more importance than these cases of isolated distribution is the circumstance that on the main islands considerable numbers of species have their southern or northern limits at about the same latitude. Two critical boundaries in this connection an; 38° S. Lat. in the North Island, and 42° S. bat. in the South Island. On this basis New Zealand may be divided into three botanical districts; and if other evidence be taken into account a number of provinces may be defined. The northern botanical province, which extends from the Three Kings Islands to 38° S. bat., is especially well-marked, having nearly 100 species which are confined to it or extend but a short distance beyond its southern border. Of especial interest are the kauri (Agathi-s auslralis), taraire (Beilschmiedia taraire), makamaka (Ackama rosaefolia), mangrove (Avicennia officinal is), pohutukawa [Metrosideros excelsq), and mairelmu (Phebaliuni nudum).

A brief review may now be made of the principal groups of plants found in New Zealand. The vascular plants, which comprise ferns, lycopods, and their allies, conifers, and flowering-plants, almost entirely form the land vegetation of physiognomic importance. It is these which clothe the ground and are thus of so much importance to the beauty of the landscape. Lichens are dominant in certain rocky situations, especially near the coast, and these plants, together with mosses and liverworts, are conspicuous members of the interior of scrub and forest in humid climates. Algae take undisputed possession of rocky coasts below tide marks, but on muddy bottoms a flowering-plant, the sea wrack (Zostcra), covers wide areas in sheltered situations.

Beginning with the flowering-plants, of which there are over 1,600 species, we find that the daisy family. Compositae. generally placed in the highest position in the flora, contains about 2010 species. This is a world-wide family of over 13,000 species. The New Zealand species show some peculiar features and include some exceedingly interesting kinds. The leathery-leaved Pachystegia insignis, the purple-flowered species of Pleiirbphyllum, and the edelweiss-like Leucogenes, -form a remarkable series. Raoulia and Ilaastia include the wonderful cushion-like species known as vegetable sheep,. characteristic of the drier mountains of the South Island. Smaller species of similar growth extend as far north as the Tararuas, and as far south as Stewart Island. The mountain daisies, Celmisia, run into over 60 species; and there are over 40 species of daisy-trees, Olearia. Notable members of this genus are the holly-leaved daisy-tree (0. ilicifolia) and the tete-a-weka (0. angustifolia). Senecio includes about 35 species belonging to New Zealand, several being trees of considerable height. The puheretaiko or mutton-bird shrub (S. rotundifolius) forms a coastal scrub in. Stewart Island and the fiord district.

The Australian family, Stylidiaceae, includes only a few New Zealand species, but among them are the bog cushion plants Donatio and Pliyllachne.

The blue-bell family, Campanulaceae, which comprises about 1,000 species found in all parts of the world, is represented in New Zealand by” species, one of which (Wahlenbergia cartilaginea) is a fleshy plant characteristic of mountain shingle slips, and another (If. Matlhewsii) has rather large pale lilac flowers.

The madder family, Rubiaceae, of over 5,000 species, mainly tropical and subtropical, includes the genus Ooprosma, of about 90 species, of which 40 are found in New Zealand. The species of this genus range from forest trees of moderate height to creeping shrubs, and have inconspicuous flowers but bright berries of different colours. The best-known species are the taupata (C. repens). a coastal plant much used for hedges, the karamu (C. robusta), and the kanono (C. australis).

A characteristic Australian family is Myoporaceae, with one representative only in New Zealand, the well-known coastal tree, ngaio (myoporum laetum).

The speedwell family, Scrophulariaceae, comprises over 2,600 species, mainly found in temperate climates. In New Zealand it has developed chiefly in the four genera : Hebe, 66 species; Veronica, 13 species; Ourisia, 10 species : and Euphrasia, 13 species. The Hebes or koromikos are shrubs with handsome racemes of pale-lilac to white flowers and are conspicuous in all the natural scrubs of the Dominion, but are especially in evidence in mountainous localities. The willow-leaved koroiniko.(H.salicifolia), in one or other of its forms, is found throughout New Zealand in lowland forests and scrub. Several species of Hebe, known as whip-cord koromikos, are remarkable for the fact that the leaves are reduced and scale-like, resembling those of the cypress. The large floewering-heads of Ourisia are conspicuous objects in the mountains. The mangrove, Avicennia officinalis, is found in tidal estuaries throughout the eastern hemisphere. In New Zealand it occurs from the North Cape to Kawhia and Opotiki. Another member of this family, Verbenaceae, is the puriri (Vitcx lucens), a handsome tree with extremely hard wood.

The borage family, Boraginaceae, of 1,600 mostly north temperate species, is represented in New Zealand by 31 species of forget-me-not (Alyosolis), and by Myosotidium hortensia. This last species is confined to the Chatham Islands, and is remarkable for the large reniform leaves, sometimes a foot across, and the large heads of blue flowers.

There are 24 species of gentians, family Gentianaceae, in New Zealand. They are mainly mountain plants, and many have show}' flowers, mostly white with radiating purple veins. Elsewhere the genus, which comprises some 350 species, is mainly north temperate, but extends all along the Andes.

The four species of olive, family Oleaceae. found in New Zealand, include the black maire, Oka Gunnirighamii, and the white maire, 0. lanceolata, notable for their hard timber.

The heath family, Ericaceae, widely spread in temperate regions, is poorly represented in Australia and New Zealand. Qaullheria, with 100 species in America, has but 8 in New Zealand. Instead of Ericaceae, however, there is present in Australia and New Zealand, and almost confined thereto, an allied family, Epacridaceae, containing some 300 species. The most conspicuous members in New Zealand are the various kinds of grass trees, Dracophyllum, of which there are over 30 species. Some are trees, but mostly they are shrubs and take a prominent part in subalpine scrubs. The leaves are grass-like and the flowers are borne in racemes or panicles. Two of the largest members are the neinei (D. lalifolium) of the North Island, and D. Traversii of the South Island.

The cornel family, Cornaceae, contains two species of the genus Griselinia, other- wise Chilean. They have large, shining, dark-green leaves, and one, the broadleaf (O, littoralis), produces a durable timber.

The world-wide carrot family, Umbelliferae, is represented in New Zealand by over 80 species, but over half of them belong to the genera Aciphylln and Anisotome. The species of Aciphylla have branched, sword-like leaves arising at ground-level as a dense tuft. Some are 2 ft. in length, and, being rigid, are formidable objects to man or beast. From the centre rises an equally armoured spike of small flowers. Anisotome includes unarmed herbs, more or less aromatic, with compound leaves and conspicuous compound umbels. With the exception of a few species in Australia, Aciphylla and Anisotome are confined to New Zealand.

The ivy family, Araliaceae, mainly tropical in distribution, is represented in New Zealand by 25 species, all but three being trees. The three herbs belong to the remarkable genus Slilbocarpa. and have leaves 1½ ft. in diameter. The trees include the large-leaved puka, Meryta Sinclairii, of tropical affinities. Those belonging to the genus Pseudopanax, some of which are known as lance-woods, pass through juvenile forms with straight, unbranched stems bearing narrow and deflexed, toothed leaves up to 3 ft. in length.

The evening primrose family, Onagraceae, found in many temperate climates, is represented in New Zealand by about 40 species of willow-herbs and three species of Fuchsia. The latter is an American genus of over 60 species, and by what method the New Zealand forms reached New Zealand is a. question of great interest to biologists. The common New Zealand kotukutuku, Fuchsia excorticata, is a tree, usually deciduous, with papery bark.

The myrtle family, Myrtaceae, is widespread, but most abundant in South America and Australia. In New Zealand there are 17 species of shrubs and trees belonging to this family. The most common are the manuka, Leptospermum scojwrium, and the kanuka, L. ericoides. One or both of these cover extensive areas in situations ranging from swamps to sand-dunes. They form dense thickets and, in some places, forest. The various species of rata (Metrosidcros) produce an abundance of brush-like red or white flowers. Most conspicuous along the shores of the northern portion of the Dominion is the pohutukawa, M. exedsa, which, in midsummer, is covered with crimson flowers. Equally conspicuous are the northern and southern ratas, M. robusta and M. umberlata, lofty forest trees producing durable timber. The northern rata begins life as a seedling high up on another tree, such as a rimu, and, reaching the ground with its roots, clasps the stem of its host, finally killing and replacing it. Some of the species of Meirosideros are climbers. Their woody, cable-like stems, sometimes 6 in. in diameter, enable the foliage to expand among the tops of the tallest trees.

The mallow family, Malvaceae, of tropical and subtropical distribution, includes a few trees inhabiting New Zealand. They are known as lace-barks and ribbon-woods on account of the lattice-like strands of the bast. The Maori used this bark for textile work. The species of Hoheria or lace-barks bear, in late summer, a profusion of white flowers. One species is deciduous.

The small tropical family Elaeocarpaceae contains two species of Klacocarpus, a large Malayan genus, one of them being the hinau, which bears large clusters of pendant flowers. The makomako, Aristotclia scrrata, is a common tree which springs up in abundance in forest clearings.

The karaka, Corynocarpus laevigata, is a handsome tree with shining dark-green foliage and large orange drupes. The kernel contains a virulent poison, but the flesh is edible. The Maori treated the kernel so as to render it innocuous. The family, Corynocarpaceae, contains one genus of three species, two of which are natives of New Caledonia.

The small tropical family, Coriariaceae, is represented in New Zealand by about five species of Goriaria, one of which is the well-known tutu, C. arborea, the leaves of which are poisonous to stock. The tutu appears abundantly in clearings and on bracken-covered hills.

Although the family Meliaceae contains GOO species, mainly tropical, only one, the kohokohe, Dysoxylon spectabile, is found in New Zealand. The flowers are borne during mid-winter on the trunks and branches. The timber is easily worked, and on account of its brown colour is responsible for the name “New Zealand cedar”being given to this species.

The bean family, Leguminosae, one of the largest in the world, contains a number of New Zealand species, but, as in the carrot family, most of them belong to general highly peculiar to the Dominion. There are over 20.species of Carmichaelid and a few of some related genera, all of broom-like habit—that is. having leafless twigs and paniculate flowers. Some of the species bear large clusters of blooms of great beauty. Notable members of this family are the three species of kowhai. Edwardftia. The irenus is tropical and subtropical; but the New Zealand species have South American affinities. All the species have showy yellow flowers much sought after by honey-sucking birds. and the common kowhai, E. microphylla. produces a durable timber known to saw- millers as New Zealand lignum vitae.

The rose family. Hosaccae, is in New Zealand chiefly noted for its species of Acaena, of infamous reputation. The plant flourishes in pastures, and its burrs collect in great clots on the wool of sheep, causing much loss to sheep-fanners.

The subtropical family. Cunoniaeeae. is represented in New Zealand by three species of trees. One, the kainahi, Weiwmannia ructmosa, is excessively abundant in forests south of the Waikato district, and its ally, the tawhero, If. sylvicola, replaces it in the north.

Pittosporaceae is a family of trees and shrubs which, with the exception of Piltosporum, is confined to Australia. This genus is well represented in New Zealand. where it includes 23 species. Some, such as the kohuhu, P. tenuifolium, and karo. P. crassifolium, are extensively used as hedge plants. A remarkable and beautiful species is P. Dattii. It is distinguished by its serrated leaves and large white flowers.

The large family of saxifrages, Saxifragaceaeæ. with numerous herbaceous genera in northern temperate regions, is represented in New Zealand by three genera only, each containing one or two species of trees. Carpodetus, the putaputaweta, is the most common. In early summer the trees are covered with large clusters of small white flowers.

The cress family, Cruciferae. is of world-wide distribution and of numerous species. It is. however, little in evidence in New Zealand but contains the peculiar genera of mountain plants, Pitch ycltidon and Nololhlaspi. A species of Lepidium, now almost eaten out by stock, was formerly abundant along the seashore, and was used as a vegetable by the crews of Captain Cook's ships.

Another world-wide family of plants, that of the buttercups, Ranunoulaceae, contains in New Zealand !) species of Clematis, over 40 of Ranunculus, and a few others. The species of Ranunculus are especially characteristic of the subalpine and alpine zones and contain some very peculiar forms. Some are found only on mountain screes and some reach almost the upper limit of vegetation. The mountain buttercup, R. Lyallii, possesses large, circular, peltate leaves, and the largest flowers of any species belonging to the genus. During the summer months the puawhananga (Clematis indivisa) displays masses of large white, flowers over the surrounding foliage.

A tropical family of root parasites, Balanophoraceae, has in New Zealand a single member, the pua-reinga (Daclylanthus Taylori). The host tree responds by forming rosettes with radiating flutings and considerably wider than the diameter of the roots themselves.

Of woody parasites, New Zealand possesses 11 members of the mistletoe family, Loranthaceae. Members of the genus Elylranthe are conspicuous objects among the tops of beech-trees on account of their clusters of scarlet or yellow flowers.

The large Australian and South African family of proteas, Proteaceae, is represented in New Zealand by only 2 members. One is the torn (Persoonia torn), a small tree belonging to an Australian genus of 60 species, and the other is the rewarewa (Knightia exciha). a lofty tree with relatives in New Caledonia. The wood of the rewarewa is beautifully variegated and is much used for inlaying and cabinet work.

The mulberry family, Moraceae, widely represented in the tropics, extends to New Zealand only in three species of Paratrophis. Most common is the turepo or milk-tree, P. microphylla, and all exude a white latex when bruised.

The beech family, Fagaceae. which is best represented in the northern temperate zone, has in New Zealand 5 species of small-leaved species of beech, referred to the genus Nothofagus, a very close ally of the northern Fagus. The other members of Notthofagus are found in Australia, Tasmania, and temperate South America. The New Zealand beeches are the dominant members of large areas of upland forest in the main islands. They provide a considerable proportion of the timber milled in the Dominion. The species are the red beech (N. fusca), silver beech (N. Menziesii), black beech (N. Solnndri). mountain beech (N. cliffortioides), and hard beech (N. truncata).

Of monocotyledonous plants the orchids, family Orchidaceae, are among the most specialized, and may be mentioned first. New Zealand is relatively poor in species there being only 66 known kinds, whereas the world total is about 8,000. Most of tin New Zealand forms are ground species, some inconspicuous. The large epiphytic genera Demi robium and Bulbophyllum are represented by 1 and 2 species respectively, and there are 3 species of the Polynesian Earina and 1 of the Australian Sarcochilus. All New Zealand epiphytes occasionally grow on rocks or even on the ground.

The world-wide lily family, Liliaceae, extends to New Zealand in a comparatively small number of genera, but. like other cosmopolitan families, some of these are note- worthy. Phormium contains the celebrated New Zealand flax. P. teriax, and another smaller species, P. Colensoi. The larger species is found in swamps and wet places. It is a noble plant with sword-like leaves from 6 ft. to 10 ft. long, overtopped by the erect flower-heads. It is now extensively cultivated for its fibre. Xeroncma Calliste.mon, with red. brush-like flowers and iris-like leaves, is confined to islands off the coast of the North Auckland Peninsula. Its only relative is found in New Caledonia. Conspicuous in swamps, scrub, and low forest are the species of Gordyline, palm-like plants bearing clusters of small white flowers. The most plentiful is the ti-rahau or cabbage-tree, C. australis; but the most remarkable, on account of its wide, elastic leaves, is the toii, C. indivisa, found on the forest border or in the more open parts of cool forests. Perched in great clusters on tall forest trees are various species of Aslelia and Cottospermum, in habit like large tussock grasses.

Palms constitute an immense family, Palmaceae, of over 1,100 species, and are essentially tropical or subtropical. Only 2 species are found in New Zealand, one. the nikau (lihopolostylia sapida), extending as far south as Banks Peninsula and Hokitika, and the other (R. Cheesemanii) confined to the Kermadec Islands.

The grasses, family Gramineae. of which there are over 120 species in New Zealand, include the large pampas-like toetoe, Arundo conspicua. As its specific name implies. it is a conspicuous species. It is especially abundant in swamps and in coastal localities. Other notable grasses are the various species of Danthonia which, over wide areas in the mountains, form the dominating feature—namely, large tussocks of narrow waving leaves. The smaller species of Danthonia, notably D. pilosa and D. scmiannularis. are important pasture grasses. Many of the New Zealand grasses are also found in Australia, and among them the spinifex. is. hirsutus, abundant as a sand-binding species along the outer dunes.

Many of the sedges, family Cyperaceae, of which there are over 120 species in New Zealand, form large tussocks with tall brown panicles. Unlike the grasses, they are conspicuous in scrubs and forests. Chief among these are the various species of Galium. A beautiful species. Gladium Sinclairii, has flat, shining leaves and adds much to the beauty of wet cliffs. The genus L'licinia, with 14 species in New Zealand, must be mentioned on account of the fact that it is found in south temperate regions and islands generally, and because the fruit is furnished with peculiar hooks enabling it to become entangled in the hair or wool of animals. There are 55 species of the genus Carex in New Zealand, some, such as C. temaria, forming dense thickets in swamps.

The class of cone-bearing trees, or gymnosperms, is represented in New Zealand by two families, one, Araucariaccae, containing two genera of truly cone-bearing trees, Agathis and Libocedrus, and the other, Podocarpaceae, containing 17 species with nut- like fruits surrounded more or less by the fleshy scales.

The kauri (Agathia australis) for more than a century has been world-famed for its timber. A straight role, up to SO ft. or more in height, carries an immense rounded head of dark-green, shining leaves. The kauri is found only in the northern part of the North Island, and only a few areas of considerable extent now exist. The timber is still an important product. The resin, which is obtained from the living tree and also dug from the ground where kauri forests formerly existed, is of value in making varnishes and for other purposes. Informer times the value of the resin exported was greater than that of the timber.

Libocedrus contains two cypress-like trees with brown bark which falls in long, thin strips. One species, the kawaka (L. pllunom), is more northern in distribution than the other, the pahautea (L. Bidwillii).

Of the podocarps, the three New Zealand genera extend to Malaya and other regions. They include the rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), which is cut for timber more than is any other species of tree in New Zealand; the totara (Podocarpus fotara). a handsome tree with pungent leaves and producing a useful timber, the favourite of the Maoris for canoes and house carvings; the matai (P. spicatus), the miro (P. ferrugineus), and the kahikatea (P. dacrydioides). all producing valuable timber; the tanekaha [Phylloclaius trichomanoides), a tall tree with leaf-like branches, the true leaves being fully developed only in the seedlings; and the silver pine (D. Colensoi), and yellow pine (D. intermedium), of bog-forests.

Ferns are the glory of the New Zealand forests. They are, of course, most in evidence in damp forests. Here the undergrowth in places may consist mostly of ferns. In addition, they may clothe most of the tree trunks and branches, and, as tree-ferns, take a part in the upper canopy of foliage. There are 145 species, distributed over 12 families, found in New Zealand.

The filmy ferns, family Hymenophyllaceae, are included in the genera Hymenophyllum, Trichomanes, and Cardiomanes. In moist forests a dozen or more species often may be obtained in a single locality. Their delicate leaves cover ground, logs, and trunks alike. They vary from the broad-leaved H. dilahdum, which may reach a height of 2 ft., to the minute H. minimum, less than 1 in. tall. One species, the kidney fern, Cardiomanes reniforme. has undivided, reniform leaves fringed with the spore- producing organs.

A single species, Loxsoma Cunninghamii, with the leaves whitish below, represents the family Loxsomaceae in New Zealand, where it is confined to the Auckland Province. The only other members of the family are found in tropical America.

The family Dicksoniaceae has three representatives in New Zealand, all belonging to the genus Dicltsonia. All are tree-ferns, but in one species, D. lanata, the trunk usually lies along the ground. The wheki, D. sqnarrosa, is perhaps the most common tree-fern in New Zealand.

Another family of tree-ferns is Cyatheaceae. It includes the tall and stately black tree-fern or mamaku (Cyathca medxdlliris), and the smaller silver tree-fern or ponga (C. dealbata). In one species, Alsophila Colensoi, the trunk almost always is prostrate.

Most ferns belong to the family Polypodiaceae, which is represented in New Zealand by about 90 species. All the ordinary ferns, including the bracken, Pteridium esculenhtrn, belong to this family. The most prevalent genera are Polystichum, Dryopleris. Asphnmm, Blechnum, Hypolepis, Adiantum, Pteris, and Polypodium, all widely distributed. Only one genus of Polypodiaceae Leptohpia, is confined to New Zealand.

The king fern, Todea barbara, and two species of Leptopteris, with finely-divided filmy leaves, and hence called crape ferns, represent the family Osmundaceae in New Zealand. The horse-shoe ferns, family Marattiaceae, have a single representative, the para (Marattia fraxinea), in the North Island.

The lycopods, family Lycopodiaceae, include the New Zealand and Australian genus Phylloglossum containing only a single species, P. Drummondii, and twelve species of Lycopodium. A related family, Psilotaceae, contains the two species Tmesipteris tannensis and Psilotum triquetrum.

In a country with a greatly diversified land surface and considerable range in climatic conditions, one may expect a great variety in the nature of the plant covering. Such actually is the case in New Zealand, where the plant formations range from warm, temperate rain forest to alpine rock associations at the limit of plant growth.

When organized European settlement first began in New Zealand, about 1840, it has been estimated that 60 per cent, of the land surface was under forest. The forest, has now been reduced to under 20 per cent., mainly by the clearing of kauri, podocarp, and broad-leaved lowland forests. The mountainous regions, where there is a pre- ponderance of beech forests, naturally have suffered the least.

In a broad sense the forest may be divided into three main types: (1) Coniferous forests; (2) broad-leaved forests; (3) beech forests.

The coniferous forests fall into two groups—kauri and podocarp. Kauri forests are confined to the northern portion of the North Island. The occurrence of kauri resin in the ground in places now occupied by swamp or scrub indicates that in pre- European times this formation covered an area considerably greater than it does at the present day. Kauri forest occurs in patches, some of considerable size, among the broad-leaved forests, mainly taraire. The kauri is dominant and determines the physiognomy of the formation. Its immense heads of foliage in clumps and its greater height make the stands of kauri easily recognizable from a distance. The large trees associated with the kauri include the taraire, tawa, tawhero, northern rata, rimu, totara, hinau, and others. Underneath are tree-ferns, nikau palms, and various small trees, including the mairehau, neinei, kanono, and Alseuosmia macrophylla, while the large tussock sedge, Gahnia xanthocurpa, and especially the liliaceous tussock, Astelia irinervia, are conspicuous plants in the undergrowth.

Of the podocarp forests, that in which rimu is dominant or extremely common is the most frequent. A considerable mixture of trees, including other podocarps, such as matai and miro, and many kinds of broad-leaved trees, make up the main tier of the forest. Small trees, often with large leaves laxly disposed, form a second tier, while ferns often dominate the undergrowth. The totara, sometimes occurring as immense trees, dominates smaller areas than docs the rimu, and prefers drier soil. At higher levels its smooth-barked ally, Podocarp us Hallii, replaces it. On wet ground, often growing in water, the principal podocarp is the kahikatea. Its straight mast-like trunks impress the visitor to-day as they did when viewed by Captain Cook and his botanists in 1769. In boggy places other podocarps, such as the silver pine or the yellow pine, may be dominant.

Broad-leaved forest covers wide areas in the North Island. In the north the taraire is the dominant tree. Elsewhere its congener, the tawa, takes the principal place. These forests in their interior are much like the podocarp forests, the associated trees, shrubs, and ferns being mostly the same species. Taraire forest interdigitates with kauri forest and the associated species are identical. Tawa forests south of 38° S. lat. lack many species which do not extend farther south than the taraire forest region. Other widely-distributed types of broad-leaved forests are those in which the kamahi and the southern rata are the principal trees. Southern rata forest is essentially a South Island community, and generally contains a considerable proportion of kamahi. In damp situations, as in deep gullies, the pukatea is the principal tree; on drier hill- sides the northern rata is sometimes most in evidence. Its habit of strangling its host has the effect of its gradually replacing rimu forest.

The beech forests are characterized by the dominance of one or more species of Xothofagus. They are poorer in species than the coniferous or broad-leaved forests, while ferns and epiphytes are not such conspicuous features. They occur over wide areas of mountainous country in both the main islands, though curiously enough are absent from Mount Egmont, and from Westland between the Taranmakau and Paringa Rivers. The mountain beech forms a rather dry type of forest, which occurs on both the wet but cold mountains and on the drier foothills, especially those east of the Southern Alps. The silver beech forms a distinctly moist forest, and mixes freely with podocarps, other species of beech, and broad-leaved trees. In appearance and in variety of associated species silver beech forest much resembles podocarp forest. The red beech, black beech, and hard beech occur mixed or individually dominating in extensive areas in both islands.

Taking the meaning of scrub in the ordinary sense—namely, a closed formation of shrubs—there are in New Zealand several kinds differing in both floristic and ecological composition. The most widely distributed of the scrubs is that in which manuka or kanuka is dominant, and, in places, almost the only shrub present. It occurs in swamps, bogs, poor pumice and clay lands; also on good fertile soil. Its ubiquity is due to the readiness of these two species quickly to take possession of unoccupied land, and its presence in the better-class soils is without doubt due to the fact that these areas were formerly occupied by forest which has disappeared before Maori or European. Given time, forest will again supersede the manuka or kanuka scrub. Sometimes species of Dracophyllum—for instance, D. subulalum on the Hangitaiki plains—are dominant in a scrub much resembling dwarf manuka scrub.

Coastal scrubs are best developed on islands, where some characteristic species form almost pure associations. Such are the pohutukawa and taupata in the north, the puheretaiko and tote-a-weka in the south, and Olearia Lyallii in the Southern Islands.

Above the forest-line on all the higher mountains a belt of scrub is found between forest and tussock. It is usually dense to the point of being impenetrable. The dominant species varies with exposure and district, but usually one or more of the following are conspicuous : Olecnia Collusoi, Senecie claegnifolius, various species of Coprosma, Dracophyllum, and Hebe, Phyllocladus alpiniis, Cassinia Vauvilliersii, Aristotelia frulicosa, and Sullonia divaricata.

On the mountain-sides above the dense scrub and tussock only scattered plants, both shrubs and herbs, occur in sheltered places. Here and in other open places a highly peculiar type of shrub is found. It takes the form of a dense cushion, the outer surface of which is the truncated tips of abbreviated tightly-packed branches with their dense clothing of woolly, scale-like leaves. The large species, some of winch are 3 ft. or 4 ft. in diameter, are known as “vegetable sheep “(Baoulia cximia, Haastia Sinclairii).

Leaving aside the various associations of plants in water, bogs, swamps, near fumaroles, on sand-dunes, shingly river-beds, and so on, this account may be closed by a reference to the tussock-grass lands of the Dominion. The area under tussock is now considerably larger than at the period of early European settlement, owing to the burning-off of scrub. Tussock occurs on all high mountains above the scrub-line, and also over vast areas east of the main divide in the South Island. Two main divisions may be recognized : one is dominated by Festuca Novae Zcalandiae and Poa caespitosa, the other by the large tussocks of Danthonia Raoulii. With these are associated a few shrubs, various herbs, and here and there a fern. At the higher levels are grass- lands composed of mat-forming species (Danthonia australis, Poa, aciculanfolia, Triodia cxigua, and others) and various low-growing herbs.

Plants introduced to New Zealand during the period of European occupation now take such a prominent part in the plant covering that a few remarks must be made about them. About Good species are sufficiently well established to be considered naturalized. They occur mostly in settled districts, but in clearings and along tracks far in the native forest a few exotic species are occasionally found. The introduced plants cannot establish themselves in unbroken forest, but, in the area under settlement, especially in the scrubs, grassland, and swamps, many have become permanent members of these formations, and, in places, certain exotic species such as gorse, broom, lupin, blackberry, and some others, dominate new communities.

For the guidance of those desiring further information on the flora and plant covering of New Zealand, the following works should be consulted : “Plants of New Zealand,” by 11. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwcll. ed. 3, 1927; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora,” by T. F. Cheeseman, ed. 2, 1925; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips-Turner, 1928; “The Forest Flora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889; “New Zealand Trees and Shrubs and how to identify them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbic, ed. 3, 1931; “New Zealand Plants and their Stoiy,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 3. 1927: “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 2, 1928: “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “The New Zealand Nature Book,” Vol. 2, by W. Martin, 1929;- and numerous articles published in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute and of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

THE FAUNA.

The following brief article on the fauna of New Zealand originally prepared by Mr. James Drummond, E.L.S., F.Z.S., has been revised by him for this edition:—

New Zealand's native fauna has attracted the attention of investigators in nearly all parts of the world. Its special interest lies in its manifold peculiarities, in the incongruous characters possessed by some, of its members, and in the ancient types found in different classes.

Beginning with the mammalia, the Dominion is surprisingly inadequately represented. Its only land-mammals, except, seals, are two bats. One of these, the long-tailed hat, belongs to a genus (Chalinolobus) which is found in the Australian and Ethiopean zoological regions, and to a species (morio) found in the south-east of Australia as well as in New Zealand; but the other, the short-tailed bat (Mystacops luberrulalus), belongs to a genus peculiar to this Dominion.

At one time it was believed that the Maori dog (Oanis familiaris, variety maorium, the “kuri” of the Maoris) and the Maori rat (Mus nxvlans, the Maori “kiore”) were indigenous to New Zealand, but it is now generally believed that these two animals were introduced by the Maoris when they made their notable migrations from their legendary Hawaiki. The dog was highly prized as a domestic pet, and the rat as food. Both could easily be taken across the sea in the large canoes used in those days. The dog, without doubt, is extinct. It was small, with a pointed nose, pricked ears, and very small eyes. In colour it was white, black, brown, or parti-coloured, and it bad long hair, short legs, a short bushy tail, and no loud bark, but only a whine. The Maoris lavished upon it an abundance of affection. When dead its flesh was used for food, its skin for clothing, and its hair for ornaments. Opinions differ in regard to the approximate date of its extinction, and investigations in this respect are made somewhat difficult by the fact that for some years “wild dogs,” as they were called— probably a cross between the Maori dog and dogs brought by Europeans infested several districts in both the North Island and the South Island, and were confused with the Maori dog. It is probable that the pure Maori dog became extinct about 1885. The Maori rat, a forest-dweller, is not as plentiful as it was when Europeans first came to New Zealand, but it still lives in the forests.

The long-tailed species of bat was once fairly plentiful, especially in the forests, where it makes its home hi hollow trees. Large numbers also at one time were found under old bridges across streams, notably at the River Avon, in Christchurch. It is not very rare now, and specimens sometimes are found in the forests and in eaves. The short-tailed species probably is not extinct, but rare. Little is known of its habits.

The sea-lion, the sea-elephant, the sea-leopard, and the fur-seal are found on islands within the Dominion's boundaries. In the early days of colonization sealing was a great industry, and yielded large profits to some of the adventurous men who took part in it.

Amongst the sea-mammals whales are the most important. At one time extensive whaling was carried on in New Zealand waters, three hundred vessels, chiefly from America, sometimes visiting the country in one year. The industry began about 1795, reached the height of its prosperity between 1830 and 1840, and then began to dwindle. In recent years an effort was made to revive the industry, but was not encouraging. Only two whaling-stations are established hi New Zealand at present: both are on a small scale, and the catches have a low average. The older of the two stations is at Whangamumu, Bay of Islands; it takes hump-back whales near^-the coast. Southern right whales are taken there occasionally; these and blue or fin whales are rare at that station. The more modern station is in Tory Channel, Queen Charlotte Sound, where during the three months of Winter hump-backs are taken and a few southern right whales.

By its strange behaviour a Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus) became famous under the title of “Pclorus Jack.” It made a practice of following steamers through Pelorus Sound. So much interest was taken in this dolphin by the public, zoologists, and learned societies that it was protected by an Order in Council issued in 1904 under the Sea-fisheries Act. Pelorus Jack has not been seen since 191G. It was the only member of the genus Grampus recorded in New- Zealand waters.

In contrast with the species of land-mammals, the members of the next class, Aves, were remarkably plentiful when settlement began. Bush and grass fires, rats, cats, stoats, and weasels, and the ruthless use of the gun reduced their numbers, but they still stand as probably the most interesting avifauna in the world. They include a comparatively large number of absolutely flightless birds. No living birds in New Zealand are wingless, but the kiwi (Apteryx), the weka (Qallirallus), the kakapo parrot (Strigops), and the takaho (Notoniis Hochstelleri)* cannot use their wings for flight, while a duck belonging to the Auckland Islands (Nesonetta) is practically in the same plight. There are several species of birds whose wings are so weak that they can make only short flights.

* Better known to the public as Notornis Manlelli.

Other notable birds are the kea (Nestor notabilis), which is accused of killing sheep on stations in the South Island; the tui (Prosthemadera Novae Zealandiae), which affords one of the most beautiful sights in the New Zealand forests, and charms visitors with its silvery notes; the huia (Heteralocha acutirostris), the only species known in which there is a wide divergence in the shape of the bills in the two sexes, the male's being short and straight, while the female's is curved, pliant, and long; and the wry-billed plover (Anarhynchus frontalis), the only bird known to possess a bill turned to one side. Cormorants or shags (Phalacrocorax) and penguins (Impennes) are exceptionally well represented in the avifauna. New Zealand may be regarded as the headquarters of the penguins, as all the genera except one are found within the boundaries of this Dominion. The oldest fossil penguin known is from the Eocene and Oligocene rocks of New Zealand. New Zealand probably was the centre from which penguins were dispersed to other countries.

Several species of shore-birds make remarkable migrations to New Zealand from regions around the North Pole. They nest there, but spend the spring and summer in New Zealand, leaving the Dominion for their northern homes in the autumn. A few miss the general migration and stay in New Zealand all winter. They probably join the outward-bound flocks in the following autumn. The most famous of these migrants, the bar-tailed or Pacific godwit (Limosa lapjjonica) known in New Zealand by its Maori name kuaka, nests on the tundras of Eastern Siberia and in Kamchatka and Western Alaska. The Hudsonian godwit (Limosa hacmastica), the Pacific golden plover (Plurialis dominicus), the knot (Canulus camilus) and several species of sandpipers are on the list; and the parasitic jaeger or Arctic skua, which nests as far north as Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Franz, Josef Land, sometimes spends the summer in New Zealand. Two species of cuckoos—the shining cuckoo (Lamprococcyx luddvs) and the long- tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis tailensis)—arrive in New Zealand from unknown northern homes, probably on Pacific islands, in the spring, and leave the Dominion about April. Both are parasitical, imposing on small birds the duties of hatching and rearing young cuckoos. In some respects the kiwi is the most remarkable bird in New Zealand. It is the only bird known with nostrils at the tip of the bill, instead of at the base. Its plumage is hair-like in appearance. It lays an immense egg compared with the size of its body. Its structure is very generalized. Sir Richard Owen once suggested that it seemed to have borrowed its head from one group of birds, its legs from another, and its wings from a third.

The takahe (Notornis), a large, heavily built rail, is one of the rarest birds. Only four individuals have been recorded. Two of the skins are in the British Museum, one is in the Dresden Museum, and one remains in New Zealand in the Otago Museum, Dunedin. The fourth Notornis was caught by two guides (Messrs. D. and J. Ross) at Notornis Bay, Lake Te Anau, in 1898. There is reason to believe that this species still exists in the wild country of the southern sounds.

An eagle, a goose, and a large rail are amongst New Zealand's extinct birds. In this class are the moas. Dr. W. R. B. Oliver has divided them into twenty one species. The tallest stood 12 ft. high. Their remains show that they were very plentiful. The cause and time of their extinction are still subjects of controversy. A mass of knowledge has been collected about them; all this with theories and Maori traditions has been recorded in Mr. T. Lindsay Buick's “The Mystery of the Moa” (1931). It should be read with Dr. Oliver's erudite essay on the moas in “New Zealand Birds” (1930).

Reptilian life is restricted to about fifteen species of lizards and to the tuatara (Sphenodon punctalvs). This is a lizard-like creature, the only surviving representative of the order Rhynehocephalia. The tuatara is found in no other country. It has been destroyed to a large extent by wild pigs, cats, and dogs, and is now seldom found except on a few islands off the coast of the mainland.

The amphibians are represented by two species of frogs. One, Liopelma Hoclistetteri, has been recorded from only a few districts in the Auckland Province. The other, Liopelma Hamilloni, has been recorded from only Stephen Island, a small island in Cook Strait, notable as one of the refuges of the tuatara.

About 310 species of fish have been found in New Zealand waters. Many of these are used for food. Several species, notably the mudfish (Neochanna apoda), which is sometimes discovered buried 4 ft. deep in clay in places where rivers have overflowed in flood, and in swampy places, are interesting. Some of the genera are peculiar to New Zealand, but some also occur in Australian and South American waters.

Amongst the invertebrates one of the peculiarities is the fact that the Dominion has few butterflies, although it is well supplied with moths. It has a red admiral butterfly (Vanessa), named after the European species, which it resembles, and a copper butterfly (Chry so planus), which is very plentiful. In the forests there is that strange growth the “vegetable caterpillar.” The Dominion has native bees and ants, dragon-flies, sober-colon red beetles, and representatives of other orders of insects. The katipo spider, which lives mostly on or near the sea-beach, is well known locally. Amongst the mollusea there is a large and hand- some land-snail (Paryphunla) and Amphibola, an air-breathing snail, peculiar to the Dominion, which lives in brackish water, mainly in estuaries. There are about twenty species of univalves and twelve of bivalves in the fresh-water shells, and many species in the marine shells, including the paper nautilus (Argonauta).

Perhaps the most interesting of all the invertebrates is Peripatus, an ancient type of creature which survives in New Zealand and in parts of Australia, Africa, South America, the West Indies, New Britain, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. Zoologically, it belongs to the air-breathing division of the phylum Arthropoda, and has been placed in a special class, Prototracheata or Onychophora. It is about 3 in. long, has many feet, loves moisture, shuns light, and moves slowly.

On the arrival of Europeans the whole face of the fauna changed. The first European animal introduced was the pig, liberated by Captain Cook in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773. With settlement, sheep, cattle, horses, and other domestic animals were brought, some for utility, some for pleasure, such as song birds, and some for sport, such as deer, trout, pheasants, and quail.

Twenty-four species of introduced birds have established themselves. Some succeeded so well that they created a small-bird nuisance. In 1906 the German owl, little owl, or brown owl (Athene noclua) was successfully introduced to help to check the small introduced birds. It is accused of killing native small birds. New Zealand farmers regard the starling as the most useful introduced bird. They condemn the house-sparrow as the most destructive, and next to it the skylark. Many species of injurious insects have been accidentally introduced. The small cabbage white butterfly (Picris rapae) appeared in 1930. It spread rapidly, and in 1935 a chalcid (Ptcromahis puparum), which parasitises the butterfly's pupas, was introduced to control it.

Acclimatization in New Zealand is marked by several great and irretrievable mistakes. The worst of these are the introduction of rabbits, stoats, and weasels.

Chapter 2. SECTION II. —HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND ADMINISTRATION.

EARLY HISTORY.

THE history of New Zealand prior to the seventeenth century is shrouded in mythology and tradition. When the country was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had discovered these islands many centuries previously. At what time the discovery of New Zealand was made by the Maoris, and from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, much having been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they found inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, many generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from those traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less variation, in all the eastern Pacific islands.

DISCOVERY BY EUROPEANS.

It was on the 13th December, 1642, that Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, discovered New Zealand. Tasman left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskereq,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea-hen”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius and discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country.” Tasman finally departed without having set foot in the country.

There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who sighted land on the 6th October, 1769, at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the South and Stewart Islands—which last he mistook for part of the South Island—he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned M. do Surville (December, 1769), M. Marion du Fresne (1772), Captains Vancouver and Broughton (1791), Captain Raven (1792–93), Alejandro Malaspina and José de Bustamente y Guerra (1793), Lieutenant Hanson (1793).

SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION.

So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven, of the “Britannia,” landed a sealing-party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over twelve months before being called for.

The next few years saw the establishment of whaling-stations at several points on the coast, and in 1814 the first missionaries—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—arrived in New Zealand. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government. Marsden returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall, Kendall, and King, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands.

In 1825 three separate attempts were made to found colonies in various parts of New Zealand, but none of those was successful, and for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling-stations. A number of Europeans gradually settled in different parts of the country, and many of these married Native women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonization arrived in Port Nicholson on the 22nd January, 1840, and founded the town of Wellington. During the few succeeding years the settlements of Nelson, Taranaki, Otago, and Canterbury were formed by immigrants sent out by associations in the United Kingdom.

Auckland, where the seat of Government was established in 1840, was not specially colonized from the United Kingdom, but attracted population mainly from Australia and from other parts of New Zealand.

BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY.

As early as 1833 a British Resident (Mr. Busby) was appointed, with headquarters at Kororareka (adjacent to the present Russell), on the Bay of Islands. Seven years later—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30th January, 1840, and on 6th February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. Originally signed by forty-six chiefs, the treaty (or copies of it) was taken to various parts of the country and signed by other chiefs, so that in a period of less than six months 512 signatures were affixed.

On 21st May, 1840, Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. On the treaty being signed in the South Island, formal proclamation of British sovereignty over that island in accordance with the consent of the Maoris was made at Cloudy Bay on 17th June, 1840, by Major Bunbury.

New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until the 3rd May, 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated the 16th November, 1840.

CONSTITUTION.

The government of the colony was first vested in a Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; there was an Executive Council, with advisory powers only, as well as a Legislative Council.

An Act granting representative institutions to the colony was passed by the Imperial Parliament on the 30th June, 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on the 17th January, 1853. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives.

The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the House of Representatives, who, however held no portfolios. The first Ministers under a system of responsible government were appointed in the year 1856.

By Order in Council dated 9th September, 1907, and by Proclamation issued 10th September, 1907, the style and designation of the Colony of New Zealand was altered to “The Dominion of New Zealand,” the change taking effect from Thursday, the 26th September, 1907.

By Letters Patent dated 11th May, 1917, the designation of Governor and Commander-in-Chief which had hitherto been hold by the Royal representative in New Zealand was altered to “Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.”

Definition was given to the status of New Zealand (and other Dominions) by the Imperial Statute of Westminster, of 11th December, 1931, the draft of which had received the antecedent approval of all Dominion Legislatures, that of New Zealand being given by resolution passed by both Houses on 23rd July, 1931. In view of the constitutional importance of the Statute of Westminster, the text of this resolution is given in full:—

To the KING'S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY.

Most Gracious Sovereign:

WE, Your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Legislative Council and the House of Representatives of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, humbly approach Your Majesty praying that you may be graciously pleased to cause a measure to be laid before the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to give effect to certain declarations and resolutions set forth in the Reports of Imperial Conferences holden at Westminster in the years 1920 and 1930, which declarations and resolutions we do hereby approve, the said Act being expressed as follows or to the following effect:—

STATUTE OF WESTMINSTER.

Whereas it is meet and proper to set out by way of preamble to this Act that inasmuch as the Crown is the symbol of the free association of the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations, and as they are united by a common allegiance to the Crown, it. would be in accord with the established constitutional position of all the members of the Commonwealth in relation to one another that any alteration in the law touching the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom:

And whereas it is in accord with the established constitutional position that no law hereafter made by the Parliament of the United Kingdom shall extend to any of the Dominions as part of the law of that Dominion otherwise than at the request and with the consent of that Dominion:

It is hereby declared and enacted that the Parliament of a Dominion has full power to make laws having extra territorial operation.

The Colonial Laws Validity Act, 1865, shall not apply to any law made after the commencement of this Act by the Parliament of a Dominion.

No law and no provision of any law made after the commencement of this Act by the Parliament of a Dominion shall be void or inoperative on the ground that it is repugnant to the law of England, or to the provisions of any existing or future Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom, or to any order, rule, or regulation made under any such Act, and the powers of the Parliament of a Dominion shall include the power to repeal or amend any such Act, order, rule, or regulation insofar as the same is part of the law of the Dominion.

No Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this Act shall extend or be deemed to extend to a Dominion as part of the law of that Dominion unless it is expressly declared in that Act that that Dominion has requested, and consented to, the enactment thereof.

Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to confer any power to repeal or alter the Constitution or the Constitution Act of the Commonwealth of Australia or the Constitution Act of the Dominion of New Zealand otherwise than in accordance with the law existing before the commencement of this Act.

Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing provisions of this Act, sections seven hundred and thirty-five and seven hundred and thirty-six of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, shall be construed as though reference therein to the Legislature of a British Possession did not include reference to the Parliament of a Dominion.

Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing provisions of this Act, section four of the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act, 1890 (which requires certain laws to be reserved for the signification of His Majesty's pleasure or to contain a suspending clause), and so much of section seven of that Act as requires the approval of His Majesty in Council to any rides of Court for regulating the practice and procedure of a Colonial Court of Admiralty, shall cease to have effect in any Dominion as from the commencement of this Act.

Notwithstanding anything in the Interpretation Act, 1889, the expression “Colony” shall not, in any Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this Act, include a Dominion or any Province or State forming part of a Dominion.

No provision of this Act shall extend to the Dominion of New Zealand as part of the law thereof unless that provision is adopted by the Parliament of that Dominion, and any Act of the said Parliament adopting any provision of this Act may provide that the adoption shall have effect either as from the commencement of this Act or as from such later date as may be specified by the adopting Act.

All of which we humbly pray Your Majesty to take into your favourable and gracious consideration.

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.

The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor - General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of the 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazelle of the 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council, but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to His Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded upon the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The present Executive Council consists of ten members in addition to the Governor - General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act, 1920, His Excellency the Governor-General receives an honorarium of £5,000 per annum, an allowance of £2,000 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his establishment (exclusive of the Official Secretary), and an allowance of £500 per annum for travelling-expenses.

The Civil List Act, 1908, authorized salaries of £1,600 for the Prime Minister, £1,300 for the Minister of Railways, and £1,000 to each of six (increased in 1915 to eight and in 1917 to ten) other members holding portfolios. The Civil List Act, 1920, authorized salaries of £2,000 for the Prime Minister, and £1,300 to each of ten other members holding one or more ministerial offices. Reductions of 10 per cent. in 1922, 10 per cent, in 1931, and 15 per cent, in 1932, were followed by a restoration of 5 per cent, in 1934. Present honoraria are: Prime Minister (provided with residence), £1,428 per annum: Ministers provided with residence, £922 per annum; Ministers not provided with residence, £939 17s., plus £180 house-allowance.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

The Imperial Act under which the earliest appointments were made to the Legislative Council under a system of responsible government provided that the first appointees should he not less than ten in number. The number actually summoned for the first session (held at Auckland from 24th May, 1854), was sixteen, of whom only fourteen attended. The number increased irregularly for thirty years. In 1885 and 1886 it stood at fifty-three, but has not since reached that limit. The number on the roll at present (August, 1935) is 28.

An Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1868 provided that future appointments of Councillors should be made by the Governor (not by the Sovereign). Until 1891 members were appointed for life, but since that year appointments have been made for seven years only, members, however, being eligible for reappointment. Prior to 1891 the Speaker was appointed by the Governor, but the Council now elects its own Speaker, who holds office for five years. The Chairman of Committees was formerly elected every session, but in 1928 the standing orders were amended to provide for a three years' term of office. Speaker and Chairman are both eligible for re-election.

Provision for an elective Legislative Council is contained in the Legislative Council Act, 1914, which may be brought into operation at a date to be specified by Proclamation.

The qualifications for membership of the Legislative Council are the same as for the House of Representatives, with the proviso that a person may not at the same time be a member of both Houses.

Before the year 1892 the honorarium of Councillors was understood to be for the session, not for the year, and formed the subject of a special vote every session, the amount varying in different sessions. By the Payment of Members Act, 1892, the honorarium was made annual, not sessional, and was fixed at £150 a year. The amount was raised in 1904 to £200, and in 1920 to £350, but was reduced in 1922 to £315, in 1931 to £283 10s., in 1932 to £255 3s., and in 1934 was raised to £267 l9s. The Speaker now receives £612 8s. per annum, and the Chairman of Committees £382 15s. Besides the honorarium, members are allowed travelling-expenses actually incurred in going to and from Parliament at the opening and closing of each session.

Subject to certain exemptions, members not attending the Council are liable to be fined.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act, 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

After each population Census the Dominion is divided a new into seventy-six European electorates, according to population distribution, with an allowance for rural population. The “country quota” is computed on the basis that 28 per cent. is added to the rural population, which for electoral purposes means population other than that contained in a city or borough of over 2,000 inhabitants or in any area within five miles of the chief post-offices at Auckland, Wellington, Christ-church, or Dunedin. The “country quota” first appeared in 1881, to the equivalent of an addition of 33⅓ per cent, to the country population. It was reduced in 1887 to 18 per cent., but was increased in 1889 to the present 28 per cent.

Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with the exception that the term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the Great War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth Parliament to four years. The Electoral Amendment Act, 1934, provided for a permanent extension to four years.

Under the Electoral Act, 1927, every registered elector of either sex but no other person, is qualified to be a candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act, or is an undischarged bankrupt, or is a member of the Legislative Council, or is a public servant, or is a contractor to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year.

The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £382 15s. per annum, subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. Travelling-expenses to and from Wellington at the opening and closing of each session are also allowed. The rate of payment for several years prior to 1920 was £300 per annum, but was increased in that year to £500, 10-per cent. reductions, however, being made in 1922, 1931, and 1932, with a restoration of 5 per cent, in 1934.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon after as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £744 4s. per annum, plus sessional allowance of £82 14s. and free sessional quarters, and that of the Chairman of Committees £574 2s. per annum.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

THE FRANCHISE.

The three cardinal principles of the franchise in New Zealand are (1) one person one vote, (2) female suffrage, and (3) adult suffrage.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the last - mentioned, the following classes of persons not being entitled to register as electors or to vote:—

  1. An alien:

  2. A mentally defective person:

  3. A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of His Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1927, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924.

The system of “one man one vote” has been in operation since 1889, and women's suffrage since 1893. The qualifications for registration are the same for both sexes.

Maoris are qualified to vote only at elections of the four members representing the Maori race. A Maori half-caste may register on the roll of a European electoral district; and if so, may not then vote at an election of Maori members.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.

Side by side with the general government of the country, but subordinate to it, there has existed a system of local government since the early years of New Zealand's annexation as a British colony. The history of local government divides naturally into two periods representing two distinct systems—viz., the provincial, which was in operation up to 1876, and the county, which superseded the provincial in that year.

THE PROVINCES.

On the 23rd December, 1847, a Charter was signed dividing the colony into two provinces—New Ulster and New Munster—and this was proclaimed in New Zealand on the 10th March, 1848.

Under the constitution of 1853 the Provinces of New Ulster and New Munster were abolished and the colony was divided into six provinces—Auckland, New Plymouth (later altered to Taranaki), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. Each province was to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine by the formation of Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Southland, later reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with Otago, and again increased to nine by the formation of Westland, remained as integral parts of the constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1870, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, and re-created as provincial districts.

EARLY BOROUGHS AND TOWN DISTRICTS.

Even before the division of New Zealand into the two provinces of New Ulster and New Munster, local government had its inception, Wellington having been created a borough in 1842 under the authority of the Municipal Corporations Ordinance of that year. The Ordinance was disallowed by the Imperial Government, but was re-enacted, with necessary alterations, in 1844. Wellington, which lost its status on the original Ordinance being disallowed, did not become a borough again until 1870, Auckland (constituted in 1851) remaining the only borough in New Zealand for several years.

Wellington, which had been the first borough in the country, also became the first town district, with a form of government not differing greatly from that of a municipality. Gradually the more important towns adopted the status of boroughs, while the less important remained town districts. In Otago, however, between 1865 and 1875, several small towns wore created boroughs under the authority of an Ordinance of the Otago Provincial Council.

THE ROAD AND HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

Another form of local government which came into existence in the provincial days was that of the road districts, or, as they were called in certain parts of the country, highway districts. As the names imply, the road and highway districts were formed for the purpose of extending and maintaining roads. Each district was controlled by an elected Board, which had power to levy rates. The first Road Boards were formed in 1863, and by 1875 their number had risen to 314.

THE COUNTIES.

Among the instructions given Captain Hobson on his appointment as the first Governor of New Zealand was one directing that the colony was to be divided into counties, hundreds, and parishes. In accordance with this instruction, the boundaries of the County of Eden, in which Auckland—then the capital—is situated, were proclaimed in 1842, and some years later the county was divided into hundreds. Very little further was done towards giving effect to the instructions, and the first administrative county was Westland, separated from Canterbury Province in 1867, and granted a system of local government in the following year.

It was not until the abolition of the provinces in 1876 that a scheme of division of the whole country into counties was introduced. The Counties Act, 1876, which, in conjunction with the Municipal Corporations Act of the same year, provided a comprehensive scheme of local government in lieu of the provincial governments, divided New Zealand into 63 (now 129) counties. With the exception of six, which were exempted from the operations of the Act, each county was placed under the control of an elected Chairman and Council, possessed of fairly full powers of local government—considerably loss, however, than those formerly enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. The Counties Act specially excluded boroughs from the counties within which they geographically lie, and a similar enabling provision has since been made in the case of town districts having a population of over 500.

EXTENSION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

Since the abolition of the provinces and the passing of the Counties and Municipal Corporations Acts of 1876 there has been considerable extension of local government. Many of the road districts have merged with the counties within which they lie, while others have become boroughs or town districts. On the other hand, counties, boroughs, and town districts have increased in numbers, while several entirely new classes of local districts, formed for definite purposes—as, for instance, land drainage or electric-power supply—have come into existence. In most cases the Boards of these districts have borrowing and rating powers.

Information concerning the origin, development, constitution, functions, &c., of local governing bodies will be found in the 1932 edition of the Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand. The reader is also referred to the section of this book dealing with local government.

Chapter 3. SECTION III.—POPULATION.

NEW ZEALAND AND DEPENDENCIES.

THE population of the Dominion of New Zealand and its dependencies and the mandated territory of Western Samoa at the 1st April, 1935, was 1,630,433. The Ross Dependency is uninhabited.

Males.Females.Total.
Population (exclusive of Maoris) of New Zealand proper755,961729,0851,485,046
Maori population of New Zealand proper38,84435,73474,578
Population (inclusive of Maoris) of New Zealand proper794,805764,8191,559,624
Population of Cook Islands and Niue8,2847,91916,203
Population of Tokelau Islands (June, 1934)5935861,179
Population of the mandated territory of Western Samoa27,60525,82253,427
Totals 1st April, 1935831,287799,1461,630,433

METHOD OF COMPILATION.

In common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country is taken quinquennially. The minutiaeæ of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics, compiled from census data will he found in the census publications listed at the front of this volume. The financial stringency resulting from the severe decline in the prices of primary products caused by the world-wide economic depression led to the first interruption in the sequence of New Zealand censuses. By the Census Postponement Act, 1930, the census due to be taken in 1931 and proclaimed for 21st April of that year was postponed until 1936.

The basis adopted for the census—and indeed, practically universally throughout population statistics in New Zealand—is that of the population tie fail, all persons being counted as at the place of enumeration, irrespective of habitual residence, legal domicil, and so forth.

Intercensal figures of total population are based on the customary equation:—

  • Population = Population (census) of Births and immigration - Deaths and emigration.

The comparative shortness of the interval between the census enumerations, combined with New Zealand's insular position and the high standard of her registration system, has hitherto prevented serious intercensal errors in statements of population of New Zealand as a whole. This remark applies to Europeans only, as the same standard of accuracy cannot be claimed for Maori registrations. A point of minor importance which may be noted is that births and deaths registered during a year are considered as actually occurring during that year.

The fact that all migration to and from the Dominion must be waterborne over lengthy distances, and that it centres in a few ports, facilitates the compilation of accurate statistics of external migration. Records of passenger traffic between the North and South Islands are also maintained. Population statistics of lesser internal divisions and of towns are estimates based upon a variety of data collected annually.

Residents of the Cook Islands, Nine, Western Samoa, and the Tokelau Group are not included in the population statistics quoted throughout this section, except in the first table. Further information will he found in the section relating to dependencies.

Separate statistics of the Maori population are given towards the end of the section.

INCREASE OF POPULATION.

The outstanding note of the history of population movement in New Zealand is that of unbroken growth. That it has not been invariably regular is well attested by the accompanying table, and by the fifty years' record shown in the later section of tins edition entitled “Statistical Summary.”

Date of Census.Population (excluding Maoris).Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.Average Annual Percentage Increase.
*See letterpress.
December, 185126,707......
December, 185859,41332,706122.4612.14
December, 186199,02139,60860.6718.70
December, 1864172,15873,13773.8620.54
December, 1867218,60846,51027.028.15
February, 1871256,39337,72517.255.11
March, 1874299,51443,12116.825.32
March, 1878414,412114,89838.368.43
April, 1881489,93375,52118.225.58
March, 1886578,48288,54918.073.39
April, 1891626,65848,1768.331.61
April, 1896703,36076,70212.242.33
March, 1901772,71969,3599.861.91
April, 1906888,578115,85914.992.79
April, 19111,008,468119,89013.492.60
October, 19161,099,44990,9819.021.57
April, 19211,218,913119,46410.872.32
April, 19261,344.469129,792*10.692.05

For the 1926 census all half-caste European-Maoris were included with the Native population in lieu of the previous practice of treating as Europeans such half-castes as were living in European fashion. Numbers so treated were as follows : 1921, 4,236; 1916,3,221; 1911,2,879; 1906,2,578; 1901,2,407.

The “European” population now looks in retrospect down a vista of well over one hundred years. At the opening of the nineteenth century there existed a more or less fluctuating population of perhaps one hundred; by 1839 it had swelled to a total of about a thousand whalers, sealers, traders, missionaries, adventurers, and settlers. Activities of the colonizing companies and societies in the “forties “brought rapid changes and swiftly rising numbers, to be enhanced in the “sixties “.by the gold rushes of the period.

The most significant period is possibly that of the “seventies,” marked by a vigorous developmental policy of public works and assisted immigration. The record year 1874, which saw a rise in population of 46,000 (including 32,000 assisted immigrants), was, and still is, the high-water mark of population gains. Both 1874 and 1875 showed a ratio of growth far in advance of any level subsequently attained.

In the late “eighties” and early “nineties “came economic depression and, consequently, comparative stagnation in population. In 1888, 1890, and 1891 emigrants exceeded immigrants, these being the only such occasions in the history of the country until the present depression, when departures exceeded arrivals in 1931 and subsequent years.

From the middle “nineties “rising world prices and the new frozen-meat trade brought a return of prosperity and moderate, but steady, increase of population. Development of secondary industries and the remarkable expansion of dairying provided a substantial foundation for increasing numbers.

The average annual population increment during the ten post-war years (1919–28) exceeded 30,000, while for the next six years (1928–34) the average per annum was only 13,000. The population gain for 1934 was 9,429, compared with 10,450 during the previous year. Apart from war years, which were affected by movements of troops, 1934 shows the lowest absolute increase since 1891, and the lowest relative increase ever recorded.

Up to the “seventies” New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since then natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—has been the principal factor.

A table is appended showing for each five-yearly period from 1861 the excess of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration. Maoris are not included, nor, prior to 1921, are crews of vessels.

Period.Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
Males.FemalesBoth Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.

Decrease.

† Departure and return of troops of Expeditinary Force not included in migration figures.

1801–657,6258,98516,61063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1866–7015,66317,77933,44211,1679,36920,53626,83027,14853,678
1871–7519,40921,12940,53846,50135,44581,94665,91056,574122,484
1870–8030,14332,80862,95131,87022,91754,78762,01355,725117,738
1881–8532,36235,04667,40815,95813,00128,95948,32048,04796,367
1880–9030,78133,54464,325−4,911*−3,791*−8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891–9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40315,32037,17236,03373,205
1896–190028,09731,43759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901–0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,44663,73850,446114,184
1906–1038,68143,06781,74825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
1911–1542,32346,68289,00517,65617,90535,56159,97964,587124,566
1916–2035,24841,35976,6076,9797,87514,85442,22749,23491,461
1921–2541,87644,86886,74426,73223,25649,98868,60868,124136,732
1926–3036,88640,45677,34214,7589,86924,62751,64450,325101,969
19317,0957,48014,575165−232*−67*7,2607,24814,508
19326,4776,72413,201−1,770*−1,148*−2,918*4,7075,57610,283
19335,9216,71212,633−1,227*−956*−2,183*4,6945,75610,450
19345,6316,16411,795−736*−1,630*−2,366*4,8954,5349,429
Totals, 1861–1934443,988491,093935,081300,341200,220300,561744,329691,3131,435,642

* Decrease.

t Departure and return of troops of Expeditionary Force not included In migration figures.

The table shows clearly the irregularity of the migration increase and the comparative steadiness of the natural increase. “With a stable birth-rate the natural increase would show mounting numbers, whereas actually the peak occurred in 1911–15 and the shrinking birth-rate has reduced numbers accruing from this source.

TREND OF POPULATION.

The trend of population movement in past decades has been in the direction of a decline in the rate of population increase, the decline quickening in recent years. There appears no indication at present of any radical alteration in the trend, and it has become of the greatest moment to consider, in general terms at least, what a continuance of this trend would mean. Baldly stated, it implies that New Zealand is facing at only a few years' distance a stationary and even a declining population. Remarks under this head apply, it should be observed, to population other than Maori.

This prospect would present entirely novel features to New Zealand, where unbroken growth has been recorded in every year from the settlement of 1840. There have been, it is true, variations in the rate of increase;—for example, from the high levels of the gold rushes in the “sixties “and the assisted immigration and public-works measures of the “seventies” to the lower strata reached in the depression-caused outflow of 1888–91—yet the numbers of the population at the end of the year have always been some thousands, at least, in excess of those at the year's beginning.

It is inevitable that much of the economy of New Zealand has been planned on the assumption of steadily increasing numbers, and it is unnecessary to indicate the vast and widespread effect of the removal of the “safety-valve” which continued growth affords. A secondary yet highly important factor is the redistribution of the population in major age divisions, reference to which is made later in this section(vide “ Ages of the Population “).

Apart from the question of annexation of territory, or alteration of nationality, or other laws affecting the determination of population, there are only two sources from which increase in the population of the State is possible—viz., excess of births over deaths (natural increase) and excess of overseas arrivals over departures (net migration increase). Except in the earliest stages of a country's development, or in exceptional circumstances—such as those of the recent vast immigration of Chinese into Manchuria—the former is naturally the more important source. It is also, for numerous reasons, the more desirable source.

Since 1875, 73 per cent, of the increase in New Zealand's population (other than Maori) has come from excess of births over deaths, and 27 per cent, from the net migration increase. In the post-war era (1921–34) the percentage furnished by natural increase has risen only to 76, and such rise even is due to the conversion of a moderate inflow through migration to a small outflow in the last four years.

The natural increase ratio was formerly unusually high in New Zealand, the annual average, for instance, reaching 29–41 per 1,000 of mean population in the quinquennium 1876–8O (see the immediately following subsection relating to “Births"). Comparison with the 1934 figure of 7–99 per 1,000, the lowest point yet reached in the long decline, is sufficiently striking.

The erstwhile favourable ratio of natural increase in New Zealand was due to its exceptionally low death-rate, now and for very many years the lowest in the world. It is out of the question to expect further considerable falls in the death- rate; in fact, with the less favourable age-constitution of the population as now developing, a potential rise must be envisaged. The birth-rate, which, for instance, averaged annually 4T21 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870–80, has fallen to 18–80 in 1930, 18–42 in 1931, 17–09 in 1932; 16–59 in 1933; and 10–47 in 1934.

That the decline in the birth-rate over the. last four years is partly, even mainly, due to conditions caused by the depression and therefore, it may be assumed, temporary in nature seems clear. It is equally clear, however, that depression conditions merely intensified a long-persisting decline. This decline is not peculiar to New Zealand.

The nominal natural increase ratio of the past year (7–99 per 1,000 of mean population in 1934) gives the impression of a still substantial margin of increase in population. While this is correct it yet obscures the more important aspect, which is that the proportions at reproductive ages are not being maintained. Based on expectation-of-life figures calculated for 1931, an “equilibrium” birth- rate of over 15 per 1,000 of mean population is required to maintain even a stationary population, and should the death-rate increase (as it has, for instance, in 1,934 as compared with 1931) a higher birth-rate would be necessary. It is clear that the margin of increase is precariously low, and will vanish in a few years if the present trend continues. With the lifting of the depression some improvement will probably take place. Possibly other measures will be taken with the object of arresting the decline. It may be noted that action taken by the authorities in certain overseas countries does not yet appear to have been attended with great success.

That the net migration increase has for the last four years been a debit to the population does not in itself appear of great significance. A backwash of the depression, it will probably disappear with the depression. The question of the resumption of immigration has many problems which need not be discussed here. No serious attempt has every been made to calculate an “optimum “population for New Zealand. It is not, in fact, practicable within the limits of our present knowledge. It is, however, a very generally accepted proposition that New Zealand can ultimately' maintain with benefit a considerably larger population than she has at present. Concepts are necessarily either vague or without serious foundation : A common tendency, particularly of those who work from the dubious territory of comparisons of population and gross area, is to exaggerate the potential population capacity.

In the past the population of New Zealand has been derived almost wholly from the British Isles, whether directly or indirectly, and upon resumption of immigration the same preferences would undoubtedly exist. It has, however, become clear that this source of recruitment of additional population—upon anything over a small scale—may within a few years be no longer available.

In Britain, as in New Zealand and, indeed, in many other countries, the rate of growth of population has slackened, and, unless some drastic changes in migration occur, a declining population is imminent. Statisticians agree that, subject to certain qualifications, the population of England and Wales is now almost at its peak and must decline. One authority* places the population of England and Wales in 1976 as 28,500,000 (it is now 40,500,000); another has placed the 1970 figure several millions in excess of the former estimate. These estimates are admittedly subject to the maintenance of certain conditions, and long-term forecasts of population indeed serve only limited purposes, and as a rule are to be deprecated. That the population of England, however, will decline in the near future, possibly to a considerable extent, seems inevitable. The consequences to New Zealand, both from the viewpoint of a failure as a recruiting source of population (for migration from England is probably unlikely to receive encouragement if the population falls) and from that of declining consumption by the principal export customer of New Zealand, are sufficiently obvious in their more immediate implications.

SEX PROPORTIONS.

The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand. The figures quoted are exclusive of Maoris.

Census Year.Males.Females.Females to 1,000 Males
186161,06237,959622
1871150,356106,037705
1881269,605220,328817
1891332,877293,781883
1901405,992366,727903
1906471,008417,570887
1911531,910476,558896
1916551,775547,674993
1921623,243595,670956
1926686,384658,085959

* Dr. G. Leybourne.

† Dr. E. C. Snow.

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless due to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe wore such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries. Gold-mining and coal-mining, for instance, would attract large numbers of men, but few women.The effect of this early preponderance of males no doubt still exists, but in an ever-diminishing degree, its gradual elimination being effected by the passing of the earlier settlers. In recent years there has been a considerable approach towards equality in the increase of males and females by migration, and in some years the female increase from this source has exceeded the male.

Of the two sources from which the Dominion's population has been recruited— viz., migration and natural increase—the effect of the former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, and of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females. In the period 1801–1934 the gain of males by migration (excluding movements of troops between 1914 and 1919, and also excluding crews prior to 1921) totalled 100,121 more than that of females. This excess was only partly offset numerically by a female surplus of 47,105 in the figures of natural increase, but the net excess of 53,016 males is not sufficient to maintain the former high ratio of males to females in the population. The surplus of males at present, exclusive of the Native population, is some 27,000. The effect of the natural increase of population is in the direction of eliminating this surplus at the rate of some 000 to 700 per annum.

AGES OF THE POPULATION.

The following table contains estimates of the ages of the poulation (other than Maori) as at 1st April, 1935. They have been compiled from the results of the 1920 census (revised as required by the passage of time), the birth registrations, and the ages recorded in the case of deaths and of external migration. The 1926 census figures, also given, furnish an indication of the striking changes in the age constitution of the population during recent years.

 Numbers (excluding Maoris), Census of 1926*Numbers (excluding Maoris), 1st April, 1935.
Age (last Birthday) in Years.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
* Ages unknown or unspecified: Males. 1,854; females, 1,495.
Under 568,65465,777134,43162,69159,815122,506
5–967,67865,118132,79665,91663,284129,200
10–1468,20365,686133,94969,01966,137135,156
15–1963,48160,833124,31466,58864,347130,935
20–2457,90254,910112,81268,15064,302132,452
25–2951,88351,767103,05063,29759,541122,838
30–3445,29049,58994,87957,56253,580111,142
35–3949,04249,60998,65149,86851,083100,951
40–4448,90240,65595,55744,07547,72891,803
45–4945,91841,54687,46448,27548,53296,807
50–5435,21831,06966,28746,17143,03789,208
55–5927,13224,02851,16039,94337,28077,223
60–6419,28618,08437,37028,10325,47753,580
65–6914,44913,20627,65520,85019,67240,522
70–7410,5058,85019,35512,52612,64125,167
75–796,0715,41211,4837,6917,60515,296
80–843,1082,9156,0233,7443,4147,158
85 or over1,7481,5363,2841,4921,6103,102
Totals, under 14191,358183,845375,203183,330175,713359,043
Totals, under 16217,479208,912426,391210,931202,138413,069
Totals, minors under 21280,113268,980549,093278,006266,924544,930
Totals, adults (21 and over)404,417387,610792,027477,955462,161940,116
Totals, all ages680,384658,0851,344,409755,961729,0851,485,046

The effect of the declining birth-rate has become clearly manifest. For instance, the numbers at ages below ten years are actually 16,000 below the 1926 census level, despite a total increase of population of 141,000 in the nine years which have elapsed. Conversely, persons aged sixty years or over numbered 40,000 more in 1935 than in 1926. It is true that these figures are estimates only, and may either overstate or understate the position. Previous experience has, however, proved the reasonable accuracy of the system, while school-age records confirm the results obtained at the younger ages. Apart from minor inaccuracies, which do not affect conclusions to be drawn from the data, the story told is striking. With a continued decline in the birth-rate, further changes in age-distribution are inevitable. Age-distribution is vital to the question of future population. To will be fairly obvious that increasing proportions at ages above the reproductive ages and diminishing proportions at younger ages herald lower population increases at the least : at the most, the result is a declining population. Apart from this aspect, the radical changes resulting from the redistribution in age which is now proceeding merit, from their enormous and widespread effects, much more public attention than has hitherto been received.

INTERCENSAL RECORDS.

As already noted, the intercensal statements of Dominion population prepared from the records of vital statistics and of migration have been by virtue of the favourable position of the Dominion in this respect, relatively accurate. The post- census revision of intercensal Dominion figures has hitherto been unnecessary in New Zealand, apart from the later war years, 1910–19, when exact records of military movements were not always available.

 Population (excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year. 
Calendar Year.Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent.Mean Population tor Year.
Vide references to half-castes on second page of this section
1925687,287658,7891,346,07629,9022.271,329,759
1926697,113668,3041,365,41729,054*2.171,352,927
1927707,008678,3931,385,40119,9841.461,374,439
1928714,928686,5441,401,47216,0711.161,390,684
1929723,691695,2231,418,91417,4421.241,406,942
1930733,389704,8501,438,23919,3251.361,425,084
1931740,649712,0981,452,74714,5081.011,444,901
1932745,356717,6741,463,03010,2830.711,456,237
1933750,050723,4301,473,48010,4500.711,466,930
1934754,945727,9641,482,9099,4290.641,476,988

As the year ended 31st March is for most of the administrative functions of the Government the period most in use, figures are given for March years.

Year ended 31st March,Population (excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population tor Year.
 Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent. 
Vide references to half-castes on second page of this section
1926691,910662,3821,354,29229,2552.211,337,155
1927701,774671,9721,373,74629,382*2.181,357,777
1928708,568680,1321,388,70014,9541.091,378,806
1929716,678688,2831,404,96116,2611.171,394,726
1930724,978696,6001,421,57816,6171.181,411,198
1931735,965706,7811,442,74621,1681.491,430,143
1932742,258712,9091,455,16712,4210.861,448,267
1933746,834718,9991,405,83310,6660.731,458,855
1934751,454724,5721,476,02610,1930.701,469,509
1935755,961729,0851,485,0469,0200.611,479,295

The figures given in the two preceding tables show the population exclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population inclusive of Maoris:—

Population (including Maoris) at End of Year).Mean Population for Year.
 Males.Females.Total. 
Years ended 31st at December.  
1925716,371684,8591,401,2301,384,428
1926730,603698,9521,429,5551,413,700
1927740,782709,3081,450,0901,438,814
1928749,125717,8271,466,9521,455,734
1929758,490727,0741,485,5641,472,925
1930768,746737,3411,506,0871,492,376
1931776,660745,2281,521,8881,513,416
1932782,122751,5871,533,7091,526,115
1933787,738758,2081,545,9461,538,490
1934793,537763,5061,557,0431,550,277
Years ended 31st March.  
1920721,173688,6391,409,8121,392,073
1927735,338702,6421,437,9801,420,762
1928742,396711,1211,453,5171,443,323
1929750,974719,6801,470,6541,459,983
1930759,963728,6321,488,5951,477,494
1931771,491739,4491,510,9401,497,732
1932778,425746,2081,524,6331,517,103
1933783,854753,1101,536,9641,529,133
1934789,373759,5361,548,9091,541,511
1935794,805764,8191,559,6241,553,005

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.

Statistics of external migration have been recorded in New Zealand since 1860. Since 1st April, 1921, they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving the Dominion.

Commencing with the year 1933–34, the year ending 31st March has been adopted as a standard for the statistical expression of external migration in place of the calendar year formerly in use. The principal reason for the change is the avoidance of the partition of a season's migration movement into two statistical years as was inevitable with the calendar year ending in the middle of the summer flow of tourists and immigrants.

Including crews of vessels, 79,175 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31st March, 1935, which, compared with 1933–34, shows an increase of 9,584. During the same period 82,212 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1933–34, shows an increase of 10,587.

In addition to the above, there were also—(1) 7,506 “through passengers” who called at a port of New Zealanden route to their destination; and (2) 4,546 “tourists on cruising liners.” These latter, as the term indicates, were persons who' visited New Zealand in the course of a cruise, the length of stay being only a few days.

Migration in 1934–35, therefore, continued to show the unusual feature of an excess of departures, amounting to 3,037, compared with 2,034 in 1933–34.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last ten years p-re given in the table following. Crews of vessels have not been taken into account.

Year ended 31st March,Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
* Excess of departures.
 Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total. 
192623,61518,83442,44916,89713,81730,71411,735
192725,39620,28645,68218,68415,33434,01811,664
192819,45316,38435,83720,71816,35437,072−1,235*
192918,78416,01534,79918,33515,75334,088711
193018,51515,32433,83916,80314,65131,4542,385
193116,71814,02330,74113,98011,65225,6325,109
19329,6968,19517,89111,8009,26321,063−3,172*
19339,7608,95318,71311,6639,64521,308*#x2212;2,595*
193410,0459,64219,68711,40110,62122,022−2,335*
193512,65512,24624,90114,08013,97128,051−3,150*

The excess of “crew “arrivals over “crew “departures, neither of which are included above, provides an annual increment of several hundred to the population of New Zealand.

The monthly figures for 1933–34 and 1934–35 are as follows, the excess of passenger arrivals or of passenger departures for each month being also shown :—

Month.ArrivalsDepartures.Excess of Arrivals.Excess of Departures.
 1933–34.1934–35.1033–34.1934–35.1933–34.1934–35.1933–34.1934–35.
April1,1341,6442,2432,374....1,109730
May1,4381,1262,1702,672....7321,546
June8379341,7241,748....887814
July1,0981,1201,4341,545....336425
August1,1791,5101,4731,825....294315
September1,2101,6851,0961,539114146....
October1,9141,9681,3393,121575....1,153
November1,8023,1851,1731,7306291,455....
December2,6913,7071,7912,5169001,191....
January2,8163,3921,9132,466903926....
February1,9652,6742,2342,823....269149
March1,6031,9563,4323,692....1,8291,736
Totals19,68724,90122,02228,051....2,3353,150

In general, arrivals exceed departures in the spring and summer months, while, he contrary holds for the autumn and winter periods.

CLASSES OF ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES.

The following table gives an analysis of the various classes of passenger arrivals during the last five years. It is, therefore, exclusive of crews of vessels, a source from which conies a steady increment of population. The average annual excess of crew arrivals over departures in the five years 1930–31 to 1934–35 was 359, and in the preceding five years, 431.

In these tables, as has been noted above, “through “passengers and tourists on cruising liners have not been included.

1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–31.1934–35.
Immigrants intending permanent residence6,6772,2881,4941,4281,579
New Zealand residents returning from abroad13,8568,6309,1398,42012,091
Tourists7,5014,7325,9837,4418,378
Persons on commercial business1,5721,0789481,0341,137
Persons visiting the Dominion in connection with entertainments, sports, &c.335295353297392
Others (officials, &c, of other countries)258435258316371
Persons in transit483422488711895
No information available5911504058
Totals30,74117,891IS,71319,68724,901

The New Zealand Government temporarily suspended from early in 1927 the major portion of its scheme of granting assisted passages to migrants from the British Isles, and this is largely responsible for the decreases shown in regard to immigrants. There was only 1 assisted immigrant in 1934–35, as against 4 in 1933–34 and 11,239 in 1926–27; while the numbers of those who migrated to New Zealand without State assistance amounted to 1,578, 1,424, and 6,898 for the years 1934–35, 1933–34, and 1926–27 respectively.

The succeeding table gives an analysis of passenger departures, and thus furnishes the reverse of its predecessor:—

1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
New Zealand residents departing permanently2,2842,8442,9503,1603,592
New Zealand residents departing temporarily11,2168,8228,7179,29313,531
Visitors to the Dominion departing12,0779,3099,5409,53110,884
No information available55881013844
Totals25,63221,06321,30822,02228,051

AGES.

The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1935 :—

Age, in Years.Permanent Arrivals.Permanent Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
 Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total. 
* Excess of departures.
0–14162140302301322623−321*
15–24150132282385283668−386*
25–34185213398473484957−559*
35–44130119249286335621−372*
45–59103130233231253484−251*
60 or over5755112111125236−124*
Total including unspecified7887911,5791,7881,8043,592−2,013*

ORIGIN AND DESTINATION.

Of the 1,579 new immigrants during the year 1934–35 intending to settle in the Dominion, the vast majority, 1,398, or 89 per cent., came from British countries,mainly from the British Isles, Australia, Canada, Fiji, and India. The majority of immigrants from foreign countries came from Yugoslavia, Italy, and the United States of America.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the principal countries whence arrived new immigrants who intended permanent residence in the Dominion :—

Country of Last Permanent Residence.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
British Isles2,610856449468491
India9365628045
Union of South Africa311121145
Canada13563513757
Australia3,2351,001627598707
Other British countries22212013111193
Denmark512118
Italy4296822
Switzerland9..322
Yugoslavia..5629211227
China261971719
United States of America6862424451
Other foreign countries and unspecified14552723642
Totals6,6772,2881,4941,4281,579

Of the New Zealand residents who left the Dominion permanently, the great majority (95–0 per cent.) went to British countries. Foreign countries, other than China and the United States of America, recorded only very small figures.

NATIONALITIES.

During the twelve months ended 31st March, 1935, 13G persons (males 71, females 65) of foreign nationality, out of the total of 1,579, arrived as new immigrants intending permanent residence in the Dominion. The chief nationalities represented among the alien immigrants were as follows (figures for the five years preceding being given in parentheses): United States, 27 (120); Yugoslavia, 27 (198); Italy 2(T(141); China, 9 (19): Germany, 25 (31); Poland, 7 (56); and France, 8 (16).

The number of foreign nationals among New Zealand residents departing permanently during the year ended March, 1935, was 113 (77 males and 36 females), or 3–1 per cent, of the total.

A noticeable feature in regard to foreign nationals is the relative disparity of the sexes as between arrivals and departures. Of the arrivals 52 per cent, were males and 48 per cent, females, whereas of the departures 68 per cent, were males and 32 per cent, females.

RACE ALIENS.

Although race aliens comprise comparatively small proportions of the total arrivals and departures, they are by no means unimportant. The principal race aliens with whom New Zealand is concerned are Chinese, Indians, and Syrians, and the first two are shown separately from other race aliens. The definition of the term “race alien,” as used in connection with these statistics, is “a person of other than European race.”

Permanent arrivals of race aliens in 1934–35 comprised 32 Indians, 10 Chinese, and 10 of other races. Departures were 0 Indians, 39 Chinese, and 11 of other races. In the last ten years permanent arrivals have aggregated 150 Chinese, 386 Indians, and 240 others; and the permanent departures 315 Chinese, 38 Indians, and 131 others.

It should be noted that the figures quoted above include all persons of mixed blood.

The total arrivals and departures of race aliens during each of the last ten years are as follows :—

Year ending 31st March,Arrivals.Departures.
 Chinese.Indians.Others.Totals.Chinese.Indians.Others.Totals.
19266002184221,240560167215942
19275272462981,071532159297988
19285451522319286561312311,018
1929427188306921602146247995
1930458191265914521167219907
1931375162247784542157255954
L932327117133577461140142743
193324081148469340112150602
193422210715248134992132573
1935273130140543228104153485

At the 31st March, 1935, the approximate numbers of the principal alien races present in New Zealand were: Chinese, 2,594; Indians, 1,154; and Syrians, 998.

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.

The general scheme of Governmental assistance to immigrants, which has been restricted in varying degrees since May, 1927, is based on nomination by a person who is already domiciled in New Zealand, and who undertakes to find employment for his nominee and guarantees that such nominee will reside at least five years in New Zealand. Further details will be found in the 1931 or preceding issues of the Year-Book.

Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). The numbers of assisted immigrants during each of the last ten calendar years are as follows :—

Year.Number.
19258,277
192610,766
19275,899
19282,220
19291,878
19301,405
1931489
193277
19339
19341

The total to 31st. December. 1934, is 226,229, of which number all have come from the United Kingdom with the exception of 3,909 from the Continent of Europe, spread over the five years 1874 to 1878 (inclusive).

In the following analysis of migration increase the figures given are annual averages for the periods quoted :—

Period.Governmentally assisted Immigrants.Immigrants not Governmentally assisted.Total Net Migration Increase.
1909–133,479..7,095
1920–247,5496,2009,680
1925–295,8085,7086,571
1930–343962,541−557

PASSPORTS.

PERMISSION TO ENTER NEW ZEALAND.

With certain specified exceptions, no person over the age of sixteen years may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a passport or some other document satisfactorily establishing his or her nationality and identity. Exemption from this requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

In the case of a person coming from a foreign country the passport must, with certain exceptions, have been issued or viséd by the British Ambassador or a British Consul in that country, and in the case of a person coming from any part of the British dominions the issue or visé must have been by some public official duly authorized in that behalf.

Certain exceptions are made with respect to persons coming to New Zealand from the Cook Islands and Western Samoa. In their case the only requirement is the possession of a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or the Administrator of Samoa, as the case may be. The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject arriving in New Zealand as the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives, or to a British subject arriving from the Commonwealth of Australia.

DEPARTURE FROM NEW ZEALAND.

With the exception of British subjects travelling to the Commonwealth of Australia, the Cook Islands, or Western Samoa, all persons travelling to places beyond the seas are required to be in possession of a passport or similar document to facilitate landing thereat. British passports are issued, under the direction of His Excellency the Governor-General, by the Department of Internal Affairs. They are valid for five years and may be renewed for any number of years not exceeding five. Subject to the Immigration Regulations in force in the various countries of the Empire, they are valid for travelling anywhere within the British Empire, including territories under British protection or mandate, but not Palestine unless specially endorsed for that country.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.

The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908, and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919. It is administered by the Customs Department.

Subject to certain exemptions, the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand :—

  1. Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Customs Department. (Note.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage by reason that he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject, or by reason that he is an aboriginal Native or the descendant of an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of His Majesty.)

  2. Idiots or insane persons.

  3. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  4. Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.

  5. Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the Dominion.

  6. Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath (or make an affirmation) of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons covered by clause (1) above to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to a period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit of £10 is required in respect of such temporary permits, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit are complied with. The Collector of Customs may also require, if he so decides, a deed to be entered into by some person or persons resident in New Zealand approved by him guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation there from.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Under the provisions of the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act, 1931, restrictions upon the landing in New Zealand of persons of British birth and parentage may be imposed, on account of any economic or financial conditions affecting trade and industry in New Zealand, or any other conditions which render it expedient to impose such restrictions. Under present (August, 1935) legislation the Act ceases to be in force after the 31st December, 1935.

RESTITUTED IMMIGRANTS.

When persons arrive in New Zealand who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm, and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons come to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond for £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for his support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

DECLARATION BY PERSONS ARRIVING; IN NEW ZEALAND.

Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Customs, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars : Name, age, nationality, race or people to which he belongs, residence, particulars of children under fifteen years of age arriving with him, and (if not domiciled in New Zealand) occupation, and places of birth of himself and father.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALIZATION.

The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Act, 1928, which was reserved for Royal assent, came into force on the 1st July, 1929. This Act made important alterations in the naturalization law of New Zealand, and made provision for the adoption of Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1914 (Imperial). A fairly detailed account of its effects will be found on pp. 92–95 of the 1931 Year-Book.

The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Amendment Act. 1934–35, was assented to on 26th March, 1935. This Act does two things : In the first place, it brings the New Zealand law into conformity with the law of the United Kingdom by the formal adoption as part of the law of New Zealand of section 10 of the Imperial Act of 1914 (as re-enacted by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1933).

The provisions of section 10, as re-enacted in 1933, and containing modifications incidental to its application in New Zealand, are quoted :—

“10. (I) Subject to the provisions of this section, the wife of a British subject shall be deemed to be a British subject, and the wife of an alien shall be deemed to be an alien.

“(2) Where a woman has (whether before or after the commencement of this Act) married an alien, and was at the time of her marriage a British subject, she shall not, by reason only of her marriage, be deemed to have ceased to be a British subject unless, by reason of her marriage, she acquired the nationality of her husband.

“(3) Where a man has. during the continuance of his marriage, ceased (whether before or after the commencement of this Act) to be a British subject, his wife shall not, by reason only of that fact, be deemed to have ceased to be a British subject unless, by reason of the acquisition by her husband of a new nationality, she also acquired that nationality.

“(4) Where a man ceases, during the continuance of his marriage, to be a British subject and, by reason of his acquisition of a new nationality, his wife also acquires that nationality, she may, whether her marriage is still continuing or not, at any time within the period of twelve months from the date on which she so acquired that nationality, or at such later time as the Minister of Internal Affairs may in special circumstances allow, make a declaration that she desires to retain British nationality, and thereupon she shall be deemed to have remained a British subject.

“(5) Where, after the end of the year nineteen hundred and thirty-four, a certificate of naturalization is granted to an alien, his wife, if not already a British subject, shall not be deemed to be a British subject, unless, within the period of twelve months from the date of the certificate, or within such longer period as the Minister of Internal Affairs may in special circumstances allow, she makes a declaration that she desires to acquire British nationality.

“(6) Where an alien is a subject of a State at war with His Majesty, it shall be lawful for ins wife, if she was at birth a British subject, to make a declaration that she desires to resume British nationality, and thereupon the Minister of Internal Affairs, if he is satisfied that it is desirable that she be permitted to do so, may grant her a certificate of naturalization.”

In the second place, the New Zealand Act referred to goes further than the British Act. It allows to a woman, who has lost her British nationality by reason of her marriage to an alien, the right while she remains in New Zealand to claim the same privileges as if site had remained a British subject. The legislation does not seek to alter the fact that such a woman has in law ceased to be a British subject : it merely says that upon making the prescribed declaration she is, while she remains in New Zealand, entitled to all the rights and privileges and is subject to all the duties and obligations of a natural-born British subject.

During the year 1934 letters of naturalization in New Zealand were granted to 61 persons of the undermentioned birthplaces, as compared with 04 in the previous year. In addition, 22 children were included in the certificates of their parents, and certificates under the 1928 legislation were issued to 3 males previously naturalized in New Zealand. The birthplaces of these were Denmark, Norway, and Siberia (1 child included).

Country of Birth.Males.Females.Total.Children.*
* Children included in certificate of parent; additional to proceeding figures.
Norway6..6..
Sweden1..1..
Denmark3..3..
Finland2..2..
Estonia1..13
Latvia1..l..
Poland3..3..
Germany527..
Holland1..11
France1..1..
Switzerland2..2..
Italy5..52
Austria2..2..
Hungary1..1..
Yugoslavia10..1014
Rumania1..1..
Greece4..4..
United States5..5..
Java..11..
England..222
New Zealand..22..
Totals5476122

In the ten years 1925–34, 1,434 subjects or citizens of other nations obtained letters of naturalization in New Zealand. The following table exhibits the principal countries involved.

Country of Birth.No.
Yugoslavia376
Germany161
Denmark134
Italy121
Sweden98
Switzerland61
Norway70
Poland46
United States45
Russia42
Finland38
Syria34
Western Samoa29
Greece25
France22
Austria18
Holland15
Belgium14
Latvia10
Hungary6
Other countries69
Total1,434

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.

NORTH AND SOUTH ISLANDS.

In 1858 the North Island bad a larger population than the South, this position being reversed at the succeeding enumerations until 1901, in which year the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total, a position which it has since considerably improved upon. The Maori War which broke out in 1860 retarded settlement in the North, while a large area of land reserved for the Maoris was for many years a serious hindrance to the development of this portion of the Dominion. The South Island was practically free from Maori troubles, and settlement was more rapid, though much of the land was disposed of in large areas. The discovery of gold in Otago in 1861 and on the West Coast in 1864 attracted to these localities considerable numbers of miners.

Census Year.Population (excluding Maoris).Proportions per Cent.
 North Island.South Island.*Total.North Island.South Island.*
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
1881193,047296,886489,93339.4060.60
1886250,482328,000578,48243.3056.70
1891281,474345,184626,65844.9255.08
1896340,638362,722703,36048.4351.57
1901390,579382,140772,71950.5549.45
1906476,737411,841888,57853.6546.35
1911563,733444,7351,008,46855.9044.10
1916651,072448,3771,099,44959.2240.78
1921741,255477,6581,218,91360.8139.19
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961.8738.13

The natural increase of population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the South Island in 1934 was 3,957, but the total net increase was only 1,983. For the North Island the natural increase was 7,838, and the total net increase only 7,446.

INTERNAL MIGRATION.

Statistics of passenger migration between the North and South Islands are compiled from returns supplied by Collectors of Customs and are of use in the compilation of population estimates. The following table shows inter-island migration for ten years ending 31st March :—

Year.Arrivals In North Island.Arrivals In South Island.Excess in favour of North Island.
1925–26148,393152,527−4,134
1926–27142,930141,6971,233
1927–28140,126137,9612,165
1928–29145,146145,179−33
1929–30147,490143,8573,633
1930–31135,730135,318412
1931–32110,295108,9211,374
1932–33100,57399,823750
1933–34109,544108,754790
1934–35121,665118,0223,643

Of the 121,665 passengers from the South Island in 1934–35, 121,623 landed at Wellington, including 89,256 from Lyttelton, 17,057 from Nelson, and 15,305 from Picton.

The 118,022 passengers who landed in the South Island for the same period included 85,887 at Lyttelton, 1G.827 at Nelson, and 15,308 at Picton, the passengers in these instances all arriving from Wellington. One-day inter-island excursion (return) trips are not included in the above figures.

PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS.

The approximate areas and the populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are as follows:—

Provincial District.Area (Square Miles)Census Population.Estimated Population as at 1st April, 1935.
1901.1911.1921.1926.
* Including certain Maori wives of Europeans, provincial district not specified.
Auckland25,400204,899298,782408,351469,458531,572
Hawke's Bay4,26039,60453,09863,62870,35377,600
Taranaki3,75040,46554,16065,24471,84878,900
Wellington10,870146,326204,325254,695281,020320,400
Marlborough4,22013,74616,47418,28918,79319,450
Nelson10,87038,06748,68547,73450,87854,850
Westland4,88014,56615,79614,25315,26016,950
Canterbury13,940144,195174,513199,969215,079233,402
Otago—      
Otago portion14,050125,782132,881137,062149,921156,450
Southland portion11,17048,01659,34962,43965,52970,050
Totals103,410815,862*1,058,312*1,271,6641,408,1391,559,624

URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION.

On 20th April, 1926, somewhat over one-third (38.5 per cent.) of the population of the Dominion (excluding Maoris) was included in the four principal urban areas— Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and over one-half (51–6 per cent.) in these and in the ten secondary urban areas.

For population purposes dependent town districts have their figures included in the totals of the counties within which they lie, while independent town districts are excluded, as is also the case with boroughs. Under the old method of computing urban and rural population, however, both classes of town districts are included in the county totals, as in the following table showing the urban and rural population at each census since 1881:—

   Percentage.
Census Year.Counties.Boroughs.Counties.Boroughs.Shipboard, &c.
1881291,238194,98159.4439.800.76
1886327,328245,61256.5842.460.96
1891352,097270,34356.1843.140.68
1896391,735307,29455.6943.690.62
1901417,596350,20254.0445.320.64
1906458,797424,61451.6347.790.58
1911496,779505,59849.2650.140.60
1916501,259585,30645.5953.241.17
1921530,852681,98843.5555.950.50
1926551,457785,04041.0258.390.59

URBAN DRIFT.

It is not altogether correct to regard the county population as rural and the borough population as urban. It is perhaps preferable to consider the question in the light of the following figures, in the computation of which the urban population is considered as that living in cities, boroughs, or town districts of over 1,000 inhabitants in 1881, 1,200 in 1886, 1,300 in 1891, 1,450 in 1896, 1,600 in 1901, 1,800 in 1906, 2,050 in 1911, 2,250 in 1916, and 2,500 in 1921 and 1926. Here the basic town has been given a rate of increase approximately equivalent to that of the country as a whole, it being assumed that a town of 2,500 bears much the same relationship at the present day as one of 1,000 inhabitants did in 1881. The results are as under:—

Census.Rural Population: Per Cent.Urban Population: Per Cent.
188162.3437.66
188660.4739.53
189161.1638.84
189G61.9538.05
190160.8739.13
190657.9642.04
191157.0742.93
191654.1845.82
192151.2348.77
192648.3851.62

The increasing proportion of urban population in recent years is plainly manifest. It is noteworthy that the “urban drift,” either non-existent or quiescent up to 1906, in that year commenced a swift rise, which is gaining in momentum.

An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population as in the case of the Australian States—e.g., Victoria, whose capital city, Melbourne, contains over 50 per cent, of the total population of the State—the more highly urbanized portion of the community is localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island. Of the Northern provincial districts Taranaki is the only one in which rural population predominates.

New Zealand is not alone in experiencing the modern tendency towards urban aggregation : it is, in fact, occurring in almost all countries.

CURRENT POPULATION ESTIMATES.

Estimates of population for the administrative or geographical units of the Dominion fall into a different category from those previously given for the Dominion as a whole or for the North and South Islands. Figures given for all lesser districts are literally estimates.

The distinction now acquires special significance. Never before has a period of more than five years elapsed since a census was taken; and, probably, never before has such a widespread depression (with its inevitable reactions on population distribution) been experienced in New Zealand.

Care has been taken with the resources available, and it is believed the results are sufficiently near the truth to servo usefully the many administrative, commercial, and statistical purposes to which they are put; but, nevertheless, the possibility of occasional serious variations from fact must not be overlooked.

URBAN AREAS.

The population of each of the fourteen urban areas (cities or boroughs, plus their, suburbs) as estimated annually is as follows:—

URBAN AREAS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), 1930–35.

Urban Area.1st April, 1930.30th April, 1931.1st April, 1932.1st April, 1933.1st April, 1934.1st April, 1935.
Auckland213,330217,000218,400219,800221,300223,200
Wellington138,510143,000144,800145,900146,800148,100
Christchurch126,040127,300128,900130,100131,100132,200
Dunedin85,42086,50087,40087,90088,50089,100
Wanganui27,80027,85027,80027,65027,65027,700
Invercargill23,59024,00024,35024,50024,80025,200
Palmerston North21,92022,80023,20023,50023,85024,200
Napier19,22019,30019,30019,45019,55019,800
Timaru18,03018,35018,65018,75018,95019,300
New Plymouth17,63018,20018,65018,75018,95019,200
Hamilton17,74018,10018,25018,30018,55018,900
Hastings15,93016,75016,75017,00017,20017,500
Gisborne15,86016,25016,40016,50016,65016,900
Nelson12,32012,50012,70012,85013,00013,200

The population of each county, borough, and town district as at 1st April, 1935, is given in the schedules which follow.

COUNTIES.—ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), 1ST APRIL, 1935.

(NOTE.—The column headed “Administrative” does not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but includes dependent town districts. The heading “Geographic” includes all cities, boroughs, or town districts geographically situated in a county.)

County.Population (Including Maoris).
Administrative.Geographic.
North Island—  
Mongonui7,9708,600
Whangaroa2,2602,260
Hokianga7,8307,830
Bay of Islands8,2208,860
Whangarei11,75021,260
Hobson6,3508,380
Otamatea4,5804,580
Rodney4,3404,850
Waitemata10,62041,000
Eden9,310185,650
Great Barrier Island440440
Manukau8,92020,360
Franklin12,21016,370
Raglan8,5308,530
Waikato10,20030,440
Waipa11,08015,000
Ototohonga4,7005,440
Kawhia2,1202,120
Waitomo7,44010,040
Taumarunui3,2805,930
Matamata8,18010,370
Piako8,48012,810
Ohinemuri3,1208,620
Hauraki Plains4,5004,500
Thames2,7607,460
Coromandel2,1702,170
Tauranga9,37013,770
Rotorua4,1109,360
Taupo2,7002,700
Whakatane6,5808,130
Opotiki4,4505,810
Matakaoa1,7301,730
Waiapu5,7505,750
Uawa1,8301,830
Waikohu3,7003,700
Cook7,37022,070
Wairoa5,4607,910
Hawke's Bay15,75047,280
Waipawa3,6204,840
Waipukurau1,0803,130
Patangata2,8402,840
Dannivirke5,1309,750
Woodville1,8702,990
Weber500500
Ohura2,5303,030
Whangamomona1,3201,320
Clifton2,8002,800
Taranaki6,96025,710
Inglewood3,2104,480
Egmont4,2405,320
Stratford5,5009,200
Eltham3,5305,570
Waimate West3,0703,840
Hawera5,66010,440
Patea3,6905,540
Kaitieke3,2004,000
Waimarino4,0306,800
Waitotara3,59028,440
Wanganui4,1004,100
Rangitikei10,23017,040
Kiwitea2,4002,400
Pohangina1,3501,350
Oroua3,9008,450
Manawatu5,2106,950
Kairanga5,46027,710
Horowhenua7,37013,040
Pahiatua2,9204,500
Akitio1,1101,110
Eketahuna2,0602,810
Mauriceville840840
Masterton3,90012,850
Castlepoint620620
Wairarapa South3,3305,300
Featherston4,0807,400
Hutt8,97041,120
Makara4,550121,140
Total380,9301,003,180
South Island—  
Sounds1,1801,180
Marlborough7,88014,600
Awatere1,7401,740
Kaikoura2,2302,230
Amuri2,2102,210
Cheviot1,5001,500
Waimea9,70024,650
Takaka2,2002,200
Collingwood1,1501,150
Buller6,29010,380
Murchison1,7001,700
Inangahua3,6003,600
Grey5,62016,070
Westland4,4407,910
Waipara2,6002,600
Kowai2,0402,040
Ashley680680
Rangiora2,8805,100
Eyre1,9603,700
Oxford1,6001,600
Tawera740740
Malvern2,9502,950
Paparua5,5205,520
Waimairi13,60019,080
Heathcote5,800110,810
Halswell1,9601,960
Mount Herbert540540
Akaroa1,8702,450
Chatham Islands650650
Wairewa1,1101,110
Springs1,9501,950
Ellesmere3,3604,030
Selwyn1,7201,720
Ashburton12,85019,140
Geraldine5,8508,810
Levels5,09023,410
Mackenzie3,0403,040
Waimate7,3509,700
Waitaki9,25017,190
Waihemo1,5002,310
Waikouaiti4,4309,690
Peninsula3,0203,020
Taieri6,22089,650
Bruce4,6007,550
Clutha7,2108,860
Tuapeka5,0806,440
Maniototo3,1103,310
Vincent3,7205,010
Lake2,0403,210
Southland25,77057,990
Wallace9,30011,430
Fiord3030
Stewart Island510510
Total224,940550,650
Grand total605,8701,553,830

BOROUGHS.— ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), 1st APRIL, 1935.

Borough.Population (including Maoris).
North Island— 
Whangarei8,000
Dargaville2,030
Birkenhead3,450
Northcote2,570
Takapuna7,200
Devonport10,500
New Lynn3,210
Auckland (City)108,650
Newmarket3,200
Mount Eden20,550
Mount Albert21,350
One Tree Hill8,250
Onehunga11,500
Otahuhu5,200
Pukekohe2,580
Huntly1,970
Ngaruawahia1,300
Hamilton16,050
Cambridge2,220
To Awamutu2,020
Te Kuiti2,600
Taumarunui2,650
Matamata1,270
Morrinsville1,780
Te Aroha2,550
Paeroa2,000
Waihi3,500
Thames4,700
Tauranga3,350
Te Puke1,050
Rotorua5,250
Whakatane1,550
Opotiki1,360
Gisborne14,700
Wairoa2,450
Napier16,550
Hastings12,600
Waipawa1,220
Waipukurau2,050
Dannevirke4,620
Woodville1,120
Waitara1,950
New Plymouth16,800
Inglewood1,270
Stratford3,700
Eltham2,040
Hawera4,780
Patca1,150
Ohakune1,350
Raetihi1,060
Taihape2,450
Wanganui (City)24,850
Marton2,860
Feilding4,550
Palmerston North (City)22,250
Foxton1,740
Shannon1,150
Levin2,840
Otaki1,680
Pahiatua1,580
Eketahuna750
Masterton8,950
Carterton1,970
Greytown1,150
Featherston1,120
Martinborough1,050
Upper Hutt3,780
Lower Hutt15,000
Petone11,230
Eastbourne2,140
Wellington (City)114,950
Total592,860
South Island— 
Picton1,340
Blenheim5,380
Nelson (City)11,300
Richmond1,200
Motueka1,650
West port4,090
Brunner1,250
Runanga1,450
Grey mouth7,750
Kumara420
Hokitika2,620
Boss430
Rangiora2,220
Kaiapoi1,740
Riccarton5,480
Christchurch (City)92,900
New Brighton5,040
Sumner3,300
Lyttelton3,770
Akaroa580
Ashburton5,580
Geraldine1,010
Temuka1,950
Timaru17,750
Waimate2,350
Oamaru7,700
Ham])den240
Palmerston810
Waikouaiti600
Port Chalmers2,560
West Harbour2,100
Dunedin (City)70,450
St. Kilda8,390
Green Island2,450
Mosgiel2,140
Milton1,600
Kaitangata1,350
Balclutha1,650
Tapanui290
Lawrence640
Roxburgh430
Naseby200
Alexandra690
Cromwell600
Arrowtown270
Queenstown900
Gore4,400
Mataura1,390
Winton930
Invercargill (City)21,500
South Invercargill1,070
Bluff1,750
Riverton940
Total320,590
Grand total913,450

TOWN DISTRICTS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), 1st APRIL, 1935.

Town District.Population (Including Maoris).
* Parent County shown parentheses.
(a) Town Districts not forming parts of counties
North Island— 
Kaitaia630
Kaikohe640
Hikurangi1,000
Kamo510
Warkworth510
Helensville1,000
Henderson1,120
Glen Eden1,330
Ellerslie2,840
Howick700
Papatoetoe2,220
Manurewa1,500
Papakura1,820
Waiuku880
Tuakau700
Leamington600
Otorohanga740
Manunui800
Putaruru920
Taradale1,210
Havelock North1,170
Ohura500
Opunake1,080
Manaia770
Rangataua360
Mangaweka350
Hunterville600
Waverley700
Bulls550
Johnsonville1,640
Total29,390
South Island— 
Tahunanui800
Leeston670
Tinwald710
Pleasant Point570
Wyndham670
Lumsden510
Otautau640
Nightcaps550
Total5,120
Grand total34,510
(b) Town. Districts forming parts of counties*
North Island— 
Kohukohu (Hokianga)520
Rawene (Hokianga)430
Russell (Bay of Islands)410
Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)390
Onerahi (Whangarei)550
Mercer (Franklin)350
Raglan (Raglan)370
To Kauwhata (Waikato)..500
Ohaupo (Waipa)250
Kihikihi (Waipa)340
Kawhia (Kawhia)230
Turua (Hauraki Plains)290
Mt. Maunganui (Tauranga)500
Te Karaka (Waikohu)400
Patutahi (Cook)290
Norsewood (Dannevirke)170
Ormondville (Dannevirke)290
Kaponga (Eltham)450
Normandby (Hawera)310
Rongotea (Manawatu)270
Total7,310
South Island— 
Havelock (Marlborough)240
Takaka(Takaka)450
Southbridge (Ellesmere)430
Outram (Taieri)330
Clinton (Clutha)360
Edendale (Southland)470
Total2,280
Grand total9,590

TOWNSHIPS.

New Zealand has many townships with considerable population, but without local self-government as boroughs or town districts. Details will be found in Volume I of the 1926 Census Results.

ADJACENT ISLANDS.

Adjacent to the main Islands are many smaller islands, some of which are of considerable area and are under cultivation; others are but islets used as sites for lighthouses, while others again are barren and unfitted for human habitation. Some of these islands are included within the boundaries of counties, and their populations are included in the county figures. The following adjacent islands not attached to any county were inhabited at the census of 1926:—

 Population (including Maoris).
Island.M.F.Total.
Kokutango516
Pakatoa12526
Rotoroa63669
Little Barrier123
Tiritiri5712
Rakino325
Brown's213
Pahiki4..4
Mokohinau325
Ponui111728
Waiheke204217421
Rangitoto24327
Motutapu639
Motuihi4 163 167 32
Kawau161632
Motuhora617
Motuketekete2..2
Slipper2..2
Wanganui112
Cuvier448
Great Mercury3..3
Motiti513889
White22224
East4610
Kapiti9514
Somes224
Quarantine224
Dog336
Centre426
Totals467371838

As a result of section 5 of the Local Legislation Act, 1934–35, seven islands (population, 214) formerly included in this list are now part of Sounds County, and have therefore been deleted.

DENSITY OF POPULATION.

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand is approximately 104,015 square miles. Omitting the annexed islands and certain uninhabited outlying islands, the area of the land-mass remaining is 103,415 square miles. This calculation, it should be explained, includes all inland waters.

Using the latter figure as a base, the density of population in 1935 may be quoted as 14.36 persons to the square mile, or, if Maoris be included, 15.08 persons to the square mile.

A truer statement of average density can be ascertained by subtracting from the total area that occupied by rivers, lakes, roads, State forests, higher portions of mountain-ranges, &c. The remaining area, amounting to about 84,500 square miles (at most, the total is possibly much less), which may be considered as the utmost total inhabitable or usable land, carries a population of 17–57 (or, including Maoris, 18–46) persons to the square mile.

The various cities, boroughs, and town districts in New Zealand occupy a total of approximately 509 square miles. Considering their population as “urban,” the urban population (1935) had a density of 1,881 persons per square mile, and the rural population a density of 6 persona per square mile.

Attention must be drawn to the necessity for the exercise of discretion in the use of data concerning density of population, particularly in comparing one country with another. Areas may be calculated in many ways, while area itself may have little relationship to potentiality of use. In the case of urban population, it is impossible to obtain the aggregate area of sites actually in occupation by business premises, residences, &c. Many boroughs contain within their boundaries large reserves which, with farming and other unbuilt land; tend to disguise the actual relation of population to area.

MAORI AND HALF-CASTE POPULATION.

A record of early statistics of Maoris is given in Vol. XIV of the 1926 Census Results. The first official general census was taken in 1857–58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy, and even some later enumerations hardly claim to be more than approximations which approach the truth as nearly as possible.

Available statistical evidence points to a decline in the numbers of the Native race since the advent of Europeans, but this decline was commonly exaggerated by early writers. Of later years an unmistakable increase has been noted. This gain, however, has been accompanied by a very considerable dilution of blood. The census record is as follows :—

Year.No.
* Includes half-castes, vide second page of section.
1857–5826,049
187445,470
187843,595
188114,097
188641,969
189141,993
189639,854
190143,143
190647,731
191149,844
191649,770
192152,751
192663,670*
1935 (estimate, 1st April)74,578*

The estimated number of Maoris at 1st April, 1935, was 74,578 of which 71,374 were in the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk (53,674), particularly in the Auckland Peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. Hawke's Bay contains some 5,600; Taranaki, 4,300; and Wellington, 7,800. In the South Island Maoris do not attain any numerical significance During 1934–35 the Maori population increased by 1,095.

For some years now the natural increase ratio of the Maori population has exceeded that of the European. Heavy fluctuations, however, occur in the Native data, and the completeness of registration is not yet entirely beyond suspicion.

The (arithmetic) mean age of Maoris in 1920 was—males, 23.88; females, 22.95 years. The Maori population is a younger one than the European, and possesses higher ratios at all ages up to twenty-five years.

The 1926 Census Results, of which Volume XIV is devoted to a more comprehensive statistical survey of the characteristics of the Maori population than has hitherto been possible, show that a total of 69,780 persons possessed some degree of Maori blood. Of these, 45,429 were classed as of full Maori blood, this term including all persons ranging from over seven-eighths Maori blood to unmixed Native descent. As noted in the Census Results, the degree of miscegenation is probably understated, and the number of Maoris of pure Maori descent is unlikely to exceed 50 per cent, of the total. The 1926 census analysis is as follows:—

Counted in the Maori population
Full Maori45,429
Three-quarter-caste6,632
Half-caste11,306
Maori-European, n.o.d303
Total63,670
Counted in the non-Maori population
Quarter-caste6,053
Maori-Polynesian39
Maori-Japanese9
Maori-Chinese9
Total6,110

WORLD POPULATION.

The sources of the data quoted herein comprise official publications, bulletins issued by the League of Nations, publications of the International Institute of Statistics, and the Statesman's Year-Book. So far as can be ascertained with some pretension to comparative accuracy—the various estimates of the population of the Chinese Empire, for instance, vary to the extent of considerably over 100 millions—the world population is over 2,000 millions. The inhabitants of the Dominion therefore comprise about one thirteen-hundredth part of the population of the world. Details for continents as given in the Statistical Year-Book of the League of Nations are :—

 1913.1933.
Europe498,000,000515,000,000
Asia978,000,0001,113,000,000
Africa134,000,000144,000,000
North America134,000,000172,000,000
South America56,000,00087,000,000
Oceania8,000,00010,000,000
Totals1,808,000,0002,041,000.000

As a useful indication of the comparative size of various countries, the following index of population has been prepared:—

Country.Population (000 omitted).Year.Index of Population (New Zealand = 1).

According to the Chinese Ministry of the Interior. Some authorities consider the population is probably not in excess of 350,000,000, and is stationary.

† Recent estimate.

 
England and Wales40,467193426
Scotland4,93419343
Northern Ireland1,28019340.8
Irish Free State2,99319342
India (including Native States)359,4001933230
Ceylon5,46319344
Union of South Africa8,48819345
Canada10,68119337
Newfoundland28619340.2
Australia6,71619354
New South Wales2,63619352
Victoria1,83819351
Queensland96019350.6
South Australia58419350.4
Western Australia44519350.3
Tasmania23119350.1
New Zealand1,56019351
Austria6,74619344
Belgium8,24819345
Bulgaria6,03819344
Czechoslovakia15,017193410
Denmark3,65619342
Estonia1,12519340.7
Finland3,73919342
France41,880193327
Germany66,166193342
Greece6,62019344
Hungary8,83719346
Italy42,900193428
Latvia1,93919341
Lithuania2,45119342
Netherlands8,39419355
Norway2,85819342
Poland33,024193421
Portugal7,09019335
Rumania18,792193412
Russia (Soviet Union)168,0001934108
Sweden6,21219344
Switzerland4,12519333
Spain24,012193315
Turkey14,920193310
Yugoslavia14,29619339
China*474,7871932304
Japan68,195193444
Abyssinia5,5004
Egypt15,281193410
Mexico17,320193311
United States126,425193481
Argentina12,02619348
Brazil44,002193328
Chile4,43319343

Chapter 4. SECTION IV.—VITAL STATISTICS.

SUBSECTION A.—BIRTHS.

REGISTRATION.

REGISTRATION of births in New Zealand dates from 1848, consequent upon the passing, in 1847, of a Registration Ordinance which made provision for a record of births and deaths being kept by the State. Under this Ordinance many registrations were effected, some of births as far back as 1840. Compulsory registration did not, however, come into force until 1855.

The law as to registration of births is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within sixty-two days without fee. After sixty-two days and within six months a birth is registrable only after solemn declaration made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of a late fee of 5s., which may, however, be remitted at the discretion of the Registrar-General. When six months have elapsed a birth may be registered with a Registrar of Births within one month after conviction of one of the responsible parties for neglect, but an information for such neglect must be laid within two years of date of birth. Power is given by the Act of 1924 for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed, a fee of 5s. being payable and satisfactory evidence on oath and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary being required.

Registration of still-births, previously not provided for, was made compulsory from the 1st March, 1913.

Although sixty-two days are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval—viz., forty-eight hours if in a city or borough, and twenty-one days in every other case.

Particulars now required to be registered are : Date and place of birth; name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage; and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The father of an illegitimate child is not required to give information or to be registered. A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of eighteen months may be registered within six months of arrival.

REGISTRATION OF MAORI BIRTHS.

In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912 (now section 60 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924), empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in the Dominion is over 200, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Native settlement of any size is within easy reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the figures of births given in the following pages do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with at the end of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The births of 24,322 children were registered during 1934, a decline of twelve on the numbers for 1933. To convey a simple impression of the position, it may be said that the births of fewer children were registered in 1934 than in any year since 1906 (when the population was less than two-thirds of the present-day figure). The rate per 1,000 of mean population (16.47) is the lowest ever recorded in New Zealand—a statement which it has been possible to make in turn for each of the last ten years.

Numbers and rate for 1934 are very little below 1933 levels. The decline for the time being at least, has almost been arrested, a feature not entirely unexpected, in view of the increase in the number of marriages in the preceding year. As marriages again increased in 1934, it is possible that some little recovery may be made from the low levels of the last three years.

The numbers and rates of births in each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
191527,85025.33
191628,50925.94
191728,23925.69
191825,86023.44
191924,48321.42
192029,92125.09
192128,56723.34
192229,00623.17
192327,96721.94
192428,01421.57
192528,15321.17
192628,47321.05
192727,88120.29
192827,20019.56
192926,74719.01
193026,79718.80
193126,62218.42
193224,88417.09
193324,33416.59
193424,32216.47

There is a most noticeable fall in the rate in the later years of the period covered by the table, as compared with the earlier. The fall of 8.86 per 1,000 of population between 1915 and 1934 is equivalent to a decline of 35 per cent, in the birth-rate. The following diagram shows, inter alia, the huge decline in the birth-rate since about 1880:—

Comparisons of birth-rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the “crude” rates—i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The “crude” rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of interest to supplement the table of “crude” rates with a computation of the legitimate birth-rate per 1,000 married women between 15 and 45 years of age, or the total birth-rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand in each census year from 1878 to 1926.

 Number of Women 15 and under 45.Number of Births.Birth-rate per 1,000 Women 15 and under 45.
Year.Married.Total.Legitimate.Total.Legitimate.Total.
187850,99980,31317,34117,770340.0221.3
188157,46196,14418,19818,732315.0194.8
188662,709117,89518,69719,299298.2163.7
189163,172131,27117,63518,273279.2139.2
189669,816158,21417,77818,612254.6117.6
190179,420183,38719,55420,491246.2111.7
190698,249212,59823,12024,252235.3114.1
1911119,390240,71425,27026,354211.7109.5
1910141,322267,30027,36328,509193.0106.7
1921150,400288,47727,30928,567181.699.0
1926161,739313,36327,00028,473166.990.9

The legitimate rate per 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 is seen to have fallen by over 50 per cent, between 1878 and 1926, while an even greater fall is shown for the total rate on the basis of all women of the ages mentioned. The greater fall in the latter rate than in the former is due to the fact that among women of the child-bearing ages the proportion of married women is considerably lower nowadays than in the earlier years covered.

Women formerly married at younger ages in general than they do at present, and a study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age-constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth-rate varies with age, the change in age-constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account. This was done in the computation of index-numbers of birth-rates published in the 1933 (page 80) and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

NATURAL INCREASE.

The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been partially compensated for by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the nominal rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31.19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 7.99 in 1934. It has been noted in the previous section (vide pp. 48 and 51) that acceptance of this figure without consideration of the effect of the changing age-constitution will give an erroneous view of the present margin of increase and of the probable trend of population growth in the future.

Period.Annual Rates per 1,000 living.
Births.Deaths.Natural Increase.
1871–187539.8812.6727.21
1876–188041.2111.8029.41
1881–188536.3610.9525.41
1886–189031.159.8521.30
1891–189527.6810.1517.53
1896–190025.759.5516.20
1901–190526.609.9116.69
1906–191027.069.7517.31
1911–191525.989.2216.76
1916–192024.3210.7313.69
1921–192522.228.6213.60
1926–193019.748.6011.14
193118.428.3410.08
193217.098.029.07
193316.597.988.61
193416.478.487.99

In spite of the fact that the birth-rate in New Zealand is now low compared with most other countries, yet so low is the Dominion's death-rate that New Zealand still ranks midway among the nations as regards the rate of natural increase.

BIRTH AND NATURAL-INCREASE RATES.

Country.Quinquennium.Annual Rates per 1,000.
Births.Natural Increase.
* Registration area.
Egypt1927–3144118.1
South Africa1929–3325.216.0
Ceylon1929–3338.215.1
Argentina1929–3326.514.9
Poland1929–3329.714.4
Japan1929–3332.513.9
Bulgaria1928–3230.413.8
Yugoslavia1928–3233.613.7
Portugal1928–3231.513.5
Rumania1929–3333.713.5
Uruguay1928–3223.813.2
Greece1928–3229.912.9
Netherlands1930–3421.712.7
Canada1929–3323.012.6
Chile1929–3336.512.2
Lithuania1929–3326.611.3
Spain1928–3228.411.1
Italy1928–3225.310.3
New Zealand1930–3417.59.2
Australia1930–3417.68.8
Hungary1929–3323.77.3
United States*1928–3218.67.1
Denmark1929–3318.171
Czechoslovakia1929–3321.47.0
Finland1929–3319.46.0
Northern Ireland1929–3320.25.7
Norway1929–3316.35.6
Latvia1928–3219.65.4
Scotland1929–3318.85.2
Irish Free State1929–3319.45.1
Germany1929–3316.24.8
Switzerland1929–3316.84.8
Belgium1929–3317.84.2
England & Wales1929–3315.63.3
Sweden1929–3314.83.0
Austria1928–3216.42.4
Estonia1929–3317.21.5
France1929–3317.41.1

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.

With the exception of one year, there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860).

But little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibits violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which tend to disappear as the total of births grows larger. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923.

Number of Births of
Year.Males.Females.Male Births per 1,000 Female Births.
191514,41513,4351,073
191614,66913,8401,060
191714,32913,9101,030
191813,12412,7361,030
191912,58711,8961,058
192015,43414,4871,065
192114,57613,9911,042
192214,89714,1091,056
192314,53113,4361,081
192414,29513,7191,042
192514,51813,6351,064
192614,64913,8241,060
192714,29113,5901,052
192814,08213,1181,073
192913,64513,1021,041
193013,71313,0841,048
193113,76612,8561,071
193212,82412,0601,063
193312,41911,9151,042
193412,55411,7681,067

The gradual increase in the proportion of males born is illustrated by taking the average ratios of successive decennial periods. The apparent cessation in the increase, as shown by the figures for the period 1916–26 as compared with the preceding decennium, is due to the low masculinity recorded in the last two war years, when (it may be remarked in passing) the proportion of first births to total births was abnormally low.

Period.Male Births to 1,000 Female Births.
1856–18651,062
1866–18751,043
1876–18851,045
1886–18951,045
1896–19051,054
1906–19151,055
1916–19251,053
1926–19341,057

It would appear that the proportion of males is somewhat higher for first births than for the general average of all children. Of 81,231 legitimate first births registered during the ten years 1925–34 (excluding plural births), 41,820 were of males and 39,411 of females, the proportion of males per 1,000 females being 1,061.

The sexes of first-born for various age-groups of the mother for the aggregate of the ten years 1925–34 are as follows:—

Age of Mother, in Years.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
Under 203,6763,4791,057
20 and under 2516,88515,8111,068
25 and under 3013,34612,7141,050
30 and under 355,4765,0861,077
35 and under 401,9341,8011,074
40 and over503520967
Totals41,82039,4111,061

In the ten years covered there were 687 twin first births, and in 226 cases the children were both males, in 246 both females, and in the remaining 215 of opposite sex. Three cases of triplets (in two cases two females and one male, and in the other two males and one female) were recorded as first births during the period.

Further light on the question of sexes of children may be thrown by some figures extracted from the records of births registered in the ten years 1925–34 in cases where the child was shown to be the fourth-born of a family in which the three previously born children were still living. In the following statement showing the sex-nativity order up to the fourth child families in which plural births occurred among the first four children have been excluded.

First-born.Second-born.Third-born.Fourth-born.Number of Cases.
MaleMaleMaleMale1,467
MaleMaleMaleFemale1,361
MaleMaleFemaleMale1,184
MaleMaleFemaleFemale1,259
MaleFemaleMaleMale1,250
MaleFemaleMaleFemale1,140
MaleFemaleFemaleMale1,231
MaleFemaleFemaleFemale1,173
FemaleFemaleFemaleFemale1,131
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,229
FemaleFemaleMaleFemale1,153
FemaleFemaleMaleMale1,223
FemaleMaleFemaleFemale1,136
FemaleMaleFemaleMale1,220
FemaleMaleMaleFemale1,183
FemaleMaleMaleMale1,121

Of the 19,461 families covered, in 10,065 the first child was a male and in 9,396 a female, the number of males per 1,000 females being thus 1,071. The proportion is reduced for subsequent births. The figures are as follows:—

Child.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
First10,0659,3961,071
Second9,9319,5301,042
Third9,8989,5631,035
Fourth9,9259,5361,041

The fact that there is a higher masculinity rate among first-born children than among later issue serves to explain the increasing masculinity of births in successive decennia referred to previously, when it is remembered that the average number of children to a family has fallen heavily during the period, and the proportion of first-born children correspondingly increased.

The sex-proportions of illegitimate births are generally supposed to be more nearly equal than those of legitimate births. However, although little reliance can be placed on the figures for New Zealand by reason of the small numbers represented, it may be stated that the average for the period 1925–34 was 1,069 males per 1,000 females— a rate considerably above that for all births (1,061) for the same period.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.

The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total cases of births, in cases of living births only, during the last ten years were—

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Multiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases.
192528,15327,848301210.88
192628,47328,111358212.81
192727,88127,548331112.05
192827,20026,919273410.29
192926,74726,470275110.43
193026,79726,488305211.59
193126,62226,332288110.98
193224,88424,618260310.68
193324,33424,079251210.51
193424,32224,060258210.81

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 258 cases of twin births (516 children) registered in 1934. There were also two cases of triplets.

The number of accouchements resulting in living births was 24,060, and on the average one mother in every 93 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

When still-births are taken into account, however, the total number of accouchements for the year 1934 is increased to 24,712, and the number of cases of multiple births to 295. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 84.

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of twin births for the same decade :—

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
19253018386132
1926358114111133
1927331112104115
19282739571107
1929275959288
193030510197107
19312881018998
1932260878093
19332517073108
1934258898089

During the ten years 1925–31 there were twenty cases of triplets. In two cases all three children were males, in five cases all were females, in five cases there were two males and one female, and in eight cases two of the three children were females.

QUADRUPLETS.

On 6th March. 1935, quadruplets were born in Dunedin, one child being a male and the remaining three females. A previous case of quadruplets occurred at Ngaruawahia, in 1919, all being males. In this case, however, one child died seven days after birth, a second ten days after birth, a third forty-seven days after birth, and the fourth in the following year. In earlier years no specific note would have been made of such instances, and it is impossible to state whether the above represents all quadruple births.

AGES OF PARENTS.

Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1934 is shown in the following table :—

 Age of Father, in Years.
Age of Mother, in Years.Under 21.21 and Under 25.25 and Under 30.30 and Under 35.35 and Under 40.40 and Under 45.45 and Under 50.50 and Under 55.55 and Under 65.65 and Over.Total.
* Including thirty-one cases where plural births would have been registered had not one child been still-born.
  Single Births.           
Under 2115470051514218662221,547   
21 and under 25631,1142,3278851995624126..4,086   
25 and under 30112973,0822,70584326598421057,358   
30 and under 351305852,1291,395618206912945,088   
35 and under 40..1413461,0388134051286342,839   
40 and under 45..17351083643151405471,031   
45 and over......2294033..16102   
Totals2292,1436,5576,2443,6032,1311,0944481802222,051*   
  Multiple Births.           
Under 21..5211..........9   
21 and under 251151391..........39   
25 and under 30..33430961......83   
30 and under 35....6351543......63   
35 and under 40....111178641..48   
40 and under 45........1632....12   
Totals12356864424136l..254   
Grand totals2302,1666,6136,3303,6472,1551,1074541812222,905   

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.

Information as to the previous issue of the existing marriage, required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the annual “Report on Vital Statistics” containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in connection with (1) age of mother, and (2) duration of marriage. The former table is here summarized.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1934.—NUMBER OF PREVIOUS ISSUE.

 Number of Previous Issue. 
Age of Mother.0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and Under 10.10 and Under 15.15 and overTotal.
* This number represents 22,651 single cases and 254 multiple cases.
Under 211,227277439..........1,556
21 and under 252,6781,3245331453663....4,725
25 and under302,5982,2961,35466232812677....7,411
30 and under 351,0401,3171,67272743027628095,15 
35 and under 40300468551445358237480482,887 
40 and under 4579911341321321162707941,043
45 and over3557151326262102
Totals7,9255,7783,6922,1271,2997741,142162 6,22,905*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue but also for children covered by the 1934 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

LIVING LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1934.—ISSUE ACCORDING TO AGE OF MOTHER.

  
Age of Mother, in Years.Total Mothers.Total Issue.Average Issue.
15–198279721.18
20–245,4548,7641.61
25–297,44116,9452.28
30–345,15115,9453.10
35–392,87712,3304.27
40–441,0435,8755.63
45 and over1027837.68
Totals22,90561,6142.69

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be— viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1934) born to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they represent issue born to the existing marriage only. The averages for the last five years were as follows: 1930; 2.78; 1931, 2.77; 1932, 2.75; 1933, 2.75; and 1934, 2.69. This falling trend in the average issue of mothers giving birth to children is a measure of the tendency towards smaller families.

FIRST BIRTHS.

Of a total of 119,386 legitimate births registered during the five years 1930–34, no fewer than 40,738, or 34 per cent., were of first-born children, and of these 19,114, or 47 per cent., were born within twelve months, and 29,975, or 74 per cent., within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 26 per cent, of cases where there was any issue to the marriage, two years or more elapsed before the birth of the first child.

The percentage of first births to total births and the proportions occurring ?within the first and second years after marriage have shown little variation in recent years. The figures for each of the last five years are:—

    First Cases within One Year after Marriage.First Cases within Two Years after Marriage.
Year.Total Legitimate Cases.Total Legitimate First Cases.Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.
   Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
193025,1258,66034.474,11847.556,50375.09
193125,0278,43733.714,02847.746,34475.19
193223,3667,95034.023,66446.095,74472.25
193322,9637,76633.813,63946.865,59672.06
193422,9057,92534.603,66546.255,78873.03
Totals for five years119,38640,73834.1219,11446.9229,97573.58

During the five years there were 9,131 cases of legitimate births within seven months after marriage. Also 6,191 cases of illegitimate births were registered, and if these latter are all regarded as first births (which is not entirely the case) a total of 15,322 extra-maritally conceived cases is recorded, which represents 33 per cent, of the total of legitimate first births, plus illegitimate births. The figures for each of the last five years are—

Year.Total Legitimate First Cases.Illegitimate Cases.Legitimate Cases within Seven Months after Marriage.Proportion of (c) to (a).Proportion of (b) + (c) to Total of (a) + (b).
 (a)(b)(c)(d)(e)
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
19308,6601,3631,91222.0832.67
19318,4371,3051,87122.1832.60
19327,9501,2521,83023.0233.49
19337,7661,1161,76222.6932.40
19347,9251,1551,75622.1632.06
Totals for five years40,7386,1919,13122.4132.65

ILLEGITIMACY.

The births of 1,161 children (592 males, 569 females) registered in 1934 were illegitimate. The numbers for each of the last ten years, with the percentages they bear to the total births registered, are as follows :—

Year.Number.Percentage to Total Births.
19251,3324.73
19261,4735.17
19271,3874.97
19281,3835.08
19291,3274.96
19301,3715.12
19311,3154.94
19321,2625.07
19331,1194.60
19341,1614.77

It is only natural to expect that, as the birth-rate falls, the proportion of illegitimate to total births will tend to increase. Probably a better criterion is afforded by the following table, which shows the proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages in each census year from 1891.

Year.Unmarried Women aged 15–45 Years.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,9906389.25
189689,7228349.30
1901105,4209378.89
1906116,5061,1329.72
1911116,7261,0789.24
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926151,6241,4739.71

Included in the total of 1,161 illegitimate births in 1934 were 6 cases of twins, the number of accouchements being thus 1,155, including 2 cases registered with the Registrar-General. From the following table it will be seen that of the 1,155 mothers 413, or 36 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age.

ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1934.—AGES OF MOTHERS.

Age.Cases.
Years. 
131
143
1513
1633
1757
1889
19114
20103
2193
2290
2367
2452
2550
2652
2728
2836
2943
3035
3123
3220
3324
3427
3513
3613
3710
3815
3920
404
419
428
437
442
471
Total1,155

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1930, directs the omission of the word “illegitimate” from the register when the birth of an illegitimate child is registered. The word “illegitimate” appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

THE LEGITIMATION ACT.

An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock whose parents afterwards intermarry is deemed to be legitimized by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes a Registrar must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and must also produce evidence of marriage between himself and the mother of the child.

Prior to the passing, on the 6th February, 1922, of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921–22, legitimation could be effected only if at the time of the birth of the child there existed no legal impediment to the intermarriage of the father and mother, but the legal-impediment proviso was repealed by that amendment.

The amendment of 1921–22 also provides for legitimation by the mother in the event of the death of the father after the intermarriage of the parents. In such a case the application for legitimation is heard by a Magistrate, and upon his certifying that it has been proved to his satisfaction that the husband of the applicant was the father of the child, the child is registered as the lawful issue of the applicant and her husband.

The number of legitimations in each of the last ten years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are:—

 Number of Children legitimized.
year.Previously registered.Not previously registered.Total.
192517297269
1926230115345
1927204108312
1928247102349
1929 26166327
1930234111345
193129292384
193223695331
193330995404
193428494378
Totals to 19345,1542,5817,735

ADOPTIONS.

The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. If the child's birth has been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on it, and a new entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being substituted for those of the natural parents.

During the year 1934 the registration of 338 adopted children (134 males and 204 females) was effected, as compared with 332 in 1933, 337 in 1932, 329 in 1931, and 385 in 1930.

STILL-BIRTHS.

The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. A still-born child is denned as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

      Percentage of Still-births to
Year.Male.Female.Not stated.Total.Male Still-births per 1,000 Female still-births.Living Births.All Births.
192548137828611,2723.062.97
1926470416..8861,1303.113.02
1927506372..8781,3603.153.05
1928424415..8391,0223.082.99
1929501369..8701,3583.253.15
1930470395..8651,1903.233.13
1931430379..8091,1353.042.95
1932430316..7461,3613.002.91
1933417305..7221,3672.972.88
1934387300..6871,2902.822.75

Masculinity is in general much higher among still-births than among living births, though an exception to the rule occurred in 1928. The figures for the ten years covered by the above table show the rate for still-births to have been 1,249 males per 1,000 females. The rate for individual years has ranged between 1,726 (in 1914) and 1,022 (in 1928).

Tabulation of the relative ages of the parents of the still-born children in 1934 does not appear to disclose any significant features. The median age of the mothers was 30, as compared with 28 in the case of living births. The percentage of illegitimates among still-born infants (7.86) was higher than among infants born alive (4.77).

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1934, 34 per cent, were first births, while of legitimate still-births no less than 43 per cent, were first births. It would thus appear that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring to mothers having their first accouchement than to the average of those having subsequent accouchements..

The following table, based on the figures for the five years 1930–34, indicates that this is so, and further demonstrates the effect of the increasing age of the mother in the causation of still-births. While for women between 20 and 25 the proportion of still-births to living births was under 2½ per cent, for all births and a little higher for first births, for women over forty it was over 6 per cent, for all births and over 13 per cent, for first births.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1930–34.—PERCENTAGE OF STILL TO LIVING.

 All Births.First Births.Percentage of Still to Living.
Age of Mother, in Years.Living.Still.Living.Still.All Births.First Births.
Under 204,2911013,604962.352.66
20 and under 2528,62261416,5164282.152.59
25 and under 3037,45094913,2475112.533.80
30 and under 3526,7598255,1232743.085.35
35 and under 4015,8446511,7661384.117.81
40 and over6,420400482646.2313.28
Totals119,3803,54040,7381,5112.973.71

The next table shows the percentage of still-births to living births according to nativity order of legitimate births registered in the five years 1930–34. The column for mothers of all ages shows a fairly definite gradation, the second child having the best chance of being born alive, and the probability of a still-birth increasing thereafter.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1930–34.—PERCENTAGE OF STILL TO LIVING.

 Living Births.Still-births.Percentage of Still to Living.
Nativity Order.Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.
First40,7381,7661,5111383.717.81
Second29,5072,604551791.873.03
Third18,8642,814446982.363.48
Fourth11,3752,440313902.753.69
Fifth8,0861,993220642.723.21
Sixth4,3891,492153583.493.89
Seventh2,7551,092117434.253.94
Eighth1,84676577294.173.79
Ninth1,15347554234.684.84
Tenth6832753695.273.27

The column for mothers aged 35 to 40 indicates that continued child-bearing after the first two or three accouchements has some small effect on the still-birth probability. There can be no doubt, however, that age of the mother is the principal factor in the case of accouchements subsequent to the first. This being so, it is of some significance that even when no allowance is made for the younger age-constitution in general of mothers of first-born, the still-birth rate for first accouchements is relatively high.

MAORI BIRTHS.

The number of births of Maoris registered with Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths during 1934 was 2,863 (1,522 males, 1,341 females). The births of fifty-four males and sixty-four females were registered under the main Act, and the total of 2,981 represents a rate of 41 per 1,000 of Maori population, a figure more than twice as high as the general (i.e., non-Maori) birth-rate for the year. Registrations in each of the last five years were as follows :—

 Number of Births. 
Year.Males.Females.Total.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
19301,0461,0782,12431.56
19311,1811,1312,31233.74
19321,3831,3622,74539.28
19331,5361,4122,94841.20
19341,5761,4052,98140.67
....   
....   

SUBSECTION B.—MARRIAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

MARRIAGE may be solemnized in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnized only between 8 o'clock in the forenoon and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, the limits in all cases were 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be solemnized. In the case of a person under twenty-one, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1926, sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section 8 provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If a declaration is made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in the Dominion, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has obtained in New Zealand since 1855. By this system it is ensured not only that marriages are in order, but that no legally solemnized marriage escapes registration. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnized, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars'lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether solemnization has been effected.

The marriage of a man with his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased husband's brother in 1901. Marriage with a deceased wife's niece or a deceased husband's nephew was rendered valid in 1929.

An important provision is contained in section 7 of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, which reads as follows :—

  1. Every person commits an offence against this Act, and is liable on summary conviction to a fine of one hundred pounds, who—

    1. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that any persons lawfully married are not truly and sufficiently married; or

    2. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that the issue of any lawful marriage is illegitimate or born out of true wedlock.

  2. “Alleges” in this section means making any verbal statement, or publishing or issuing any printed or written statement, or in any manner authorizing the making of any verbal statement, or in any manner authorizing or being party to the publication or issue of any printed or written statement.

  3. (3) A person shall not be deemed to make an allegation contrary to the provisions of this section by reason only of using in the solemnization of a marriage a form of marriage service which at the commencement of this Act was in use by the religious denomination to which such person belongs, or by reason only of the printing or issue of any book containing a copy of a form of marriage service in use at the commencement of this Act by any religious denomination.

An amendment to the Marriage Act in 1933 prohibited the marriage of persons under the age of sixteen years, and also made provision enabling women to become officiating ministers for the purposes of the Marriage Act.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The movement of the marriage-rate since 1855 is shown by the diagram on p. 71. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given :—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
191510,0289.12
19168,2137.47
19176,4175.84
19186,2275.65
19199,5198.33
192012,17510.21
192110,0358.69
19229,5567.63
192310,0707.90
192410,2597.90
192510,4197.84
192610,0807.90
192710,4787.62
192810,5377.58
192910,9677.78
193011,0757.77
19319,8176.79
19329,8966.80
193310,5107.16
193411,2567.62

The number of marriages celebrated in 1920 still easily holds the record, while the rate for that year is the highest experienced since 1864. The low rates for 1931 and 1932 are indicative of the effect of the period of financial stringency and depression. The recovery of 1933 probably reflects an acceptance of the unlikelihood of an early return to full prosperity and an adjustment to new standards of living. The building-subsidy scheme, promulgated by the Unemployment Board, no doubt assisted towards overcoming one barrier to marriage. The recovery continued in 1934, accompanying an improving trend in economic conditions, extending in many instances to complete or partial restoration of wage or salary “cuts.”

STANDARDIZED MARRIAGE-RATE.

Since the age-constitution of the population alters considerably over a period of years the actual marriage-rate based on the total population does not cover the whole ground. A complementary method is to ascertain the rate among unmarried females in each age-group and to standardize the results on the basis of the distribution of the unmarried female population in a basic year.

  Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Females aged 15 and over.
Year.Rate per 1,000 of Total Population.Actual.Standardized.
18816.673.980.7
18866.055.160.4
18916.048.350.3
18966.847.348.0
19017.850.249.0
19068.555.653.7
19118.759.159.1
19167.550.754.3
19218.759.763.9
19267.953.162.6

RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A comparison of the latest available rates in various countries is given in the next table.

Country.Quinquennium.Average Yearly Rate.
United States1928–329.50
Bulgaria1928–329.45
Yugoslavia1928–329.08
Union of S. Africa1928–329.04
Rumania1929–338.96
Czechoslovakia1929–338.91
Poland1929–338.84
Germany1929–338.68
Hungary1929–338.61
Belgium1928–328.48
Latvia1928–328.38
Denmark1929–338.17
France1929–337.85
Switzerland1929–337.83
Estonia1929–337.82
England and Wales1929–337.82
Chile1929–337.78
Lithuania1929–337.76
Japan1929–337.68
Austria1928–327.38
Netherlands1930–347.35
Spain1928–327.27
New Zealand1930–347.23
Portugal1928–326.99
Sweden1929–336.93
Italy1928–326.88
Scotland1929–336.84
Australia1930–346.80
Greece1928–326.74
Canada1929–336.70
Finland1929–336.59
Argentina1929–336.39
Norway1929–336.28
Uruguay1928–325.93
Northern Ireland1929–335.85
Trish Free State1929–334.55

DISTRIBUTION OF MARRIAGES OVER THE YEAR.

Annual averages for the decade 1925–34 give marriages as follows: March quarter, 2,495; June quarter, 2,960; September quarter, 2,305; December quarter, 2,804.

The Easter and Christmas seasons are apparently regarded as the most suitable times of the year for entering the matrimonial state, and, judging by the quarterly figures for an average year, Easier would appear to predominate slightly.

The marriages contracted in each month of 1934, commencing with January, were as follows: 855, 801, 1,153, 1,129, 783, 1,111, 775, 833, 736, 868, 750, 1,462; total for year, 11,256.

The 1934 proportions per cent, of the total marriages for the various days of the week were: Sunday, 0.3; Monday, 13.2; Tuesday, 11.3; Wednesday, 35.7; Thursday, 12.7; Friday, 4.6; Saturday, 22.2.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.

The total number of persons married during the year 1934 was 22,512, of whom 20,647 were single, 1,106 widowed, and 759 divorced. The figures for each of the last ten years, but showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following :—

 Single.Widowed.Divorced. 
Year.Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.Total Persons married.
19259,3839,48973360130332920,838
19269,6869,80468952130535521,360
19279,4889,64769649429433720,956
19289,5709,74265847130932421,074
19299,94410,17972145830233021,934
193010,03810,23070947632836922,150
19318,8569,02664441931737219,634
19328,9309,16264237632435819,792
19339,5199,71065640033540021,020
193410,19810,44970640035240722,512

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table :—

 Bridegrooms.Brides.
Year.Single.Widowed.Divorced.Single.Widowed.Divorced.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
192590.067.032.9191.075.773.16
192690.696.452.8691.804.883.32
192790.556.642.8192.074.713.22
192890.826.252.9392.464.473.07
192990.676.582.7592.814.183.01
193090.646.402.9692.374.303.33
193190.216.563.2391.944.273.79
193290.246.493.2792.583.803.62
193390.576.243.1992.383.813.81
193490.606.273.1392.833.553.62

During the period 1925–34 the number of divorced persons remarrying increased from 28 per 1,000 persons married to 34, an appreciable advance, and one probably in sympathy with the more liberal trend of divorce legislation. The fall in the number of widowed persons remarrying—from 64 per 1,000 persons married in 1924 to 49 per 1,000 in 1934—is due probably to the high figure in the earlier year having been an indirect outcome of the war and, to a certain extent, of the influenza epidemic.

The relative conjugal condition of bridegrooms and brides for each of the last ten years is next given:—

 Marriages between Bachelors andMarriages between Widowers andMarriages between Divorced Men and
Year.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.
19258,813336234471205572056038
19269,164280242428193682124845
19279,025244219419199782035140
19289,112249209409183662213949
19299,478234232477192522243246
19309,540245253446191722444044
19318,379217260415159702324342
19328,496195239419147762473443
19339,068187264411168772314559
19349,737185276447177822653849

Taking the whole period covered by the foregoing table, it is found that, while 3,169 divorced men remarried, the corresponding number for women was 3,581. In the case of widowed persons, however, in spite of the fact that widows greatly exceed widowers, only 4,616 widows remarried, as compared with 6,854 widowers. It would appear that in the case of divorced persons women are more likely to remarry than men, while in the case of the widowed the converse holds.

Included amongst the widows in 1934 were twenty-one women, and amongst the widowers eight men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 224, subsection (5), of the Crimes Act, which reads : “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

During the last ten years the numbers of persons married under the protection of the above subsection was 234, comprising 75 men and 159 women.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.

Of the 22,512 persons married in 1934 2,303, or 10 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age; 7,121, or 32 per cent., were returned as twenty-one and under twenty-five; 7,402, or 33 per cent., as twenty-five and under thirty; 3,868, or 17 per cent., as thirty and under forty; and 1,818 or 8 per cent., as forty years of ago or over. The following table relates to the year 1934:—

 Age of Bride, in Years. 
Age of Bridegroom, In Years.Under 2121 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.Total Bridegrooms.
Under 21234961731....351
21 and under 259131,47542140..1..2,850
25 and under 305911,9441,530226321014,334
30 and under 35159550704326811681,844
35 and under 4033138240152882411686
40 and under 45125075104815931412
45 and over10188186118130336779
Total brides1,9524,2713,06893740124038711,256

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of men and women marrying at the various age-periods. To illustrate the extent to which these figures have varied during the last three decades, a table is given showing the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 10O marriages in quinquennia from 1900 to 1934 :—

Period.Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and tinder 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.Total.
   Males.    
1900–041.6724.7538.4218.638.053.584.90100.00
1905–091.7923.4239.2518.788.473.384.91100.00
1910–141.9422.0438.0420.758.543.904.79100.00
1915–193.2621.4033.0419.6710.476.027.14100.00
1920–243.1324.6632.2117.7310.245.436.60100.00
1925–293.4928.0434.4914.337.704.487.47100.00
1930–343.4627.2837.0215.146.103.617.39100.00
   Females.    
1900–0416.9239.7527.339.263.401.531.81100.00
1905–0916.1537.1028.5310.184.211.802.03100.00
1910–1415.6034.9028.5211.575.042.052.32100.00
1915–1915.2135.0126.1711.396.062.983.18100.00
1920–2415.9935.4726.2110.665.532.983.16100.00
1925–2918.6137.8823.678.934.652.823.44100.00
1930–3418.6738.5124.798.223.852.403.56100.00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are now being celebrated at both the younger and the older age-groups.

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, after reaching its maximum in the three years 1917, 1918, and 1919, the average age has since decreased considerably. The figures for each of the last ten years are given.

MEAN AGE AT MARRIAGE.
Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
192530.3926.56
192629.8926.18
192729.9226.25
192829.8726.17
192929.8026.10
193028.4726.13
193129.8326.02
193229.7126.04
193329.7225.83
193429.8626.15

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which cover all parties and are naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides of the various conditions in each of the last five years were :—

 Bridegrooms.Brides.
Year.Bachelors.Divorced.Widowers.Spinsters.Divorced.Widows.
 Years.Years.Years.Years.Years.Years.
193026.6239.6449.4024.9236.2044.33
193128.0542.1548.2824.7835.5144.39
193227.9541.0048.3824.8536.4047.28
193327.9841.5048.8524.6536.1444.17
193428.1740.2949.0725.0635.9244.64

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age 26 held pride of place for bridegrooms and age 21 for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1934 without alteration, but in the ease of bridegrooms the most popular age is now 25.

MARRIAGES OF MINORS.

Of every 1,000 men married in 1934, 31 were under twenty-one years of age, while 173 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 234 marriages in 1934 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 1,718 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 117 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

Year.Age in Years.Total.
14.15.16.17.18.19.20.Number.Rate per 100 Marriages.
Bridegrooms.
1930....29381142253883.50
1931....1641922093493.55
1932....28441152183873.91
1933......438892093403.24
1934....24261162033513.12
   Brides,     
1930216881984165517171,98817.95
1931215982084035456981,96920.06
1932..9672064035416731,89919.19
193337731914295866881,97718.81
1934....731953985687181,95217.34

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

Of the 11,256 marriages registered in 1934, Church of England clergymen officiated at 2,873, Presbyterians at 2,992, Methodists at 1,182, and Roman Catholics at 1,294, while 2,024 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the last ten years :—

 Percentage of Marriages.
Denomination.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Church of England27.2027.5327.6827.0327.1826.9325.8225.5425.4725.52
Presbyterian26.1926.3126.7726.9127.1326.4725.7126.6326.7326.58
Methodist9.909.689.739.7710.199.899.5910.2710.5210.50
Roman Catholic11.3311.6811.1911.4511.3411.0610.7310.8111.0611.50
Other denominations4.635.075.575.264.845.165.535.846.287.92
Before Registrars20.6919.7319.0619.5819.3220.4922.6220.9119.9417.98
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that one or both of the parties are members of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the denominations.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.

The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (July, 1935) 2,091, and the denominations to which they belong are shown here-under :—

Denomination.Number.
Church of England480
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand426
Roman Catholic Church350
Methodist Church of New Zealand294
Salvation Army109
Baptists71
Associated Churches of Christ31
Congregational Independents32
Brethren19
Seventh-day Adventists12
Latter-day Saints16
Lutheran Church2
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia 
 Conference4
Churches of Christ5
Hebrew Congregations4
Catholic Apostolic Church3
Liberal Catholic Church5
Unitarians3
Assemblies of God12
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand7
Ratana Church of New Zealand137
Ringatu Church39
Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah2
Others28
Total2,091

The Ringatu Church, the Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah, and the Ratana Church of New Zealand are Maori denominations.

MAORI MARRIAGES.

In cases where both parties to a marriage are of the Native race there is no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the provisions of that Act, though the parties are at liberty to take advantage thereof. Considerable inconvenience, however, was found to exist on account of the non-registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Native Land Act, 1909, and re-enacted in 1931, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Marriage Act. Ministers solemnizing the latter class of marriages must send returns to the Registrar-General.

Returns of 532 marriages in which both parties were of the Native race were received during the year 1934. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows :—

YearUnder Native Land Act.Under Marriage Act.Total.
192535642398
192626153314
192723187318
192828597382
1929315121436
193034574419
193135879437
193251482596
193347879557
193444686532

Maori marriages are not included in the numbers shown elsewhere in this subsection, nor are they taken into account in the computation of marriage-rates.

DIVORCE.

The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation will be found in the Year-Book for 1931; the present position is outlined in the following resume.

Any married person, domiciled in New Zealand for two or more years at the time of filing the petition, may obtain a divorce on one or more of the following grounds :—

  1. Adultery.

  2. Wilful desertion for three years.

  3. Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, or self -caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.

  4. Sentence of seven years' imprisonment for attempting to murder, or for wounding or doing actual bodily harm to petitioner or child.

  5. Murder of child of petitioner or respondent.

  6. Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.

  7. Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years preceding the petition.

  8. Failure to comply with a decree of Court for restitution of conjugal rights.

  9. Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in force for three years.

  10. Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years. (An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act (which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders) and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.)

  11. Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds (i) and (j) above, her New Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in the Dominion at the date of the agreement, decree, or order.

The amending Act of 1930 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband for three years, has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition, and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

 Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Year.Petitions filed.Decrees Nisi.Decrees Absolute.Petitions filed.Decrees for Separation.Petitions Filed.Decrees for Restitution.
19257236056121247359
1926739624614828662
1927722629540419172
19287856535725310979
19298437186352..130107
19308397246201..9679
19317666835915110894
1932785653612518875
19338046836481..11877
1934839762683..19789

In 751 of the 839 cases covered by divorce petitions filed during 1934 the parties had been married in New Zealand.

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petition. Decrees may relate to petitions filed prior to 1934.

 Petitions filed.Decrees Nisi granted.Decrees Absolute granted.
Grounds.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
Adultery1125887437546
Bigamy121111
Desertion739564975284
Drunkenness, with cruelty, failure to maintain, &c.171526
Insanity535434
Malformation1..........
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights532761255126
Separation for not less than three years141260121247113219
Totals387452340422297386

The figures shown for decrees nisi include cases where both nisi and absolute decrees wore granted during the year, and those for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in 1934 or in a previous year.

In 277 of the 839 cases where petitions for dissolution were filed during 1934 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 234 cases, 2 in 172 cases, 3 in 74 cases, and 4 or more in 82 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions for dissolution were filed in the last five years:—

 Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
Duration of Marriage, in Years.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Under 566415849564239405350
5 and under 10111104103106114154135128126128
10 and under 1587908095999685124102116
15 and under 2046583756646568546379
20 and under 3059585464407461736557
30 and over21161714141711171122
Totals390367349384387448399436420452

The ratio of divorces to marriages in divers countries is illustrated by the following table comprising the latest year available in each instance.

Divorces per 100 Marriages.
United States16.3
Austria14.4
Japan10.1
Latvia9.5
Switzerland9.4
Denmark8.6
Germany8.3
New Zealand7.5
France6.6
South Africa6.4
Netherlands5.2
Finland4.9
Yugoslavia4.7
Norway4.4
Belgium4.0
Australia3.9
Czechoslovakia3.9
Portugal1.8
Scotland1.5
Canada1.4
E1ngland and Wales1.3

SUBSECTION C.—DEATHS.

COMPULSORY registration of deaths was instituted in New Zealand in 1855. As in the case of births, a system of non-compulsory registration had obtained since 1848.

Until the year 1876 the only information provided for in the death-registration entry was the date, place, and cause of death, and the name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1875, required information to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars as to burial had also to be entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act have made it requisite to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the death if in a city or borough, or seven days in any other case. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the undertaker in charge of the funeral being solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the undertaker was primarily looked to for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at the death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. It is not necessary to effect a death-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, though an entry must he made in the register of births.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of, the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, a Coroner's order to bury the body, or a Registrar's certificate of registration of the death, renders himself liable to a fine of £10.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years :—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
19159,9659.06
191610,5969.64
191710,5289.58
191816,36414.84
191910,8089.46
192012,10910.15
192110,6828.73
192210,9778.77
192311,5119.03
192410,7678.29
192511,0268.29
192611,8198.74
192711,6138.45
192811,8118.49
192912,3148.75
193012,1998.56
193112,0478.34
193211,6838.02
193311,7017.98
193412,5278.48

A long-range review of the death-rate is afforded by the graph at p. 71.

The death-rate has been maintained at an exceedingly low level for the last decade. It gradually climbed higher during the three years 1927 to 1929, reaching its maximum since 1923 in the latter year. The years following have witnessed a distinct reversal of that trend, until in 1933 the lowest death-rate in the history of the Dominion was recorded. It should be noted as a probable contributing factor that epidemics of the principal infectious diseases were conspicuously absent during those years. The low level of immediately preceding years was not maintained in 1934, owing chiefly to increases in deaths from epidemic diseases, cancer, and degenerative diseases.

The fall in the birth-rate (resulting in fewer infants at risk relatively to total population) combined with the fall in the rate of infant mortality, is also partly responsible for the position disclosed by the death-rate figures.

The death-rates of males and females for the last ten years are shown ; separately in the next table.

Deaths per 1,000 of Population.
Year.Males.Females.Total.Male Deaths to every 100 Female Deaths.Male Rate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100).
19259.097.468.29127122
19269.667.778.74130124
19279.287.588.45128123
19289.247.728.49125120
19299.657.828.75128123
19309.407.698.56127122
19319.057.598.34124119
19328.557.478.02119114
19338.707.237.98123120
19349.217.738.48124119

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR.

An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the decade 1925–34 gives the following annual averages: March quarter, 2,000 ; June quarter, 2,841 ; September quarter, 3,464; and December quarter, 2,963.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1934 the most deaths occurred during August, July, June, and November, with totals of 1,314, 1,193, 1,173, and 1,113 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January), February had the least number of deaths (769), followed by March and April, with 907 and 932 respectively.

The least number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 17, this number occurring on the 23rd January. The greatest number (60) occurred on the 14th August.

AGES AT DEATH.

The deaths occurring during 1934 are tabulated below by age:—

Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month331225556
 1–2 months462672
 3–5 months343569
 6–11 months453984
 1 year4956105
 2 years462571
 3 years29938
 4 years311647
 5–9 years7872150
10–14 years7057127
15–19 years12791218
20–24 years135122257
25–29 years151135286
30–34 years122127249
35–39 years169155324
40–44 years194192386
45–49 years312278590
 50–54 years470334804
 55–59 years556380936
 60–64 years6404671,107
 65–69 years7155631,278
 70–74 years7256091,334
 75–79 years7416011,342
 80–846355171,152
 85–89 years320318638
 90–94116123239
 95–99 years322759
100..11
101224
102112
103..11
1041..1
    Totals6,9235,60412,527

Some remarkable changes in the age-distribution of persons dying have occurred during the last fifty years. The total deaths in 1934 were more than twice as numerous as in 1884, but the number of deaths under one year in 1934 was less than half of the corresponding number recorded in 1884. This is an eloquent tribute to the efficacy of the steps taken to preserve infant life (a subject which is dealt with later on in this subsection), as during the fifty years the annual number of births increased by 23 per cent.

Turning now to deaths at ages 80 and over, a remarkable difference between the earlier and later years covered by the figures is apparent. In 1884, deaths in this group numbered only 137 or approximately 2 per cent. of the total of 5,740, while in 1934, 2,097 deaths of persons over 80 years of age were recorded, this number representing nearly 17 per cent. of the total deaths in that year. In 1914 the corresponding percentage was only 11. The figures are a reflex of the changes in the age-constitution of the population, combined with the great improvement in the death-rate at the earlier ages.

Furthermore, in 1934 the number of deaths in individual age-groups shows a gradual increase for almost every consecutive group from “10 and under 15” to “80 and over,” where the maximum is recorded. The experience of 1884, on the other hand, is very different, the number showing a falling trend after the “40–45” age-group till the minimum is attained at the penultimate age-group.

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred over a period of fifty years :—

 Number of Deaths.Percentage of Total.
Ages in Years.1884.1894.1904.1914.1934.1884.1894.1904.1914.1934.
Under 11,5731,5071,6161,45678127.4522.0219.9814.356.24
 1 and under 562149735846026110.847.264.434.532.08
 5 and under 102482241492021504.333.271.841.991.20
10 and under 151641591561181272.852.321.931.161.01
15 and under 201912522341872183.323.682.891.841.74
20 and under 252352943242882574.094.304.012.842.05
25 and under 302563043653542864.464.444.513.492.28
30 and under 352512583404042494.373.714.203.981.99
35 and under 402792963084523244.864.223.824.452.59
40 and under 453092532874273865.383.603.554.213.08
45 and under 502992823364295905.214.024.154.234.71
50 and under 553043763684758045.295.394.554.686.42
55 and under 602293963985439363.995.694.925.357.47
60 and under 651814545565811,1073.156.536.885.738.84
65 and under 702013776477511,2783.495.418.007.4010.20
70 and under 751372856811,0241,3342.384.068.4210.0910.65
75 and under 801163294508771,3422.014.715.568.6410.71
80 and over1373025141,1202,0972.384.316.3611.0416.74
Unspecified 973......0.151.06......
     Totals5,7406,9188,08710,14812,527100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The next table shows that the fall in the death-rate during recent years has been common to all ages, except age 85 and over, and to both sexes.

The table is further of interest as showing that the female rate for the various age-groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The rapid increase in the death-rate at successive age-groups is well exemplified.

DEATH-RATES PER 1,000, BY AGE-GROUPS.

Year.Under 1.1 and under 5.5 and under 15.15 and under 25.25 and under 35.35 and under 45.45 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and under 75.75 and under 85.85 and over.
Males.
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59126.26280.00
191163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22116.21281.21
192153.104.781.852.443.565'559.6119.9646.17102.84257.70
192643.553.601.302.323.334.989.3019.1549.43128.13330.54
193436.323.071.101.952.283.908.3017.8944.44120.77320.43
Females.
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32107.02285.30
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44104.84221.90
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.8194.42230.05
192635.734.001.301.953.143.987.3415.0239.26109.48284.72
193427.622.181.001.662.333.526.7313.8037.18103.58296.37
Both Sexes.
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87117.97282.52
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74111.73251.81
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.9099.00245.21
192639.763.801.302.143.234.488.3717.2244.64119.19308.76
193432.112.631.051.812.313.717.5315.9340.86112.40307.92

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex in each of the last ten years was as follows :—

Year.Males.Females,
192551.4450.15
192652.9451.14
192752.5952.35
192852.3352.68
192953.1554.27
193054.2354.47
193154.1455.48
193255.7956.05
193356.1756.45
193456.9957.75

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

For reference to, or records of, the various series of life-tables constructed on New Zealand's mortality experience, ranging from 1880 to 1922, recourse may be had to Official Year-Books for 1915, 1926, and 1927, and to the General Report on the Census of 1921. The following data on (complete) expectation of life or average after-lifetime, which are quoted by courtesy of the compilers, are from a life-table constructed by L. I. Dublin, Ph.D., and A. J. Lotka, D.Sc, of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. of New York, U.S.A., and published in the Statistical Bulletin of that company. The table is based upon New Zealand experience of the year 1931, data regarding deaths and age-constitution of the population having been supplied by the Census and Statistics Office. As the 1931 census was not taken, details of age-distribution were derived from the annual inter-censal age-estimates with a consequent potentiality of error.

Age.Males.Females.
 065.0467.88
 563.3565.30
1058.7560.67
1554.1155.88
2049.6151.28
2545.2146.80
3040.7842.45
3536.3738.14
4032.0733.80
4527.8329.45
5023.7325.24
5519.8721.13
6016.2217.30
6512.8613.82
709.8710.63
757.387.88
805.455.63
853.523.60
901.892.00
950.840.97

Expectation of life at age 0 is steadily increasing in New Zealand, and is, so far as is known, higher than that of any other country. Brief figures are quoted :—

Period.Males. Years.Females. Years.
1891–189555.2958.09
1896–190057.375995
1901–190558.0960.55
1906–191059.1761.76
1911–191560.9663.48
1921–192262.7665.43
193165.0467.88

DEATH-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

Examination of data of universal character shows that New Zealand has the lowest death-rate in the world, Australia ranking second in this respect. Rates for certain of the principal countries are quoted below.

Country.Quinquennium.Average Rate per 1,000.
* Registration area.
New Zealand1930–348.3
Australia1930–348.8
Netherlands1930–349.0
Union of South Africa1930–349.6
Canada1930–3410.0
Norway1930–3410.4
Uruguay1929–3310.5
Denmark1930–3410.8
Argentina1930–3411.3
Germany1929–3311.4
United States*1928.3211.5
Switzerland1930–3411.7
Sweden1929–3311.8
England and Wales1929–3312.3
Finland1929–3313.4
Scotland1929–3313.6
Belgium1929–3313.6
Austria1929–3313.7
Irish Free State1930.3413.9
Czechoslovakia1930–3413.9
Italy1930–3414.0
Latvia1929–3314.1
Northern Ireland1929–3314.5
Poland1930–3414.8
Lithuania1930–3414.9
Estonia1930–3414.9
Hungary1930–3415.8
France1929–3316.3
Bulgaria1928–3216.6
Spain1929–3316.9
Portugal1930–3416.9
Greece1929–3317.4
Japan1929–3318.6
Yugoslavia1929–3319.2
Rumania1929–3320.2
Ceylon1929–3323.1
Chile1930–3424.5
Egypt1927–3126.0

STANDARDIZED DEATH-RATES.

For the purpose of ascertaining the true movement of the death-rate in New Zealand, a system of standardization was introduced some years ago, the age- and sex-constitution of the population as disclosed at the census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The population and deaths of each year are divided, each sex separately, into five-yearly groups of ages (with one group only for ages 80 and over), and the rates for the various age-groups ascertained and weighted according to the proportion which the respective groups bore to the total population at the census of 1911. The following table gives both recorded and standardized rates.

 Recorded Rotes.Standardized Rates.
Year.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
187516.5615.0715.9219.0315.3617.30
188012.0510.7311.4613.8111.4712.70
188511.519.6710.6713.3810.0612.36
189010.518.689.6612.2610.1111.25
189510.818.899.9112.2610.0711.22
190010.338.439.4311.049.2910.21
190510.188.249.2710.498.619.60
191010.678.639.7110.678.469.62
191510.197.879.0610.197.879.09
192011.119.1510.1510.838.849.89
19259.097.468.298.686.777.78
19309.407.698.568.646.487.62
19349.217.738.488.016.047.08

For purposes of international comparisons, a standard population, based on the age-distribution of the population of 19 European countries at their censuses nearest to the year 1900, has been compiled by the International Institute of Statistics, and is used in the following table of New Zealand rates.

Year.Recorded Rates.International Standardized Rates.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Without Distinction between Sexes.With Distinction between Sexes.
190110.808.719.8111.8111.2111.6411.51
191110.468.219.3910.799.741O.4010.26
19219.757.668.739.658.639.239.14
19269.667.778.749.518.669.179.09
19209.657.828.759.288.398.868.78
19309.407.698.568.948.118.588.52
19319.057.598.348.557.858.248.20
19328.557.478.027.987.687.877.83
19338.707.237.988.057.297.737.67
19349.217.738.488.407.698.108.04

An interesting point brought out by the use of this method in New Zealand is that the male standardized rate has now for a number of years been actually lower than the corresponding recorded rate. In 1934 the standardized death-rate for females also reached for the first time a lower level than the recorded rate.

ORPHANHOOD.

The table following shows the number of living issue left by married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1925–34, the information being given according to age of father and of issue.

 Number of Issue left by Fathers, aged—
 Under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and over.Totals.
Age of Issue, in Years—        
Under 55421,5391,43051511113..4,150
 5 and under 101131,5722,6841,43838874126,281
10 and under 1547723,2122,9541,031242348,249
15 and under 2141313,1355,6433,31398516113,372
21 and over121,14710,40727,03243,15235,294117,035
Unspecified..4183....227
  3   Totals6644,02011,62620,96031,87544,46635,503149,114
Married men or widowers who died—        
 Leaving issue4021,6763,5855,7567,8189,1636,89235,292
 Without leaving issue1754107711,1561,4101,3979266,245
     Totals5772,0864,3566,9129,22810,5607,81841,537

Taking all deaths of married men or widowers, whether leaving issue or not it is found that the average living issue is 3.59, as compared with 3.90 for the period 1915–24.

Average numbers of issue left by married men or widowers during the decade 1925–34 were: Fathers aged under 30, 1.15; aged 30–39, 1.93; 40–49, 2.67; 50–59, 3.03 ; 60–69, 3.45; 70–79, 4.21 : 80 or over, 4.54. Averages are universally lower than in the preceding decade.

In 1934, among men who left any issue under age 16, the average number of such issue was 2.11. The average for all married men or widowers who died during the year was, however, only 0.39.

Of 854 cases where issue under 16 years of age was left by married men or widowers during 1934, a widow was also left in 803 cases, the aggregate children under 16 in these 803 cases being 1,707 and the average per widow 2.06. By the deaths of their fathers, children under 16 to the number of 44 were left without either parent, and for 7 children there was no information as to whether the mother was alive or dead.

WIDOWS LEFT BY MARRIED MEN.

Of the 41,537 married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1925–34, 10,637 were shown to have been widowers, and 30,368 to have left widows; while in the remaining 532 cases there was no information on the point. Of the married men leaving widows, 26,003 had living issue also at time of death, and 4,365 had no living issue. In 8,999 cases widowers left issue, and in 1,638 cases no issue. In 290 of the 532 cases where no information was given as to whether a widow was left there was living issue, in 235 cases there was no living issue, and in 7 cases no information as to issue was given.

INFANT MORTALITY.

New Zealand has the lowest rate of infant mortality in the world, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of large industrial undertakings, &c, and partly to legislative and educative measures, the latter both by the State and by various organizations.

The following table, giving infant mortality rates in various countries for the latest available quinquennial period, clearly shows the favourable position occupied by New Zealand :—

Country.Quinquennium.Deaths under One Year per 1,000 Births.
* Registration area.
New Zealand1930–3432
Australia1930–3443
Netherlands1930–3447
Norway1928–3248
Switzerland1930–3449
Sweden1929–3354
United States*1929–3362
England and Wales1930–3463
South Africa1930–3464
Irish Free State1930–3467
Northern Ireland1930–3475
France1930–3475
Denmark1929–3377
Germany1930–3478
Finland1929–3379
Canada1929–3382
Scotland1930–3482
Belgium1929–3390
Latvia1929–3390
Uruguay1929–3399
Estonia1929–33101
Austria1929–33104
Italy1929–33111
Spain1930–34114
Greece1929–33119
Japan1929–33127
Czechoslovakia1930–34133
Bulgaria1929–33149
Lithuania1930–34151
Hungary1930–34157
Egypt1929–33161
Ceylon1929–33168
British India1929–33176
Chile1930–34244

Not only has New Zealand had for many years the lowest rate of infant mortality in the world, but the rate for the Dominion has shown steady and rapid improvement, more particularly during the last twenty years. Much of the success achieved has been due to the activities of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children. Founded at Dunedin in 1907, this society has since extended its Plunket system throughout New Zealand, and its methods are being adopted to an ever-increasing extent in other countries.

The deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the last ten years are shown in the following table :—

 Number.Rate per 1,000 Births.
Year.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19256394861,12544.0135.6439.96
19266384941,13243.5535.7339.76
19276104701,08042.6834.5838.74
192860937598443.2528.5936.18
192954836491240.1627.7834.10
193052539992438.2830.5034.48
193152633085638.2125.6732.15
193242635177733.2229.1031.22
193345531577036.6426.4431.64
193445632578136.3227.6232.11

The infant mortality rate in New Zealand has exhibited a rapid decline (as is illustrated by the graph shown on p. 102). An extremely low (although slightly higher than in 1932 and 1933) level of 32.11 per 1,000 live births was recorded for 1934. The female rate has exhibited rather more fluctuation than the male rate.

The pronounced fall in New Zealand's infant mortality rate during the last two decades has not been accompanied by an increase in the death-rate of children between the ages of one and ten years. There has, on the contrary, been a substantial fall, as is shown by the following figures. The numbers and rates given refer to annual averages for the quinquennia mentioned.

Quinquennium.1 and under 5.5 and under 10.
Number of Deaths.Rate*Number of Deaths.Rate.*
* Per 10,000 children at ages shown.
1894–18984406818622
1899–19035047619423
1904–19084443717219
1909–1913. J 4474919318
1914–19185475326622
1919–19234654424519
1924–19284033820315
1929–19333052917513
19342612615012

The increase in 1914–18 as compared with 1909–13 is due to the fact that during the latter period New Zealand experienced several minor epidemics, principally of diphtheria. The influenza epidemic in 1918 also somewhat affected the rate.

Since 1921 a distinction has been made between legitimate and illegitimate children in the New Zealand statistics of infant mortality. The proportion of illegitimate infants among those dying within the first year of life has been found to be greater (in some years substantially so) than the proportion of illegitimate births to total births, in spite of the fact that legitimations and adoptions would tend to reduce the number which would be termed illegitimate in the death entries. The year 1930 constitutes an exception.

Year.Total Deaths under One Year.Deaths of Illegitimate Infants under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Deaths under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Births.
   Per Cent.Per Cent.
19251,125585.164.73
19261,132615.395.17
19271,080777.134.97
1928984565.695.08
1929912727.894.96
1930924475.095.12
1931856607.014.94
1932777546.955.07
1933770425.454.60
1934781415.254.77

Normally the excess of the male over the female rate of infant mortality holds for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table. The discrepancy is, however, somewhat greater in the first half of the year than in the second.

 Male Deaths per 1,000 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
Year.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
192529.895.993.724.4122.735.062.575.28
192628.744.783.686.3521.994.413.545.79
192727.925.394.135.2423.624.272.434.26
192830.464.623.984.1920.052.672.523.35
192927.484.842.864.9818.853.512.063.36
193026.765.832.193.5021.173.222.293.82
193126.954.502.334.4318.121.872.103.58
193221.993'983.353'9020.562.572.163.81
193326.893.702.663.3918.553.022.941.93
193426.373.662.713.5819.122.222.973.31

Even when the effect of the male excess among infants born is eliminated, the number of male deaths per 100 female deaths in the first month of life during the ten years 1925–34 is found to be 133; between one and three months, 144; between three and six months, 123; between six and twelve months, 114; and for the whole of the first year, 131.

The rates for the two sexes in conjunction are now given for each of the last five years.

Year.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Total under 1 Year.
193024.034.552.243.6634.48
193122.693.232.214.0232.15
193221.303.292.773.8631.22
193322.813.372.792.6731.64
193422.862.962.843.4532.11

If the deaths under one year of age are divided into two groups—viz., those occurring during the first month of life and those during the remainder of the twelve months—it will be found that the decrease disclosed for recent years when compared with earlier is very much heavier for the latter class; the explanation being that, with premature birth, congenital debility, and other causes of death due to pre-natal influences (which are responsible for the great majority of deaths during the first month), it has not been found possible to effect even an approach to the great improvements which have been brought about in regard to complaints arising from post-natal causes.

The next table shows that, whereas in 1934 the death-rate under one month of age was 23 per cent. lower than in the quinquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who have survived the first month of life was only a little more than one-seventh as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, where the Dominion formerly lost between the ages of one month and one year more than sixty children out of every thousand it lost in 1934 only nine.

 Deaths per 1,000 Births. 
Period.Under 1 Year.Under 1 Month.Between 1 and 12 Months.Deaths between 1 and 12 Months per 1,000 Children who survive 1 Month.
1881–188590.6029.7760.8362.70
1886–189084.0927.5756.5258.13
1891–189587.6030.3457.2658.93
1896–190080.0630.3849.6851.24
1901–190574.7730.6444.1345.54
1906–191069.6230.2839.3440.57
1911–191553.6329.2824.3525.05
1916–192048.6228.1620.4621.05
1921–192542.7527.4815–2715–70
1926–193036.7024.8211–8812–18
193432.1122.869.259.47

The decrease by two-thirds in the general rate, and by nearly six-sevenths in the rate between one and twelve months, and the relatively lower movement of the rate under one month, are well indicated in the accompanying diagram.

As stated above, the death-rate for infants under the age of one month has shown little improvement in recent years, while a heavy reduction has taken place in the mortality-rate after the first month of life. It would appear, therefore, that on the one hand the diseases that can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases and diseases due to faulty nourishment, &c. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them; while, on the other hand, many infants are evidently non-viable at birth. This point is accentuated by the following table, which shows the rates for further divisions of the first month of life.

DEATHS UNDER 1 MONTH PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS.

YearUnder 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.Total under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.Total under 1 Month.
19258.353.518.4220.283.021.741.3926.43
19268.573.548.3620.472.111.651.2325.46
19278.033.627.7119.363.271.721.4825.83
19288.463.718.2420.412.941.100.9925.44
19297.373.377.6618.401.831.531.5023.26
19308.363.287.4619.102.761.310.8624.03
19317.143.796.7617.692.741.470.7922.69
19326.593.506.3516.442.611.251.0021.30
19338.012.886.9917.882.631.271.0322.81
19349.093.376.2918.752.630.700.7822.86

Nearly half (221) of the 550 deaths under one month in 1934 occurred within twenty-four hours of birth, and four-fifths (456) within one week. The following table gives, for each of the last five years, detailed information as to the number of deaths at various periods of the first year of life :—

INFANT MORTALITY.—DETAILED AGES.

Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Total.
Males.
1930121431294218145030302424525
1931116641114224143824323130526
19328947863015153417432921426
1933128381024014122521331527455
19341294895391282620342916456
Females.
19301034571321791923303119399
193174376931157159272224330
19327540723516101813262521351
19336732682417132511351013315
1934923458255111313352118325
Both Sexes.
1930224882007435236953605543924
19311901011807339215333595354856
1932164871586531255230695442777
1933195701706431255032682540770
1934221821536417193933695034781

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial groups over a period of sixty years. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last quinquennia given—1872–76 and 1927–31—it is found that the general infant mortality rate shows a decline of 68 per cent., while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (95 per cent.), convulsions (95 per cent.), gastric and intestinal diseases (93 per cent.), epidemic diseases (89 per cent.), and respiratory diseases (71 per cent.). The rate for diseases of early infancy shows a decrease of only 22 per cent. in 1927–31 as compared with 1872–76. but of 26 per cent. as compared with 1917–21, and the figures indicate that some measure of success has already attended the steps taken in recent years to cope with ante-natal conditions.

The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The most striking features of the figures for the years 1927–31 in the table are the continuation of the upward trend in the death-rate for malformations, and a further drop in the rate from diseases peculiar to early infancy.

INFANT MORTALITY RATES FOR PRINCIPAL CAUSES.

Period.Epidemic Diseases.Tuberculosis.Infantile Convulsions.Respiratory Diseases.Gastric and Intestinal Diseases.Malformations.Early Infancy.Other Causes.Totals.
1872–187613.55.59.712.924.21.225.017.3109.3
1877–188110.25.27.512.319.81.421.915.393.6
1882–18869.34.77.911.819.11.225.512.391.8
1887–18918.93.76.310.518.51.324.78.882.7
1892–18909.83.36.611.016.01.424.911.284.8
1897–19016.12.65.610.017.21.526.29.778.9
1902–19065.51.54.19.715.31.327.67.972.9
1907–19115.91.33.37.615.51.926.76.368.5
1912–19163.60.62.25.17.43.926.23.552.5
1917–19213.20.51.94.74.54.326.12.948.1
1922–19261.80.41.34.32.84.822.43.341.1
1927–19311.50.30.53.71.75.019.43.135.2
19341.60.30.53.31.34.618.02.532.1

Two out of every three deaths of infants under one year of age are due to causes coming within the groups “Early Infancy” and “Malformations,” and premature birth alone is responsible for approximately one-third of the total infant mortality.

In accordance with international practice, New Zealand's infant mortality rate represents the number of deaths of infants actually born alive expressed as a proportion per 1,000 live births. This method, however, takes no account of still-births. Reference has been made in an earlier paragraph to the effect on the infant mortality rate of efforts made towards the reduction of those ante-natal influences which generally cause death to ensue during the early weeks of the first year of life. The fact that still-births are also the result of such ante-natal influences should not be lost sight of, and for this and other reasons it is of interest to compute rates for infant mortality and still-births in conjunction, as in the following table. In the computation of the rates for numbers inclusive of still-births, the latter are taken into account in both births and deaths.

DEATHS OF INFANTS UNDER ONE YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS.

 Exclusive of Still-births.Inclusive of Still-births.
Year.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192544.0135.6439.9674.7361.7268.45
192643.5535.7339.7673.2903.9068.74
192742.6834.5838.7475.4260.3168.08
192843.2528.5936.1871.2158.3865.01
192940.1627.7834.1074.1654.4164.53
193038.2830.5034.4870.1558.9164.67
193138.2125.6732.1567.3453.5760.80
193233.2229.1031.2264.5853.8959.42
193336.6429.4631.6467.9350.7459.55
193436.3227.6232.1165.1451.7958.70

The still-birth rate in New Zealand has shown a falling tendency in recent years, and this, combined with the falling infant mortality rate, has resulted in a steady improvement in the rata for all infant deaths, including still-births. Although the number of infant deaths showed a slight increase for 1934 compared with 1933, the comparatively heavy decline in the number of still-births more than counteracted this influence upon the total rate, which for 1934 shows an appreciable fall. Whereas, however, the rate computed on the usual method indicates a decrease of 20 per cent. during the period covered by the table, the inclusion of still-births reduces the improvement to 14 per cent.

CAUSES OF DEATH.

Since 1908, the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon and used by the principal European and American countries and the Commonwealth of Australia.

A comparison of the causes of deaths in 1934, arranged according to an abridged classification, and the proportion per 10,000 of population of each sex, are given in the following table. The classification adopted is in accordance with the Fourth Revision (1929) of the International List of Causes of Death.

 Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Class.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
    I. Infectious and parasitic diseases5954831,0787.916.667.30
   II. Cancer and other tumours8929051,79711.8612.4812.16
  III. Rheumatic diseases, diseases, of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases1342784121.783.842.79
  IV. Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs69541230.920.740.83
   V. Chronic poisonings and intoxications10..100.13..0.07
   VI. Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense4975291,0266.617.306.94
    VII. Diseases of the circulatory system2,0631,6883,75127.4423.2825.40
   VIII. Diseases of the respiratory system5283628907.024.996.02
   IX. Diseases of the digestive system3642335974.843.214.04
   X. Diseases of the genito-urinary system4453117565.924.295.12
   XI. Pregnancy, labour, and the puerperal state..118118..1.630.80
  XII. Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue1913320.250.180.22
 XIII. Diseases of the bones and of organs of locomotion187250.240.100.17
 XIV. Congenital malformations83691521.100.951.03
   XV. Early infancy2621754373.492.412.96
 XVI. Senility2562004563.412.763.09
 XVII. Violence or accident6691748438.902.405.71
XVIII. Causes not determined195240.250.070.16
Totals6,9235,60412,52792.0777.2984.81

Class VII, diseases of the circulatory system, the principal of which—diseases of the heart—rank easily first among individual causes of death in New Zealand, is the most important as regards numerical strength. Next in order comes Class II (cancer and other tumours).

The next table shows the number of deaths from certain principal causes.

 Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Cause.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Typhoid fever7811610.050.060.080.040.01
Measles2....17460.01....0.120.31
Scarlet fever16116480.110.080.040.030.05
Whooping-cough33364418400.230.250.300.120.27
Diphtheria58554027260.410.380.270.180.18
Influenza131221671031860.921.530.460.701.26
Infantile paralysis5519820.040.030.130.050.01
Tuberculosis of respiratory system5295014884764913.713.473.353.243.32
Other forms of tuberculosis1201161271351300.840.800.870.920.88
Cancer1,4521,4931,4721,6241,69910.1910.3310.1111.0711.50
Diabetes2232272292292501.571.571.571.561.69
Anæmia, chlorosis38505149510.270.350.350.330.35
Exophthalmic goitre51545262670.360.370.360.420.45
Meningitis (all forms)70413927300.490.280.270.180.20
Apop1exy, cerebral hæmorrhage6596346116777294.624.394.204.624.94
Epilepsy56554133510.390.380.280.280.35
Convulsions of children under 5 years of age1314310170.090.100.020.020.11
Diseases of the heart2,8972,8172,9353,0983,34820.3319.5020.1521.1222.67
Diseases of the arteries4324204444113793.032.913.072.802.57
Bronchitis2682032071772171.881.401.421.211.47
Broncho-pneumonia2181802261802171.531.251.551.231.47
Pneumonia4293262782422563.012.261.911.651.73
Diarrhœa and enteritis77746760580.540.510.460.410.39
Appendicitis991051011081160.700.730.690.740.78
Hernia, intestinal obstruction958494111960.670.580.640.760.65
Cirrhosis of liver44433733470.310.300.260.220.32
Simple peritonitis35261918160.250.180.130.120.11
Nephritis, Brighter's disease5675795805615603.984.013.983.823.79
Diseases and accidents of puerperal state1361271011081180.960.880.690.740.80
Malformations1701441881561521.191.001.291.061.03
Congenital debility53322428270.370.220.160.190.18
Premature birth3072912252562672.152.011'551.751.81
Injury at birth62786475650.440.540.440.510.44
Other diseases of early infancy90779486780.630.530.650.590.53
Senility4184264393374562.932.953.022.303.09
Violence (1) suicide1932262402001811.351.561.651.361.23
Violence (2) accident7739266636096425.426.414.554.154.35
Violence (3) homicide11132514200.080.090.170.100.13
Other causes1,3621,3291,3321,3281,3879.559.199.149.069.39
Totals121991204711683117011252785.6083.3880.2379.7784.81

Detailed information concerning the various causes of death is given in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.” The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violence—causes which are of special interest and significance—are discussed in the following pages.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Tuberculosis of the respiratory system takes sixth place in point of the number of deaths resulting therefrom during 1934, ranking after heart-disease, cancer, cerebral hæmorrhage and apoplexy, accidents, and nephritis, in that order. The remarkably low level of 3.24 per 10,000 was reached in 1933, the lowest ratio yet attained in this country; the 1934 figure (3.32 per 10,000) is below that of any year except 1933.

A graph on the succeeding page illustrates the decline in the tuberculosis death-rate since 1875.

Of the 491 persons who died from tuberculosis of the respiratory system in 1934, 360, or 73 per cent., were known to have been born in the Dominion. In 2 cases the country of birth was not known or not stated, and in the remaining 129 cases the deceased person had been born outside New Zealand. Two of the last-mentioned had been in New Zealand less than three years, and 5 less than five years.

In addition to the 491 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1934, there were 130 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, including—

Tuberculosis of meninges and central nervous system54
Tuberculosis of intestines and peritoneum17
Tuberculosis of vertebral column15
Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system9
Disseminated tuberculosis29

Tuberculosis claims its victims at a comparatively early age. Of those dying from this cause in 1934, persons under the age of twenty years formed 14 per cent., and those under forty-five years 60 per cent.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM TUBERCULAR DISEASES, 1934.

Ages, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5201030
 5 and under 105611
10 and under 155611
15 and under 20122537
20 and under 25243862
25 and under 30335386
30 and under 35343670
35 and under 40292150
40 and under 45312051
45 and under 50321749
50 and under 55361854
55 and under 6031738
60 and under 6519423
65 and under 70141024
70 and under 758614
75 and under 806410
80 and over..11
Totals339282621

The average annual death-rate from tubercular diseases in certain of the principal countries of the world during the latest available period of five years is next shown.

Country.Period.Death-rates (per 10,000).
* Registration area.
New Zealand1930–344.3
Union of South Africa1929.334.4
Australia1929–334.9
Ceylon1929–336.5
Netherlands1930–346.5
Denmark1928–327.1
United States*1928.327.2
Canada1929–337.3
Scotland1929–338.7
England and Wales1929–338.8
Belgium1925–299.7
Germany1924–2810.0
Italy1928–3210.6
Switzerland1929–3312.0
Northern, Ireland1929–3312.1
Sweden1928–3212.5
Irish Free State1929–3312.7
Spain1926–3013.9
Uruguay1925–2914.3
Lithuania1925–2914.5
Greece1923–2715.4
Czechoslovakia1929–3316.0
France1927–3116.3
Austria1925–2916.4
Norway1924–2817.4
Japan1929–3318.7
Hungary1929–3319.5
Estonia1925–2923.2
Finland1924–2824.4
Chile.1925–2924.5

CANCER.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. The increasing prevalence of cancer is causing no little concern in the Dominion, as indeed it is throughout the civilized world.

The following diagram illustrates, on the one hand, the increase in the cancer death-rate, and, on the other, the decrease in the rate of deaths from tuberculosis :—

In 1934 there were 1,699 deaths from cancer in the Dominion, a proportion of 11.50 per 10,000 of population. The standardized cancer death-rate for 1934 shows an increase of 0.14, while the recorded death-rate shows an increase of 0.43 per 10,000.

Year.Number of Deaths from Cancer.Recorded Death-rate.Standardized Death-rate.*
* On basis of age distribution in 1911.
19251,2079.087.88
19261,3419.918.62
19271,3249.638.16
19281,3749.888.18
19291,46710.438.53
19301,45210.198.16
19311,49310.338.14
19321,47210.117.77
19331,62411.078.34
19341,69911.508.48

The following table shows the proportion of deaths from cancer to the 10,000 of mean population in some of the principal countries of the world. The rates are an annual average of the latest available period of five years.

CANCER DEATH-RATES IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES.

Country.Period.Death-rate per 10,000 of Population.
* Registration area.
Ceylon1929–330.9
Greece1923–272.4
Lithuania1925–293.0
Chile1925–294.8
Italy1928–326.7
Spain1926–306.9
Japan1929–336.9
Uruguay1925–297.7
Estonia1925–297.8
Union of South Africa1929–338.6
Belgium1925–298.8
Canada1929–339.4
France1927–319.5
United States*1928–329.8
Australia1929–3310.1
Hungary1929–3310.2
New Zealand1930–3410.6
Irish Free State1929–3311.0
Czechoslovakia1929–3311.6
Germany1924–2811.6
Norway1924–2811.8
Sweden1926–3011.9
Northern Ireland1929–3312.1
Netherlands1930–3412.4
Switzerland1929–3314.1
Denmark1928–3214.3
England and Wales1929–3314.8
Austria1925–2914.8
Scotland1929–3314.9

The following summary shows the types of cancer returned in the death entries for the year 1934.—

Type.Deaths.
Males.Females.Total.
Carcinoma7147381,452
Adeno-carcinoma121325
Sarcoma272855
Lympho-sarcoma12113
Melanotic-sarcoma314
Myxo-sarcoma112
Fibro-sarcoma112
Osteo-sarcoma2..2
Chondro-sarcoma..11
Epithelioma441256
Hypernephroma639
Scirrhus cancer..1919
Chloroma1..1
Myelomata1..1
Rodent ulcer527
Endothelioma314
Cancer7512
Malignant ulcer112
Malignant tumour8715
Malignant papilloma448
Malignant disease336
Malignant growth..33
Totals8558441,699

The parts of the body most commonly attacked in New Zealand are the stomach and liver. Among females the genital and mammary organs rank high as the seat of the disease. Full details of location are published in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.” A summary for 1934 gives results as under:—

Seat of Disease.Males.Females.Total.
Buccal cavity and pharynx701080
Digestive tract and peritoneum513375888
Respiratory organs512071
Uterus..113113
Other female genital organs..7474
Breast1189190
Urinary organs and male genital organs14221163
Skin24327
Other or unspecified organs543993
Totals8558441,699

Ninety-one per cent. of the deaths from cancer during 1934 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 62 per cent. at ages 60 years and upwards. Females predominate generally at the younger, and males at the older, ages.

Exhaustive statistical inquiry covering the period from 1872 to date tends to show that in New Zealand death from cancer is, on the average, now occurring later in life than formerly. It would seem that this is the case even if allowance be made for the fact that the age-constitution of the Dominion is increasing—i.e., that the average citizen of New Zealand is now older than the average citizen of ten, twenty, or fifty years ago.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER. 1934.

Ages, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5325
 5 and under 10516
10 and under 15112
15 and under 20314
20 and under 25527
25 and under 30358
30 and under 3541317
35 and under 40122335
40 and under 45194968
45 and under 503877115
50 and under 558596181
55 and under 6091105196
60 and under 65118119237
65 and under 70134114248
70 and under 75136103239
75 and under 809274166
80 and over10659165
Totals8558441,699

PUERPERAL CAUSES.

In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance.

During the 44-year period from 1872 to 1915 the death-rate from puerperal causes exceeded 5 per 1,000 live births on only 14 occasions, but after 1915 did not fall below this figure until 1925. The rate for 1920 (when the proportion of first births was high) was the third highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885, but the highest rate since 1920 has been 5.14 per 1,000 recorded in 1922. The rate for each of the last twenty years is as follows :—

YearProportion per 1,000 Live Births.
19154.70
19165.86
19175.98
19185.18
19195.06
19206.48
19215.08
19225.14
19235.11
19245.00
19254.65
19264.25
19274.91
19284.93
19294.82
19305.08
19314.77
19324.06
19334.44
19344.85

Commencing with 1916, special inquiry has been made in all cases where a woman of child-bearing age has been returned as having died of such causes as septicæmia, peritonitis, nephritis, &c. (without qualification), with the result that in each year several of such cases are found to be puerperal, and are now so classed. During 1928 the system of investigating possible puerperal cases was still further extended, and this would tend to maintain the death-rate from these causes on the high level recorded in 1927. The rate of 4.06 in 1932 was the lowest since 1913, and the somewhat higher rate of 4.85 in 1934 still compares very favourably with those for most of the years covered by the table.

The rate of deaths from puerperal causes is frequently, though not quite accurately, referred to as “the maternal death-rate.” It should be noted, however, that the class provided for puerperal causes in the international classification covers all deaths from accidents and diseases of pregnancy and parturition, and is not limited to deaths resulting from accouchements of normal women after more or less normal pregnancies. If it were possible to exclude certain types of puerperal cases a true maternal death-rate would result—considerably lower than that shown for all puerperal accidents and diseases. Full distinction cannot, however, be made, but it may be mentioned that the 118 deaths from puerperal causes during 1934 included 47 from abortion, of which 42 became septic cases. Including these 42 deaths from septic abortion there were 59 deaths from puerperal septicæmia in 1934.

The next table shows the deaths from puerperal causes during each of the last five years, classified in the divisions into which such causes are divided in the international classification. In recent years there has occurred a marked increase in the number of deaths from septic abortion, whereas deaths from puerperal septicæmia, exclusive of septic abortion, show a definite fall. The death-rate for all puerperal septicæmia cases (including septic abortion) was 2.43 per 1,000 live births in 1934 as against 1.64 per 1,000 in 1933. Over the last five years puerperal septicæmia, including septic abortion, was responsible for 26 per cent. of the total deaths from puerperal causes.

 Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.
Group.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Abortion with septic conditions30292626421.121.091.041.071.73
Abortion without septic conditions specified678750.220.260.320.290.20
Ectopic gestation463540.150.220.120.210.16
Other accidents of pregnancy....611....0.240.040.04
Puerpeal hæmorrhage1168990.410.230.320.370.37
Puerperal septicæmia27181314171.010.680.520.570.70
Puerperal albuminuria and eclampsia28321720151.051.200.680.820.62
Other toxæmias of pregnancy8669150.300.230.240.370.02
Puerperal phlegmasia alba dolens, embolus, sudden death15116660.560.410.240.250.25
Other accidents of childbirth4471140.150.150.290.450.16
Other conditions of the puerperal state381....0.110.300.05....
Totals1361271011081185.084.774.064.444.85

A table showing the rate per 1,000 births of deaths from puerperal septicæmia (including septic abortion) and other puerperal causes separately in some of the principal countries of the world is given in the following table. New Zealand now occupies a more favourable position in international comparison than was the case a few years ago.

DEATHS FROM PUERPERAL CAUSES IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

  Death-rate per 1,000 Births from
Country.Period.Puerperal Septicæmia.Other Puerperal Causes.All Puerperal Causes.
* Registration area.
Uruguay1925–291.660.842.50
Japan1929–330.761.912.67
Denmark1925–291.041.742.78
France1927–311.061.742.80
Italy1928–321.061.782.84
Norway1924–281.011.862.87
Sweden1927–311.581.583.16
Netherlands1930–341.012.173.18
Hungary1929–331.941.583.52
Spain1926–302.151.623.77
England and Wales1929–331.762.554.31
Estonia1925–290.693.634.32
Czechoslovakia1929–332.391.944.33
Switzerland1929–331.672.754.42
Irish Free State1929–331.343.244.58
New Zealand1930–341.902.744.64
South Africa1929–332.672.405.07
Germany1924–282.712.475.18
Northern Ireland1929–331.573.655.22
Canada1929–331.843.465.30
Australia1929–331.993.325.31
Lithuania1925–290.365.005.36
Belgium1925–293.142.705.84
Chile1925–292'094.046.13
Scotland1929–332.423.976.39
United States*1928–322'524.326.84

DEATHS FROM VIOLENCE.

Deaths from violence, apart from suicide, claim approximately 5 per cent. of the total deaths. Violent deaths in each of four years at quinquennial intervals are given in the next table.

 Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000,000 of Mean Population.
Causes of Death.1919.1924.1929.1934.1919.1924.1929.1934.
Homicide51192048613
Accidental causes—        
  Poisoning17613815595
  Conflagration8819776145
  Burns and scalds3136352627282518
  Died under anæsthetic, asphyxia, &c.213010161823711
  Drowning1291691261211131309082
  Firearms221119261981418
  Falls50618010144485768
  In mines and quarries1413171812101212
  Crushing137198306245120152217166
  Injuries by animals11114510833
Fractures (causes not specified)482589421966
  Other8853886077426241
Totals581632734662508487522448

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1934 was 642, corresponding to a rate of 4.35 per 10,000 of population. Although this represents, by comparison with 1919, an increase of 66 in the number of deaths, the death-rate has declined by 0.69 per 10,000 of population. Noticeable decreases are shown for drowning, deaths under anæsthetic, asphyxia, &c, and fractures (causes not specified). Part of the large increase between 1919 and 1934 in the death-rate from accidental falls is due to fuller information being obtained in a proportion of cases formerly classified under the heading of “fractures (causes not specified).”

In view of the steady rise in the number of deaths attributable to transport accidents, it is advisable to reduce the figures and rates to their respective headings. In classifying deaths under these various subheadings the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway-trains and electric tram-cars with motor-vehicles the death is assigned to the railway-train or electric tram-car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor-vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles the death is assigned to the motor-vehicle.

In the following table the number and rate of deaths from traumatism by railways, tramways, and motor-vehicles during each of the last ten years are given.

 Deaths from Traumatism byRate per Million of Population.
Year.Railways.Tramways.Motor-vehicles.Railways.Tramways.Motor-vehicles.
192543810832681
192653171493913110
1927428138316100
19284410176327127
1929495178354127
1930638220446154
1931409159286110
1932279159196109
193331712021582
1934315152213113

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents record an appreciable increase up to 1930, but this trend has been reversed in subsequent years. The figures are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor-vehicles and trains or trams. For 1934 there were 11 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor-vehicle was an agent up to 163. The corresponding figure for 1933 was 130. Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

SUICIDES.

The suicidal deaths in 1934 numbered 181—males 142, females 39—the death-rate per 10,000 of mean population being 1.23.

Year.Number of Suicidal Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
 Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
1930156371932.150.531.35
1931196302262.650.421.36
1932194462402.610.421.65
1933156442002.090.611.36
1934142391811.890.541.23

The proportion of suicidal deaths is gradually increasing, as is evidenced by the following table presenting, for annual averages of various quinquennial, the suicide-rate per 10,000 of mean population :—

Annual average duringMales.Females.Both Sexes.
1895–991.480.310.93
1900–041.660.311.02
1905–091.620.341.02
1910–141.830.411.16
1915–191.790.401.10
1920–241.920.461.20
1925–292.170.561.38
1930–342.280.551.43

A comparison of the average annual rates for the latest quinquennial periods available for the undermentioned countries is as follows :—

Country.Quinquennium.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
* Registration area
Chile1925–290.32
Irish Free State.1929–330.35
Spain1926–300.53
Northern Ireland.1929–330.53
Ceylon1929–330.59
Norway1928–320.67
Lithuania1925–290.67
Netherlands1930–340.84
Canada1929–330.93
Italy1928–320.94
Scotland1929–331.02
Uruguay1925–291.13
South Africa1929–331.21
Australia1929–331.26
England and Wales1929–331.33
New Zealand1930.341.43
United States*1928–321.52
Belgium1925.291.52
Sweden1928–321.55
Finland1925–291.65
Denmark1928–321.76
France1927–311.89
Japan1928–322.16
Germany1924–282.45
Estonia1925–292.48
Switzerland1929–332.64
Greece1923–272.72
Czechoslovakia1929–332.95
Hungary1929–333.22
Austria1925–293.45

MAORI DEATHS.

Deaths of Maoris are not. included in the statistics quoted in preceding pages of this subsection. Their omission is due principally to the fact that a considerably lower standard of accuracy and completeness of data exists in the case of Maori registrations than in the general death records. Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last five years have been as follows :—

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Maori Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
193049345394614.0514.0714.06
19315284871,01514.8014.8314.81
19326195731,19217.0217.1017.06
19336135481,16116.4615.9716.22
19346606231,28317.3117.7217.51

The average annual rate over the last live years was 16 per 1,000 as compared with S per 1,000 in the case of the non-Maori population.

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in four of the five years shown above.

Until recently, the only statistics available concerning Maori deaths were merely numbers of deaths according to sex. A tabulation was, however, made in 1925 for the five years 1920–24 on the basis of age and cause of death, and summarized statistics were prepared and published in the 1926 and 1927 numbers of the Year-Book. Annual tabulations are now made, and the statistics for the year 1934 may be found in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.” The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the year 1934 are as follows —

Age, In Years.Males.FemalesTotal
Under 1150129279
1 and under 510692198
5 and under 10342963
10 and under 15293160
15 and under 20303060
20 and under 25364082
25 and under 30302353
30 and under 35112435
35 and under 40151429
40 and under 45201636
45 and under 50242246
50 and under 55161346
55 and under 60262046
60 and under 65192342
65 and under 70.292352
70 and under 75.222143
75 and under 80.171532
80 and under 85.191635
85 and under 90.9716
90 and under 95.7714
95 and under 100...33
100 and over31417
Unspecified8513
Totals6606231,283

With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever (only 4 deaths of Maoris from this disease being recorded during the last ten years), epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the general population, the most noteworthy example being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhoeal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the European population. Principal among these are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis, the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral haemorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many infants may be partly responsible. The figures of deaths from malformations and the group “early infancy” taken in conjunction (the pre-natal causes) indicate a much higher rate for Maoris from these diseases as a whole than for Europeans.

A summary is here given showing deaths from the principal causes and groups of causes.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Hate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1930.1931.1932.1933.934.
Typhoid fever12141011101.782.041.431.541.37
Measles1....14130.15....1.961.77
Whooping-cough596217270.741.318.872.383.69
Diphtheria143200.150.580.430.280.27
Influenza24412919463.575.984]52.666.28
Dysentery128610101.781.170.861.401.36
Pulmonary tuberculosis19122224020424128.3832.4034.3528.5132.88
Other forms of tuberculosis38295155545.654.237.307.097.37
Cancer19212527212.823.073.583.772.87
Cerebral hemorrhage6141516160.891.902.152.232.18
Convulsions (under five years)1523121872.233.361.722.510.96
Heart-diseases6961738610910.258.9010.4512.0214.87
Bronchitis31153730284.612.195.294.193.82
Broncho-pneumonia46395167756.845.697.309.3610.23
Pneumonia838911412016212.3312.9916.3116.7722.10
Diarrhoea and enteritis37253322285.503.654.723.073.82
Nephritis861314141190.881.861.961.91
Senility797892838411.7411.3813.1711.5911.46
Violence—          
Suicide71271081.041.751.001.401.09
Accident59587856728.778.4711.107.829.82
Homicide......22......0.280.27
Cold, cough, chest trouble, &c.3148210.451.461.140.280.14
Stomach trouble, internal trouble, &c.....151....0.140.700.11
Ill-defined or not specified15573829262.238.325.444.053.55
Other causes18517619424222627.4926.4227.7633.8230.84
Totals9461,0151,1921,1611,283140.58148.14170.58162.24175.06

As stated earlier, the records of Maori births and deaths are not nearly so accurate and complete as those covering the non-Maori population. This is particularly the case as regards causes of deaths, in spite of the fact that considerable improvement has been effected in the last few years.

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or Coroner's inquest. As a further indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925, out of a total of 8G7 deaths, 446 or 51 per cent. were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1934 the proportion so certified was 812 out of 1,283 registrations, equivalent to 63 per cent.

As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher than the European, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhoeal diseases. The infant mortality rate for the first year of life was, for the ten years 1925–34, 104 per 1,000 births in the case of Maoris, as compared with 35 per 1,000 among European infants, and this in spite of the fact that for the first month of life the Maori rate (22) was lower than the European rate (24). Among Maori infants who survived the first month, the death-rate during the succeeding eleven months was 82 per 1,000, as compared -with only 11 per 1,000 in the case of Europeans.

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last ten years are given in the next table, together with a comparison with the European figures.

Year.Maoris.Europeans.
Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Births.Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Births
1925184107.231,12539.96
1926180117.191,13239.76
1927236157.861,08038.74
1928218118.1698436.18
192917478.5291234.10
193011888.5192434.48
193122195.5985632.15
193226295.4577731.22
193327392.6177031.64
193427993.5978132.11

The next table shows for the last decade principal causes of deaths of Maori infants under 1 year, classified according to age.

Causes of DeathsUnder 1 Day.1 Day and Under 2 Days.2 Day and Under 1 Weeks.1 Week and Under 2 Weeks.2 Week and Under 3 Weeks.3 Week and Under 1 Months.1 Months and Under 2 Months.2 Months and Under 3 Months.3 Months and Under 6 Months.6 Months and Under 9 Months.9 Months and Under 12 Months.Total
Typhoid fever........1......11..3
Measles............2..481226
Whooping-cough Influenza......1432216363025137
Diphtheria..............1....34
Tuberculosis........212618264095
Venereal disease..21..........2117
Infantile convulsions..13224671135879
Bronchitis..1..23399342229112
Broncho-pneumonia....11222117536259218
Pneumonia....37631926102104109379
Other respiratory diseases....183124791146
Diseases of the stomach..........123691132
Diarrhoea and enteritis..112251212473442158
Hernia, intestinal obstruction......1....3264..16
Congenital malformations...555435654143
Congenital debility, &c.1617161618112613342723217
Injury at birth7..42..12......218
Premature birth753639221778252..213
Other causes peculiar to early infancy1110138434111157
Accident1..13....31213121257
Other defined causes2....2211011224221113
Unspecified or ill-defined13..32241179547
Total11376888674551721604644814462215

SUBSECTION D.—MORBIDITY.

INTRODUCTORY.

DEATH-RATES are of great value as indicating the relative healthiness of different countries or for different years. The statistics of causes of registered deaths are of further use as showing the incidence of fatal diseases or accidents, and as indicating in a general way the relative rise or fall of diseases over a series of years. For instance, the fall in the incidence of tuberculosis and the increase in cancer (discussed in Subsection C of this section) can be readily traced from the records of deaths- attributed to these causes in different years.

In comparisons of healthiness based on death-rates, however, the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years is not taken into account. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now give a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally.

Of recent years much attention has been devoted in different countries to the possibility or otherwise of obtaining reliable statistics of morbidity. In New Zealand certain diseases are notifiable, but beyond this and the statistics of industrial accidents given in Section XLI practically the only record other than that of fatality is the information ascertainable from the returns of discharges from public hospitals. The sickness experience of friendly societies' members is mentioned briefly in Section XXIX. In the absence of full statistics of sickness, however, information from the sources mentioned is of considerable value, and gives a fair indication of the prevalence of the more important diseases.

NOTIFICATIONS OF DISEASES.

Notifications of notifiable diseases during 1934 are shown for each month of the year in the following table :—

Disease.January.February.March.April.May.June.July.August.September.October.November.December.Total.
Scarlet fever515363859166837446733641762
Diphtheria352838404157543330273122436
Enteric fever266610252435..51
Pulmonary tuberculosis587367587074756968806264824
Cerebro-spinal meningitis1..1..261..33..219
Acute poliomyelitis..3122..1l..2l114
Pneumonic influenza31243618104611371
Erysipelas161419242218312420181914239
Puerperal fever—             
  Ordinary1317813111491199113128
  Following abortion9916171513181016151518171
Eclampsia835231011810108381
Tetanus41332..1....12424
Hydatids34413122354335
Trachoma....1..1..1..........3
Ophthalmia neonatorum122232122..l..18
Lethargic encephalitis21111....1..41214
Food poisoning21511....2........5677
Dysentery211012..1....11120
Undulant fever22332323235434
Actinomycosis..1................1..2
Leprosy..........................
Lead poisoning......1................1
Phosphorus poisoning..........................
Anthrax............1..........1
Totals2122202552742842723172502172662142413,022

The foregoing figures are exclusive of notifications of diseases of Maoris, figures for whom are far from complete. The following show the notifications of principal diseases in regard to Maoris during 1934: Diphtheria, 11; enteric fever, 89; tuberculosis, 103; influenza, 20; puerperal fever, 15; trachoma, 12; bacillary dysentery, 14; other, 23; and total, 287.

A quinquennial summary of notifications of certain principal diseases is now- given. Substantial proportionate decreases, as compared with 1933, are recorded during 1934 for diphtheria, enteric fever, and acute poliomyelitis. For the first time during the period covered by the table notifications of puerperal fever and septic abortion show considerable increase.

Disease.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Scarlet fever2,2441,304829783762
Diphtheria1,4401,327802963436
Enteric fever14916119510651
Pulmonary tuberculosis1,2441,109904890824
Cerebro-spinal meningitis3022161219
Acute poliomyelitis12251484314
Erysipelas322233233226239
Puerperal fever and septic abortion319293252220299

Information as to case-fatality in regard to the three first-mentioned disease above is given in the next table for each of the last ten years :—

 DiphtheriaScarlet Fever.Enteric Fever.
Year.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.
......Per Cent.....Per Cent....Per Cent.
19251,518523.431,02570.68278165.76
19261,975663.341,58380.50302196.29
19271,446584.102,185160.7327011407
19281,600724.506,127550.90290165.52
19291,687925.454,848270.56278227.91
19301,440584.032,244160.7114974.70
19311,327554.141,304110.84161106.21
1932802404.9982960.72195115.64
1933963272.8078340.5110665.66
1934436265.9676281.055111.96

Although diphtheria was more prevalent in 1933 than in 1934, its virulence was more than doubled in 1934 according to the case-fatality rate. Both diphtheria and scarlet fever record the highest fatality rate for the period in 1934.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS : PATIENTS TREATED.

The public hospitals to which the following statistics relate include all those hospitals under the control of the various Hospital Boards; two hospitals which are also old people's homes (Greytown and Reefton); five special infectious diseases hospitals; the various tuberculosis institutions and special sanatoria (including Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer, and King George V Hospital, Rotorua); and such public maternity hospitals as have also provision for emergency general cases. All St. Helens Hospitals, private hospitals, and solely maternity hospitals, are excluded.

During the year 1934 the total admissions to public hospitals in New Zealand numbered 83,473. There were 4,612 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year being thus 88,085, equal to 568 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris; or, in other words, an equivalent to one person out of every eighteen in the Dominion receiving some degree of treatment in public hospitals in 1934.

A table is appended showing for each of the last five years the total number of patients treated, and the proportion of population :—

Year.Total Patients treated.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
193081,065543
193179,176523
193279,143519
193383,817545
193488,085568

The figures of patients treated in public hospitals disclose the extent to which the public generally are taking advantage of the facilities for medical treatment which are placed at their disposal by the various public hospitals.

The above figures relate only to indoor patients treated in public hospitals, and if there be added the number of out-patients (vide Section VB) treated by the public hospitals (96,535) during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1934), the number of patients treated in private hospitals, and those persons receiving medical treatment in their own homes, &c, it will probably be found that at least one out of every ten persons in the population was under medical treatment during the year. These figures do not cover the whole field of sickness, as there is also to be considered the large number of minor complaints the condition of which did not warrant the calling-in of a medical practitioner.

Up to the close of 1929 patients (i.e., in-patients) treated in public hospitals had shown marked increases annually, not alone in numerical totals but also in ratio o population. The three years subsequent to 1929 reversed this position by recording successive declines in both number and ratio to population.

Some part of this decline may be attributed to a diminution in the incidence of the principal epidemic diseases, in particular scarlet fever, and, though in lesser extent, diphtheria. The special fever hospitals in the large centres were virtually empty during those years, and in one case actually closed. Another partial explanation may be in changes of administration policy by some controlling authorities.

The significance of the coincidence of the downward movement with the progress of the depression commencing in 1930 suggests that the major cause is inherent in the direct and indirect phenomena of the depression. The latter may include the possibility that some of the enforced changes in living conditions (e.g., change to outdoor work) may have resulted in improved health.

Comparative impoverishment may in some instances have acted as a deterrent where normally such persons would have entered hospitals for treatment. For similar reasons others might become out-patients instead of in-patients.

Whatever the validity of the explanations suggested, there have occurred the remarkable increase of 11,000 in the out-patients treated at public hospitals in 1932 and a further similar increase in 1933. In 1934, however, the total of out-patients treated decreased by 1,100. Many hospitals, especially in large centres, have assisted examinations connected with unemployment relief, &c, and this may have had considerable effect in increasing the number of out-patients prior to 1934. The decline between 1929 and 1932 in the number of in-patients, it will be observed, is due chiefly to males, their numbers in 1932 being exceeded by females for the first time. The fall was checked in 1933, which recorded a rise of over 4,000 in the number of in-patients treated, followed by a further increase of over 4,000 in 1934, the increase being spread over the majority of the most important diseases treated. Lowering of fees in some cases, slightly improved financial conditions, extended period of depression with effect on health of poorer classes, &c, may all be contributory factors. Substantial increases of patients suffering from measles (300 increase), influenza (800), pneumonia (350), appendicitis (300), and external causes (600) contribute largely to the increase of in-patients for 1934 over 1933.

From figures given in the Appendix to the Annual Report of the Department of Health, it would appear that the average duration in hospital in respect of each admission was approximately twenty-four days. On this basis, sickness as represented by treatment in the public hospitals alone aggregated approximately 302.0CO weeks for the year 1934. This aggregate, however, represents only a little more than one day for each person in the Dominion.

CONDITION ON DISCHARGE.

Of the 88,085 persons treated as in-patients in public hospitals in 1934, 52,791 were discharged as recovered, 22,793 as relieved, and 3,428 as unrelieved. Deaths in hospital numbered 4,383, and 4,690 patients were still in hospital at the end of the year.

The numbers of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the last five years are—

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Dealths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.RelievedUnrelieved.
193076,02449,94818,7753,5423,97976,244
193174,47749,43817,9313,4313,82274,622
193274,58948,81218,5243,4383,88274,656
193379,33650,73720,9073,5254,03679,205
193483,47352,79122,7933,4284,38383,395

The following table gives the percentages of recovered, relieved, unrelieved, and deaths to total cases dealt with during each of the five years:—

Year.Discharged asDied.Remaining at End of Year.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
193061.6123.164.374.915.95
193162.4422.654.334.835.75
193261.6723.454.334.905.65
193360.5324.944.214.825.50
193459.9325.883.894.985.32

Generally speaking, the percentage of patients recovered shows a downward trend in recent years, while the proportions discharged as relieved record an upward tendency. The proportion of deaths among patients remains fairly constant.

SEXES OF PATIENTS.

From the following table it will be seen that, while for the earlier years males considerably outnumber females among hospital patients, the proportion has been gradually reduced until in 1932, for the first time, and in each year since, females were in the majority. The death-rate is invariably higher among male than among female patients, chiefly due, of course, to the much greater proportion of males treated for injuries resulting from accidents and terminating fatally.

 Discharges and Deaths.Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000 Cases.
Year.Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.
192531,36526,0221212,1681,3151656851
192634,44329,5941162,3831,4521646949
192736,29031,6771152,3521,4301646545
192838,82436,4381072,3331,5991466044
192940,98537,7861082,5691,5561606341
193039,55736,6871082,4711,5081646241
193137,86736,7551032,3131,5091536141
193237,09337,563992,3451,5371536341
193339,31739,888992,4321,6041526241
193441,38042,015982,6191,7641486342

AGES OF PATIENTS.

The ages of patients who were discharged from or who died in public hospitals during 1933 and 1934 are as shown in the following summary:—

Ages of Patients, in Years.1933.1934.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 53,7652,7416,5063,9782,8916,869
  5 and under 103,8553,1997,0544,1363,4267,562
10 and under 152,8932,4425,3353,0952,6185,713
15 and under 257,1619,08616,2477,3469,70517,051
25 and under 355,7249,25214,9765,9879,53315,520
35 and under 454,3075,5369,8434,5395,57510,114
45 and under 554,5463,6398,1854,6883,7658,453
55 and under 653,3692,1265,4953,7372,3496,086
65 and over3,6021,7575,3593,8062,0535,859
Unspecified9511020568100168
Totals39,31739,88879,20541,38042,01583,395

SUMMARY OF DISEASES, ETC.

As explained in the preceding subsection, the international classification of diseases and causes of death is used in New Zealand. The following table covers all patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals in the year 1934:—

Class.DischargesDeaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I.Infectious and parasitic diseases4,3512,2644223792754,0263,665
II.Cancer and other tumours1,2471,2325403862711,7271,949
III.Rheumatic diseases, diseases of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases1,2131,299148621091,0541,777
IV.Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs72178314117174165
V.Chronic poisonings and intoxications13877132..19931
VI.Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense1,8882,0626592252052,6552,384
VII.Diseases of the circulatory system1,1291,5241133982261,9831,407
VIII.Diseases of the respiratory system3,3571,5991182941603,2922,236
IX.Diseases of the digestive system17,3693,24235324615910,89110,478
X.Diseases of the genito-urinary system4,1312,3412951991092,5084,567
XI.Pregnancy, labour, and puerperal state6,76659588..83..7,532
XII.Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue2,4197563817101,9891,251
XIII.Diseases of the bones and of the organs of locomotion1,2871,1561162251,762824
XIV.Congenital malformations115165541210180176
XV.Early infancy118273353512098
XVI.Senility96578521914776
XVII.Violence or accident6,0313,292130235637,52l2,230
XVIII.Ill-defined diseases1,1519192291481,1521,169
 Totals52,79122,7933,428:2,6191,76441,38042,015

In the succeeding table the data contained above are reproduced in percentage form. and, in addition, the ratio of deaths to total cases is given.

 Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.Percentage of Deaths.
Class.Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I8.249.9312.3114.4715.599.738.728.50
II2.365.4115.7514.7415.364.174.6417.87
III2.305.704.322.376.182.554.236.04
IV0.140.780.901.560.960.420.3917.10
V0.260.340.380.08..0480.070.87
VI3.589.0519.228.5911.626.425.688.53
VII2.146.693.3015.2012.814.793.3518.41
VIII6.367.023.4411.229.077.955.328.21
IX32.9014.2210.309.399.0126.3224.941.90
X7.8210.278.607.606.186.0610.874.35
XI12.822.612.57....4.7117.931.10
XII4.583.321.110.650.574.812.980.83
XIII2.445.073.380.840.284.261.961.04
XIV0.220.721.580.460.570.430.426.18
XV0.220.120.091.341.990.290.2332.11
XVI0.020.282.281.991.080.360.1831.84
XVII11.4214.443.798.973.5718.185.313.06
XVIII2.184.036.680.530.452.782.780.95
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.005.26

PRINCIPAL DISEASES.

A summary is now given of the principal diseases treated in public hospitals during the year 1934. All figures given are inclusive of Maoris.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for the treatment of which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the 3ause of death in the death statistics. Cystitis, for instance, ranks comparatively high in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some more important disease, which would take precedence of cystitis in the statistics of causes of death. Generally speaking, the hospital returns show only the disease or condition for which the patient is treated.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL DISEASES TREATED IN HOSPITALS DURING 1934.

   Deaths in Public Hospitals.
Diseases.Total Deaths registered in the Dominion.Total Cases in Public Hospitals.Number.Proportion of Total Deaths in Dominion.Proportion of Total Cases in Public Hospitals.
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever111631090.916.13
Measles595641220.342.13
scarlet fever8548337.500.55
Whooping-cough671742029.8511.49
Diphtheria284432796.436.09
influenza2321,4726427.594.35
Erysipelas6186466.672.15
Infantile paralysis Pulmonary tuberculosis271......
Pulmonary tuberculosis7321,56931342.7619.95
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
Tuberculous meningitis73665271.2378.78
Other forms of tuberculosis1117136255.868.70
Venereal diseases506542346.003.52.
Septicæmia(non-puerperal)306491756.672.62
Hydatids171051164.7110.48
Other infectious or parasitic diseases743143648.6511.46
Cancer1,7202,18559734.7127.32
Non-malignant tumours981,4916061.224.02
Rheumatism and gout769493039.473.16
Diabetes25570611143.5315.72
Exophthalmic goitre674971826.873.62
Other goitres21305733.332.30
Other general diseases15374533.331.34
Anæmias512142752.9412.62
Leukæmia (Hodgkin's disease)61832337.7027.71
Other diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs1542853.3319.05
Alcoholism7199114.290.50
Chronic poisonings331133.333.23
Diseases of the spinal cord671411826.8712.77
Cerebral hemorrhage, apoplexy74543727937.4563.84
Diseases of the eyes11,0133*0.30
Diseases of the ears and mastiod process227661777.272.22
Other nervous diseases2492,68211345.384.21
Diseases of the heart3,4571,74056316.2932.25
Diseases of the arteries3841724712.2427.33
Diseases of the veins10636330.000.47
Other diseases of the circulatory system188361161.011.32
Bronchitis2451,3837932.245.71
Broncho-pneumonia29269514549.6620.80
Pneumonia41894515637.3216.51
Pleurisy355581748.573.05
Asthma305121033.331.95
Other diseases of the respiratory system1481,4354731.763.2S
Diseases of the mouth51,609120.000.06
Diseases of pharynx and tonsils187,7511055.570.13
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1269997055.507.01
Other diseases of the stomach1576819*2.47
Diarrhœa and Enteritis869243844.194.11
Appendicitis1224,9967763.111.54
Hernia, intestinal obstruction1021,8868078.434.24
Other diseases of the intestines22874731.820.80
Diseases of the liver (excluding hydatids)64853046.8835.29
Diseases of the gall-bladder and biliary passages611,2144675.413.79
Peritonitis181661583.339.04
Other diseases of the digestive system13971292.3112.37
Nephritis57447317430.3136.79
Other diseases of the kidneys661,0044162.124.08
Urinary calculi13342969.232.63
Diseases of the bladder11595981.821.51
Diseases of the urethra52355100.002.13
Diseases of the prostate934385761.2913.01
Diseases of other male genital organs..8522..0.23
Diseases of the female genital organs132,9181184.620.38
Diseases of the breast..218......
Normal labour..3,818......
Septic abortion451673475.5620.36
Puerperal septicæmia2011820100.0016.95
Other puerperal diseases and accidents713,4292940.850.85
Diseases of the skin353,2402777.140.83
Osteomyelitis1853720*3.72
Other diseases of the bones, &c.82,049787.500.34
Malformations1663562213.256.18
Early infancy4952187014.1432.11
Senile debility, &c.5402237141.3031.84
Burns and scalds414942663.415.26
Fractures, dislocations, &c.93,917177*4.52
Other external causes8755,3409510.861.78
Unspecified or ill-defined502,3212246.000.95
Totals13,81083,3954,38331.745.26

* See letterpress ante.

Chapter 5. SECTION V.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—PUBLIC HEALTH.

PUBLIC HEALTH ADMINISTRATION.

THE law relating to public health in New Zealand is contained in the Health Act, 1920, which repealed the consolidated Public Health Act, 1908, and its amendments. A full account of the Act was given in the 1927 issue of the Year-Book.

For the administration of the Act there is established a Department of Health, with a Director-General of Health as chief administrative officer. The Department comprises Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, School Hygiene, Child Welfare, and Maori Hygiene, each of which is under the supervision of a Director.

For purposes of local administration the country is divided into health districts, each of which is under the charge of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health. These officers are entrusted with wide powers, and act as advisers of the local governing bodies in matters affecting the public health.

In addition to being charged with the administration of the Health Act, the Department controls the registration of medical practitioners, nurses, midwives and maternity nurses, opticians, masseurs, and plumbers. It supervises the sale of food and drugs, and protects the public against exploitation by fraud in connection with alleged remedies. The Department also administers the law covering the control of cemeteries and crematoria.

The medical and dental inspection and treatment of school-children are carried out by special divisions of the Department.

NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

The system of notification of certain diseases has been in force in New Zealand for many years, and the list of notifiable diseases has undergone several alterations. The list at present is as follows:—

A. Notifiable infectious diseases mentioned in Part I of First Schedule of Health Act, 1920 :—

Anthrax.Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).
Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinalmeningitis).Puerperal fever (puerperal septicaemia and puerperal saprsemia).
Cholera.Scarlet fever (scarlatina).
Dengue.Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch, and Philippine itch).
Diphtheria. 
Erysipelas. 
Enteric fever (typhoid fever, para-typhoid fever).Typhus.
 Yellow fever.
Leprosy. 

B. Notifiable infectious diseases declared by Gazette notice :—

* In certain circumstances. (See letterpress post.)
Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary).Syphilis.*
Encephalitis lethargica.Gonorrhoea.*
Fulminant influenza.Soft chancre.*
Pneumonic influenza.Undulant fever.
Septicaemic influenza.Puerperal fever, involving any form of puerperal sepsis other than or in addition to puerperal septicaemia and puerperal sapraemia.
Ophthalmia neonatorum. 
Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis). 
Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids).Any form of sepsis or sapraemia following abortion or miscarriage.
Tuberculosis (pulmonary). 
Septicaemia consequent on abortion or miscarriage. 

C. Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, mentioned in Second Schedule:—

Actinomycosis.Food poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).
Ankylostomiasis (hookworm disease). 
Bilharziosis (endemic haematuria, Egyptian haemiaturia).Chronic lead poisoning.
 Phosphorus poisoning.
Beriberi.Tetanus.
Hydatids. 

D. Notifiable disease, other than infectious, declared by Gazette notice:— Eclampsia.

SOCIAL HYGIENE REGULATIONS.

By Gazette notice dated the 29th November, 1924, syphilis, gonorrhoea, and soft- chancre were declared to be infectious diseases within the meaning of the Health Act, 1920. On the 9th July, 1925, regulations were made under the Health Act, 1920, and the Social Hygiene Act, 1917, providing for the compulsory notification of these diseases in certain circumstances, and for the treatment of those affected by venereal disease in a communicable form.

Under these regulations it is incumbent upon a medical practitioner, or a medical officer of a hospital, who has been treating any person suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form to notify the Director-General of Health if such person fails for more than two weeks (after the date fixed in that behalf by the medical practitioner or medical officer) to attend for treatment, unless he is known in the meantime to have placed himself under treatment by some other qualified person.

If the Director-General of Health has reason to believe (either from a notification, as provided for above, or otherwise) that any person is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, he may require such person to submit himself for examination to some medical practitioner, and to supply a medical certificate as to the state of his health in relation to venereal disease. If a medical certificate is not supplied within the time specified, or if the certificate does not definitely disclose whether or not the person to whom-it relates is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Director-General of Health may authorize two medical practitioners to examine such person.

In cases where a medical certificate is not obtainable, or where the certificate shows the person to be suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Director-General of Health may if he thinks such a course necessary or expedient in the public interest, authorize a Medical Officer of Health to make an order, under section 84 of the Health Act, 1920, for the removal of such person to a hospital or other place where he may be effectively isolated. On the other hand, on application being made to a Magistrate, an order for examination by two medical practitioners (to be named in the order) is made, and if their report shows that the person is free from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Magistrate then makes an order for his release.

Where treatment is not conveniently obtainable at a public hospital or public clinic, the Director-General of Health may authorize a registered medical practitioner to administer free treatment if the patient is unable to pay. In such cases fees for service are paid by the State according to a scale laid down.

It is an offence for any person, while suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to engage in any employment, or to act in any capacity, in or about any factory, shop, hotel, restaurant, house, or other place, if by reason thereof any food intended for consumption by any either person is exposed to infection from venereal disease or is likely to be so affected. If any person suffering from the disease knowingly infects, or does or suffers any act likely to infect, any other person, he is liable to imprisonment for twelve months, together with a fine of £100.

It is the duty of every medical practitioner who is consulted by any person, sixteen years of age or over, suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to give such person a notice setting forth the requirements for treatment and for not infecting others, and expressly warning him or her against marrying until medically certified as cured.

Every precaution is taken for the maintenance of secrecy and the avoidance of publicity in the carrying-out of the regulations. Every person concerned in the administration of the regulations is liable to a penalty of £50 if he divulges any information which comes to his knowledge in respect of any person suffering, or suspected to be suffering, from venereal disease.

DIPLOMAS IN PUBLIC HEALTH.

In addition to the powers of conferring degrees of Bachelor and Master of Surgery and Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine, the Senate of the New Zealand University has power to grant diplomas in public health, and to make regulations for the examination of candidates for such diplomas. The examination for the diploma in public health is held in two parts, which may be taken separately or at the same time. Diplomas granted 1914–28 numbered 17; since 192S only one candidate has taken the course and (1934) passed the examination.

REGISTRATION OF MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS.

Under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1914, as amended by the Medical Practitioners Amendment Act, 1924, is constituted the Medical Council of New Zealand. consisting of the Director-General of Health and six other registered medical practitioners. One of the six members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which enacts that every person shall be entitled to registration who satisfies the Council that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom, or eligible for registration on such last-mentioned register; or the holder, after a course of not less than five years' study, of a foreign diploma approved by the Council. The Council may, however, refuse to approve any diploma (even in the case of persons registered or eligible for registration in the United Kingdom) unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma. It may also require the holder of a foreign diploma to pass an examination in medicine and surgery to be prescribed and conducted by the Senate of the New Zealand University.

Applicants who are refused registration have the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. The fee for registration is £2, payable on deposit of evidence of qualification. Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee us.) is required.

The Medical Council is vested with disciplinary powers, including the suspension of a medical practitioner from practice. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided. The Supreme Court, on the motion of the Medical Council, may order the removal of a name from the register in cases where a medical practitioner is guilty of grave misconduct or is convicted of ail indictable offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term of two years or upwards. The number of medical practitioners on the register on 31st March, 193,5, was 1,405. During 1934, 60 names were removed and 55 added, of whom 44 had New Zealand qualifications.

REGISTRATION OF DENTISTS.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist in New Zealand who is the holder of a degree in dental surgery of the University of New Zealand, or a certificate of proficiency in dentistry obtained from the Senate of the University, or is the holder of a degree or diploma in dental surgery approved by the Senate and conferred by a University or dental college in the United Kingdom, or is the holder of a degree in dentistry granted in a British possession or a foreign country and recognized by the Senate. Evidence of good character is required in every case.

Application for registration is made to the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, Wellington, the fee for registration being £1.

The number on the register at the end of 1934 was 938, 22 names having been added and 13 removed during the year.

REGISTRATION OF NURSES, MIDWIVES, AND MATERNITY NURSES.

The Nurses and Midwives Registration Act, 1925, as amended in 1930. provides for a Nurses and Midwives Registration Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health or his deputy; the Director of the Division of Nursing (who is Registrar of the Board); a registered medical practitioner; a registered nurse and a registered midwife, and one other person recommended by the New Zealand Trained Nurses Association or a similar body; and one person nominated by the Hospital Boards' Association.

Every person who has attained the age of twenty-two years and is certified as having undergone not less than three years' training in a general hospital “approved” by the Board as a training-school under the Act, and who has passed the prescribed hospital and State examination, is entitled to registration. The number of registered nurses on the register at 31st March, 1935, was 8,203.

The Act also provides for the registration of midwives and maternity nurses.

The requirements for training are as follows :—

Maternity Nurses.—In the case of a person who is a registered nurse the period of training is six months, and in the case of any other person is a period of eighteen months. At the end of this time the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Maternity Examination.

Midwives.—No person shall be accepted for training as a midwife until such person has been registered as a maternity nurse; the duration of the course of training will be then a period of six months, at the end of which the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Midwifery Examination.

The number of registered midwives on the 31st March, 1935, was 3,242, and the number of registered maternity nurses 2,035.

REGISTRATION OF OPTICIANS.

The Opticians Act, 1928, provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), two persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eye.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act. On payment of the prescribed fee (£5), every person is entitled to registration as an optician who satisfies the Board that—

(a) He has received satisfactory training qualifying him to practise as an optician, and is the holder of a certificate of qualification recognized by the Board; or

(b) He has passed an examination under the Act, both theoretical and practical, after a course of not less than three years' training in New Zealand as prescribed by regulations.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 108.) is required.

Regulations pursuant to the Opticians Act, 1928, have been prepared, prescribing the conditions and period of training and the syllabus for the examination conducted by the Opticians Board.

The number of opticians upon the register at 31st March, 1935, was 290.

REGISTRATION OF MASSEURS.

Under the Masseurs Registration Act, 1920, and the Masseurs Registration Amendment Act, 1924, there is constituted the Masseurs Registration Board of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health, a registered medical practitioner, and two persons engaged in the practice of massage in New Zealand.

The Board deals with all applications for registration (fee, £3) under the Act. It is necessary for applicants to be in possession of approved certificates for the three branches of massage: (1) Massage; (2) Medical electricity; (3) Remedial exercises and other branches of physiotherapy.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 10s.) is required.

The number of masseurs on the register at 31st March, 1935, was 552.

REGISTRATION OF PLUMBERS.

The Plumbers Board New Zealand, constituted under the Plumbers Registration Act, 1912, consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman); the Director of Education; a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand; a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The functions of the Board are to decide what persons may be registered under the Act, and in what districts sanitary plumbing may be performed only by registered plumbers. It also decides the scope of the examinations to be held as a part of the process of securing registration.

The main principles underlying the Act are that of securing trained and certificated sanitary plumbers, and that such registered plumbers shall not be required to pay any license fee or pass any examination under any local authorities controlling sanitary-plumbing works.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual license fee of 5s. is payable by registered plumbers if doing any sanitary plumbing.

The total of names on the register at 31st March, 1935, was 2,427.

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS.

In order to make better provision for the sale of food and drugs in a pure state, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was passed by the Legislature, and came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The Act is administered by the Health Department, and provides for the analysis, by public analysts, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption, or likely to cause injury to health if consumed, heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such things are manufactured or packed. The selling of light-weight bread is an offence under the Act, as is also the taking back of bread after it has been in this possession of the purchaser for more than an hour.

Considerable progress has been made in following out the purposes of the Act, all the commonly used foodstuffs being standardized, and the labelling of packages being controlled by regulations, which are revised and added to as the necessity arises.

An amendment of the Act in 1924 marks a noteworthy advance in legislation of this kind, and has been used to good effect in controlling all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser is likely to be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether it is dealt with by a regulation or not.

The definition of “drug”includes medicines used externally or internally by man, anæsthetics, soaps, ointments, disinfectants, and tobacco.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food or drug and to submit it for analysis.

Statistics compiled by the Department of Health show that, during the year 1934, 7,602 samples of milk were examined, resulting in 258 warnings and 130 prosecutions. The figures for the previous year were 7,603, 300, and 88 respectively. Other foodstuffs sampled—1933 figures in brackets—numbered 1,262 (1,258), warnings being 40 (101) and prosecutions 35 (22). Convictions during the year were as follows: Adulterated milk 114, fines totalling £405; butter, 5, fines £19; whisky nil; other offences 45, fines £96.

The weighing of bread, butter, and other foodstuffs is attended to by the Department of Labour in conjunction with its duties under the Weights and Measures Act.

QUACKERY PREVENTION.

Section 2 of the Quackery Prevention Act, 1908, enacts that every person commits an offence who publishes or causes to be published any statement which is intended by the defendant or any other person to promote the sale of any article as a medicine, preparation or appliance for the prevention, alleviation, or cure of any human ailment or physical defect, and which is false in any material particular relating to the ingredients, composition, structure, nature, or operation of that article, or to the effects which have followed or may follow the use thereof.

The penalty inflicted is a fine not exceeding £100 in the case of a first conviction, and not exceeding £200 for every subsequent conviction. The object of the Act is to prevent the exploitation of the public by means of medicines or treatment alleged to cure all and sundry complaints and ailments.

DANGEROUS DRUGS.

In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under the Geneva Convention (League of Nations), the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1927, was enacted. The dealing in and use of prepared opium is prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are subject to a license granted by the Director-General of Health or some other lawful authority. Provisions are made to prevent illicit traffic in drugs of a habit-forming nature. Suitable regulations are now in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and follow lines similar to the regulations in England and Australia.

The Poisons Act, 1934, is aimed principally at preventing deaths from misadventure arising from two main causes. First, the careless use of industrial and farm poisons through loose packing or handling in bottles commonly used for foodstuffs, beverages, or harmless medicines. Second, the increasing tendency by the public to use certain of the newer drugs having hypnotic or pain-reducing properties or supposed to be effective for slimming, &c. Regulations providing machinery for carrying out the Act are being prepared.

PHARMACY.

The Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, constituted by the Pharmacy Act, 1908. consists of about 700 members. These are known as “registered chemists,” and no chemist shop may be opened in the Dominion except under the charge of one of these.

The society is governed by the Pharmacy Board, Wellington, set up by Act, consisting of ten members elected by members of the society. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and its amendments in the interests of the public and of the members of the society; also to watch such other legal provisions generally as may have a bearing upon pharmacy.

The society has reciprocity agreements with the societies of Great Britain and all the Australian States : that is to say, a member registered after passing the full examination of a reciprocating country can be registered in any other on payment of the fees, and on complying with prescribed formalities.

The Pharmacy Board holds examinations annually for those who wish to obtain the necessary qualifications entitling them to registration. Candidates must also serve four years' apprenticeship. The first Official College of Pharmacy was opened in Wellington in 1933. A complete course, embracing all the subjects set for the professional examinations, is available for students.

The Society has a Benevolent Fund, which is used for the relief of members who may be in needy circumstances, or of their relatives who may be unprovided for.

In addition to the statutory organization set up by the Pharmacy Act, members of the Pharmaceutical Society have another organization known as the Chemists' Defence Association, Limited, which provides an indemnity guarantee for its members, deals with matters of general interest not covered by the Act, and governs ethical questions as between pharmacists and medical men and the public generally. There is also a Chemists' Service Guild governing the purely business side of pharmacy.

CEMETERIES.

By the Cemeteries Amendment Act of 1926 the administration of cemeteries is placed under the control of the Minister of Health. The Department of Health, with its Inspectors always in the field, is able to give the various matters closer attention than had been possible previously. Steps are being taken to ensure proper methods of plotting and keeping records, the importance of which has not been sufficiently recognized in the more sparsely populated areas, but the necessity for which will become more apparent as time goes on.

Regulations are in force to facilitate the procedure in cremations, providing also for special methods as carried out according to the rites of any religious denomination elsewhere than in a crematorium. Due precautions are provided for in all cases to ensure against any untoward development in connection with the cremation of any body.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

The School Medical Service in New Zealand was placed on a definite basis in 1912, when three full-time School Medical Officers were appointed. Prior to that date regular examinations were restricted to some of the larger secondary and private schools. There is now a permanent staff consisting of a Director, ten School Medical Officers, and twenty-six school nurses. In addition three Medical Officers of Health act as part-time School Medical Officers.

The Health Act, 1920, section 139, gives the necessary authority for the medical examination of children attending the primary schools, but the duties and powers of the School Medical Officers are defined in the Education Act, 1914, section 134.

The School Medical Service aims at securing for each child three complete physical examinations during his school-life, but special examinations are carried out when parents, teachers, or the School Medical Officers consider them necessary. It is recognized that medical treatment must be available for every child in need of it.

If defects are found, the practice of the School Medical Officer is to notify the parents of their existence, the choice of medical attendant being left entirely to the parents. If the parents are unable for financial reasons, or are too apathetic, to obtain the necessary advice and treatment, it is the duty of the School Medical Service to see that it is carried out. This is done through the medium of the school nurse, who acts as a link between the school and the home, the treatment being given at the nearest hospital. The work of the service, however, is essentially educational and preventive.

As preventive measures in dealing with malnutrition a school-children, special attention has been given to the extension of two activities—firstly, the supply of a milk ration to children at school, and, secondly, health camps.

An effort is made to keep under supervision children who are tuberculosis contacts. In nearly all centres throughout the Dominion School Medical Officers conduct regular medical examinations of kindergarten schools.

The examination of Native schools since the establishment of the East Capo and North Auckland Health Districts has been greatly extended. An arrangement by which the district nurse acts as school nurse in these areas has resulted in a more intensive attack on many minor health problems.

A considerable amount of work is done in co-operation with the Education Department and also with the Mental Hospitals Department in regard to children suspected of mental backwardness or defect in order to determine whether special provision for their welfare, either educational or institutional, is indicated.

A great amount of work has been done with the object of ascertaining the incidence and distribution of goitre throughout the Dominion, and this problem continues to receive attention.

The School Medical Officers work in association with the Medical Officers of Health in regard to the control of infectious disease. Preventive treatment for diphtheria by means of inoculation with toxin anti-toxin, and more recently with anatoxin, has been carried out to a considerable extent during the last few years.

The School Medical Service also works in close co-operation with the Child Welfare Branch of the Education Department, under the supervision of which are all measures for the protection of destitute and neglected children, also the regulations governing juvenile employment. It also co-operates with the officers of the Education Department in the supervision of school-buildings and sanitation.

SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.

The School Medical Officers in the course of their duties have made special studies of various aspects of child-welfare. Since the year 1926 the following special investigations were carried out among others :—

  1. An inquiry into the condition of rural school-children.

  2. An inquiry into the incidence of tuberculosis among children of New Zealand.

  3. An investigation into the physical growth and mental attainment of New Zealand school-children was carried out in co-operation with the Education Department.

  4. Maori and Pakeha: A study in comparative health.

  5. The posture of New Zealand school-children.

  6. Observations on physical condition and postural deformities of New Zealand school-children.

  7. Nutritional value of milk.

  8. Maori susceptibility to certain diseases.

  9. Height, weight, and age survey of New Zealand school-children, 1934.

  10. Investigation into defective eyesight in Taranaki school-children.

DENTAL TREATMENT OF SCHOOL-CHILDREN.

The New Zealand School Dental Service, instituted in 1921, is conducted by the Dental Division of the Department of Health. By the end of 1934 school dental clinics had been established at 248 centres in the Dominion. Each clinic deals with the children of certain schools in its vicinity, and these are organized into a “dental group,” the local administration of which is in the hands of a dental clinic committee composed of local residents. Besides undertaking various duties in connection with local administration, these committees have to undertake the important task of raising funds to meet a certain proportion of the cost of operating the clinics. Treatment of the children in the clinics is carried out by dental nurses specially trained for the work by the Department.

At the end of December, 1934, there were 164 trained dental nurses in the service, and in addition there were 46 probationer dental nurses in training. Some 83,000 children, belonging to 1,550 schools, are under systematic treatment at the various clinics. These children are kept under constant observation, and are being maintained dentally fit from the time they enter school until they pass out of the Fourth Standard. For this purpose they are re-examined at frequent and regular intervals (approximately twice a year), and necessary treatment is carried out.

Particular attention is given to instructing the children in the principles of dental hygiene, and the Department aims at securing the co-operation of both the children and their parents in the endeavour to reduce the prevalence of dental disease.

The following is a summary of the treatment performed in the service during the year 1934: Fillings, 399,560; extractions, 70,207; other operations, 157,111; total operations, 626,878.

SUBSECTION B.—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

INTRODUCTORY.

PRIOR to the abolition of the provinces in 1876 hospital maintenance was left to the care of the several Provincial Councils, each of which had a system of its own. On the change-over to the county form of government in the following year all of these diverse systems came under the charge of the Central Government, and many difficulties and incongruities occurred. Gradually there grew up a system of excessive demands upon the Government, and in 1885 an attempt to reduce a somewhat chaotic state of affairs to some Semblance of order and uniformity took shape in the Hospitals Act of that year, which provided for the constitution of special hospital districts and Boards. Several amendments based on the result, of experience were passed in later years, and the present law relating to the subject is embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, as amended in 1928, 1929, and 1932.

HOSPITAL BOARDS.

The management of affairs in each hospital district is entrusted to a Hospital Board, consisting of one or more representatives of each of the local-governing districts comprising the hospital area, the total membership of the Board being not fewer than eight nor more than twenty. Members are elected at the ordinary general election of the contributory authorities.

Subject to the consent of the Minister of Health a Hospital Board has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: Hospitals, charitable institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, habitual inebriates' homos, reformatory institutions for the reception of women and girls, and any other institutions for any purpose which the Governor-General by Order in Council may declare to be a public charitable purpose. It may grant charitable aid to indigent, sick, or infirm persons; may provide medical, surgical, are nursing attention for persons not inmates of an institution; and may grant financial assistance to medical and nursing associations and private philanthropic institutions approved by the Minister

It is the duty of every Hospital Board to provide and maintain such hospitals as the Director-General of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for (a) the reception, relief, 'c, of any persons suffering from infectious diseases; (b) the reception, 'c., of persons suffering from other than infectious diseases.

PROVISION OF FINANCE.

No rating-powers are given to Hospital Boards, but under the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act the estimated net expenditure (excluding Government subsidy) of a Board is apportioned by the Board among the contributory local authorities within its district in proportion to the capital value of the rateable property in each contributory district.

At the beginning of each financial year the Hospital Board prepares an estimate of its payments for the year, deducting therefrom all estimated receipts by way of patients' fees, voluntary contributions, bequests, income from endowments, and, generally, deducting all other estimated receipts except the amount to be raised by levy on the contributory local authorities and Government subsidy on such levy. The levies on contributory local authorities are apportioned in relation to the rateable capital value of each local district. On levies for maintenance purposes a scale is in operation ranging from 14s. to 26s. per £1, and averaging throughout the Dominion £1 for £1. The principle of the scale is to give relatively greater assistance where the requirements are high in proportion to the rateable capital value of the hospital district. To this end the levy of each Board for maintenance purposes is determined as sixteen-fortieths of its estimated maintenance requirements plus the amount bearing to four-fortieths of the net estimated requirements of all Boards the same proportion as the rateable capital value of the hospital district bears to the aggregate rateable capital value of all hospital districts. After the levy of each Board is thus determined, the remainder of the Board's requirements is met by Government subsidy, with the limitation of fourteen thirty-fourths as the minimum subsidy and twenty-six forty-sixths as the maximum subsidy.

Levies on contributory local authorities and Government subsidy each form about one-third of the total maintenance receipts of Hospital Boards, the remainder being chiefly patients' fees and other recoveries on account of relief.

The above remarks apply to levies for maintenance purposes. As regards capital works, the net requirements are met by levy and by subsidy in equal amounts; the subsidy, in other words, being at the rate of £1 for £1. Where the expenditure is very heavy, Boards may have recourse to loans.

A Government subsidy was formerly payable on voluntary contributions and bequests, but this has been discontinued since March, 1932.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The following is a summary of the receipts and payments of Hospital Boards for the last two years ended 31st March.

 1932–33.1933–34.
Receipts.££
Voluntary contributions and bequests20,17812,984
Levies575,629593,299
Subsidies603,399579,582
Patients' payments and charitable-aid recoveries354,637376,265
Rent, interest, and dividends25,74224,278
Loans156,09683,839
Sale of capital assets7,4561,210
Miscellaneous receipts25,72911,876
Totals1,768,8661,683,333
Payments.  
Hospital maintenance898,735927,258
Charitable aid304,061276,969
Medical associations or medical men in outlying districts9,2559,373
District nursing9,2018,839
Administration64,83964,905
Amounts paid to other Boards or separate institutions59,23773,040
Rents, rates, and taxes1,8422,069
Interest86,04269,950
Contributions to National Provident Fund for super annuation of employees15,45513,836
Capital works141,59068,615
Loan-repayments or payments to sinking fund78,46164,380
Miscellaneous payments9,44717,011
Amounts invested on account of funds for special purposes5,9303,595
Totals1,684,0951,599,840

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Although the figures in the last preceding statement relate to receipts and payments, the official returns of Hospital Boards have since 1916–17 been supplied on the basis of an Income and Expenditure Account and Balance-sheet.

REVENUE.

The following, showing the sources of revenue for the last two financial years relate not only to Hospital Boards, but also to Government institutions and the Mercury Bay Hospital Trustees.

 1932–33.1933–34.
 A mount.Percentage of Total.Amount.Percentage of Total.
 £ £ 
Contributable by Government656,96539.6643,81239.5
Levies on local authorities578,90134.9586,31536.0
Voluntary contributions21,6831.313,7370.8
Recoveries from those assisted344,89820.8338,44420.8
Rents, interest, and dividends27,8481.725,0561.5
Miscellaneous revenue28,3481.723,3121.4
 1,658,123100.01,630,676100.0
Cash in bank (other than loan-money)64,373..45,862..
Totals1,722,496..1,676,538..

With the exception of “Recoveries from those assisted,” which is a purely cash figure, the above particulars and those below relating to expenditure are taken from the Income and Expenditure Accounts and Balance-sheets.

To ascertain the total receipts for the year 1933–34 the sum of £83,693 (receipts and cash in hand from loans for capital purposes) should be added, making the aggregate £1,760,231.

The amount contributable by the Government consists of subsidies on maintenance levies, £543,163; subsidies on capital levies, £40,067; cost of maintaining Government institutions, £27,044; patients' fees paid to Boards or remitted in respect of Government institutions, £24,524; and special payments to Boards, £9,014, making a total of £643,812.

EXPENDITURE.

The maintenance expenditure for the last two financial years was made up as follows:—

 1932–33.1933–34.
 A mount.Percentage of Total.Amount.Percentage of Total.
 £ £ 
Hospital maintenance974,40265.9999,20168.1
Charitable relief—    
Indoor98,7886.7103,3167.0
Outdoor195,883133172,69211.8
Medical associations8,2880.68,9610.6
District nursing9,1300.69,0540.7
Ambulances7,6040.57,4680.5
Miscellaneous maintenance expenditure7,2940.56,5180.4
Administration73,5315.073,6665.0
Interest on loans86,6735.971,1964.9
National Provident Fund14,1921.014,2841.0
Totals1,475,785100.01,466,356100.0

Capital expenditure for the year 1933-34 totalled £180,697, this amount including £126,275 in respect of amortization of loan-money. The total expenditure for the year, excluding amounts paid from one Board or departmental institution to another, wa3 thus £1,047,053.

HOSPITAL MAINTENANCE EXPENDITURE.

The average annual cost of maintenance of general hospitals per occupied bed was as follows in the years shown :—

Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Miscellaneous.Total Maintenance.
 ££££££
1910–1122.78.726.738.82.799.6
1914–1525.010.727.043.51.9108.1
1919–2040.415.413.252.40.3151.7
1924–2540.914.950.477.08.4191.6
1929–3042.318.452.790.21.4205.0
1930.3140.718.052.691.41.8204.5
1931–3234.515.143.585.72.8181.6
1932.3331.315.441.982.12.7173.4
1933–3429.416.540.679.42.6168.5

CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE.

Charitable-aid expenditure has been as follows during the lost ten years:—

Year.Indoor Relief.Outdoor Relief.Total.
 £££
1924.25105,61976,508182,127
1925–26113,58477,899191,483
1926–27112,72692,922205,648
1927–28112,755112,519225,274
1928–29110,874134,864245,738
1929–30114,532140,065254,597
1930–31119,774192,073311,847
1931–3299,688269,632369,320
1932–3398,788195,883294,671
1933–34103,316172,692276,008

The sharp rise in outdoor relief which took place during 1930–31 and the succeeding year is attributable mainly to relief occasioned by unemployment, whilst the decrease for the subsequent years is principally accounted for by the Unemployment Board's having relieved Hospital Boards of the bulk of unemployment relief.

COST TO GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The following shows for triennial periods the average annual net maintenance requirements of Hospital Boards—i.e., the average estimated deficit which is provided for by levies on the local authorities and Government subsidy thereon:—

Average of Triennlum.Amount.
 
1923–26803,245
1924–27875,485
1925–28979,333
1926–291,074,138
1927–301,156,254
1928–311,193,380
1929–321,156,699
1930–331,116,503
1931–341,075,146
1932–351,086,479

The following shows the total cost to the public funds of hospitals and charitable aid for the past decade, as represented by levies and subsidies for both capital and maintenance purposes; including also subsidies on voluntary contributions (while in force) and expenditure out of the Health Department's own vote:—

Year.Levies made.Subsidies payable.Expenditure out of Department's Vote.Total.Cost per Head of Mean Population (including Maoris).
 ££££s.d.
1924–25497,272546,106138,5461,181,924175
1925–26547,570582,282174,5251,304,377189
1926–27562,718588,573132,5681,283,859181
1927–28626,127654,902158,1651,439,1941911
1928–29675,238698,105158,0401,531,383210
1929–30688,279718,025177,4651,583,769215
1930–31695,204707,581188,6701,591,515213
1931–32564,135559,077152,7241,275,9361610
1932–33578,901604,043128,5241,311,468172
1933–34586,315584,479142,8521,313,646171

The increase which has taken place during the ten years is due, inter alia, to the following causes: Increased number of hospital beds; increase in staff required owing to the more complex methods of hospital treatment, including the employment of a greater proportion of trained nurses; interest on loans; the institution of Hospital Board employees' superannuation; and increased expenditure on charitable aid. The institution of economies necessitated by the Dominion's financial position is reflected in the decreased costs during the last three years.

PATIENTS' PAYMENTS.

The amount of patients' fees received per occupied bed in Hospital Boards' Hospitals in 1913–14 was £23.4; in 1933–34, exclusive of fees received from other Boards, it was £51 “5. Receipts during the past five years have been as follows:—

 Total.Amount per Occupied Bed.
 ££
1929–30347,50263.7
1930–31331,87262.0
1931–32308,16460.5
1932–33 56.6
1933–34 51.5

Included in these fees are amounts paid by the Goverment which in 1933–34: amounted to £19,876.

LOANS.

During the year 1933–34 four new loans aggregating £15,750 were authorized for terms ranging from five to twenty years. In addition, two totalling £72,000, for the liquidation of existing loans, were sanctioned.

The amount of loans outstanding at the 31st March, 1934, was £1,304,955. This amount, however, is reduced by a sum of £347,697 standing to the credit of sinking funds, making the net amount of loan-money £1,047,258. Actual repayments of principal during 1933–34 totalled £82,423, whilst payments to sinking; funds amounted to £43,852.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.

Subsection 1) of the preceding section contains statistics of inpatients treated at public hospitals other than maternity hospitals. In the following table the figures are inclusive of maternity hospitals, sanatoria, &c., and relate to the financial year instead of to the calendar year:—

 Inpatients treated.Average Number of Occupied Beds.Beds available.
Year.Total Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.
1910–1125,1912412,0251.93,2223.1
1924–2563,06846.44,8863.67,2205.3
1925–2668,46149.25,111377,5015.4
1926–2775,70853.35,3183.77,8475.5
1927–2879,84255.15,6083.98,0075.6
1928–2987,88860.26,1344.28,4575.8
1929–3089,76160.86,0574.18,5775.8
1930.3189,14759.55,9123.98,8035.9
1931–3285,56256.45,5643.78,6465.7
1932–3385,6465605,3953.58,4165.5
1933–3491,06259.15,6773.78,6985.6

The number of institutions coming under the head of public hospitals at 31st March, 1934, was 131, comprising 69 general hospitals (2 of which were also old people's homes, and 2 special hospitals), 1 chronic hospital, 2 convalescent hospitals, 46 maternity hospitals, 5 tuberculosis sanatoria, 1 tuberculosis prevention institution, 2 chronic-tubercular hospitals, and 5 infectious-diseases hospitals. A comparison of beds and patients between the last five years is given:—

 1920–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–331933–34.
Number of institutions140142140133131
Number of beds—     
General4,5474,6744,6334,6054,769
Children's cots1,0911,0459999861,041
Maternity598636612610604
Tuberculosis1,1261,2141,1331,0441,094
Infectious disease1,2151,2341,2691,1711,190
Totals8,5778,8038,6468,4168,698
Average number of occupied beds per diem6,0575,9125,5645,3955,677
Inpatients treated during year89,76189,14785,56285,64691,062
Deaths during year Outpatients—4,0273,9763,8503,8184,068
Number77,60175,91886,87383,28581,599
Attendances425,225403,673442,041387,087386,796

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.

The Private Hospitals Act, which came into force on the 1st January, 1907, is now embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, Part III of which provides for the licensing, management, and inspection of private hospitals. All such institutions must be licensed, and every application for a license must be accompanied by a full description and plan of the house proposed to be used, together with a statement showing the number and class of cases proposed to be received. The license shall state whether it is in respect of a lying-in private hospital or a surgical and medical private hospital, or if for both classes of cases; and no private hospital may be used for any purpose other than that in respect of which the license is granted and purposes reasonably incidental thereto.

For every private hospital there must be a resident manager, either the licensee or some person appointed by the licensee, and in every case the manager must be a legally qualified medical practitioner or a registered nurse in the case of a surgical and medical hospital, or a registered midwife in the case of a lying-in hospital, or a registered nurse and midwife, or a registered nurse having as resident assistant a registered midwife, in the case of a hospital licensed for both purposes. No license may be granted in respect of a house not previously licensed until such house and annexed buildings have been approved by the Director-General of Health, and no addition may be made to any private hospital until it has been so approved. No license may be granted until the character and fitness of the applicant have been proved satisfactory. The license must be renewed on the 1st January of each year.

In every private hospital there must be kept a register of patients showing particulars as to name, age, abode, and date of reception of each patient, date when such patient left, or, in the event of death, the date thereof, name of medical practitioner attending, and such other details as may be prescribed. Inquiry may be made at any time as to the management, conduct, and equipment of any private hospital, and if such inquiry prove unsatisfactory the license may be revoked. Provision is made for the inspection of private hospitals in the same manner as for public institutions of the like nature.

The total number of private hospitals licensed in the Dominion is 293, of which 99 are medical and surgical hospitals, 35 medical, surgical, and maternity institutions, and 159 maternity hospitals. Those hospitals provide 1,499 beds for medical and surgical cases, and 1,179 beds for maternity cases.

MATERNITY SERVICES.

STATE MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There were at the commencement of the year 1934 five State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals open for the use of women in cases where the husband's income does not exceed £5 per week, and in cases of large families £6 per week. The charge for this service is 6s. per day, plus confinement-fee of £1 1s.

Two hospitals—St. Helens Hospitals, Wanganui and Gisborne—were during the year 1933 handed over to the control of the Wanganui and Cook Hospital Boards respectively.

This service is given under the supervision of the Medical Superintendent, who is also responsible for the conduct of all abnormal cases and for the supervision of the ante-natal and post-natal care of all patients attending. There is also an outpatient department attached to each hospital, which provides (at a charge of £2) nursing services for patients not entering the institution. If the patient is confined by the District Midwife the charge is £2 10s.

The statistics given below for the year 1934 cover only the five State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals.

  Confinements in Institution. 
Hospital, and Year of Opening.Number of Beds.Total Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.Confinements attended Outside.
Auckland (1906)32640216136
Wellington (1905)265762515
Christchurch (1907)15344..581
Dunedin (1905)15166..31
Invercargill (1918)1227222..
Totals1001,998631233

During the decade ended December, 1934, total births in State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals numbered 22,377; deaths of mothers, 56; deaths of infants, 656; and confinements attended outside, 4,660.

PUBLIC MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There were as at 31st March, 1934, sixty-nine public maternity hospitals or maternity wards attached to public hospitals under control of Hospital Boards or Hospital Trustees. These maternity hospitals and wards provide 503 beds. They are open to any district residents irrespective of income, the charges varying from £1 10s. to £5 5a. per week for those who are able to pay. At most of these institutions patient may be attended by the midwives in charge of the institution, under the supervision of the medical superintendent of the hospital, or in some instances may engage their own medical attendants.

For the reception of single girls there are special charitable institutions at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Invercargill, in addition to those established by the Salvation Army at the four chief centres and at Napier and Gisborne.

DISTRICT MIDWIVES AND MATERNITY NURSES.

Twenty-three Hospital Boards have midwives doing district work, in most cases in conjunction with other health work.

In addition, there are twenty-four District nurses appointed for the purpose of attending the Maori population, part of whose work is the attendance of Maori women in confinements.

ANTE-NATAL SERVICES.

Thirty-four free public ante-natal clinics have been established in various parts of New Zealand in connection with State or public maternity hospitals or maternal welfare societies, such as the Plunket Society. These clinics are conducted by registered midwives and registered nurses who have been specially trained for this purpose, and they work in conjunction with the medical attendants or midwives engaged to attend the patients during labour. The training of midwives in New Zealand includes training in ante-natal work. The total attendances at the various free clinics in New Zealand during 1934 were 24,992. Several thousand copies of the pamphlet “Suggestions to Expectant Mothers” have been distributed free, mainly through these clinics. This pamphlet gives simple instructions for the maintenance of health during pregnancy and information regarding the necessary preparation for confinements to be conducted in private houses.

Every effort is being made to impress the public with the importance of parental hygiene and the systematic ante-natal care throughout pregnancy. Addresses and lectures are delivered by Medical Officers of the Department of Health to nurses and societies interested in this subject. So that there will be definite co-operation between the midwife and the ante-natal clinic, and in order that the midwife may be informed of the clinical methods adopted by the Health Department, refresher courses of lectures, given particularly on ante-natal work, are available to all registered midwives and maternity nurses.

BENEVOLENT AND ORPHAN ASYLUMS.

One hundred and fifteen institutions classed under the heading of benevolent and orphan asylums furnished returns to the Census and Statistics Office for the year 1934. These institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide free accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons to whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and homes for unfortunate women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “prison gate” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of the orphanages deal with eases similar to those default with by the special schools under the control of the Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Court. The following table relates to the year 1934.

Controlling Authorities.Number of Institutions.Inmates at 1st January.Admissions during Year.Births In Institutions during Year.Discharges during Year.Deaths In Institutions during Year.Inmates at 31st December.Total Inmates during Year.
Hospital Boards201,5392,0722842,0353421,5183,895
Church of England17714231412961689986
Roman Catholic Church161,586586..501951,5582,154
Presbyterian Church15438159..1289400597
Methodist Church519726..501172223
Baptist Church16413..16..6177
Salvation Army207351,3552531,630176902,343
Undenominational associations, &c.15543645324938175571,512
Totals1155,7985,0879025,5944825,71111,787

In many cases there is a variation in the class of inmate provided for by the different controlling bodies. For instance, none of the homes under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Church, the Presbyterian Church, the Methodist Church, or the Baptist Church are maternity homes of any description. The three last-mentioned churches control children's homes and orphanages only, while the Church of England caters chiefly for children, although some maternity cases are dealt with. Again, the Hospital Boards concentrate chiefly upon old people's homes, while the Salvation Army deals with all types, and is the only body that conducts extensively the “prison-gate” or industrial type of institution. Factors such as these affect the demands made upon the different institutions for accommodation or relief.

The numbers remaining at the end of the year provide a basis on which to compare the proportion of this class of social welfare work conducted by the various authorities, as they may he said to represent the average “permanent” population in each category. There is, however, a large “floating” population consisting of such comparatively short-term inmates as are found hi maternity homes, &c., which nevertheless represents a somewhat wider contact with the necessitous public on the part of such charitable institutions as cater specially for this class of inmate. This factor may be measured to some extent by the figures of total inmates housed during the year.

The ages and sexes of all inmates in the institutions at 31st December, 1934, were as follows :—

Age-group.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5224215439
6 and under 10535420955
10 and under 156206241,244
16 and under 1771204275
17 and under2563309372
25 and under 3565124189
35 and under 458990179
45 and under 55156107203
65 and under 65299157456
65 and over9873461,333
Unspecified420
Totals3,1132,5985,711

Some remarkable differences in the sex proportions at the various age-groups are apparent in the foregoing table. The first three groups, which relate to infants and young children, naturally show relatively little disparity. The next two groups, covering ages 15 and under 25 years, shows a large excess of females. The female figures for this group, of course, are greatly swollen by the inclusion of girls and 3'young women seeking refuge in maternity homes. The figures are also affected by the fact that the majority of boys who have spent most of their lives in orphanages obtain outside employment at these ages. The former influence continues to be in evidence in the following age-group also. From 45 onwards a distinct male excess is observed.

The overwhelming majority of males dependent upon charitable aid at these later ages is indeed remarkable, although the “prison-gate” and industrial type of home no doubt swells the numbers at this stage.

The next table contains information concerning inmates of orphanages and of a few other institutions which provide for both children and older people. The figures relate to inmates under the age of twenty-one who were remaining in the institutions at 31st December, 1934.

 Legitimate.No Information as to Legitimacy.Illegitimate.Total
Age, in Years.Father and Mother both Alive.Father Dead, Mother Alive.Father Alive, Mother Dead.Father and Mother both Dead.No Information as to Orphanhood
04..2......3541
112..1......2841
21526....12347
322315....11758
4425174122596
55072012..1999
666104251126151
777163951227167
898176391140229
9902954112124211
10902191162229251
11952663182333240
12954078213..34271
13763385283326254
14583077184122210
15392544171117144
1610812133..1157
1762126....733
1812..78....431
195365....625
20....13....59
Not known................
Totals96227773518826194582,665

Contrary to what might generally be expected, the above figures reveal that the largest group is that covering children both of whose parents were shown to have been alive. Cases where both parents were dead were in the minority as regards the four legitimate classes where full information as to orphanhood is available.

SUBSECTION C—MENTAL HOSPITALS.

THERE are eight public mental hospitals in the Dominion maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The patients on the register at the end of 1934 were distributed as shown below. Numbers given throughout this subsection are inclusive of Maoris. Figures for Maoris are also given separately toward the end of the subsection.

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland6795941,273
Kingseat (Papakura)23999338
Tokanui323283606
Porirua8307021,532
Nelson490200690
Hokitika236191427
Christchurch6386721,310
Seacliff and Waitati6845341,218
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)142539
Totals4,1333,3007,433

The number of patients remaining at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table :—

 Patients remaining at 31st December.Proportion per 10,000 of Total Population.
Year.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19303,5722,8116,38346.4638.1242.38
19313,7532,9086,66148.32390243.76
19323,9032,9806,88349.9039.6544.88
19334,0653,2177,28251.6042.4347.10
19344,1333,3007,43352.0843.2247.74
Means of five years3,8853,0436,92849.6740.4945.17

The total number of patients under oversight, care, or control during 1934 was 8,633 (males 4,764, females 3,869). as against 8,250 in 1933. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 6,741 in 1933 and 6,938 in 1934.

ADMISSIONS.

The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1934 were 983 (479 males and 504 females), this number not including 368 transfers from one institution to another. The causes of insanity as assigned on admission are given.

CAUSES OF INSANITY.

Heredity76
Congenital169
Previous attack126
Puberty and adolescence63
Climacteric52
Puerperal state24
Senility135
Involution16
Mental stress, prolonged17S
Toxic6
Syphilis22
Gross Brain Lesion1
Constitutional2
Alcohol26
Encephalitis3
Epilepsy39
Organic brain-disease9
Arterio-sclerosis20
Traumatic2
Ill health12
Influenza1
Infantile paralysis1

Of the 983 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1934, those admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 828 (males 405, females 423), and those readmitted 155 (males 74, females 81).

The figures for 1934 represent one first admission for every 1,872 persons in the mean population of the Dominion. The number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of mean population for each of the last five years were as follows :—

 Number of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Year.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19305393949337.085.396.25
19315083989066.575.375.99
19324893958846.285.285.79
19334864589446.206.076.14
19344054238235135.565.34
Means of five years4854148996.255.535.90

VOLUNTARY INMATES.

Persons labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as voluntary boarders. At the beginning of 1934 there were 355 patients on the books (198 males, 157 females), and during the year 311 (188 males, 123 females) were admitted. If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1934, 18 (7 males, 11 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 10 males and 6 females died, while 251 (152 males, 99 females) were discharged, leaving 381 on the records at the end of the year (217 males, 164 females).

AGES OF INMATES.

A summary is attached showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the end of 1933, no later figures being available.

Age, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
1 to 5111021
5 to 107332105
10 to 1512288210
15 to 20253169424
20 to 30549358907
30 to 406734831,156
40 to 507947021,496
50 to 607666671,433
60 to 70493426919
70 to 80238205443
80 to 905248100
90 and over347
Unknown362561
Totals4,0653,2177,282

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.

The next table gives the average number resident, those who were discharged as recovered, and those who died, during the period 1930–34.

  Discharged as recovered.Died.
Year.Average Number Resident.Number.Per Cent. of Number admitted.Number.Per Cent. of Average Number Resident.
19305,93226624.294237.13
19316,19924723.374206.76
19326,41930128.103886.04
19336,74126123.373455.12
19346,93826026.454366.28
Means of five years..6,44626725.124026.27

The table following shows the length of residence in mental hospitals of patients who died and of patients who were discharged recovered during the five years 1929–33. Of those discharged recovered, 63 per cent, had been inmates for less than one year.

 Patients who died.Patients discharged recovered.
Length of Residence.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month9591186251338
1 month and under 3 months108611699558153
3 months and under 6 months9545140124139263
6 months and under 9 months.642589112130242
9 months and under 1 year3629657089159
1 year and under 2 years9275167143149292
2 years and under 3 years7550125464793
3 years and under 5 years8875163254368
5 years and under 7 years5648104121628
7 years and under 10 years48581066511
10 years and under 12 years291847336
12 years and under 15 years443882213
15 years and over254177431538
Died during absence552782......
Totals1,1398171,9566686961,364

Old age is the principal cause of death among mental-hospital patients. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the past year are as follows:—

DEATHS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS, 1934.

Tuberculosis28
Cancer23
Other general diseases17
General paralysis of the insane25
Epilepsy26
Other diseases of the nervous system45
Diseases of the circulatory system83
Diseases of the respiratory system30
Diseases of the digestive system7
Diseases of the genitourinary system7
Old age127
External causes2
Died while on leave16
Total436

A table is added showing for all admissions since 1876 the percentages of patients discharged (as recovered and relieved, separately), died, and remaining.

 Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Discharged—   
Recovered36.0041.3338.22
Relieved9.5811.4510.38
Died37.8228.6333.89
Remaining at end of 193416.6018.5917.51
 100.00100.00100.00

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.

A license may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such licenses, which may be revoked at any time. The Director-General has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private institution in the Dominion, that at Wakari, near Dunedin, established in 1882. Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the last five years, are as follows. These figures are included in preceding tables.

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Patients remaining at End of Year.
1930107345
1931129543
1932610336
1933129336
1934137339

MAORIS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS.

The number of Maoris admitted as patients to mental hospitals is small. The figures for the last five years are—

 Admitted during Year.Remaining at End of Year.
Year.Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19307916464389
1931141125514798
19321511265349102
19331413276447111
19341714316854122

EXPENDITURE, ETC.

The total expenditure on maintenance of mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions), and receipts from patients and for sale of produce, 'c, during the last five years were as follows:—

    Net Expenditure.
Year.Total Expenditure.Receipts from Patients, Sale of Produce, &c.Total.Per Head of Mean Population.
££££s.d.
1930–31475,654172,195303,45940
1931–32429,258163,352265,90636
1932–33404,010163,963240,04732
1933–34401,220167,720233,5003
1934–35424,119171,677252,44233

Chapter 6. SECTION VI.—EDUCATION.

NATIONAL SYSTEM OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

THE provision of educational facilities in New Zealand dates back into the first years of British settlement in the country. Immediately after the advent of the first missionaries schools for the instruction of the Native youth were established. Later, as a European population settled in the country, the need for a means of educating the white children arose, and finally the necessity for some co-ordinated scheme for the whole colony asserted itself. This latter was con- summated in the Education Act of 1877, which Act is the basis of the system of education obtaining in the Dominion at the present day.

A very full and informative historical account of educational legislation and progress in New Zealand is given in Parliamentary Paper I.-8A of the 1930 session.

The passing of the Education Act of 1877 marked the foundation of the present system of free, compulsory,* and secular education. The outstanding feature of the Act was the establishment of (1) a central Department of Education controlled by a Minister of the Crown; (2) twelve education districts governed by Boards; and (3) school districts, which came under the jurisdiction of School Committees. On the Department was the onus of administering the annual appropriations by distributing to the Boards funds for the erection and maintenance of schools and the establishment of training or normal schools, and also the payment of capitation to the Boards at the rate of £3 15s. for each scholar m average daily attendance.

Education Boards wore to be elected by School Committees, and to consist of nine members, three of whom were to retire annually. In the Boards were vested all property and endowments, and rents from these became part of the Board funds. The Boards were required to administer funds in carrying out the building arrangements for which grants were provided by the Department; in paying the salaries of teachers; and in granting to School Committees money for general educational purposes. The appointment and removal of teachers were in their hands, and the Act also gave the Boards power to establish scholarships, and to provide for secondary education in district high schools. Fees were, however, payable to Education Boards by pupils receiving secondary instruction. School Committees of seven members were to be elected annually. Generally the Committee had the management of educational matters within its own district, and out of the money received from the Board made payments incidental to the administration of the Committee's functions. In addition to these provisions the Act of 1877 specified the course of instruction to be given in the schools through-out the whole country. Inspectors, who were officers of the Education Boards, were appointed to examine and report on the school-work.

In the main the principles of the Act of 1877 are operative to-day. Several amendments made in succeeding years necessitated a consolidating measure in 1904. Among the principal alterations and additions that had been made up to that date were: The provision in 1900 for a comprehensive scheme of manual and technical instruction; the introduction of physical drill into the curriculum in 1901; and, in 1903, the institution of National Scholarships to be awarded by the Department and the introduction of a system of free places in secondary schools and district high schools for scholars completing the primary course. Up to the year 1901 also each Board had its own scale of staffs and salaries, but an Act of 1901 fixed the relation of the number and the remuneration of teachers in a school to the number of pupils in attendance. In 1905 each education district was divided into three wards, each returning three members, one of whom in each ward retired annually.

* Every child between the ages of seven and fourteen is required to be enrolled as a pupil of either a public or a registered school. The parents of a child of school age are liable to a penalty of £2 if such child is improperly enrolled at other than a public or registered school. There are statutory exemptions from attendance in certain circumstances.

No outstanding changes beyond the consolidation of education legislation in 1908 were made until 1914. By the Education Act of that year the whole of the law relating not only to public but also to secondary, technical, and special schools was recast. The principal changes involved the reorganization of the Department of Education, and the Inspector-General of Schools became Director of Education. Inspectors of Schools, who had hitherto been officers of the several Education Boards, became officers of the central Department, a provision, it may be noted, that had been deleted from the Bill of 1877. Provision was made for the constitution of fewer education districts in lieu of the thirteen then existing, and by an Act of 1915 nine were created. Every education district is divided into urban areas and a rural area. An urban area consists of a borough or a group of boroughs having more than eight thousand inhabitants; and the rural area, which comprises the rest of the district, is divided into three wards. The members for each ward of the rural area and for all urban areas are, as previously, elected by the members of the several School Committees. The number of members for the rural area of an Education Board is six—two for each ward. The number of members for each urban area is two for each sixty thousand or part of sixty thousand inhabitants. School Committees are elected by the house- holders, and hold office for two years. Prior to 1934 the term of tenure was one year.

Under the Act, a graded list of certified teachers is compiled annually. Except in special cases, all teaching appointments are governed by the position of the applicants on the list, and it is also to some extent the basis for the determination of the rate of salary payable.

Amending legislation, mainly of an administrative character, has been enacted at various times since 1914. By the Education Amendment Act, 1921–22, the registration of all private schools is compulsory, and teachers in both public and private schools are required to take the oath of allegiance.

The Education Amendment Act, 1924, provided for the amalgamation of the governing bodies of secondary and technical schools, and the creation of a Teacher's Register. The Education Amendment Act, 1926, discontinued the system of issuing licenses to teach.

Part II (Education Amendment) of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 2), abolished the Council of Education, District Advisory Committees, and also Junior and Senior National Scholarships, at the same time authorizing the establishment of bursaries for secondary or higher education.

By Part V (Education Amendment) of the Finance Act, 1932, no child under the age of six years can be enrolled in a public school. By the same Act minor changes were made in the sections of the Education Act, 1914, dealing with teachers' salaries.

The Education Amendment Act, 1932–33, provided for consolidation and amendment of the law in respect to the appointment and transfer of teachers in public schools, the establishment of intermediate schools and departments (previously junior high schools and departments), the amendment of the existing provisions governing the dismissal of teachers, the establishment of training colleges and authorization of advances to training-college students with conditions as to their repayment, the enrolment of a child in a public school in the first four weeks of the term in which he reaches the age of six years, the compulsory attendance of a child at special classes if deemed to require special tuition, authority to regulate admissions to schools other than public schools, and the making of regulations for fixing terms and holidays and defining the public holidays in schools and training colleges.

In addition to minor amendments the Education Law Amendment Act, 1933, substituted biennial for annual elections of school committees.

Various minor amendments were made by the Education Law Amendment Act, 1934–35.

The programme of primary instruction at present provided by the Act includes English, arithmetic, geography, history and civics, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical instruction, moral instruction and health, and singing.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.

The number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of the Dominion is shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year in all cases except Technical Classes which are as at 1st July.

Class of Institution.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* A change in nomenclature was made in 1933, the term “junior high school” being replaced by “intermediate school.”
Primary Education.    
Public (State) schools218,442207,280200,641199,745
Intermediate schools* and departments218,442207,280200,641199,745
Native village schools7,5037,3137,3407,587
Native mission schools523537552535
Registered private primary schools26,72626,41026,42826,636
Lower departments of secondary schools247209178168
Correspondence classes (primary)9731,1861,3191,326
Chatham Islands140146149157
Total primary254,554243,081230,607236,154
Post-primary Education.    
Secondary schools15,42813,44613,30913,487
Combined schools4481,9751,9291,919
Secondary departments of district high schools4,6724,3454,3894,365
Secondary scholars at intermediate schools*272141122..
Technical high and technical day schools7,3977,1067,1497,183
Maori secondary (boarding) schools448346302333
Registered private and endowed secondary schools4,1414,0534,0634,146
Correspondence classes (secondary)286325355396
Total secondary33,09231,73731,61831,829
Technical Classes (excluding Technical High Schools and Technical Day Schools).    
Conducted by Education, Secondary, or High School Boards2,0972,1302,2132,342
Conducted by Technical School Boards8,0076,9686,5246,951
Conducted by University colleges432361341304
Total technical10,5369,4599,0789,597
University Education.    
University colleges4,2094,1493,9603,910
University students exempt from lectures660763846811
Lincoln Agricultural College90684453
Massey Agricultural College152191235285
Total University5,1115,1715,0855,059
Total scholars and students303,293289,448282,388282,639

Public primary schools, including district high schools, numbered 2,532 in 1934, 15 more than in 1933. The number of registered private primary schools from which returns were received by the Education Department was 307. Aided or endowed colleges, grammar schools, and high schools in operation numbered 40, combined secondary and technical high schools 6, technical high schools and technical day schools 21, intermediate schools or departments 16, registered private secondary schools 53, and University colleges 4. The number of primary and secondary schools established for the education of the Native race was 159.

PUBLIC (STATE) PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The figures tabulated below concern pupils in public schools, and from 1927 to 1929 also include pupils of three junior high schools (now termed intermediate schools) which are administered by the Auckland Education Board. From 1930 to 1933 Forms I and II pupils and in 1934 all pupils of intermediate schools and departments have been included. Thus all pupils receiving primary instruction are accounted for in the figures from 1930 onwards.

Year.Population at 31st December (excluding Maoris).Number of Schools.Pupils at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.
19251,346,0762,580214,724211,896193,58891.4
19261,365,4172,601216,807212,334190,89589.9
19271,385,4012,601219,945214,242191,09089.2
19281,401,4722,598218,794214,394193,42090.2
19291,418,9142,597217,961213,210193,97890.9
19301,438,2392,601218,479212,702196,08292.2
19311,452,7472,534218,442213,059197,32492.6
19321,463,0302,528207,280210,078193,70192.2
19331,473,4802,531200,641195,935182,01792.9
19341,482,9092,548199,745194,812177,94791.3

Of the 2,548 schools shown above for 1934, 2,046 had average attendances of not more than eighty, and of these 997 had averages ranging from one to twenty.

RELATIVE ACTIVITIES OF EDUCATION DISTRICTS.

The following figures show the number of schools and intermediate schools or departments as at 31st December, 1934, and the number of pupils at the end of each of the last five years. The latter figures are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

  Pupils at End of—
District.Schools at End of 1934.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Auckland76467,26867,67864,82262,70063,005
Taranaki17911,63012,12911,52411,21211,288
Wanganui22017,21816,75315,78215,27714,903
Hawke's Bay19616,49216,19115,44214,87014,694
Wellington24827,45228,86927,34726,36026,371
Nelson1387,1186,9566,5296,3286,299
Canterbury38037,38436,94434,81333,85833,589
Otago24421,51520,83719,60818,95718,560
Southland17912,40212,08511,41311,07911,036
Totals2,548218,479218,442207,280200,641199,745

In each of the education districts are located Inspectors of Schools, who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary school Inspectors on the 31st December, 1934, was 39, allocated as follows: Auckland, 12; Taranaki, 2; Wanganui, 3; Hawke's Bay, 3; Wellington, 4; Nelson, 1; Canterbury, 7; Otago, 4; Southland, 3.

AGE AND SEX OF PUPILS.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public schools and Forms I and II of intermediate schools and departments of the Dominion at the 1st July. 1934:—

 1934.Percentage of Total Pupils
Age.Boys.Girls.Total.1930.1931.*1932.*1933.*1934.*
* These include intermediate schools and departments.
5 and under 6 years1,0619602,0219.48.87.61.01.0
6 and under 7 years11,66110,77422,43511.211.211.211.711.6
7 and under 8 years12,55111,72624,27711.711.311.812.412.5
8 and under 9 years12,55111,84824,39912.311.711.512.812.6
9 and under 10 years12,83511,88124,71612.012.211.712.312.8
10 and under 11 years12,47311,61424,08711.911.812.412.612.4
11 and under 12 years12,58111,72924,31010.412.211.913.112.5
12 and under 13 years12,36011,45623,81610.09.811.111.912.3
13 and under 14 years8,7667,29416,0607.57.27.08.38.3
14 and under 15 years3,7692,5616,3302.93.13.03.13.3
15 and under 16 years8253861,2110.70.60.70.70.6
16 years and over8724111..0.10.10.10.1
Totals101,52092,253193,773100.0100.0l00.0100.0100.0

PUPILS LEAVING PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

In 1934, 22,665 pupils (11,834 boys and 10,831 girls) left public primary schools as against 21,935 (11,337 boys and 10,598 girls) in 1933. Of those leaving in 1934, 17,980, or 79 per cent., had passed Form II, and 4,685, or 21 per cent., had not passed that standard. The corresponding percentages in 1933 were the same.

MANUAL INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Elementary handwork in such subjects as modelling, paper and cardboard work, and brushwork is taught by the ordinary staff in practically every school of any size in the Dominion. The boys of Forms I and II receive instruction from special teachers in woodwork or ironwork. The girls of similar standards also receive instruction from special instructors in domestic subjects, including a comprehensive course in cookery and domestic hygiene. Subjects relating to agriculture or dairy-work and general elementary science are taught by the regular staff under the supervision of itinerant instructors specially qualified in the work.

CLASS-BOOKS AND SCHOOL AND CLASS LIBRARIES.

Owing to the need for curtailing expenditure, no grants for capitation or by way of subsidy for libraries have been made since 1930.

CORRESPONDENCE CLASSES.

Since 1922, correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in particularly isolated areas who would otherwise not be able to obtain any schooling. In 1928 preliminary arrangements were made for the establishment of a secondary department, and in February, 1929, post-primary courses in English, mathematics, geography, history, agriculture, Latin, and book-keeping were made available. The children taking those courses comprise ex-primary pupils living in remote districts, whose only opportunity of obtaining a secondary education is by means of correspondence. In some cases pupils of remote primary schools, on completion of their primary course, receive instruction in secondary subjects through their teacher, the papers being supplied by the Correspondence School. It is intended to make a special feature of practical agriculture, and a special assistant has been appointed for this purpose.

At the end of 1934 there were 1,722 pupils on the roll of the correspondence classes, 1,320 being in the primary department and 396 in the secondary. In addition, assistance was given to the head teachers of 156 rural schools who were regularly supplied with secondary-instruction papers and model answers for use in teaching 203 pupils continuing attendance at their schools. The staff of the school consists of a headmaster, 15 secondary and 23 primary assistant teachers, 4 of whom are engaged in the infant department, and 1 (a specialist) engaged exclusively in teaching needlework. There are also 13 office assistants.

PUBLICATIONS.

An illustrated paper, called the School Journal, is published by the Education Department monthly for use as the chief reader in primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, and is supplied free to all schools and other institutions more or less under the Department's control or supervision. To a large number of private schools it is supplied at cost price. Of the last issue of the School Journal for the year 1934 the number of copies printed was—Part I, 72,000; Part II, 70,000; Part III, 67,000 : total, 209,000.

A monthly Gazette, is published by the Department. In addition to containing articles by leading educationists, it is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to public schools of the Dominion.

CONVEYANCE AND BOARD OF SCHOLARS.

Free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway-line but out of reach of a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, combined schools, district high schools, and technical high schools, and also by free-place holders travelling to attend technical schools or classes other than at technical high schools.

Education Boards are authorized also to make provision when necessary for the conveyance of pupils to primary schools by road or water. From the beginning of 1934 Education Boards were authorized to reinstate the grants made in the case of pupils who were obliged to live away from home in order to attend school. The expenditure on these services for the last five years is shown in the following table :—

Year.Railway Fares.Other Conveyance and Boarding Allowances.*Total.
 Primary.Combined.Secondary.Technical.Primary.Secondary. 
* Boarding allowance was not paid in 1932 and 1933.
 £££££££
193010,260..8,0826,07974,65486399,943
193110,165597,6196,14072,1371,15197,271
19329,2676846,4955,94070,5081,01593,909
19338,7185136,6715,83366,11177788,623
19348,7375786,4676,09367,56286890,305

PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

Physical education, including swimming and life-saving, is recognized as part of the primary and post-primary school curriculum. In the public schools a period of not less than fifteen minutes a day is devoted to the subject, and in post-primary schools at least one hour a week. Corrective classes are held in the larger schools for the purpose of remedying physical defects of the children.

The medical and dental inspection of school-children and the scheme of school dentistry are dealt with in Section VA of this publication.

PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHERS.

Of the 6,442 adult teachers at the end of 1934, 99–7 per cent, held teachers' certificates. No probationers have been appointed since 1931. The average number of pupils for each adult teacher was 28. The table following relates to adult teachers as at 31st December, 1934.

Education District.Sole Teachers.Heads of Schools.Assistant Teachers.Total Number of Adult Teachers.*Percentage of Male to Female Adult Teachers.
 M.F.M.P.M.F.  
* Excludes 165 teachers in intermediate schools and departments.
Auckland257118304502849261,93977.2
Taranaki583263233118839562.6
Wanganui676073155023049562.3
Hawke's Bay62526875522146566.1
Wellington3191872110843777541.2
Nelson46453561810125165.1
Canterbury79119141291765441,08857.2
Otago5972861710830564764.2
Southland61456384616438778.3
Totals7206349201768763,1166,44264.1

Omitting schools with fewer than twenty-one pupils, the ratio of adult men teachers to adult women teachers in 1934 was 100 to 173. The proportion of men to women in charge of schools with not more than twenty scholars was 100 to 89. If the adult teachers of all public schools are taken, it is found that the ratio of men teachers to women teachers was 100 to 156 in 1934.

Information as to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund will be found in the section of this book dealing with Pensions, Superannuation, &c.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

Training colleges at Wellington and Dunedin were closed at the end of 1932. The remaining two training colleges (at Auckland and Christchurch) were closed during 1934 and the training of teachers discontinued. Auckland and Christ- church colleges were, however, reopened in 1935.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

By the Education Amendment Act, 1921–22, every private school was required to apply for registration before the 13th July, 1922, and no private school can now be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration, and certain precedent conditions of efficiency and suitability of stair, premises, equipment, and curriculum are required to be fulfilled.

At the end of the year 1934 the number of registered private primary schools was 307, with a total roll number of 26,636 and an average attendance of 23,385 for the year.

Year.Number of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
193030612,28114,17026,45123,916114848962
193130512,50014,22626,72624,069107852959
193230912,51013,90026,41023,837107850957
193330912,57513,85326,42823,526106868974
193430712,76213,87426,63623,38598891989

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic, the figures for Roman Catholic schools for 1934 being—Schools, 221; scholars on roll at end of year, 22,903 (males 11,099, females 11,804); average yearly attendance, 20,173; teachers, 759 (males, 40, females 719).

In addition to the 307 registered primary private schools there were 53 private secondary schools on the register at the end of 1934, with a total roll number of 3,651.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR NATIVES.

The number of Native village schools in operation at the end of 1934 was 138. In addition, there are twenty-one private schools at which education for Maori boys and girls is provided. Included in the twenty-one are ten boarding-schools which provide courses for primary and secondary education. Instruction is imparted by means of the English language only.

On the rolls of the 138 village schools at the end of 1934, there are 7,587 children (including 1,026 Europeans). The average attendance for the year was C.7J9, the percentage of regularity being 90–4, and the average weekly roll number 7,523. The total number of pupils on the rolls of the Native mission schools was 535, and on those of the secondary schools 333. The total roll number of all the Native schools inspected by officers of the Education Department was 8,455.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Native village schools during the last ten years.

Year.Number of Schools at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.Number of Teachers.
     Males.Females.
19251286,3665,62888.492188
19261306,6175,94789.894188
19271346,6555,81787.4104193
19281346,7705,96488.1102194
19291376,9556,25289.9104203
19301387,0796,43790.9111211
19311397,4996,80490.5111212
19321357,5246,84891.0108219
19331377,3466,58189.6114218
19341387,5236,79990.4119221

For the greater part of the year three Inspectors of Schools attached to the Education Department were engaged in the inspection of Native schools, mission schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Besides the children of the Maori race who are receiving instruction in the Native schools there are 8,854 attending public schools, so that the total number of primary pupils of Maori race (including those in the mission schools) is 15,950.

INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS.

Since 1923 the Education Department has established sixteen intermediate schools (formerly termed junior high schools) or departments. Two are attached to district high schools, two to district high school departments, one to a technical school, six to secondary schools, and five separate establishments. Pupils on the roll of intermediate schools or departments at the end of 1934 numbered 4,369,as against 3,806 in 1933. The average attendance during the year was 4,104. The ages of the pupils on the roll at the 1st July, 1934, were—

Age, in Years.Boys.Girls.Total.
Under 116780147
11 and under 12453447900
12 and under 138167451,561
13 and under 146555351,190
14 and under 15307224531
15 and under 169746143
16 and under 178311
Totals.2,4032,0804,483

POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Until 1904 secondary schools were established by special (local) Acts of the General Assembly, and the majority of schools giving post-primary education have been so constituted. At the present time the provisions of the Education Act, 1914, allow of the Minister of Education establishing such schools, and, in general the minimum number of prospective pupils must be sixty in the case of secondary schools, twenty in the case of the secondary department of a district high school, and forty in the case of a technical high school or a day technical school. The Education Amendment Act, 1924, provided that secondary or technical schools could be combined and be placed under a single governing body. In 1927 New Plymouth, and in 1931 Nelson and Napier, technical and secondary schools were combined under single controlling authorities. In 1931 Napier, and in 1932 New Plymouth and Nelson, combined schools were operating under regulations for these schools. Secondary schools and combined schools are controlled by a Board of Governors, district high schools by the Education Board of the district, and technical high schools and day technical schools either by a Board of Managers or by the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity. Free places are granted to suitably qualified pupils. A junior free place at a post- primary school is tenable for two years, with a possible extension to three years. A junior free place may not be held after the 31st December of the year in which the holder reaches seventeen years of age. Senior free places are tenable up to the age of nineteen. Since 1931 all applications for extensions of free places have been approved where parents are unable to pay fees.

In addition to the five classes of institutions referred to there are also fifty- three registered private secondary schools, two endowed secondary schools, and ten Maori secondary schools which provide for post-primary education.

The secondary schools are regularly inspected by four Inspectors and the technical schools by two Inspectors, all of whom are attached to the Education Department. The combined schools are inspected by both secondary and technical inspectors.

The number of schools providing post-primary education during the last five years is set out in the accompanying table.

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.Secondary Departments of District High Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Total.
* Endowed schools previously in “secondary schools” now included in “endowed and private secondary schools.”
193046..81221248209
193142282221151*210
193238680211054*209
193338681211055*211
193438682211055*212

The number of pupils at the end of each year of the last decade is shown ii the following table; no account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools and in the case of district high schools only the secondary department is included.

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.District High Schools.Technical Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Correspondence Classes.Total.
192512,514..3,1365,1325362,511..23,829
192613,651..3,1625,7005702,794..25,877
192714,190..3,4435,7035242,932..26,792
192815,038..3,6736,0615333,430..28,735
192915,498..3,8696,1145333,6989829,810
193016,149..4,1156,9535353,82516631,743
193115,4284484,6727,3974484,14128632,820
193213,4461,9754,3457,1063464,05332531,596
193313,3091,9294,3897,1493024,06335531,496
193413,4871,9194,3657,1833334,14639631,829

The figures for years prior to 1926 are not available in the case of technical day schools.

At the end of 1934, of the total scholars attending secondary schools, 7,228 were boys and 6,259 girls; combined schools, 1,109 and 810; secondary departments of district high schools, 2,319 and 2,046; technical schools, 3,903 and 3,280 endowed and registered private schools, 2,068 and 2,078; and Maori secondary schools, 199 and 134.

FREE PLACES IN POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Of the scholars attending Government schools, no less than 99 per cent, were receiving free tuition in 1934. The following table gives, as at 1st July, i summary of the free places held in post-primary schools for the last three years:—

 1932.1933.1934.
Class of School and Free Place.Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Secondary schools—         
Junior free pupils..4,5704,3398,9094,2584,2948,5524,9254,6259,550
Senior free pupils3,2862,3145,6003,4422,2695,7112,8842,0974,981
Combined schools—         
Junior free pupils7816101,3917455741,3197595951,354
Senior free pupils453297750451290741473291764
District high schools—         
Junior free pupils1,9271,6183,5451,9341,5803,5141,8701,7593,629
Senior free pupils8ll6371,4488116221,4337675331,300
Technical high and technical day schools—         
Junior free pupils3,8282,8896,7173,8372,9686,8053,8773,1096,986
Senior free pupils1,1448271,9711,021768l,7899838141,797
Intermediate schools—         
Junior free pupils1131032167995174......
Senior free pupils......2..2......
Correspondence school—         
Junior free pupils139214353149188337159232391
Senior free pupils171734152944282452
Totals17,06913,86530,93416,74413,67730,42116,72514,07930,804

WAR BURSARIES FOR SOLDIERS' DEPENDANTS.

Regulations which came into force in January, 1918, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of killed or disabled members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces. To qualify for a war bursary a child must be eligible for—

  1. Free education at technical classes; or

  2. A free place at a secondary school, district high school, or technical high school; or

  3. A University bursary.

One hundred and thirty-one bursaries were current in 1934.

STAFFS OF POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The following table indicates the number of adult teachers employed in the post-primary schools mentioned. The principals are included in every case, except in the case of district high schools the figures given applying to assistants in the secondary department only.

 Secondary Schools.District High Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.Combined Schools. 
Year.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Grand Totals.
193037230910778234133....1,233
19313682871208323813813111,258
193233626511593240145601,292 
19333362611188924614159371,287
19343472641269825014758381,328

LOWER DEPARTMENTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

These departments may be held in connection with secondary schools for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met out of the income from the endowments of the school or from Government grants. Nine secondary schools have lower departments attached to them. Some of the pupils board at the school hostels.

At the end of 1934 the number of schools was 8; of pupils, 168 (69 boys, 99 girls); and of teachers, 11.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

Technical classes for part-time day and evening students were held at thirty- seven centres during 1934. The number of individual students was as follows:—

Classes conducted by Education or High School Boards2,342
Classes conducted by Technical School Boards or by Managers6,951
Classes conducted by University colleges304
Total9,597

Of the above number, 5,616 (3,555 males and 2,061 females) held free places. Technical high schools numbered twenty-one in 1934. These schools are of secondary grade, and provide general, industrial, domestic, agricultural, commercial,and art courses. The courses of instruction being taken by pupils at technical high schools at 1st July in each of the last five years were as follows :—

Course.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Industrial2,2782,5182,6632,3782,420
Commercial and general3,7363,7863,7593,8624,031
Domestic1,1421,2561,4001,4741,533
Agricultural445485502524468
Art401496462468459
Totals8,0028,5418,7868,7068,911

Technological examinations were conducted by the Department in 1934 on behalf of the City and Guilds of London Institute at eight centres. The total number of entries was 159, and the number of passes was 97. The Education Department also held its own examinations in technological subjects in 1934. The examinations were conducted on account of 64 candidates who sat for examination, 8 of whom were successful in securing passes in the preliminary, 22 in the intermediate examination, and 12 in the final examination.

Information in regard to free places in technical schools is given under the heading of “Post-primary Schools.”

CHILD WELFARE AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.

The Child Welfare Act of 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Education Department, known as the Child Welfare Branch. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, or delinquent children.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorized to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was also made for the appointment, of honorary associates of either sex, whose function it is to consider all the facts concerning children brought before the Courts and to advise the presiding Magistrate or Justice as to what action should be taken. The appointment of Child Welfare Officers for the investigation of all cases coming before the Courts was also provided for. The functions of such officers are carried out mainly by the regular officers already employed by the Department, but in outlying districts it is hoped to utilize the services of voluntary social service agents for this important work.

The principle of dealing with children in the privacy of the Magistrate's room had been followed for many years throughout the Dominion, and the Child Welfare Act was designed to give legality to such a practice. Very wide discretionary powers are given to the Magistrates of these special Courts in dealing with children. The ordinary procedure of requiring the child to plead, of taking evidence on oath, and, in fact, of hearing the particular charge may be dispensed with altogether. Wherever practicable the Children's Court is held in premises apart from the ordinary Police Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child was originally defined for purposes of the Act as one under sixteen years of age. This age was raised to seventeen in 1927.

In order to provide for the greater protection of infants of unmarried mothers and for the assistance and guidance of the mothers themselves, there is provision for Child Welfare Officers, on being notified of such births, to investigate each case and to render such assistance as is required, either in placing the child in a suitable foster-home or in advising the mother in the matter of affiliation proceedings, or in assisting her in obtaining employment, &c. By an amending Act in 1927 provision was made for the inspection and registration of all private institutions for children.

In addition to the work in connection with the maintenance and education of destitute, neglected, and delinquent children committed by the Courts, the Child Welfare Branch (1) supervises all infants and young children under the age of six, years who are living apart from their parents; (2) makes inquiry through its field officers, for the information of Magistrates, of all applications for the adoption of children and for widows' pensions; (3) supervises all children and young persons placed under the field officers by order of the Court; and (4) provides for the maintenance, education, and training of all afflicted children who are deaf, blind, or feeble-minded, or have speech-defects.

The following figures (which are exclusive of children dealt with as preventive cases, 1,161 in 1934) indicate the numbers under control during each of the last five years. In addition there were (1934) 19 children at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind, for whom the Education Department made payment.

Boarded out, institutions, receiving1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
homes, and in hospitals, or convalescent homes, &c.4,6334,6084,1044,0313,993
Under supervision952911864850917
Infant-life protection1,2801,131996923816
Deaf children121120120116127
Feeble-minded children269267264239282
Totals7,2557,0376,3486,1596,135

The Child Welfare Act authorizes Children's Courts to place children under the supervision of Child Welfare Officers in cases where it appears undesirable or Unnecessary to remove them from their own homes, and generally in all cases where friendly contact with the parents as well as the children is sufficient to bring about a readjustment of the home conditions or the correction of incipient anti-social traits in the children. In this important work the Department receives valuable assistance from certain of the private social service organizations.

The number of cases dealt with by the Courts last year was 2,245, and of these 669 were placed under supervision and dealt with as indicated in the foregoing paragraph. The number actually admitted to institutions, such as receiving-homes, special schools, training-farms, &c, was 442; but all these, with the exception of 106 who required long periods of training or were regarded as unfit for placing out, were suitably provided for in the community before the close of the year. The remainder of the children were dealt with in a manner not calling for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer.

At the end of the year 1934 the number of children boarded out in foster- homes was 2,043, as compared with 2,136 at the end of the preceding year. The boarding-out rate is 16s. per week for infants under twelve months, and 14s. for children over that age still attending school. The department provides free medical and dental treatment and medicines, also school books and stationery.

The Boys' Training Farm at Weraroa provides for boys of all ages—usually from twelve years upwards—who require a period of reformative detention in an institution.

An institution at Otekaike is available for the education of feeble-minded boys. Older lads, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, and in the bootmaking, basketmaking, matmaking, and carpentering shops. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and employed in house- work and laundry-work, sewing, knitting, &c, and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing.

In order to meet the requirements of children who are retarded in their development owing to physical or other defects special classes have been established. These classes provide for children in certain public hospitals, for hard-of-hearing children and speech defectives, for under-nourished and physically defective children, and for children who are unable to benefit from ordinary class instruction.

Infant-fife protection is carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. Very many infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate.

A residential school at Sumner exists for the teaching of deaf children, and special classes are established in the main centres for the education of hard-of- hearing children and for the correction of defective speech among children. Classes are also conducted for adults.

Provision is made for blind children and also for blind adults at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind at Auckland.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY.

Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the New Zealand University, founded by the New Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875.

The University was formerly an examining, not a teaching body, with four teaching institutions affiliated to it—the Auckland University College, founded in 1882; Victoria University College, founded in 1897 at Wellington; Canterbury University College, founded in 1873 at Christchurch; and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. By the New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1926, the constitution of the University has been altered so that it now actually consists of the four University colleges. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions : Otago University has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, and a school of home science; Canter- bury University College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil); Auckland University College has a school of architecture, a school of commerce, and a school of engineering up to and including the second professional examination; and Victoria University College specializes in law and science. There are also two Agricultural Colleges—viz., Massey and Lincoln—attached to the University.

In 1930 a New Zealand University Amendment Act was passed to enable the- New Zealand University to discharge its functions under the Law Practitioners Amendment Act, 1930.

For this purpose a Council of Legal Education was established to make recommendations to the Academic Board of the University with respect to any matter relating to legal education. Further, the Senate of the University in making or altering statutes concerning legal education must first consider any recommendations made by the Academic Board or the Council of Legal Education.

The growth of University education is seen from the annexed table. In 1934 there were 3,910 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges. Of these, 386 were graduates, 3,204 undergraduates, and 320 unmatriculated students. In addition there were 811 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures.

 Students attending Lectures.Exempt Students. 
Year.Males.Females.Males.Females.Total.
19252,8441,1053861074,442
19262,8751,2124431234,653
19273,0141,3483971194,878
19282,9751,2804351124,802
19292,9081,2203861094,623
19302,8791,2845081304,801
19312,9731,2364881724,869
19322,9451,2045891744,912
19332,8921,0686312154,806
19342,9051,0056032084,721

Professors attached to the various University colleges in 1934 numbered 67, of whom Auckland had 14; Victoria, 14; Canterbury, 14; and Otago, 25. In addition there was a considerably larger number of full-time lecturers, part-time lecturers, and assistants.

FREE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.

University Junior Scholarships are of the value of £25 per annum plus tuition fees, and are tenable for three years. In the case of holders living away from home a further sum of £35 per annum is allowed. The number of University junior and national scholarships awarded in 1933 was thirty-one. Taranaki Scholarships are of the annual value of £60, and the Senate may, at its discretion, extend the tenure from three to four years. There are also some thirty or forty local and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same entrance examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the Senior University (£70 per annum), Sir George Grey, and John Tinline Scholarships (£70 per annum). The various colleges have also” private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, the Medical Travelling Scholarship, the Engineering Travelling Scholarship, the Post-graduate Travelling Scholarships in Arts and in Science, the French Travelling Scholarship, the Law Travelling Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All except the last- named are tenable abroad. The Research Scholarships are each of the value of £100 per annum.

So far, forty-five Rhodes Scholarships have been granted, of which twelve have been gained by students of Auckland University College, nine by students of Victoria University College, nine by students of Canterbury University College, fourteen by students of Otago University, and one by a student of Massey College.

The Science Research Scholarship offered annually by the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 has been awarded to thirty-three graduates, nine from Auckland University College, seven from Victoria University College, nine from Canterbury University College, and eight from the University of Otago.

In 1932 University bursaries entitled the holders to the payment of tuition and examination fees (not exceeding £10 per annum). A bursary is tenable for a three (or possibly four) years' course at a University college or at a school of agriculture recognized by the University. The number of University bursaries (excluding agricultural) held in 1934 was 580. Domestic-science bursaries, tenable at the Otago University, may be awarded under the regulations for technical instruction. Bursaries of this kind were held by fifteen students in 1934. During 1934 there were ten holders of engineering bursaries and five holders of architectural bursaries.

Agricultural bursaries may be awarded to qualified candidates in order to enable them to obtain the necessary practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1934 six bursars were in attendance at Canter- bun,' Agricultural College (Lincoln), eight at Massey Agricultural College (Palmerston North), one at Auckland University College, and two at Otago University (Dunedin).

From the table given below will be seen the number of students who received free University education during each of the last ten years:—

Year.Junior University, University National, and Taranaki Scholarships.Senior University Scholarships.University and Educational Bursaries.Training college Studentships.Other.Total.
* University bursaries only.
192590138855741061,668
192687149465711321,750
192783181,0767491492,075
192881201,127567981,893
192984211,1617081092,083
193084191,162645992,009
193192191,186*558841,939
1932102171,184*4936l1,857
19339919749*248761,191
193411021580*..126837

WORKERS' EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.

The Workers' Educational Association, which works in conjunction with the four University colleges, conducts tutorial and preliminary classes for working men and women in such subjects as economics, sociology, psychology, industrial history, English literature, English composition, modern history, electricity, hygiene, &c. Members of the staffs of the University colleges and other educationists act as tutors of the classes. The classes are held for the most part in the large cities, although to an increasing extent classes are being arranged in the smaller towns.

In addition, the association (since 1932) has provided a motor-car which serves as a travelling library. The car is equipped with a radio-receiving set and lantern for projecting slides. The finance for this car was provided by the Carnegie Corporation. The motor-car is used solely in the Canterbury rural district.

The Box Scheme which was inaugurated in the Canterbury District in 1924 now serves the whole of the Dominion. It is mainly confined to the rural areas. Under this scheme each box contains the copies of a lecture, gramophone records, &c, and is passed on from group to group.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.

The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department during the last five years is given below.

Examination.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.

Discontinued in 1931.

† Senior National Scholarship examinations discontinued from 1931. public Service Entrance examination not held since 1931.

Junior National Scholarships and junior free places1,118****
Public Service Entrance, Senior National Scholarships, and Intermediate4,1812,5728,422l,308l,026
Teachers D and C95353429413599
Training College Entrance Examination743961483314308
Kindergarten Certificate Examination44......
School Certificate........4,197
London University Examinations43223
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate2532282717
Technological Examinations1771431298364
Naval Cadetships1..211
Aircraft Apprenticeships211741
Totals7,2084,2609,3671,8745,721

The University conducted examinations in 1934 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, public health, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, forestry, and music, and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 9,172 entrants for the degree examinations in 1934, compared with 8,784 in 1033. The number of candidates for matriculation in the last five years has been: 1930, 4,567; 1931, 4,779; 1932, 4,725; 1933, 4,738; 1934, 4,610.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.

Out of public funds £2,871,167 was spent on education for the financial year ended 31st March, 1935. This sum includes amounts paid from reserves revenue, but not revenues received by certain secondary schools and university colleges from endowments, fees, &c, which are available for educational purposes. Direct. income of post-primary schools and university colleges in 1934–35 from reserves vested in them amounted to £49,439. The following shows the expenditure from public funds for each branch or service of education for each of the last five years:—

Service.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
General administration42,28432,43529,52029,64732,358
Elementary education2,537,4192,145,0031,822,4821,833,5911,886,905
Secondary education527,822693,220548,796529,802597,976
Technical instruction303,962693,220548,796529,802597,976
Training colleges, &c.172,815146,712108,82734,32312,669
Higher education191,93593,11454,51956,72263,739
Native schools99,10193,74573,33079,70091,792
Physical instruction8,8756,8622,2761,1551,749
School for the deaf6,3125,8834,5204,8124,906
Education of the blind1,1082,870Cr. 201681,067
Schools for the mentally backward18,04811,25410,31011,43412,650
Child welfare133,660126,587113,076111,631107,549
Material and storesCr. 783Cr. 701Cr. 873Cr. 495Cr. 455
Miscellaneous services59,37552,89348,76948,05558,262
Totals4,101,9333,409,8772,815,5322,740,5452,871,167

There is now given a series of comparative figures which show the cost of education during the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March,Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.Year ended 21st March,Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 (£1,000)s.d. (£1,000)s.d.
19263,814541019314,102550
19273,91055119323,410451
19283,77052419332,8163610
19293,88653319342,741357
19304,058541119352,871370

Chapter 7. SECTION VII.—JUSTICE.

CIVIL CASES.

THE law relating to the jurisdiction of Magistrates and Justices of the Peace in civil matters was consolidated by the Magistrates’ Courts Act, 1928. Under this statute the ordinary civil jurisdiction of a Magistrate is limited to claims not exceeding £300; or, where the parties agree in writing that the Court shall have jurisdiction, to claims not exceeding £500. Justices of the Peace may hear and decide certain civil cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed £20. The numbers of plaints entered and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in the lower Courts during the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

Year.Plaints entered.Cases tried.
Number.Total Amount sued for.Number.Total Amount claimed.Total Amount for which Judgment entered.
  £ ££
192573,1921,172,16748,436821,093666,721
192681,0611,333,94154,010933,269762,172
192783,3691,400,12955,676960,549786,299
192885,2431,463,76955,751951,916774,912
192987,1831,431,25656,668911,667772,247
193096,7701,542,43463,1201,010,026879,839
193191,5951,544,60162,9451,047,511889,978
193275,2611,244,23652,886861,088762,171
193364,6811,065,49944,669766,503687,009
193457,957848,38940,883619,243536,367

In terms of money the 1931 level for plaints, for cases tried, and for judgments entered is the highest on record. The numbers of plaints and of cases tried were highest in 1930. The figures for 1934 show a substantial all-round decrease, being the lowest recorded since 1920.

The numbers of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments were recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand in its civil jurisdiction during the last decade were as follows:—

  Cases tried.Judgments recorded.
Year.Number of Actions commenced.With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
     £
19251,72460407776303,319
19261,82643496882344,198
19271,82652506935316,936
19281,43341370683270,632
19291,44644410643207,399
19301,45464392659260,870
19311,48174453706311,400
19321,26370422562215,697
19331,14754418493148,119
193490050346364200,805

INQUESTS.

The number of bodies on which inquests were held in 1934 was 1,563, including 110 Maoris. In 1,140 cases the bodies were of males, and in 423 of females.

Nature of Verdict.Males.Females.Total.
Diseases and natural causes460277737
Accident518102620
Homicide11920
Suicide15035185
Legal execution1..1
Totals1,1404231,563

Of the accidental deaths the most common forms are injuries by motor-vehicles railways and other forms of land transport, and drowning. The verdicts show the in 1934 210 deaths, or 34 per cent. of the total accidental deaths, were due to injuries by vehicles, while 125 deaths, or 20 per cent., were due to drowning.

The inquests on suicidal deaths for each of the last ten years are—

 Inquests on Suicides.
Year.Males.Females.Total.
192514033173
192612030150
192716922191
192815952211
192918048228
193016335198
193119929228
193220050250
193316244206
193415035185

FIRE INQUESTS.

In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner may hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into cause of death.

During 1934 6 inquests were held on fires. In 2 cases the verdict was arson, in one accidental, and in the remaining 3 cases there was no evidence to show how the fire was caused.

During the five years 1929–33, 38 fire inquests were held. In 23 cases the verdict was arson, in 2 cases accident, and in 13 cases there was insufficient evidence to determine the cause.

POLICE FORCE.

The Police Force in New Zealand is a national body maintained wholly by the General Government. As at present constituted, it was established under the provisions of the Police Force Act, 1886, which came into operation on 1st September of that year. Prior to that date police duty in New Zealand had been carried out by members of the Armed Constabulary, which was then disbanded, some of its members being transferred to the newly constituted Police Force and others to the Permanent Militia. The Police Force Act, 1886, consolidated in 1908, was revised and brought up to date by the Police Force Act, 1913, which, with minor amendments in 1919 and 1924, is the statute under which the Force now functions.

ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES.

The Commissioner of Police, with headquarters at Wellington, has, subject to the directions of the Minister in Charge of the Police Department, the general superintendence and control of the Police Force. The Dominion is divided into fifteen districts, each under the charge of a Superintendent or Inspector of Police, who is responsible to the Commissioner for the maintenance of good order and the proper execution of police duty therein. Districts are divided into sub-districts under the charge of sergeants or constables, and cities and towns where regular beat duty is performed are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants.

The principal duty of the Police Force as denned by the Police Force Act is “the preservation of peace and order, the prevention of crime, and the apprehension of offenders against the peace.” In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the provisions of the Police Offences Act, there are several statutes of a regulatory nature which the police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act. Licensing Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act. Motor-vehicles Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Second-hand Dealers Act, &c. They also undertake inquiries and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service, principally the Pensions Department, Registrar-General&s Office, Internal Affairs Department, and Education Department (Child Welfare Branch).

Police in country districts in many cases hold such additional appointments as Clerks and Bailiffs of Magistrates’ Courts, Inspectors of Factories, Probation Officers, Inspectors of Sea-fishing, Kauri-gum Rangers, and collectors of Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics.

RECRUITING.

Recruits for the Police Force must be between the ages of twenty-one and thirty years, not less than 5 ft. 9 in. high, and have a normal chest measurement of not less than 38 in. They must have passed the Fifth Standard Examination under the Education Act or an examination of equal or higher grade. They must be of good moral character, smart, active, intelligent, and free from bodily complaint or infirmity. The selection of recruits is made by the Commissioner after exhaustive inquiries have been made into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. Before appointment they undergo a course of training in the Training Depot, in which they are drilled and receive instructions in the duties they will be called upon to perform.

Appointments to vacancies in the higher ranks of the Force are made from those members of the next lower rank who have qualified by examination, efficiency, and seniority for such promotion.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Detective Branch which is attached to each district headquarters and undertakes the investigation and detection of the more serious crimes.

STRENGTH OF FORCE.

On the 31st March, 1935, the number of permanent members of the Police Force in New Zealand was 1,160 of all ranks, being an increase of 18 during the year. The total is made up as follows: 1 commissioner, 4 superintendents, 17 inspectors, 7 sub-inspectors, 29 senior sergeants, 98 sergeants, 930 constables, 3 senior detectives, 15 detective-sergeants, and 56 detectives. There were also 60 temporary constables, 12 police surgeons, 8 matrons, 4 district constables, and 1 Native constable.

The following table shows the number of stations and of police in each police district. Temporary constables are included, but not district or Native constables.

Police District.No. of Stations.No. of Police.
Whangarei1531
Auckland47271
Hamilton2263
Gisborne1533
Napier1858
New Plymouth1539
Wanganui1945
Palmerston North1747
Wellington30197
Nelson1230
Greymouth2144
Christchurch38150
Timaru1342
Dunedin35100
Invercargill2250

There were also 9 officers attached to headquarters, 1 was on loan to the Cook Islands Administration, 1 to the Samoan Administration, and 3 on leave prior to retirement.

The proportion of police to population is 1 to every 1,279 persons, and the expenditure (exclusive of the cost of buildings) on the whole Police Force for the year ended the 31st March, 1935, was 5s. 7d. per head of population.

The following table shows the growth of the Police Force during the last ten years:—

Year ended 31st March,Officers.Non-commissioned Officers.Detectives.Constables.Total.Police to Population (including Maoris).Cost per Head of Population.
      s. d. 
192624121528881,0851 to 1,2995 9½
192722123568951,0961 to 1,3125 9¼
192823127549131,1171 to 1,3015 9¾
192923128569481,1551 to 1,2736 1¾
193022127549431,1461 to 1,2986 1
193125120659591,1691 to 1,2926 0½
193225123659441,1571 to 1,3175 5
193324121679831,1951 to 1,2865 6½
193423124729921,2111 to 1,2795 6¼
193528127749901,2191 to 1,2795 7

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES’ COURTS.

Figures under this head include charges against Maoris. Maoris are also included in the statistics relating to Magistrates’ Courts in the following pages, as well as in those for the Supreme Court and for Prisons. Separate figures relating to offences by Maoris are given towards the end of this section.

Persons charged in Magistrates’ Courts may be brought before the Court either on summons or after arrest according to the nature of the offence and to other circumstances. Of the total of 46,763 cases in 1934, 11,316 (males 10,639, females 677) were “arrest” and 35,447 (males 33,132, females 2,315) were “summons” cases.

The following table shows the number of criminal cases in Magistrates’ Courts during each of the last ten years.

 Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Year.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
192551,1352,48453,61972.273.6735.07
192653,2842,83856,12273.744.1139.70
192753,2562,98356,23972.444.2339.09
192852,6043,11055,71470.764.3738.00
192953,1213,00556,12670.654.1738.11
193054,7233,06757,79071.834.2038.72
193149,8292,65052,47964.493.5834.69
193250,2242,80153,02564.513.7534.73
193344,8112,62047,43157.143.4730.83
193443,7712,99246,76355.403.9430.16

The next table shows the results in all cases heard during each of the last three years and similar information concerning distinct cases—i.e., counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

 Total Cases.Distinct Cases.
Result of Hearing.1932.1933.1934.1932.1933.1934.
Dismissed or withdrawn for want of prosecution or of evidence4,7754,4034,2213,4312,8132,643
Dismissed on the merits2,9242,5002,1862,2121,9151,620
Admonished and discharged1,2941,3171,242916890789
Committed for trial572541589310288283
Committed for sentence1,094999821357345297
Summarily convicted42,36637,67137,70433,73130,85530,351
Totals53,02547,43146,76340,95737,10635,983

The summary convictions for the year 1934 represent a rate of 24.32 per 1,000 of mean population. The figures for the last ten years are—

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
192544,01731.79
192646,20532.68
192745,93031.92
192845,13930.78
192946,30931.44
193047,24731.66
193142,09227.81
193242,36627.76
193337,67124.49
193437,70424.32

The great bulk of the cases dealt with in New Zealand are in respect of comparatively insignificant offences—drunkenness and offences against traffic regulations accounting for about half of the total convictions. An analysis of traffic offences is given later in this section.

A classification of convictions during the last five years according to principal offences and groups of offences is next given.

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Offences against the person630631541578537
Offences against property (including forgery)5,5746,1296,7665,6885,619
Drunkenness (including issue of prohibition orders)7,7826,1135,2364,5844,509
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, &c, of police, and vagrancy2,3592,2201,8631,5061,428
Breaches of traffic regulations, &c.17,28414,36414,88713,49013,915
Other offences against good order1,5291,2011,2051,2591,440
Breaches of Licensing Act3,5692,9342,6862,5612,649
Breaches of Destitute Persons Act3,5323,3652,8872,4832,211
Breaches of Impounding Act688678601489446
Breaches of Child Welfare Act541446352338336
Breaches of Defence Act23542241437
Breaches of Arms Act295424440422370
Breaches of Unemployment Act..1,0712,2981,408931
Other offences3,2292,4742,5772,8513,276
Totals47,24742,09242,36637,67137,704

In the preceding table offences are necessarily grouped, but in the case of convictions in 1934 certain individual offences are distinguished below.

I.—PERSON.
Common assault427
Attempted suicide54
Indecent assault on female40
Unlawful carnal knowledge6
Indecent assault on male3
Aggravated assault3
II.—PROPERTY.
Theft (not further denned)3,701
Fraud and false pretences714
Wilful damage, &c.441
Breaking and entering and attempts320
Unlawful conversion of vehicle250
Receiving stolen property88
Unlawful conversion of property64
Embezzlement25
III.—FORGERY, ETC.
Uttering14
Forgery3
IV.—GOOD ORDER. 
Breaches of by-laws643
Gambling481
Vagrancy433
Sunday trading240
Cruelty to animals69

The 336 convictions under the Child Welfare Act in 1934 included 292 in respect of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances.

The drop in the number of convictions under the Defence Act is due to the suspension of the compulsory provisions of the Act, the only convictions recorded since 1930 being failure to return uniform, equipment, &c.

The Unemployment Act came into force late in 1930, and no convictions were recorded in that year. In 1931, however, there were 1,071 convictions, the principal breach being failing to pay the levy, which was responsible for 993 convictions. In 1932 the number of convictions under the Act rose to 2,298, of which 2,067 were for failing to pay levies. In 1933 convictions numbered 1,408, including 1,122 for failure to pay levies. The year 1934 showed a further drop in convictions under the Act, the number being only 931, of which 740 were for failing to pay levies; the remainder being for false declaration (66), failing to register (S), employing person in arrears with levy (6), employer failing to deduct emergency charge (33), failing to pay emergency charge on “other income” (55), and other breaches of the Act (23).

PUNISHMENT ON SUMMARY CONVICTION.

A summary of punishments following summary convictions for the year 1934 is given.

Punishment.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.*Offences against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.

* Including forgery and offences against the currency.

Released under Offenders Probation Act187433925825
Convicted and discharged538221,8759653,715
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence75594196102967
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent113085236560
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer451,03523341,137
Committed to institution under Child Welfare Act24912173
Committed to Borstal institution, Salvation Army Home, &c.21143111158
Fined25567716,9796,44624,357
Imprisonment in lieu of fine1986679162946
Peremptory imprisonment481,1664208792,513
Whipping182112
Bound over6..9..15
Order made2171,0331,3742,426
Totals5375,61921,29210,25637,704

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURT.

Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—viz., those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years. Maoris are included in this and following tables.

Year.Tried In Supreme Court.Sentences in Case of Committal for Sentence.Total Sentences.
Indictments and Informations.Convictions.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
    (a) Total Cases.    
19308471239291,112111,504201,524
193195140495101,078411,573511,624
19321,0231657771,084421,661491,710
19339123349311997121,490231,513
19347893938425768361,152611,213
   (b) Distinct Persons.    
19303101119183291052018538
19312911718363971458020600
19323211120564151062016636
1933302151838332751515530
1934250151609318347812490

Of the 265 distinct persons indicted during 1934, 169 wore convicted and 76 acquitted. In the case of 14 persons no bill was returned or the prosecution otherwise not proceeded with, 4 persons were found insane, and 2 were awaiting trial at the end of the year.

The next table summarizes the offences of persons convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during the last five years :—

Year.Total Convictions or Sentences.Distinct Persons convicted or sentenced.
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.Year.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.
19302031,111154561,5241333274830538
19311681,172221631,6241283736930600
19322031,1402551021,7101383955251636
19332331,024185711,5131223275428531
1934215768191391,2131392844720490

The following were the offences for which persons were convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1934:—

I.—PERSON.

Indecent assault12
Indecent assault on male18
Rape and attempts5
Carnal knowledge and attempts38
Incest10
Unnatural offences and attempts5
Murder1
Attempted murder1
Manslaughter (including 6 cases in connection with motor-vehicles)8
Negligent driving causing bodily injury7
Wounding with intent3
Aggravated assault8
Common assault1
Assault with intent to rob12
Procuring abortion and attempts5
Bigamy5

II.—PROPERTY.

Breaking and entering131
Theft34
Robbery5
Burglary20
Breaking and entering by night12
Horse, cattle, or sheep stealing10
Receiving stolen property23
Fraud and false pretences20
Embezzlement21
Arson and attempts5
Other3

III.—FORGERY, ETC.

Forgery36
Uttering1
Forgery and uttering8
Counterfeiting coin2

IV AND V.—OTHER OFFENCES.

Vagrancy2
Gambling, &c.1
Intimidation1
Perjury1
False declarations5
Escaping from lawful custody3
Other7

Forty-one Maoris were included in the 490 distinct offenders sentenced in the Supreme Court in 1934, and 333 others (including 6 women) were born in New Zealand. In 30 cases the birthplace was England or Wales, in 25 Scotland, in 8 Ireland, and in 28 Australia.

SUPREME COURT.—OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS OF DISTINCT PERSONS, 1934.

Sentence.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other Offences.Totals.
Ordered to come up for sentence822315
Discharged....2..2
Released under Offenders Probation Act2978164127
Committed to Child Welfare Department..2....2
Fined741315
Declared habitual criminal only..........
Death1......1
Imprisonment or detention—     
  Imprisonment60107189194
Imprisonment and reformative detention44..19
Imprisonment and declared habitual criminal24....6
Reformative detention only17668..91
Detention in Borstal institution717....24
Imprisonment, reformative detention, and declared habitual criminal1......1
Imprisonment and flogging3......3
Total persons sentenced1392844720490
Length of sentence of imprisonment or detention—     
 10 and under 15 years2......2
  7 and under 15 years5......5
  5 and under 7 years7......7
  3 and under 5 years24322260
  2 and under 3 years18705..93
  1 and under 2 years146210389
  6 months and under 1 year7218238
  Under 6 months1491226
Indefinite34..18
Totals, imprisonment or detention941982610328

Of the offenders, 43 were under twenty years of age, 130 between twenty and twenty-five, 85 between twenty-five and thirty, 122 between thirty and forty, 67 between forty and fifty, 32 between fifty and sixty, and 11 sixty or over.

COURT OF APPEAL.

Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, each division consisting of five Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exercises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty the Chief Justice and one other Judge may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions may be held. The Chief Justice or, in his absence, the senior Judge presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present, but if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion the judgment, &c, appealed from is deemed to be affirmed.

Under an amendment of 1933, special sittings of the Court of Appeal may be held at times and places appointed by Order in Council. This authority may be exercised only on a certificate of not less than three Judges (of whom the Chief Justice shall be one) that it is not expedient to delay hearing the appeal or other proceeding. For a special sitting any three or more Judges may exercise the jurisdiction of the Court.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to His Majesty in Council.

In criminal cases questions of law may be reserved by the Supreme Court for the Court of Appeal, and upon a refusal by the Court to reserve any question the person aggrieved may move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. Any person aggrieved may also (after conviction) apply to the Court of Appeal for a now trial upon leave being granted by the Supreme Court. Any person has now the right to apply to the Court of Appeal against a sentence passed in the Supreme Court where such person has been convicted upon an indictment or sentenced for any crime on a plea of “Guilty.”

During the last five years 20 Crown criminal cases were brought before the Appeal Court, and in 10 instances convictions were affirmed. There were 109 civil appeals, of which 55 were allowed, and also 88 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in 70 judgments for plaintiff and 18 for defendants.

Particulars concerning applications during the last five years for leave to appeal against sentences under the provisions of the Crimes Amendment Act, 1920, are : Applications filed, 147; granted, 19; refused, 128. In 16 cases the sentence was varied as a result of the appeal.

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.

There are fourteen prisons and State reformatories and three Borstal institutions in New Zealand, as well as 24 minor prisons and police-gaols. In addition to these there are the police-stations which, under section 17 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917, may be deemed to be prisons for any period (which must not exceed seven days) during which prisoners are detained there undergoing sentence.

On the 1st January, 1934, the various institutions had 1,443 persons under detention (males, 1,366; females, 77). During the year 4,529 were received (males, 4,282; females, 247) and 4,736 discharged or transferred (males, 4,479;females, 257). At the end of the year 1,236 (males, 1,169; females, 67) remained in confinement. The daily average number of persons in confinement during the year was 1,361 (males, 1,284; females, 77).

At 31st December,Persons in Gaol.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
19251,284491,3339.169.51
19261,388471,4359.7110.04
19271,483661,54910.2310.68
19281,435491,4849.7810.12
19291,342531,3959.049.39
19301,523461,56910.1110.42
19311,614431,65710.6110.89
19321,522611,5839.9210.32
19331,410321,4429.129.33
19341,194421,2367.677.94

The 4,736 discharges during the year includes 1,248 transfers of inmates to other prisons or to the police. Of the balance, 8 died during the year, 1 committed suicide, 1 was executed, and 1 absconded and was not retaken. Prisoners discharged on expiration of sentence numbered 2,438, 39 were released on bail, 559 were set free on the recommendation of the Prisons Board, and 122 released on special remission. Debtors discharged during the year numbered 159, and 20 lunatics were transferred to mental hospitals. The remaining 140 discharges represented persons who had been in prison on remand or awaiting trial, and who were known to have been acquitted.

In the following table persons in confinement at the end of each of the last five years are classified according to nature of sentence :—

Year.Hard Labour or Simple Imprisonment.Habitual Criminals.Detained for Reformative Purposes.Detained in Borstal Institution.On Remand, awaiting Trial, &c.Totals.
Under Three Months.Three Months and under One Year.One Year and over.

* Including 1 awaiting execution.

19309926947254303326461,569
193112927649763301348431,657
19328021348355347343611,583*
19335724044845287333321,442
19346719042942278193371,236

The total number of new receptions—counting each person once every time received—in the various institutions during the year 1934 was 4,529 (males, 4,282; females, 247), as compared with 5,087 (males, 4,844, females, 243) in 1933. Taking into account the 32 cases where persons were in prison awaiting trial or sentence at the beginning of the year brings this figure up to 4,561, the gross total of receptions. Included here, however, are debtors and lunatics (164), and deducting these gives 4,397, the gross total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for, or persons charged, with criminal offences. Of these, 714 were received on transfer from other institutions or in transitu between institutions, so that the net total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for or persons charged with criminal offences is 3,683. In 717 cases persons charged with criminal offences were handed to the police for trial or sentence and not returned to prison, and 35 persons remained in prison at the end of the year awaiting trial or sentence, so that the number of receptions of prisoners actually undergoing sentence for criminal offences—still counting each prisoner once every time received—was 2,931. Deducting from this figure multiple receptions of the same person (555). there remains, as the total number of distinct prisoners received under sentence for criminal offences, 2,376 (males, 2,247; females, 129), a decrease of 355 on the preceding year. Of the total of 2,376, 211 (males, 201, females, 10) were Maoris.

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the last ten years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in the next table. Debtors and lunatics received into gaol are omitted.

Year.Number.Per 10,000 of Population.
19252,89020.88
19262,75519.49
19272,71118.84
19282,54817.37
19292,59617.62
19302,86419.19
19313,20321.17
19323,40122.29
19332,73117.75
19342,37615.33

The following table shows the sexes and ages of distinct prisoners received into prison under sentence during the year 1934, and distinguishes between Maoris and others:—

 Excluding Maoris.Maoris.Including Maoris.
Age, in Years.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.FemalesTotal.
Under 21140101504034318013193
21 and under 25254132675015130414318
25 and under 3029383014024233310343
30 and under 353185323331343516357
35 and under 402491926815..1526419283
40 and under 4522013233921122915244
45 and under 50182222047..718922211
50 and under 55154131675..515913172
55 and under 6010981171..11108118
60 and under 658649011287592
65 and under 7029332......29332
70 and under 75415......415
75 and under 804..4......4..4
80 and over..................
Not stated4..4......4..4
Totals2,0461192,165201102112,2471292,376

Ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1934 are summarized in the next table.

 Offences against the Person.     
Age, in Years.Sexual Offences.Assaults.Other.Theft and other Offences against Property.Drunkenness.Vagrancy.Other Offences.Totals.
Under 21102..1364734193
21 and under 257162161718107318
25 and under 301573153815142343
30 and under 3561741302414162357
35 and under 40561973521118283
40 and under 4598379312094244
45 and under 5029259442471211
50 and under 5525..38302572172
55 and under 6023..19381244118
60 and under 65241928133592
65 and over2....61941041
Not stated....21..14 
Totals6277168892691738902,376

The final table of this category supplies statistics of ages and previous convictions of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1934.

 Number of Previous Convictions.   
Age, in Years.One.Two.Three.Four.Over Four.Number not stated.Total previously convicted.Not previously convicted.Total Distinct Prisoners.
Under 21501414617310489193
21 and under 2571471717453200118318
25 and under 3051332515784206137343
30 and under 3548341922995227130357
35 and under 403624255102719984283
40 and under 452017161987916876244
45 and under 50181695861514962211
50 and under 55131099701012151172
55 and under 6087556099424118
60 and under 659676317662692
65 and over5411163301141
Not stated....1..2..314
Totals320212148110693751,5678092,376

BORSTAL INSTITUTIONS.

Included among the 1,236 prisoners undergoing sentence at the 31st December, 1934, were 193 persons (169 males, 24 females) detained in Borstal institutions under the provisions of the Prevention of Crime (Borstal Institutions Establishment) Act, 1924. This Act, which is an adaptation of Part I of the Prevention of Crime Act, 1908 (Imperial), as amended by the Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1914, is designed to prevent crime, and provides for the detention of young offenders in a special class of reformative institution. An offender between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one (twenty-three in certain cases), who would otherwise be liable to sentence of imprisonment by the Supreme Court or sentence of imprisonment of not less than one month by a Magistrate, may be made the subject of an order of detention of from two to five years by a Judge of the Supreme Court, and from one to three years by a Magistrate, without a conviction being recorded in the latter case. Inmates may be transferred from prisons, reformatory homes, State reformatory institutions, and institutions under the Child Welfare Act, 1925, to Borstal institutions, and from Borstal institutions to prisons. The Minister of Justice has power to release an offender undergoing detention on condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of a probation officer, or of a society or person (to be specified) who may be willing to take charge of the case.

HABITUAL CRIMINALS AND REFORMATIVE DETENTION.

The following table shows the distinct prisoners received in prison during 1934 after being sentenced to detention for reformative purposes or having been declared habitual criminals, classified according to sentences :—

Original Sentence.Sentenced to Reformative Detention for a Period ofDeclared Habitual Criminals.Totals.
Under Two Years.Two and under Five Years.Five Years and over.
Reformative detention only438421130
Declared habitual criminals only..........
Hard labour—     
 Under 1 year118..120
 1 year and under 253....8
 2 years and under 324..17
 3 years and under 4......22
 4 years and under 5......11
 5 years and under 7......22
Totals619928170

PRISONS BOARD.

For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court, as President, and six other members.

It is the duty of the Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention is sufficiently reformed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration, at least once a year, the case of every habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention. Other classes of prisoners may not apply for and are not entitled to consideration until they have served at least half the sentence (or five years in the case of those sentenced to terms exceeding ten years), and no case is to be considered until six months after the date of reception into prison.

The following table shows the number of cases considered by the Board during each of the last five years :—

Year.Borstal Detention.Reformative Detention.Hard Labour.Habitual Criminals and Offenders.Habitual Criminals for Remission of Hard Labour.Probationers for Discharge from Probation or Variation of Terms.Totals.
Crimes Amendment Act.Offender Probationers.
19304793703137575111,260
19314954804318028181,514
193255348938471..9181,524
193358156239263..8331,639
19344184804006228241,394

Of the cases considered in 1934, recommendations were made for release on probation in 563 cases, and for discharge from prison or from probation in 9 cases. Twenty-two probationers under the Offenders Probation Act were ordered discharge. In 45 cases petitions were declined, and in the remaining 755 cases they were deferred.

PROBATION.

Legislation on this subject dates from 1886. Under the Offenders Probation Act of 1920 probation may be granted for “any offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise.” Formerly there were numerous important exceptions. The maximum period of probation was fixed in 1920 at five years.

The conditions of release on probation include the necessity for a person on probation to report to the Probation Officer on specified days not more than one month apart, and to notify his address and any change of address. The nature and place of his employment must be made known to and be approved of by the Probation Officer, and he must not commit any offence against the law. The Probation Officer may warn him not to associate with any particular person or class of persons.

A breach of the conditions of the probationary license renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

The following figures are taken from successive returns prepared by the Chief Probation Officer :—

Year.Number admitted to Probation.
1925658
1926656
1927586
1928615
1929557
1930650
1931750
1932726
1933620
1934664

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1934:—

Age, in Years.6 Months or under.1 Year.18 Months.2 Years.3 Years.4 Years.5 Years.Totals.
Under 203754637....152
20 and under 251210538911....220
25 and under 30846..4611....111
30 and under 40441336101..95
40 and under 504281153....51
50 and under 60213112......28
60 and over15..1......7
Totals3431312262421..664

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.

Offences committed by juvenile offenders constitute a class worthy of special consideration. The Child Welfare Amendment Act, 1927, altered the definition of “child” to cover persons under seventeen years of age, instead of sixteen as formerly. Figures of juvenile cases in Magistrates’ Courts during each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Total Cases.Dismissed or withdrawn for want of Prosecution or of Evidence.Dismissed on the Merits.Admonished and discharged.Committed for Trial or Sentence.Summarily convicted.
19303,217106821,32511,703
19312,90870361,071131,718
19323,07188451,15941,775
19332,95682481,19441,628
19343,18590831,05821,952

The principal of the offences against the person in 1934 were indecent assault, which was responsible for 43 cases (37 convictions), and common assault, 15 cases (8 convictions).

Theft was the principal offence against property, 1,381 charges being dealt with in 1934, resulting in 933 convictions. These figures do not include housebreaking and stealing, which was the offence in 382 cases (299 convictions).

Wilful damage, trespass, &c, is also an important class of offence in juvenile cases, being responsible for 375 charges (98 convictions) in 1934. In 79 cases (47 convictions) the charge was unlawfully converting vehicle to own use.

In the “Other” offences the effect of the introduction of the Child Welfare Act, 1925, is very noticeable, the number of eases for 1934 (374) being over four times that recorded for 1925 (88). Over 80 per cent. of the cases in this class were brought under the Child Welfare Act, the number of cases of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances being 314, and the resulting convictions 280. In connection with these convictions orders were made for committal to the care of the Superintendent, Child Welfare Branch, or for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer in 250 cases, while in 21 cases the children concerned were committed to an institution under the Child Welfare Act.

Offences by juveniles are seldom of a very serious nature, and even when a conviction is recorded Magistrates frequently adopt the course of discharging the offender or of ordering him to come up for sentence when called upon. It is found that in very few cases does the future conduct of the convicted person render it necessary for him to be brought before the Magistrate again for sentence.

MAGISTRATES’ COURTS.—PUNISHMENTS OF JUVENILE OFFENDERS, 1934.

Punishment.Against the Person.Against Property.*Against Good OrderOther.Totals.
* Including forgery and offences against the currency.
Released on probation..8....8
Convicted and discharged179251106
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence372..12
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent92734233519
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer4196822231,054
Committed to institution under Child Welfare Act15212276
Committed to Borstal Institution..21....21
Fined..131162131
Whipped182..11
Order made..4..1014
Total summary convictions561,4331722911,952
Total charges brought712,2964443743,185

Very few juvenile cases find their way to the Supreme Court, and, beyond the information disclosed by the Magistrates’ Courts returns as to committals for sentence or trial, no statistics of such cases in the higher Court are available. Statistics of ages of persons sentenced show, however, that only one male under seventeen years of age was sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1934.

Six distinct persons (including one female) under seventeen years of age were received into Borstal institutions during 1934.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.

Of the 37,704 summary convictions in Magistrates’ Courts in 1934 only 2,482, or 6.58 per cent., were of females, the following being the principal offences:—

Common assault15
Attempted suicide17
Theft370
Fraud and false pretences65
Receiving stolen property11
Wilful damage, &c.15
Drunkenness161
Negligently driving motor-vehicle155
Vagrancy92
Breaches of regulations for lighting vehicles152
Non-registration, &c, of motor-vehicles151
Breaches of parking regulations165
Speeding, &c.45
Other minor traffic offences48
Application for prohibition order42
Offensive conduct or language68
Sunday trading83
Breaches of by-laws, &c.63
Indigent, &c., child124
Other charges under Child Welfare Act24
Unlicensed wireless211
Breaches of prohibition orders31
Other breaches of Licensing Act93
Allowing horses, cattle, &c, to wander38
Selling adulterated milk24
Charges under Destitute Persons Act41
Failing to clear noxious weeds26

In addition to the 2,482 summary convictions of women in Magistrates’ Courts during 1934 there were 70 committals to the Supreme Court—31 for trial and 39 for sentence. The Supreme Court statistics show that 39 charges against females were dealt with during the year, resulting in 25 convictions, representing 9 different persons. In addition, 3 women were sentenced after committal for sentence in respect of 36 offences.

The number of distinct female prisoners received into prison during 1934 was 129, the principal offences of these being—vagrancy, 45; drunkenness, 14; and theft, 28. The actual number of receptions of female prisoners during the year was 247, this number including 20 Maoris, and the daily average number of women prisoners in gaol was 77. Two reformatories (at Addington and Point Halswell) house women prisoners only. There is also a Borstal institution at Point Halswell (Wellington) for women only.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.

The number of summary convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates’ Courts for the last five years is shown in the following table :—

 Class of Offence.
   Against Good Order.  
Year.Against the Person.Against Property.Drunkenness.*Other.Other Offences.Totals.

* Excluding prohibition-order cases.

1930775622424914771,849
1931515231383953711,478
1932565691413562871,409
1933613961203812721,230
1934815181594693501,577

The number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court, which exhibits the extent of serious crime amongst the Native race, is not very great, the total number convicted and sentenced during the last five years being only 198. The 41 convictions or sentences during 1934 were made up as follows : 17 for offences against the person, 18 for property offences, 5 for forgery, &c., and 1 for unlawfully delaying postal packet. Thirty of these were sent up from the Magistrates’ Courts for sentence, the remaining 7 being tried and convicted in the Supreme Court.

The number of distinct Maori prisoners received into gaol under sentence during 1934 was 211 (including 10 women), as compared with 253 in 1933.

DRUNKENNESS.

The extent to which convictions for drunkenness swell the total of convictions is obvious from the information given earlier in this section. The number of convictions for drunkenness, including drunkenness with disorderly conduct, drunk in charge of vehicle or of horse, and habitual drunkenness, during 1934 totalled 3,453 (males, 3,292; females, 161). The convictions in each of the last three years are the lowest recorded since 1895, when they numbered 4,792. In 1895, however, the proportion of convictions for drunkenness per 1,000 of the mean population was 6.52, while in 1934 the proportion was only 2.23.

The convictions for drunkenness in 1934 represent 9.2 per cent. of the total convictions during the year. In addition, there were 1,056 technical convictions in cases of applications for the issue of prohibition orders. Prohibition-order cases are not included in the following table, which shows the number of convictions for drunkenness recorded, and the proportion per 1,000 of the mean population of each sex, during the last five years :—

 Convictions for Drunkenness.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Year.Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19306,0722586,3307.970.354.24
19314,6452194,8646.010.303.21
19323,8881854,0734.990.252.67
19333,4301513,5814.370.202.33
19343,2921613,4534.170.212.23

Of the total convictions for drunkenness during 1934, 3,326 (3,171 males and 155 females) were arrest cases, while 127 (121 males and 6 females) were cases brought before the Magistrate by summons.

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the preceding table.

The total convictions for all offences in arrest cases in 1934 were 8,930 but the distinct convictions amounted to only 6,321, the former total including 2,609 convictions for multiple charges against the same person at the same time. Of the latter 512 were in respect of charges dealt with at the same time as the offender was convicted of drunkenness, the principal associated offences being—

Offence.Number of Convictions.
Common assault26
Theft34
Wilful damage53
Indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct33
Obscene, threatening, or abusive language105
Assaulting, resisting, or obstructing police29
Vagrancy25
Driving motor-vehicle without a license13
Casting offensive matter59
Breach of prohibition order77
Unlawfully on licensed premises after hours10

In addition, there were 27 cases where a prohibition order was issued against a person convicted at the same time of drunkenness.

Any person who has been three times convicted for drunkenness within the nine months immediately preceding any conviction for drunkenness may be declared an habitual drunkard, the number of convictions for habitual drunkenness during 1934 being 17 males. A Magistrate may, in addition to or in lieu of a penalty, commit an habitual drunkard to any institution authorized by the Governor-General to receive and detain such persons for any period not being less than twelve months.

The sentences in the 3,453 convictions for drunkenness during the year were : Fined, 1,769; imprisonment in lieu of fine, 539; peremptory imprisonment, 86; committed to Salvation Army Home or other such institution, 11; convicted and discharged, 1,008; released under Offenders Probation Act, 7; other sentences, 33.

The quantity of alcoholic liquor entered at the Customs for consumption (including beer on which excise duty was paid) was as follows during the last five years. The figures are exclusive of wine and cider manufactured in New Zealand (estimated by the Department of Agriculture as 148,000 and 36,500 gallons respectively in 1934–35).

 Beer. Gal.Imported Wine. Gal.Potable Spirits. Gal.
193012,312,823198,377569,656
193110,124,849134,160378,874
19328,868,316105,725323,308
19338,622,690116,390316,755
19349,605,721135,908324,794

Based on the foregoing figures the consumption per head of mean population works out as follows :—

 Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
 Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.
19308.250.130.388.640.140.40
19316.690.090.257.010.090.26
19325.810.070.216.090.070.22
19335.610.080.215.880.080.22
19346.200.090.216.500.090.22

TRAFFIC OFFENCES.

In keeping with the enormous growth of motor traffic during recent years, there has been a huge increase in minor traffic offences, which constitute a high proportion of the cases dealt with in Magistrates' Courts. However, the number of cases and convictions during the years 1931–1934 show a substantial decrease on the figures for the preceding three years, although this is probably due in part to the diminished use of motor-vehicles for economic reasons.

The number of cases and convictions, and the number of convictions per 1,000 of mean population, for this class of offence are shown below:—

 1931.1932.1933.1934.
Cases16,85117,48215,58215,972
Convictions15,13515,60414,13614,430
Convictions per 1,000 of mean populationl0.0010.229.199.31

The convictions for traffic offences in 1934 represent 38.27 per cent. of the total convictions during the year.

The following table shows convictions for traffic offences during the last five years :—

Offence.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Negligent driving causing death..........
Negligent driving causing bodily injury..........
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use395333391344250
Drunk in charge of motor-vehicle435403308287253
Drunk in charge of other vehicle3128181512
Excessive speed in motor-vehicle2,1202,0842,0521,4281,269
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle3,9233,1092,6932,3142,429
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle9545583362
Riding bicycle on footpath532425354362406
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles3,9652,5573,4063,6613,234
Offences relating to the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles3,6784,1844,5214,3374,460
Breaches of parking regulations1,8361,0499496941,326
Other traffic offences1,135918854661729
Total18,14515,13515,60414,13614,430

The following table shows the number of cases and the results of hearing for the various traffic offences or groups of offences heard in Magistrates' Courts during 1934 :—

     Results of Convictions.
Offence.Total Cases.Dismissed, or Admonished and Discharged.Committed to Supreme Court.Convictions.Fined.Convicted and Discharged.Other.
Negligent driving causing death25322........
Negligent driving causing bodily injury615........
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use29141..2503230188
Drunk in charge of motor-vehicle28936..253217531
Drunk in charge of other vehicle or of horse192..171232
Excessive speed in motor-vehicle1,33263..1,2691,2618..
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle2,89546512,4292,351717
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle9129..62557..
Riding bicycle on footpath45953..40638719..
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles3,474240..3,2343,06615711
Offences relating to the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles4,877417..4,4604,16727617
Breaches of parking regulations1,38903..1,3261,318S..
Other traffic offences82899..72966069..
Total15,9751,5122814,43513,526653256

By far the greater proportion of the cases are for comparatively trivial offences such as breaches of lighting regulations and breaches of regulations for the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles (including driving unregistered car, and driving without driver's license). These cases result in a far greater proportion of convictions in Magistrates' Courts than the more serious class of traffic offences—viz., negligent driving causing death or endangering human life—which are usually committed to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence.

Dealing only with motor-vehicles, it is found that the total number of convictions for traffic offences during 1934 was 9,737 (which total excludes motor-vehicles without lights, &c.—separate figures not available), and of those 6,918 were in the North Island and 2,819 in the South. The number of motor-vehicles actually licensed on 31st December, 1934, were—North Island, 128,924; South Island, 71,653. The convictions were therefore: North Island 5.37 per cent., South Island 3.93 per cent., of the registrations.

Chapter 8. SECTION VIII.—DEFENCE.

NEW ZEALAND MILITARY FORCES.

THE New Zealand Military Forces are raised, maintained, and organized under the Defence Act, 1909, and its amendments, and regulations made thereunder. They are divided into the Permanent Forces, the Territorial Force, the New Zealand Air Force, and the Cadets.

The Permanent Forces correspond to the Regular Army of Great Britain, and provide Commanders and staffs, at General Headquarters and in commands, adjutants and instructional staff for the Territorial Force and the Air Force, nucleus garrisons for the fixed defences and aerodromes, and maintenance and administrative staffs at ordnance depots.

LIABILITIES FOR AND TERMS OF SERVICE.

In Peace Time.—The Defence Act, 1909, provides for compulsory service in peace time in the Cadets from fourteen years (or from date of leaving school if later) to eighteen years, and from eighteen years to twenty-five years in the Territorial Force. From 1st October, 1930, however, the compulsory provisions of the Defence Act have not been enforced; but if the Government so directed they could, without legislation, again be brought into operation.

In July, 1931, the Forces were reorganized, and service in the Territorial Force and Cadets has since been voluntary. The only Cadets now trained are those at secondary schools, and, with few exceptions, all the larger secondary schools in the Dominion have a Cadet unit. Recruits for the Territorial Force are enrolled under a voluntary agreement to serve for three years. They may extend their service up to the age of thirty-two years. A further extension up to thirty-five years may be granted to warrant and non-commissioned officers.

In the Permanent Forces enlistment for ranks other than commissioned officers is for a term of five years, after which re-engagement may be effected up to fifty-five years of age, which is the normal retiring-age. Extensions may be granted in certain cases up to sixty years.

Normally officers for the Permanent Forces are first trained at one of the Service colleges in England or Australia. Their retiring-age is the same as for other ranks.

During a National Emergency.—The Territorial Force is liable to service in any part of New Zealand, but cannot be compelled to serve outside the Dominion. Individuals could, however, volunteer to do so, and their services might then be accepted on the approval of the Governor-General, as was done on the outbreak of the Great War.

The Defence Act, 1909, establishes a liability for all male inhabitants between the ages of seventeen and fifty-five years (with certain specified exceptions), who have resided in New Zealand for six months, to serve and be trained in the Militia, but as the Militia is not embodied in peace time no training therein is carried out.

The personnel of the Permanent Forces are subject at all times to the (Imperial) Army Act, save in so far as that Act may be inconsistent with the New Zealand Defence Act, and are liable for service in New Zealand or overseas if called upon.

ESTABLISHMENTS AND STRENGTH.

On the 31st March, 1931, the total establishment of all units of the Permanent Forces was 110 officers and 452 other ranks, but on that date retrenchment was effected, and the strength was for some years considerably reduced. The present (30th May, 1935) strength stands at 92 officers, 11 Staff cadets, and 421 other ranks.

The establishment (i.e., the authorized numbers) of the Territorial Force was also reduced in 1931, and now totals 779 officers and 11,512 other ranks. In respect of both officers and other ranks, this establishment is exclusive of Air Force, Medical Corps officers not serving with Field Ambulances, Dental Corps, Veterinary Corps, Army Legal Department, Chaplains Department, Nursing Service, and bands. On the 31st March, 1935, the strength—i.e., the actual effective numbers—of the Territorial Force units was 772 officers, 8,506 other ranks, and 892 bandsmen. As far as is practicable, both peace and war establishments are based on those of the British Army.

COMMAND AND ADMINISTRATION.

The Governor-General is the Commander-in-Chief of the New Zealand Forces, and the Minister of Defence controls and administers the righting services through the medium of the Department of Defence.

The command of the Military Forces is vested in the General Officer Commanding, who is responsible to the Minister of Defence. He is assisted by the following branches of General Headquarters, under the control of the officers indicated, which in New Zealand are the counterpart of the War Office organization, but necessarily on a very much reduced scale :—

  • The Branch of the General Staff. (The Chief of the General Staff.)

  • The Branch of the Adjutant-General. (The Adjutant-General.)

  • The Branch of the Quartermaster-General. (The Quartermaster-General.)

  • The Air Services. (The Director of Air Services.)

  • Artillery Services. (The Director of Artillery.)

  • Financial Services. (The Under-Secretary of Defence, who is responsible direct to the Minister.)

  • The Civil Staff, distributed among the various branches, is under the control of the Under-Secretary.

New Zealand is divided into three Commands, viz. :—

  • (a) Northern Command, with headquarters at Auckland. It is equivalent to Auckland Provincial District, together with Ohura County, but less that part of Auckland from Wairoa to East Cape lying east of the main divide.

  • (b) Central Command, with headquarters at Wellington. This comprises the remainder of the North Island.

  • (C) Southern Command, with headquarters at Christchurch. It comprises the whole of the South Island.

Each command is controlled by an officer of the Permanent Forces holding the rank of Colonel, who is responsible to the General Officer Commanding. At Command Headquarters there is a staff organized in like manner to the brandies at General Headquarters, also a civil staff.

The commands are subdivided into four regimental districts, each under a staff officer who is responsible to the O.C. Command. The regimental districts are subdivided into areas (not exceeding three in any one case), each of which is controlled by an area officer, who is responsible to the Staff Officer in Charge of the Regimental District.

COMPOSITION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE FORCES.

The following units comprise the Permanent Forces :—

New Zealand Staff Corps61 officers and 11 Staff cadets at the Royal Military College of Australia.
New Zealand Permanent StaffIll warrant officers, N.C.O's, and men.
Royal New Zealand Artillery11 officers and 137 other ranks.
Royal New Zealand Air Force10 officers and 101 other ranks.
New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps3 other ranks.
New Zealand Army Medical Corps1 other rank.
New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps5 officers, 23 other ranks.
General Duty Section5 other ranks.
Recruits for New Zealand Permanent Staff, Royal New Zealand Artillery and New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps38 other ranks.
Attached or on loan2 officers, 2 other ranks.

The stores staff at the ordnance depots are members of the civil staff.

The Territorial Force is organized on the basis of 1 Division, 3 Mounted Rifles brigades, 1 Medium Artillery brigade, 2 Coast Artillery batteries, and ancillary troops, though on a reduced strength.

These are distributed as follows :—

Northern Command

3 Mounted Rifles regiments1st Mounted Rifles Brigade.
4 Field batteries1st Field Brigade.
1 Coast batteryNorthern Coast Artillery Group.
1 Medium batteryNorthern Coast Artillery Group.
1 Pack batteryNorthern Coast Artillery Group.
1 Field company, Engineers. 
1 Depot, Corps of Signals. 
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion1st Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C. 
1 Field Ambulance. 

Central Command

3 Mounted Rifles regiments2nd Mounted Rifles Brigade.
3 Field batteries2nd Field Brigade.
1 Coast batteryCentral Coast Artillery Group.
2 Medium batteriesCentral Coast Artillery Group.
1 Field company, Engineers. 
I Depot, Corps of Signals. 
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion2nd Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C. 
1 Field Ambulance. 

Southern Command

3 Mounted Rifles regiments3rd Mounted Rifles Brigade.
3 Field batteries3rd Field Brigade.
1 Medium batteryWith 3rd Field Brigade comprises Southern Artillery Group.
1 Pack batteryWith 3rd Field Brigade comprises Southern Artillery Group.
1 Field company, Engineers. 
1 Depot, Corps of Signals. 
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion.3rd Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C. 
1 Field Ambulance. 
Otago University Company, New Zealand Medical Corps. 

In addition, there are the following corps and departments:—

New Zealand Medical Corps, of which field ambulances form part. One medical officer is attached to each other unit of the Territorial Force, including the Air Force units.

  • New Zealand Dental Corps.

  • New Zealand Veterinary Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Legal Department.

  • New Zealand Chaplains Department.

  • New Zealand Army Nursing Service.

TRAINING.

The Permanent Forces throughout the year undergo courses of instruction, and, in addition, assist in the training of the Territorial Force and Cadets. In certain instances they provide a permanent nucleus to Territorial units. The officers of the Permanent Forces take the same examinations for promotion and entrance to the staff colleges as officers of the British Regular Forces.

The Territorial Force carry out during the year, and prior to their annual camp, thirty-six hours' training in drills and parades (Coast Artillery units, sixty hours), inclusive of the prescribed small-arms course. Each unit goes into camp each year for six full days' continuous trailing (Coast Artillery units, ten days). Special courses of instruction for officers and N.C.O.'s are prescribed and are held preliminary to examinations for promotion. Normally, officers of the Territorial Force Reserve attend a camp of instruction with their unit once in every three years, but other ranks of the Reserve do not train in any way.

There is no military college in the Dominion, but cadets intended for ultimate appointment to commissions in the Permanent Forces are sent either to the Royal Military College of Australia, the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, or the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and on graduating are attached for twelve months training to the British Regular Army before returning to New Zealand. In normal times from two to four cadets are sent annually. In March, 1934, four cadets were sent to the Royal Military College of Australia; these were the first appointed since 1930, and 7 others entered in March, 1935.

Officers of the Permanent Forces are also sent to the Staff College, Camberley, and normally one New Zealand officer is undergoing instruction there. At varying intervals other officers are sent to England for courses in gunnery, &c.

At Trentham there is a School of Instruction which provides refresher courses for officers and other ranks of the Permanent Forces, besides courses in weapon training, drill, signalling, physical and recreational training, &c, for officers and other ranks of the Territorial Force, and appropriate instruction for twelve months for recruits for the Permanent Forces.

At the Otago University there is a medical company, consisting of approximately 160 medical and dental students.

CADETS.

The Cadet Force is organized in battalions, but except on ceremonial occasions seldom works as such. All Cadet training is carried out at the schools or colleges during school-hours. Approximately thirty drills of one and a half hours duration are held throughout the year, as well as a “barracks” lasting five days. All cadets carry out a course in musketry during the year.

In the main centres the Cadet units have Artillery, Engineer, Signal and (or alternately) Medical sections.

After leaving college, a Cadet under eighteen years of age may join the; regimental Cadet detachment of one of the local Territorial units, and carry out drills until such time as he reaches the age of eighteen years, when he may enrol in the Territorial Force.

The strength of the Cadet Force on 31st March, 1935, was 362 officers and 16,662 other ranks.

RIFLE CLUBS.

Defence rifle clubs are formed with a minimum membership of twenty members between the ages of eighteen and fifty-five years. The members must be bona fide residents in the locality in which the rifle club is situated. Officers and other ranks of the Military Forces are not eligible for enrolment, but may become honorary members if so elected by the members of a club.

Application for the formation of a Defence rifle club must be made to the local area officer, who affords all necessary advice as to procedure and facilities extended by the Department in the way of free issues of ammunition, rail warrants and the supply of rifles and ammunition at reduced rates.

Rifle clubs are not included as units in the organization of the Military Forces, and in a national emergency members would be mobilized as individuals in the same way as other private citizens.

On the 31st March, 1935, there were 149 clubs, with a total membership of 5,249.

NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE.

The New Zealand Air Force consists (30th May, 1935) of a small Permanent Force (10 officers and 101 other ranks) for instructional, administrative, and maintenance duties, and a Territorial Air Force consisting of approximately 85 officers organized as a Wing of four squadrons. Other personnel on a Territorial basis have not yet been enlisted.

The Permanent Force is distributed between the two Air Force Stations—the New Zealand Air Force Base, Hobsonville, Auckland, which is a combined land and seaplane station, and Wigram Aerodrome, Christchurch—with a small administrative staff at General Headquarters, Defence, Wellington.

The service aircraft consists of four Vickers Vildebeest Torpedo Bombers, two Fairey IIIF float-planes, three D.H. Moth machines, and a small flying-boat at Hobsonville; and at Wigram Aerodrome five Bristol Fighters, four Vickers Vildebeest Torpedo Bombers, two Grebe S.S. Fighters, four Hawker Tomtit training-machines, and three D.H. Moths.

The training of the Territorial Air Force is carried out on the equipment at Wigram Aerodrome, and consists of annual squadron courses of ten days& duration, together with a limited amount of week-end flying training and instruction during the year.

The service duties of the Royal New Zealand Air Force comprise the administration and training of the Territorial Air Force, co-operation with the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, Army co-operation with other Territorial units of the New Zealand Military Forces, and certain miscellaneous duties, the chief of which is air survey for other Government Departments. In addition, this unit is responsible for the administration of the Air Navigation Act and Regulations, which involves periodical inspections of civil aircraft, aerodromes, &c., and the examination and instruction, of civil pilots and engineers.

This branch also administers the scheme of Government subsidies to approved Aero Clubs, the Controller of Civil Aviation being an officer of the Defence Department. For data under this head reference should be made to the section entitled Aviation and Air Transport.

EXPENDITURE.

The net expenditure on land defence during the last seven years has been as follows:—

Contingent Defence.*
Year.MilitaryAir Force.Total.MilitaryAir Force.Total.

* Expenditure derived from Public Works Fund; no expenditure in last four years.

 ££££££
1927–28453,58028,179481,75939,70628039,986
1928–29425,81338,782464,59523,02944,62367,652
1929–30401,64545,651447,2967,89638,87046,766
1930–31229,05040,051269,10136313,44913,812
1931–32156,31124,570180,881   
1932–33180,11223,472203,584   
1933–34215,95046,960262,910   
1934–35321,700132,230453,930   

Figures shown under Air Force do not include expenditure on civil aviation, particulars for which are given in a later section.

EXPEDITIONARY FORCES.

New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War. These comprised a total of 6,500 officers and men.

Immediately the Great European War broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then wont to the western front, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate against the Turks in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 98,950 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, and, of these, 16,697 lost their lives on active service. In addition to the 98,950 of all ranks of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, 944 British Army Reservists, British Naval Reservists, and others left the Dominion to rejoin their units in the United Kingdom or in a theatre of war. It is also known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand during the period of the war and joined units of the British Forces or the Expeditionary Forces of other Dominions.

On the Armistice being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or wore under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent, of the total population of the Dominion in 1914, and over 40 per cent, of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five years, while it is known that a very large number of other New Zealanders served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

NAVAL DEFENCE.

By the Australasian Defence Act, 1887, provision was made for the payment by New Zealand of a proportional part of the cost of the establishment and maintenance of a naval force for the protection of trade in Australian and New Zealand waters. Under this Act a sum of approximately £20,000 per annum was paid by the New Zealand Government to the Imperial Government.

In 1903 New Zealand raised her contribution to “a sum not exceeding £40,000,” and in 1908 to a sum of £100,000, payable annually for ten years from the 12th May, 1909.

In 1909 New Zealand presented the battle-cruiser “New Zealand” to the Imperial Government.

The Naval Defence Act, 1913, provided for the establishment of a New Zealand Naval Force by voluntary enlistment. The period of first engagement is twelve years, or until the age of thirty is reached (if under eighteen years of age on entering), after which ratings are usually permitted to re-engage for two further periods of five years. On discharge from the Permanent Naval Forces the men are required to serve in the Reserve for ten years or until they attain the age of forty. The ships and personnel forming the Force pass under the control and disposal of the Government of Great Britain in time of war.

A New Zealand Division was inaugurated in 1914, immediately prior to the war. After the war H.M.S. “Philomel” was refitted as a training-ship, and received her first batch of recruits in May, 1921.

In 1920 H.M.S. “Chatham” was loaned to New Zealand by the British Government, until 1924, when she was replaced by H.M.S. “Dunedin.” In 1925 H.M.S. “Diomede” was commissioned for service as a second cruiser in the New Zealand Division. The New Zealand Government is responsible for all payments for the ships and their personnel during the period of loan. Commodore the Hon. E. R. Drummond, M.V.O., assumed command of the New Zealand Station in April, 1935.

A trawler (H.M.S. “Wakakura”) was purchased in 1926 for mine-sweeping and instructional duties, and a tanker (R.F.A. “Nucula”) is maintained for fuelling H.M. ships and replenishing the naval tanks at Devonport.

A Naval Board, constituted by Order in Council of the 14th March, 1921, is charged with the control of all matters, upon the policy directed by the Minister, and vested with the executive command of the Naval Forces. The Board is composed of the Minister of Defence (President) the Commodore Commanding New Zealand Station (First Naval Member), and a Captain, R.N. (Second Naval Member).

By Order in Council of the 20th June, 1921, it was provided that “The New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy,” should be the official designation of the Force.

Legislation passed in 1922 extended the New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve to include Reservists entered direct from civil life, as well as those transferred from the Permanent Naval Forces. The formation of a Reserve of Officers was approved in 1924, and ninety-seven commissions have been granted. Three companies of R.N.V.R. have been formed at Auckland and Wellington, and two companies at Christchurch and Dunedin.

There is a small Naval Base at Devonport, Auckland, where H.M. ships are refitted. H.M.S. “Philomel" is now stationed at Devonport, acting as a depot ship end instructional establishment.

Up to 31st March, 1935, 838 New Zealand boys and youths had entered the Permanent Naval Forces. Those showing special aptitude are sent overseas to undergo courses in gunnery, torpedo, mechanical training, and other schools, and the results attained at the examinations have been most satisfactory.

The majority of officers, and a proportion of ratings, are loaned from the Imperial Service. Personnel serving on the Active List of the New Zealand Division at 30th June, 1935, comprised—

 Imperial and ex-Imperial.Actually recruited in New Zealand.Total.
Officers60363
Other ranks478465943
Ratings in England for courses 3333
Total5385011,039

The personnel comprising the Naval Reserves at 30th June, 1935, was: Royal Naval Reserve, 8 officers, 100 other ranks; Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, 93 officers, 1,250 other ranks; Royal Fleet Reserve, 5S “other ranks” : total, 101 officers, 1,408 other ranks.

By the Finance Act (No. 2), 1927, the sum of £1,000,000, to be paid aa arranged, was authorized as a contribution towards the construction of the Naval Base at Singapore, and, up to 31st March, 1935, payments on this account have totalled £900,000.

The expenditure on naval defence during the year 1934–35 was—

 £
New Zealand Division of Royal Navy437,840
Debt charges (interest and repayments) on loan-money raised for building battle-cruiser “New Zealand”30,614
Singapore Naval Base100,000
 £568,454

Expenditure on naval defence during the last decade has been :—

 £
1925–26498,991
1926–27616,410
1927–28701,217
1928–29677,883
1929–30651,468
1930–31632,240
1931–32504,182
1932–33521,602
1933–34527,998
1934–35586,454

Two sloops of modern type (H.M.S. “Leith” and F..M.S. “Wellington”) are maintained by the British Government, their duties consisting mainly of policing the South Pacific islands within the limits of the New Zealand Naval Station. These vessels do not form part of the New Zealand Division.

Chapter 9. SECTION IX.—EXTERNAL TRADE.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

TOTAL MERCHANDISE TRADE.

DATA regarding the overseas trade of New Zealand are invested with a special significance in view of the Dominion's relatively high degree of dependence upon its external trade. According to figures compiled by the Secretariat of the League of Nations, New Zealand's total trade per caput is the highest in the world. Parenthetically, it may he observed, as a factor highly relevant in this connection, that New Zealand's overseas debt commitments are also upon a high scale.

In the official annual statistics of the trade of New Zealand the twelve-monthly period adopted is the calendar year. Monthly figures covering the principal items of export and import are, however, published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, so that summarized figures are readily available for any twelve-monthly period. As the production year ends about June and the financial year at 31st March, it is desirable to record the trade for years ended 30th June and 31st March as well as for that ended 31st December.

The following table relates to merchandise only—i.e., it excludes specie, particulars of which will be found at the close of this subsection. Figures are given in New Zealand currency for the latest decennial periods. Up to the end of 1929 New Zealand currency and sterling were at virtual parity, hut thenceforward New Zealand currency has been below sterling parity (vide section relating to Banking and Currency): Consequently figures converted to a sterling basis have been appended covering the years from 1930 onwards. Used in conjunction, the two portions of the table will give data for ten years in both currencies.

 Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March,Year ended 30th June.
Year.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
192555,243,04752,425,75754,668,77649,821,09557,347,26150,898,485
192645,268,92449,811,70348,680,37152,993,70646,324,99452,125,552
192748,496,35444,782,66645,081,33848,116,37040,394,58247,297,387
192855,570,38144,844,10254,957,03144,405,91355,105,28543,484,498
192954,930,06348,734,47256,526,24345,076,86556,110,65046,479,009
193044,940,51744,339,05448,411,81749,429,58446,969,21349,295,452
193134,950,69826,498,15139,527,00939,833,15730,943,77435,073,948
193235,609,91924,646,00633,942,61724,760,42134,668,40724,655,259
193341,005,91925,581,36637,510,10425,059,52037,470,65725,290,201
193447,342,84731,339,55240,042,57020,135,49649,141,91420,703,380
1935....44,918,18032,567,78542,953,69834,301,328
 £(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)
193043,158,00042,481,00047,933,00049,085,00045,908,00048,448,000
193131,852,00024,157,00037,198,00037,656,00034,321,00032,873,000
193232,373,00022,406,00030,857,00022,509,00031,517,00022,414,000
193332,805,00020,465,00032,677,00022,049,00031,516,00021,013,000
193437,874,00025,071,00036,834,00020,908,00039,314,00021,363,000
1935....35,985,00020,082,00034,450,00027,495,000

The total merchandise exports and imports are next given for each month from July, 1934, to June, 1935, and for the twelve-monthly period ending with each such month. By reason of the seasonal nature of the production of the principal commodities exported from the Dominion, approximately two-thirds of the exports are made during the latter half of the production year—i.e., the first six months of the calendar year. Imports are normally spread fairly evenly over the year.

 Exports.Imports.Excess of Exports.
Month.New Zealand Currency.Sterling Equivalent.New Zealand Currency.Sterling Equivalent.On New Zealand Currency Basis.On Sterling Basis.
* Excess of imports.
  Monthly Totals.   
1934.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
July2,8512,2812,8672,294− 16*− 13*
August3,0802,4643,2322,580− 152*— 122*
September2,4471,9572,5532,042− 106*− 85*
October2,0571,6463,4112,729−1,354*−1,083*
November2,8162,2532,7182,1749879
December2,5932,0752,8022 242− 209*− 167*
1935.      
January5,0764,0773,2272,5921,8491,485
February4,4533,5772,4291,9512,0241,626
March6,1314,9252,8432,2843,2882,641
April3,8963,1292,8392,2801,057849
May4,3263,4753,0242,4291,3021,046
June3,2272,5922,3561,892871700
  Twelve-monthly Totals.  
1934.      
July48,61638,89327,87622,30120,74016,592
August49,06639,25328,97023,17020,09616,077
September49,34039,47228,99823,19820,34216,274
October49,01839,21530,16324,13118,85515,084
November48,86539,09230,74924,59918,11614,493
December47,34337,87431,34025,07116,00312,803
1935      
January47,33837,88731,70725,37615,03112,511
February45,54236,40432,19125,77113,35110,693
March44,91835,98532,56826,08212,3509,903
April43,40634,78732,99226,43010,4148,357
May43,02134,49433,67326,9859,3487,509
June42,95434,45034,30127,4958,6536,955

TRADE PER HEAD.

Imports of merchandise per head were highest in the boom year of 1920 with a rate of £49 10s. lid., the export record of £45 4s. having occurred in the previous year.

The next table shows the total merchandise trade, exports, and imports per head of the population. Values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

Year.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
19152770171964566
19162819221151050150
1917278818114599
1918241412018845129
19194540258370123
19203770491011861711
192135233398681111
192232149261385985
192334119 4306749
192438165 176741311
1925391813717477155
19263206354867512
192733141312664167
192838125313469159
19293751033 197077
193030232914059163
1931231111710240121
1932236816303998
193326131161274358
193430109204450151

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF TRADE.

The table following facilitates appreciation of the movement of external trade in recent years, both in value and in actual physical volume. For notes regarding its construction reference may be made to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for December, 1933. Volume of exports and effect of price changes upon exports are dealt with at greater length in the subsection succeeding this.

Year.Value.Volume.
On Gold Basis.On Sterling Basis.On New Zealand Currency Basis.Exports.Imports.Total External Trade
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
1926100100100100100100100100100
192710790107901079010896102
1928123901239012390112100106
1929122981229812298116114115
19309685968510089119106112
19316444704877531206993
19325232724579491326697
193349287241915115766109
1934523184501056315183113

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE.

As a debtor country New Zealand has normally a substantial excess of experts over imports, imports having exceeded exports in only three (calendar) years since 1885—viz., in 190S, 1920, and 1926. The figures for the last twenty years— merchandise, only—are as follows:—

Year.Visible Excess of Exports.
* Excess of imports.
 £ N.Z.£(Stg.)
191510,772,10210,772,102
19168,235,6548,235,654
191710,774,94210,774,942
19184,348,7864,348,786
191923,598,75823,598,758
1920− 15,148,487*− 15,148,487*
19212,084,3382,084,338
19227,899,8757,899,875
19232,575,8102,575,810
19243,981,6203,981,620
19252,817,2902,817,290
1926− 4,542,839*− 4,542,839*
19273,713,6883,713,O88
192810,726,27910,726,279
19296,195,5916,195,591
1930600,863677,000
19318,452,5477,695,000
193210,963,9139,967,000
193315,424,55312,340,000
193416,003,29512,803,000

It will be noticed that the balance for the year 1930 is greater on a sterling basis than on a New Zealand currency basis. The apparent anomaly is due to a combination of (1) successive movements in the exchange rate, and (2) the unequal distribution of exports over the year. This combination of factors affects the relationship between the sterling and New Zealand currency figures for other periods also.

The high figure of excess of imports in 1920 is a natural sequence of the much higher excess of exports in the previous year, combined with the filling of delayed orders which in many cases had been duplicated in the meantime. A substantial recovery from the low excess of exports recorded in 1930 is evident from the figures for subsequent years.

The visible balance of trade — i.e., the excess of exports over imports or vice versa—is an essential record valuable for numerous purposes. Nevertheless, it has very definite limitations, and, unfortunately, the focussing of interest on trade between two countries which has been intensified by currency instability and nationalistic tariff movements has resulted in a great deal of popular misconception of the actual facts.

In the first place, although far from the most important factor, the trade statistics themselves contain inevitable errors. For instance, it is necessary in many instances to assess the value of exports where goods are not sold until arrival at their destination; again, in the ease of imports, an arbitary assumption is made to cover freight, insurance, and handling charges. While errors arising from such sources do not appreciably affect items or totals of exports or imports, they may conceivably cause significant errors in the visible balance of trade, since there is no guarantee that such errors will be of a compensatory nature. In particular, when a small visible balance emerges from a year's trading in commodities, a relatively small margin of error in the assessment of export or import values (or both) may make a quite significant error in the residual balance. The possible error arising from the necessity of pre-estimating the final realization in the case of certain exports is not likely to be of importance in years of relatively stable prices; but, in periods when world prices are fluctuating violently, an appreciable margin of error may result from this cause in the assessment of the total of export valuations for a single year.

Furthermore, there are additional difficulties where trade with individual countries is concerned. The ultimate destination of goods exported is sometimes not known at the time of export. In particular, it is evident from the United Kingdom trade statistics that a considerable proportion of New Zealand's exports to continental countries is recorded in the New Zealand statistics among exports to the United Kingdom. Such produce may be sold on the United Kingdom markets to continental purchasers; while, again, goods may be diverted to continental markets after arrival in the United Kingdom.

Of much greater importance is the fact that the recorded trade is only one of a long series of items which go to make up the balance of payments between countries. Debt payments, capital investments and flow of capital, freight payments, tourist expenditure, and the like are vitally important factors which frequently reverse a credit visible balance of trade into a debit balance of payments. An estimate of New Zealand's balance of payments is given later in this subsection.

The partial disintegration of world trade, accompanied by currency difficulties, which has been such a marked feature of current economic trends, has intensified interest in the bi-lateral aspects of trade statistics as opposed to the multilateral aspect, which latter has been the really significant indication of the external trading relations of a country. In this connection it is perhaps germane to the question of New Zealand's position to draw attention to the fact that an estimated aggregate credit balance (vide “Balance of Payments” immediately following—the estimates are admittedly imperfect) of about 18 millions sterling over the twenty years ending with 1934 has been accompanied by an increase of about 100 millions sterling in Government and local-body debt domiciled abroad. It appears, then, that while New Zealand has had a heavy excess of commodity exports during this period the adverse balance of “invisible” items has been more than sufficient to offset it.

The following table shows for the year 1934 the amount of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion, the balance of trade in each case also being given. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at New Zealand import values—i.e., current domestic value in country of origin plus 10 per cent, allowance for freight. &c. The trade balances therefore represent the differences between exports and imports, both at New Zealand ports. Since this is the accepted practice internationally in statistics of trade, it follows that New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results of her trade with any given country than will be obtained from the trade statistics of that country, unless allowance be made for this practice.

Country.Exports.Imports, Country of Shipment.Balance.(+ =excess of exports; − =excess of imports.)
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(Stg.)
United Kingdom38,629,24016,152,762+22,470,478+17,981,182
Canada697,8652,088,132−1,390,207−1,112,214
India65,161648,834−583,673−466,938
Ceylon393582,358−581,965−465,572
South African Union29,15255,174−26,022−20,818
Australia1,882,5103,532,068−1,049,552−1,319,041
Fiji85,493114,794−29,301−23,441
Other British countries190,58171,133−380,552−304,441
Totals, British countries41,580,40123,745,255+17,835,140+14,208,117
Germany944,310376,592+567,718+454,174
France1,228,699185,762+1,042,937+834,349
Belgium612,646112,760+499,886+399,909
Japan856,014828,482+27,532+22,026
Dutch East Indies2,5481,370,559−1,374,011−1,099,209
United States of America1,250,3643,547,446−2,297,082−1,837,665
Other foreign countries867,8651,166,696−298,831−239,065
Totals, foreign countries5,762,4467,594,297−1,831,851−1,465,481
Totals, all countries47,342,84731,339,552+10,003,295+12,802,636

The considerable excess—£(N.Z.)22,500,000 in 1934—of exports over imports in New Zealand's trade with the United Kingdom deserves special mention. It is indeed the most striking example illustrating the observations above that visible balance of trade is only one factor in the more vital balance of payments. To arrive at the balance of payments between New Zealand and the United Kingdom, it is necessary to make numerous adjustments to this trade surplus of £(N.Z.)22,500,000. In the first place, a deduction of £(N.Z.)5,000,000 requires to be made. This represents goods credited in New Zealand exports to the United Kingdom, but re-exported thence to European countries. A further deduction of about £(N.Z.)10,000,000 is necessary in respect of interest on national and local-body debt payable in London plus an unknown amount, say, £(N.Z.) 1,250,000, in respect of interest on private debt and investments also payable in London. There are numerous other “invisible”items for which data are lacking. It is of service also to note that freight on exports to the United Kingdom would amount to about £(N.Z.)6,000,000, and that almost all freight and insurance payments are made to United Kingdom concerns.

BALANCE OF OVERSEAS PAYMENTS

Bound up with the matter of the visible trade balance is the question of the balance of overseas payments. Sufficient data are not available for the presentation of an accurate statement on the subject, but an estimate has been attempted, and the summarized results for the twenty financial years ending with 1933–34 are here given, all figures being expressed in terms of sterling:—

 Inward Balance on Account of
Year ended 31st March,Visible Trade (Merchandise only).Visible Trade (Merchandise and Specie).Visible Trade, plus Interest on Public and Local Bodies' Debt.Visible Trade, Public and Local Bodies' Interest and Debt Movement.All Items other than Public and Local Bodies' Debt Movement.All Items including Public and Local Bodies' Debt Movement.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
1915+ 7.6+ 7.1+ 3.6+ 5.7− 0.6+ 1.5
1916+ 12.2+ 10.9+ 7.2+ 11.3− 3.0+ 1.1
1917+ 5.1+ 4.4+ 0.5+ 3.0− 8.7− 6.2
1918+ 10.4+ 10.3+ 6.2+ 10.9− 2.7+ 2.0
1919+ 0.3+ 6.2+ 1.7+ 8.4− 8.8− 21
1920+ 19.2+ 18.9+ 14.3+ 14.1+ 10.9+ 10.7
1921− 19.2− 19.3− 24.1− 21.0− 29.6− 26.5
1922+ 8.0+ 7.7+ 2.5+ 11.9+ 0.2+ 9.6
1923+ 8.7+ 8.0+ 3.0+ 8.5+ 0.7+ 6.2
1924+ 7.2+ 7.3+ 1.4+ 8.3− 1.3+ 5.6
1925+ 4.8+ 4.9− 1.3+ 9.5− 4.1+ 6.7
1926− 4.3− 4.3− 11.1− 2.2− 13.3− 4.1
1927− 2.4− 2.5− 9.6− 2.2− 10.5− 31
1928+ 10.6+ 10.5+ 3.0+ 10.6+ 1.7+ 9.3
1929+ 11.4+ 12.0+ 4.0+ 15.0+ 1.9+ 12.9
1930− 1.1− 0.6− 8.9− 11.3− 10.7− 13.1
1931− 0.5− 0.8− 9.2− 1.2− 10.5− 2.5
1932+ 8.3+ 9.0+ 1.1+ 4.5+ 0.9+ 4.3
1933+ 10.6+ 12.3+ 5.2+ 4.0+ 3.5+ 2.3
1934+ 15.9+ 15.7+ 8.6+ 6.4+ 6.3+ 4.1
Aggregate of twenty years+ 118.8+ 118.3− i+ 94.2− 77.7+ 18.4

The first four columns are based wholly on (substantially) ascertained figures, which, by the way, relate to 90 per cent, of the total inward and outward payments. The balances shown in the fifth and sixth columns, however, are given out only as the best which the Census and Statistics Office is capable of with the data at present available. The small net balance (£18.4m.) for all items over the twenty years, taken in conjunction with the probability that London balances on New Zealand account were at 31st March, 1934, substantially higher than at the corresponding date twenty years earlier, indicates that the balance for the period as a whole is not seriously in error, having regard to the magnitude of total inward and outward payments. This close coincidence, however, may be largely fortuitous, and may well be due to counterbalancing inaccuracies as between individual items or years.

As indicating the relative importance of trade, of debt increase, and interest payments of the Government and local authorities, and of other items, the following aggregates (in sterling) for the twenty years are given:—

 Inward or Credit Payments.Outward or Debit Payments.
Trade—£m.£m.
   Merchandise841.4723.6
   Specie4.95.3
Government and local-body debt—  
   Increase96.0..
   Interest..120.2
Other items (largely estimated)71.5146.3
      Totals1,013.8995.4

The figures for the last five years available are given in more detail in the following table. As indicated above, arbitrary assessment has had to be resorted to in the case of certain items, notably interest, &c, on private debt and investments.

 Year ended 31st March,
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Inward or credit items—£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
  Merchandise exports47,93337,10830,85732,65736,834
  Specie exports63417201,796373
  Additions to Government and local bodies' debts..8,0583,371....
  Interest on inter-Governmental debts88877
  Other interest and dividend receipts497234239162140
  Freights300220150170165
  Passage-money560450250200253
  Port receipts819823620610627
  Funds of immigrants3603901708072
  Expenditure by tourists1,140940590550563
  Consular, &c, expenditure3030303030
  Reparation receipts371508167....
  Governmental sales of overseas long-term securities....1,50075
  Governmental receipts, n.e.i.163134143276273
      Total credit items52,81548,99438,81536,54539,342
Outward or debit items—     
  Merchandise imports49,08537,65622,51022,04920,908
  Additional allowance for freight, &c.1,117342204500490
  Specie imports6836758123647
  Decreases in Government and local bodies' debts2,445....1,1992,240
  Interest on Governmental debt6,9257,0656,6705,9356,010
  Interest on local bodies' debt1,3551,3051,2351,1651,090
  Interest, &c., on private debt and investments1,0001,000800800900
  Funds of emigrants360270280290320
  Tourist expenditure2,8302,6201,7401,4401,414
  Consular, &c., expenditure6060606060
  Governmental purchases of overseas long-term securities........774
  Governmental expenditure, n.e.i.663849922711370
    Total debit items65,90851,53434,47934,27235,223

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE.

There is no Mint in New Zealand, while there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion. Uncoined gold, therefore, ranks as an ordinary export of the Dominion, along with wool, frozen meat, and dairy-produce. In earlier days this export of gold was much more important than now, amounting in 1863 to 70 per cent, of the total exports, from which figure it shrank steadily to 6 per cent, in 1913. The proportion in recent years has been only about 1 per cent, but, as a combined effect of the falling-off in commodity values and of the consequential fillip given to the gold-mining industry and to the export of gold contained in old jewellery, gold represented nearly 3 per cent, of exports in 1934.

A table is given showing imports and exports of specie during the last ten years. Exports in 1934 were easily a record, mainly due to gold shipments by the Reserve Bank; while imports in the same year were the second highest yet recorded, the high figure being ascribable to importations of silver coinage for the New Zealand currency. The values given represent the face value of the specie.

Year.Specie imported.Specie exported.Excess of Specie Imports (+) or Exports (−).
 £££
192530,65019,225+ 11,425
192677,8006,651+ 71,149
1927280..+280
192842,164618,100−575,936
192963,505649,000−585,495
1930363,087175+362,912
193156,155202,330−146,175
193255,3101,355,801−1,300,551
1933424,704296,032+ 128,672
19341,242,0002,283,900−1,041,900

SUBSECTION B.—EXPORTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN New Zealand the Department of H.M. Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination.

In all cases exports are valued “free on board at the port of shipment.” In many cases, however, the goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, and in such cases values must be assessed in New Zealand with reference to current prices. Exports of merchandise are valued in terms of New Zealand currency, which has been below sterling parity since the beginning of 1930 (vide section on Banking and Currency). The value of total exports, 1930–34. in sterling will be found in the preceding subsection.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. The exports of New Zealand produce are shown separately from re-exports of imported goods.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS.

The total merchandise exports (i.e.. excluding specie) during the last ten years are given in the following table, classified according to five broad divisions. A table showing specie exports and imports for the same period will he found at the close of the preceding subsection.

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous.Bullion.Total Merchandise Exports.
 ££££££
192529,207,17023,525,3001,625,806355,771529,00055,243,047
192625,091,32010,801,8541,710,102494,405505,18345,208,924
192727,921,00217,702,1941,749,231492,194571,07348,490,354
192831,022,18321,785,0831,851,874381,224529,41755,570,381
192932,609,83619,766,7051,547,947485,863519,71254,930,063
193031,676,69310,835,1401,494,255345,618588,80544,940,517
193125,724,1997,255,7491,107,610254,031609,10934,950,098
193225,794,1127,209,9401,093,495239,7731,212,59335,609,919
193328,437,1909,784,9251,141,632201,8231,380,34941,005,919
193429,210,95615,294,0301,121,438323,0691,393,34847,342,847

The most important class is that of food, drink, and tobacco, which, in the case of exports from New Zealand, is composed almost wholly of foodstuffs, the principal items being butter, cheese, and frozen meat. Of the total exports during the five years 1930–34 this class accounted for 69.1 per cent. Next in order of magnitude is the raw-materials class (mainly wool, hides, skins, and tallow), which during the last five years constituted 247 per cent, of the total exports for that period. The remaining classes do not figure prominently in the table, and during the five years under review accounted for but 6.2 per cent, of the total.

In the following table exports of New Zealand produce—i.e., exclusive of specie and other re-exports—are classified under the main industries, according to a broad division, to illustrate the relative importance of the pastoral, agricultural, forestry, mining, and other industries as far as the export trade is concerned. It must be remembered that in a particular industry the home trade may be relatively more important than the external trade.

PROPORTIONS OF EXPORTS SUPPLIED BY THE MAIN INDUSTRIES.

 Exports (New Zealand Produce).Percentage of Total Exports.
Year.Pastoral.Agricultural.Forest.Mining.Others.Pastoral.Agricultural.Forest.Mining.Others.
 £££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191526,534,608674,273674,5332,149,2171,710,28183.62.12.10.85.4
191628,894,422183,797734,0341,661,6501,502,00487.60.62.25.04.6
191727,329,599179,902711,1881,274,2221,593,04687.90.62.34.15.1
191824,038,531190,291719,538479,0171,903,63388.20.72.61.76.8
191948,611,240788,187698,8491,668,3141,537,79491.21.51.33.12.9
192041,560,170530,0561,202,8941,103,3441,135,82491.11.22.82.42.5
192140,698,807490,094884,279787,591754,62793.31.12.01.91.7
192238,182,793968,9441,066,054850,469630,88891.62.32.62.01.5
192342,128,295568,3501,080,326937,238657,69892.91.32.42.11.3
192448,944,828431,325937,178787,664819,83394.20.91.81.51.6
192551,370,479467,8971,000,453770,439911,76394.20.91.81.41.7
192640,763,348902,164820,947854,995997,72991.92.01.91.92.3
192744,207,037887,893725,047804,834946,42292.91.91.51.72.0
192851,509,520964,956626,696710,450848,74394.21.81.11.31.6
192950,780,1131,036,700717,088809,076832,43693.81.91.31.51.5
193041,308,145971,259503,170784,125582,70793.62.21.11.81.3
193132,112,634910,937311,656707,126276,89193.62.60.92.10.8
193232,102,2181,043,277321,9231,190,306318,60391.83.00.93.40.9
193337,102,5101,221,979318,8911,374,211391,16091.83.00.83.41.0
193443,336,9001,153,056111,5111,416,911452,85592.72.40.93.01.0

The table demonstrates the tendency of the Dominion to rely mainly upon the pastoral industry for her exports. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,” but in the earthy years of the present century fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining produce. After 1901, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1924 and 1925 it amounted to 94.2 per cent, of the total, the highest percentage then recorded, this figure being reached in 1928 also.

New Zealand's agriculture is now upon a level barely sufficient to provide for her own needs in the matter of cereals, and only in exceptional years is there a surplus available for export. Agricultural exports showed an abnormal increase from 1899 to 1903, the period which covers the South African War, but their importance then steadily declined. Their lowest level (0.6 per cent, of total exports) was reached in 1916 and 1917. The higher level of recent years is attribute able mainly to a considerable development in the export of apples; pears, peas, and grass- and clover-seeds also contributing. Forest products, though steady, show a relative downward tendency. Mining products which have declined considerably of late years recorded a marked increase since 1931 due to the enhanced price of gold, which led to greater activity in gold-production and to the export of a large quantity of gold recovered from old jewellery, &c.

Included in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume are figures showing the main exports from New Zealand during the last fifty years. A more detailed list of commodities is covered by the five-years tables on pp. 202–204, A comparison of values between 1933 and 1934 gives the following results for fourteen principal commodities.

INCREASES OR DECREASES IN THE MAIN EXPORTS IN 1934

 Value.Amount ofPercentage
Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1933.1934.Increase.Decrease.Increase.Decrease.
 ££££  
Wool7,422,26612,516,4255,094,159..68.6..
Frozen meat9,845,02711,886,9552,041,328..20.7..
Butter11,648,69910,042,776..1,605,923..13.8
Cheese4,766,3514,694,459..71,892..1.5
Dried and preserved milk315,904407,70891,744..29.0..
Sausage-casings394,401625,394230,933..58.5..
Apples655,746716,78061,034..9.3..
Tallow516,003480,354..35,709..6.9
Skins, hides, and pelts1,868,4502,204,690336,240..18.0..
Gold1,281,0121,320,69039,078..3.0..
Coal53,69051,489..2,201..4.1
Kauri-gum77,97386,9178,944..11.5..
Phormium47,63252,0184,386..9.2..
Timber237,643320,52782,884..34.9..

In the following table exports during 1934 are grouped in classes in accordance with the statistical classification adopted for both exports and imports in 1914:—

No.Class.New Zealand Produce.Reexports.
  ££
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)28,102,9452,791
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt1,003,4364,058
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic), and substances used in making up the same3,1536,980
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors7,0536,733
VTobacco and preparations thereof4,2014,343
VILive animals98,025728
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs14,730,1881,206
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres233,9812,389
IXAApparel1,7388,646
IXBTextiles8,62627,446
IXCManufactured fibres86114,898
XOils, fats, and waxes499,907230,720
XIPaints and varnishes4305,447
XIIStones and minerals used industrially145,5909
XIVAMetal (unmanufactured and partly manufactured) and ores1,400,26433,662
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines2,83715,857
XVMachinery and machines13,70254,171
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)..2,623
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes)5,2591,395
XVIIATimber320,527289
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures6191,099
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials1,1372,622
XIXAPaper461,083
XIXBStationery12,64515,935
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy-goods25017,911
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments1,05419,265
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares22,4399,602
XXIIBManures28,53257
XXIIIAVehicles39725,552
XXIIIBMiscellaneous27,20757,037
..Parcels-post34,232..
     Totals, merchandise46,771,293571,554
XIIISpecie (face value)..2,283,900

Exports for 1934 (including specie and re-exports) are now grouped according to a classification adopted by the British Board of Trade for the compilation of Empire trade statistics. Exports to British and foreign countries are distinguished.

Commodity (including Re-exports).United Kingdom.Other British Countries.United States of America.Other Foreign Countries.Totals.

* Not including bunker coal, £51,044.

† Not including bunker fuel oil, £225,242.

‡ Face value.

 £££££
Grain and milled products105,06327,0911,40818,116151,078
Meat (including poultry and game)11,965,62147,92178414,28412,028,610
Butter, cheese, and eggs14,560,52699,5694,69690,90314,755,694
Fruits (fresh and dried)620,89226,743..132,239779,874
Sugar18911,94821343512,785
Tea396,2003373546,930
Alcoholic beverages3325,6872,3845,32013,723
Tobacco7546,8787861268,544
Coal*58387....445
Ores, concentrates, and scrap19,3721,834..18,66639,872
Iron and steel—     
   Pigs, ingots, &c...........
   Bars, rod, plate, sheet, &c.1,418569..3182,305
   Other manufactures, of iron and steel2,9377,3895821,87012,778
Agricultural implements and machinery3656,178..1406,683
Electrical machinery and equipment3,80110,4495,34079120,381
Other machinery8,67828,4052,4601,26640,809
Motor-cars and parts thereof3,49718,61279134323,243
Other metals and metal manufactures2,7601,9351933315,219
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)10,09141,722..20552,018
Wool, raw8,160,959644,509104,0053,606,95212,516,425
Yarns and threads110792146922
Cotton piece-goods62510,2784925011,202
Woollen piece-goods653386117111,167
Other piece-goods1,8421,145..2,5185,505
Other textiles (including apparel)3,66730,8932,2933,70740,560
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, &c.)2251,937367392,568
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)7,935314,038123203322,299
Newsprint..312....312
Seeds and nuts for expressing oil therefrom21932....953
Oil—Petroleum, crude and refined333,2372071,2584,735
Hides, skins, and furs, undressed730,671418,864665,450390,9112,205,890
Leather and manufactures thereof (including boots and shoes)5,0021,3472369697,554
Other merchandise1,285,927975,109457,529219,5432,938,108
  Total merchandise37,504,0632,753,2961,250,3044,512,07446,019,797
  Gold and silver bullion1,125,177197,865..81,323,050
   Total exports (excluding specie)38,629,2402,951,1611,250,3644,512,08247,342,847
Specie2,243,90040,000....2,283,900

The principal items of export may again be regrouped under six definite heads, as in the table below, which shows in more detail the commodities exported from the Dominion. Only New Zealand produce is included.

Practically all the main commodities are homogeneous articles, and it is therefore possible to give the quantities exported. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price-variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* Ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.
The mine—      
  Coal(tons)126,11848,33435,86634,13140,361
  Gold*(oz.)133,749140,970200,648177,241162,490
  Silver(oz.)566,003551,441520,647410,091359,540
  Other minerals(tons)1013882747
The fisheries—      
  Fish(cwt.)21,86016,18020,47932,39956,205
  Oysters(doz.)139,03745,55720,377106,211204,020
  Whalebone(lb.)..........
  Whale-oil(gal.)47,64940,78830,86128,89535,001
The forest—      
  Fungus(cwt.)1,8041,8401,3301,0281,278
  Kauri-gum(tons)3,8183,0582,0683,0893,209
  Timber, sawn and hewn(sup. ft.)26,676,13117,532,30427,286,88425,829,40434,530,279
Pastoral products—      
  Bacon and hams(cwt.)2,212828874903962
  Meats, salted and smoked(cwt.)2,8951,3731,4691,2024,873
  Butter(cwt.)1,884,2371,988,5662,185,5452,635,2472,614,519
  Casein(cwt.)57,30952,91742,77048,67457,744
  Cheese(cwt.)1,812,9811,636,3471,790,4311,982,0421,984,496
  Hides and skins(number)1,101,5361,025,1301,183,2291,456,2411,852,082
  Honey(lb.)171,536584,739226,243757,106669,683
  Live-stock—      
   Cattle(number)147239729342
   Horses(number)21695198250336
   Sheep(number)4,4632,2423,5782,3331,844
   Pigs(number)6234042077537
  Preserved meats(cwt.)37,25726,75035,38739,45344,348
  Frozen meats(cwt.)4,036,6394,138,8064,645,4805,203,1134,960,447
  Milk, dried and preserved(lb.)15,200,83512,845,39416,033,17517,640,07221,502,450
  Sausage-casings(cwt.)40,02732,68933,67940,40440,397
  Rabbit-skins(number)7,206,9926,174,0926,660,14010,378,38813,035,015
  Sheep-skins and pelts(number)11,019,58012,085,09313,640,41215,193,79912,193,097
  Tallow(cwt.)492,500465,280507,540560,400553,240
  Wool(lb.)197,239,614211,718,868238,179,062286,307,441255,790,783
Agricultural products—      
  Bran and sharps(tons)5125051,0051,353
  Chaff(tons)101622..2
  Flour(tons)24827
  Appleslb.51,452,16451,907,73060,438,51852,406,01657,763,643
  Pearslb1,639,2591,699,0702,783,3765,130,5384,915,070
  Grain and pulse—      
   Barley(centals)38551567048
   Peas(centals)125,65569,441106,282200,411258,977
   Oats(centals)1,9371,2801,8167,29521,846
   Wheat(centals)30623545603,43177
  Hops(ewt)1,8218021,7885,2823,069
  Oatmeal(tons)23212910054..
  Onions(tons)438652,0798801,891
  Potatoes(tons)1,1948641,1404,607947
  Seeds (grass and clover)(cwt.)36,50040,95334,83780,30848,751
Miscellaneous—      
  Ale, stout, and cider(gal.)14,98712,00213,86514,58231,636
  Cement(cwt.)1,8201,4324,0767,2163,054
  Leather(cwt)3371,6151,979981492
  Phormium fibre and tow(tons)9,4932,3983,8504,4024,173
  Sugar(cwt.)22,05818,05020,94918,35917,191
  Binder-twine(cwt.)11072736823

The values of these principal exports are tabulated in the following table, and the statement is rendered complete by the addition of miscellaneous groups and the provision of totals for each group and for all combined: —

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* As recorded. Certain exports by parcels-post are not available, but are included in “Miscellaneous—Other” at the end of the table.
The mine—£££££
  Coal186,21083,39356,32153,69051,489
  Gold550,678581,0321,002,2881,281,6121,320,690
  Silver44,53434,43640,73736,66639,372
  Other minerals2,7038,2659602,2435,360
     Totals784,125707,1261,190,3001,374,2111,416,911
The fisheries—     
  Fish70,72144,58851,30775,019134,311
  Oysters1,4805313821,0481,860
  Whalebone..........
  Whale-oil4,9853,7612,7002,2742,540
Ambergris*....6222968
  Other5014105124456
    Totals77,23648,89454,55678,687140,135
The forest—     
  Fungus11,4469,9885,9033,2693,788
  Kauri-gum189,635128,09562,13777,97386,917
  Timber300,582172,633253,883237,528320,527
  Other1,507940..121279
     Totals503,170311,656321,923318,891411,511
Pastoral products—     
  Bacon and hams11,7074,4544,3684,6744,945
  Meats, salted and smoked7,8473,1363,0962,4149,611
  Butter11,854,05010,649,52710,639,05311,048,69910,042,770
  Casein155,57588,72059,02993,742149,666
  Cheese6,438,4384,461,2934,951,2684,766,3514,694,459
  Hides and skins543,723349,047309,806601,043697,014
  Honey6,21619,4017,05421,82319,731
  Live-stock—     
   Cattle2,3491,1542,1701,7779,316
   Horses42,38729,73043,57741,81558,774
   Sheep31,1817,28017,3378,05328,529
   Pigs2,4751,223497201144
   Other5,3811,5725286171,262
  Milk, dried and preserved351,339246,483269,121315,964407,708
  Preserved meats149,81492,05496,123105,272127,090
  Frozen meats10,037,8828,892,555S,430,3069,845,02711,880,055
  Sausage-casings780,073399,418266,273394,461625,394
  Rabbit-skins142,240108,84170,016224,199257,585
  Sheep skins and pelts1,516,738805,838694,2171,043,2081,250,091
  Tallow683,571413,080462,081516,063480,354
  Wool7,664,3025,515,3765,742,8217,422,26612,516,425
  Other41,28222,44627,47744,24169,131
     Totals41,308,14532,112,03432,102,21837,102,51043,336,960
Agricultural products—     
  Bran and sharps761131,4943,3684,146
  Chaff1101281831112
  Flour57961713988
  Fruits—     
   Apples641,424641,055755,158655,746716,780
   Pears27,79028,09044,26265,02062,060
   Other1831615429,685210
  Grain and pulse—     
   Barley12951032927
   Peas85,91558,69181,507123,876138,898
   Oats1,2577891,0432,2377,300
   Wheat22615827138,82539
   Other62159661354
  Hops8,4093,5787,89723,66021,809
  Oatmeal11,4726,1624,5222,195..
  Onions2,40266620,2024,70210,970
  Potatoes8,4515,5306,14023,6295,317
  Seeds (crass and clover)166,221155,410109,632152,458166,511
  Seeds (various)10,3136,4587,8777,3547,699
  Other6,7623,6882,5418,71011,186
     Totals971,259910,9371,043,2771,221,9791,153,056
Miscellaneous (including manufactures)—     
  Ale, stout, and eider4,2072,4652,6263,3647,021
  Apparel (Including hats, caps, hosiery, and millinery)6,1751,4151,0841,3251,672
  Cement4052708091,272771
  Cordage1,8021,7291,4721,387808
Foods, Infants' and invalids'1,2582,26610,2468,19413,661
  Leather5,3329,0059,7779,1015,185
  Phormium fibre and tow221,92338,40747,31247,63252,018
  Soap8,2825,4797,6917,6649,170
  Sugar20,59514,58015,77913,84412,967
  Binder-twine36920218917753
  Woollen manufactures5,4051,5097841,8844,029
  Other229,718150,610166,338216,629205,365
     Totals505,471227,997264,107312,473312,720
Totals, New Zealand produce44,209,40034,319,24434,976,38740,405,75146,771,293
Re-exports of merchandise731,111631,454633,532597,168571,554
Total exports of merchandise44,940,51734,950,69835,609,91941,005,91947,342,847
Specie exports (face value)175202,3301,355,861296,0322,283,900

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865, 70 per cent., and even in 1871, 44 per cent., of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines the United Kingdom has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875–1914, £365,880,997 (78 per cent.) of a grand total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the war, did not vary greatly from year to year, but naturally there have been considerable variations since 1914.

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) during the last twenty years are given in the table below. The principal “other countries” in 1934, in order of magnitude, were France, Japan. Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, Fiji, and India.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.Pacific Islands (other than Australia)United States.Germany.Other Countries.Total Merchandise Exports.
 ££££££££
191525,353,5002,540,300725,813424,7422,006,5074379,89031,430,822
191626,809,9882,191,545691,986362,1892,493,9875671,35733,281,057
191726,023,3901,460,980961,653469,9051,894,3176706,81831,517,072
191818,244,2501,803,7391,793,576470,2324,045,048..2,117,13328,480,578
191944,312,0482,249,827980,190485,9624,200,861..1,079,03753,907,925
192084,854,3002,351,7991,357,774681,7037,450,04123203,72046,405,366
192138,716,5932,070,013454,597516,9962,702,10446,162321,99544,828,460
192230,154,1742,208,280446,457399,0782,072,775218,338626,84742,725,949
192337,324,6052,014,894605,696460,1643,531,272190,6001,146,50245,939,793
192441,909,6912,474,879716,543575,5308,278,1351,100,3022,328,14352,509,223
192544,066,9812,480,230423,008548,5914,349,7581,614,0901,751,32955,243,047
192635,102,0873,048,282861,717514,7533,818,232304,6291,559,22445,208,924
192730,877,8873,605,9021,000,598495,4022,081,0911,139,6541,909,76048,490,354
192840,510,0752,902, 6552,469,150574,8664,160,3151,290,0713,663,24955,570,381
192940,417,0432,338,4103,353,975517,9583,553,4271,220,5523,528,69854,030,003
193036,015,1281,502,2812,539,212471,9742,116,752401,0841,834,08044,940,517
193130,739,9701,167,403256,890302,634920,031309,8171,253,01734,950,098
193231,344,6701,444,860244,160205,425690,015289,9171,330,87235,609,919
193335,275,9091,393,311560,875232,0001,188,972376,8861,977,96641,005,919
193438,029,2401,882,516697,865223,4861,250,304944,3103,715,06647,342,847

Included in the exports to the United Kingdom are considerable quantities of produce which are shipped to London merely as a convenient depot for subsequent reshipment to the Continent or to America. The total re-exports in normal pro-war years amounted to about £4,000,000 annually, and although the amount fell, under war conditions, to as low as £565,529 in 1918, it showed a substantial increase during subsequent years. During the five years (1925–29) preceding the depression re-exports of New Zealand produce from the United Kingdom averaged £7,279,906 annually. In subsequent years the level has been much lower. It should be noted that values quoted here, and also in the table following, are in British sterling. The following table shows the principal items of New Zealand produce re-exported from the United Kingdom. It includes a proportion (although probably small) of goods which would not be credited to the United Kingdom in New Zealand export statistics.

RE-EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FROM UNITED KINGDOM.

Commodity.19291930.1931.1932.1933.
 £(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)£(Stg.)
Butter457,843317,728217,645365,320195,899
Cheese43,94242,86134,20882,18334,295
Casein58,89780,09749,72920,384608
Milk-powder, not sweetened75,88179,13156,41932,12523,757
Milk, preserved, other kinds, not sweetened11,726878......
Oleo-rnargarine, oleo-oil, and refined tallow12,21111,2301,1901,0592,220
Peas, not fresh2,3758911,6942,5171,670
Apples33,84050,97055,328108,98044,495
Grass and clover seeds17,37717,21214,2952,7361,602
Beef, frozen6,88711,02112,5755,3664,541
Beef, tinned, canned, &c. (including tongues) and extracts and essences2,1782,0161,7822,306755
Mutton and lamb, frozen50,91750,41546,61543,55051,365
Meat, other kinds10,2487,4549,4298,24013,675
Sausage-casings43,64733,58482,74951,97355,565
Hides224,462250,334174,93189,004104,114
Sheep and lamb skins215,208290,880186,377177,009281,050
Rabbit-skins55,64370,92411,2838,11512,442
Kauri-gum71,90144,54039,54811,7195,599
Tallow204,564242,698103,10562,72037,453
Phormium-fibre79,83142,7701,7555492,640
Wool, raw; sheep and lambs' wool5,247,0132,886,2242,970,0952,741,5604,340,189
All other commodities126,84478,89247,95030,29G50,870
     Totals7,053,4354,612,7654,118,7023,798,3115,264,804

The table which follows shows for each or ten years the percentage of total exports (excluding specie) taken by each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion. For reasons given above, the proportion credited to the United Kingdom is overstated, and that to other European countries understated.

Country.1925.1920.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
United Kingdom79.7677.5376.0472.9073.5880.1487.9688.0286.0381.59
Canada0.771.903.444.456.115.650.740.691.371.46
India0.350.180.300.680.700.9l0.170.150.080.14
Ceylon0.000.000.000.010.010.020.010.010.010.00
South African Union0.030.070.060.120.090.040.020.030.030.06
Australia4.536.757.565.224.263.483.344.063.403.98
Fiji0.240.340.250.230.230.240.250.250.210.18
Other British countries0.440.530.520.500.420.480.430.440.370.42
Totals, British countries86.1287.3088.1784.1185.4090.9692.9293.6591.5087.83
Germany2.920.802.352.322.220.890.890.820.922.00
France1.071.512.083.243.221.151.201.431.802.60
Belgium0.350.380.340.550.450.440.420.470.811.29
Japan0.420.360.521.180.780.340.760.670.861.81
United States of America7.878.435.537.516.514.712.661.942.912.64
Other foreign countries1.251.221.011.091.421.511.151.021.201.83
Totals, foreign countries13.8812.7011.83l5.8914.609.047.086.358.5012.17

A little more than four-fifths of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom during 1934. A certain amount of this produce, as indicated previously, is subsequently reshipped, principally to other European countries, the result being that exports to Continental countries are understated to this extent in New Zealand export statistics. A good deal of New Zealand wool in particular is re-exported from the United Kingdom to other European countries. The principal commodities. in order of magnitude, taken by the United Kingdom from New Zealand in 1934 were frozen meat, butter, wool, cheese, gold, hides and skins, apples, tallow, and dried milk.

Since 1930 Australia has ranked second among the Dominion's export customers, and in 1934 took 3.98 per cent, of New Zealand's total exports. Comparative figures of the principal items in 1934 and 1933 (the latter in parentheses) are as follows: Wool, £321,980 (£170,045); timber (chiefly kahikatea), £305,677 (£227,081); cattle-hides. £183,517 (£100,768); calf-skins, £153,027 (£16,982); fish, £118,422 (£5S,107); gold, £228,763 (£274,950).

The percentage of exports to the United States in 1934 was 2.64, as compared with 2.91 for the previous year. Principal items in 1934 were as follows (1933 figures in parentheses): Sheep-skins, £416,686 (£444,232); rabbit-skins, £187,287 (£155,852); wool, £104,005 (£88,923); sausage-casings. £312,626 (£170,019).

Canada's share of New Zealand's exports has increased progressively since 1932, although it is still much below the level of the years 1927 to 1930, before the imposition of the Canadian tariff on New Zealand butter. The following are the principal items in 1934 (figures for 1933 in parentheses): Wool, £301,058 (£149,245); sausage-casings, £156,645 (£129,129): sheep-skins. £50,962 (£27,003); cattle-hides, £49,293 (£99,512): calf-skins. £44,291 (£69,945).

Other major export customers in 1934 were Belgium, France, Germany, and Japan, all of which showed considerable increases as compared with the previous year, mainly in wool. Germany took more apples, and Japan more casein.

Minor trade was as follows (1934 figures shown first with those for 1933 in parentheses):—Irish Free State: Hops, £7,003 (£6,538). Denmark: Wool. £17,169 (£8,866): cattle-hides, £3,675 (nil). Finland: Cattle-hides. £5,158 (£514). Netherlands: Wool. £72,932 (£23,770): apples. £51,100 (£16,033); hides and skins, £20,661 (£12,938); peas, £15,189 (£3,520). Norway: Cattle-hides, £3,320 (£2,217). Sweden: Wool, £113,310 (£31,791). Poland: Wool. £132,175 (£24,754). Italy: Wool, £178,014 (£77,271); hides and skins. £27,282 (£18,502). Spain: Sheep-skins, £14,207 (£1,687); wool, £5,507 (£3,937). China: Wool, £3,755 (£1,617); butter, £6,285 (£8,03(5); dried and preserved milk. £1,300 (£4,042). Turkey: Cattle-hides, £3,580 (£770). Malaya: Dried and preserved milk. £30,110 (£14,900): butter, £11,615 (£4,536). Philippine Islands: Butter. £2,007 (£210). Hong Kong: Butter, £10,260 (£4,910): fungus. £3,049 (£3,269). India: Tallow. £42,223 (£18,126); butter, £8,574 (£6,232); dried and preserved milk. £6,747 (£2,632). South African Union: Wool. £11,303 (£3,435); peas, £4,712 (£3,984); hops, £3,580 (£1,948). British West Indies: Butter. £38,519 (£20,571). Hawaii: Butter. £12,195 (£17,147); frozen meat, £1,053 (£2,109) Argentina: Sheep, £4,010 (£1,560). Brazil: Apples, £13,080 (£15,285). Chile: Sheep. £11,250 (£8,558). Panama Canal Zone: Butter, £56,535 (£59,054). Uruguay: Apples, £5,297 (£21,809); sheep. £4,821 (£420). Fiji: Bags and sacks, £12,133 (£8,358); films. £9,004 (£9,877); tinned meats, £6,331 (£6,010); tea. £4,442 (£4,017); sugar. £4,382 (£3,467); potatoes, £4,233 (£4,041). Gilbert and Ellice Islands. £4,101 (£2,974). Tonga: Tinned meat, £3,33S (£6,435); timber. £1,654 (£968). Western Samoa: Tinned meat. £6,235 (£12,474); sugar, £4,467 (£6,021): timber, £4,309 (£6,644). Society Islands: Dried and preserved milk, £8,253 (£7,357); butter, £8,090 (£7,516); tinned meat, £7,014 (£4,892). Tutuila: Ale, beer, &c, £3,419 (£820); tinned meat. £2,140 (£1,431).

EXPORTS TO EACH COUNTRY, 1930–34.

The table following shows the exports (including re-exports, but excluding specie) for five years according to the countries of destination. Reference should be made to remarks above regarding re-exports of New Zealand produce from the United Kingdom.

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND.

Country.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £££££
United Kingdom36,015,12830,739,07631,344,67035,275,90938,629,240
British Possessions, Protectorates, Mandated Territories,&c.     
Europe—     
  Irish Free State1842276,5696,6497,051
  Malta and Gibraltar13169411
 1972436,5786,6907,052
Asia—     
  Ceylon9,0605,0933,4982,670393
  Hong Kong14,08514,16514,15315,14316,238
  India406,87859,18553,378.34,32665,161
  Malaya20,61114,92226,86822,92949,727
  Other1,408858958872302
 452,04894,22398,85575,940131,821
Africa—     
  South African Union15,5898,05212,12014,42729,152
  Other3921,001488926893
 15,9819,05312,60S15,35330,045
America—     
  Canada2,539,212256,890244,160560,875697,865
  British West Indies1,0432,3611520,970 
  Other4591367231
 2,540,259259,310244,311581,917740,124
Pacific islands—     
  Australia1,562,2811,167,4031,444,8601,393,3111,882,516
  Fiji110,03389,24587,39387,03585,493
  Gilbert and Ellice Islands9,1747,1307,7875,2278,910
  Nauru Island20,0005,9549,0954,18110,821
  Norfolk Island11,28111,7738,9311,8993,513
  Papua7,2541,7571,5042,2971,867
  Solomon Islands5,8947,7894,420660867
  Tonga47,95829,92027,26619,40712,948
  Western Samoa79,99551,10649,43851,34834,652
  Other215495748975532
 1,854,0851,372,5781,641,4421,566,3412,042,119
Foreign Countries and Possessions.£££££
Europe—     
  Belgium199,048146,335167,629330,284612,646
  Denmark21,10012,9698,9899,40422,092
  Finland4,4731,0191645155,278
  France519,727419,016508,960738,1761,228,699
  Germany401,084309,847289,917376,886944,310
  Italy97,38764,90985,35397,330205,673
  Netherlands132,000125,56564,48464,827165,074
  Poland932428,463133,234
  Sweden6,63413,99620,92533,984117,529
  Switzerland1,3405,6761,8651,219699
  Other4,5135,44521,39713,29429,519
 1,387,3151,104,7801,169,7071,694,3823,464,753
Asia—     
  China36,49317,62515,41354,56419,099
  Dutch East Indies13,02910,2055,2555,4962,548
  Japan154,741267,899236,799354,462856,014
  Philippine Islands12,4915,4141,0814132,493
  Other37957518433,597
 217,133301,200258,599415,778883,761
Africa—     
  Egypt1,2132448405,56715
  Other16383283316
 1,2292828725,650331
America—     
  Argentina10,6341,1172,9791,6384,079
  Brazil14,3245,068..15,90413,080
  Chile7051,3918,5972511,500
  Mexico8,149824......
  Panama Canal Zone59,14633,63247,02561,34657,140
  Peru5564117
  United States of America2,116,752920,931690,0151,188,9721,250,364
  Uruguay66,2278,33914,78441,08410,722
  Other5791273091,688
 2,276,571971,435763,4341,308,9891,348,580
Pacific Islands—     
  Hawaii110,58661,95033,90319,72014,927
  New Caledonia4,02882627256147
  Society Islands52,90024,81726,16733,11035,309
  Tuamotu Archipelago9,3554,8791,6741,0051,894
  Tutuila3,0084,5424,6934,21511,487
  Other6946042,3796651,267
 180,57197,61868,84358,97165,031

Eighty-eight per cent, of the total exports from New Zealand went to British countries in 1934. The United States, France, Germany, Japan, and Belgium took the bulk of the remainder.

Full details of quantities and values of commodities exported to various countries are given in Part I of the Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping, while in Part II of the same report values of exports of principal commodities to various countries are summarized. The table which follows shows quantities of principal export commodities sent to various destinations during the last five years. Both New Zealand produce and re-exports are covered.

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS.

Country to which exported.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Wool
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom158,505,801165,351,019184,587,304213,545,236171,190,802
South African Union122,20534,999179,33198,012258,100
Canada1,077,2422,115,2952,867,5675,105,8356,728,879
Australia3,929,4144,801,1893,002,5346,087,7408,005,696
Belgium2,880,3053,736,6536,632,10913,061,75111,071,015
Denmark343,706128,631323,373225,842292,041
France13,102,43015,692,19218,256,81119,773,42318,431,509
Germany5,717,8959,952,2728,217,87210,070,75514,322,208
Italy1,107,4071,006,8012,823,9232,738,0452,973,237
Netherlands1,570,677560,1511,509,876664,5401,321,108
Poland......1,443,4992,897,573
Sweden113,075230,412575,6111,042,9982,408,457
Japan2,495,9276,162,8637,534,3489,436,17S12,405,766
United States of America5,273,2501,423,2731,017,7752,209,9922,267,696
Other countries33,674217,058500,628202,995221,730
     Totals197,239,614211,718,868238,179,062280,307,441255,790,783
Frozen Meat.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom3,907,0404,108,2834,637,7115,189,8344,901,010
Canada10,1401,0483,5252,7042,345
Australia1,714264329612,141
Italy10,30610,666......
Egypt......6,230..
United States of America8,424893226996107
Hawaii18,2849,4111,884961278
Pacific islands (other than Hawaii)2,0131,4531,3171,5071,454
Other countries6231884887601,512
  Totals4,030,6394,138,8064,645,4805,203,1134,909,447
Butter.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,553,7251,902,3202,150,1272,597,00S2,508,050
Hong Kong2654531,0791,0322,423
India7597869681,1201,674
Malaya2,3741,6503639312,054
British West Indies150400..4,55610,043
Canada290,0713,6126,0306,0086,250
Australia45291,8801,481112
China4,3806481,4491,7321,510
Dutch East Indies975555368134130
Japan1,095712603375585
Philippine Islands1,70385518850400
Panama Canal Zone9,2796,1018,98013,40014,345
United States of America1716336561,150
Hawaii9,9427,4215,2343,4032,754
Pacific Islands (other than Hawaii)1,0911,4921,7071,8771,795
Other countries1,201809557404503
   Totals1,884,2371,988,5662,185,5452,035,2472,014,519
Cheese.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,809,3481,035,2331,788,9891,980,8721,983,058
Hong Kong76583303281
British West Indies11......316
Canada2,09973381172
Australia17315212961136
Pacific islands282306357297327
China788445745524297
Other countries27373125749
   Totals1,812,9811,636,3471,790,4311,982,9421,984,496
Dried and Preserved Milk.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom12,737,73411,198,83013,455,95415,078,29618,477,601
India3,3605,4608,22078,509194,800
Malaya116,78593,6481,362,574882,2062,181,410
British West Indies......30333,439
Australia1,823,5701,168,949513,319158,204151,919
Fiji67,19248,01328,42338,99622,103
Tonga15,7406,9574,2574,1552,470
Western Samoa31,52715,45121,06525,24813,530
China28,9071,248107,728276,68383,623
Dutch East Indies38,92058,88016,57026,81231,076
Japan3,2286,72048,06024,40015,680
Panama Canal Zone.49,70031,732168,431134,60139,302
Society Islands.158,638140,280161,537246,208261,442
Other countries125,47469,22047,17965,30157,749
     Totals15,200,83512,845,39416,033,31717,640,07221,564,550
Tallow.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom19,15516,05820,63623,54820,300
India9571,1691,6269181,900
South African Union857......
Australia2,0842,9558931,116678
Fiji2914051114172
Belgium41917395130
Germany360190377520483
Netherlands29818535022270
Japan2181,4924731,0881,470
United States of America365155131702,344
Other countries658890335340309
     Totals24,62823,26425,37728,02027,662
Hides (Cattle and Horse).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom54,21998,98684,03679,066101,528
India..4,3229005501,400
Canada28,41215,2672,852105,74463,573
Australia74,87060,178117,87488,585140,170
Belgium21,07325,3855,1236,62311,809
Denmark5,4243,200650..5,250
Finland4,2531,1422506007,498
France4,81913,9099,2366,6558,768
Germany58,12136,93751,93041,15865,066
Greece..4,4754,500745..
Italy16,99726,30413,96822,37131,772
Netherlands3,4922,1905046,4845,405
Norway1,2905004,1172,8963,683
Turkey......1,4804,964
United States of America17,44110,5006,05637,35221,694
Other countries2,2616,2552,5311,6154,675
     Totals292,684309,556304,527401,921477,255
Calf-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom67,95453,1412,09417,97116,020
Canada71,93485,746277,935315,466259,719
Australia59,708126,418316,206101,028337,904
Belgium89,20442,3456,25142,52087,757
France......2505,094
Germany8,0001,3505,48610,48524,002
Greece..6,999..5,4553,000
Netherlands28,0515,000..18,02497,860
United States of America328,683330,891234,151379,308274,754
Other countries3,2688573,5841203,829
     Totals650,802652,747845,707890,6871,109,999
Opossum-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom73,26543,1462,323121,287232,825
Australia10,960....2,2012,480
Austria1,0001,000..2,0001,707
Germany9,750....6002,000
United States of America76,31974230,484..
Other countries........1,716
     Totals94,98250,4653,065156,572240,758
Rabbit-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom4,345,512;2,774,7172,915,0083,578,9093,798,710
Canada........237,738
Australia37,74823,05241,81530,1783,662
Belgium..19,200..158,840177,372
France68,12867,477357,674375,453340,641
Germany......16,214..
Japan..4,34813,72020,9163,000
United States of America2,755,0043,285,2983,331,9236,197,8788,473,592
Other countries........300
     Totals7,200,9926,174,0926,660,14010,378,38813,035,015
Skeep-skins (with Wool).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom713,2751,183,748773,7341,216,9391,300,993
India....104,47911,324
Canada..9,18160,933155,573209,258
Australia..3,47312,96616,145578
Belgium82,4513,6906,49670,696161,687
France224,854231,538628,4671,505,326987,970
Germany4,73715,89120,55064,22862,484
Netherlands4,43046,80835,42357,8386,663
Italy....2561,7001,033
Spain..2,190..11,95555,343
Japan..5,84019,50936,07422,184
United States of America512,278163,39282,852239,161131,454
     Totals1,542,0251,665,8111,641,2023,380,1162,949,971
Sheep-skins (without Wool).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom2,718,1335,054,8906,366,3834,044,0823,747,788
Canada2,8958,24375,83444,17869,069
Australia221,666244,682365,915257,493217,533
Belgium202,291246,97654,334156,40068,019
France191,052242,885256,051152,55934,337
Germany38,40613,2822,7702,2057,200
Italy........15,312
Japan..39,50455,739123,578134,670
United States of America6,102,5184,569,4204,818,5107,032,2784,944,176
Other countries....3,0243125,622
     Totals9,477,56110,419,88211,999,21011,813,0859,243,726
Sausage-casings.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom612,0071,506,0401,674,2481,023,109936,101
Canada1,497,355767,268635,6271,270,517974,155
Australia344,347190,169270,302281,721248,245
Germany260,085106,29186,096441,207390,704
United States of America1,768,3801,090,5261,105,2351,513,6101,974,103
Other countries2459575607,1201,175
     Totals4,483,0193,661,2513,772,0684,543,2904,530,543
Peas.
 Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.
United Kingdom94,61637,99571,904157,683181,040
Australia23,30524,11325,77417,48219,883
South African Union1,5832,7131,8535,4256,622
France721,0447611,090..
Germany..4361827817,281
Netherlands......10,63239,363
United States of America5,2042,0534 7425,0983,601
Other countries8154265981,025770
     Totals125,05568,780105,814199,810258,560
Apples (Fresh).
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom37,958,13242,781,57655,667,27044,668,44044,877,843
Canada522,47640,670606,6801,068,6802,052,280
Fiji93,783146,956131,65678,01885,584
Tonga6,69012,2239,9416,163236
Western Samoa10,8307,2288,89015,81011,843
France....1,129,960864,480..
Germany3,198,120..1,572,6401,134,4005,076,160
Netherlands3,462,0808,054,51823,0401,282,6004,088,040
Sweden......25,040..
Argentina....180,800....
Brazil1,045,600405,440..1,222,6801,121,600
Uruguay5,152,960466,2301,103,2801,744,720434,280
Hawaii2,000........
Other countries13,3661,6609,0797,92113,570
     Totals51,466,04951,910,55160,443,23652,418,95257,764,436
Seeds (Grass and Clover).
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom8,94312,0028,01745,04718,792
Canada3,1772,4471,3811,6031,814
Australia9,09412,83615,94419,47518,292
Denmark260145148201572
France234123626086
Germany2,0531,128108467259
Netherlands920155322445999
United States of America12,03611,8898,69112,8247,975
Other countries20143337325342
     Totals36,91841,15834,71080,44749,131
Gold.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom5,01782,130118,770130,895137,133
India77,622........
Australia40,32448,68773,54841,52930,024
United States of America10,82010,15525,0278,445..
Other countries....2051083
     Totals133,783140,972217,550186,977167,160
Silver.
Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom175163,284503,298388,604328,330
India495,012332,760......
Australia66,8273,77217,92922,65833,612
United States of America3,449l,625......
     Totals566,063551,441521,227411,262361,948
Kauri-gum.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom2,3801,8571,2521,5371,979
Canada12717216071136
Australia575391123149
Belgium21525411..
France806668146151
Germany637236248343
Italy....104955
Sweden..32211010
Japan1120262854
United States of America1,075734344866332
Other countries4........
     Totals3,8183,0582,0683,0893,209
Phormium-fibre.
Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom1,8384059151,840914
Canada168732014550
Australia2,3761,0382,0851,8572,607
Belgium93....10..
France127......15
Germany87..10205
Netherlands13525......
United States of America3,18523814956..
Other countries..515....
     Totals8,0091,7843,3753,8283,591
Timber (Sawn and Hewn).
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
United Kingdom77,251208,749288,814104,887572,434
Australia25,901,15816,842,83926,264,90532,85721,864
Fiji73,45533,23028,39732,85721,864
Pacific Islands (other than Fiji)645,300466,856699,687726,016729,881
Other countries....9,9029,53738,723
     Totals26,697,16417,551,07427,291,70525,840,05334,570,436

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30th JUNE.

New Zealand's exports consist almost wholly of seasonal products, and the calendar year splits the season in the case of most of the principal commodities. The largest item of export, wool, is sheared from the sheep in the early summer, and the wool-sales are held in December and January. Exports of any season's wool-clip are therefore divided between one year and the next in varying proportion. A favourable season or a sudden demand may cause a great increase of exports in the December quarter, with the result that the March quarter of the next year shows low figures. The wool trade invariably bases its calculations on each season's clip, not on calendar years.

The same argument holds good in the case of butter and cheese, which are almost wholly exported in December and March quarters. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, since this division is more suited to the seasonal production of main commodities.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE ( VALUES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.

Commodity.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
Butter9,918,26010,127,50710,897,89411,830,07010,025,121
Casein99,00564,74767,158141,408146,419
Cheese5,226,6004,570,1324,808,1484,732,0894,524,024
Fish56,52541,38156,272113,357133,125
Honey11,85214,80813,07921,66623,641
Beef, frozen384,419364,307630,781962,145848,159
Lamb, frozen6,523,5436,275,3830,222,5617,358,4358,832,289
Mutton, frozen1,810,7661,575,4771,266,3781,398,7091,905,414
Pork, frozen382,844246,045393,726950,1831,313,502
Meats, tinned134,91990,29686,518109,046154,984
Sausage-casings500,535302,433304,418544,620791,015
Milk, preserved23,06117,19239,77252,79596,284
Milk, dried290,116205,173316,703282,857271,985
Apples, fresh649,799758,016649,553723,264462,401
Peas61,06187,288117,359108,513113,575
Oats1,1111,1022,06573917,793
Wheat2296488,71450,14556
Hops8,2071,74627,98317,06632,048
Potatoes6,4406,0609,88718,1128,221
Live-stock61,06150,95265,61367,50495,714
Calf-skins163,567100,20096,178235,259175,655
Hides, horse and cattle298,166195,640241,105464,299375,142
Rabbit-skins130,25196,72568,887254,745232,903
Opossum-skins29,4299,02730966,45757,889
Sheep-skins, with wool234,818169,201268,481652,895306,671
Sheep-skins, without wool647,898604,742515,133760,310833,711
Wool6,195,1275,552,8856,703,35913,287,45S6,327,793
Phormium-fibre65,72431,32047,71445,44847,849
Seeds, grass and clover186,494137,52787,332151,045248,323
Tallow505,979450,936466,474487,819614,991
Coal131,29070,87253,49550,66159,035
Kauri-gum124,168107,23959,42286,81189,404
Gold519,795797,4761,199,0021,332,0491,385,119
Silver33,84042,39335,11939,70354,292
Leather7,60711,3888,3098,0952,078
Timber, sawn188,684229,172252,721239,547370,178
Other New Zealand produce662,493653,138700,888870,135840,28S
     Totals36,275,68334,059,99336,868,51048,516,17942,418,351

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE ( QUANTITIES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.

Commodity.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Buttercwt.1,808,2321,968,6862,430,2342,825,8892,575,595
Caseincwt.61,56834,44745,33254,73958,570
Cheesecwt.1,789,8711,623,4021,919,1551,992,2441,858,733
Fishcwt.19,22716,46523,28546,91554,931
Honeylb.356,476447,526469,336742,543806,267
Beef, frozencwt.280,929377,659674,386933,835754,797
Lamb, frozencwt.2,300,8172,502,6962,733,6142,548,8982,796,037
Mutton, frozencwt.1,188,1001,274,8101,081,611906,6231,043,925
Pork, frozencwt.136,005115,015200,288397,031485,677
Meats, tinnedcwt.37,48129,58932,94838,91253,797
Sausage-casingslb.3,846,8803,734,8704,289,7934,069,6354,444,016
Milk, preservedlb.1,053,265844,6422,221,5293,073,5086,044,432
Milk, driedlb.13,653,40711,405,77019,906,57514,115,56413,432,429
Apples, freshlb.52,599,51460,649,82351,925,10058,270,83437,291,154
Peascentals87,734112,475170,282182,680208,516
Oatscentals1,7561,9516,5311,90058,599
Wheatbushels541153705,580300,240178
Hopslb.197,71249,411697,349306,073516,002
Potatoestons9061,2022,0343,2561,250
Calf-skinsNo.676,683725,799735,0681,059,4501,126,938
Hides, cattle and horseNo.306,583305,087328,011470,331452,409
Rabbit-skinsNo.6,736,7616,062,2706,599,24712,237,72011,285,835
Opossum-skinsNo.96,19548,5111,747189,943209,031
Sheep-skins, with woolNo.1,603,5471,693,9122,783,1173,608,1522,239,801
Sheep-skins, without woolNo.8,397,07511,494,83412,769,4299,352,34411,808,250
Woolbales648,630661,991801,633822,396582,703
Phormium-fibretons3,2632,1024,3003,5003,598
Seeds, grass and clovercwt.44,58540,28234,91077,53580,936
Tallowtons23,86125,25326,51026,50729,434
Coaltons81,09543,36733,25038,77343,347
Kauri-gumtons2,6222,9541,1573,4163,354
Goldoz.126,816167,51S193,977172,197165,518
Silveroz.512,949584,705436,436406,655393,910
Timber, sawnsup. ft.16,827,13624,220,93027,499,94626,173,26139,794,879

RE-EXPORTS.

The forwarding trade of New Zealand has never at any time been of great significance. Re-exports consist partly of goods returned from New Zealand either as unsuitable or as finished with, though the bulk of the total amount is made up by various classes of machinery, hardware, metal manufactures, motor-vehicles, and also items such as apparel, books, tobacco, and spirits.

There is, however, a genuine entrepot trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is still comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands, which are treated as part of the Dominion, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

RE-EXPORTS(EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND.

 £
1914269,208
1915387,960
1916305,150
1917429,115
1918543,568
1919603,541
1920813,072
19211,213,002
19221,026,801
1923567,885
1924588,395
1925722,016
1926929,741
1927925,121
1928910,016
1929754,050
1930731,111
1931631,554
1932633,532
1933597,168
1934571,554

Re-exports of merchandise in 1934 were equal to 1.21 per cent, of total exports of merchandise for the year and to 2.22 per cent, of imports.

The destination of this re-export trade is shown in the following table:—

Country.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £££££
United Kingdom238,636194,153172,217157,610146,572
Canada10,39711,65415,01418,5494,201
Australia234,134228,493298,446278,684287,469
Fiji41,09529,01337,01839,06137,864
Tonga11,1467,5466,7374,7252,638
Western Samoa21,66615,01215,74313,65210,199
United States of America134,687108,68755,03154,68853,913
Society Islands1,3501,9543,0094,3213,931
Other countries38,00035,04230,31725,87824,767
    Totals (excluding specie)731,111631,554633,532597,168571,554

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The incidence of fluctuating prices over a number of years operates to render the currency aggregate of a country's trade of little value as an indicator of movement in the volume of trade—i.e., from a quantity point of view. Owing to the homogeneous nature of the bulk of the Dominion's exports it is, fortunately, possible in nearly every case to obtain the quantity exported as well as the value. By taking the prices of a selected base year or other period it is then possible to find what the value of the exports of each subsequent year would have been on the basis of prices ruling iii the base period. This method is used by the British Board of Trade, and also by the Australian Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics. and is especially suitable for application to New Zealand. In point of fact, 99 per cent, of the Dominion's exports can be treated quantitatively, leaving only 1 per cent, to be calculated pro rata.

In the following table the actually recorded exports (exclusive of specie and other re-exports) are shown for 1900 and for each of the last ten years. Values are also shown on the basis of prices ruling in 1900, and index numbers have been computed to show movement in the physical volume of exports of New Zealand produce, both for the total and on a per caput basis.

 Recorded Value.Value at Rates ruling in 1900.Index Numbers of Volume of Export.
Year.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 ££££  
190013,055,24916.2713,055,24916.2710001000
192554,521,03139.3923,879,28817.2618301061
192644,339,18331.3723,772,83116.8218221034
192747,571,23333.0725,695,95517.8619681098
192854,660,36538.0026,689,74618.3320441127
192954,176,01336.7827,490,07918.6721061147
193044,209,40629.6328,220,74818.9121611162
193134,319,24422.6728,549,65118.8721871160
193234,976,38722.9231,463,09220.6224101267
193340,408,75126.2637,425,92824.3328671495
193446,771,29330.1735,901,92123.1627501423

The effect of prices on the total value of exports is seen at a glance from the accompanying diagram showing the yearly movement since 1900. The curve representing values on the basis of prices ruling in 1900 may also be taken os representing the course of the volume of trade on a quantity basis.

The total volume in 1934 was 175 per cent, above that of 1900, and has been exceeded only in the record year of 1933. The per caput rate in 1934. representing an increase of 42.3 per cent, over 1900, was also the second highest on record.

It is necessary to observe that the foregoing table is expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and consequently, for certain uses, allowance must be made for changes in the external value of New Zealand currency, particularly the depreciation in relation to sterling. This applies also to the graph following. The index numbers quoted above are not affected in any way by exchange movements.

In order to show the effect of changes in price from year to year, and particularly in the latter years, the table following has been compiled by recomputing the values of each year's exports according to the prices of the previous year. In this way it is possible to compare succeeding years directly, instead of comparing each year with a given base. The method used is the same, except that the base is changed.

 Total Exports (New Zealand Produce).Effect of Price-changes.
Year.Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.
 ££££
192554,521,03151,384,8773,136,154..
192644,339,18354,690,306..10,357,123
192747,571,23348,094,196..522,963
192854,660,36549,091,4665,568,899..
192954,176,01356,465,248..2,289,235
193044,209,40655,655,835..11,446,429
193134,319,24444,630,116..10,310,872
193234,970,38738,128,569..3,152,182
193340,408,75140,999,141..590,390
193446,771,29339,039,1927,732,101..

The comparison of each year with the preceding year brings out the advantage or loss resulting from a rise or fall in prices. The gain shown represents the surplus value added by rising prices to the exports of any year, and, similarly, the loss shows how falling prices penalize New Zealand. Figures are in New Zealand currency, and, inter alia, reflect during the last four years the depreciation in relation to sterling and other currencies.

A study of the figures given in the Statistical Summary at the end of this book, and showing quantities and values of the principal commodities exported over a period of fifty years, will give a good idea of the relative effects of increased volume and of price-movements in the huge growth of external trade during the half- century as measured by the total value of exports.

The following comparison between the year ended 30th June, 1914, and the corresponding period—1934–35—is of interest as showing the influence of price variation on the most recent year as contrasted with the year preceding the war.

As mentioned earlier, June years are in many respects preferable to calendar years, as affording a comparison between one season and another.

  Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1935.
  Recorded ValueValue at Prices of 1913–14.
Commodity.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1914.In New Zealand Currency.Converted to sterling.In New Zealand Currency.Converted to Sterling.
 ££(N.Z.)£(Stg.)£(N.Z.)£(Stg.)
Butter2,197,77110,625,1218,521,64113,919,80211,164,115
Cheese2,317,9704,524,0243,028,3935,511,5214,420,393
Beef, frozen6.01,817848,159080,2471,080,300800,483
Lamb, frozen (whole carcasses)2,545,1758,832,2807,083,7416,107,2584,898,190
Mutton, frozen (whole carcasses)1,880,5831,905,4141,528,1951,080,0281,283,748
Pork, frozen5,8431,313,5021,053,4051,127,470904,202
Meat, preserved122,078154,984124,301101,080153,251
Sausage-casings132,038791,015634,807134,818108,128
Apples12,160402,401370,858301,238241,601
Hides310,995374,725300,540720,887582,083
Rabbit-skins90,350232,903180,843148,83S110,372
Sheep-skins (without wool)545,037833,711668,059880,788711,229
Wool8,202,1536,327,7035,075,0058,419,3826,752,578
Phormium-fibre576,09517,84038,37086,33069,240
Tallow711,858614,991493,240845,270677,035
Kauri-gum790,33880,40471,704273,081210,019
Cold1,485,9371,385,1191,110,905641,041514,855
Timber, sawn372,092370,178296,803200,646160,024
    Totals22,929,29030,734,24231,867,00342,203,41033,848,312
Other N.Z. produce1,383,4542,684,1092,152,730....
   Grand totals24,312,74442,418,35134,020,603....

In 1929–30, when the decline in prices had not attained such serious dimensions as regards New Zealand products, the recorded value of the commodities dealt with exceeded the value at 1913–14 levels by £9,985,967. Three years later the recorded value of these commodities exported was actually £8,880,425 below the figure it would have attained at 1913–14 prices; in 1934–35 the recorded value was £2,469,177 less than the total based on 1913–14 prices. The adjusted values afford a reliable comparison of the volume of exports, which has shown a progressive increase during the last four years, the volume in 1934–35 being 9 per cent, less than in 1933–34. and 84 per cent, greater than in 1913–14. The eighteen items utilized in arriving at the foregoing percentage comprise 94 per cent, of the total exports of domestic produce, and therefore may be taken as thoroughly representative of the whole. This growth in volume has been achieved in spite of an increase of over 400,000 in the consuming population of the Dominion, with little increase in the number of those engaged in producing the principal export commodities.

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS.

Trade with the Cook Islands and other islands annexed in 1901 is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the Dominion, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. Separate returns are made of the transactions between the Dominion and the annexed islands, and exports to the islands are summarized below:—

Year.Exports.
 £
1925.80,977
1926.84,573
1927.84,652
192892,184
1929.79,962
193078,512
193159,202
193256,599
193356,254
193454,261

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with Dependencies.

SUBSECTION C. — IMPORTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The value shown for all merchandise imported is the current domestic value in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus an allowance of 10 per cent, to cover freight, insurance, &c. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, in contradistinction to the practice in preceding Year-Books. In Subsection A will be found (in conjunction with export figures) a summary of import totals for recent years, expressed both in New Zealand currency and in sterling, together with a series of index numbers of the volume of import trade and of the value, expressed in terms of gold, sterling, and New Zealand currency. Import totals are exclusive of specie, except where the contrary is clearly stated. A decennial table of movement of specie will be found at the end of Subsection A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.

A classification of imports under five broad divisions is given in the following table for the last ten years. Taken in conjunction with a table based on the same classification which is given in the Exports subsection of this section, the figures show plainly how New Zealand's export trade is derived predominantly from the products of her primary industries, and her import trade consists very largely of manufactured goods.

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Bullion.Total Merchandise.
 ££££££
19258,555,8173,069,49040,413,659373,31913,47252,425,757
19268,471,7752,767,19338,190,328379,1543,31349,811,763
19277,541,3382,512,61334,462,816263,1582,74144,782,666
19287,152,7742,385,87635,001,157299,8474,44844,844,102
19296,635,6892,289,48339,496,050306,1077,14348,734,472
19306,066,5421,889,67336,121,373259,0952,97144,339,654
19314,453,2121,437,49520,460,797144,2502,39726,498,151
19324,180,2841,234,75419,072,507156,7521,70924,646,006
19334,016,8421,157,53220,257,535147,4032,05425,581,366
19344,510,4281,377,41025,241,859207,1312,72431,339,552

The principal groups of commodities imported are clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, motor-vehicles and accessories, chemicals and drugs, manures, and timber. The proportions of these imports have changed little for many years, except, that motor-vehicles and oils (including motor-spirits), although showing a marked decline since 1929, have increased very rapidly in post-war years.

The table which follows gives a classification adopted by the British Board of Trade. The grouping by countries is on the basis of country of origin.

IMPORTS, 1934.

United Kingdom.Other British Countries.United States of America.Other Foreign Countries.Total Merchandise.
* At face value.
 £££££
Grain and milled products52,238205,17648,81511,169377,398
Meat (including poultry and game)4817302891,302
Butter, cheese, and eggs7037..604771
Fruit (fresh and, dried)..513,660102,90659,449676,015
Sugar61616,54714,120571,969603,252
Tea..712,066..13,098725,164
Alcoholic beverages381,23260,07113994,494535,936
Tobacco319,36346,740190,4331,986564,522
Coal..98,355....98,355
Ores, concentrates, and scrap1,168202159562,341
Iron and steel— Pigs, ingots, &c.2,71021,970....24,686
Bars, rods, plate, sheet, &c.964,046229,1192,9545581,190,677
Other manufactures of iron and steel1,275,413378,031124,15093,1641,870,758
Agricultural implements and machinery55,86734,16240,74117,934148,704
Electrical machinery and apparatus746,675241,621292,61758,7301,339,643
Other machinery618,860135,997276,816141,2681,172,941
Motor-ears and parts thereof1,777,164792,431703,33218,8913,291,818
Other metals and metal manufactures382,560141,67520,77467,327612,336
Cotton, raw..........
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)614562..12,70113,877
Wool, raw2,87229....2,901
Yarns and threads323,58737,49155921,216382,853
Cotton piece-goods1,521,40113,03820,563148,2871,703,289
Woollen piece-goods656,3054,94710012,552673,904
Other piece-goods474,506205,93017,226424,8411,122,503
Other textiles (including apparel)2,028,535627,66147,969408,3263,112,491
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, &c.)286,76453,86115,43294,664450,721
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)19,221237,72450,37959,992367,316
Newsprint19,298271,573..8,508299,379
Seeds and nuts for expressing oil therefrom......10,50510,505
Oil — Petroleum, crude and refined83,53011,674863,099801,9111,760,214
Hides, skins, and furs, undressed7720,24354,78812,58487,692
Leather and manufactures thereof (including boots and shoes)311,275136,59139,90419,227506,997
Gold and silver bullion1,211647782842,724
Other merchandise3,482,1022,039,285814,9441,263,2367,599,567
Total merchandise15,789,7017,349,8523,749,5594,450,38031,339,552
Gold and silver coin*1,242,000......1,242,000

Since 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports have been compiled according to a statistical classification which assembles the items in well-defined classes as shown in the following table, where the imports for the year 1934 are given under the various classes:—

No.Class.Value in 1934.
* At face value
  £
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)178,965
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt2,377,058
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same829,667
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors584,559
VTobacco and preparations thereof564,522
VILive animals43,496
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs98,646
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres570,670
IXAApparel2,312,736
IXBTextiles4,537,095
IXCManufactured fibres470,859
XOils, fats, and waxes2,003,328
XIPaints and varnishes277,820
XIIStones and minerals used industrially117,701
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partly manufactured, and ores425,919
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines3,272,657
XVMachinery and machines2,619,775
XVlAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)151,609
XVlBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes251,825
XVIlATimber232,038
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures114,948
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials533,406
XIXAPaper1,032,849
XIXBStationery744,002
XXJewellery, time-pieces, and fancy goods462,864
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments540,114
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares1,313,107
XXIIBManures466,651
XXIIIAVehicles3,439,493
XXIIIBMiscellaneous771,173
 Total merchandise31,339,552
XIIISpecie*1,242,000

All of the thirty-one classes show increases as compared with 1933, the merchandise total for 1934 being £5,75S,186 greater than the previous year's figure.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.

The import trade of the Dominion, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is yet confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Canada. In the days of the first settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, tended to decrease steadily till from 60 per cont. in 1862 it fell to between 10 and 12 per cent., a figure which remained fairly constant until 1925, after which there was a progressive decline to less than 7 per cent, in 1929, since when the trend has been upward.

In the decade immediately preceding the war the United Kingdom supplied about 60 per cent. of the total imports. The proportion has fallen a good deal in recent years, as explained later. In the “eighties” and “nineties” the figure was, on the average, nearer 70 per cont. than 60 per cent.

The cause of this relative decline is to be found in the development of trade with other countries in recent years, particularly with the United States and Canada, and in a less degree with, Japan, and with France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands. Italy, Sweden, and other European countries. The United States was sending goods to New Zealand practically from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent., though the proportion maintained a steady increase for several years after the war, and, indeed, considerably surpassed its old level. In 1934 practically 12 per cent. of the total imports came from the United States, this, althought representing a slight increase over 1933, being considerably lower than the pre-depression proportion.

India captured the New Zealand jute-market in the early “eighties,” and since then there has been a regular import of corn-sacks, woolpacks, &c. In former times the colony imported its sugar from Fiji, but in late years Fiji has been largely supplanted by the Dutch East Indies and Cuba. Similarly, the import of tea from China has given way to imports from Ceylon.

The table which follows shows imports from each of the principal countries during the last twenty years.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF SHIPMENT.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 ££££££££
191510,927,1562,747,535797,810527,942408,6971,127,1592,600,248304,322
191613,601,2752,979,171757,286572,257366,7531,052,7543,969,925562,974
19178,647,3613,657,948757,041612,063353,6131,203,3723,900,658628,822
19188,89,6605,117,849930,964712,633319,498939,3414,980,7481,214,865
191911,496,5745,062,2931,622,234772,838383,209980,1867,576,3141,258,016
192029,767,24110,552,8672,386,915900,577725,2781,824,01211,100,2591,470,071
192121,257,6546,482,9891,687,595593,151316,8131,909,1027,746,457593,343
192219,246,5694,210,7051,545,037437,851499,7051,459,3454,948,778485,327
192323,991,1614,259,3232,930,626732,359701,665859,7576,696,723548,632
192424,904,1786,303,0733,909,152726,483822,987984,2747,551,357458,964
192527,232,3595,855,4893,906,152888,787836,4191,251,7978,626,959659,146
192624,286,6105,059,7793,430,988850,720857,011941,3209,729,251557,113
192722,678,5824,264,1752,721,812755,967840,865435,0347,827,755579,984
192822,489,7163,868,2813,237,750771,450843,685584,1827,958,761558,033
192923,675,4423,631,6254,774,493749,293899,828180,4929,073,268613,235
193021,938,7863,383,9433,971,400655,002723,925227,3577,714,785574,678
193113,834,7442,284,5071,335,978427,040672,539119,5044,057,022327,205
193212,906,4202,571,0801,098,210381,466383,629125,9513,380,898408,471
19333,504,2452,807,9211,258,311564,017543,547118,6862,782,533668,862
193416,152,7623,532,0682,088,132648,834582,358114,7943,547,446828,482

The figures given in the foregoing table are on the basis of country of shipment. From 1914 onwards, figures are also available showing countries of origin, and a supplementary table on this basis is now given. Both the foregoing and the succeeding tables exclude specie imported.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 ££££££££
191510,392,4071,986,174795,617546,540431,8181,120,3792,862,537348,671
191613,031,7082,067,179761,105588,196380,8481,050,0254,358,806616,903
19178,418,8752,636,149771,952646,196397,4191,198,5894,294,279693,808
19188,601,2654,043,383950,588729,419323,123935,8855,472,1221,266,410
191911,173,3223,903,9081,649,550787,669388,428977,3198,053,1271,313,205
192028,513,8128,623,6852,453,379940,569729,8931,818,52911,750,6901,522,675
192120,635,0575,459,5231,727,503607,926320,1881,906,0388,166,967603,275
192218,109,6863,293,6321,556,213441,581501,4191,448,9985,379,372504,955
192322,517,6953,653,4202,950,984742,551705,622853,1636,956,602560,064
192423,203,8255,651,0273,914,404741,202837,506970,3937,788,593496,835
192525,542,6525,248,9933,916,237912,741844,5961,239,4568,885,265693,632
192622,749,6964,625,2003,431,533861,578868,821892,89410,000,507582,352
192721,463,8343,869,2462,739,826759,829855,048424,7858,079,467591,963
192821,247,1113,499,1513,258,828782,144860,886571,7288,204,197576,495
192922,496,6383,258,7274,792,820766,756923,748174,8949,319,926625,714
193021,102,1163,023,0653,969,037665,428735,421209,6677,893,114589,413
193113,306,0012,073,3611,342,321429,132676,290112,9554,227,550332,281
193212,575,9542,368,2931,107,074389,443386,318116,6453,565,846476,758
193313,126,0322,576,0921,264,932576,915551,388106,0962,952,009075,571
193415,789,7613,238,1242,098,610667,552585,689103,1663,749,559836,595

Of the total imports of merchandise in 1934, the eight countries shown above supplied 86 per cent. on the basis of origin and 88 per cent. on the basis of shipment. Other countries which supplied more than one-half of 1 per cent. of the Dominion's imports in 1934 were—

 Imports according to
Country.Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
 Value.Per Cent. of Total.Value.Per Cent. of Total.
 £ £ 
Dutch East Indies1,376,5594.391,381,9744.41
Germany376,5921.20482,6441.54
Sweden228,0290.73243,3140.78
France185,7620.59240,8130.77
Nauru Island202,0090.64201,5900.64
Italy151,9570.48192,4320.61

About three-quarters of imports produced on the Continent of Europe are received direct, the balance coining mainly through the United Kingdom. Direct shipments from the United Kingdom in 1934 exceeded by £363,001 the imports of goods produced in that country. In view, however, of the considerable quantities of British goods that enter New Zealand by way of Australia it would not be correct to take that figure as fully measuring the re-export trade done by Great Britain in goods from abroad intended for the Dominion.

Australia acts as a re-exporting centre for a certain proportion of goods received from India and Ceylon. British West Africa and the British West Indies both produce more of the imports than they ship direct, The figures for Canada show a small balance in favour of goods of Canadian origin. Goods of United States origin exceeded direct imports from that country by £202,113 in 1934.

The following table shows for the last ten years the percentage of total imports (excluding specie) from each of the principal countries concerned.

IMPORTS (COUNTRY OK ORIGIN).

Country19301931193219331934
 %%%%%
United Kingdom47.5950.2151.0351.3150.38
Canada8.955.074.494.956.70
India1.501.621.582.262.13
Ceylon1.662.551.572.161.87
South African Union0.220.290.340.200.18
Australia6.827.839.6110.0710.33
Fiji0.470.430.470.420.33
Other British countries1.201.632.112.121.92
Totals, British countries68.4169.6371.2073.4973.84
Germany2.292.372.051.841.54
France1.431.351.200.960.77
Belgium1.061.200.800.670.44
Japan1.331.251.942.642.67
Dutch East Indies1.913.503.533.904.41
United States of America17.8015.9514.4711.5411.96
Other foreign countries5.774.754.814.964.37
Totals, foreign countries31.5930.3728.8026.5126.16

Prior to the war, imports from the United Kingdom represented about 60 per cent. of the total, and those of United Kingdom origin would appear on this basis to have been about 55 per cent. of the aggregate. The latter are now a little over one - half of the total. Since 1929 there has been a progressive increase in the proportion of United Kingdom goods, particularly motor-vehicles, and tires, tubes, and covers entering the Dominion. Although concerned mainly with hardware and soft-goods, the range of the trade is a very wide one indeed, covering practically the whole field of the Dominion's imports.

Ranking next to Great Britain in the list of exporters to New Zealand is the United States of America; of recent years imports from that source have accounted for one-fifth to one-seventh of the total. The highest percentage (20.08) was reached in 1926, the lower level of subsequent years being due to decreases in motor-vehicles and motor-spirits. Motor-spirits now make up the greater part of the total, motor-vehicles having undergone a pronounced decline since 1929 in favour of the United Kingdom. In 1929 the United States supplied (on a value basis) 41 per cent. of the motor-cars entering the Dominion, and 53 per cent. of the lorries, trucks, vans, and buses; in 1934 the corresponding percentages were 25 and 30 respectively. Important factors in the declining trade with the United States have been the high rate of exchange against New Zealand, particularly before the United States currency measures of 1933 and 1934, and the preferential tariff favouring importations of British goods.

Imports of Australian origin in 1934 were more than £650,000 greater than in 1933, Australia's share (on a percentage basis) of the total imports in 1934, being the greatest since 1924. There has been a considerable decline in hardwood timber and tobacco during recent years.

Imports of Canadian origin, after a temporary decline during the depression, have risen again with the marked improvement in the motor trade and the Canada-New Zealand Trade Agreement commencing in May, 1932 (vide next subsection).

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.

The table which follows shows by main countries of origin details of the principal imports into New Zealand during each of the last five years.

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.

Country of Origin.1930.1031.1932.1933.1934.
* Included with Turkey.
Confectionery.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom120,29364,02228,18125,11425,854
Canada33,9966,752102106302
Australia42,46835,29640,29936,32931,381
France6,5711,2433908091,132
Switzerland3,6341,383......
United States of America4,0922,537711710964
Other countries3,5981,490623757935
Totals214,652113,32370,30663,82560,568
Fruits (Dried).
South African Union29,00920,36530,95615,2674,612
Australia118,990152,407229,654137,374255,577
Iraq*31,85636,54230,69545,591
Turkey46,2688,8879,6369,57110,803
United States of America94,127102,49793,95785,27251,433
Other countries6,8543,0282,7332,3472,478
Totals295,248319,040403,478280,526370,494
Fruits (Fresh).
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
British West Indies......67,802
Canada12,2085,9092,3732,553851
Australia116,285120,056106,65745,90893,458
Fiji52,09847,85760,31374,96986,654
Norfolk Island1,87611,7632,409992..
Tonga..9110,2699,94115,503
Western Samoa46,78654,07426,70838,01248,698
United States of America87,34250,72120,58734,08051,473
Other countries5,9940,0615,4765,7971,082
Totals322,589296,532234,792212,258305,521
Sugar.
United Kingdom51546010,09010,57511,755
Australia8,9577,2137,4678,3487,773
Fiji147,82356,78852,17525,80111,241
Dutch East Indies113,734535,081485,699558,273526,421
Cuba262,627..90,21844,54345,539
Peru191,945..134814
United States of America58,74127,83622,39820,13430,634
Other countries6,5971,3684,6113,2873,773
Totals790,939628,746672,671671,009646,150
Tea.
Ceylon710,078654,689369,583529,276567,594
India24,53954,54743,41787,849144,472
China.4,5133,8333,4205,2446,321
Dutch East Indies2,2214271094044,110
Japan747522462,496
Other countries60....427171
Totals741,485713,571416,551623,246725,164
Tobacco and Preparations thereof.
United Kingdom551,755273,763262,672229,082319,363
Australia263,453171,654120,90369,84942,068
United States of America349,366227,862218,372218,939196,433
Other countries17,55211,0004,0115,3336,658
Totals1,182,126684,279605,958523,203564,522
Hosiery.
United Kingdom308,601238,128233,897197,096153,087
Canada144,28397,18382,05171,22186,180
Australia89010,38635,67035,92017,240
Czechoslovakia2,4671,3071,8114,3685,191
Germany10,5926,9694,0892,1454,955
Japan1,4802,8053,5128,8195,323
United States of America24,85618,8302,214408150
Other countries10,2922,529752264233
Totals503,461378,137363,996320,241272,359
Millinery.
United Kingdom198,100128,121104,60292,77491,079
Australia10,1973,8306,0288,28911,120
France16,8378,1066,6192,1103,896
Germany14,0316,4869,1605,1505,360
Italy42,95017,08310,6048,7745,179
Dutch East Indies9,0596,1003,9358661,635
Japan7,2464,9816,02410,57012,449
United States of America15,0753,7881,8568624,556
Other countries23,1158,5236,0818,34111,614
Totals336,610187,018154,909137,736146,888
Miscellaneous Apparel and Ready-made Clothing.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom1,673,9581,035,153768,251736,442789,464
Canada62,21834,82012,3346,9629,444
Australia15,93810,71817,83731,09543,064
Austria23,4087,0233,0883,5404,246
Belgium18,9306,1884,0743,3602,981
France82,06928,95812,6889,4687,933
Czechoslovakia21,3028,6244,7918,74615,195
Germany118,73751,23749,35159,86360,872
Italy42,43425,42520,19821,27527,006
Switzerland18,8557,1021,535724523
Japan29,83819,97927,01454,62350,218
United States of America64,36230,97512,2565,97819,031
Other countries10,4855,2423,3724,8416,224
Totals2,182,5341,271,444936,789946,9171,036,201
Boots and Shoes.
United Kingdom678,461336,207255,272249,200241,390
Canada215,30385,55494,03969,68875,350
Australia4,06023,39931,38447,32442,431
Malaya3,3855,82832,12316,448623
Japan1,4838,32524,44765,55156,032
United States of America48,82112,5978554268,074
Other countries17,58110,1029,45410,28510,902
Totals969,094482,012447,574458,922434,802
Miscellaneous Drapery.
United Kingdom509,593310,840303,820299,669355,716
Australia17,87911,6226,5643,4003,623
France22,51314,9528,7678,6949,366
Germany22,03116,32413,38911,36110,418
Switzerland46,30128,58219,94320,14917,236
China10,0718,0399,8105,2056,284
Japan3,6243,0933,21412,93915,188
United States of America17,0126,6584,0241,3321,364
Other countries24,75716,06816,7948,63318,986
Totals673,781416,178382,325371,382438,181
Cotton, Linen, and Canvas Piece-goods.
United Kingdom1,698,3931,148,3971,413,8611,499,3671,521,401
Australia11,8878,0265,1331,8878,567
Belgium53,16425,80826,43035,88034,143
France20,5778,8964,3581,8862,669
Germany12,5446,2552,5753,4148,274
Netherlands9,6953,4403,2541,3153,505
Switzerland7,5177,2911,6938,4634,367
Japan58,83024,68026,21762,65489,435
United States of America52,00725,45019,04715,61020,563
Other countries29,27213,0965,37211,01310,365
Totals1,953,8861,271,3391,507,9401,641,4891,703,289
Silk, &c., Piece-goods.
United Kingdom379,643257,314302,829303,840371,013
Australia4929,87518,91835,71768,047
Czechoslovakia23,90413,1865,7682,2761,665
France130,90487,62287,85354,04040,096
Germany42,06926,56921,39420,26923,542
Italy37,23523,39125,13325,14926,944
Switzerland79,03350,17426,88329,18012,553
China7,46014,9897,2777,80610,186
Japan316,034163,069230,132231,138294,273
United States of America26,77110,3816,2025,32510,414
Other countries21,8129,8938,04110,33816,981
Totals1,065,357666,463740,430725,078875,714
Woollen Piece-goods.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom586,305396,943441,655519,255656,305
France18,52010,5312,6541,115533
Germany27,91420,40011,6303,5997,749
Italy4,6996,5397,3579,2253,023
Other countries12,0295,8114,0442,7296,294
Totals649,467440,224467,340535,923673,904
Paints and Varnishes.
United Kingdom252,656143,226127,914141,758165,899
Australia37,34924,48932,21244,60467,110
Germany8,6425,3907,4458,1296,741
United States of America64,67429,25819,73315,50326,469
Other countries9,7046,3457,9569,06711,601
Totals373,025208,708195,260219,061277,820
Iron and Steel.— Bar, Bolt, and Rod.
United Kingdom195,04997,12762,29752,117100,025
Canada66,45711,864..7296,332
Australia1,35315,08645,98271,372159,033
Other countries1,2661,789835283646
Totals264,125125,866109,114124,501266,036
Iron and Steel.—Plate and Sheet.
United Kingdom773,087474,386414,480525,829677,648
Australia2755213569,37929,774
Other countries3,0287172,3042,2142,866
Totals776,390475,624417,140537,422710,288
Iron and Steel.— Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings.
United Kingdom389,289210,307214,930167,072255,402
Canada45,56711,83913,88622,10133,470
Australia2,9703,5302,1776,0706,205
United States of America14,1563,182838300582
Other countries11,5303,9472,8941,9183,933
Totals463,512232,805234,725197,461299,592
Artificers' Tools.
United Kingdom169,14393,03389,766100,510126,418
Canada28,41913,3278,79013,58124,134
Germany21,7318,5828,0189,26011,803
United States of America85,97229,31012,34610,51330,481
Other countries10,3126,5685,4146,2199,698
Totals315,577150,826124,334140,083202,534
Fencing-wire.— Plain and Barbed.
United Kingdom152,254116,545122,297105,203111,395
Canada32,6769,3614289,00813,871
Australia5892,71221,49031,51827,400
United States of America4,4127,735..5,44623,757
Other countries5,0259,8383,657210..
Totals194,956146,191147,872151,385176,423
Miscellaneous Hardware.
United Kingdom,535,766288,078252,286260,129342,726
Canada106,58813,63716,1516,8609,940
Australia23,98520,92518,02624,98250,639
Franco15,0137,8295,2245,5104,753
Germany49,91426,83721,39019,94418,043
Sweden11,8095,0635,9977,2269,981
Japan3141,2652,77811,46811,625
United States of America162,83255,79920,61115,18434,650
Other countries10,6295,6153,7514,7446,728
Totals916,850425,048346,214356,047489,085
Agricultural Machinery.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom84,90325,21835,62146,07455,867
Canada49,7837,0738,50920,63716,930
Australia7,5574,1275,34918,43917,219
France12,0694726251,7911,354
Sweden4,31714867410,79213,232
United States of America96,83413,04724,27336,14340,741
Other countries10,8202,4581,7892,8063,361
Totals266,28352,54376,840136,682148,704
Dairying Machinery.
United Kingdom24,58713,73543,75662,64467,774
Australia27,34917,00619,21719,04924,137
Denmark11,6871,6771,6366092,294
Germany21,2413,7913,2272,7485,749
Sweden91,50752,752111,32563,88940,252
United States of America19,6377,67510,9428,7687,254
Other countries2,0463,6091,8613,0712,392
Totals198,054100,245191,964160,778149,852
Electrical Machinery and Equipment (including Wireless Apparatus and Telephones and Accessories).
United Kingdom1,281,668819,036592,739582,941714,249
Canada167,68973,34646,97951,43875,937
Australia37,35549,47791,676140,183150,364
Belgium45,85010,4162,6801,1383,325
Germany35,20922,74917,79613,08213,779
Netherlands68,87323,93011,98411,10617,765
Sweden32,30172,5939,4357,8599,313
United States of America570,958327,184222,561200,754291,231
Other countries34,07515,76911,58116,75417,040
Totals2,273,0781,414,5001,007,4311,025,2551,293,003
Leather and Leather Goods (excluding Boots and Shoes).
United Kingdom223,380103,177107,465115,657109,902
Canada16,0476,1312,4821,5824,915
Australia30,08523,62639,67266,66486,290
Germany25,41611,2665,3173,4566,707
United States of America87,46452,23235,01821,13635,520
Other countries10,7494,3233,2045,3668,491
Totals393,141200,755193,158213,861251,825
Timber.
Canada79,04619,66411,49411,87025,113
Australia502,077105,84432,09591,635144,506
Sweden62,30837,36819,47830,15114,966
Japan63,75716,36114,30716,58127,885
United States of America212,09124,7406,3017,81516,041
Other countries10,1979,8402,6021,7803,527
Totals929,476213,81786,277159,832232,038
Earthenware, and Chinaware.
United Kingdom285,594169,149122,587117,155152,530
Australia2,1888208371,3031,854
Czechoslovakia4,6932,043442355339
Germany7,3053,134859787587
Japan9,4579,38711,23332,85927,560
Other countries3,0212,036999564527
Totals312,258186,574136,957153,023183,447
Glass and Glassware.
United Kingdom149,33790,34274,18772,985111,963
Canada4,1773,2701,0182,2403,657
Australia16,56811,55019,40730,86843,743
Belgium45,76217,37619,10318,30326,497
Czechoslovakia21,3079,3418,2019,67014,702
Germany21,66410,1604,3565,6567,583
Japan4,5943,0524,61110,9379,917
United States of America34,28523,2039,7559,14014,629
Other countries7,6094,0585,9996,3987,142
Totals305,303172,352146,637166,197239,833
Printing-paper,
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom273,830221,714224,522177,702167,802
Canada317,438250,373205,034242,553288,614
Finland1,7016002,8683,6576,024
Germany7,3788,0697,1305,9288,712
Norway3,6612,0945,10011,54811,442
Sweden5,5166,6185,2973,4023,728
United States of America26,55420,33616,2205,2696,988
Other countries5,1298,5443,7024,0845,515
Totals641,207518,348469,873454,143498,825
Paper, other than Printing.
United Kingdom264,933193,280206,565217,495253,094
Canada104,67675,15769,60477,89893,861
Australia7,3614,0344,2203,5075,941
Austria1,7391,0481,7134,2695,186
Belgium17,68710,1417,85116,0666,964
Finland1,2351,5926,3696,59410,113
Germany21,75416,58414,95920,43022,250
Netherlands17,2899,6758,6318,6549,911
Norway20,38112,04626,65122,49926,362
Sweden42,20527,21534,34937,83849,272
United States of America84,25361,62149,68236,95645,185
Other countries6,4733,3055,8286,0645,885
Totals589,986415,698436,422458,270534,024
Books, Papers, and Music.
United Kingdom376,585282,296255,143295,654311,913
Australia69,92345,71544,76254,42462,866
United States of America46,05441,21931,53427,04630,280
Other countries5,7174,2512,8763,2453,601
Totals498,279373,481334,315380,369408,690
Miscellaneous Stationery.
United Kingdom286,294178,693142,456180,366201,420
Canada16,3249,8663,6686,1758,473
Australia52,85337,05540,77455,97468,948
Germany18,71111,9028,5967,6307,337
United States of America75,54946,84637,98132,07732,168
Other countries15,8718,7717,68311,89116,966
Totals465,602293,133241,158294,113335,312
Fancy Goods and Toys.
United Kingdom195,861120,23980,56285,92789,615
Australia13,0225,8994,14913,63223,833
Czechoslovakia25,47119,66814,56610,71010,728
France48,33642,66844,57626,79420,397
Germany83,76137,85816,91117,63111,766
Japan18,09613,68212,31839,24539,939
United States of America24,97310,5333,7532,3994,337
Other countries21,20615,21811,17611,74712,791
Totals430,726265,765188,011208,085213,406
Motor-cycles.
United Kingdom130,07539,74316,46717,60523,708
Germany..32......
United States of America9,939236....871
Totals140,01440,01116,46717,60524,579
Motor-can.
United Kingdom588,252400,131389,893378,549960,455
Canada963,56855,17854,65677,940395,025
United States of America526,28368,74219,27823,959463,850
Other countries4,7114,385241250..
Totals2,082,814528,436464,068480,6981,819,336
Motor Lorries, Trucks, Vans, and Buses.
 £(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom128,84950,92999,147142,806249,517
Canada199,72614,8615,24615,95160,019
United States of America171,62439,54610,72625,910133,096
Other countries3,421264..478..
Totals503,620105,600115,119185,145442,632
Tires, Tubes, and Covers for Motor-vehicles.
United Kingdom330,313412,197571,670418,739419,410
Canada431,810130,42572,797141,121285,594
Australia4,7094,5056,41714,03112,922
France15,2486,2689,22311,4704,662
Italy14,99081358991309
Japan79..15612,8903,597
United States of America47,25513,5057,5527,78713,777
Other countries5281832064562
Totals844,932567,896668,079607,074740,333
Motor-spirit.
Dutch East Indies546,433259,626243,539289,269659,305
Russia522113,08536,792
United States of America1,635,3451,103,903983,495689,283385,146
Other countries23221031298161
Totals2,182,0151,363,7411,227,3481,091,7351,081,404

IMPORTS FROM COOK ISLANDS.

Trade with the Cook Islands is not included in the export and import totals for the Dominion, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows imports into New Zealand from the group. Further particulars of the trade of the islands will be found in the section dealing with Dependencies.

Year.Imports.
 £
1925126,465
1926115,391
1927111,095
1928119,521
1929124,043
1930122,156
193187,581
193289,136
193392,910
193477,018

The principal articles imported into New Zealand from the Cook Islands are as follows:—

Article.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Fruits, fresh—£££££
Bananas44,92136,17838,99829,90331,715
Oranges58,99036,08231,31849,52730,109
Tomatoes11,79410,93914,2767,19211,765
Other938791646385393
Coconuts1,057547425844779
Copra2,1733991,2541,295..
All other items2,2832,6452,2193,7642,257

SUBSECTION D.—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE.

THE TARIFF.

A SUMMARIZED historical account of the Customs tariff of New Zealand, setting forth the principal developments and changes from earliest times to 1930 will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. The tariff has now developed into a complex schedule of duties, and consideration of space prevents a detailed account of the rates of duty now levied on goods imported into New Zealand.

Briefly the Customs tariff has for its objects the following :—

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The encouragement of intra-Empire trade.

  4. The obtaining of revenue.

Under the Ottawa agreement of 1932, New Zealand, in common with the other Dominions, was committed to hold an inquiry into the tariff and, if necessary, to revise it in accordance with certain explicitly stated principles. New Zealand undertook to afford protection against United Kingdom products only to industries which are reasonably assured of sound opportunities for success and to grant protection on such a level as to enable the United Kingdom producer to compete on the basis of the relative cost of economical and efficient production.

As soon as possible after the Ottawa Conference dutiable goods the produce of the United Kingdom or of any British possession except Canada, Union of South Africa, Irish Free State, Newfoundland, or India, were exempted from the surtax on duty previously payable. Reductions were made in the rates of duty charged on confectionery, apparel, hosiery, and silk and artificial silk piece-goods, and additional preference to British countries was granted by the imposition of a duty or an increase in the existing rate on foreign cocoa-beans, raw coffee, cigars, rum, asphalt and bitumen, certain unground spices, and paper.

A Tariff Commission was set up in 1933 to inquire into the Customs tariff and to recommend for the consideration of the Government any alterations therein with a view to implementing the agreement made at Ottawa, and having regard, inter alia, to the financial, economic, and industrial conditions in the Dominion.

On the basis of the report of this Commission, resolutions amending the tariff were introduced on 10th July, 21st August, and 13th September, 1934, and ratified by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934.

Some of the principal alterations made to the British preferential tariff were:—

  1. Protective duties were abolished on: Certain stock foods; nails (as from 1st November, 1936); certain iron and steel pipes; linseed oil; white-lead ground in oil (as from 1st November, 1936); wireless sets in cabinets; maizena and cornflour in small packages.

  2. The protective duties were reduced on: Preserved and dried milk; baking powder; coffee essence ; confectionery; sauce; soap ; hats, caps, and millinery; boots and shoes; leather manufactures; glass bottles; oil engines; manufactured stationery; galvanized iron manufactures; metal office furniture; tinware ; furniture and upholstery; paints and varnishes; biscuits; plaster pulp sheets; polishes; apparel; whole maize; vinegar; cement; matches; furs and fur skins; floor-mats and floor-rugs of wool.

  3. The revenue duties were reduced on: Carpets; fancy goods; sporting requisites; jewellery; platedware; tobacco pipes; toilet preparations; pianos and other musical instruments; engines for tractors; cigarettes; table chinaware; oak timber; builders' and cabinetmakers' hardware.

  4. The protective duties were increased on : Maize, ground or crushed ; porcelain enamelled cast iron baths ; and household gas meters.

  5. Revenue duties were increased on : Cigarette papers.

  6. The protective duty previously payable on motor-car bodies was abolished, and the duties were amended to encourage the assembling of motor-vehicles in New Zealand by a reduction in the rate of duty on vehicles imported unassembled or completely knocked-down.

In addition to the ordinary rates of duty imposed on goods entering the Dominion, additional revenue has been obtained in recent years by a surtax on dutiable imports and a primage duty on goods otherwise free.

The surtax was imposed in 1930 in lieu of a primage duty of 1 per cent, or 2 per cent, ad valorem previously charged on practically all imports whether free or dutiable. This surtax was not, however, applied to dutiable goods of Australian origin, which continued to pay the primage duty of 1 per cent, or 2 per cent.

The rate of surtax was fixed at one-twentieth of the total duty otherwise payable on certain goods (e.g., spirits, tobacco, timber, sugar, motor-spirit), and nine-fortieths of such duty on all other dutiable goods, except wheat and flour, and some other lines which have since been exempted.

As stated above, surtax was not charged on goods the produce of the Unite Kingdom or any British country except Canada, Union of South Africa, Irish Free State, Newfoundland, or India, on and after the 14th October, 1932, and the primage duty payable on Australian goods in lieu of surtax was also removed as from that date.

A primage duty of 3 per cent, was charged, as from the 31st July, 1931, on imports from all countries which were otherwise free of duty. Certain specified items were, however, exempted from primage duty.

The following is a list of the principal items which are free of duty (and in some cases are also exempt from primage duty) under the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934 :—

Free in any Case.—Live animals ; barley (if to be used as stock-food); bran; pollard ; seeds; vegetable butters or fats; currants ; dates ; figs ; prunes ; glucose and caramel; nuts, except walnuts; rice; acids, other than acetic ; inorganic salts of metallic elements and many other drugs and chemicals; bags and sacks; wool-packs ; raw cotton; hatmakers' materials ; buttons; needles and pins; wadding; cotton piece-goods for meat-wraps and cheese-bandages; umbrella-makers' materials ; upholsterers' materials; coir, flax, and jute yarns ; grindery ; leather made from goat and kid skins ; japanned or enamelled leather ; bricks other than firebricks ; marble in the rough ; grindstones and whetstones ; cinema films (subject however to film-hire tax); bookbinders' materials; cardboard and similar boards; parchment and greaseproof paper; printed books, papers, and music; beekeepers' apparatus; percussion caps, detonators, and explosives ; hay-rakes, reapers and binders, mowers, and certain other agricultural implements ; dairying machinery ; sewing-machines ; iron and other metal in ingots, pigs, or billets ; fish and vegetable (other than linseed) oils; kerosene and other refined mineral oils other than motor-spirit; waxes; cork ; crude tanning materials; manures ; skins and hides.

Free if British, but dutiable if Foreign.—Bananas, oranges, mandarins, and grape fruit; raisins; infants' and invalids' foods; mustard; salt; cocoa-beans; raw coffee; sago and tapioca; maizena and cornflour; macaroni; acetic acid; cream of tartar; disinfectants ; chloroform and other anæsthetics ; antiseptics; manufactured dyes; most surgical, dental, optical, and scientific instruments and materials ; felt, cotton, linen, and canvas piece-goods ; silk and artificial silk piece-goods; leather-cloth ; oil baize ; sewing, &c, cottons and threads; elastics; plain tape; tailors' lining materials; cotton, silk, and artificial silk yarns ; plain tablecloths, towels, and similar plain articles; belting (other than leather): children's boots and shoes; gum boots; rubber hose; most rubber manufactures, except tires for motor-vehicles; sheet glass; lenses; watch-glasses ; pianos and other musical instruments: gramophone records ; artists' materials ; paperhangings ; sensitized surfaces ; waxed paper ; paper (other than wrapping) in sheets of size not less than 20 in. by 15 in., or in rolls; ball bearings; bolts and nuts; rivets and washers ; buckles ; chains ; fire-engines, fire-extinguishers, and other fire-extinguishing appliances ; adding and computing machines ; typewriters; most electrical apparatus ; measuring, testing, &c, appliances ; sheep-shearing machines ; tractors ; artificers', &c, tools; machine tools and machinery peculiar to industrial processes; iron and other metal in bars or sheets ; wire and wire netting ; metal cordage; rails for railways and tramways ; under-carriage springs and metal fittings for vehicles ; asphalt and bitumen ; table chinaware.

An indication of the incidence of Customs taxation on various classes of commodities imported will be found in the last two columns of the table on page 750, where the Customs duty collected in 1934 on thirty-one groups is distinguished as a proportion of the dutiable imports and total imports.

It is impossible to give any account of the range of duties payable on all of the numerous tariff items, but the duty on some of the principal commodities in general use is mentioned hereunder. It should be noted that, in addition, surtax or primage may also be payable.

Wheal and Flour.—A sliding scale of duty was provided in 1927 in the case of wheat and flour. The duty on wheat is (from the 1st March, 1932;, 8d. per bushel (of 60 lb).) when the current domestic value at the port of export to New Zealand is 5s., the duty falling by ½d. for every ½d. by which the value rises, and vice versa. The standard flour duty is £1 12s. for a £13 ton (2,0001b.), the rate moving up or down by 1s. inversely to price changes of the same extent.

Tea.—Tea in bulk, when of British origin, was placed on the free list as early as 1907, when the duty on foreign tea was fixed at 2d. per lb. In 1917 a duty of 3d. per lb. was imposed on British tea, the foreign rate being increased to 5d. per lb. British tea in bulk was again placed on the free list in 1923, and the duty on foreign tea reduced to 2d. Rates of 3d. and 5d. per lb. respectively have been reinstated from 31st July, 1931.

Sugar.—Sugar also was placed on the free list in 1907, prior to which the duty was ½d. per lb. Refined sugar of foreign origin was charged ½d. per lb. under the 1921 tariff, the rate being altered in 1923 to 5/16 d. and in 1924 to ¼d., irrespective of origin. The duty on refined sugar was increased to ¾d. per lb. in 1931 ; and raw sugar, which is imported for refinement at Auckland, was made dutiable at ½d. per lb., or, alternatively, ½d. per lb. excise duty on manufacture. An additional ½d. per lb. on both refined and raw sugar was imposed as from 9th February, 1933.

Tobacco.—The present duties on tobacco are as follows: Cigarettes, exceeding in weight 2½ lb. per 1,000, 10s. 6d. per lb.; cigarettes, not exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 25s. 6d. per 1,000. Cigars, 12s. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 16s. under the general tariff. Manufactured tobacco, cut, 6s. 10d. per lb. and plug, 6s. 8d. per lb. Unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of cigarettes, 3s. per lb.; and unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of tobacco, cigars, or snuff, 2s. per lb. A duty of ½d. British preferential tariff or ¾d, general tariff is now levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof. The excise duties on tobacco. &c, made in New Zealand are shown later under “Excise Duties.”

Alcoholic Beverages.—The rate of duty payable on most beverage spirits is 40s. per proof gallon, except rum of foreign origin, dutiable at 44s. per proof gallon.

Sparkling wine is liable to a duty of 10s. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and 15s. under the general tariff, and still wines to 4s. and 6s. respectively.

The present duty on imported beer is Is. 9d. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and 3s. under the general tariff. The excise duty on beer of local origin is given under “Excise Duties.”

Timber.—Certain types of special timbers and Australian hardwoods, if imported in logs, or rough sawn or rough hewn, are admitted free. Oak timber is from of duty under the British preferential tariff, and dutiable at 6s. per 100 sup. ft. under the general tariff. Other kinds of timber, such as Delias fir (Oregon pine), redwood. Baltic pine, are subject to the following rates: Logs, round, unworked, 25s. per 100 cubic ft; rough sawn or rough hewn, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. per 100 sup. ft. under the British preferential tariff, and 9s. 6d. or lis. 6d. under the general tariff; dressed, 19s. per 100 sup. ft. British preferential tariff and 21s. general tariff.

Motor-vehicles.—-Motor-vehicles imported in an unassembled or completely knocked-down condition are dutiable at 5 per cent, under the British preferential tariff and 50 per cent, under the general tariff. Chassis for electrically propelled motor-vehicles are free if British and dutiable at 20 per cent, if foreign. Other kinds of motor-vehicles are subject to a duty of 15 per cent, if admissible under the British preferential tariff and 60 per cent, if liable to the general tariff.

Tires for Motor-vehicles,—Previously dutiable at 10 per cent, ad valorem under the British preferential tariff and 40 per cent, under the general tariff, these were in 1934 made subject to a duty based on the weight of the tires. Pneumatic rubber tires for motor-vehicles, inner tubes of rubber therefor, and moulded rubber strip for repair of such tires are now dutiable at 2½d. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 8d. per lb. under the general tariff. Solid rubber tires are liable to a duty of lb. per lb. and 4d. per lb. under the British preferential and general tariffs respectively. The duty on tires is earmarked for the maintenance of highways.

Motor-spirits.—Towards the end of 1927 the Motor-Spirits Taxation Act of that year imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (increased in 1930 to 6d.) on motor-spirits. The proceeds of this tax were devoted to roading purposes. In 1931 and 1933 an increase in duty of 2d. per gallon in each year was made, making the total duty on motor-spirits 10d. per gallon, plus a surtax of ½d. per gallon on foreign. The proceeds from 6d. per gallon of this tax is earmarked for roading purposes, and the balance (4d. per gallon and surtax) is levied for general purposes and remains in the Consolidated Fund.

EXCISE DUTIES.

An important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3¾d. per gallon when the specific gravity did not exceed 1,047, and increasing by 1/16 d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 4055, and by ⅛d. thereafter. On the 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3¾d. to 4¾d. per gallon, and further (on the I.5th September, 1917) to 5¾d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon. In 1921 a rate of ll½d. per gallon.(increased to Is. in 1930, and to Is. fid. in 1931) was imposed where the specific gravity of the worts used does not exceed 1,047, the rate being increased by 1/16 d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047. The basic rate of excise duty on beer was reduced from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 3d. per gallon by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Cut tobacco is now charged an excise duty of 4s. 6d. per lb.; other kinds,. 4s. 4d. per lb. Cigars and snuff pay 4s. per lb., and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand is 13s. 6d. per 1,000 on cigarettes under 2½lb. per 1,000, and 5s. 6d. per lb. on cigarettes over 2½ lb. per 1,000. Imported leaf tobacco used in the manufacture of tobacco, &c, in New Zealand pays on importation a duty of 3s. per lb. if for the manufacture of cigarettes, and 2s. per lb. if for tobacco, cigars, or snuff. An excise duty of ½d. is now levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1931, imposed an excise duty of ½d. per lb. (increased to Id. per lb. from 9th February, 1933) on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has since 1921 been provided on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are : On alcohol used in the manufacture of perfumed spirits, 36s. per gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s. ; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent, of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon. In similar preparations containing less than 50 per cent, the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.

The Gold Duty Act of 1858, amended from time to time, first imposed an, export duty on gold. Under the Gold Duty Abolition and Miniug Property Rating Ant of 1890, the export duty on South Island gold was replaced by a system of rating mining property. The consolidating Gold Duty Act of 1908 maintained an export duty of 2s. per ounce of 20 carats fineness on gold produced in or exported from the North Island. A further export duty of 6d. per ounce (on gold of New Zealand origin only, and exclusive of gold produced by alluvial or dredge mining) was levied by the Mining Act of 1926, and this additional duty applied also to South Island gold. The Customs Acts Amendment Act passed in February, 1933, imposed an additional export duty of 12s. 6d. per ounce troy weight of gold of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards, and covered all gold, with certain minor exceptions, wherever produced or exported. Provision was made for reduction, by Order in Council, of the rate of duty in the event of a reduction in the value of gold in New Zealand.

An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pino and kauri) by Acts-of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The rate is 3s. per 100 superficial feet for flitches, and 5s. per 100 superficial feet for logs.

Analogous to export duties are the levies imposed on meat, dairy-produce, and honey exported. The proceeds (less expenses of collection) are, however, handed over to the respective Boards set up to control the export, &c, of these commodities in the interests of the producers.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.

In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties produced a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it does to-day. Down to the outbreak of the Great War there was a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the taxation legislation of the war period temporarily accelerated the movement. The proportion rose after 1921–22, but did not regain its pre-war level, and is now falling again. The figures for the last twenty years are as follows:—

  Customs and Excise Duties.
Year ended 31st March,Total Taxation.Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 ££Per Cent.
19167,266,9603,524,06348.49
191710,549,6544,037,62838.27
191812,340,8533,601,38329.18
191913,801,6434,104,01629.74
192016,251,7695,185,72831.91
192122,184,4148,769,25139.53
192216,370,5165,554,33433.93
192315,715,3806,644,42042.28
192416,540,4387,870,30947.58
192516,549,6098,187,27349.47
192617,254,6888,974,23552.01
192717,437,8278,826,28750.62
192817,145,1458,501,24549.58
192917,832,0338,565,73648.04
193019,471,1319,517,35948.88
193118,878,2858,181,07643.34
193217,405,6226,545,42337.61
193319,703,7036,785,64134.44
193421,470,8277,140,47833.26
193524,737,9398,094,60532.72

The figures for Customs and excise duties from 1922–23 onwards are exclusive of tire-tax, and for 1927–28 and subsequent years the highways proportion (6d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits tax—two classes of duties collected through the Customs for road-maintenance purposes, and included in total taxation.

In the foregoing table the financial year has been taken for purposes of comparison with total taxation, figures concerning which are not available for calendar years. In subsequent tables the Customs-taxation figures relate to the calendar year, which is the statistical year for most trade purposes.

In the two tables which follow the figures do not include taxes for highway purposes, excise duties, or export duties, and are also exclusive of surtax, primage, and depreciated-currency duties for the years during which these have been in force.

Year.Foods and Nonalcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.Total.
Amount of Duty collected.
 £££££
1911147,456682,7101,286,6011,048,8903,165,657
1916170,009985,3351,390,3221,036,2273,581,893
1921237,8781,297,1211,930,8981,826,3575,292,254
1926389,6861,760,4082,679,0803,102,6237,931,797
1930322,6451,599,2312,253,8662,706,6406,882,382
1931366,709981,1391,780,3051,360,4244,488,577
1932314,125900,4301,561,8151,423,8724,200,242
1933357,157721,0501,463,8091,834,7634,376,779
1934310,476780,1491,404,2812,471,9395,026,845
Percentage of Total Duty collected.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19114.6621.5740.6433.13100.00
19164.7527.5138.8128.93100.00
19214.4924.5136.4934.51100.00
19264.9122.1933.7939.11100.00
19304.6923.2332.7539.33100.00
19318.1721.8639.6630.31100.00
19327.4821.4437.1833.90100.00
19338.1616.4733.4541.92100.00
19346.1815.5229.1349.17100.00

The Customs and excise duties receiver during the last five years are shown in more detail in the next table. Primage duties and surtax are included, out not tire-tax, or the highways proportion of petrol-tax, which do not really represent Customs taxation though for the sake of convenience collected through the Customs on imported commodities.

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* Includes duty on motor-spirit, £1,033,574.
Customs Duties.£££££
Spirits1,069,858767,648653,212641,707658,348
Wine48,42031,16324,42126,81931,679
Beer7,6304,0462,6762,4372,584
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff568,112430,709338,822279,407332,127
Tobacco555,008539,970536,214507,080433,532
Tea1,53648,765123,592137,793124,065
Other goods by weight216,688225,749147,021124,074 
Other goods ad valorem4,024,3812,164,9881,766,3091,526,4043,444,510*
Other duties390,749275,539607,9751,131,058
Primage461,864111,050251,214234,731276,060
Depreciated currency and dumping duties..2727,29349457
Surtax431,857682,611577,164308,589421,542
Totals, Customs duties7,776,1035,282,5105,035,9134,920,5935,724,504
Excise Duties.     
Alcohol used in perfumed spirit, &c.—New Zealand18,46917,45818,71317,73022,886
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff— New Zealand manufactured268,331292,659271,159317,172257,201
Tobacco—New Zealand manufactured140,083245,607439,882516,406645,818
Beer—New Zealand598,304602,944665,655647,119673,788
Sugar..67,095318,155595,207664,433
Totals, excise duties1,025,1871,225,7631,713,5642,093,6342,264,126
Revenue per head :—£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
From Customs duties5 4 23 9 103 6 03 4 03 13 10
From excise duties0 13 90 16 21 2 51 7 31 9 2
Totals5 17 114 6 04 8 54 11 35 3 0

The following table furnishes a general view of the ratio of Customs revenue to merchandise imports since 1895, which is taken as the year—

 Merchandise imports.Revenue  
Year.Value.Value per Head.Amount.Actual Value per Head.Value per Head at 1895 Ratio.Percentage of Revenue to Total Imports.Index Numbers of Customs Revenue compared with Imports.
 ££sd.££s.d.£s.d.Per Cent. 
18956,115,9538671,619,97024124126.491000
190010,207,326121462,170,354214137421.26803
190512,481,178131342,652,6662181312421.25802
191016,748,223161112,954,989216945217.64666
191520,658,720171963,190,8832156415215.45583
192061,553,8534910117,953,477697135612.92488
192552,425,757371748,287,2885199100715.81597
193044,339,654291407,776,103542717417.54662
193126,498,151171025,282,5103910412919.94753
193224,646,00616305,035,91336045720.43771
193325,581,366161274,920,59334048019.24726
193431,339,55220445,724,5043131057018.27696

The figures given in the column “Value per head at 1895 ratio” indicate the amount of revenue per head of population which would have been obtained had the same ratio of Customs taxation been levied as prevailed in 1895.

Substantial reductions in the scale of duties were responsible for the sharp fall in the percentage of revenue to imports between 1895 and 1920. The percentage rose again after 1920, due partly to heavier taxation and partly to a rise in the proportion of imports from foreign countries. To some extent also the position is affected by a change from the 1st April, 1926, in the system of computation for British preference purposes in the case of articles only partly manufactured in British countries. Allowance must be made over the last three years for the case of sugar, on which excise duty is now paid under the alternative provisions of the tariff, whereas formerly this considerable item was included in Customs revenue.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

At the present time nearly one-half of New Zealand's imports are admitted free of duty.

The figures given in the following table are exclusive of specie, which is admitted free. Imports free of duty include items otherwise dutiable but admitted free for Government use, &c.

 Value of Merchandise Imports.Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
       Percentage of
Year.Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.Amount.Dutiable Imports.Total Imports.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
192524,834,72527,591,03252,425,75747.3752.638,287,28830.0415.81
192622,255,76527,555,99849,811,76344.6855.328,398,53730.4816.86
192718,788,51725,994,14944,782,66041.9558.058,110,49731.2018.11
192820,154,61724,689,48541,844,10244.9455.067,648,74730.9817.06
192920,886,79827,847,67448,734,47242.8657.148,582,39330.8217.61
193020,255,01924,084,63544,339,65445.6854.327,776,10332.2917.54
193112,306,83914,191,31226,498,15146.4453.565,282,51037.2319.93
193211,634,88313,011,12324,646,00647.2152.795,035,91338.7120.43
193312,424,19813,157,16825,581,36648.5751.434,920,59337.4019.24
193415,019,01716,320,53531,339,55247.9252.085,724,50435.0818.27

The next table gives for 1934 detailed figures arranged according to the statistical classification, for the key to which reference should be made to p. 221. The main features of the table are the overwhelming proportion of dutiable goods in the classes covering alcoholic beverages, tobacco, foodstuffs of animal origin, paints and varnishes, vehicles, and apparel, and the high proportion of free goods in non-alcoholic beverages, live animals, animal substances other than foodstuffs, manufactured fibres, stones and minerals (mainly coal), jaw metals, paper, and manures.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

 Value of Merchandise Imports.Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
       Percentage of
Class No.Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.Amount.Dutiable Imports.Total Imports.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
I8,025170,940178,9654.4895.5228,82516.8616.10
II1,146,4091,230,6492,377,05848.23:51.77147,04711.956.19
III47,802781,865829,6675.76;94.24134,60417.2216.22
IV18,583565,976584,5593.1896.82698,622123.44119.51
V22564,500564,522..100.00765,659;135.64;135.52
VI43,496..43,496100.00........
VII95,3643,28298,64696.673.333,811116.123.86
VIII452,024118,646570,67079.2120.7920,71317.463.63
IXA410,8121,901,9242,312,73617.7682.24457,40224.4819.78
IXB2,493,8422,043,2534,537,09554.9745.03322,74715.807.11
IXC418,68052,179470,85988.92:11.088,48516.261.80
X630,1941,373,1342,003,32831.4668.541,142,33383.1957.02
XI104,506173,314277,82037.6262.3825,97714.999.35
XII108,6219,080117,70192.297.711,62117.851.38
XIVA424,8521,067425,91999.750.2513212.370.03
XIVB2,476,639796,0183,272,65775.6824.32144,45418.154.41
XV1,612,2111,007,5642,619,77561.5438.46180,40717.916.89
XVIA139,58512,024151,60992.077.932,35119.551.55
XVIB116,540135,285251,82546.2853.7223,11117.089.18
XVIIA147,40384,635232,03863.5336.4723,06327.259.94
XVIIB38,92076,028114,94833.8666.1419,75025.9817.18
XVIII298,575234,831533,40655.9844.0252,87422.529.91
XIXA911,323121,5261,032,84988.2311.7717,35114.271.68
XIXB519,514224,488744,00269.8330.1749,00621.836.59
XX1,748461,116462,8640.3899.62109,04023.7823.69
XXI465,19674,918540,11486.1313.8711,44815.282.12
XXIIA834,142478,9651,313,10763.5236.48102,86621.487.83
XXIIB466,651..466,651100.00........
XXIIIA103,2793,336,2143,439,4933.0097.00478,54714.3413.91
XXIIIB484,059287,114771,17362.7737.2353,99918.817.00
Primage and surtax..........697,659....
     Totals15,019,01716,320,53531,339,55247.9252.085,724,50435.0818.27

RATES OF DUTY.

The table on the next page shows imports in 1934 according to the nature or rate of duty. The rates shown are exclusive of primage and surtax.

During that year a duty of 40 per cent, was paid on motor-vehicles imported from foreign countries, 10 per cent, or 20 per cent, on those from Canada, and 10 per cent, on those from other British countries, with, in the main, additional body duties of 16¼ per cent., 11¼ per cent., and 11¼ per cent, respectively on the first £200 value of the vehicle, and 8¾ per cent., 6¼ per cent., and 6¼ per cent. respectively on the remainder of the value. Where additional body duty was payable, the whole of the imports of British origin, other than those from Canada, have been treated for the purposes of this table as being subject to 21¼, per cent. duty, those from Canada to 21¼ or 31¼ per cent, duty, and those of foreign origin to 56¼ per cent. duty.

Nature of Duty.United Kingdom.Other British.Foreign.Totals.
 ££££
Free (excluding specie)8,356,7204,348,4202,313,87715,019,017
Specific duties1,668,7511,528,5832,549,8105,747,144
Ad valorem duties—    
  5 per cent.21829,1489,65039,016
 101,511,021416,083351,5692,278,673
 15 per cent.153,08899,604652,754905,446
 20 per cent.3,048,079456,239125,4493,629,767
 25 per cent.1,045,443160,385460,9751,666,803
 30 per cent.5,80529,26731,16266,234
 31¼ per cent...124,412..124,412
 32½ per cent...86,180..86,180
 35 per cent...71,47782,102153,579
 40 per cent.6365439,34549,935
 45per cent.....438,939438,939
 50per cent.....429,931429,931
 55 per cent.....696,285696,285
 60 per cent.....18,08618,086
 65 per cent.....55
Totals ad valorem5,764,2901,472,8493,336,25210,573,391
Total merchandise imports15,789,7617,349,8528,199,93931,339,552

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.

Preference to British countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand—that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since 1922, and with Canada since 1932.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items. The effect of the 1921, 1927, 1930 and 1934 tariffs has been to widen the disparity in the duty as between goods of British and of foreign origin. Under the Ottawa agreement, New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods when the margin of preference did not exceed 20 per cent., and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent, without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom. In the tariff of 1934, where reductions in duty were made under the British Preferential Tariff, the rates of duty under the general (foreign) tariff were, except in a few cases, retained.

The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufactures of countries the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:—

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries :

  2. Goods wholly manufactured within such countries from materials produced in such countries:

  3. Goods manufactured within such countries in which all manufacturing processes are performed in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and (or) from one or more of the partly manufactured raw materials, not produced in such countries, which are enumerated in regulations.

  4. Goods partially produced or partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in materia] produced in such countries and (or) labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

Prior to the 1st April, 1926, the minimum mentioned in paragraph (d), which is now one-half, was one-fourth.

In the calculation of the proportion of produce or labour none of the following items is to be included or considered:—

  1. Manufacturer's profit, or the profit or remuneration of any trader, agent, broker, or other person dealing in the article in its finished condition ;

  2. Royalties;

  3. The cost of outside packages or any cost of packing the goods thereinto ;

  4. Any cost of convoying, insuring, or shipping the goods subsequent to their manufacture.

Tea to be entitled to be entered at British preferential rates must be grown in some part of the British Empire, and the final process of manufacture must also be performed in some British country.

As explained later, certain imports from Australia pay more than corresponding items from other British countries, while, from June, 1031, to 24th May, 1932, the bulk of imports of Canadian origin paid the general rate of duty.

The following table shows the extent of the imports which are affected by preference, by giving the percentage of the total imports and of foreign imports so affected. The proportions increased generally after the tariff changes of 1907, 1917, and 1921. The effect of any change in this direction under the 1927 and 1930 tariffs is hidden, owing to the falling-off of imports, particularly in motor-vehicles—an important item subject to the preferential surtax.

YearValue of Merchandise Imports.Imports on which Preferential Surtax payable.Percentage of
Total.Of British Origin,Of Foreign Origin.Total Imports.Foreign Imports.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
192552,425,75738,231,62614,194,1318,118,83815.4757.21
192649,811,76333,995,94115,815,8228,750,17817.5355.33
192744,782,66630,717,28114,065,3857,504,47416.7653.35
192844,844,10230,768,02514,076,0777,461,96316.6353.01
192948,734,47233,031,46415,703,0088,437,21717.3053.73
193044,339,65430,317,84714,021,8076,648,14215.0047.41
193126,498,15118,401,8878,096,2643,097,99511.6938.26
193224,646,00617,510,3177,135,6892,388,1189.6933.47
193325,581,36618,759,0066,822,3602,573,64510.0637.72
193131,339,55223,139,6138,199,9393,778,15512.0646.08

For the purpose of studying better the scope and effect of the preferential surtax, imports for 1934 are classified in the next table into four groups:—

United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.
 £££
Free in any case2,279,2861,859,0112,313,877
Free when of British origin, but dutiable when of foreign origin6,077,4342,489,4091,731,941
Dutiable with same rates whether of British or foreign origin717,515269,6272,107,907
Dutiable with a lower rate of duty when of British origin6,715,5262,731,8052,046,214
Totals15,789,7617,349,8528,199,939

Of foreign goods imported in 1934, 28 per cent, were free of duty, as compared with 58 per cent, in 1921. A further 26 per cent. (7 per cent, in 1921), although dutiable, paid no higher rate than if they had been of British origin. This leaves 46 per cent. (35 per cent, in 1921) with the disadvantage of the higher rate of duty applicable to foreign goods. Of the total imports of British origin in 1934, 55 per cent, were classified as free. Of goods of United Kingdom origin, 53 per cent. were free.

RECIPROCITY WITH SOUTH AFRICA.

As stated above, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with British South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was revised in 1922, the duties on wines being increased and tobacco being deleted from the list. A further alteration, whereby maize and dried apples were deleted from the list, was made in 1925.

The main items of import benefited by the reciprocal arrangement are dried apricots and peaches and wine. The former pay no duty under the reciprocal tariff, as compared with 2d. under the general tariff. Sparkling wine is admitted at 9s. 6d. per gallon, as against 15s. under the general and 10s. under British preferential rates. On still wine the rate is 3s. 6d. per gallon, as compared with 6s. under the general and 4s. under the British preferential tariff. Other items specially provided for are feathers, fish, fresh fruit, and tea ; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits and tobacco, a reduction of 3 per cent, of the duty.

The following table shows the merchandise trade with South Africa during the last ten years :—

Year.Merchandise Imports.Merchandise Exports to South Africa.
From South Africa.Of South African
 £££
1925104,520113,95019,306
1826121,240140,02131,540
1927119,305122,59731,251
192899,054104,04364,892
192998,839100,98851,707
193091,69396,03215,589
193176,20176,7578,052
193284,83284,66712,120
193348,79150,64614,427
193455,17456,09229,152

The imports of merchandise of South African origin during the last five years are classified into four divisions in the following table :—

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £££££
Special reduction or remission of duty39,89226,82634,93521,10112,536
Reduction of 3 per cent, in duty22,75119,77122,55417,47525,512
No reduction3,6364,9012,3323,0754,134
Free under general or British preferential tariff29,75325,25924,8468,99513,910
Totals96,03276,75784,66750,64656,092

Of commodities specially provided for in the reciprocal tariff, dried apricots represented £4,522 in 1934, other dried fruits £90, and wine £7,924. Bark and other tanning materials (£10,484) accounted for the great bulk of the £13,910 free imports other than under the reciprocal tariff.“Precious stones” is the principal item in the category “reduction of 3 per cent.,” the 1934 figure being £24,901.

RECIPROCITY WITH AUSTRALIA.

A trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand was first entered into on the 11th April, 1922. Under this agreement each country granted to goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods on which special rates were fixed.

During 1933 a Minister of the Commonwealth Government visited New Zealand to discuss the commercial relations between the two countries. A provisional agreement was reached in April, 1933, and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act, 1933. The new agreement came into operation from 1st December, 1933.

Under the agreement lower duties than those under the British preferential tariff on New Zealand products entering Australia are provided for on many lines, the chief of which are: Stilton cheese; fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; bay; chaff; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne-seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor-rugs ; various agricultural and dairying implements ; whale-oil; casein; sugar of milk ; and timber.

Duties lower than those under the British preferential tariff in force in New Zealand at the time of the agreement were granted on certain lines of Australian goods, chiefly cotton-seed meal, hay, chaff, oats, dried peas, fish, fish pastes and soups, wine, eucalyptus oil, chamois leather, certain oil-engines, and timber. In addition, a duty of Id. per lb., plus surtax, was imposed on foreign raisins on importation into New Zealand, while Australian raisins were admitted free, except for a primage duty of 3 per cent, ad valorem.

To protect New Zealand industries, the duties on many classes of Australian goods were fixed at rates higher than those in force in 1933 on similar United Kingdom goods. The principal commodities affected are potatoes, fresh cherries, canned fruits, jams, soap, rennet, woollen rugs, woollen blankets, woollen textiles, leather manufactures, leather boots, tiles, tinware, gas heating and cooking appliances, certain kinds of machinery and of metal manufactures.

The agreement provides that goods which are partially manufactured in Australia or New Zealand shall not be regarded as the produce or manufacture of the Commonwealth or the Dominion, as the case may be, unless the expenditure in material produced in either country and/or labour performed within either country represents not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of the goods in their finished state.

Article IX of the agreement provides that where with respect to any goods not specially enumerated in the agreement the rate of duty thereon under the New Zealand British preferential tariff is less than the duty under the Australian British preferential tariff, the New Zealand Government may request the Australian Government to admit into the Commonwealth New-Zealand-produced goods of such class at the rate of duty chargeable on goods of the class under the New Zealand British preferential tariff. If within three calendar months after the receipt of the request the Australian Government does not comply therewith the New Zealand Government may, without further notice, impose on such goods of Australian origin a rate of duty not being greater than the rate of duty for the time being in force in Australia on the like goods under the Australian British preferential tariff. A similar provision is made with respect to the admission of Australian-produced goods into New Zealand.

Merchandise trade between New Zealand and Australia during the last ten year has been as follows :—

Year.Imports from Australia.Imports of Australian Origin.Exports to Australia.
 £££
19255,855,4895,248,9932,489,230
19265,059,7794,625,2003,048,282
19274,264,1753,869,2463,665,962
19283,868,2813,499,1512,902,655
19293,631,6253,258,7272,338,410
19303,383,9433,023,0651,562,281
19312,284,5072,073,3611,167,403
19322,571,0802,368,2931,444,860
19332,807,9212,576,0921,393,311
19343,532,0683,238,1241,882,516

The rates of duty payable on Australian goods imported into New Zealand and not specifically mentioned in the agreement are automatically affected by changes in the New Zealand British preferential tariff. A modification of the agreement was made in May, 1935, whereunder the duty on certain Australian goods which would otherwise have been reduced or removed from 1st June. 1936, following changes made in the British preferential tariff by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934, remained unaltered.

RECIPROCITY WITH CANADA.

From October, 1925, reciprocal trade arrangements with respect to certain items of Canada - New Zealand trade were in force, but censed in May, 1930.

Negotiations between the Canadian and New Zealand Governments bore fruit in a trade agreement which came into force in both countries for a period originally of one year, as from the 24th May, 1932. This agreement has been extended from time to time, and the present date of expiry (if not renewed) is the 31st July,1936.

Under the present Canadian tariff on New Zealand produce are included, inter alia: Butter, 5 cents per lb.; cheese, 1 cent per lb.; and lamb, mutton, or beef, 3 cents per lb.; while sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri-gum, and phormium fibre are amongst those admitted free.

One of the largest items imported from Canada is motor-vehicles, on which the duty under the agreement is at present (the scale is to be modified from 1st May, 1936): If not less than three-fourths Canadian origin, 10 per cent.; if not less than one-half Canadian origin, 20 per cent. In addition, in both cases there is payable a “body-duty,” where such vehicles have passenger-bodies, of 11¼ per cent, of the first £200 of total value and 6¼ per cent, of the remaining value. Other items of importance mentioned in the agreement are : Salmon, 1¾d. per lb.; silk or artificial silk stockings,32½ per cent.; boots and shoes, &c., 25 per cent.; electric cooking and heating appliances, 30 per cent.; certain agricultural implements, 35 per cent.; timber, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 0d. (rough sawn) and 19s. (sawn and dressed) per 100 sup. ft. The general tariff rate on such timber was increased by 2s. per 100 sup. ft. to afford preference to Canada and other British countries. Canadian goods not mentioned in the agreement enter New Zealand at the ordinary British preferential rates of duty. In some instances where the British preferential rates of duty was reduced by the 1934 tariff the rates on certain Canadian goods mentioned in the agreement were also reduced to the British-preferential level.

TRADE ARRANGEMENT WITH BELGIUM.

A trade arrangement between the Economic Union of Belgium and Luxemburg and New Zealand was entered into on the 5th December, 1933, and came into force on the 16th December, 1933. The principal provisions of this agreement were : (a) Each country granted most-favoured-nation treatment to the other; (b) New Zealand reduced the duty on certain Belgian goods, chiefly matches (by abolition of surtax), carpets, glassware, sensitized surfaces, and firearms; and (c) Belgium reduced the duty on New Zealand cheddar cheese and fresh apples, and provided for the free admission into Belgium of New Zealand tallow, hides, skins, greasy wool, and phormium fibre.

OTHER TRADE ARRANGEMENTS.

New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries other than those referred to above. In certain instances these became applicable to New Zealand automatically as a member of the British Empire, while in others New Zealand has become a party signifying her willingness to adhere to treaties negotiated by the United Kingdom. New Zealand has also in some cases entered into agreements with foreign countries by direct negotiation with those countries, and in others the United Kingdom has acted for New Zealand in making trade agreements on her behalf. In some instances the trade involved is insignificant.

By Order in Council of the 21st February, 1934, the duties and exemptions from duty provided for in the Trade Arrangement (Belgium and New Zealand) Ratification Act, 1933, were applied to similar goods the produce or manufacture of the following countries: Argentina, Austria, Brazil, China, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Norway, and Spain. Sweden was added to the list of countries by Order in Council of the 7th June, 1935.

SUBSECTION E.—TRADE OF PORTS.

OVERSEA IMPORTS.

NEW ZEALAND has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes, eleven in the North Island and ten in the South.

The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. Waitara had no overseas imports or exports during the period, Tokomaru Bay no imports, and Tauranga no exports.

Port.1930.1931.1032.1933.1934.
 £££££
Auckland14,247,8878,851,7408,876,3679,041,27510,780,915
Kaipara348......558
Tauranga7,0864,9913,1914,5204,592
Gisborne194,66390,14685,61386,30893,181
New Plymouth651,724419,187422,620420,662388,339
Patea30,43716,00811,6198,1817,381
Wanganui409,920235,593249,132213,274274,025
Wellington15,462,5759,136,8018,338,6668,409,28011,031,604
Napier769,923441,699407,957361,948410,884
Wairau (incl. Picton)70,32630,73029,15135,53135,203
Nelson288,398191,414161,907109,785148,350
Westport66,21528,74417,61419,82515,969
Greymouth149,88471,27276,84379,918107,961
Hokitika9,5827,2925,9404,6626,327
Lyttelton5,949,0253,534,2773,013,9173,577,3584,081,089
Timaru771,679301,767230,002225,625253,557
Oamaru115,87171,68864,37636,35153,420
Dunedin4,294,5882,636,7662,264,4842,490,4483,096,359
Invercargill849,523428,036386,607456,415549,838
Totals44,339,65426,498,15124,646,00625,581,36631,339,552

During each of the five years covered by the above table over two-thirds of the imports came in by way of Wellington or Auckland, the actual proportion in 1934 being 68.4 per cent. Over the five years imports into Wellington averaged £10,475,785 annually (34.4 per cent, of the total), and into Auckland £10,359,637 (34.0 per cent.). On the basis of aggregate imports for the five years the next most important ports are Lyttelton, Dunedin, Invercargill, Napier, New Plymouth, and Timaru.

OVERSEA EXPORTS.

From 1914 to 1921 the Customs Department allocated exports as far as possible to the appropriate district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or not, and no complementary figures are available to show the export trade from each individual port for this period. The system, however, did not prove satisfactory in practice, and the former method of showing exports according to the port at which the goods are placed on board the vessel by which they leave the Dominion was reverted to from the 1st January, 1922.

Over the last five years exports through Auckland averaged £12,753,490 annually (31.3 per cent, of the total), and through Wellington £9,810,465 annually (24.l per cent.). Combining imports and exports, Auckland is given place as premier port of New Zealand on this basis. Aggregating exports for the last five years, other important ports are placed in this order: Lyttelton, Napier, New Plymouth, Invercargill, Dunedin, Timaru, Wanganui, and Gisborne.

The following table gives for the last five years the overseas exports according to the port at which they are actually placed on board the overseas vessels The concentration of the export trade in the ports of Auckland and Wellington is less marked than with the import trade. Nevertheless, in each of the five years shown below these two ports together accounted for more than half the total exports of the Dominion.

Port.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £££££
Auckland13,871,22811,341,87911,653,71713,438,94313,461,683
Kaipara4,5493,8592,1827912,773
Tokomaru Bay164,573139,190240,905197,960222,468
Gisborne1,152,890821,899816,8701,032,6561,244,803
New Plymouth2,846,4502,382,6872,278,9362,472,3942,489,243
Patea211536..
Wanganui1,237,935952,566909,9891,133,8001,392,114
Wellington10,822,7088,540,1778,370,6629,524,942ll,793,838
Napier3,061,6571,661,0022,055,7312,775,7383,097,956
Wairau (inch. Picton)241,043154,722195,957245,460231,342
Nelson141,51069,353184,270197,009238,054
Westport65,11619,92537,52934,81752,018
Greymouth323,196248,050218,797243,151283,677
Hokitika2769,86918,70720,29524,950
Lyttelton4,051,2573,003,7813,044,5053,429,5444,298,416
Timaru1,864,3221,264,6241,115,0701,467,4731,798,220
Oamaru329,967404,852299,244327,982446,313
Dunedin2,187,3781,759,8611,767,1492,046,5043,165,812
Invercargill2,496,4102,127,3802,351,1092,376,0573,064,935
Parcels-post78,03145,00748,58740,39734,232
Totals44,940,51734,950,69835,609,91941,005,91947,342,847

The west coast ports of both Islands, as well as Nelson and Wairau in the northern portion of the South Island, send much of their produce to Wellington for loading into overseas vessels.

PORT TONNAGE STATISTICS.

The following table gives for the aggregate of all ports a summary of the cargo handled.

 Inwards.* Outwards.* 
Year.Coastal.Overseas.Transhipments.Coastal.Overseas.Total Manifest Tonnage.
* Excluding transhipments.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
19251,938,3662,318,613480,4741,993,132632,3077,843,366
19261,976,7132,309,056470,5532,071,638733,5648,032,077
19272,044,0442,107,024425,4442,098,926785,2967,886,178
19282,109,7242,147,103430,9252,207,194799,4218,125,292
19292,160,8832,319,471406,0542,176,878853,8108,323,150
19302,080,0862,106,784398,7392,115,759801,9597,902,066
19311,565,7951,556,275278,9271,637,703723,0236,040,650
19321,403,9771,489,347248,5361,488,052829,9165,708,364
19331,383,8451,374,774235,7221,447,258995,6505,672,971
19341,493,2691,655,838273,8141,540,510953,5286,190,773

In order to obtain statistics of the total trade of each port a system of monthly returns from the various port authorities was instituted in 1922, showing under some forty headings the quantity of goods handled, distinguishing inwards and outwards cargo, coastal and overseas, and transhipments. The resultant statistics show on a tonnage basis the total exports of each port, whether placed on the overseas vessel there, sent to a central port for shipment overseas, or despatched coastwise to another port for consumption in New Zealand. For obvious reasons, total values of goods shipped coastwise cannot be obtained.

For all data given under this head it is advisable to note that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. For a portion only of the goods handled is it practicable to obtain the actual weights involved. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formula; as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, &c, to the ton. In a few instances the tons are “short” tons of 2,000 lb. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, are recorded in “measurement” tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in “measurement” tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

The following table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1934. The high proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is very noticeable.

 Inwards.* Outwards.* 
Port.Coastal.Overseas.Transhipments.Coastal.Overseas.Total Manifest Tonnage.
* Excluding transhipments.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Awanui3,996....1,690..5,686
Mangonui2,132....763..2,895
Russell4,758....2,7967,11114,665
Hokianga3,092....1,482..4,574
Whangarei18,088202..64,6766383,029
Kaipara1,727194..6966233,240
Mangawai715....124..839
Auckland437,584643,43542,811211,79324,5,6361,624,070
Onehunga14,094..729,870..43,978
Great Barrier649....433..1,082
Port Waikato5,229....1,145..6,374
Raglan2,684....739..3,423
Kawhia991....1,660..2,651
Thames9,970....3,377..13,347
Coromandel1,272....463..1,735
Whitianga893....390..1,283
Tauranga9,813....1,647..11,460
Whakatane9,973....13,597..23,570
Opotiki8,291....5,641..13,932
Tokomaru Bay6,430..2192,6573,68413,209
Tolaga Bay2,939..1099395334,629
Gisborne41,9175,25532020,01219,97687,800
Waikokopu3,036....1,2842614,581
Wairoa3,795....1,979..5,774
Napier64,33021,6996,90118,62056,690175,141
Mokau38....432..470
Waitara406....39..445
New Plymouth52,96541,414..5,05053,458152,887
Patca2,479....28,994..31,473
Wanganui44,36137,955..17,73729,350129,403
Foxton10,092....105..10,197
Wellington364,949503,572196,193217,623227,3011,705,831
Picton22,973....26,0574,20353,233
Wairau3,985....3,315..7,300
Nelson58,8042,91919,65430,6725,099136,802
Mapua1,856....18,828..20,684
Waitapu2,430....1,471..3,901
Motueka8,878..1018,649..27,547
Westport6,6395781275,07327,898309,829
Greymouth9,7921,332..164,24763,722239,093
Hokitika2,461....6,548..9,009
Lyttelton118,294186,7982,165187,89873,557570,877
Akaroa691....8..699
Timaru20,41111,85517053,90423,496110,006
Oamaru5,2801,445..17,1136,90030,738
Dunedin70,057164,1215,12558,90038,453341,781
Invercargill25....8..33
Bluff26,29033,5854919,08465,514144,571
Half-moon Bay715....282..997
Totals1,493,2691,655,838273,8141,540,510953,5286,190,773

The penultimate column of the preceding table shows the quantity of cargo placed on board the overseas vessels at the respective ports, and a table will be found in Section X showing the number and tonnage of overseas vessels calling at each port. These tables give a good indication of the extent to which each port enters directly into the overseas trade of the Dominion. The following table shows for the year 1934 the total shipments from each port (overseas and coastwise and including transhipments) of nine principal commodities exported overseas by the Dominion, and thus shows the extent to which the various ports handle our overseas exports, although the goods may be sent outwards coastwise for trans- shipment at another port.

TOTAL OUTWARDS CARGO HANDLED AT EACH PORT IN 1934, SHOWING PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS SEPARATELY.

Port.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.TallowHides, Skins and Pelts.Coal.Fruit, Fresh.Timber.All other Goods.Total.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Awanui....................1,6901,690
Mangonui74..454....9......226703
Russell1076,404811..400291..611801,6539,907
Hokianga....1,450............321,482
Whangarei127..3,971..541544,75311077454,79064,739
Kaipara................1,319..1,319
Mangawai6........2......110124
Auckland14,29235,375104,30722,9688,2669,8933,9009,06811,128281,034500,240
Onehunga4..3512..82915742828,43929,877
Great Barrier..................463463
Port Waikato20........21,118....51,145
Raglan134..531....1......73739
Kawhia163..159....22....1,217991,660
Thames..3..1162,870........13873,377
Coromandel..................463463
Whitianga....286..15......98390
Tauranga3......411..959186161,647
Whakatane16..4,00832126111....4,7114,40413,597
Opotiki246..2,586801080....6451,9885,641
Tokomaru Bay1,6702,645....206110......1,9206,560
Tolaga Bay715......6........8601,581
Gisborne4,04113,3782,893671,2281,640..9853815,13840,308
Waikokopu95250......11......1,1891,545
Wairoa663........16....71,2931,979
Napier18,00530,8614,8381413,6055,6852,581l,56341214,46082,211
Mokau15........1407....9432
Waitara..................3939
New Plymouth55117,27611,82920,7611,3641,427....245,27658,508
Patea....2,20326,178..........61328,994
Wanganui12,38416,8894,4053,7081,6001,350....5846,16747,087
Foxton........75........30105
Wellington34,50451,71023,15346,5717,49510,15836,53148,7864,942377,261641,117
Picton4,2172,105314407138245..877521,95230,260
Wairau458..7960..5..162722,4193,315
Nelson8081,009636321684229,07020,8612222,39755,425
Mapua..............18,693..13518,828
Waitapu104..695............6721,471
Motueka94..191..2....16,846..1,52619,659
Westport2..202..3872294,239..4,6703,829303,052
Greymouth1......4037164,319..62,846726227,969
Hokitika5......93....5,7008316,548
Lyttelton15,82327,0503,8111,3813,6154,3471022,5743,536201,381203,620
Akaroa..................88
Timaru8,20412,3322558031,318619..185253,12677,570
Oamaru7924,785....68318......17,73524,013
Dunedin16,28012,2671,2812,5701,8452,4404437148664,838102,478
Invercargill..................88
Bluff10,12620,70085215,9252,4401,661188466,42226,27884,647
Half - moon Bay..............20..262282
Totals145,787255,042176,319144,80034,05740,848518,090l21130112,1391,218,9802,767,852

TRANSHIPMENTS.

Transhipments of cargo during 1934 totalled 273,814 tons, of which 196,193 tons were transhipped at Wellington.

Transhipments are of four classes, as follows:—

Coastal to Coastal—Cargo which has been loaded on a vessel at one New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at another New Zealand port.

Coastal to Overseas.—Cargo which has been loaded on a vessel at a New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a port outside of the Dominion.

Overseas to Coastal.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a New Zealand port.

Overseas to Overseas.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge outside New Zealand.

The first class represents purely coastal trade, but each of the others may be added to the appropriate figures of overseas trade shown previously to ascertain the total tonnage of goods arriving from or departing overseas. The total inwards tonnage from overseas is found to be 1,751,514, and the total outward tonnage going overseas 1,070,443. As stated previously, import and export figures are not on the same basis, and are thus not comparable.

Two tables are appended showing the transhipment trade of each port affected for 1934, and the transhipments of the various items of merchandise, &c.

TRANSHIPMENTS, BY PORTS AND CLASS, 1934.

Port.Coastal to CoastalCoastal to Overseas.Overseas to CoastalOverseas to Overseas.Totals.
..Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Auckland9,7498,10823,7271,22742,811
Onehunga7......7
Tokomaru Bay4215....219
Tolaga Bay6049....109
Gisborne31424..320
Napier3,1502,6351,116..6,901
Wellington33,68497,32661,9173,266196,193
Nelson11,9337,315406..19,654
Motueka10......10
Westport4437....81
Lyttelton1021,618445..2,165
Timaru..170....170
Dunedin6598983,568..5,125
Bluff..49....49
Totals59,716118,42291,1834,493273,814

TRANSHIPMENTS, BY ITEMS AND CLASS, 1934.

Item.Coastal to Coastal.Coastal to Overseas.Overseas to Coastal.Overseas to Overseas.Totals.
..Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Beans and peas1874671171772
Butter1176,560..16,678
Cement3,6392099103,867
Cheese2328,046..128,070
Coal27,55611,42732229539,600
Flour1,425..1,1551422,722
Fruit, preserved60..1,3603541,774
Fruit, fresh2,60939,6291,837..44,075
Hemp (fibre and tow)..21430..244
Hides, skins, and pelts374,7498764,870
Manures, artificial1,1913452,570..4,106
Meat, frozen (beef, mutton, and lamb)1253....65
Motor - spirit, kerosene, and other fuel oils264..32,5161,51134,291
Seeds188872187221,269
Sugar1,812842541,916
Tallow..3,56388..3,651
Timber4668454,40355,719
Wines, spirits, and beer858178461,649
Wool35817,67399..18,130
All other goods18,9143,76145,6562,01570,346
Totals59,716118,42291,1834,493273,814

Chapter 10. SECTION X.—SHIPPING.

REGISTERED VESSELS.

THE number and tonnage of vessels on the New Zealand register at 31st December, 1934, were as follows :—

Port of Registry.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.Motor-vessels.
VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
Auckland35 2,3651,8446516,5938,3911849,4084,446
Napier4266253183,9152,043101,548866
Wellington101,1441,00651103,83456,214204,6972,468
Nelson14919138,9664,102101,069559
Lyttelton51,7411,667125,2822,4285972488
Timaru......19424881113
Dunedin......2623,18913,162811859
Invercargill......131,7796504580203
Totals555,5354,789199164,50087,47824218,4039,092

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 284 vessels on the Auckland register being only 52 tons. At Wellington and Dunedin many of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered, while several of the larger vessels of this company employed in both the coastal and foreign trade of the Dominion are registered in the United Kingdom. The registration figures at the end of each of the last ten years are as follows:—

 Sailing-vessels.Steam- and Motor-vessels.Totals
Year.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
192511721,24419,452462186,520104,241579207,764123,693
19269212,90011,634466189,454105,703558202,354117,337
19279012,65411,418475192,106106,386565204,760117,804
19288812,50411,303472181,80099,586560194,304110,889
1929719,8858,868470201,563110,649541211,448119,517
1930656,6855,892466194,965106,078531201,650111,970
1931656,6855,892465193,264104,047530199,949109,939
1932586,1635,380461208,589111,985519214,752117,365
1933565,5884,809460200,141106,786516205,729111,595
1934555,5354,789441182,90396,570496188,438101,359

Of the 153 vessels employed in the coastal trade only, 11 were sailing-vessels with an aggregate net tonnage of 373, and 142 steam- and motor-vessels of 30,959 tons. Nine of the sailing-vessels were under 50 tons, and the other two of 50 to 100 tons. The 16 vessels employed in both coastal and foreign trade were all steam- or motor-vessels. Very few sailing-vessels are employed in the foreign trade, there being only 1 for 1934, with a tonnage of 785.

In the following table registered vessels in the Dominion have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given hero do not agree with those shown previously, as in this table vessels employed exclusively in the “river” trade have not been included.

 Employed in the Coastal Trade only.Employed partly in the Coastal and partly in the Foreign Trade.Employed in the Foreign Trade only.
Size of Vessel.Number of Vessel.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessel.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessel.Net Tonnage.
Under 50 tons591,127........
50 tons and under 100312,188....4352
100 tons and under 200263,5721166....
200 tons and under 300123,1221263....
300 tons and under 40072,5071342....
400 tons and under 60041,9741586....
600 tons and under 80053,628....21,534
800 tons and under 1,00032,63332,699....
1,000 tons and under 1,50022,67689,503....
1,500 tons and under 2,00035,27611,85635,456
2,000 tons and over..12,629....1037,719
Totals15331,3321615,4151945,061

OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Throughout the remainder of this section all tonnage figures relate to net tonnage.

The tonnage of vessels entered and cleared during 1934 amounted to 5,221,115, as compared with 5,048,703 for 1933. The number of vessels increased from 1,129 to 1,160.

Of late years the tendency has been for vessels of a larger size to be employed in the New Zealand trade, in order to cope with the growing imports and exports of the Dominion and for the purposes of the passenger traffic. The increase over a period of years is thus more noticeable on a comparison of tonnage than by comparing the number of vessels.

NATIONALITY OF VESSELS.

Considering only vessels entered inwards, the number registered in the United Kingdom represented in 1934 43 per cent, of the total, but on a tonnage basis the percentage is found to increase to 54. The average tonnage of the vessels was 5,663. Although vessels registered in New Zealand and other (i.e., other than United Kingdom) British countries comprised 41 per cent, of the total vessels, the tonnage on the other hand was only 26 per cent, of the aggregate. The average tonnage was comparatively low, being only 2,827. Foreign vessels constituted 16 per cent, of the number, and 20 per cent, of the tonnage, with an average tonnage for each vessel of 5,701.

The foreign vessels entered inwards consisted of 46 American (346,035 tons), 28 Norwegian (129,890 tons), 14 Japanese, 2 Danish, 2 Dutch, 1 Swedish, 1 German, and 1 Society Islands.

 United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.Total.
Year.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.
    Entered.    
19302891,472,906224547,62887276,5896002,297,142
19312641,388,307210453,62890313,9855642,155,920
19322531,345,600223496,28798505,7695742,347,656
19332371,310,065229636,126101582,0625672,528,253
19342491,410,180241681,26595541,5935852,633,038
    Cleared.    
19302971,524,700216524,14186265,1515992,313,992
19312651,391,006213456,00381308,7045592,155,713
19322481,332,160226510,011109510,7425832,352,913
19332331,299,641227638,188102582,6215622,520,450
19342411,386,171244677,36490524,5425752,588,077

DIRECTION OF OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during the years 1933 and 1934 are given below:—

 1933.1934.
 Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
Country.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom95613,453132795,245109715,061125771,153
India316,38015,460316,38015,460
Malaya15,060....26,924....
Seychelles Islands37,264....13,657....
South African Union1275............
Canada55260,86321137,87259282,89629178,185
Australia238916,9582631,010,869234914,6932681,051,808
Fiji417,9101847,5291418,2132251,042
Nauru Island1338,16638,4011543,6881132,485
Gilbert and Ellice Islands720,009514,486719,922411,260
Norfolk Island155260........
Papua....112,088........
Tonga22,03867,80411,04933,057
Western Samoa1713,8131514,938139,7371614,874
Belgium315,473.......... 
France....13,750....26,996
Italy........l2,948....
Netherlands....15,422........
Russia (Union of Socialist Soviet Republics)39,191....13,840....
Spain13,017....l3,017....
Dutch East Indies2076,779937,87728110,9551565,020
China....13,120....11,382
Japan1650,5381650,4881445,2541341,943
Philippine Islands....14,559........
Juan de Nova13,147............
Madagascar........25,920....
Egypt........11,098....
Argentina........12,649....
Cuba12,948....13,110....
Mexico13,158....26,375....
United States of America76442,51459346,11970410,52661349,045
New Caledonia46,58222,09811,04911,049
Society Islands......16.... 
Tuamotu Archipelago12,66238,490....12,747
Whale-fisheries....23,77534,0712571
Totals5672,528,2535622,520,4505852,633,0385752,588,077

Forty-one per cent. of the vessels and 35 per cent. of the total tonnage inwards during the two years covered by the foregoing table came, from Australia, while a somewhat higher proportion of the shipping outwards was cleared for Australia. The United Kingdom ranks second, the United States third, Canada fourth, and the Pacific islands next.

Shipping between New Zealand and certain principal countries for each of the last five \-ears is as follows :—

Year.Australia.United Kingdom.United States.Canada.Fiji.Pacific Islands (other than Fiji).
   Entered.   
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1930805,956506,122478,694182,79238,85162,751
1931728,541526,844434,374155,71046,91875,195
1932859,231512,593470,985199,09316,650104,038
1933916,958613,453442,514260,86317,91083,325
1934914,693715,001410,526282,89618,21375,451
   Cleared.   
1930933,869676,139275,440139,84455,407104,859
1931923,722661,729239,032104,14460,35083,103
1932984,572692,652318,059120,62346,58980,978
19331,010,869795,245346,119137,87247,52968,364
19341,051,808771,153349,045178,18551,04265,472

SHIPPING TRADE OF PORTS.

New Zealand has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes(vide Subsection E of the preceding section), and there are numerous other ports around the coast. A vessel arriving from overseas may call at several ports in the Dominion to discharge and load cargo, and is recorded as an overseas arrival at the first port of call, and as an overseas departure from the port from which it finally sails. Its movements from one port to another in New Zealand are treated as coastwise shipping. The figures in the following table must simply be taken as showing the extent to which various ports are made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure, and not as indicating the relative overseas trade of the various ports.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING, BY PORTS OF FIRST ARRIVAL AND FINAL DEPARTURE.

 Entered.Cleared.
Port.1932.1933.1934.1932.1933.1934.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Kaipara....1,1756843421,175
Auckland1,325,0191,499,6721,527,3561,106,4681,168,0201,192,895
Gisborne20,68910,46122,392....6,445
Napier15,06321,31023,10559,84659,33672,506
New Plymouth60,19356,55372,14922,59011,95812,423
Wanganui15,44413,88513,27034,92324,69211,537
Wellington619,919599,940611,995672,421797,995763,020
Picton4,6967,45712,880..1,154..
Nelson10,23014,60310,142......
Westport3,6043,8354,88626,74033,37371,880
Greymouth1661661,15434,47032,06842,678
Lyttelton96,10895,01462,85781,25894,964100,736
Timaru..20,15515,13811,34514,28010,190
Oamaru31,15210,41420,8411,860....
Dunedin41,99665,68397,910175,375169,454206,561
Bluff103,377109,105135,788124,933112,81496,031
Totals2,347,6562,528,2532,633,0382,352,9132,520,4502,588,077

Tables showing for each port the total shipping entered and cleared, and distinguishing between overseas and coastal vessels, irrespective of whether the former had been entered or cleared overseas or coastwise, are published annually in Part II of the “Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping.” From these tables may be seen at a glance not only the total shipping of each port, but the number and tonnage of vessels calling there which are engaged in the overseas trade.

The movement of overseas and coastal vessels on the New Zealand coast is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the aggregate number and tonnage of the total calls made during each of ten years.

 Overseas Vessels.Coastal Vessels.Total.
Year.Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.
19252,3887,832,10223,5195,535,56225,90713,367,664
19262,5868,324,12622,4025,450,82524,98813,774,951
19272,3548,237,45122,1235,633,29124,47713,870,742
19282,3938,369,17921,0285,463,60423,42113,832,783
19292,4078,752,83720,8065,447,17123,21314,200,008
19302,5959,494,30620,2385,150,03222,83314,644,338
19312,4128,357,86517,5734,658,13619,98513,016,001
19322,1837,940,90417,4235,025,74219,60612,966,646
19332,1968,531,20717,9815,247,37320,17713,778,580
19342,3088,679,62718,5465,223,90920,85413,903,536

The figures for overseas vessels in the above table reflect the falling-off in the number of direct arrivals from overseas during the years 1931 to 1933. Tin number of visits made by vessels engaged exclusively in the coastal trade reached its peak in 1924, since when there has been a continuous decline until 1932, with slight increases in the two following years. The tonnage has “not shown a similar movement, the figures indicating a tendency to employ a larger type c vessel in this class of trade.

Figures showing the number and tonnage of all vessels entered into each port during 1934 are given in the following table. In this table, however, no distinction is made between overseas and coastal vessels.

Port.Number.Tonnage.
Parengarenga494,231
Awanui1319,897
Mangonui929,815
Whangaroa17932,064
Russell277134,321
Hokianga959,748
Whangarei662107,425
Kaipara114,441
Mangawai512,643
Auckland5,9372,751,813
Onehunga23231,212
Raglan608,154
Kawhia516,762
Thames70553,101
Coromandel20115,215
Whitianga1649,964
Tauranga21519,293
Whakatane1399,249
Opotiki917,283
Tokomaru Bay171125,106
Tolaga Bay13042,016
Gisborne416342,652
Waikokopu8721,325
Wairoa1126,349
Napier529598,543
Mokau16256
Waitara16256
New Plymouth353427,304
Patea20120,007
Wanganui470282,031
Foxton816,164
Wellington2,9933,643,839
Picton455280,271
Wairau12512,174
Havelock2111
Nelson1,024343,044
Mapua14220,120
Waitapu11711,588
Motueka26729,056
Westport388264,565
Greymouth276150,235
Hokitika854,666
Lyttelton1,3341,947,026
Akaroa41,216
Timaru429449,354
Oamaru202165,832
Dunedin595981,134
Invercargill425
Bluff421496,954
Half-moon Bay673,886
Totals20,85413,903,536

Wellington ranks as the first port of the Dominion as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Napier, Bluff, Timaru, and New Plymouth in that order. Wellington and Lyttelton are termini of the principal inter-Island steamer-express service, and to this fact is due a large part of the coastwise shipping credited to these two ports.

The number and tonnage of overseas vessels included in the totals quoted above for the various ports concerned are now given. The table covers all vessels engaged in the overseas trade, whether entered overseas or coastwise, and the figures for individual ports differ greatly from those given in a previous table, wherein the tonnage of overseas vessels entered is counted only for the port of first entry in the Dominion.

Port.Number.Tonnage.
Parengarenga14
Mangonui15
Whangaroa616,511
Russell23112,760
Whangarei1419,312
Kaipara32,692
Auckland4932,292,621
Tauranga11,154
Tolaga Bay26,948
Tokomaru Lay1082,087
Gisborne43237,201
Waikokopu14,927
Napier109489,304
New Plymouth100353,623
Wanganui46194,521
Wellington5622,108,479
Picton2873,371
Nelson1245,581
Westport101151,815
Greymouth8796,487
Lyttelton230925,650
Timaru72255,198
Oamaru2562,262
Dunedin210737,735
Bluff128409,379
Totals2,3088,679,627

Overseas vessels are shown to have called at twenty-five ports during 1934, including eight which were not first ports of call for a single overseas vessel. The total entries of the 585 overseas vessels during the year were 2,308, which gives an average of almost four ports called at on each visit to the Dominion. Many vessels— as, for instance, those engaged in the transport of timber and coal, and those merely touching at a New Zealand port whileen route between Australia and America—call at only one port in the Dominion, while, on the other hand, vessels engaged in the United Kingdom trade generally call at half a dozen or more ports.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.

The examinations for masters, mates, engineers, &c, of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the Imperial Board of Trade, with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions; but the British Board of Trade recognizes the following New Zealand certificates only as of Imperial validity: Master, extra; master, ordinary (endorsement); master, steamship; first mate and second mate, ordinary (endorsement) and steamship; first- and second-class marine engineers, and first- and second-class motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the British Board of Trade.

New regulations for the examination of masters and mates were issued by the Board of Trade on 1st January, 1931, and corresponding regulations were made in New Zealand and came into force on the same date. Since that date masters' and mates' ordinary certificates have not been issued, steamship certificates endorsed to the effect that the holder is eligible to act in a sailing-ship having been substituted there for.

During 1934–35 some 214 candidates sat for examinations. Of the 138 who passed, 52 were masters, mates, and engineers of seagoing steamships and motor-vessels; 9 were masters and engineers of steamers plying within restricted limits; 4 signals examinations; 33 were engineers of New Zealand seagoing motor-propelled boats; 36 were engineers of such boats plying within restricted limits; 1 colonial pilot's license; 1 Sub-Lieutenant (R.N.V.R.); and 2 voluntary examinations in compass deviation.

SURVEY OF SHIPS.

The Shipping and Seamen Act of 190S, and its amendments, provide for an annual survey by Government surveyors of all vessels, with a view to ensuring their seaworthiness. Certificates of survey were issued in 1934–35 to 145 seagoing steam and motor ships, 370 restricted-limits steam and motor ships, and 4 sailing-vessels. Vessels to the number of 259 were also surveyed for seaworthiness and efficiency under section 226 of the 1908 Act.

LIGHTHOUSES.

There are fifty-one coastal lighthouses of various types.

The buildings also are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations. In twenty-three cases the light apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its rays through a combination of surrounding lenses. Automatic lights are used in the remainder of the coastal lighthouses.

During the year the work of constructing a lighthouse on Baring Head in Cook Strait was completed, and the light was exhibited for the first time on the 17th June, 1935. This is the first lighthouse in the Dominion to be lighted by electricity, and on the day it came into operation the light on Pencarrow Head was extinguished.

Fog-signals of the Diaphone type are established at Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, and Tiri Tiri Island; while radio-beacons have been established at Cape Maria van Diemen, and Tiri Tiri Island.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen Island, which, placed some 600 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32½ nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Brett light (altitude 510 ft.) and East Capo (505 ft.), both visible at 30½ miles; Godley Head (altitude 450ft.), visibility 29 miles; Cuvior Island light (altitude 390 ft.) and Moko Hinou (altitude 385 ft.), both of which have a visibility of 27 miles. Sixteen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over.

All manually-attended coastal lighthouses are equipped with signalling flags and lamps, the keepers being competent to transmit or receive messages. Coastal fights —i.e., those outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities—are maintained by the Marine Department.

The average cost of erection and equipment of the main coastal lighthouses was about £6,000 per light. The two most costly were Cape Brett Lighthouse (£11,237) on the Auckland Peninsula, and Dog Island Lighthouse (£10,481) in Foveaux Strait. The cost of maintenance of all lighthouses under the control of the Marine Department was for 1934–35—Salaries, £13,494; stores and general maintenance, £7,572; working-expenses of tender, £19,124; administration expenses, £7,372; interest and sinking-fund charges, £13,480; depreciation, £11,685 : total, £72,727. Light duos for 1934–35 totalled £91,108.

WRECKS.

In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer where the damage has resulted from his wrongful act or default.

Should any wreck occur on the coast the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and properly.

During the year 1934–35 61 inquiries, none of which were Magisterial, were held into shipping casualties, the number of vessels involved being 63. There were no serious casualties during the year, nor was there any loss of life. A summary of the casualties is given.

Stranding.—No. Tonnage.
 Total loss3 86
 Slight damage14 10,052
 No damage7 10,496
Collisions—   
 Slight damage4 27
 No damage Nil. 
Fires—No. Tonnage.
 Total loss Nil. 
 Slight damage3 89
 No damage Nil. 
Miscellaneous32 77,480
Total casualties63 98,230

Chapter 11. SECTION XI.—RAILWAYS.

INTRODUCTORY.

RAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton and the first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on the 5th February, 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

Although practically all the railways are State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and the Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companies.

In the year 1876 the railways of New Zealand passed from the control of the Provincial Governments to the Public Works Department. A few years later the opened lines were handed over to the Working Railways Department, and in 1889 a Board of three Railways Commissioners was appointed. This form of management, however, lasted only for five years, at the end of which period a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, took over the adminis- tration, and this system continued for close on thirty years. In 1925 the system of railway management was reorganized under the control of a Railways Board of three members, but in 1928 the system of control by a General Manager was again reverted to. Three years later legislation was passed constituting the Government Railways Board of five members, which took over the control and management of the railways from 1st June, 1931.

The development of automatic and electric-power signalling has been greatly extended since its introduction on the New Zealand railways some years ago. At the present time automatic signalling controlling the safe running of trains is in use on 68 miles 65 chains of double line and 190 miles 41 chains of single line. Further extensions are under construction.

In addition to automatic signalling, power signalling for the operation of yards has largely superseded the older form of mechanical signalling.

The use of electric power on the New Zealand railways is increasing to a great extent for many purposes, including pumping plants for the supply of water for engines outside stations, for driving electrical machinery in the shops, and for the lighting of stations, locomotives, and carriages. There are 17 railway substations, with a total capacity of 12,000 kv.a. The Christchurch-Lyttelton section of railway, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1928–29. The Otira - Arthur's Pass section, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923. Work in con- nection with the electrification of the Wellington-Paekakariki section (24 miles 60 chains) is in hand.

The Railways Department owns and operates its own telephone and telegraph communication system, and over all the main lines the running of the trains is controlled from the District Traffic Managers offices by means of selective telephone equipment. For general communication, the use of automatic telephone exchanges, carrier current telephony, and voice frequency repeaters on the longest lines, give a high-grade service between all stations. Selective inter-calling equipment has been introduced on long lines with success, and extensions of modern telephone and telegraph apparatus are being undertaken.

MILEAGE OF STATE RAILWAYS.

At the 31st March, 1935, there were some 3,320 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into seven distinct sections, as follows :—

Section.Length. Miles.
North Island main line and branches1,486
Kaihu24
Gisborne60
Total, North Island1,570
Section.Length. Miles.
South Island main line and branches1,594
Westport36
Nelson64
Picton56
Total, South Island1,750

Government railways are constructed by the Public Works Department, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and a steel rail of 70 lb. weight per lineal yard is the standard for the permanent-way, and is in use on 1,867 miles of line. Practically all the remaining mileage is in 53 lb., 55 lb., and 66 lb. steel rails. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,100 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood and New Zealand silver-pine or totara.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.

The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five financial years is given below. The reduction in 1931–32 was due to the writing- down of the capital by £10,400,000 as authorized in the Government Railways Amendment Act, 1931, this being the estimated amount of accrued depreciation and losses of capital not otherwise provided for up to that date.

31st March, 1931.31st March, 1932.31st March, 1933.31st March, 1934.31st March, 1935.
* For composition of subsidiary services, see later table In this section.
Open for traffic—£££££
  Railway58,076,23649,661,93049,744,74452,173,14252,352,985
  Lake Wakatipu steamer service45,04017,94217,64817,64817,648
  Subsidiary services*2,413,9821,735,1151,708,6611,708,6611,708,661
  General9,8969,8969,8969,8969,896
Total60,545,15451,424,88351,480,94953,909,34754,089,190
Lines under construction8,133,8717,630,8187,747,9455,428,5705,387,953
Grand total68,679,02559,055,70159,228,89459,337,91759,477,143

The increase during the year 1934–35 in capital invested in open lines was £179,843. The only capital expenditure was in connection with the provision of new terminal facilities at Wellington, which comprise three major works—namely, Wellington new station and yard, Wellington-Paekakariki electrification, and the Tawa Flat deviation.

So varied are the geographical features of the Dominion that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. The numerous mountain-chains and the innumerable rivers fed by the heavy rainfall make railway construction in general both difficult and expensive, as the next statement shows.

Section.Capital Cost of Open Lines to 31st March, 1935.Capital Cost per Mile (Open Lines).Net Revenue.
Per Mile of Open Line.Per Cent. of Capital Cost.
1933–34.1934–35.1933–34.1934–35.
* Loss.
North Island—££££  
    Kaihu167,9216,997−89*−37*
    Gisborne774,25012,904−37*−14*
    Main line and branches31,790,94021,3943443301.681.55
Totals, North Island32,733,11120,8493413111.561.50
South Island—      
    Westport488,24113,5622513341.872.47
    Nelson510,0307,979−116*−86*
    Picton007,22010,843−25*−4*
    Main line and branches18,013,77711,3011531721.361.53
Totals, South Island19,619,87411,2111401601.251.43
Totals, Railways52,352,98515,7692262321.481.47
Lake Wakatipu steamer service17,648
Subsidiary services1,708,661
General9,896
Grand totals54,089,19010,2923273282.052.01

ROLLING-STOCK.

Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways in 1934-35 is given in the following table :—

Locomotives— 
  Tender354
Tank219
  Articulated (Garratt)3
  Electric11
  Battery5
  Clayton1
Total593
Passenger-vehicles— 
  Sleepers17
  Combination day-sleepers4
  Saloon29
  First-class232
  Second-class822
  Composite380
  Ladies'4
  Postal13
  Other11
Total1,512
Wagons— 
  Horse-boxes272
  Cattle728
  Sheep2,631
  Frozen and chilled meat804
  Cool-storage868
  Covered goods968
  High-side15,641
  High-side bogie449
  Low-side1,738
  Brake-vans484
  Other3,211
Total27,794

All carriages and wagons required for use on the State railways have, since 1901, been manufactured in the railway workshops of the Dominion, with the exception of 2,500 four-wheeled wagons imported from England in 1921–22. Locomotives also are built in the railway workshops of the Dominion.

The weights of the locally-built tender-engines in working trim vary from 63 to 135 tons, while those of the tank-engines run from 29½ to 71 tons.

The imported Garratt engines are 6-cylinder superheated simple engines of the 4–6-2, 2–6-4 type, and weigh 146 tons with a tractive force of 51,5801b.

The following engines of more recent construction deal with the bulk of the traffic :—

Class.Type.Traffic.Weight.Tractive Force.
   Tons.lb.
AB4–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed8520,000
A4–6–2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderMixed7817,000
K4–8—4 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed13530,815
X4–6–2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderGoods9426,620
WAB and Ws4–6–4 superheated; simple tank engineMixed7222,250
C2–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderShunting6613,798

Eighteen of the thirty new mixed-traffic engines designated K Class under construction at the Hutt shops were completed and in service at 31st March, 1935.

Standard carriages are 50 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate twenty-nine to forty-four passengers, steam-heated, and lighted by electricity. Some 609 carriages were equipped with electric light at 31st March, 1935. Locomotives to the number of 302 are fitted with electric head-lights. The Westing-house brake is fitted to all rolling-stock with the exception of that on the Kaihu, Picton, Nelson, and Westport Sections.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The railways have contributed in a great measure towards bringing the Dominion to its present high state of productiveness, have given practical assistance in the development of the country, and have encouraged local industry. For many years a profit of 3 per cent, was regarded as sufficient, and any excess over this rate was followed by reductions in passenger charges or in freights. Consequent on the extension of settlement and the soundness of the Dominion's industries, a rate of 3| per cent, was aimed at, commencing with the year 1909–10. During the next twelve years the actual return averaged 4–20 per cent. The year 1921–22 saw a severe depression throughout the country, the return of 1–07 per cent, for that year being the lowest in the history of the railways. For the three years 1922–23 to 1924–25 the return averaged 3–48 per cent.

In 1924 the Government decided upon a financial reorganization of the railways, and an entirely new system of accounts, based on commercial practice, was brought into operation on the 1st April, 1925.

The first and most important step in this direction was the establishment of a separate Working Railways Account into which all earnings are paid and from which all working-expenses, superannuation subsidies, and interest on capital up to the full amount of the net revenue are met. The interest on capital is based on the actual rates payable on the various loans.

The changed financial policy embodied the setting-up of Renewals, Betterments, and Equalization Funds, and also provided for payment of subsidies from the Consolidated Fund for losses on operation of certain developmental lines.

The return for the next four years was 4.35 per cent., 3.99 per cent., 3.64 per cent., and 345 per cent., but in 1929–30 it fell to 1.61 per cent., due mainly to the discontinuance of the subsidy on developmental lines which had been paid by the Treasury since 1925. The economic depression which set in during 1930 caused the return for 1930–31 to fall to 1.16 per cent., but in the succeeding years it has risen to 1.64 per cent, for 1931–32, 1.65 per cent, for 1932–33, and 2.05 per cent, for 1933–34, with a slight fall to 2.01 per cent, for 1934–35.

The total revenue and expenditure of the railways during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Gross Revenue.Expenditure.Net Revenue.Percentage of Net Revenue to Capital Cost.
 ££££s.d.
19268,460,7626,468,4281,992,3344611
19278,434,6546,490,8801,943,77431910
19288,524,53S6,685,1231,839,41531210
19298,747,9756,849,3831,898,592390
19308,288,1167,358,859929,2571124
19317,571,5376,882,810688,727133
19326,508,9485,670,955837,9931128
19336,034,4035,183,859850,5441130
19346,332,7115,247,1531,085,558210
19356,627,9285,540,4371,087,491203

Interest on railway capital liability for 1934–35 amounted to £2,330,886 there thus being a deficit of £1,243,395 for the year, as compared with £1,196,807 for the preceding year. A sum of £761,087 was set aside for depreciation and renewals, and is included in the total of expenditure for the year.

The figures in the above table are inclusive of subsidiary services, which in recent years have increased considerably. From 1925–26 to 1928–29 also the figures of receipts are swelled by the inclusion of moneys transferred from the Consolidated Fund to make good deficiencies in revenue on branch lines and isolated sections. This provision, however, has now been cancelled. In 1931–32 the percentage of revenue to capital cost is affected by the writing-down of capital cost by £10,400,000. The revenue and expenditure for the last five years are now given, distinguishing between railway operating and other items :—

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Net Operating Revenue.
Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.
 £££££
193161,781,388790,1496,406,143476,667375,245
19325,788,965719,9835,301,653369,302487,312
19335,339,075695,3284,833,754350,105505,321
19345,628,835703,8764,877,146370,007751,689
19355,908,064719,8645,138,588401,849769,476

The various subsidiary services now conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years, are given below. Full working costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

Service.Revenue.Expenditure.
1933–34.1934–35.1933–34.1934–35.
 ££££
Lake Wakatipu steamers9,61710,6479,61010,269
Refreshment service73,65779,81772,87277,685
Bookstall service20,78636,84619,10234,564
Advertising service32,70730,03030,15927,942
Departmental dwellings137,238105,338150,781155,302
Leases of bookstalls, &c.15,74917,34610,66711,481
Road-motor service79,18490,27876,81684,606
Miscellaneous receipts334,938349,562  
Totals703,876719,864370,007401,849

REVENUE.

In the following table the operating revenue during the last ten years is classified according to the class of traffic, &c, from which it was derived.

Year coded 31st March,Passenger- fares.Parcels, Luggage, and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Labour, Demurrage, &c.Total.
 £££££
19262,537,047409,2074,499,160143,8607,589,274
19272,304,180377,3674,596,166145,7597,423,472
19282,145,296379,9334,680,135138,4817,343,845
19292,124,746378,1414,846,125175,8527,524,864
19301,995,927386,7924,904,324186,9507,473,993
19311,778,726359,2764,487,357156,0296,781,388
19321,339,589316,2454,019,600113,5315,788,965
19331,207,296283,8223,745,777102,1805,339,075
19341,336,334281,8893,911,24599,3675,628,835
19351,368,689292,0974,138,434108,8445,908,064

Revenue from the carriage of goods and live-stock had been steadily increasing up to 1929–30, but from then until 1932–33 successive declines were recorded, due mainly to the economic depression and to motor competition. Passenger traffic since 1926 has shown a rapid falling-off due in the earlier years to intensive motor competition and later to the depression. During the past two years, however, a definite upward trend has been shown, due to the improvement in economic conditions.

The revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1934–35 represented an expenditure on railway travel of 17s. 7d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £3 163. Id.per caput.

A table is added showing information as to railway revenue in each of the Australian States for the year ended 30th June, 1934. Figures for New Zealand for the year ended 31st March, 1934, are also given.

    Net Revenue.
StateMiles of Line open.Train-miles run (,000 omitted).Gross Revenue (.000 omitted).Amount (,000 omitted).Per Train-mile.Per Cent. of Capital.
* Loss.
   ££S.d. 
Queensland6,56611,1396,2301,736314.99
New South Wales6,16425,17315,6904,487373.23
Victoria4,72115,3119,1752,9333103.90
South Australia2,5294,9302,560531221.95
Western Australia4,3605,3902,919733292.97
Tasmania6451,1343915010.84
Commonwealth Railways2,14555133046*.... 
Totals for Australia27,13063,62837,29510,379333.17
New Zealand3,32010,1636,3331,086222.05

The net revenue in the case of New Zealand is arrived at after making full provision for renewals and depreciation and subsidies to the Superannuation Fund and Sick-benefit Society.

EXPENDITURE.

The total railway expenditure in 1934–35 represented 83.59 per cent, of the gross earnings, and the operating-expenses 86.98 per cent. of operating revenue. It is of interest to trace the movement over a period of years, as in the following statement. The figures for the last ten years relate to operating revenue and expenditure, while those for previous years show the proportion of total expenditure to gross earnings.

Year ended 31st March,Per Cent.
191571.14
191664.00
191760.97
191864.91
191966.32
192071.37
192181.59
192293.89
192381.79
192477.37
192577.97
192681.23
192782.96
192885.81
192984.71
193091.62
193194.47
193291.56
193390.54
193486.65
193586.98

The operating expenditure under various heads is now given for each of the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March,Maintenance of Ways and Works.Maintenance of Signals.Maintenance of Rolling-stock.Locomotive Transportation.Traffic Transportation.Head Office and General Charges.*Total.
* Including superannuation subsidy.
 £££££££
19261,144,385105,0641,311,3171,636,6201,743,641223,5436,164,570
19271,074,334100,8611,303,4441,669,3521,752,998257,2946,158,283
19281,147,067102,8711,380,7261,662,0741,760,459248,9226,302,119
19291,111,229112,2061,424,1651,650,7931,825,965250,2216,374,579
19301,146,014117,5771,680,9191,755,2091,883,918264,3896,848,026
19311,150,329104,4641,502,6981,594,6721,798,490255,4906,406,143
1932997,629107,5851,270,5851,254,7691,424,520246,5655,301,653
1933931,273105,5861,188,4741,114,8011,255,280238,3404,833,754
1934993,207110,2981,220,1021,064,8271,253,833234,8794,877,146
19351,047,825137,4771,236,3241,127,1601,360,928228,8745,138,588

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.

In addition to the traffic figures shown in the following table for 1934–35, 3,011,187 passengers were carried by the Railways Department's road-motor services, and 25,913 passengers and 7,883 tons of goods on the Lake Wakatipu steamer service. Passenger train-miles run during the year totalled 4,653,708 and the passenger revenue received represents 70.58d. per train-mile and £419 per mile of line operated.

Year ended 31st March,Length open (Miles).Train-miileage.Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods and Live-stock.*
Including Season-ticket Holders.Excluding Season-ticket Holders.
*The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given.
      Tons.
19263,13810,319,40727,621,67511,787,723600,2727,246,692
19273,16410,723,86425,966,74010,274,878585,0787,299,752
19283,18010,838,59425,348,2419,272,547632,7417,358,388
19293,28711,113,48225,542,8639,046,981656,1557,613,445
19303,28712,022,04325,380,1148,466,779667,4197,788,973
19313,32211,281,89822,783,0567,265,912600,4316,957,709
19323,31510,168,72019,151,4806,503,566459,0635,824,811
19333,3159,828,85318,366,6546,870,570437,7755,490,686
19343,32010,163,47419,047,1867,511,346442,7425,642,199
19353,32010,626,40019,654,4677,809,035457,5466,023,960

Live-stock carried in 1934–35 comprised 336,840 cattle, 484,175 calves, 10,295,953 sheep, and 613,112 pigs, equivalent to a tonnage of 578,983.

Detailed figures showing the number of rail passengers carried during the last five years are given in the following table:—

1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Ordinary and holiday excursion3,496,9572,884,6773,025,8433,272,4103,280,370
Suburban2,055,4801,924,2962,041,5812,205,1722,221,420
Other reduced fares1,713,4751,694,5931,803,1462,033,7642,307,245
Totals7,265,9126,503,5666,870,5707,511,3467,809,035
Season tickets issued—     
Workers' weekly366,459234,397210,269214,819226,877
Weekly twelve-trip114,676108,58798,16399,863103,981
Trip-bearer50,64257,18277,77276,07173,047
School29,39827,69525,47025,20625,568
Tourist906511398369373
Travellers' annual619461416395376
Other37,73130,23025,28726,01927,324
Totals600,431459,063437,775442,742457,546

The following table gives interesting information as to the constitution of the goods traffic for the last five years. The figures are exclusive of steamer traffic on Lake Wakatipu :—

Commodity.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Grain265,925273,003269,367276,105304,936
Meals112,571109,908110,787115,139118,666
Fruit, New Zealand46,91943,12144,37241,23747,997
Root crops, fodder139,690126,395111,123106,844111,718
Flax, hemp, and tow11,0867,09811,05712,71510,695
Seeds16,66218,66116,75222,34321,767
Cattle and horses141,464121,996119,097134,269136,490
Sheep and pigs414,589430,564425,997414,534442,493
Meat191,384187,891217,538226,021238,404
Butter132,318122,604146,367146,275131,590
Cheese108,14886,90395,33689,48078,397
Wool117,991149,145149,678152,036126,682
Dairy by-products17,19215,30214,86816,66620,784
Fat, hides, skins37,58039,26037,45842,14244,792
Fish9,3707,7117,8088,5917,858
Agricultural lime157,211140,201173,932195,018244,896
Coal, imported37,36137,08828,44132,02430,531
Coal, New Zealand hard1,096,247763,926704,984645,461654,170
Coal, New Zealand brown1,020,454915,579681,643752,823756,123
Road-metal234,412113,41078,09591,904128,540
Lime and coke77,43854,49531,95929,41828,202
Timber, imported27,57710,3086,6157,70813,017
Timber, New Zealand375,524243,224247,018293,514355,400
Firewood, posts, &c.123,13874,93361,88661,58381,349
Benzine, kerosene, &c.145,086130,439117,660110,731119,739
Cement82,60666,86336,87047,18944,916
Manures563,417572,696614,352552,441626,717
Miscellaneous1,254,349962,087929,6261,017,9881,097,091
Totals6,957,7095,824,8115,490,6865,642,1996,023,960

Information showing for the various commodities the tonnage carried, ton-miles, average haul, revenue, and revenue per ton-mile during 1934–35 is now given:—

Commodity.Tonnage carried.Per Cent. of Total.Tons One Mile (.000 omitted).Average Haul.Revenue.Revenue per Ton-mile.
    Miles.£d.
Grain304,9365.0614,04146139,7712.38
Meals118,6061·977,6206469,0022.17
Fruit47,9970.809,14419173,3151.92
Root crops, fodder111,7181.858,2507466,9321.94
Flax, hemp, and tow10,6950.18746706,9062.22
Seeds21,7670.361,1955516,1073.23
Cattle and horses136,4902.2711,16382160,8963.45
Sheep and pigs442,4937.3531,01870409,6133.16
Meat238,4043.966,70028195,0426.98
Butter131,5902.1810,01576145,1803.47
Cheese78,3971.304,4675778,1634.19
Wool126,6822.107,19557119,6763.99
Dairy by-products20,7840.351,7208319,3662.70
Fat, hides, skins44,7920.741,9914444,8035.39
Fish7,8580.131,34217011,5982.07
Agricultural lime244,8964.0716,1276689,6161.33
Coal, imported30,5310.515571810,8464.67
Coal, New Zealand hard654,17010.8627,52342211,7031.84
Coal, New Zealand brown756,12312.5591,472121493,6311.39
Road-metal128,5402.133,4962731,4252.15
Lime and coke28,2020.472,2157916,0311.73
Timber, imported13,0170.226855310,2923.60
Timber, New Zealand355,4005.9038,705109320,9011.98
Firewood, posts, &c.81,3491.356,7008236,6501.31
Benzine, gasoline, kerosene119,7391.9910,81390208,0554.61
Cement44,9160.754,81910743,9972.19
Manures626,71710.4042,21067303,5831.72
Miscellaneous1,097,09118.2057,72653900,2363.74
Totals6,023,960100.00419,655704,233,3362.42

The total number of freight train miles run during the year 1934–35 in Carrying the above tonnage was 5,972,692. The revenue received represents averages of 14s. 2d. per train-mile, 14s. Id. per ton, and 2.42d. per ton-mile.

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.

The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31st March, 1935, was 16,048. The staff is divided into two divisions— namely, the first or clerical division, and the second or out-of-door division—and is further classed in four branches, as shown in the following table:—

Average, Year ending 31at March,General.Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive.Total.
19311,8215,5744,2687,17718,840
19321,5095,0563,4256,12416,114
19331,3764,7323,0095,57914,696
19341,3864,6633,1945,72814,971
19351,4604,7723,5656,25116,048

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since then, applies to Railway employees.

An Appeal Board is constituted to hear grievances of members dissatisfied with decisions respecting promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Railways Board and the other elected by the members of the Department.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railways service was established in 1903. Information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Pensions, Superannuation,” &c.

A sick-benefit fund, providing for the payment of weekly allowances for periods up to seventy-eight weeks to employees other than salaried staff who are incapacitated by sickness, was instituted in 1929. The fund is subsidized by the Department at the rate of approximately 10s. to each £1 contributed by members. Reserve funds amounting to £28,970 had been built up at 31st March, 1935.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.

With the exception of the Ongarue accident in 1923 (when seventeen passengers were killed and twenty-nine more or less severely injured, through a falling boulder derailing the engine), the history of railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from accidents of a serious nature. A table is given dealing with railway accidents during each of the last five years.

Year ended 31st March,To Passengers.To Employees.To Others.Fatal.Other.Total.
1931281,71576501,7691,819
1932191,21036371,2281,265
1933171,13954271,1831,210
1934121,28959301,3301,360
1935211,34662281,4011,429

Of the persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1934–35, 3 were passengers, 9 employees, and 16 neither passengers nor employees. The last-mentioned includes 12 killed at railway crossings.

Included in the total accidents (1,429) were 12 train accidents, 28 accidents on line, 82 shunting accidents, 50 railway-crossing accidents, and 417 accidents in railway workshops, while miscellaneous accidents totalled 840, being mainly minor injuries to employees.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.

Private railways in New Zealand are mainly restricted to lines whose chief object is to serve collieries or sawmills. The following list has been compiled from inquiries made in 1935, and is possibly not free from minor inaccuracies or omissions. The length of main line is 172 miles 70 chains, brought up to a total of 189 miles 24 chains by the inclusion of branches, sidings, &c, where such information was available.

Principal use.Owner.Location.Length of Railway.*

* Including main line, branches, sidings, and jig line.

† Sidings additional, but not available.

   M.C.
CoalWilton Collieries, Ltd.Ngaruawahia - Glen Massey Wilton Coal-mine675
Timber and goodsBartholomew Timber Co., Ltd.Te Whetu - Bartholomew's Siding940
OresWalhi Gold-mining Co., Ltd.Waihi-Waikino876
TimberWellington Industrial Development Co., Ltd. (operated by Taupo Totara Timber Co., Ltd.)Putaruru-Tokoroa-Mokai5040
Stock, wood, and coalGisborne Harbour BoardGisborne (Turanganui)060
Mixed goodsNapier Harbour BoardNapier - Port Ahuriri36
TimberKills and Burnand, Ltd.Mangapehi - Pukemako Bush2240
Coal and mixed goodsCastlecliff Hallway Co., Ltd.Wanganui (Castlecliff)539
Road metalManawatu County CouncilHimitangi-Pukenui180
CoalPuponga Coal-mine.Puponga175
CoalWestport Coal Co., Ltd.Waimangaroa Jn. - Conn's Creek430
CoalBurke's Creek Collieries, Ltd.Reefton - Burke's Creek220
CoalPaparoa Coal Co., Ltd.Blackball-Paparoa160
TimberStuart and Chapman, Ltd.Ross - Duffer's Creek150
Coal, lime, and sandAshburton County Council (operated by Blackburn Coal Co., Ltd.)Mount Somers860
 Dunedin City CouncilDunedin (Ocean Beach)133
CoalKaitangata Coal Co., Ltd.Kuitangata-Stirling40
Coal and goodsSargood and CheesemanLovell's Flat - Taratu Colliery80
Coal, passengers, and goodsOhai Railway BoardWairio-Birchwood1610
Total mileage  18924

Chapter 12. SECTION XII.—TRAMWAYS.

SYSTEMS AND OWNERSHIP.

ELECTRIC-TRAMWAY services in New Zealand have since their inception been controlled by local authorities. This is, however, subject to two exceptions — viz., (1) Auckland, where a public company carried on from 1902 until 1st July, 1919, when the system was taken over by the Auckland City Council; and (2) Dunedin, where a section of the system was until 1921 operated by a private company. At the present time five of the seven electric-tramway systems are controlled by the council of the city or borough concerned. At Christchurch the Christchurch Tramway Board is the controlling body, while at Auckland the City Council has handed over the tramways to the Auckland Transport Board.

The local authorities derive their powers for controlling tramways from the Tramways Act, 1908. There are also special Acts empowering the construction, &c, of tramways in certain places.

  Length of Track as at 31st March, 1935. 
System.Year of Inauguration.Thoroughfare.Single Line (Including Loops).Approximate Population served, April, 1935.
  M. ch.M. ch. 
Auckland190244 1686 43182,000
New Plymouth19166 577 4717,000
Wanganui190814 2416 6425,000
Wellington190430 6048 0115,000
Christchurch190548 5372 7113,000
Dunedin189917 7230 1679,000
Invercargill19127 409 4023,000

The Gisborne tramways, opened in 1913, have since been replaced by omnibuses. The Napier tramways have ceased operations since the earthquake of 3rd February, 1931.

Passenger rolling-stock at 31st March, 1935, comprised 737 cars with a capacity of 31,685 passengers, including 11 trackless trams, capacity 418 passengers. The total route mileage was 170 miles, and track mileage (including loops) 271 miles. In addition to the passenger rolling-stock there were 4 sprinklers and 2 freight cars.

POWER CONSUMPTION.

The electrical energy in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin is obtained from the hydro - electric works at Horahora-Arapuni, Mangahao and Lake Waikaremoana, Lake Coleridge, and Waipori respectively. These are the largest hydro-electric works functioning in the Dominion, and energy is now obtainable from them at comparatively cheap rates. In using the per-unit cost figures in the next table due attention should be paid to the fact that, with the exception of Auckland, power is purchased in bulk by the tramway authorities, and is adapted for the use of the trams over the tramway authorities' own distribution systems. In Auckland the whole of the plant installed for the transformation and conversion of power for the tramways is the property of the authority supplying the power, the price paid by the tramway authorities being virtually for electricity delivered to the trams. The capital charges falling due annually in connection with this transforming machinery are therefore included under the heading of “Cost of Power” in Auckland, and under “General Capital Charges” for the other undertakings.

Figures for the fiscal year ended 31st March, 1935, are:—

System.Total Units of Electrical Energy used.Cost per Unit.Units per Car-mile.*Passengers per Car-mile.

* All vehicles.

† Passenger vehicles.

  d.  
Auckland18,941,5200.783.227.64
New Plymouth779,3500.552.796.74
Wanganui1,059,1450.692.644.15
Wellington10,101,1890.792.469.33
Christchurch7,300,3100.492.586.33
Dunedin3,758,9220.722.2411.03
Invercargill608,4780.801.646.77
         Totals42,548,9140.722.748.09

PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS.

The statistics for 1927–28 and subsequent years given in this table and elsewhere throughout this section are exclusive altogether of figures relating to the operations of buses run by the tramway authorities. Bus operations were included to an unknown extent in 1926–27 and previous years.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Undertakings.Number of Employees.Passenger Car-miles run.*Passengers carried.Number of Passengers per Car-mile.*
* Total car-miles foryears prior to 1927.
192693,31017,289,576167,677,0579.70
192793,29117,066,086167,599,6619.82
192893,13616,857,342162,550,4829.64
192993,06216,565,221160,559,3139.69
193082,93616,298,984154,811,2629.50
193182,91516,459,615146,804,9708.92
193272,72315,92,505131,654,2868.39
193372,57815,335,351121,272,9517.91
193472,56515,343,078119,789,3847.81
193572,58315,540,601125,669,5028.09

Of grave importance in recent years, particularly since about 1921, has been the competition of motor-omnibuses, taxi-cabs, and private motor-vehicles.

In 1926 partial relief came in the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926, which prohibited the competition of buses with trams, except where the fare charged per section by buses is 2d. more than the tram fare.

The financial operations of the tramways are summarized in the following table:—

     Accrued Funds.
Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Percentage of Expenditure to Revenue.Capital Outlay.Sinking Funds.Depreciation and Renewal Funds.Accident Funds.
 ££ ££££
19261,607,9691,584,01698.514,760,756632,732683,61471,736
19271,640,3301,659,802101.195,066,008770,100877,11686,889
19281,612,9641,574,59897.625,036,853915,301787,89184,887
19291,606,7421,531,55195.325,137,9181,015,920780,06798,131
19301,549,0021,499,74096.175,297,2231,126,850886,913109,033
19311,530,0101,506,15198.445,596,2601,231,0841,037,977113,603
19321,331,1731,379,596103.645,592,3371,306,9121,042,310112,313
19331,232,1901,281,567104.015,480,3021,410,7621,039,814108,659
19341,204,7481,242,630103.145,488,4401,636,725842,966108,945
19351,221,2311,245,954102.025,508,7311,371,341809,029110,998

Figures showing details of the total expenditure during each of the last five years are given in the subjoined table:—

Year ended 31st March,Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenses.Total.
 £Per Cent.£Per Cent.£Per Cent.£Per Cent.
19311,038,65068.96418,59127.7948,9103.251,506,151100.00
1932913,30766.20420,54130.4845,7483.321,379,596100.00
1933843,52365.82391,66930.5646,3753.621,281,567100.00
1934841,99967.76347,90228.0052,7294.241,242,630100.00
1935859,56068.99351,40028.2034,9942.811,245,954100.00

The total capital outlay of the various tramway undertakings is given as £5,508,731 at the 31st March, 1935, and it is of interest to dissect this amount into the principal component parts. Figures for each of the last five years are given in the table following:—

As at 31st March,Permanent-way.Electric Equipment of Lines.Cars and other Vehicles.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and Undefined.Total.
Absolute Figures.
 £££££££
19312,327,574531,7381,451,657156,912608,323520,0565,596,260
19322,333,985543,4101,441,842163,652648,870460,5785,592,337
19332,298,074536,0921,417,391160,959603,933463,8535,480,302
19342,302,607538,4031,427,511157,219604,337458,3635,488,440
19352,311,023539,1771,439,082157,039604,469457,9415,508,731
Proportion of Total.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
193141.599.5025.942.8110.879.29100.00
193241.749.7225.782.9211.608.24100.00
193341.939.7825.862.9411.028.47100.00
193441.959.8126.012.8711.018.35100.00
193541.959.7926.122.8510.978.32100.00

VOLUME OF TRAFFIC.

The number of passengers carried per car-mile is a useful guide to the relative volume of traffic handled by the various undertakings. As a highly relevant factor the length of track should be kept in mind.

System.Total Passengers carried.Car-miles run (Passenger Cars and Trailers).Passengers per Car-mile.Average Fare per Passenger.
    d.
Auckland44,869,6975,873,3337.642.77
New Plymouth1,885,738279,7956.741.92
Wanganui1,664,749401,0084.152.89
Wellington38,267,9364,100,0789.332.08
Christchurch17,934,1742,834,9796.332.33
Dunedin18,539,0191,681,12311.031.58
Invercargill2,508,189370,2856.771.75
        Totals125,669,50215,540,6018.092.29

FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

The Auckland and Wellington services provided 71 per cent. of the total traffic revenue for 1934–35, the former returning £517,591, or 43 per cent., of the total, against £331,156, or 28 per cent., in the case of Wellington. Christchurch and Dunedin fall a long way below Auckland and Wellington in traffic revenue.

System.Traffic (Passengers and Freight).Traffic Revenue per Car-mile.*Other.Total.
Cash.Concession.
* All vehicles.
 ££d.££
Auckland431,64885,94321.135,094522,685
New Plymouth6,7648,32712.9412015,211
Wanganui17,0103,03111.9978320,824
Wellington125,520205,63619.388,574339,730
Christchurch88,43085,30914.716,436180,175
Dunedin88,78733,14417.411,498123,429
Invercargill6,39911,86411.8491419,177
         Totals764,558433,25418.4923,4191,221,231

On the expenditure side it is informative, in view of the competition from motor-vehicles, to note that the total expenditure—covering operating-expenses, capital charges, and other expenditure—was £24,723 above the total revenue for the year. In fact, the Auckland and Wellington tramways were the only undertakings that recorded an excess of revenue over expenditure.

System.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenses.Total.
 ££££
Auckland386,280134,583831521,694
New Plymouth11,4636,90974419,116
Wanganui16,63817,39755334,588
Wellington238,54279,16118,530336,233
Christchurch111,69963,18212,739187,620
Dunedin80,39043,4231,440125,253
Invercargill14,5486,74515721,450
         Totals859,500351,40034,9941,245,954

The principal item comprised in the total operating expenditure in 1934–35 is expenses on account of traffic, which represented 57 per cent. Cost of power follows traffic expenses in order of magnitude, accounting for 15 per cent. Car-maintenance was approximately 12 per cent. of the total, and track-maintenance 8 per cent. Management and office expenses accounted for the remaining 8 per cent.

System.Power.Traffic.Car-maintenance.Track-maintenance (including Electrical Equipment).Management and Office Expenses.Total.
 ££££££
Auckland61,803203,58042,42634,86243,609386,280
New Plymouth1,8005,8461,7841,57645711,463
Wanganui3,0526,8382,7331,9372,07816,638
Wellington33,306146,76329,22518,61010,638238,542
Christchurch14,86767,58513,7668,5446,937111,699
Dunedin11,33750,2436,2665,5516,99380,390
Invercargill2,0287,7112,3691,66977114,548
    Totals128,193488,56698,56972,74971,483859,560

Annual capital charges in the way of provision for interest and sinking fund and depreciation, reserve, and renewal funds comprised 28 per cent. of the total expenditure during the year ended 31st March, 1935. The magnitude of these charges is not surprising, having regard to the relatively large capital outlay that is a necessity of tramway undertakings. Of the total provision for capital charges for the year ended 31st March, 1935, approximately 63 per cent. consisted of interest charges, and nearly 14 per cent. of sinking fund charges. As it is impossible for the Wanganui tramways to meet capital charges out of revenue the City Council levies a special rate each year for that purpose.

System.Interest.Sinking Fund Charges.Depreciation Fund Charges.Renewal Fund Charges.Reserve Fund Charges.Accident Fund Charges.Total.
 £££££££
Auckland111,01214,674..3,4455,452..134,583
New Plymouth3,8081,6451,456......6,909
Wanganui9,6245,854..1,776..14317,397
Wellington40,37011,447....24,3452,99979,161
Christchurch37,3666,44418,846....52663,182
Dunedin15,7817,2647,45512,898..2543,423
Invercargill3,4051,0412,261....386,745
    Totals221,36648,36930,01818,11929,7973,731351,400

Apart from general considerations the gross figures relating to revenue and operating-costs, &c, indicate very little; if, however, the figures are reduced to the common relative basis of the car-miles run they are of some value in showing the efficiency of the various undertakings.

 Per Car-mile* run, 1934–35.
System.Total RevenueOperating-costs.Capital Charges.Other Expenditure.
* All vehicles.
 d.d.d.d.
Auckland21.3415.775.500.03
New Plymouth13.059.835.930.64
Wanganui12.469.9610.410.33
Wellington19.8913.964.631.08
Christchurch15.259.465.351.08
Dunedin17.6211.486.200.21
lnvercargill12.439.434.370.10
        Average18.8513.275.430.54

Only in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch was revenue per car-mile sufficient to meet operating-costs plus capital charges.

CAPITAL OUTLAY.

At the 31st March, 1935, existing electric tramways represented a capital outlay of £5,508,731.

System.Permanent-way.Electric Equipment of Lines.Cars and other Vehicles.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and undefined.Total.
 £££££££
Auckland1,061,719221,500520,11126,819178,52865,6322,074,309
New Plymouth63,4349,15823,8557305,4161,523104,116
Wanganui45,55012,32020,710..4,9508,62492,154
Wellington444,781131,377417,98359,968199,644113,5171,307,270
Christchurch441,405115,310311,31939,380157,638258,8861,323,998
Dunedin209,62041,724105,49529,99050,3878,183445,399
lnvercargill44,4547,78839,6091527,9061,576101,485
    Totals2,311,023539,1771,439,082157,039604,469457,9415,508,731

It would perhaps be more informative if the above figures could be expressed in terms of capital value. Though attempts have been made to obtain data as to the amount of depreciation written off tramway plant, it has not been possible elicit the required information from all tramway undertakings.

Closely allied to the capital expenditure is the question of accrued funds. At the 31st March, 1935, these totalled £2,291,368. Seventy-nine, forty-six, and seventy-four per cent. of sinking funds, depreciation and reserve funds, and accident funds, respectively, are invested in securities outside the tramway undertakings.

Figures of accrued funds as at 31st March, 1935, are as follows:—

System.Sinking Funds.Depreciation and Reserve Funds.Accident Funds.Total.
 ££££
Auckland781,267126,4342,629910,330
New Plymouth..17,771..17,771
Wanganui30,932....30,932
Wellington371,673502,17264,931938,776
Christchurch123,94015,80915,792155,541
Dunedin47,885125,37627,646200,907
Invercargill15,64421,467..37,111
    Totals1,371,341809,029110,9982,291,368

OMNIBUS SERVICES OPERATED BY TRAMWAY AUTHORITIES.

Omnibus services were carried on by tramway authorities in the following centres in 1934–35: Auckland, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Statistics for the year 1934–35 show that expenditure exceeded revenue by £4,426. Auckland, Wanganui, and Dunedin were the only undertakings that reported revenue in excess of expenditure. Wellington recorded the biggest deficit, £3,843. Persons finding employment during 1934–35 totalled 82, made up as follows: Management and office staff, 7; garage, 26; and traffic, 49. The number of vehicles in use was 63.

Passengers carried in 1934–35 increased by over 850,000 as compared with 1933–34, while bus-miles run advanced by 180,000.

  Year ended 31st March,
Omnibus Services of Tramway Authorities.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
UndertakingsNo.77666
EmployeesNo.183122907982
Salaries and wages£50,50333,48024,45118,85221,986
Capital cost of vehicles£129,776115,539108,772109,65799,392
Depreciation reserves£95,67388,14483,49486,30171,906
Total expenditure£136,80794,35272,22956,38354,832
Revenue£83,35159,07143,35339,61850,406
Passengers carriedNo.6,167,3124,364,8413,366,2282,939,4583,790,246
Bus-milesNo.1,621,0951,196,501953,758795,723975,784
Average fare per passengerd.3.233.233.093.222.92
Passengers per bus-mileNo.3.803.653.533.693.88

CABLE TRAMWAYS.

There are four cable-tramway systems in the Dominion, one in Wellington and three in Dunedin. The systems, all of which operate on a 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, extend over routes totalling 5 miles 43 chains. The total revenue in 1934–35 amounted to £45,233, while expenditure totalled £39,419. The total revenue derived from traffic during the year was £44,612, showing an average of l.81d. per passenger carried. The total capital value stood at £125,056 at 31st March, 1935.

  Year ended 31st March,
Cable Tramways.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
UndertakingsNo.44444
Employees.No.7778797575
Salaries and wages£20,99919,76017,98515,39517,099
Capital value£117,039122,110117,773122,437125,056
Expenditure—      
  Operating-expenses£35,66833,34931,43830,16231,627
  Capital charges£11,1219,7169,0268,2117,792
  Total£46,78943,06540,46438,37339,419
Revenue£52,66448,85045,82144,74345,233
Passengers carriedNo.6,772,2686,388,7435,976,3235,773,3375,910,645
Car-miles run (including trailer miles)No.399,450400,276393,350384,945386,643
Passengers per car-mileNo.1716151515

Chapter 13. SECTION XIII.—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT.

ROADS AND BRIDGES.

THE total mileage of formed roads in the Dominion at the 31st March, 1934, was 51,371, in addition to which there were 5,878¾ miles of bridle-tracks and 17,708¾ miles of unformed legal roads.

Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Total.

* Includes 79½ miles unspecified.

Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width and paved or surfaced with—Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
Bituminous or cement concrete117¾224½13¾12368
Bitumen or tar1,4521,022¼60¼102,544½
Metal or gravel*32,1422,076¼4061,135¾35,760
Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width, but not paved or surfaced12,199¾18795¾21612,698½
Total formed roads45,911½3,510575¾1,373¾51,371
Bridle-tracks5,80222½47½5,878¾
Unformed legal roads16,888½333¼7541217,708¾
Total of all roads68,6023,865¾657½1,833¼74,958½

The formation of roads in many parts of the Dominion has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system of the Dominion as at 31st March, 1934, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft. or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges.

Material of which Bridge constructed.Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Totals.
No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.
  Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft.
All concrete or stone51742,109626,1275570615159048,957
Steel and concrete33432,993406,467311538738039,662
Steel, concrete, and timber22428,377111,010    23529,387
Steel and timber32126,443314,310281  35430,834
Australian hardwood2,087214,0657810,367122,046145572,191227,035
Native timbers2,285161,008565,0812093441062,365167,129
Totals5,768504,99527833,36223,746279016,115543,004

ROADS ADMINISTRATION.

The control of roads and bridges in New Zealand comes under the administration of the Minister of Public Works, the main statutes covering roads administration being the Public Works Act, 1928, and the Counties Act, 1920, and amendments. The Main Highways Act receives specific mention later.

Outside of the cities, boroughs, and independent town districts, the local administration is very largely vested in County Councils, and all roads, unless specially exempted and declared Government roads, are controlled by the County Councils or by Road Boards. Local authorities have the assistance and advice of the Public Works Department through its various engineers stationed in most of the main centres.

The allocation and legalization of roads is arranged by the local authorities and the Public Works Department conjointly.

The Government assists materially towards the construction of roads and bridges, and grants and subsidies may be given to the County Councils according to the particular circumstances of each individual case. The county quota of the cost is usually found by raising loans secured by a special rate levied over the area to be served by the road. In this connection it may be noted that local-body loans are now closely controlled, and under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, a Board has been established consisting of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department, and five other persons appointed by the Governor-General. The function of the Board is to consider and investigate all applications from local authorities for developmental loans. The ability of the district concerned to carry the loan and the soundness of the proposal generally are thus fully considered, and, moreover, the operation of the Board tends to exercise a check on excessive borrowing by local bodies.

By statutory provision loan-money is devoted solely to expenditure on construction, maintenance and general repairs being financed from revenue derived from rates, &c.

With the exception of main highways (for which special provisions have existed for some years, as will be seen farther on in this section), the Government's funds for roading purposes, from which the grants and subsidies above referred to may be made, have hitherto been derived,—

  • (a) For construction work, from the Public Works Fund, consisting mainly of loan-money raised in Great Britain.

  • (b) For maintenance and repairs, from the Consolidated Fund.

The Finance Act, 1930, made provision for moneys in the Main Highways Account to be appropriated for the construction and maintenance of roads other than main highways, and thus added a third source from which funds for general roading purposes may be furnished by the Government.

For the allocation of Government grants and subsidies to local authorities for road-construction works the Public Works Department ascertains, as early in the financial year as is possible, the approximate amount of Government money which will be available for that year's roading operations. This is then allocated to the several Public Works districts of control on the basis of each district's claim under such factors as area, population, rating, loans available, mileage of roads in use, estimated amount to complete all roads, value of Crown and Native lands suitable for settlement, and mileage of working railways in each district. These district quotas are then in turn allotted, on the same basis and taking similar factors into consideration, to the various counties within each Public Works district. Each local body is then advised of the amount of Government money it is entitled to for the financial year, and in consultation with the District Engineer of the Department it in turn allots its quota to individual roads in order of urgency.

The benefit of the advice of the Government official removes any parochialism which might tend to arise, and by the operation of this scheme no one local authority receives a greater proportion of Government funds than that to which it is justly entitled, nor does one local body benefit at the expense of another.

The allocations by the counties and the Department are subsequently submitted to Parliament for final confirmation and approval.

Maintenance of roads is administered almost entirely by local authorities, the necessary funds being obtained from general rating, but in cases of exceptional circumstances such as those of roads of considerable length in sparsely populated districts where the local rate is totally inadequate to cover efficient maintenance, the Government may grant assistance by way of subsidies from the Consolidated Fund.

Since the advent of modern fast and heavy motor traffic efficient maintenance of roads is becoming increasingly important, and, with a view to protecting the capital expenditure on roads, no opportunity is lost by the Public Works Department of impressing on local bodies their responsibility in this direction. Some years ago the Public Works Department instituted a policy of obtaining from local authorities, before issuing any assistance for metalling work, a definite assurance that the Council was in a position and prepared to allot annually from its Revenue Fund sufficient money to maintain the metal efficiently when placed.

On account of New Zealand's climate and configuration damage to roads by heavy rains and floods frequently occurs, and in many instances the cost of restoration is beyond the financial resources of the County Council. In such cases the Government, through the Public Works Department, may assist the local body with grants or subsidies from the Consolidated Fund.

From the inauguration of the public-works scheme in 1870 until the 31st March, 1935, the sum of £22,542,180 has been expended out of the Public Works Fund on the construction of roads and bridges. Considerable further expenditure has been paid out of other accounts on the construction of roads to open up lands for settlement purposes, and out of the Consolidated Fund for the maintenance of roads. Expenditure out of the Main Highways Account is dealt with farther on in this section.

MAIN HIGHWAYS.

Prior to 1924 only a small proportion of the total road-mileage outside of boroughs was represented by roads with permanent surfacing. The advent of the motor-car, however, entirely changed the complexion of the roading problem in New Zealand, as elsewhere, and the demand for better roads arose very shortly after motor transport became an appreciable factor. Later on, with the rapid increase in the use of motor-vehicles, particularly heavy ones, the position became acute, and it was soon quite evident that the type of road that was suitable for slow-moving horse-drawn traffic was inadequate.

In counties where the country was sparsely populated, and the revenue derivable from rates was low, certain lengths of road had in the past been maintained more or less by means of grants or subsidies from the Government. It was found in New Zealand, as in other parts of the world, that under the strain of motor traffic the roads, particularly those running parallel with railways, were deteriorating, while the popular clamour that they be improved to meet modern conditions was insistent. This led in 1922 to the passing of the Main Highways Act. The Act of 1922 has since been amended in several respects.

For the purposes of the Act a Board called the “Main Highways Board” war set up. The Board consists of six members—viz., two members appointed by the Government, an officer of the Public Works Department, two representatives of county councils, and one representative of owners of motor-vehicles.

HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

In 1924 the Dominion was divided into eighteen highway districts, composed of groups of counties, suitable by geographical situation and community of interest for being so grouped. In the majority of cases the constituent counties acquiesced in the grouping; in the few cases where they did not do so the Main Highways Board exercised the authority conferred by the Act.

Consequent on the provision of additional revenue accruing from the taxation of motor-spirits, the main highway districts were redefined in 1927 to include all boroughs with populations under 6,000. Town districts, both dependent and independent, are also included in the main highways scheme.

District Highway Councils are cot up in each highway district, these Councils being constituted to include a Public Works Engineer, and one person to represent each constituent county, with an executive of three appointed by the members of the Council.

The functions of the District Highway Councils are to make recommendations to the Board each year as to which roads within the several districts should be declared main highways, and what works should be done and what expenditure incurred on these highways during the year.

The District Highway Councils are guided by the following considerations when recommending roads for declaration as main highways:—

  • As to whether the roads may be regarded as arterial in that they carry appreciable volumes of through as well as local traffic :

  • As to whether the roads connect large centres of population within the highway district:

  • As to whether the roads carry appreciable traffic to and from seaports or railway centres within or without the highway districts.

LENGTH OF MAIN HIGHWAYS.

The Main Highways Board assumed control of the main highways on the 9th June, 1924, on which date the first and principal schedule of main highways was proclaimed.

On the same date 1,046 miles (later increased to 1,637 miles) of main highways were gazetted Government roads, this action being in terms of section 22 of the Act, whereby the Board might declare any main highway to be a Government road, and might provide a greater proportion of the cost of works of (a) construction and reconstruction, and (b) maintenance and repair. The highways which were declared Government roads were chiefly those in districts where settlement wa9 sparse, and where the revenue from rates collectable by the local authorities was insufficient to meet the expenditure necessary for the construction, reconstruction, and maintenance of the highways therein.

A Main Highways Amendment Act passed in 1928 gave the Board authority to increase its subsidies without the necessity of any highway on which such increased subsidies are paid being declared a Government road. Such an amendment was made necessary mainly in consequence of the increased subsidies being paid by the Board towards the cost of reconstruction and surfacing of main highways adjacent to the large centres of population.

The lengths and maintenance-costs of main highways in each highway district were as follows at 31st March, 1935 :—

 Length of Main Highways.Salaries and Wages paid.
Dustless Surface.(Gravel or Macadam Surface.Clay or Pumice Surface.Total.Board.Local Authorities.Total.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.£££
Auckland North50898 94873,99418,79292,786
Auckland South307808131,128121,90537,216159,121
Tauranga4732532970152,6478,49361,140
Gisborne57304236348,60111,19759,798
Napier143572672167,95516,89284,847
King-country276102666356,9959,14466,139
Taranaki3161371246538,9388,79247,730
Wanganui93403950533,91210,30744,219
Wellington West187290 47747,52711,97659,503
Wellington East91402 49367,88221,49789,379
Totals, North Island1,3184,7493976,464610,356154,306764,662
Nelson19626 64553,04612,19665,242
West Coast14518 53267,9747,89375,867
Canterbury North24310 33414,5794,00118,580
Canterbury Central114579 69329,8048,46338,267
Canterbury South74679 75339,78410,59550,379
Otago Central41730 77149,2258,68457,909
Otago South35444 47930,5879,95740,544
Southland27859 88637,32010,45947,779
Totals, South Island3484,745 5,093322,31972,248394,567
Totals, Dominion1,6669,49430711,557932,675226,5541,159,229

The Main Highways Act, 1922, gave power to the Board to contribute towards the cost of maintenance or repair of any street in a borough which is a continuation of a main highway, the payment being limited to a rate equal to that paid in respect of the maintenance and repair of the adjoining main highway. The Board decided in 1925 that in all cases where the population of a borough did not exceed 6,000 inhabitants assistance would be given under this authority.

However, as a result of the imposition of the petrol-tax in 1927 (vide below, under “Finance”) the Board extended assistance to boroughs under 6,000 inhabitants by declaring the continuation of all main highways to be main highways, and additional highways in these boroughs have been added from time to time.

SUBSIDIES.

Under the Act of 1922 it was provided that the Main Highways Board should pay one-half of the cost of construction and reconstruction of main highways and one-third of the cost of maintenance and repair. The Main Highways Amendment Act, 1925, however, authorized the Board to increase its subsidy on the cost of maintenance on ordinary main highways from one-third to one-half, retrospective to the 1st April, 1925, while an amending Act passed in 1926 authorized a still further increase to three-fifths. The amendment of 1925 also enabled the Board to inaugurate a special system of graduated subsidies towards the cost of erection of large bridges. The amendment provided for payment by the Board of (a) one-half of the cost up to £10,000, (b) three-fifths of so much of the cost as exceeds £10,000 but does not exceed £20,000, and (c) two-thirds of so much of the cost as exceeds £20,000. It also provided for (a) a more liberal subsidy than £1 for £1 in the case of a major deviation of a main highway, (b) the repair of any extraordinary damage, and (c) certain allowances out of the funds of the Highway Board to be paid to members of the executive bodies of District Highway Councils.

In 1926 the Board was authorized, in special cases, to increase the maintenance subsidy to local authorities without the necessity for declaring the sections of main highways involved to be Government roads in terms of section 22 of the original Act. The 1926 amendment further provided for additional assistance towards the cost of maintenance in boroughs where large bridges are situated on continuations of main highways, but by the declaration of these continuations as main highways it is no longer necessary for the Board to operate under this authority.

A still further amendment passed in 1928 enabled the Board to increase the rates of subsidies, and under this authority the maintenance subsidy was increased to £2 for £1 and bridge subsidies generally were increased to £2 for £1 on expenditure up to £10,000, and £3 for £1 on expenditure in excess of £10,000. The Board may in special cases pay subsidies exceeding these rates.

In August, 1931, a further increase to £3 for £1 was made in the case of maintenance subsidies, made retrospective to 1st April, 1931.

FINANCE.

Until the merger of the two separate Funds by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, the Main Highways Account was subdivided as under :—

  1. Revenue Fund, which included proceeds of : (a) tax on tires and tubes, as collected through the Customs Department; (b) registration and license fees of motor-vehicles, but not heavy traffic fees; (c) part of the proceeds of motor-spirits taxation. The present total motor-spirits tax is 10d. (or l0½d. for foreign imports) per gallon, of which 4d. (or 4½d. as the case may be) is ordinary Customs revenue. Ninety-two per cent, of the revenue from 6d per gallon is credited to the Main Highways Account. The remaining 8 per cent, is distributed to cities and boroughs of six thousand or more population for expenditure on streets forming continuations of main highways); and (d) a mileage tax on (1) motor-vehicles as defined, the motive power of which is not wholly derived from motor-spirits, and (2) trackless trolley buses.

  2. Construction Fund, to which were paid all moneys borrowed for purposes of construction and reconstruction, to a limit of £4,000,000. In addition, sums might be transferred from the Revenue Fund to the Construction Fund in terms of section 15 of the Main Highways Act, 1922.

The Revenue Fund also formerly received an annual transfer of £35,000 from the Consolidated Fund, and the Construction Fund one of at least £200,000 from the Public Works Fund. Both transfers have been discontinued since 1930. Interest is paid on the amount (£1,226,000) transferred from the Public Works Fund up to 31st March, 1930. In addition, subsidies to local authorities in respect of general rates collected are payable out of the Main Highways Account instead of the Consolidated Fund as formerly.

The Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4), as amended by the Finance Act, 1932, authorized the payment to County Councils and Road Boards, out of the Revenue Fund, of a subsidy for the purpose of granting to ratepayers a refund or rebate of 12£ per cent, on the rates levied for the year ended 31st March, 1932. The Finance Act (No. 3), 1934. authorized a similar subsidy of 12£ per cent, on rates levied on farming-lands. The sum of £253,776 from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account was expended in 1931–32 and £178,246 in 1934—35 in respect of this subsidy. A similar subsidy is proposed for 1935—36., The Finance Acts, 1932, 1932–33 (No. 2), and 1934 (No. 2), authorized during the financial years ended 31st March, 1933, 1934, and 1935, the retention in the Consolidated Fund of an amount or amounts out of the tax on motor-spirits otherwise payable to the Revenue Fund not exceeding £500,000 in each year. In 1932–33 and 1933–34 the full half-million was so retained; in 1934–35 only £321,754 was retained. It is not proposed to continue this authority for 1935–36.

The following account outlines the receipts of and payments from the Highways Accoun during the financial year 1934–35 :—

Receipts.£
Fees and fines under section 24 
of Motor-vehicles Act, 1924391,661
Tire-tax91,693
Petrol-tax970,506
Mileage - tax (Finance Act,1932–33 (No. 2))1,284
Interest8,124
Repayments of advances12,654
Recoveries and miscellaneous2,252
Loan-money (stock issued)431,500
Total£1,909,674
Payments.£
Construction317,892
Maintenance972,208
Subsidies to local authorities181,105
Commutation of Hutt Road fees25,168
Abolition of toll-gates1,793
Advances to local authorities18,939
Interest charges172,984
Amortization of debt75,576
Charges, &c., of raising loans472
12½ per cent, subsidy on rates 
levied on farming-lands178,246
Total£1,944,383

The estimates of amounts required for maintenance and repairs, construction and reconstruction, and all other items are forwarded by the District Highway Councils, and after review by the Board are incorporated in the Estimates, which in turn are submitted to Parliament for approval and for inclusion in the annual appropriations.

The revenue from the licensing of motor-vehicles and from taxes on tires and tubes is apportioned between the North and South Islands in the discretion of the Board, but generally so that the amount apportioned to either Island is fixed by reference to the number of motor-vehicles in that Island. No statutory provision exists in the case of the petrol-tax, which is, however, apportioned approximately on the basis of the relative consumption of petrol in the two Islands.

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island as compared with the number of motor-vehicles in each Island at the 31st March of each of the last six years gives the following results, expressed in percentages of the Dominion totals:—

1920–30.1930–31.1031–32.1932–33.1033–34.1034–35.
North Island—      
Maintenance expenditure62.3059.2362.3162.8463.8065.44
Motor-vehicles63.6363.8463.7763.7863.9464.31
South Island—      
Maintenance expenditure37.7040.7737.6937.1636.2034.56
Motor-vehicles36.3736.1636.2336.2236.0635.69

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.

The following table shows, up to 31st March, 1935, the extent and type of work accomplished on main highways by the Main Highways Board.

Year.Formation and Widening.Gravelling and Metalling.Tar and Bituminous Sealing.Road-and Plant-mix Bituminous Surfacing.Bituminous Macadam (Penetration).Bituminous Concrete.Portland-cement Concrete.Bridges.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Ft.
1925–26458816 45465,168
1926–2717415135 3812166,408
1927–2817313383 34 67,760
1928–29224185122 5114119,482
1929–30173179133 3931127,547
1930–3113012895 4114911,175
1931–3213969129 32934,062
1932–33564572 8  3,178
1933–34442875 7 14,988
1934–3511369172273 26,641
Totals, from inception to 31st March, 19351,2901,13893827304846668,843

At an early stage in the history of the main highways scheme, the District Highway Councils were advised that the standards of road-construction recommended for adoption should be such as were warranted by the existing or early prospective traffic. To ensure uniformity in construction as far as possible throughout the Dominion standards were laid down for the guidance of local authorities.

As a guide to local authorities for the preparation of proposals the Main Highways Board issued Bulletin No. 2, which comprises a number of typical standard specifications for all classes of road formation and surfacing, together with a series of helpful notes on highway design. These specifications are not laid down as hard-and-fast rules which local authorities must in every case adopt, but are regarded as standard practice, the following of which will result in satisfactory work. The standard of construction in all cases should, of course, be regulated by local conditions, and should be commensurate with the traffic requirements. As much construction work is financed wholly or in part by loan, it is essential that the character of the work should be such as to ensure a life at least equal to the period of the loan.

The average expenditure on maintenance per mile per annum on the whole main highways system by the Main Highways Board and local authorities has been:—

 £
1925–2673.2
1926–27111.9
1927–28119.9
1928–29100.1
1929–30128.6
1930–31103.1
1931–3292.5
1932–3370.7
1933–3478.6
1934–35100.3

The following tabulation shows the amount which has been provided by the Board and by local authorities for expenditure on both maintenance and construction of main highways during the last six years. Maintenance figures exclude indirect charges such as supervision, interest, &c., but include the cost of earth-quake restoration.

1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 ££££££
Maintenance by Board1,049,249872,577849,734600,324674,026932,675
Maintenance by local authorities375,849317,839215,568168,406187,735226,554
Construction by Board1,007,957667,902361,969159,323198,295325,483
Construction by local authorities203,148150,98494,97343,18155,99757,975
Totals2,636,2032,009,3021,522,244971,2941,116,0531,542,687
Percentages.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Maintenance by Board73.673.379.878.178.280.5
Maintenance by local authorities26.426.720.221.921.819.5
Construction by Board83.281.679.278.778.084.9
Construction by local authorities16.818.420.821.322.015.1

The use of up-to-date machinery on construction and maintenance of main highways is recognized to be in the interests of economy and efficiency, and, with the idea of encouraging local bodies to use such plant, power enabling the Main Highways Board to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, equipment, and appliances to local authorities on the hire-purchase system was given by the Main Highways Amendment Act, 1925. As a consequence of this legislation a great number of local authorities have purchased modern roadmaking plant through the Board.

A petrological laboratory was established in Wellington at the beginning of 1925. Full reports are made on the various materials submitted by local authorities for use as road-metal as well as for other purposes.

Tests for bitumens, tars, &c, are carried out by the. Dominion Analyst, Wellington, while the testing of steel is carried out by the Public Works and Railways Departments and at the Canterbury (University College) School of Engineering.

ROADING COSTS.

The following statement of the Dominion's annual roading bill has been derived by the Transport Department from various official sources. In some cases estimation has been resorted to chiefly in regard to the distribution of expenditure under the headings of main highways, urban roads, streets, &c, but it is considered that the figures are sufficiently close to fact to justify their use as a basis for reliable broad conclusions.

ROAD EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure on1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Maintenance—£££££
Main highways1,455,8451,326,3721,202,343858,577919,194
Urban roads and streets484,609581,734529,104453,969397,371
Other roads995,0401,130,8111,009,702763,648708,424
Totals2,935,4943,038,9172,741,1493,076,1942,024,989
Construction—     
Main highways1,187,307838,477540,841261,602275,676
Urban roads and streets1,155,6361,077,3801,338,6771,224,2141,104,047
Other roads1,175,0481,656,3951,489,1271,122,1451,085,672
Totals3,518,0513,572,2523,368,6452,607,9612,465,395
Interest and sinking fund charges—£££££
Main highways562,909595,845635,930622,128632,846
Urban roads and streets600,188615,530640,728642,282585,900
Other roads1,033,9651,125,0271,198,7861,129,4821,136,070
Totals2,197,0622,336,4022,475,4442,393,8922,354,816
Grand totals8,650,6078,947,5718,585,2387,078,0476,845,200

In view of the large increase in motor traffic, and of the additional road expenditure necessitated thereby, the following recapitulation of returns from special taxation of motor-vehicles is of direct interest:—

Yield of1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–k34.
 £££££
Tire-tax157,474130,40885,43764,10363,801
Motor-spirits tax961,9481,316,3851,358,6231,263,8811,291,879
Fees, &C., under Motor-vehicles Act, 1924391,368393,797370,126352,561346,250
Heavy-traffic fees183,486194,557179,105178,183171,503
Drivers' licenses56,57859,46258,86057,13260,358
Mileage tax    1,597
Totals1,750,8542,094,6092,052,1511,915,9201,935,388
Proportion per cent. of total to total road bill shown in preceding table20.223.423.927.128.3

Included in the figure for motor-spirits taxation for each of the years 1932–33 and 1933–34 is an amount of £500,000, which has been retained in the Consolidated Fund and thus diverted from roading purposes. Customs duties on motor-vehicles and parts are excluded from the above table. Such taxation is not special taxation, as all imported goods of similar nature pay duties towards the general expenses of the State.

The total motor-spirits taxation is at the rate of 10d. per gallon—i.e., British preferential tariff (the general tariff pays one-twentieth surtax, and thus equals 10½d.). The first 6d. collected under this head is devoted to road purposes, and this is the figure (including cost of collection) which is quoted in the above table. The remaining 4d. or 4½d. (2d. from October, 1931, and 2d. additional from February, 1933) is ordinary Customs revenue, and was imposed for that purpose, being only a part of increased taxation imposed for the various purposes of Government.

The comparison of the two preceding tables is necessarily not an exact or a complete one. There are numerous items directly or indirectly caused by road traffic which do not appear in the road costs shown. For instance, there are such items as traffic control, increased police duties, cost of collection of petrol and other taxes, general administration charges, examinations for drivers' licenses, hospital maintenance costs resulting from motor-vehicle accidents, &c.

REGISTRATION OF MOTOR-VEHICLES.

Before the Main Highways Act was passed the Government recognized the reasonableness of motor-vehicle owners contributing towards the cost of the construction and upkeep of the road-surfaces which were required principally for them.

Amongst the funds laid down in the Main Highways Act as being available for the Revenue Fund was a sum to be derived from the licensing of motor-vehicles. When the Main Highways Act was passed it was expected that a Motor-vehicles Act dealing with the registration and licensing of motor-vehicles would be simultaneously passed, but owing to the difficulty of co-ordinating all interests it was not until November, 1924, that the Motor-vehicles Act became law.

This Act provided for the registration and annual licensing of all motor-vehicles.

Registration fees are 10s. for a motor-cycle and 20s. for any other motor-vehicle. License fees include 10s. for a motor-cycle; £2 for a motor-car; £3 for a motor-omnibus; £5 for a traction-engine; and from £2 to £3 for a motor-lorry, according to weight and tires. Other fees include drivers' licenses, 5s.; changes of ownership, 5s.; and manufacturers' and dealers' fees. Heavy-traffic fees are not levied under the Motor-vehicles Act; they are referred to later.

All such fees, except that for a driver's license, which is payable to the local authorities, have in terms of the Motor-vehicles Act to be credited to the Main Highways Account. Heavy-traffic fees (£171,503 in the fiscal year 1933–) are distributed among local bodies.

The customary figures of motor-vehicles licensed (quarterly figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics) show a classification based upon licensing requirements. The figures in the table following have been specially compiled to distinguish completely the actual types of vehicles.

Type of Vehicle.Licensed as at 31st March,Dormant Registrations at 31st March, 1935.
1934.1935.Registrations of 1932–33.Registrations of 1933–34.
Cars128,618138,1883,9874,716
Taxis1,5391,5971733
Service cars8157265062
Omnibuses5486612218
Trucks, 2 tons and under20,44522,2361,9622,296
Trucks, over 2 tons15,03816,3628311,004
Motor-cycles24,68924,5702,8673,690
Tractors, traction-engines, and trailers3,9604,463462866
Others6006591936
Totals196,252209,40210,21712,721

Dormant registrations are those of vehicles the registration of which has not been cancelled, but which have not been relicensed for the current year. Dormant registrations stand for two years, and are then cancelled if not previously relicensed. The number of dormant registrations is always high in the early months of the registration year, but declines rapidly during the year.

Upon the arbitrary assumption that, of vehicles whose registration is “dormant,” three-fourths of 1933–34 registrations and one-half of 1932–33 registrations still existed as practicable vehicles, the approximate number of motor-vehicles in New Zealand at 31st March, 1935, was 224,000, of which 209,402 were actually upon the roads.

The latest figures available show the number of motor-vehicles licensed as at 30th September, 1935 :—

Cars129,264
Rental and private-hire cars304
Taxis1,613
Service cars637
Dealers' cars1,199
Omnibuses5l0
Passenger trucks773
Light trucks20,091
Heavy trucks14,938
Local-body road vehicles1,436
Government vehicles1,505
Motor-cycles18,362
Dealers' motor-cycles126
Trailers2,086
Total192,844

Of the total motor-vehicles licensed at 30th September, 1935, 125,780 were in the North Island and 67,064 in the South Island.

In number of motor-vehicles per head of population New Zealand ranks high, and is, in fact, usually credited in statistical compilations as being exceeded in this respect only by the United States and Canada.

Figures were compiled by the Transport Department covering vehicle-mileage for the year ended 31st May, 1933, restricted to vehicles relicensed between the 1st June, 1933, and the 31st July, 1933. Out of 150,112 vehicles, data were obtained in 137,147 cases. The total mileage recorded for these was approximately 560,190,000 vehicle-miles; with allowance for the 12,965 cases where data were not available and for vehicles relicensed or licensed, in subsequent months, the total vehicle-mileage for the year was probably in the neighbourhood of 700,000,000 miles. Average mileage per annum included: Cars, 3,680 miles; light trucks, 3,960; heavy trucks, 6,790; omnibuses, 22,200; taxis, 10,800; service cars, 19,020; and motor-cycles, 2,620. No later figures are available.

The country of manufacture of motor-vehicles registered during each of the last five years is indicated in the table following. Figures refer to vehicles registered, and should not be confused with vehicles licensed.

Country of Manufacture.Motor-vehicles Registered, Year ended 31st, March,
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Motor-cars—     
United Kingdom3,2652,6072,8323,0916,096
U.S.A. or Canada9,0573,4771,8342,4066,730
Other countries5667505469
Commercial vehicles—     
United Kingdom3924476869411,266
U.S.A. or Canada3,2251,5741,1491,4712,791
Other countries496635805927954
Motor-cycles—     
United Kingdom2,5811,5671,5151,4281,669
U.S.A. or Canada548483545514542
Other countries108121422

MAKES OF MOTOR-VEHICLES.

Figures given under this head refer to motor-vehicles licensed during the first two months of the registration year commencing 1st June, 1933. No later figures are available.

For motor-cars (other than service cars, taxis, contract, rental, or private-hire cars) some 368 different makes were recorded, of which the following had the greatest representation :—

Ford19,328
Chevrolet12,288
Austin7,417
Essex7,056
Dodge6,693
Buick5,550
Chrysler3,527
Studebaker2,722
Rugby2,305
Whippet2,275
Overland2,188
Morris Cowley1,911
Plymouth1,676
Nash1,522
Morris Minor1,449
Singer1,394
Hupmobile1,380
Hudson1,368
Pontiac1,352
Willys Knight1,280

Light trucks recorded 191 makes and heavy trucks 187 makes. For both in combination leading makes were: Ford, 9,502; Chevrolet, 4,875; Dodge, 1,226; International, 958; Reo, 466; and Graham, 428.

Omnibuses were of 46 makes, including Reo, 68; Stewart, 59; Leyland, 34; and Thornycroft, 31.

Taxis comprised 75 makes, of which the principal were: Chevrolet, 138; Dodge, 122; Hudson, 110; and Essex, 103.

Service cars were of 53 makes, including: Hudson, 174; Cadillac, 69; and Studebaker, 61.

The 106 makes of motor-cycles included: B.S.A., 2,429; Harley-Davidson 1,979; Indian, 1,761; A.J.S., 1,612; Triumph, 1,383; and Douglas, 1,134.

ROAD TRANSPORT.

The post-war period ushered in a rapid development of an already considerable road motor transport which has necessitated extensive legislation, not alone for its control but also for the provision of adequate road-surfaces. Certain principal enactments are referred to briefly in chronological order.

The Customs Amendment Act, 1921, among numerous tariff changes, imposed a tire-tax on rubber tires and tubes, previously duty free. The proceeds are credited to the Main Highways Account. For an account of the moneys derived from this and other highways taxation, vide Section XXIIIB (Taxation).

The Main Highways Act of 1922 constituted the next landmark. It has been referred to earlier in this section. Two years later came the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924 (amended in 1927), which has received specific mention under the immediately preceding title. At the same time the Public Works Amendment Act, 1924, was passed. Under it regulations could be made fixing, in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local bodies for road-maintenance purposes, and also classifying roads and providing other measures. Regulations to this effect were passed in 1925. In the financial year 1933–34 local bodies received £171,503 by way of heavy-traffic fees. Present annual license fees under the heavy motor-vehicle regulations range from £5 2s. to £03 15s. for a pneumatic-tired vehicle, and from £6 to £75 for a vehicle solid-tired on any wheel.

With the object of controlling motor-omnibus competition with tramways, regulations under the Board of Trade Act were issued in 1926. In the same year they were superseded by the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, itself later repealed by the comprehensive Transport Licensing Act, 1931.

The Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927, imposed a Customs duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases are not connected with road taxation). From the net proceeds 92 per cent, is paid into the Main Highways Account, and the balance distributed pro rata on a population basis amongst cities or boroughs of a population of 6,000 upwards.

In 1927 the administration of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924, was transferred to the Public Works Department, which subsequently issued in draft form regulations containing a uniform code of rules for motor-traffic in the Dominion. After full opportunity for criticism by interested parties the regulations were brought into law in 1928.

The Public Works Act, 1928, contained extensive provisions relating to the construction, maintenance, and use of roads. Almost simultaneously came the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928, vide Section XXVTIIB (Accident Insurance).

In 1929 the Transport Department Act constituted the portfolio of Minister of Transport, and the Transport Department under a Commissioner of Transport. The Act placed the administration of the following Acts under the Transport Department :—

  • Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

  • Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926.

  • Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927.

  • Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928.

  • Public Works Act, 1928, in so far as it relates to heavy traffic or to motor-vehicles.

Later legislation is dealt with under succeeding heads.

TRANSPORT LICENSING.

The Transport Licensing Act, passed on the 11th November, 1931, is designed to regulate road motor transport with a view to securing co-ordination between it and other forms of transport and to secure its organization from the stand-point of maximum utility.

Four metropolitan districts were constituted under the Act, and provision was made for the division of the remainder of the North and South Islands by Order in Council. There are now nine transport districts, of which five are in the North Island. Each transport district consists of a group of geographic counties, and the whole with the four metropolitan districts comprises the total area of the mainland.

A district licensing authority is constituted for each transport district, and, in addition, a central licensing authority concerned with those principal through-passenger services which cannot be dealt with conveniently by the district authorities. A Transport Appeal Board was also created, but has been replaced by the Transport Co-ordination Board referred to later.

Motor-vehicle passenger-services are not permitted to operate except under license. This does not apply to taxis unless running on defined routes, to carriage of school-children, or to carriage in certain cases of a private party by a contract vehicle on a special occasion.

In considering applications for licenses the licensing authority is required first to have regard to the necessity or desirability of the service in the public interest and to the needs of the district in relation to passenger transport. Should these requirements be fulfilled, the Licensing Authority must further take into account, inter alia, the financial ability of the applicant, time-tables, fares, existing transport services, transport requirements, vehicles to be used, conditions of roads or streets to be traversed, and representations by the Railways Board, local authorities, other transport owners, &c. In certain circumstances applications by the Government or by local authorities receive preference.

It was the intention of the Legislature first to examine, regulate, and co-ordinate the passenger-transport services of the Dominion, and then, with the administrative experience thus gained, to proceed with the more complicated undertaking of rationalizing the goods-transport services. Regulation of passenger-transport was introduced at a time when adverse economic conditions had brought about intense competition, with its attendant evils. As a result of the Act, unnecessary or undesirable competition was eliminated, time-tables were drawn up and strictly enforced, standards of serviceability of vehicles were imposed, and routes and fare-schedules laid down.

The Transport Licensing Amendment Act, 1935, extended the duration of passenger-service licenses to three years, except in the case of temporary licenses.

During the year 1933 goods services were brought under the jurisdiction of the Act, which, together with subsequent Orders in Council, provides for the licensing of all goods services conducted between any two points or areas involving the traverse of at least five miles of a rural main highway, subject to certain exceptions—e.g., where the only goods carried are milk or cream being carried from farms to dairy factories, goods carried in a vehicle used solely in connection with funerals, or goods towed or carried on “break-down” vehicles. The rationalization of the goods-service industry has not yet reached the same stage as that obtaining in the passenger-service industry. Licensees have been restricted to fixed routes or areas, subject to certain provisions enabling them to obtain temporary licenses to perform occasional jobs outside their respective territories.

TRANSPORT CO-ORDINATION BOARD.

The Transport Law Amendment Act, passed on the 18th December, 1933, provided for the setting-up of the Transport Co-ordination Board. The functions of this Board are as follows:—

  1. From time to time to hold such inquiries, make such investigations as it or the Minister deems necessary or expedient, and to report to the Governor-General through the Minister of Transport the result of such inquiries and investigations, with such recommendations as it thinks fit for the purpose of securing the improvement, co-ordination and development, and better regulation and control of all means of and facilities for transport and all matters incidental thereto.

  2. To make in respect of each year ending on the thirty-first day of March a report to Parliament which shall include all reports and recommendations made pursuant to the last preceding paragraph.

  3. To hear and determine appeals under section forty-three of the Transport Licensing Act, 1931.

The Act provided for the abolition of the former Transport Appeal Board and for the taking-over of its functions by the new Board. Several further amendments were made to the Transport Licensing Act, 1931—e.g., the frequent submitting of applications by an operator for a license after his previous application had been refused was made impossible. In. certain circumstances the carriage of paying passengers under authority of goods-service license was authorized.

The Transport Co-ordination Board has conducted inquiries and investigations into certain phases of the Dominion's transport problems, and has reported on its findings.

PASSENGER-SERVICE LICENSES.

The following table deals with passenger-service licenses for the year ended 31st March, 1935. It covers licenses issued by the nine district authorities, by the four metropolitan authorities, and by the Central Licensing Authority.

Continuous.Seasonal.Temporary.Total.
Applications—    
Lodged771332,5483,352
Granted720272,5153,262
Refused16 3248
Withdrawn302 32
Deferred54110
Licenses issued715262,5153,256

The main passenger-service statistics For the Dominion are as under. The figures cover the last two years available.

 1932–1933.1933–1934.
Vehicle-journeys run1,802,8781,878,746
Vehicle-miles covered22,756,31321,920,587
Empty trips51,43457,382
Passengers carried16,065,67216,548,717
  Per Vehicle Mile. Per Vehicle Mile.
Operating-costs—£d.£d.
Vehicle-running480,7275.07439,1034.81
Vehicle standing charges285,1493.01280,8323.07
General overhead charges108,2391.1490,3580.99
Total.874,1159.22810,2938.87
Revenue—£d.£d.
Passengers.769,0868.11736,5308.06
Mail contracts31,1730.3335,1770.39
Newspapers11,7990.1213,2340.14
Goods and parcels43,8640.4644,8920.49
Other23,3880.2518,6640.21
Total879,3109.27848,4979.29
 £d.£d.
Net profits5,1590.0538,2460.42
Total assets1,354,155 980,404 
Vehicles (included in “Total assets”)556,661 444,748 
Capital863,654 636,179 
Reserves52,040 42,928 
Other liabilities438,461 301,297 
Total liabilities1,354,155 980,404 

GOODS-SERVICE LICENSES.

The following table deals with goods-service licenses under the Transport Licensing Act, 1931, for the year ended 31st March, 1935. It covers operations of the nine district authorities, and also of post-offices in respect of temporary licenses.

Continuous.Seasonal.Temporary.Total.
Applications—    
Lodged2,1461087,3999,653
Granted2,016897,3909,495
Refused9199109
Withdrawn257 32
Deferred143 17
Licenses issued2,016897,3909,495
Vehicles authorized   3,355

Statistics of goods-services operating (in both North and South Islands) under license during the years 1933–34 and 1934–35 are given. Figures are incomplete, as approximately 30 per cent, of licensees failed to furnish prescribed returns.

 1932–1933.1933–1934.
* Not available.
Vehicle-miles covered31,959,50036,565,096
Operating-costs—££
Vehicle-running650,692*
Vehicle standing charges423,163*
General overhead charges123,883*
Totals£1,197,738£1,449,399
Revenue—
Carriage of goods1,255,722*
Mail contracts20,370*
Passengers and other sources65,685*
Totals£1,341,777£1,619,805
 ££
Net profit144,039172,854
Total assets1,706,3431,566,676
Vehicles (included in “Total assets”)636,864*
Capital and reserves1,144,9601,054,881
Other liabilities561,463511,795

Total operating-expenses in 1934–35 averaged 9.51d. per vehicle-mile, while revenue averaged 10.63d.

The return to operators averaged £121 per operator, giving a return on the average capital holding of each operator of 16.57 per cent.

It should be noted that the licensed goods-services engaged only a small portion (3,355 out of a total of 38,598) of the total number of motor-trucks actually on the road.

Half-yearly collections of motor-transport statistics' were made by the Census and Statistics Office from November, 1927, to July, 1932. The inquiries covered only regular public services on defined routes, as it was considered that this would give the best indication of changes in the volume and character of the transport being developed by motor-vehicles on the roads of the Dominion. In 1932 passenger-services were no longer included in the field of inquiry. Detailed results of the date obtained will be found in the 1932 and earlier editions of the Year-Book, and summarized figures, covering the last five collections, in the 1934 number.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS.

There is no comprehensive statistical series giving information concerning traffic accidents on the roads of the Dominion. Figures are available in cases of accidents resulting in fatalities, and these are discussed briefly in an earlier section (vide p. 112). Further details of fatal motor accidents are given below.

Nature of Accident.Year ended 31st March,
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.Total of Five Years.
Collisions, motor-vehicle with—      
Pedestrian5530452646202
Motor-vehicle7529392136200
Train118391041
Tram111 25
Bicycle71116152372
Horse-vehicle or horse1164315
under control      
Fixed object81556741
Straying stock1 1226
Went over bank292291822100
Otherwise3331152423126
Total accidents221148140125174808

Of 864 persons killed in motor accidents during the same five years as in the table preceding, 199 were pedestrians, 219 were on motor-cycles, 359 were on other motor-vehicles, and 87 were on other vehicles or on horseback. Thirty-two were under five years of age, 43 were between five and ten years, 26 were between ten and fifteen years, 592 were between fifteen and fifty-five years, and 161 were fifty-five years or over.

It is noticeable that Saturday records a distinctly heavier toll of motor-accident fatalities than any other day of the week. The majority of fatal motor accidents occurred in daylight. Of the total of 808 for the five years, 425 occurred in daylight, 86 at dusk, 61 in artificial lighting, and 236 in dark or moonlight.

Chapter 14. SECTION XIV.—AVIATION AND AIR TRANSPORT.

DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION.

APART from a few isolated experimental flights, there was little active interest in aviation in the Dominion in the very early stages of aeronautical development; but there were two aviation companies operating in New Zealand during the years of the late War. In both instances the activities of the companies were confined to the training of pilots and “joy-riding” tours, while flying exhibitions were given in numerous towns and townships throughout the country.

An Act to control aviation in New Zealand was passed in 1918. This Act empowered the Governor-General in Council to make regulations for the licensing of aircraft and flying schools, and for the issuing of flying certificates.

During the financial year 1919–20, £25,000 was voted by the Government for aviation purposes, but of this amount only £8,368 was expended. No definite aviation policy had been laid down up to that time: but early in 1920 an Air Board was set up, consisting of three naval and military officers and five senior administrative officers of the Government, to act in an advisory capacity to the Government in all matters concerning aviation in the Dominion. The existing aviation companies were being run at a loss—partly as a result of the cessation of training of pilots as candidates for service in the Royal Air Force—and it was deemed advisable to subsidize these companies in order to keep them in operation until such time as plans for the future development of aviation were definitely formulated. In September, 1920, an aviation policy was approved by Cabinet dealing with (a) matters of defence, (b) commercial undertakings, and (c) aviation generally.

The necessity for the encouragement of commercial aviation as an essential part of Defence policy was recognized, and arrangements were made for the loan of Defence machines to civil companies for training purposes, while a subsidy scheme was brought into operation. In 1922–23 subsidies amounting to £2,975 were paid to the three aviation companies then in existence. In addition, these companies received £2,700 as payment for refresher courses carried out by Defence officers.

On the 14th June, 1923, the New Zealand Air Force was formed, consisting of (a) the Permanent Air Force, and (b) the New Zealand Air Force—a part of the Territorial Forces of the Dominion; while an area was purchased at Hobson- ville (Auckland) for the establishment of a Defence air base.

Civil aviation in New Zealand did not progress beyond the experimental stage until comparatively recently, a great handicap being the difficulty of terrain and the insufficiency of adequate and well-equipped landing-grounds throughout the country. After the first pioneer stage of civil aviation there was little activity for several years; but a fillip to aviation in the Dominion was given by the Government's offer in 1929 of financial assistance to approved flying clubs.

Recognizing that the development of civil aviation in New Zealand was being seriously retarded by the cost of providing adequate ground organization, Parliament passed legislation in 1929 empowering local bodies to establish and maintain aerodromes and to make charge's for the use thereof. The Act empowered all classes of local authorities and public bodies to contribute towards the cost of establishing such aerodromes and to contribute to the funds of recognized aviation authorities. In September, 1933, a scheme for establishing a chain of landing-grounds throughout the Dominion was approved by the Government. Its objects are to increase the mobility and defensive power of the New Zealand Air Force and to provide for the development and safety of civil aviation.

The scheme utilizes unemployed labour to create a permanent national asset, and will ultimately result in a very considerable saving of capital expenditure on the part of the Government and local bodies.

Briefly, the scheme involves the location and inspection of suitable sites along the main air routes by a specially qualified engineer of the Public Works Department, working in close collaboration with the Director of Air Services. Once the areas are selected, engineering surveys are carried out and the grounds levelled by unemployed labour working under skilled supervision. The scheme calls for the close co-operation of the Public Works Department, the Unemployment Board, and the Director of Air Services, and involves the expenditure of additional moneys over and above the cost of the labour supplied by the Unemployment Board, in order to provide for the cost of surveys, technical supervision, tools, and special items incidental to the scheme.

Since the inauguration of this scheme fifty grounds in the North Island and fifty-five in the South Island have already been investigated. twenty-nine grounds being under construction or completed under the scheme, while in forty-one other cases survey work is in hand or completed. It is anticipated that many of the grounds of which surveys have been made will be under construction before the end of 1935.

The Public Works Amendment Act, 1935, authorizes the taking of land required for the purposes of aerodromes. Such authority is extended to local authorities, this including an “aviation authority,” which is a body corporate and is recognized under section 3 of the Local Authorities Empowering (Aviation Encouragement) Act, 1929. Other provisions deal with fixing the maximum height of buildings and trees in the vicinity of aerodromes, or for the removal of buildings and trees, where required for the protection of aerodromes.

The general statutory law relating to aviation in New Zealand is contained in the Air Navigation Act, 1931. The main purpose of this Act was to enable the Governor-General in Council to make regulations for carrying out the Convention relating to aerial navigation signed at Paris on behalf of the New Zealand Government in 1919. Civil aviation is subject to the Air Navigation Regulations, 1933, their administration being in the hands of the Minister of Defence. The executive officer is the Controller of Civil Aviation, who is an officer of the Defence Department.

The isolation of New Zealand has up to the present proved a bar to the linking-up of this Dominion by air with the long-distance airway services of the world. The first attempt to fly the Tasman was the ill-fated attempt by Messrs. Hood and Moncricff in 1928, the first successful flight being made later in the same year by Captain (now Sir Charles) Kingsford Smith and party. Trans-Tasman flights have since been made on numerous occasions; and indications at present point to the early establishment of a regular air service between New Zealand and Australia.

A brief review of civil aviation activities in New Zealand is given in the following paragraphs. Information regarding the Royal New Zealand Air Force is included in the Defence section of the Year-Book (pages 186–87).

PILOT AND OTHER LICENSES.

The following figures show the licenses in force on the 31st May, 1935, under the Air Navigation Regulations, 1933:—

Pilots' A license (private)316
Pilots' B license (commercial)56
Ground engineers'64
Aerodrome (licensed)44
Aircraft81

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE.

Government expenditure on civil aviation in the last five years has bean—

 £
1930–318,898
1931–322,093
1932–334,243
1933–341,813
1934–3511,316

AERO CLUBS.

These clubs provide facilities for the training of pilots and for practice in flying. The activities of the clubs are mainly instructional and recreational, although a certain amount of air-taxi work is undertaken to assist the finances of the clubs. The aero-club movement has made consistent progress since its inception in 1929, when the Government initiated a scheme of subsidizing a limited number of light-aeroplane clubs. This subsidy takes the form of the loan of light aircraft and payments to clubs on account of pupils who qualify for their “A” flying licenses, and in 1934–35 payment of subsidies on male pilots renewing their licenses. Since the inception of the scheme ten aero clubs have bean assisted in this manner, and these clubs have had the use of twenty-six light aircraft loaned by the Government, and have received the sum of £12,452 in the form of monetary subsidies. They have trained over five hundred pilots to the A-license standard. During the year 1934–35 113 pilots were trained, and the sum of £3,456 was expended in monetary subsidies.

The following are the clubs in receipt of the Government subsidy:—

Aero Club.Aerodromes at
AucklandMangere (Auckland); Te Rapa (Hamilton).
Western Federated (North Island)New Plymouth; Hawera; Wanganui.
Hawke's Bay and East CoastHastings; Napier; Gisborne.
Wairarapa and RuahineMasterton; Martinborough; Dannevirke.
WellingtonRongotai (Wellington).
MarlboroughBlenheim.
CanterburyRoyal New Zealand Air Force Aerodrome, Wigram (Christchurch); Ashburton.
OtagoMosgiel (Dunedin).
SouthlandInvercargill.
West Coast (South Island) United.Hokitika.

Some of these aerodromes are owned by the cities or boroughs and leased to the aero clubs. In addition, there are a few aero clubs carrying on without Government assistance.

COMMERCIAL AIR TRANSPORT.

Commercial aviation in New Zealand is as yet comparatively undeveloped. Up to the present time most of the activities of this nature have bean confined to air-taxi work, rather than the maintaining of regular schedules over defined routes.

The Customs (Aircraft) Regulations made on 21st October, 1935, provide for the appointment of “Customs aerodromes” as points of entry to or departure from New Zealand, with other necessary provisions in respect of goods and passengers.

Legislation controlling the licensing of commercial aircraft services was introduced in 1934, when the Transport Licensing (Commercial Aircraft Services) Act was passed. Under the provisions of this Act the issuing of licenses is placed under the jurisdiction of the Transport Co-ordination Board, set up under the Transport Law Amendment Act of 1933. All air-transport services must hold licenses under this Act, except those in which aircraft leave from and return to the same aerodrome without any intermediate stop. Licenses may be issued to commercial aircraft companies for the maintaining of regular time-table schedules or for air-taxi work; while special licenses, available for a period of four years from the passing of the Act, may be granted to recognized aero clubs in existence when the legislation came into force.

Licenses permitting the operation of regular scheduled services have been granted by the Transport Co-ordination Board to five companies, as under:—

  • New Zealand Air Travel, Ltd.

  • East Coast Airways, Ltd.

  • Cook Strait Airways, Ltd.

  • Union Airways, Ltd.

  • Pacific Airways, Ltd.

The first two companies have already commenced operations, while the other companies are at present organizing their establishments. Some data regarding the two companies in operation are given below:—

NEW ZEALAND AIR TRAVEL, LTD.

Date commenced operations31st December, 1934.
Number of planes2.
Description of planesD.H. Fox Moths.
Seating-capacity5 (including pilot).
Route and periodicity of serviceHokitika to Franz Joseph Glacier—daily.
  Hokitika to Haast and Okuru—weekly.

The company is authorized to use Inchbonnie, Greymouth, or Hokitika as ports, but in practice the Hokitika aerodrome is the regular starting-off and terminal port. The company operates a regular fortnightly mail-service to Okuru— the first regular air-mail service in New Zealand, and one of the few in the world on which no surcharge is made for air transport of mail.

EAST COAST AIRWAYS, LTD.

Date commenced operations16th April, 1935.
Number of planes2.
Description of planesD.H. Standard Dragons.
Seating-capacity11 (including pilot).
Route and periodicity of serviceGisborne to Napier—two return trips daily.

The company has also been granted an air-taxi license for the carriage of passengers and goods to any part of the North Island, commencing from or terminating at the aerodromes at Gisborne, Napier, or Hastings. It is also permitted to use Hastings as a port in its regular scheduled flights, although at present the service operates between Gisborne and Napier only. This company received the first permit issued by the Transport Co-ordination Board. It commenced active operations, however, some months later than New Zealand Air Travel, Ltd., the recipient of the second permit.

Air-taxi licenses have bean issued by the Transport Co-ordination Board to the following companies:—

  • East Coast Airways, Ltd.

  • New Zealand Airways, Ltd.

  • Waikato Aviation Co., Ltd.

In addition, special air-taxi licenses have been issued to all recognized aero clubs.

New Zealand Airways, Ltd., operates a fleet of five Hermes Spartans and one Puss Moth. It was originally authorized to carry goods and passengers to any part of the South Island, commencing from or terminating at the aerodromes at Timaru or Dunedin.

The Waikato Aviation Co., Ltd., was granted a license to carry out air-taxi work to any part of the North Island, commencing from or terminating at the Hamilton Aerodrome. The company uses one machine—a Desoutter Cabin monoplane, Mark I, which has a seating-capacity of three (including pilot), or, alternatively, may be used as an ambulance plane.

The Transport Co-ordination Board has recently (on 3rd October, 1935) issued a decision prescribing new conditions for air-taxi licenses. These include the fixing of uniform fares and the allowing of flights to all parts of New Zealand. The decision concerns all aero clubs as well as commercial companies.

The Board has decided to amend all the licenses granted for air-taxi services by adding to each the following condition as to fares:—

Minimum fares: One passenger, £3 for each 100 miles; two passengers, £3 10s. for each 100 miles; three passengers, £3 15s. for each 100 miles; four passengers, £4 for each 100 miles; but where the flight takes place between two points served by the same licensed regular service the individual fares shall in no case be less than the fare charged by the licensed service plus 10 per cent.

Previously air-taxi licenses had been limited, restrictions being imposed as to which aerodromes air-taxis might fly to or from, and as to which territories they might fly over. Amendments have been approved cancelling such provisions, thus enabling an aeroplane to fly under air-taxi license between any two licensed aerodromes.

The provisions as to fares, as well as the general nature of flights allowed, are intended to continue for one year from the 1st October, 1935.

AIR MAILS.

In 1920 and 1921 several experimental air-mail services were operated, principally between Auckland and the North and between Christchurch and timaru. These services were not used to a payable extent. Towards the end of 1930 tenders were invited for the conveyance of mail by air once daily each way between Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, but none of the tenders received complied with the conditions.

During 1931–32 a number of special air-mail flights were carried out by arrangement with the New Zealand Air-mail League, the first for over a decade if occasions of national emergency be disregarded.

Several special air-mail flights have been carried out during the last three years. In particular, trans-Tasman crossings with mails have been made on quite a number of occasions—mainly for the purpose of testing the possibilities of maintaining a regular service between New Zealand and Australia. Negotiations are at present in train with a view to establishing such a service, and indications point to the early linking-up of this country with the regular airway services of the world. Air-mail correspondence to the United Kingdom and the Continent is at present carried by ship to Australia, where connection is made with the Imperial Airways service between that country and the United Kingdom.

As mentioned earlier in this section, the only regular air-mail service at present operating within the Dominion is the fortnightly service to South Westland operated by New Zealand Air Travel, Ltd.

Chapter 15. SECTION XV.—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC.

POSTAL BUSINESS.

AT the 31st December, 1934, there were 1,769 post-offices in New Zealand. At the same date there were 2,439 street letter-boxes in the Dominion. The decrease in post-offices in recent years is indicative of the growth of the rural-mail-delivery system (referred to later).

The following table shows the number of articles posted and delivered during each of the last five years.

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Pattern-packets.Newspapers.Parcels.
1930313,148,0589,584,009165,180,05447,644,0986,447,194
1931263,633,9527,609,964151,369,56839,454,9713,415,554
1932246,395,1306,827,012147,208,46733,410,3722,774,416
1933261,979,3127,053,628155,038,05533,775,3893,286,188
1934275,063,9437,499,491167,320,61533,485,8323,460,719

Articles which are posted in New Zealand and delivered in the Dominion as well represent, of course, the great bulk of the business, and such articles are necessarily counted twice in the foregoing table. Separate figures of articles posted and delivered during the year 1934 are as follows:—

 Posted.Delivered.
Letters and letter-cards132,514,732142,549,211
Post-cards3,356,0654,143,420
Books, &c.86,603,45680,717,159
Newspapers14,711,98018,773,852
Parcels1,649,5151,811,204

These figures include registered articles, of which 1,833,936 were posted in the Dominion and 1,925,092 were delivered therein.

The average numbers of letters, &c, posted in the Dominion per head of mean population (including Maoris) during each of the last five years are:—

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Parcels.Newspapers.Total.
1930101.952.9157.8514.13176.84
193183.642.2851.1711.58148.67
193277.492.0251.019.73140.25
193381.801.9951.9910.34146.12
193485.472.1655.869.48152.97

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY.

The rural-mail-delivery system was instituted in the Dominion about 1900, but due to the high comparative cost little progress was made with it until 1922. As from the 1st January of that year a scheme was introduced whereby a nominal fee is charged for this service; the rates are 10s. per annum for a delivery thrice weekly or less frequently, or £1 for a delivery having a greater frequency. These charges do not bear heavily on the farmer, and they enable the Post Office to extend rural-mail-delivery benefits to districts which are without such amenities Every comparatively well-settled district now has its network of deliveries. The rural-mail carrier delivers and collects correspondence and parcels at or near the gates of farmers living sometimes far removed from post-offices, and sells postage stamps and obtains, as required, money-orders and postal notes. In effect, the farmer has what practically amounts to a post-office at his gate.

It is an indication of the popularity of the system that, whereas there were 8,700 rural boxholders in 1920, there were 23,517 on the 31st March, 1935.

OVERSEAS PARCEL-POST.

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and beyond the Dominion have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 22 lb. in weight being sent to Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Fiji, French Settlements of Oceania, Hong Kong, and Tonga, and of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to all other countries of the world. Inland parcels may weigh up to 14 lb.

 Overseas Parcels received.Overseas Para Number.
Year.Number.Weight.Declared Value.Customs Duty.Number.Weight.
  lb.££ lb.
1930278,3822,065,1241,301,121332,79457,276225,456
1931189,2201,330,243744,530202,05045,629163,685
1932151,436999,035603,891147,52842,432147,629
1933142,571929,223549,195116,15944,244164,922
1934154,0921,023,133593,714116,83541,498162,777

The figures show a huge preponderance of inward parcels. Of the parcels received from overseas in 1934 no fewer than 70,183 came from Great Britain (including those from foreign countries via London), while 27,699 came from the United States and 42,854 from Australia and foreign countries via Australia. These countries, to which 14,266, 2,672, and 18,426 parcels respectively were despatched, also ranked highest among countries to which parcels were sent from New Zealand.

NEWSPAPERS.

There are (August, 1935) 309 publications on the New Zealand Register of Newspapers. Of these, some 55 are published daily, 16 being morning papers and 39 evening papers. Twenty appear three times per week, 25 twice per week, 73 weekly, 12 fortnightly, US monthly, and 6 at irregular intervals.

MONEY-ORDERS.

During 1934 money-orders from places beyond New Zealand numbered 35,025 for the amount of £141,163, while those issued in New Zealand for payment overseas numbered 90,513, and represented an aggregate value of £206,353.

  Money-orders issued.Money-orders paid.
Calendar Year.Number of offices at end of Year.NumberValue.Commission.Number.Value.
   ££ £
1930889833,5055,069,62935,604719,1244,711,217
1931886714,4783,993,03540,704641,5083,838,829
1932878648,9513,335,55231,629592,8433,264,578
1933875635,6743,112,72938,772587,6843,112,194
1934873654,6213,209,71342,310598,3163,157,703

POSTAL NOTES.

The popularity of the postal-note system for remitting small amounts is clearly illustrated in the table (given below:—

  Postal Notes issued.Postal Notes paid.
Yew ended 31st March,Number of Offices at end of Year.Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
   ££ £
19311,1203,907,2881,128,80726,0333,916,9711,106,918
19321,1072,884,654952,44422,7042,964,928941,990
19331,1002,686,648958,37323,9022,668,697930,355
19341,0972,883,0701,061,94626,2492,853,0541,027,434
19351,1013,325,5611,140,69529,0773,301,0491,105,793

British postal orders issued in the Dominion during the year ended 31st March, 1935, numbered 72,971, of a value of £33,978. Those paid numbered 27,978, and represented £14,651.

TELEGRAPH AND TOLL SERVICES.

Up to the 31st March, 1935, a total sum of £9,732,680 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1934–35 was £135,933.

There were 12,166 miles of telegraph and toll pole line in existence at the end of March, 1935, carrying 64,939 miles of wire.

During the year ended 31st March, 1935, the revenue from telegrams and toll communications was £728,686, to which should be added £1,190,773 revenue of telephone exchanges and £39,254 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £1,958,713.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Telegrams and Toll Messages forwarded during the Year.Revenue (including Miscellaneous Receipts).Value of Government Messages.*Value of Business done during the Year.
Paid.Free* Government.TotalTelegraph and Toll.Telephone Exchange.
*Urgent marine telegrams: no payment received.
    ££££
193117,185,44437,01817,222,462886,2211,238,6492,9542,127,824
193214,132,95333,45014,166,403752,6051,218,0723,4081,974,085
193313,105,55732,20913,137,766730,7651,169,5123,2961,903,573
193413,255,59131,71213,287,303740,9461,164,7113,2891,908,946
193514,038,55631,45714,070,013767,9401,190,7732,6671,961,380

From the 19th September, 1935, a new system of charging for telegrams operated throughout New Zealand. The principal change is the abolition of the differential “zone” system, instituted in 1934; all telegrams, regardless of distance, now being charged on the same scale.

For ordinary telegrams the charge is a flat rate of one penny per word, with a minimum charge of sixpence.

The charge for letter-telegrams is a flat rate of one shilling for twenty-four words, and one penny for each additional two words.

The additional charge of sixpence remains the same for urgent telegrams, irrespective of the number of words contained in the telegram or of the distance the telegram requires to be transmitted.

(Letter-telegrams are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment.)

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE.

Telephone facilities are extensively utilized in New Zealand. According to data compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. as for the 1st January, 1934, New Zealand ranks third in number of telephone per 100 of population. Leading countries in this respect are: United States c America, 13.29; Canada, 11T5; New Zealand, 10.21; Denmark, 9.99; Sweden 9.51; Switzerland, 8.81; Australia, 7.35; Norway, 7.00; Hawaii, 5.78; Unite Kingdom, 4.78; Germany, 4.48; Netherlands, 4.14.

At the 31st March, 1935, there were 349 telephone exchanges in the Dominion. Of this number 330 are of the magneto type, 2 common battery, and 17 automatic The automatic exchanges are: Whangarei, Auckland, Hamilton, Hastings, Dannevirke, Stratford, Hawera, Wanganui, Marton, Palmerston North, Masterton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Blenheim, Christchurch, Oamaru, and Dunedin.

The following statement shows the automatic-exchange equipment installed and in use in the Dominion on the 31st March, 1935:—

 Capacity of Equipment installed. NoNo.Equipment in use. No.
Individual lines73,500 50,271
Party-lines—   
 Two-party3,600 2,693
 Four-party2,200 1,524
Multi-party450 331
Individual-line stations 50,749 
Party-line stations 10,621 
Total of main stations 61,370 
Extension stations 21,766 
Total number of automatic-telephone stations connected83,136 

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service during the last ten years:—

1925.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935
Exchanges349349349349349349349
Subscribers, main stations94,371126,763127,606125,826120,511119,689121,841
Toll and service stations3,8823,9463,9123,9643,9824,0294,107
Public call offices380679735745750787796
Extension stations16,91625,63525,51426,43726,51427,17828,663
Telephone-station totals115,549157,023157,767156,972151,757151,683155,407

The total number of telephone-stations shows an increase of 39,858, or 34 per cent., during the period. The increase in subscribers' stations amounted to 27,470 or about 32 per cent., while extension stations show an increase of 11,747, or over 69 per cent. The demand for public call offices is clearly revealed in the table, these showing an increase from 380 in 1925 to 796 in 1935. The gradual increase in the number of subscribers' stations revealed during the latter half of the financial year 1933–34 has been steadily maintained and on the 31st March, 1935, the total was only 2,360 less than that of the peak year 1930–31.

In addition to the above, there are 3,763 stations connected by private telephone-lines with departmental toll-stations, making a grand total of 159,170 telephone-stations in New Zealand on the 31st March, 1935.

The “party” line system of telephone service is being largely availed of, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March, 1935, the number of party-line connections was 12,074, with a total of 46,033 stations.

The first public call offices (coin-in-the-slot telephones) erected in the Dominion were installed at Wellington in August, 1910. Of the total of 796 such instruments in use in the Dominion at the 31st March, 1935, the charge in 751 cases is Id.; in six, 2d.; and in thirty-nine, 3d. The revenue of slot telephones during the year ended 31st March, 1935, was £11,687.

The telephone-exchange system included on the 31st March, 1935, 15,383 miles of pole line and 54S,186 miles of wire.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &c., of the telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1935, was £8,465,054, equal to an average cost of £549s. 5d. for each connection.

RADIO COMMUNICATION.

GOVERNMENT STATIONS.

The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on the 26th July, 1911.

There are now 21 stations under the control of the New Zealand Government, the principal being those at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Apia in Western Samoa, at Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations on the mainland or on adjacent islands are those at Kawau Island, Milford Sound, Stephens Island, Puysegur Point, and Portland Island, while there is a radio beacon station at Cape Maria van Diemen Lighthouse.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga-Radio through small feeder-stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, and Mauke. Small stations at Aleipata, Fagamalo, Fakaofo, Salailua, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia-Radio, while Niue communicates with both Apia-Radio and Wellington-Radio.

By means of the radio-stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the three last-mentioned stations having direct communication with New Zealand. Wellington-Radio has also direct communication with Papeete-Radio (Tahiti) and Nukualofa (Tonga).

The radio business transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the last five years was as follows:—

 Forwarded.Received.
Year ended 31st March,Messages.Words.Value.Messages.Words.Value.*
* Amount earned by New Zealand.
   £  £
193112,959150,6735,10023,130259,9764,331
19328,88895,9263,34416,865174,1353,150
19338,59195,1923,39414,543142,6502,689
19348,960103,6253,57215,131160,1053,142
19359,688129,2343,87416,485189,6073,885

The foregoing table does not include free (service) messages.

The charge for the transmission of an ordinary radio-telegram to or from ships registered in New Zealand or Australia, or engaged exclusively in trading between these two countries, is 6d. per word. The rate for transmission to other vessels is lld. per word, with the exceptions that messages to His Majesty's ships are charged for at the rate of 3d. per word, and messages to vessels engaged in the Wellington-Lyttelton steamer-express service at the rate of 2½d. per word. Ship stations registered in New Zealand numbered 55 at 31st March, 1935.

PRIVATE STATIONS.

Private radio-stations are governed by the Radio Regulations which were gazetted on the 21st July, 1932.

The licenses for radio receiving-stations are designed to provide for reception from radio-telephone broadcasting stations as well as for experimental reception, and may be obtained at any postal money-order office on payment of the prescribed fee

The licenses for private experimental (amateur) stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued subject to the qualifications of the applicants being satisfactory.

The licenses for private experimental (research) stations are intended to provide facilities for the work of pure research in radio science, and are issued only to persons of recognized attainment in the theory or practice of radio-telegraphy, or to universities or other scientific institutions engaged in conducting experiments for the development of the science of radio-telegraphy.

The part of the regulations relating to “Radio-dealers” is intended to provide for the proper control of the sale of apparatus designed and intended for use in connection with wireless telegraphy.

RADIO BROADCASTING.

The regulations governing radio-telephone broadcasting are designed to render the broadcasting of music, lectures, religious services, news, and other items of interest as widely available as possible. Prior to the 1st January, 1932, the broadcasting service was provided, under agreement with the Postmaster-General, by the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand, Ltd. The service is now provided by the New Zealand Broadcasting Board, appointed under the provisions of the Broadcasting Act, 1931, and the Broadcasting Amendment Act, 1934–35. The Board maintains stations at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The major portion of the fees collected from listeners is paid to the Board. Additional services are provided by privately-owned stations operating independently of the Board; these, which are known as private broadcasting-stations, at present number twenty-three, situated at Auckland (2), Balclutha, Christchurch, Cromwell, Dunedin (4), Gisborne (2), Greymouth, Hamilton, Hastings, Invercargill, Manurewa, Masterton, Napier, Nelson, New Plymouth, Palmerston North (2), and Wairoa. The Broadcasting Board subsidizes private stations at Cromwell, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Napier, Masterton, Greymouth, and Invercargill.

The following are the particulars of the stations operated by the New Zealand Broadcasting Board as at the 31st March, 1935:—

Power Input to Aerial.Frequency (Kilocycles).
 Watts. 
1YA, Auckland10,000650
1YX, Auckland150880
2YA, Wellington5,000570
2YC, Wellington250840
3YA, Christchurch3,000720
3YL, Christchurch2501,200
4YA, Dunedin500790
4YO, Dunedin2001,140

The higher-powered stations furnish the main broadcasting service in the respective cities, and the other stations provide an alternative service in each case. The main stations transmit almost continuously on week-days from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m., and on Sundays from 9 a.m. to 12.15 p.m., 1 to 4.30 p.m., and 6 to 10 p.m., while the alternative stations transmit from 5 to 6 p.m. and 7 to 10 p.m. on week-days, and 6 to 10 p.m. on Sundays.

The number of radio licenses issued in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1935, was as follows. The license fee for a receiving-station was reduced from £1 10s. to £1 5s. per annum from the 1st April, 1935.

Receiving-stations.Transmitting-stations.Radio-dealers.Total.
Auckland46,77619542049,391
Wellington57,18038940457,973
Canterbury27,85018423028,273
Otago21,00210815121,261
Totals152,8088761,214156,898

The numbers of licensed receiving - stations during the last nine years have been: 18,162; 39,315; 44,810; 53,407; 62,713; 74,980; 93,489; 118,086; 152,808.

The total revenue derived from the issue of radio licenses in the year 1934–36 was £220,763 12s. 7d. allocated as follows:—

 £s.d.
New Zealand Broadcasting Board175,938163
Post and Telegraph Department40,20154
Amalgamated Wireless Australasia, Ltd. (royalty)4,023110

OCEAN CABLES.

The Pacific cable, opened for traffic between New Zealand and Australia and Fiji on the 9th April, 1902, was completed to Bamfield, Vancouver Island, on the 31st October following, and opened for international business on the 8th December, 1902.

The route is from Auckland to Vancouver, via Norfolk Island, Fiji, and Fanning Island. The Australian connection is at Norfolk Island. The deep-sea portion of the Vancouver - Fanning Island cable is stated to be the longest in the world.

Direct communication between Auckland and Sydney was established on the 31st December, 1912, thus giving the Pacific Cable Board an alternative route to Australia.

Additional facilities were provided between New Zealand and Fiji by the laying, by the Pacific Cable Board, of a new cable between Auckland and Suva. The work was completed on the 12th August, 1923. The duplication of the two northern sections—Vancouver to Fanning Island and Fanning Island to Fiji—was completed on the 20th November, 1926. These new sections were opened for traffic on the 18th December, 1926.

The Pacific Cable Board and the Eastern Extension, Australasia, and China Telegraph Co., Ltd., previously controlling the two cable systems connecting New Zealand with overseas countries were, together with certain cable and wireless services in existence in other British countries, in 1929 absorbed in a merger company now known as Cable and Wireless, Ltd. As a result, the Eastern Co.'s station at Wellington, the New Zealand terminal of the “Eastern” cable, was closed on the 31st May, 1932, from which date all cable traffic to and from New Zealand has been handled by the Pacific cable office at Auckland, where the Pacific cable terminates. One of the two “Eastern” cables previously in use between Wellington and Sydney has been diverted to Auckland, while a portion of the second cable—extending from Wellington to a point several miles out to sea—has been picked up. The remaining portion has been left intact, and could again be brought into use if required.

The length of submarine cable in use in connection with the inland telegraph and telephone services is 346 nautical miles, containing 2,319 nautical miles of conductors.

STAFF

The huge volume and multifarious nature of the business of the Post and Telegraph Department entail the employment of a large staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, with the Director-General as executive head.

The staff at 31st March, 1935, was as follows: Permanent, 8,685; temporary, 188: total, 8,873. In addition there are 1,658 country postmasters and telephonists who act as such in conjunction with other pursuits and do not rank as officers of the Department. There are also 86 officers of the Railways Department who act as postmasters.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the last two financial years are shown in the following table:—

RECEIPTS.1933–34.1934–35.
 ££
Postages911,194937,041
Money-order and postal-note commission56,45059,544
Private-box and bag rents and rural delivery fees46,22448,328
Miscellaneous receipts340,318378,606
Paid telegrams271,879280,123
Paid tolls409,638448,563
Telephone exchanges1,164,7111,190,773
Totals£3,200,414£3,342,978
PAYMENTS.££
Salaries1,465,1211,569,498
Conveyance of mails by sea85,28484,234
Conveyance of inland mails128,174119,247
Conveyance of mails by railway76,57979,463
Maintenance of telegraph and telephone lines80,46173,027
Depreciation Fund36,73981,864
Motor services and workshops20,35528,319
Miscellaneous202,887262,902
Interest on capital liability553,000546,000
Totals£2,648,600£2,844,554

The year 1934–35 commenced with a credit balance of £36,954. Of the gross balance of £535,378 at the end of the year, £13,000 was paid to the Consolidated Fund as profits and £485,000 invested in the Renewal and Replacement of Assets Fund, leaving £37,378 to be carried forward.

Receipts and payments for the past ten years are shown by the following figures:—

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.
* Excluding payment to Depreciation Fund and interest on capital liability, which were first included in expenditure in 1928–29.
 ££
19263 100,3972,409,557
19273,220,6662,346,274
19283,329,5112,299,571
19293,445,5452,442,158*
19303,641,6202,630,199*
19313,707,4202,642,400*
19323,715,2292,164,538*
19333,293,9322,019,301*
19343,200,4142,O58,861*
19353,342,9772,216,690*

Chapter 16. SECTION XVI.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

SURVEYS.

THE surveys of Crown lands, Native lands, and land purchased under the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, or the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands, and are carried out by staff and contract surveyors registered by the Survey Board constituted under the Surveyors Registration Act, 1928.

In respect of surveys for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act, an additional and special license under the hand of the Surveyor-General is required, in terms of section 177 of the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

Any surveyor or other person, in pursuance of the written authority of the Surveyor-General or of the Chief Surveyor of the district, may enter upon Native land for survey purposes (vide section 501 of the Native Land Act, 1931).

Authority for a surveyor and his assistant to enter on any land for the purpose of making a survey under the Public Works Act must be obtained from the Minister of Public Works, the Minister of Lands, the Surveyor-General or his Deputy, or the local body, as the case may be.

Regulations for conducting the survey of the Dominion lands are made by the Survey Board in terms of the Surveyors' Registration Act, 1928. Power is conferred on the Surveyor-General to make necessary rules.

The Surveyor-General is the custodian of the legal standards of length for survey purposes. All measurements of land affecting titles are to be expressed in terms of the chain of 100 links, and all areas in acres, roods, perches, and decimals of a perch.

Full information as to the New Zealand system of survey will be found in the 1929 number of the Year-Book (pp. 438–44).

OCCUPATION OF LAND.

The total area of the Dominion, excluding the Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901, but inclusive of the Kermadec Islands and the “outlying islands,” since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,196 acres. Of this total, 43,104,559 acres were returned in 1935 as being in occupation, including reserves and Native lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Native land held on the communal system.

According to information published by the Lands Department, the following is the condition of the land in the Dominion as at the 31st March, 1935 :—

 Acres.
Total area sold or granted and held on freehold21,533,190
Total area reserved for public purposes15,519,303
Total area of Crown lands leased under all tenures (exclusive of reserves leased by the Crown)17,732,005
Total area of Crown land available for future disposal1,875,599
Total area of Native land4,547,334
Land unfit for settlement, including rivers, lakes, roads, &c.5,182,765
Total60,390,196

The numbers of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation in groups of sizes, as returned at the last five collections available, are given below—

 Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
Area, In Acres.1930.1932.1933.1934.1935.1930.1932.1933.1934.1935.
1 and under 1013,029ll,13310,98410,94511,01415.3013.4213.1112.9712.98
10 and under 5014,43514,19314,45914,64914,73916.9517.1117.2017.3617.37
50 and under 10011,35011,47511,74312,00812,15713.3313.8314.0214.2314.33
100 and under 20015,17215,27715,65515,89816,06917.8118.4118'6818.8418.93
200 and under 3209,4099,3939,4819,5009,53311.0511.3211.3211.2611.23
320 and under 64010,33010,25310,23910,20010,20912.1312.3612.2212.0912.03
640 and under 1,0004,2574,1684,1844,1754,1515.005.024.994.954.89
1,000 and under 5,0006,1056,0315,9865,9445,9417.177.277.147.057.00
5,000 and under 10,0005525455515515550.650.660.660.650.65
10,000 and under 20,0003062942952952940.360.350.350.350.35
20,000 and under 50,0001621521481491480.190.180.180.180.17
50,000 and over54545554570.060.070.070.070.07
Totals85,16782,90883,78084,36884,867100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Seventy-five per cent, of the holdings are seen to be not more than one-half a square mile in area. These, however, represent only 14 per cent, of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion. Sixty-eight per cent, of the occupied land is held in areas of over 1,000 acres, and 41 per cent, in areas of over 5,000 acres.

Sizes of Holdings, in Acres.1930.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
l and under 1056,03050,71450,63950,71051,162
10 and under 50354,963358,070363,884369,525372,315
50 and under 100814,829830,099847,592866,412878,596
100 and under 2002,118,9632,142,5792,190,9912,224,0722,247,660
200 and under 3202,350,7632,352,5832,369,4322,378,2612,387,045
320 and under 6404,676,1664,637,0134,621,7604,616,4504,620,674
640 and under 1,0003,394,2153,324,0483,322,4743,322,3973,300,499
1,000 and under 5,00011,844,34511,728,92911,629,70411,519,98311,592,077
5,000 and under 10,0003,740,0043,693,3433,754,1233,771,2743,805,669
10,000 and under 20,0004,251,8954,113,1604,146,1064,115,5524,110,362
20,000 and under 50,0004,942,7704,735,7604,555,1864,568,1094,549,725
50,000 and over4,823,7104,762,4514,821,5034,839,0635,188,775
Total43,368,65342,728,74942,673,39442,643,00843,104,559

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS.

The following table gives for the last five years the number of holdings in the Dominion classified according to purpose for which used. Figures exclude borough holdings and holdings under 1 acre in extent.

Class of Holding.Area, 1929–30. (Latest available.)Number of Holdings.
1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 Acres.Per Cent.     
Dairy-farming.3,484,6468.0436,31138,39538,54542,57941,898
Sheep-farming29,673,22068.4217,30515,86114,73114,49816,572
Mixed agricultural and sheep-farming1,992,0234.594,6544,4115,2404,9504,296
Mixed dairying and sheep-farming2,801,1626.466,6007,4207,3416,8365,938
General mixed farming421,4310.973,0084,0273,9883,3362,963
Fruitgrowing37,2790.081,5781,3311,4401,4411,411
Market-gardening10,8590.039661,0791,020970906
Poultry-farming2,8940.01400217269250276
Nurseries and seed-gardens1,364..9572785871
Timber-growing322,3160.741461239598121
Flax-growing45,9760.116241363228
Idle and unused1,898,7154.384,2603,0092,7593,0592,937
Other and unspecified2,676,7626.178,4316,9828,2386,2617,450
Totals43,368,653100.0083,81682,96883,78084,36884,867

TENURE OF OCCUPIED LANDS.

Land in occupation as at 31st January in each of the last two years, tabulated according to tenure, is given in the following table. Freehold land includes land held, on deferred payment, if occupied by the owner.

 1934.1935.
Land District.Freehold.Leasehold.Total Holdings.Freehold.Leasehold.Total Holdings.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland2,295,760697,0222,992,7822,338,192691,1523,029,344
Auckland2,941,8891,252,7134,194,6023,402,4971,219,2544,621,751
Gisborne1,369,6831,242,9322,612,6151,310,1081,327,0552,637,163
Hawke's Bay1,404,198677,6292,081,8271,383,101690,8242,073,925
Taranaki901,369690,0781,591,447908,901678,1041,587,005
Wellington3,410,1341,473,8504,883,9843,413,5491,471,8724,885,421
Nelson629,235611,1131,240,348631,627605,9601,237,587
Marlborough795,9511,662,5562,458,507797,8791,632,6052,430,384
Westland168,2951,065,3371,233,632153,0111,083,3261,236,337
Canterbury3,129,3854,976,7078,106,0923,154,8894,957,7708,112,659
Otago1,663,4136,341,8088,005,2211,653,8066,353,0338,006,839
Southland1,466,8511,775,1003,241,9511,475,4471,770,6973,246,144
Totals20,176,16322,466,84542,643,00820,623,00722,481,55243,104,658

Lands in occupation are not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown. It must also be remembered that not all of the freehold land in the Dominion is in occupation, while (as stated previously) holdings within borough boundaries or under one acre in extent are excluded from the annual statistics.

CONDITION OF OCCUPIED LAND.

The land in occupation in the Dominion at the 31st January, 1935, was classified according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.Per Cent. of Total.
* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.
In grain and pulse crops641,205*1.49*
In green and root crops682,828*1.58*
In fallow115,8320.27
In sown grasses and clovers—  
 Cut for hay, seed, or ensilage657,7711.52
 Not cut for hay, seed, or ensilage16,501,81138.28
In vineyards and orchards25,5200.06
In passion-fruit vines244..
In hop-vines590..
In market gardens, nurseries, and seed-gardens8,5600.02
In tung trees4,7800.01
In private gardens and pleasure-grounds81,6940.19
In plantations781,6841.82
   Total area in cultivation19,502,51945.24
Unimproved land23,602,04054.76
Total area in occupation43,104,559100.00

Further details of land in cultivation and of the various crops grown are given under their respective headings in Subsection B of the next section. Unimproved lands are not again referred to, and accordingly a table is appended showing by land districts more detailed information as to the condition of unimproved occupied land in January, 1935.

Land District.Phormium (New Zealand Flax).Tussock and other Native Grasses.Fern, Scrub, and Second Growth.Standing Virgin Bush.Barren and Unproductive Land.Total Unimproved Occupied Land.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland9,104153,074743,204302,16762,8791,270,428
Auckland24,658166,7591,016,460454,22942,1561,704,262
Gisborne66492,688193,831246,52017,703551,406
Hawke's Bay219349,366157,97850,51126,852584,926
Taranaki43414,099174,301206,3549,811104,990
Wellington8,207472,535377,476307,43194,7991,260,448
Nelson2,645246,106281,626302,05637,839870,272
Marlborough3,6121,221,761265,489166,980368,8492,026,691
Westland6,884145,273138,775666,549128,6611,086,142
Canterbury2,1604,571,453116,906162,733548,5505,401,802
Otago3,8345,384,804417,022293,990409,5446,509,194
Southland10,4021,366,135296,695124,634133,6131,931,479
Totals72,82314,184,0444,179,7633,284,1541,881,25623,602,040

SCENIC RESERVES, PUBLIC DOMAINS, AND NATIONAL PARKS.

The consolidating Scenery Preservation Act, 1908, with its amendments of 1910, 1915, 1926, and 1933, contains the major legislation dealing with the reservation of land, Crown or private, for scenic, thermal, or historic reserves. The Act is administered by a Scenery Preservation Board through the Department of Lands and Survey.

The Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, is also a consolidation of earlier measures. For the purposes of this Act public reserves do not include education reserves (vide next subsection), scenic reserves (supra), State forests (vide Section XVIII.—Forestry), land reserved under the Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1908, or reserves under the Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act, 1908. The Act declares the general right of the public to free access to recreational reserves, but gives limited powers—extended by the Local Authorities Empowering (Aviation Encouragement) Act, 1929—to charge for admission.

Any public reserve for health or recreation purposes vested in or acquired by the Crown may be declared a public domain. Public domains are generally administered by Domain Boards, many of which comprise already existing local authorities. Domain Boards may purchase land, and land may also be taken for recreation-grounds under the Public Works Act, 1928. In certain limited instances power is given to charge for admission to public domains.

National parks are administered by National Park Boards, which have power, subject to Ministerial approval, to fix fees for camping or picnicking within the parks.

The following areas are as at 31st March, 1935 :—

 Number.Acres.
Reserves under Scenery Preservation Act965671,500
Public domains76975,450
National parks82,986,750

No figures are available for the “public reserves” referred to above, which comprise a highly miscellaneous group, ranging from gravel-pits to climatological reserves. The area of reserves controlled by local authorities also is not available, but the estimated value of reserves, gardens, cemeteries, &c, of local-governing authorities in March, 19:14, was approximately £3,000,000. As noted above, certain local authorities control public domains.

The historic site of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, together with 1,000 acres (with an additional 1,400 acres subsequently) of the adjoining estate, was purchased and presented to the nation as a national monument by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe in May, 1932.

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Under the land transfer system introduced in 1870 the title to land is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land Transfer Department assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

The Land Transfer system of title by registration has great advantages over the older system of title by deeds, even when the deeds are duly registered. The state of a Land Transfer title can be ascertained by a search of the register with very much greater facility than can the state of a title under the other system, and the powers vested in Registrars under the Land Transfer Act enable them to keep the register simple, clear, and free from doubts; the simplicity of searching and of the preparation of instruments under the Land Transfer system enables transactions with land under that system to be carried out at less cost than under the other system; and under the Land Transfer system there is the State guarantee of a practically indefeasible title, as mentioned previously.

These considerations led to the passing in 1924 of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, which has for its object the bringing under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, 1915, of all land alienated by the Crown and not already under the provisions of that Act, except lands held by aboriginal Natives of New Zealand under their customs and usages.

The work of bringing all land titles under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act as required by the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924, is still being proceeded with, and has been completed, except in the Districts of Auckland and Otago, and except in the case of a few titles in other districts that it has been considered unwise to deal with at present owing to grave doubts as to ownership, or for some other reason. Steady progress is shown in the Auckland and Otago Districts, but it will be some time yet before the work in these districts is completed.

DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it.

Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production.

The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees.

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the last ten years is given in the following statement:—

Year ended 31st March.Deeds recorded.Fees. £
192628,78425,649
192722,58520,104
192816,52315,215
192913,92512,622
193012,83411,601
1931.8,6607,746
19324,7454,314
19333,6163,081
19342,7972,610
19352,3192,217

LAND TRANSFER.

Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last ten years is given in the next table :—

Year ended 31st March.Applications.
Number.Area.Value.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
192642219425,720989,404
192727117517,983677,364
19282441263,689723,957
1929204868,084575,525
1930133728,238501,898
1931834924,353278,652
19324212755139,566
193326122,02338,280
193428330213,477
19352331,09315,725

The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last ten years. Included in the totals are those certificates issued in lieu of Crown grants, 550 being the number for 1934–35. Also included in the numbers are certificates (3,136 in 1934–35) issued compulsorily under the Act of 1924.

CERTIFICATES OF TITLE ISSUED.

Year ended 31st March,Number.
192623,654
192725,088
192824,383
192922,630
193020,535
193118,189
193214,798
193312,304
193411,354
193510,934

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last ten years:—

TRANSFERS REGISTERED.

Year ended 31st March,Number.Area.Consideration-money.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
192636,0388,6682,007,45135,195,960
192734,1068,0952,058,66632,338,860
192831,1418,1881,892,81930,157,665
192930,7607,5992,161,09631,155,226
193032,1127,7501,697,20830,832,305
193125,6266,8631,474,04022,068,814
193216,9434,1131,214,54013,205,708
193315,3814,161990,50711,015,434
193415,7604,1931,017,6129,551,205
193518,6284,6841,186,61712,197,376

Monthly statistics of transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act are given from April, 1934, onwards in the table which follows, a distinction being made between town and suburban transactions on the one hand and country transactions on the other.

Month.Town and Suburban Properties.Country Properties.All Properties.
Number.Consideration.Number.Consideration.Number.Consideration.
  1934–35.   
  £ £ £
April777332,551317487,4891,094820,040
May1,172510,152493603,0421,6651,113,194
June1,127426,970445544,9911,572971,961
July1,087407,383498678,5271,5851,085,910
August1,234605,642518715,0331,7521,320,675
September1,120433,512405563,5911,525997,103
October1,325583,215473580,9001,7981,164,115
November1,288459,195497562,5511,7851,021,746
December1,217499,202413626,2301,6301,125,432
January769260,847270346,8191,039607,666
February1,119393,544350476,0311,469870,175
March1,252494,612462604,7471,7141,099,359
 Year 1934–3513,4875,400,8255,1416,790,55118,62812,197,376
  1935–36.    
April1,144539,537374614,2811,5181,153,818
May1,261600,627496621,5651,7571,222,192
June1,297626,516479660,1011,7761,286,677
July1,602651,813661843,2852,2631,495,098
August1,593656,424612811,7112,2051,468,135
September1,528591,330502598,9072,0301,190,243

Information as to mortgages registered under the Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Acts is contained in the section of this book dealing with mortgages.

SUBSECTION B.—CROWN LANDS.

ADMINISTRATION.

THE Crown lands are administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1924, the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, by the Minister of Lands at Wellington, his executive officer being the Under-Secretary of Lands, who is the permanent head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into twelve land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner of Crown Lands and a Land Board.

Commissioners of Crown Lands are executive officers of the land districts, having large discretionary powers under the Act. Each is the Chairman of the Land Board of his district, and transacts all its routine business in the sale, letting, and occupation of Crown lands. A Land Board consists of five members—viz., the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district, three members nominated by the Governor-General, and one member elected by the Crown tenants of the district.

The Boards transact all business connected with the sale, letting, disposal, and occupation of Crown lands, and all matters connected with the management and control of the public lands in their hands. They are the sole judges of the fulfilment of conditions in leases and licenses, and they can declare them forfeit.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND

A selector may purchase for cash, or on deferred payment, or may select on renewable lease. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and may apply for Crown land solely for his own use and benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person. Including the land he applies for, he is not to be the owner, holder, or occupier under any tenure of more than one year's duration, either severally or jointly or in common with any other person or persons, of any land anywhere in New Zealand exceeding in the whole 5,000 acres of land, computed as follows :—

  1. Every acre of first-class land is reckoned as 7½ acres;

  2. Every acre of second-class land is reckoned as 2½ acres;

  3. Every acre of third-class land is reckoned as 1 acre.

Crown land may be selected and occupied under the following tenures and systems :—

  1. Town, suburban, and village lands—

    1. For cash and deferred payment, by public auction;

    2. By lease for terms up to ten years;

    3. By renewable lease for thirty-three years.

  2. Rural land (unimproved), (under optional system)—

    1. For cash, by application;

    2. Purchase by deferred payment;

    3. Renewable lease for sixty-six years.

  3. Village settlements—

    • Under the three foregoing tenures of optional system.

  4. Special settlements (rural land)—

    • On renewable lease for sixty-six years and under special regulations.

  5. Land-for-settlement estates (improved rural and pastoral land)—

    1. Under renewable lease for thirty-three years, with right to acquire freehold of 400 acres of first-class land, 1,200 acres of second-class land, or 3,000 acres of third-class land;

    2. For cash or on deferred payment, by auction.

  6. Pastoral land—

    1. By small-grazing-run lease for twenty-one years, with right of renewal (maximum area, 20,000 acres);

    2. By pastoral license on terms up to thirty-live years.

  7. Land within mining districts—

    1. On pastoral licenses under special regulations, with right to acquire the freehold or exchange to a renewable lease;

    2. On occupation leases under special regulations, with similar rights as to purchase of freehold and exchange.

  8. Miscellaneous—

    1. Temporary occupation on terms up to five years;

    2. Sale or occupation for special purposes;

    3. Outlying land.

By the passing of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1926, it was provided that after the 9th September, 1926, no more Crown lands were to be disposed of under the occupation-with-right-of-purchase tenure, and that any lands which might have been as disposed of could be disposed of by way of sale on deferred payment in addition to the other modes of disposal provided by the Land Act.

Full particulars are given in the Crown Lands Guide, issued periodically and obtainable at any land office, as to the conditions of lease and occupation. Improvements to a certain value are required to be effected on rural land purchased for cash or on deferred payment or held on renewable lease, and residence is compulsory for certain periods on most Crown leaseholds.

DISPOSAL OF ENDOWMENTS AND RESERVES.

National endowments may be disposed of under renewable lease, small-grazing-run lease, or pastoral license. These lands are occupied on the same conditions as ordinary Crown lands.

Owners of renewable leases and small-grazing-run leases of national-endowment lands now have the right to acquire the fee-simple of their holdings on the conditions provided by the Act pertaining to each class of lease. A pastoral licensee of national-endowment land, if the area is not more than sufficient for the maintenance of the licensee and his family, can acquire the fee-simple.

Education endowments are available for leasing under the Education Reserves Act, 19928 which permits of a lease being granted under the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, well as under the Land Act, 1924. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

Public reserves not vested in trustees or a local authority may be leased under the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, for any term not exceeding twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LAND DEVELOPMENT.

The Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929, deals chiefly with the promotion of settlement on undeveloped Crown lands. Power is given for the Crown to develop idle Crown lands, and also for the making of advances to Crown tenants holding undeveloped country for the erection of buildings, purchase of stock (the latter since the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932), and for clearing, grassing, fencing, &c. Settlers taking up unimproved sections may apply for financial assistance up to £1,250 each, the payments to he made as improvements are effected. The rate of interest has been fixed at 6 per cent., subject to the temporary reductions imposed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Crown tenants already in occupation of land coming under the designation of undeveloped are also eligible to apply for development advances. Loans approved to 31st March, 1935. numbered 488, totalling £210,546, while in addition £339,110 has been expended by the State in the roading, surveying, and development of various blocks of land to be opened for settlement.

LANDS OPENED FOR SELECTION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1935, an area of 167,091 acres of land was offered for selection under the various tenures provided by the Land Act, Land for Settlements Act, and Education Reserves Act.

Under renewable lease an area of 78,604 acres was offered, 15,243 acres being national endowment. 27,154 acres land for settlements, and 35,253 acres ordinary Crown lands. An area of 23,639 acres of ordinary Crown land was offered under the optional system. The pastoral-run area comprised 39,435 acres.

In addition to the above a total area of 3,857 acres of Crown, settlement, and national-endowment lands was set apart for selection by discharged soldiers, under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act and the Land for Settlements Act and the special tenures of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. Fuller particulars regarding these lands will be found at the end of this subsection.

The total selections during the year covered an area of 302,915 acres, by 1,036 selectors. These figures include, however, 170 purchases of small town, suburban, and rural lands, aggregating 12,878 acres, offered for sale at auction. The ordinary Crown lands holdings represented 228,273 acres; land for settlements and Cheviot Estate, 21,915 acres; national endowment, 35,489 acres; educational endowments, 4,145 acres; and other endowments, 215 acres. Selections by discharged soldiers are included in the foregoing totals.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.

Areas under this heading include all lands sold for cash or selected on the deferred-payment system, small grazing-runs, and leases under the following tenures : Renewable lease, mining districts land occupation leases, educational-endowment leases, and pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations.

Year ended 31st March,Sold for Cash.Deferred- payment LicensesLeases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small Grazing-runs.Totals.
  NUMBER.  
193121625056131,030
19321661584872813
19331141354773729
19341531273122594
193517086266..522
  AREA (ACRES).  
19317,42726,050147,3185,403180,198
19324,41337,278138,2706,525186,486
19332,0329,583112,98127,431152,027
19342,7208,62069,09021,020102,068
193512,8783,88081,328 98,092

CROWN LAND HELD OR MADE FREEHOLD.

The following table shows the position at 31st March, 1935:—

    Total Area made Freehold.
Tenure.Total Number of Selectors.Total Area held from the Crown.Total Yearly Rental or Instalment payable.Number of Purchasers.Area.
* Excluding “cash lands”
  Acres.£ Acres.
Cash lands........13,291,798
Deferred payments3,920527,44293,66911,6441,339,786
Perpetual leases1606,5099613,109865,003
Occupation with right of purchase2,903819,45269,7515,1001,299,906
Lease in perpetuity7,4481,561,216188,6703,259540,205
Renewable lease9,1932,630,333455,72036863,288
Agricultural lease9282211,408140,896
Mining districts land occupation leases72418,4232,0491564,944
Homestead......6180,453
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations572122,8223,1119719,372
Small grazing-runs7812,538,300105,4996273,383
Pastoral runs6048,830,02088,454723,412
Hanmer Crown leases68279200....
Miscellaneous licenses6,7901,077,31040,18414013,388
Totals33,18318,133,0481,048,28925,411*17,755,834
Thermal-springs leases (Rotorua)2981,9411,82032248
Education endowments —     
 Primary3,657778,340116,93856,736
 Secondary47839,88712,336....
   Totals4,433820,168131,094376,984
Grand totals37,61618,953,2101,179,38325,44817,702,818
Other endowment lands654323,56018,29076,350

National-endowment lands are included in the above table in the figures for the various tenures under which they are held. National-endowment lands of an aggregate area of 0,477,398 acres were held at 31st March, 1935, by 4,450 selectors, the annual rental payable being £142,456. Settlement lands under the Land for Settlements Act, which are dealt with later on in this subsection, are also included.

CROWN LAND MADE FREEHOLD, YEAH ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1935.

Tenure (immediately prior to acquisition of freehold).Area.Amount realized.
* Under section 223 of Land Act, 1924.
 Acres.£
Cash lands sold6,22113,446
Freehold acquired under following tenures—  
  Deferred payment18,20791,578
  Occupation with right of purchase7,67411,217
  Lease in perpetuity3603,477
  Perpetual lease25220
  Mining district land occupation leases259
  Renewable lease4,1907,230
  Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations5481,021
Small grazing runs7,20828,158
Miscellaneous*218..
  Totals44,653156,406

SUBDIVISION OF LAND.

Much of the land legislation of recent years has been in the direction of preventing large areas of good land from being acquired or retained by a single individual. Part VI of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provides for an agreement being made between the Minister of Lands and the owner in fee-simple of any land for the subdivision of that land, and for the disposal by public tender of the allotments by way of sale or by way of lease with right of purchase.

Section 97 provides for similar agreements between the Minister and the owners of Native freehold land in respect of the disposition by sale or lease of that land.

In Part VII of the Land for Settlements Act, 1995, provision is made whereby the Minister of Lands may at any time in writing notify an owner of land that such land or a portion thereof is required for purposes of settlement. The owner of the land is required, within six months after such notice has been gazetted, to notify the Minister whether he elects (a) to subdivide and offer the land for sale in subdivisions, or (b) to enter into an agreement with the Minister as above, or (c) that the land shall be taken compulsorily under the Act.

In sections 381 and 382 of the Land Act. 1924, provision exists for compulsorily taking private land (not within a borough or town district) in cases where in the opinion of the Dominion Land Purchase Board such land has been acquired by way of aggregation, and where such aggregation is contrary to the public interest. Compensation is payable for all land so taken.

The Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1932–33, which is administered by the Department of Lands and Survey, authorized the Board constituted under the Act to acquire lands for the Crown by way of purchase, or by lease with right of purchase, or by resumption of suitable areas of Crown lands held under lease or license. Where land suitable for the purposes of the Board is, in the opinion of the Board, not being adequately used powers are given by the Act for its compulsory acquisition. A description of small-farms operations is given in Section XXXIX.

LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS.

The purchase of private lands by the Crown for closer settlement purposes is authorized by the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, a consolidation of former legislation.

The number of estates offered during the year ended 31st March, 1935, was 15 of an area of 26,083 acres, but the majority of these properties were not suitable for subdivisional purposes.

No private land was purchased during the year ended 31st March, 1935. The total number of estates purchased since the inception of the land-for-settlements scheme is 726, of a total area of 2,127,718 acres, the aggregate amount of purchase-money being £13,922,605. These figures do not include any advances under section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, but include purchases under section 3 of this Act, and under the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1928.

SUMMARY OF ESTATES ACQUIRED TO 31ST MARCH, 1935.

Land District.Number.Area.Purchase-money.
  Acres.£
North Auckland5348,924455,000
Auckland75376,0731,243,775
Gisborne2686,380790,131
Hawke's Bay59264,7831,714,292
Taranaki2630,978375,881
Wellington155160,8282,350,297
Marlborough22224,090755,482
Nelson1448,821150,473
Westland36,03214,062
Canterbury178451,2013,521,523
Otago81335,2122,029,409
Southland3494,396522,280
     Totals7262,127,71813,922,665

The transfer of certain areas from Crown to settlement lands, and the adjustment of areas to account for ascertained surpluses or deficiencies, bring the total area to 2,270,455 acres at the 31st March, 1935. Of this, 255,337 acres have been sold for cash or made freehold, the number of purchasers being 2,422 and total purchase-money £1,141,770, and 95,897 acres are occupied by roads or by reserves unlet. At the 31st March, 1935, 7,077 selectors were holding a total of 1,862,228 acres, the annual rental for which amounts to £537,034; and the remaining 61,993 acres were unlet. Rent and other payments received during 1934–35 were £510,876, while total receipts from inception to 31st March, 1935, have been £11,747,930.

PURCHASE OF LANDS FOR GROUPS OF APPLICANTS.

Part II of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1928, gives power whereby two or more persons may purchase land acquired on their behalf by the Crown. No properties, however, were purchased during the last three years.

ASSISTING PURCHASE OF PRIVATE LAND.

Section 3 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932, provides authority for the making of advances to purchasers of part of private freehold properties up to 90 per cent, of the purchase money, all such advances to be secured by way of first mortgage.

LAND-SETTLEMENT FINANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

On the 1st January, 1910, the Land Settlement Finance Act, which is described fully in the 1915 issue of this book, came into force. The associations incorporated now number forty-six. There have been no transactions for several years past.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, and amendments, any person is entitled to the benefits of the Act who was an honourably discharged member of a New Zealand Naval or Expeditionary Force in 1914–18, or was a bona fide resident of New Zealand, and served during the war with other British Forces.

There is power to dispose of land under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act, 1924, and the Land for Settlements Act, 1925—i.e., for cash, on deferred payment, or on renewable lease under the former Act, and on renewable lease under the latter Act; also under the “special tenures” of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, which are cash, deferred payment, or a renewable lease with a purchasing clause.

Under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, 3,857 acres were proclaimed in 1934–35 and a total of 1,452,525 acres has been proclaimed to 31st March, 1935, comprising 613,093 acres of ordinary Crown Lands; lands for settlement, 402,544 acres; national-endowment lands, 433,532 acres; and Cheviot Estate, 3,356 acres. Some 702,837 acres of this aggregate fall under section 3 of the Act (ordinary tenures) and 749,688 acres under section 4 (special tenures).

During the year ended 31st March, 1935, 8 applications were made under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, and allotments were made in the case of 7 applicants, the total area being 2,954 acres.

The various systems of financial assistance in connection with the settlement of discharged soldiers were dealt with in the 1924 and previous issues of the Year-Book. Operations at the present time are confined mainly to advances on current account for stocking and developing farms.

From the inception of the scheme of discharged-soldiers settlement in 1915 to the end of the financial year 1934–35, loans totalling £23,570,491 had been granted to 22,792 discharged soldiers, as follows :—

ClassNumber of Soldiers.Amount. £
Advances on current account5,1315,654,248
Advances towards purchase of farms, market gardens, and orchards, and discharge of mortgages5,5579,052,071
Advances towards purchase and erection of dwellings and discharge of mortgages thereon in town and suburban areas12,1048,864,172
  Totals22,792£23,570,491

Repayments of principal to the 31st March, 1935, total £12,742,804, of which £877,113 was repaid during the financial year 1934–35. Receipts in respect of interest and sundries brought the total receipts for the year to £1,437,217.

During 1934–35 loans totalling £59,028 were granted. Of this amount £13,548 was for the purchase or erection of dwellings, and £45,480 towards the improvement and stocking of lands. Advances actually made during the year, including loans previously authorized and readvances from current account, totalled £479,084.

By the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act. 1923, a Dominion Revaluation Board was constituted with power to revalue and reduce where necessary the capital values of lands leased by soldiers from the Crown, and also to reduce mortgages in cases where soldiers had acquired lands by means of Government advances. Reductions to the total of £2,892,991 were made in capital and mortgage values.

The Board was also engaged in investigating current accounts under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1924, and capital reductions totalling £202,355 were made.

A reference to the transfer to the Mortgage Corporation at some future date of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement securities is given under the next heading.

TRANSFER OF SECURITIES TO MORTGAGE CORPORATION.

The Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35. authorizes the transfer to the Corporation created by the Act of all or any of various classes of securities, including—

  1. Mortgages vested in the Crown or in any person on behalf of the Crown in respect of advances made to discharged soldiers or other persons under the authority of the. Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, or any amendment thereof (including mortgages securing advances made pursuant to section 11 of the Finance Act, 1933, in respect of lands subject to any other mortgage to which this paragraph relates):

  2. Mortgages vested in the Crown or in any person on behalf of the Crown in respect of advances made out of the Land for Settlements Account by direction of the Lands Settlement Board established under Part I of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929.

The date of transfer to the Corporation is to be fixed by Order in Council: as yet, no transfer has been made in respect of the above classes of securities. Reference to the conditions of transfer of securities will be found in Section XXIIID.

SUBSECTION C—NATIVE LANDS.

DEFINITION AND KINDS OF NATIVE LAND.

NATIVE land is of two kinds—namely, customary land and Native freehold land. Customary land is land which has never been the subject of a Crown grant and is held by Natives under the customs and usages of the Maori people. It is land in respect of which the ancient customary Native title as recognized and guaranteed by the Treaty of Waitangi has not yet been extinguished. Such land, since it has not been Crown-granted remains vested in the Crown, subject, however, to the customary title of the Natives, and to their right to have the customary title transformed into a freehold title by the Native Land Court. There is little of this class of land now left in the Dominion.

Customary land has always been restricted from alienation except in favour of the Crown. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown, and in all statutes since passed the alienation of customary land to private individuals has been prohibited, and this prohibition is now extended to the Crown. Native freehold land is the land held by Natives under an English freehold title, though subject to certain restrictions on alienation and other special incidents which are unknown to the ordinary law.

Whether land is Native or European land depends upon the beneficial ownership of it, and not merely on the legal ownership. If land is held by a European upon trust for a Native, it is Native land; if it is held in trust by a Native for a European, it is European land. There are, however, four exceptions to this :—

  1. When land has once become European land, it never again becomes Native land unless by special enactment.

  2. Land purchased by a Native from the Crown for a pecuniary consideration is not Native land. This does not include an exchange of land,, with or without a payment of money by way of equality of exchange.

  3. Land held by a Native in severalty may be declared to be European land by the Native Appellate Court.

  4. Under certain circumstances the Native owner may have been declared a European. (The Native Land Amendment Act, 1912, empowered the Governor-General, by Order in Council upon recommendation of the Native Land Court to declare a Native to be a European for the purpose of the Native Land Act or any other Act. Such a person did not lose his right of succession to Native land or property, nor, if he died intestate, were his heirs affected by the change of status. Any such Order in Council did not affect the status as a Native of the wife, husband, or child of the person. These provisions were repealed, without re-enactment, by section 525 of the Native Land Act, 1931, which maintains and defines the status of all Natives previously declared Europeans, but permits revocation of any such Order in Council.)

Even though one of many Native owners may sell, the land remains Native land until all have disposed of their interests, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. A “Native” means a Maori or half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

The Native Land Act, 1931, and the Native Purposes Act, 1931, are consolidations, with amendments, of existing legislation.

THE NATIVE LAND COURT.

The Native Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General thinks fit to appoint. AU powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorizes. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are:—

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Native freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. The sanctioning of exchanges for other Native land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and succession orders to Natives.

  5. Making orders for the adoption of children.

  6. Appointing trustees for Natives who are minors or under other disability.

  7. The incorporation of the owners; of Native land.

  8. The determination of various claims as between Natives.

  9. To grant confirmation of alienation of Native land.

Business dealt with in 1934–35 was as follows:—

Number of sittings94
Number of cases notified16,226
Number of cases for which orders were made6,454
Number of cases dismissed901
Number of cases adjourned sine die8,469
Number of partitions made307
    Area affected (acres)52,706
Number of investigations of title8
    Area affected (acres)361
Number of succession orders made4,325
Number of other orders made4,031

The Native Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Native Land Court, provided that two judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Native Land Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.

There are seven Maori Land Boards, each consisting of two members, viz.—the Judge (or, if there be no Judge of the district, a Commissioner of the Court appointed by the Native Minister), and Registrar of the Native Land Court district, the Judge acting as President. The chief functions of a Maori Land Board are—

  1. To administer certain large areas of Native land vested in those Boards in trust for the Native owners, the Boards having extensive powers of sale. lease, and management.

  2. To act as statutory agent of the Native owners in respect of certain areas of Native land sot apart for Native settlement.

  3. To control the administration and disposition of Native land, by resolution of the assembled owners.

  4. To assist Natives in farming their lands.

The total area vested in and administered by the various Maori Land Boards as at the 31st March, 1935, was 656,115 acres.

During the year 1934–35, 1,249 acres of vested land were sold or revested in the Native owners.

With regard to Native freehold land, the Boards during the year approved of leases comprising 34,894 acres, and confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 22,674 acres of freehold land.

POWERS OF ALIENATION.

The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Native land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Native cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Native cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Native land by a Native has any effect until it is confirmed by the Native Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Native alienating; that no Native is rendered landless; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase-money is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law.

A lease cannot be for a longer term than fifty years, and a mortgage must hare the approval of the Native Minister to its confirmation by the Native Land Court.

PURCHASE OF NATIVE LAND FOR CROWN.

Since 5th April, 1935, the duty of undertaking, controlling, and carrying out all negotiations for the acquisition of Native lands by the Crown, and the performance and completion of all contracts entered into is by subsection (2) of section 7 of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1932, imposed upon the Board of Native Affairs—consisting of the Native Minister, the Under-Secretary of the Native Department, the Under-Secretary for Lands, the Valuer-General, the Financial Adviser to the Government, the Director-General of Agriculture, and such other members (not exceeding three) as the Governor-General may appoint.

Where Native land is being acquired for general settlement, the Board of Native Affairs must act upon the advice or request of the Dominion Land Purchase Board, referred to in the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, but this requirement is not necessary in the case of land being acquired, for Native settlement.

The Native Land Purchase Board mentioned in the 1933 and earlier editions of the Year-Book was abolished by subsection (I) of section 7 of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1932. and the Native Land Settlement Board, referred to in the 1935 edition, Mas abolished by subsection (2) of section 11 of the Board of Native Affairs Act, 1934–35.

Pending any purchase by the Crown the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, prohibit alienation otherwise than to the Crown. Upon the purchase being completed the land is proclaimed Crown land, and is subject to administration under the Land Act, 1924. Where the land is subject to lease when purchased the option may be extended to the tenant of purchasing the land from the Crown or having a renewable lease granted to him.

Since 1st April, 1910, a total of 1,543,472 acres of Native land has been purchased by the Crown. The total area of Native land alienated by way of sale to the Crown or to other purchasers since 1910 is 3,289,939 acres.

The area of Native land still held by Natives in the North Island is estimated at 3,828,311 acres, and in the whole Dominion at 4,07S, 15G acres. In many cases the Natives are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by Maori Land Boards and by the East Coast Commissioner.

NATIVE TRUSTEE.

The administration of Native funds and Native reserves, formerly conducted by the Public Trustee, was by statute transferred to the Native Trustee as from 1st April, 1921. This was part of a comprehensive scheme which seeks to rehabilitate the Maori by inducing him to farm and manage his own lands. As a further means to this end the Native Trustee with the approval of the Board of Native Affairs advances money to Natives on the security of their lands, the expenditure of this money, and the management of Native farming operations generally, being supervised in a helpful and sympathetic manner. The Native Trustee Act, 1930, consolidated existing legislation.

The Native Trustee administers many reserves of Native land on behalf of the beneficiaries, and grants leases thereof. The beneficial owners of these reserves have no power of alienation other than to the Crown.

The Native Trustee also, where necessary, acts as trustee for Natives who are minors or under other disabilities, administers special funds, and acts as executor or administrator of the estates of deceased Natives.

The funds of the Native Trust Office at the 31st March, 1935, were :—

Amounts held under—£
   West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 1892.53,340
   Native Reserves Act, 188261,086
   Native Land Act, 1931 (Part X)104,827
   Native Land Act, 1931 (Miscellaneous)182,513
   Native Trustee Act, 193030,933
Miscellaneous funds65,994
Reserve and Assurance Fund87,198
Investment Fluctuation Fund4,272
Advance under Native Land Act, 1931126,977
Reserve against unpaid interest3,023
Special reserve against claims216
     Total£720,385

Of the total funds £510,405 was invested in the form of mortgages, £5,100 in local bodies securities, and £140,787 on overdrafts to estates and accounts.

Commissions, fees, charges, and net interest on investments for the year 1934–35 totalled £17,549. The net profit for the year was £4,362, of which £3,705 was placed to the Reserve and Assurance Fund, £412 to the Investment Fluctuation Fund, and £245 was added to the reserve against unpaid interest.

Chapter 17. SECTION XVII.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

THE Dominion of New Zealand is a country specially favoured for primary production. The soil covering is varied in character, a considerable portion of it being of high fertility; but even the poorer soils are largely capable of profitable utilization by reason of the comparatively mild and equable weather conditions. The best grasses and fodder plants flourish in the congenial environment, and the country has gained a world-wide reputation for the quality of its pastures. Numerous streams intersect the country-side and present to the farmer a great potential source of cheap power. Electricity is now put to a variety of uses on the farm, but by far the most important is that of providing power for milking-machinery.

A conspicuous feature of New Zealand farming is that the stock do not require to be stalled in the winter, though the pastures are more or less supplemented by fodder crops in the colder months of the year.

New Zealand is primarily a grazing country, and, while more of the land is every year being given up to the cultivation of fodder crops, its future will, no doubt, be inseparably associated with stock-raising, principally of dairy cattle and of sheep. Though less than a century has elapsed since the settlement of New Zealand, over seventeen million acres of land in the Dominion have been sown down in English grasses. A great proportion of the crops grown in the Dominion are for the Production of such commodities as meat, wool, and dairy-produce.

Grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are grown chiefly in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island. Barley also is grown, but to a very much smaller extent. Much of the crop of oats produced is chaffed for stock-feeding purposes within the country. Root crops, principally turnips, are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock-fattening purposes, more particularly in the South Island. Owing to the comparative difficulty of growing large areas of turnips free from disease, other stock-foods are coming into prominence. Mangolds are cultivated to an appreciable extent, and farmers have realized the great value of lucerne. Ensilage-making, particularly in the stack and trench forms, is increasing in the dairying districts. Quite a feature of milk - producing operations is the growing of green fodder crops to maintain the milk-supply during the drier months of the year. It will be seen that live-stock in New Zealand is for the most part maintained on food produced on the farm itself.

THE NORTH ISLAND.

The North Island of the Dominion is remarkable for the congenial environment it furnishes for many phases of primary production. In no part is the winter really severe, and the question of stalling stock during the colder months of the year has not to be considered. It is more a grazing than an agricultural country, and practically all the crops raised are used for feeding farm stock. The dominant industries are dairying and sheep-farming. There is probably no finer sheep-country in the world than the limestone downs of Hawke's Bay. It may be said with every confidence that there is more butterfat produced to the acre on many farms in the North Island than on any other area in the world, when it is considered that all the food provided for the stock is produced on the farm itself. The standard of dairy-farming is steadily improving, not only by reason of special fodder being provided for the drier parts of the summer and the colder months of the year, but on account of the fact that the farmer has learned the value of herd testing and culling, and the advantages to be derived from the judicious application of top-dressing fertilizers to pastures.

In various parts of the Island fruitgrowing, principally of apples, pears, and peaches, is being placed on a sound commercial basis. In the northern portion citrus fruits can be successfully produced, and, with the adoption of better storage and marketing methods, lemons in particular are being cultivated on a considerable scale. Outdoor grapes are freely grown. Both the North and the South Islands have established an export trade in apples, and to a lesser extent in pears.

During recent years the Waikato district and the Auckland Provincial District in general have shown themselves to be admirably adapted to the dairy industry, and dairying has made remarkable development. The Auckland District, in fact, has become easily the largest exporter of butter in the Dominion, while it also leads in the production of milk-powder.

With the adoption of improved methods in the treatment of the land, and the demonstration of correct manurial treatment, farming in the Auckland Provincial District has been placed on a much more productive basis. Assisted by a favourable climate, of which a short and mild winter is a feature, stock-raising of all descriptions is being carried on with conspicuous success. The country is eminently adapted for the production of root and fodder crops, and stock can be brought to maturity and fattened for the market at a minimum of cost.

THE SOUTH ISLAND.

The South Island is the portion of the Dominion where agriculture proper was first established, the settlement of the land being greatly facilitated by the fact that on the eastern, southern, and northern portions large fertile plains, rolling downs, and hills were available, devoid of the forests which in a very large portion of the North Island had to be cleared before the land could be utilized by the farmer. Agricultural operations in the South have been maintained at a high standard for many years, principally in Otago and Canterbury, many of the pioneers of which districts were British yeomen farmers who brought with them the best methods of the Old Land. So in the breeding of live-stock, many of the original holders of land in the South, and the shepherds and herdsmen they employed, had been well trained in stock-management by live-stock breeders of the Mother-country. The South Island may be fairly said to have been the nursery of the live-stock of the Dominion, and the high quality of the stock bred in the country is in a large measure due to the capacity of the men who founded and developed the flocks and herds in the eastern and southern districts. The growing of the finer wools, and the raising of fat lambs for the frozen-meat industry, are features of primary production in the South Island, while the dairy industry is also well represented, especially in Otago and Southland. The breeding of draught horses of a very fine stamp is carried on to some extent in certain districts.

While the climate in the southern districts of the South Island is not so genial as that in the northern, there are only a few portions where the winter is at all rigorous. The Nelson Provincial District, in the north-west corner of the Island, is noted for its climate. Nelson has a sunshine-record which is equalled in but few parts of the Temperate Zones. The district is specially suitable for fruitgrowing, which has been developed extensively on commercial lines, and the culture of tobacco-leaf is well established. At the other end of the Island, in Central Otago, a peculiar configuration of the country enables fruitgrowing to be prosecuted with great success. The winter is comparatively severe, but the warm summer sun and the absence of wind make it an ideal environment for fruitgrowing.

In some sections, particularly in Canterbury, Otago, Southland, and Marlborough, grain-growing is prosecuted on a considerable scale. The Canterbury Plains, extending a hundred and fifty miles north and south and running inland for forty miles from the sea, represent an area of over 3,000,000 acres. This region contains the principal grain-growing areas. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated to a large extent. In Otago and Southland oats are the grain principally produced. On some of the richer lands the yield of wheat has reached very high figures, even up to 80 or 90 bushels per acre, while over 100 bushels to the acre have been recorded for crops of oats. In root crops up to 70 tons per acre of turnips have been secured, while the yield of mangolds has frequently reached 90 tons.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture the Department of Agriculture is a service which is mainly concerned in advancing the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock, Dairy, Fields, and Horticulture, also a Chemistry Section.

While the service is mainly educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Live-stock Division, all meat exported is inspected by qualified officers. Cattle are inspected for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles; sheep and swine also receive attention; slaughterhouses are licensed and controlled; and all stock exported and imported is examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in poultry-keeping, swine husbandry, and wool growing and handling. The Division is provided with a well-equipped laboratory at Wallaceville, Wellington, mainly devoted to veterinary research, &c.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, &c, is given by the Dairy-Division. Dairy-produce is inspected and graded prior to shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture content of butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk-samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers.

The duties of the Fields Division comprise agricultural instruction, the control of experimental areas, advice regarding crops, pastures, and farm-management, co-operative experimental work, hemp-grading, and grain-grading. The Division also has charge of the system of seed certification introduced by the Department.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work and instruction to beekeepers and tobacco-growers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It also inspects orchards and apiaries, inspects fruit for export, and grades export honey.

The Chemistry Section carries out analyses of soils, limestones, fertilizers, water, &c, also the inspection of fertilizers.

The Plant Research Station at Palmerston North conducts research in crop And grassland production, plant-breeding, and control of plant diseases and pests. Seed-testing and farm economics sections are also attached to the station.

The Department's principal farm establishment is the Ruakura Farm of Instruction at Hamilton, in connection with which a farm training-college for youths is also conducted. The Te Kauwhata Horticultural Station, in the lower Waikato district, is mainly devoted to vine-growing and winemaking. There are also several other smaller experimental and demonstration areas.

The agricultural instructional work covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or by letters of advice. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. A monthly Journal, the New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, is published at a low rate of subscription, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer can obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination-capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described, and remedies suggested—all these services being rendered free of charge. Among other responsibilities of the Department is the registration of live-stock brands, slaughterhouses, dairies, dairy-factories, fertilizers, orchards, nurseries, apiaries, &c.

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES.

In addition to research work carried out by the Department of Agriculture, cognate or related research is conducted by other authorities, including private concerns (notably those interested in dairying), the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Cawthron Institute at Nelson, the agricultural colleges at Palmerston North and Lincoln, and the Wheat Research Institute, Christchurch. The last named commenced to function in November, 1928.

COLLECTION OF AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL STATISTICS.

Commencing with the 1915–16 season, a new and comprehensive system of collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics was substituted by the Census and Statistics Office for the methods formerly in vogue. The amended system was based on personal canvass by the agency of officers of the Police Department. Within the scope of the collection are comprised all holdings of 1 acre upwards situated outside borough boundaries, but not inclusive of purely residential holdings or Maori lands held under the communal system. The questionnaire in use in New Zealand was found to comply with practically all requirements for use in connection with the taking of the World Agricultural Census in 1930 under the auspices of the International Institute of Agriculture.

Considerations of economy caused the substitution in the 1930–31 season of a postal collection embracing the most important particulars. A combination of postal collection and personal canvass was adopted in 1931–32 and has been repeated each year.

Interim returns of principal crops and live-stock are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, and when the collection is completed final figures for the principal items are published in the next available issue of that publication. The full statistics are published in the “Annual Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production.”

In addition to the main collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics the following supplementary inquiries are undertaken: Stocks of wool in the Dominion as at the 30th June; areas sown or intended to be sown in wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes (taken at the end of September); stocks of flour, wheat, and oats in the hands of millers, merchants, storekeepers, and farmers (at the end of November); estimated yields of wheat, oats, and barley (early in February); and returns of wheat and oats threshed (throughout the threshing season). The results of these first three inquiries are gazetted, and they are also, together with the figures of threshings, published from time to time in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Stocks of eggs and egg-pulp in cold storage are ascertained six times each year, and the results are published in the press and in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

FARM MACHINERY.

The following summary of farm machinery employed on holdings outside borough boundaries during the last six years is of interest as showing the increased use now being made of electricity and of mechanical equipment.

Class of Machinery, &c.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* Not available.
Milking-plants20,41522,54723,22224,35025,17825,630
Cream-separators48,30247,11251,33454,20055,62555,920
Shearing-machines—      
  Plants7,3948,1917,8537,9367,8948,174
  Stands21,48223,14022,32622,56222,48222,982
Wool-presses9,906*****
Agricultural tractors3,8915,0234,8564,9725,0625,349
Reapers-and-binders15,484*****
Threshing-machines418*****
Chaffcutters2,206*****
Water-wheels or motors923*****
Electric motors16,45622,52024,16426,75729,16431,631
Steam-engines398*****
Internal-combustion engines19,16922,13620,97421,66721,75822,117

The 25,630 milking-plants in use in 1935 had a capacity for milking 90,073 cows simultaneously. The total number of cows milked on holdings employing milking-plants was 1,359,534. The aggregate horse-powers of the agricultural tractors, electric motors, and internal-combustion engines shown above were 84,867, 40,848, and 67,662 respectively.

SOME ASPECTS OF FARM ECONOMY.

GROSS FARMING INCOME.

Farming occupies such an important position in the economic structure of the Dominion that statistical information relating to farm-production is vested with special interest. The agricultural and pastoral statistics, which form the subject-matter of the next two subsections, deal mainly with the quantitative aspects of farm-production; while, from these statistics and from cognate statistics for other industries, estimates are made of the value of commodity production as a whole—including farm-production (vide Section XLIII). Various other classes of official statistics—for example, prices index numbers—throw some light on the economic position of the farming industry.

The official estimates of the value of agricultural, pastoral, and dairying production do not indicate, nor do they purport to indicate, the amount received by farmers from farm-production. They are necessarily partly based on wholesale prices in the main marketing centres—particularly in the case of agricultural produce.

Reliable statistics as to the returns to the farmer from the various classes of produce are not available over the long period of years for which estimates of value of production have been compiled. For some time past, however, a considerable amount of data as to prices of farm-produce at country stations, &c, has been collected systematically. This, in conjunction with previously existing statistical information, has made possible the estimates here published of the farmer's receipts from sales of farm-produce. These figures afford a more accurate indication of gross farming income than has hitherto been available. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining certain essential information for earlier years it has not been practicable to extend the inquiry back beyond the 1928–29 production season. However, since interest in economic statistics is largely centred on the experience of the past few years, it is felt that the results of this inquiry—though at present covering six production years only—will prove of value.

It must be clearly understood that the figures do not purport to show the aggregate net income from farming after all expenses of farm operations have been met. They are intended to afford an indication of the income available to farmers as a whole to meet current expenses of farm-operation, living-costs, interest payments, and all other costs.

It should be explained also that no attempt has been made to exclude from the scope of the compilations that portion of marketable farm-produce which may be consumed on the farm. Similarly that portion of farm-produce which is sold to other farmers as material for further farm-production is in general included. For example, the value of production of grass-seeds is included under the heading “Agricultural Produce,” although—except for exports—almost the whole of this crop is used for the sowing or renewal of pasture lands. An exception, however, occurs in the case of stud stock sold for breeding purposes, no data being available on which to base an estimate of the aggregate annual value of such sales. With this exception, the totals shown for all farm-produce thus represent the total receipts from sales (including sales to other farmers), plus allowance for farm-produce used on the farm. On the other hand, produce of kitchen-gardens and of other activities more intimately associated with the home than with the farm does not come within the ambit of this inquiry.

Production of green-fodder crops, turnips, mangolds, or ensilage is not included. The view taken is that production of these crops is a normal and essential part of farm routine to be regarded more in the nature of a farm cost than as production of a saleable commodity. Consequently, the unknown—but, it is believed, very small—proportion sold of the total production of this class of farm-produce is omitted from the totals shown. In the case of production of grasses and clovers cut for hay, it is arbitrarily assumed that 20 per cent. of the total crop comes within the scope of this inquiry, the remainder being omitted for reasons similar to those advanced in the case of green fodder, &c.

The division into the three groups — (1) Agricultural, (2) Pastoral, and (3) Dairying, Poultry, and Bees—has been made entirely on the basis of the nature of the produce.

The principal items included in the Agricultural group are wheat, oats, and other grain crops, potatoes, onions, tobacco, orchard-produce, and produce of market-gardens, nurseries, hop-gardens, &c. The prices at which the various commodities are valued are, in general, the prices f.o.r. country stations in the early months of the years, when the crops are harvested. In cases where only wholesale or export prices are available—as, for example, for fruit-production—appropriate deductions have been made to ensure that the valuations included in the estimate represent, as nearly as the available data permit, gross returns to the growers.

The estimated cost of sacks, cases, and other containers has been deduced from the totals shown; while transport charges from farm to market or commission on sales of agricultural produce are not included under the basis of valuation adopted. The fact that the cost of containers is deducted might be regarded as a departure from the general practice adopted in this investigation of omitting to take account of costs incurred on the farm. It should be noted, however, that price quotations for some important classes of agricultural produce—e.g., wheat—are in ordinary commercial practice on a “sacks extra” basis, so that the exclusion of the value of containers in the case of other crops has the merit of consistency.

The principal items included in the group “Pastoral” are live-stock and wool-production. Slaughterings of live-stock at freezing-works are assessed at the value (alive) at the works: while, in the case of live-stock slaughtered at abattoirs or ordinary slaughterhouses valuations are made on the basis of saleyard prices. In each instance deductions are made to cover the cost of transport from farm to works or saleyards, and of commission on sales of live-stock. The value (on a conservative basis) of live-stock slaughtered for consumption on farms is included. The value of store stock or young lambs sold by one farmer to another is counted only once—that is, when sold for slaughtering as fat stock.

Wool-production is valued at the average prices realized at sales held during each season, the aggregate arrived at representing the value of production in each season at average sale prices ruling during that season. No adjustments are made to cover the unknown increase or decrease in the total ultimate return from the season's production due to higher—or possibly lower—prices realized for wool carried over and sold in a subsequent season. Deductions are made to cover the cost of transport of wool to selling centres, of commission, and of woolpacks.

Since these estimates are designed with a view to measuring farm receipts in each year, no allowance is made for the value of the annual increase or decrease in the Dominion's herds, although this item is included in assessing the estimates of value of production included in Section XLIII of this edition.

The largest individual item included in the Dairying, Poultry, and Bees group is the pay-out to suppliers by butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories during each of the dairy seasons shown. An estimate of the value of human consumption of raw milk (at farm-gate prices) is also included, together with the value of butter produced on farms for home use or for sale. The available data permit of only a rough estimate of the value of bee-products and of poultry-products, which are included in this group mainly for purposes of convenience.

The following table shows the values (in millions of £N.Z.) arrived at for each of six production years:—

GROSS FARMING INCOME.

Production Year.Agricultural Produce.Pastoral Produce.Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.
1928–297.233.825.766.7
1929–307.025.724.657.3
1930–316.619.318.144.0
1931–326.015.817.539.3
1932–336.715.817.039.5
1933–346.726.018.150.8

The extent of the fall in the value of all classes of farm-produce between the years 1928–29 and 1931–32 was £27,400,000. The value of agricultural produce did not fall to anything like the extent observed in the case of the other two groups. A slight recovery is observed in 1932–33, due entirely to the rise of £700,000 in the valuation of agricultural produce—caused mainly by an exceptionally bountiful wheat crop. An all-round recovery is evident in the figures for the 1933–34 season.

The value shown for agricultural produce was (to the nearest £100,000) the same in 1933–34 as in the previous year, the pay-out per bushel of wheat—the largest individual item in this group—being higher, while the crop, though still good, was lighter than the previous exceptional harvest. The value shown for pastoral produce fell from £33,800,000 in 1928–29 to £15,800,000 in 1931–32 and 1932–33, and rose sharply—mainly as a result of the recovery in wool prices—to £26,000,000 in 1933–34. The value for the Dairying, Poultry, and Bees group fell from £25,700,000 in 1928–29 to £17,000,000 in 1932–33 and rose to £18,100,000 in 1933–34. In this instance, the recovery noted in 1933–34 was due to a greater volume of production, prices remaining at exceptionally low levels.

A clearer idea of changes in the values since 1928–29 is afforded by the following table of index numbers in which the 1928–29 values are equated to 100.

Production Year.Agricultural Produce.Pastoral Produce.Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.All Farm Produce.
1928–29100100100100
1929–3097769686
1930–3192577066
1931–3283476859
1932–3393476659
1933–3493777076

Although there was a partial recovery in 1933–34, the level of aggregate values in all three groups is still materially below the 1928–29 levels, despite the fact that the volume of farm-production has increased substantially since that season.

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION AND PRODUCERS' PRICES.

In order to convey an indication of the extent to which the values shown for more recent seasons have been influenced by movements in the volume of production, and by fluctuations in prices received by producers of farm-produce, index numbers have been compiled showing the movements in volume of production and in prices.

For the compilation of these index numbers, a computation was first made for each of the seasons 1929–30 to 1933–34 showing what the aggregate value would have been assuming that prices had remained unchanged at the 1928–29 levels. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers were compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production; for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The prices index numbers were compiled simply by dividing the value indices by the volume indices, thus eliminating the influence of changing volume on total values.

Following are the index numbers on the base: 1928–29=100.

 Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, &cAll Farm Produce.
Production Year.Volume.Prices.Volume.Prices.Volume.Prices.Volume.Prices.
1928–29100100100100100100100100
1929–3010097100761088910383
1930–3111282105541116310861
1931–3210678111421146011253
1932–3313768117401335012647
1933–3412177117661424912660

The volume of agricultural production, though showing an upward tendency, fluctuates considerably; the exceptional crops of the 1932–33 season being reflected in an index number 37 per cent. higher than the 1928–29 figure, and 29 per cent. higher than the index for the previous season (1931–32). The volume of pastoral produce has shown a definite upward trend throughout the period under review. The index number of the volume of dairy, &c., production moved in close sympathy with that for pastoral produce until 1932–33, when a sharp increase was shown in the production of dairy-produce. This upward movement continued in 1933–34, with the result that this group showed, in that season, an increase of 42 per cent. over the volume of production in 1928–29.

The prices indices show, in all cases, considerable falls as compared with those realized during the 1928–29 season. In 1932–33—the low point in respect of prices of farm-produce—prices of pastoral produce were 60 per cent. below the 1928–29 level, while dairy-produce prices were 50 per cent. below, and agricultural-produce prices 32 per cent. below, prices realized for these classes of farm-produce in 1928–29. Despite an aggregate increase of 26 per cent. in the volume of production of farm-produce as compared with production in the 1928–29 season, the aggregate return was 41 per cent. below the 1928–29 total, prices having fallen by 53 per cent. The recovery in 1933–34 increased the total value to a level 24 per cent. below the 1928–29 figure. The volume of farm-production was in the aggregate 26 per cent. above 1928–29 production—the same figure as was recorded for the 1932–33 season. Prices improved considerably to a level which was still, however, 40 per cent. below that recorded in 1928–29.

From the aggregate values compiled for the purpose of measuring movements in the volume of farm-production, the following estimates (shown in the form of percentages of total farm-production) of the relative volume of agricultural, pastoral, and dairying, &c, production in each of the years covered by this inquiry have been computed. The percentages of the aggregate values are also shown.

PERCENTAGES OF TOTAL VOLUME AND VALUE OF FARM-PRODUCE.

 Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, Poultry, and BeesAll Farm Produce.
Production Year.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.Volume.Value.
1928–29141150513638100100
1929–30141248453843100100
1930–31151548443741100100
1931–22131550403745100100
1932–33151747403843100100
1933–34141346514036100100

It will be noted that the proportion of agricultural produce to the total volume of farm-production varied, during the period under review, between 13 per cent. in 1931–32 (when harvests were poor) and 15 per cent. in 1930–31 and 1932–33. The proportion of pastoral produce has declined from 50 per cent. in 1928–29 to 46 per cent. in 1933–34, while dairy, &c, production increased from 36 per cent. of the total in the former season to 40 per cent. in the latter season.

THE SPREAD IN PRICE-LEVELS.

The statistics quoted under the previous headings illustrate the growth in farm-production since the 1928–29 season, the fall in gross farming income, and the movement in producers' prices of farm-products. While the fall in gross farming income—despite a considerably enhanced volume of farm-production—suggests in itself a period of increasing difficulty for the farming community, the growing divergence between price-levels of farm-products and internal price-levels generally is the real crux of the agrarian problem in times of depression. Prices of farm-products are particularly sensitive, since the demand for most products of the soil does not readily respond to price-changes; and, moreover, supply cannot be readily adjusted to changing demand. On the other hand, the cost of debt charges does not fluctuate so readily, while prices of services and of manufactured goods are also less sensitive than prices of farm-products. An indication of the spread between indexes reflecting farming returns and internal price-levels is shown by the figures in the following table:—

Production Year.Index Numbers indicative of—
Farming Returns.Internal Price-levels.
Gross Farming Income.Farm Producers' Prices.Farm Expenditure Index (Calendar Year).Retail Prices (Year ending on 31st May).
1928–29100100100100
1929–30868310099
1930–3166619194
1931–3259537687
1932–3359477080
1933–3476607080

While the farm expenditure index (briefly described in Section XXXV) only partly reflects any increases in costs at the farm caused by a higher volume of farm-production, the considerable proportion of total farm costs made up of fixed charges which do not increase in direct ratio with increases in the volume of farm-production is included in this index. Comparison between the farm expenditure index and the gross fanning income index will thus afford a rough comparison of movements in farm costs and returns. It should be noted that these index numbers indicate the position generally, and do not necessarily apply to individual branches of farm-production.

The retail prices all-groups index is the best available indicator of movements in internal prices generally, and, consequently, this index, when compared with the farm-producers' prices index, affords a useful comparison between movements in prices received by the farmer and in internal prices. As will be apparent from the figures shown under the next heading, returns in respect of sales of farm-produce are largely governed by price-movements overseas, whereas farming-costs are affected more intimately by internal-price movements.

FARM-PRODUCTION: EXPORTS AND DOMINION CONSUMPTION.

The following statistics illustrating the relative importance of exports and of consumption within New Zealand in the disposal of farm-produce have been compiled by utilizing the statistics of gross farming income, in conjunction with statistics of trade in farm-products.

In the discussion covering the statistics of gross farming income it is explained that these estimates were framed on the basis of “on the farm” values in order that they might indicate the gross receipts by the farmer, after making provision for transport charges and other expenses incurred in the marketing of produce.

In compiling the statistics of the relative importance of the New Zealand market and of export markets for farm-products, the value of exports has been assessed at the “farm” value of the commodities concerned, and not at the f.o.b. declared value for export. This adjustment has been made in order to ensure that both sets of statistics from which the comparison is made are on the same, value basis. It will be realized, then, that the statistics of value given in this statement indicate the gross returns to the farmer from farm-products exported and from consumption of such products within the Dominion.

The statistics of the return to the farmer in respect of New Zealand consumption of farm-produce have been obtained by deducting exports from total production. In these compilations exports of milk-products have been converted to a butterfat equivalent, the return to the farmer being computed on the basis of butterfat pay-out; while, again, the slaughterings represented by exports of meat-products have been taken as the basis on which to estimate the farmers' receipts from exports of meat. Where statistics of stocks held over from one season to another are available, adjustment has been made for this factor. Since the estimates of Dominion consumption are thus the residual element in the process of compilation, any lack of correspondence between the statistics of production and of trade will affect the accuracy of these estimates. Statistics of production relate to the production-year for each commodity, or group of commodities, coming within the scope of this investigation. In many instances the production-years do not cover identical twelve-monthly periods, so that the aggregate of production. of farm-produce includes statistics for a number of yearly periods ending in different months.

Exports during any one year do not consist entirely of commodities produced within the same twelve-monthly period to which the export statistics relate, and in some instances stocks held over may amount to an appreciable portion of total production. It will be seen, then, that estimates of Dominion consumption of New Zealand farm-produce, based on differences between production and export statistics, cannot be made with any close approach to accuracy for a single year. This is particularly apparent in the case of commodities of which consumption within the Dominion is but a small proportion of total production—e.g., cheese. Consequently the estimates published in this statement are based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons, in order to minimize the effects of any such lack of comparability between the two sets of statistics.

The following table based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons shows the division of gross farming income into returns from exports of farm-produce, and from consumption of such produce within the Dominion.

 Annual Average Gross Farming Income fromPercentages of Gross Farming Income from
Three Production Years.Total Production.Exports.New Zealand Consumption.Exports.New Zealand Consumption.
 £m.£m.£m.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Agricultural Produce.
1929–316.90.76.21090
1930–326.50.75.81189
1931–336.40.85.61387
1932–346.50.85.71288
Pastoral Produce.
1929–3126.320.36.07723
1930–3220.315.35.07525
1931–3317.013.04.07624
1932–3419.215.53.78119
Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.
1929–3122.815.27'66733
1930–3220.113.66.56832
1931–3317.511.85.76733
1932–3417.512.35.27030
All Farm Produce.
1929–3156.036.219.86535
1930–3246.929.617.36337
1931–3340.925.615.36337
1932–3443.228.614.66634

Of the total gross farming income during the six production years 1929 to 1934, 64 per cent. came from exports of farm-produce, while 36 per cent. was accounted for by consumption of such produce within the Dominion.

An indication of movements in the quantity of New Zealand farm-produce exported and consumed in the Dominion is afforded by the following table of index numbers of values at 1928–29 prices, based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons. In instances where statistics of stocks are available adjustment has been made for the carry-over from one season to another. It has been assumed that stocks of butter and cheese carried over are held for export, and that stocks of wheat and oats are subsequently consumed within New Zealand.

 Index Numbers of Volume of Farm-production.
Three Production Years.Total.Exported.Consumed in New Zealand.
   Total.Per Head.
Agricultural Produce.
1929–31100100100100
1930–32102104103101
1931–33114122110107
1932–34117139111107
Pastoral Produce.
1929–31100100100100
1930–32104104102101
1931–33109110106103
1932–34113115104101
Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.
1929–31100100100100
1930–32105105103101
1931–33112112112110
1932–34122127113109
All Farm-produce.
1929–31100100100100
1930–32104105102101
1931–33111111110107
1932–34117120110106

The quantity of New-Zealand-produced farm commodities consumed in the Dominion was 10 per cent. higher during the three production years ending in June, 1934, than in the three years ending in June, 1931.

The difficulties which have beset the farming industry in recent years and the dependence of the farm economy of the Dominion on export markets will be realized from data discussed under the preceding headings. An account of the readjustments in agricultural policy made in order to combat these difficulties follows under the next heading.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN AGRICULTURAL POLICY.

INTRODUCTORY.

The prosperity of New Zealand is to such a large extent dependent on the well-being of the farming industries that measures designed towards the furthering of farm-production have always occupied a prominent place in the policies of successive Governments. In the early stages of rural development in this country land-settlement schemes to encourage the expansion of the area under cultivation, and State assistance in the form of cheap long-term financing of the purchase and development of lands suitable for farming purposes, were focal points in agricultural policy. Closer settlement of rural areas, with a view to the establishment of a numerous class of independent farmers and the full utilization of farm lands to the maximum stage of efficiency, has always been a major aim in agricultural planning.

Active intervention by the State in the marketing of primary products was made necessary by the exigencies of the war; but such measures as were designed to this end were naturally of a temporary nature. From 1921 onwards, however, the orderly marketing of the products of the soil has been a definite and important part of the State long-term policy in relation to agriculture. The Meat-export Control Act was passed in the 1921–22 session, while the Dairy-produce Export Control Act followed in 1923. Since the passing of these important measures, controlling the export-marketing of meats and dairy-produce, other statutes of a like nature have been enacted controlling the marketing of exports of various other farm-products. As will be seen later in this section, State assistance towards rationalizing marketing has been an important part of the legislative programme designed to cope with agrarian problems arising out of the depression.

Although Governmental assistance in long-term finance to farmers and others was provided for as early as 1894, when the State Advances Act was passed, it was not until 1927 that the State intervened in the short-term rural-credit market; the Rural Intermediate Credit Act passed in that year being designed to add to the then existing facilities for this type of finance. It is intended that the future administration of this Act shall be one of the functions of the recently constituted Mortgage Corporation.

For many years the continuous expansion of the area under cultivation was the major cause of a growing volume of farm-production; but as the more favoured localities became fully settled the impetus to a still growing farm output came largely from the application of modern scientific methods to farming operations. Agricultural research and its practical application have been fostered by the Department of Agriculture since its inception, with a consequent improvement in the technique of farm-production generally throughout the Dominion.

Live-stock production has been the predominating type of farming in New Zealand for many years past, although crop-production was very important in the early days of the colony before refrigeration rendered possible the development of export markets for perishable farm-products. The farm-lands of this country are, except in restricted areas, more suited to the growing of pasture grasses than to crop-cultivation; and while the yields of the various crops have shown improvement with advances in farm practice and the improvement in seed types resulting from research activities, the main concentration of effort until recently was towards the raising of the productivity of grass lands and the expansion of areas under pasture.

Crops are normally produced in sufficient quantities to supply home requirements, with the exception that small importations of wheat and flour are necessary. In the case of the more perishable crops, such as potatoes and onions, there is considerable elasticity in price between one season and another, depending on the scantiness or fruitfulness of the harvest. Exports are normally small, except for apples and, to a lesser extent, pears and grass and clover seeds, in which commodities a considerable export trade has been built up. The export marketing of fruits is controlled by a Board set up after the passing of the Fruit Control Act in 1924. Dominion imports of agricultural produce are limited mainly to tropical foodstuffs, although in years of poor wheat harvests there is a considerable import of wheat — principally from Australia. Again, during the off-season, imports of certain commodities, notably onions, are sometimes necessary. Broadly speaking, however, the Dominion may be regarded as practically self-contained in respect of crop production and consumption. State intervention in the local marketing of agricultural produce was one of the necessary temporary measures taken during the war years. During the post-war period no measures of importance were taken in that direction until comparatively recently, when a considerable surplus of wheat in the 1932–33 season led to the establishment of a, Wheat Purchase Board to regulate wheat prices, and to control the purchase and disposal of wheat. The wheat - growers have been protected for some years past from the full impact of outside competition by a sliding scale of duties on imports of wheat and flour, designed to maintain a payable price in the Dominion. The sliding scale of duties was introduced in 1927, replacing the pre-existing tariff. The import duties on the other principal crops are — Potatoes: General Tariff, £1 per ton; Australian Trade Agreement rate £2 10s. per ton. Onions. General, £4 per ton; Australian Trade Agreement rate, £1 per ton. Oats: General, 2s. per cental; Australian Trade Agreement rate, 1s. 6d. per cental. Apples: General, l½d. per pound; British Preferential Tariff, 1d. per pound. Except in years of poor crops, imports of these commodities are inconsiderable.

From the statements contained in the preceding paragraph, it will be realized that marketing and other problems arising from crop-production are largely of a purely domestic nature, for there is comparatively little direct competition with or from overseas sources. Attention should, however, be drawn to the fact that the alternations of prosperity and depression in the live-stock industries catering mainly for the export markets affect the acreages under crops—such as wheat, potatoes, and onions, all of which are grown for the Dominion market—so that crop-production for home consumption may be influenced very considerably by conditions in world markets for live-stock products. It follows, then, that marketing and other schemes initiated primarily for the support of the export industries may, if effective, have, indirectly, a considerable beneficial effect on the returns in respect of crop-production. Furthermore, if a policy of restriction of exports of live-stock products became necessary, crop-production would be seriously affected directly, since a substantial portion of the yields of existing areas devoted to the growing of crops is utilized for stock-feeding purposes.

While the home market dominates in the disposal of crops, almost 90 per cent. of gross receipts from sales of produce coming from consumption within the Dominion, live-stock production (which accounted during 1929–34 for approximately 86 per cent. or the aggregate gross money returns from farm-production) is particularly dependent upon the export markets—over two-thirds of the total return from live-stock products emanating from sales abroad. The expansion of the volume of live-stock production was, until recently, a dominating force in Government policy measures designed to further farming interests; but the agrarian problems of New Zealand have changed very materially during the past few years, rendering necessary a re-orientation of policy, with a shift of emphasis towards the marketing side of farm economy.

Since the war, world markets have been increasingly affected by the development of national policies aimed at economic self-sufficiency. Specialization demands an increasing interchange of commodities over national borders, while the furtherance of nationalistic ideals of a “balanced economy” must be accompanied in the long-run by a diminishing quantum of world trade. The full consequences of this growth of economic nationalism were partially disguised during the period of comparative prosperity and rapid industrial development; but the advent of the world depression greatly accelerated the process of diminution of world trade.

New Zealand has devoted much attention to the development of the industry to which, by climatic circumstances, she is most peculiarly suited—the production of pastoral products—and is consequently particularly dependent on external trade— the disposal of the large surplus of pastoral produce at remunerative prices being essential to meet the cost of commodity imports and a heavy adverse balance in respect of freight charges, interest on overseas indebtedness, and other invisible items. The collapse in prices in 1930—symptomatic of the development of a world-wide economic crisis—was felt with special severity in primary-producing countries, since the level of prices of farm-products and other relatively unfinished goods fell at a much more rapid rate than prices of finished goods and services. Consequently, a widening disparity between farm costs and farm returns rapidly precipitated an agricultural crisis not only in New Zealand, but also in all other countries materially dependent on world markets for farm-produce.

State assistance towards the re-establishment of farming rapidly became a world-wide feature of economic policy, consuming countries endeavouring to check imports of farm-products, as part of a policy to restore trade balances, and at the same time endeavouring to increase the flow of home-produced agricultural products by subsidies and other devices. In exporting countries a variety of measures to cope with a situation of extreme urgency was adopted; direct subsidies on a large scale, currency depreciation, and plans for the reduction of farm costs being the main avenues of approach.

In the following paragraphs an outline is given of the principal measures adopted in New Zealand in order to alleviate the position of the farming community. In addition to the legislative programme designed to that end, such subjects as the diversification of farm-production, marketing plans, &c., are also discussed. In many instances—e.g., the Mortgagors Relief Act—the purpose of the legislation described is not solely to ease the burdens of farmers, since it applies also to other sections of the community. The co-existence of two problems—the economic consequences of the depression (essentially a short-term problem of extreme urgency), and the rapid development of factors affecting the long-term situation, among which may be mentioned the growth of nationalistic policies and the approach of decreasing or at least stationary populations in several of the major consuming countries—rendered necessary a dual outlook in the framing of measures to cope with the situation. Part of the planning is specifically designed to meet immediate difficulties, while other plans are definitely part of a long-term policy. In some instances it is difficult to draw a line of demarcation, since circumstances may necessitate the permanent adoption of certain emergency measures still in force. For this reason no attempt has been made in this survey to separate the emergency measures from long-range plans, although the distinction in most instances will be obvious from the text.

GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES.

In the following table the annual amounts of direct and indirect subsidies paid out of the Agriculture Department's vote for the assistance of the farming industry are shown. In some instances—e.g., the carriage of lime on the railways—the privileges granted are long-standing, and are not emergency measures arising from the exigencies of the depression-period. The figures for each financial year since 1928–29 are given:—

Item.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££££
Carriage of lime and fertilizers148,23085,32974,397152,680162,528161,639192,552
Carriage of fodder for starving stock959....6103,1692571
Guarantee on shipments of fruit3532385,89819,2162,1517,972..
Guarantee on shipments of eggs..5,8395,55748......
Bonus on pork exported28,94721,635..........
Assistance to bee-keeping industry..9,000..........
Subsidy on superphosphate deliveries......73,436131,037115,38954,499
Carriage of farm-products........37,159156,43748,196
Total of above items178,489122,04185,852245,990336,044441,694295,248

Of these items, only three—the subsidy on superphosphate deliveries, the subsidy on account of carriage of farm-products, and concessions granted for the railway carriage of fertilizers (free carriage of lime has been in force for many years)—represent definite emergency measures specifically designed to assist the farmer in the immediate difficulties arising out of the depression. The amounts shown in respect of carriage of various commodities represent payments from the Consolidated Fund (through the Agriculture Department's vote) to the Railways Department to meet the cost of concessions granted to farmers in respect of railway freights.

The falling-away in the use of artificial fertilizers in the autumn and winter of 1931 became so serious as to necessitate national action in an endeavour to restore the practice to an adequate level. The Government, therefore, in October, 1931, commenced a scheme of subsidizing the manufacture of superphosphates in order to reduce considerably the cost-price of this fertilizer to the farmers. The amounts paid on account of this subsidy in each financial year are shown above.

On the 5th February, 1933, an arrangement was made with the Government Railways Board for a reduction in railway freights on certain classes of farm-produce. The cost of this reduction is a charge on the vote of the Agriculture Department.

In addition to the subsidies shown in the table, the Department of Agriculture pays compensation, under certain conditions, for animals condemned under the Stock Act and for carcasses or parts of carcasses condemned for disease on examination at the time of slaughter. Amounts paid under this heading (£7,799 during the financial year ended 31st March, 1935), have not been included among the items regarded as monetary subsidies to the farming industry, while certain small amounts not readily separable from the general expenditure of the Department have also been omitted. Broadly speaking, of course, almost the whole of the expenditure of this Department may be regarded as devoted directly or indirectly to the furtherance of farming and associated interests.

As a measure of relief to rural producers, provision was made in the Finance Act (No. 4), 1931, for the payment to County Councils of a subsidy from the Main Highways Fund, the money to be applied to a reduction of 12£ per cent. in county rates levied during the financial year 1931–32. The total amount of subsidies paid to County Councils for this purpose was £250,814. In the 1934 session of Parliament a section was included in the Finance Act (No. 3) making provision for a refund of 12½ per cent. on certain rates levied during the financial year 1934–35. As was the case in 1931, the subsidy was paid to local authorities from the Main Highways Fund, the amounts so paid totalling £178,246. In this instance the refund of rates applies both to lands used exclusively or principally for agricultural, horticultural, and pastoral purposes in counties or road districts, and to urban farm lands included in farm-land rolls, whereas the 1931 provision related to all lands used for farming or other purposes situated in counties. A subsidy similar to that paid in 1934–35 is provided for 1935–30.

Assistance to various industries forms a definite and important part of the Unemployment Board's policy in alleviating the unemployment situation. Generally speaking, such assistance is given in the form of subsidies on wages paid for extra labour employed. The following table shows the amount of payments out of the Unemployment Fund under various schemes for the re-employment of labour on farms:—

Financial Year.£
1930–311,056
1931–32126,108
1932–33277,764
1933–34270,767
1934–35232,377

It must be emphasized that amounts paid from the Unemployment Fund are specifically granted for the relief of unemployment. While the subsidies received under the farm-employment schemes represent a definite contribution towards the rehabilitation of the farming industry, and consequently come within the ambit of this section, the cost of such subsidies ranks as expenditure on unemployment relief, rather than Governmental expenditure for the assistance of the farming industry.

The Agriculture Emergency Powers Act, 1934, contains, inter alia, provisions authorizing the expenditure of public moneys for the rehabilitation of the dairy industry. The specified purposes for which public moneys may be so applied include the reconstruction of dairy factories, the eradication of disease from dairy herds, and the general improvement of conditions in and about dairy-farms. A scheme for the provision of financial assistance to dairy factories and suppliers towards the cost of renovation of equipment used in handling milk has already been brought into operation with the co-operation of the Unemployment Board.

It will be noted that direct subsidies on exports of specific commodities are relatively negligible. This type of assistance to the farmer, which occupies an important place in the farm economy of several exporting countries, has the disadvantage of raising domestic prices, and so checking local consumption of the commodities concerned, with the result that the exportable surplus is artificially increased.

RAISING OF THE EXCHANGE-RATE.

The exchange-rate on London rose from virtual parity in 1929 to £(N.Z.)110 = £(Stg.)100 (selling rate—cable) on 29th January, 1931, at which figure the rate was maintained for the remainder of 1931 and during 1932. In January, 1933, the Government, as part of its programme for the alleviation of the difficulties of the farming industry, raised the rate to £(N.Z.)125 = £(Stg.)100. The primary object of this measure was to increase the returns from sales of farm-produce, and thus, in conjunction with cost-reduction measures and plans for the readjustment of liabilities, to restore equilibrium between farm costs and returns. More detailed information on the subject of the exchange rate is included in the section on Banking and Currency.

REDUCTION OF COSTS.

Following is a résumé of the various administrative measures adopted during the last few years for the specific purpose of reducing costs of production. In some instances the intent is to reduce not only farm-production costs, but also costs of production generally and living-expenses.

Reduction in Land-tax.—In 1929 a special land-tax was imposed on farm-lands exceeding £14,000 in unimproved value; but in 1930 this special tax was discontinued, and in its place income-tax was imposed on profits of farm-lands of an unimproved value of £7,500 or over (later reduced to £3,000 or over). In 1931 a substantial reduction in land-tax was effected by the elimination of the graduated land-tax, which had long been a feature of the taxation system of the Dominion. The flat-rate land-tax of 1d. in the pound of unimproved value still remains. The amount of land-tax collected in each financial year since 1928–29 is shown below:—

Financial Year.£
1928–291,140,324
1929–301,506,911
1930–311,145,617
1931–32542,128
1932–33498,916
1933–34498,978
1934–35492,526

While much the greater part of the reduction shown in the return from this tax is of direct benefit to the farming community, it should be noted that the reduction applies to land-tax generally, and not solely to land used for farming purposes.

Mortgagors Relief Act, 1931.—One of the sections of this Act (as amended) empowers the Court to reduce the rate of interest chargeable under a mortgage. Although the main purpose of the Act is the adjustment of present liabilities, this provision should tend also to reduce future costs of production in cases to which it may apply.

The Land Laws Amendment Act, 1931. — This Act contains amendments of the law relating to Crown and certain other lands. The main provisions of the amending Act are for the purpose of affording to Crown tenants relief from undue hardship during the economic depression. Inter alia, provision is made for the temporary extension of leases from the Crown of small grazing-runs and of certain other classes of leases and licenses, the purpose being to postpone the commencement of a new term (with a revalued rental) until the restoration of normal conditions.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932.—The purpose of this Act is to reduce the burden of rates on land which, though situated within the boundaries of a borough, is used exclusively or principally for agricultural, horticultural, or other rural purposes. The Act provides the machinery necessary for the assessment of a special rateable value of lands of the class to which it applies.

The National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.—Under Part III of this Act rents and interest rates are reduced by 20 per cent. as from the 1st April, 1932, but not below 5 per cent. per annum. These provisions do not apply to contracts entered into after that date. The Act, originally set down as expiring on the 1st April, 1935, has since been extended to the 1st April, 1937.

The Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35.—This Act provided for the establishment of a financial institution which has, inter alia, taken over from the State Advances Department its business of lending money to farmers and others on the security of mortgages of land. The Corporation will lend money on the security of real property, while it will also take over the functions of the Rural Intermediate Credit Board (established under the Rural Intermediate Credit Act, 1927), whose principal business is the lending of money for short terms on the security of farming-stock and other chattels. Further reference to the Mortgage Corporation will be found in Sections XXIIID and XXXI.

In addition to the legislation reviewed above, certain items included under the subheading “Government Subsidies” are definitely in the nature of attempts to reduce costs of farm-production—e.g., subsidy on superphosphate deliveries, carriage of farm-products, &c.

ADJUSTMENT OF LIABILITIES.

It was recognized by the Government that the measures towards increasing the returns from farm-production and for decreasing costs would fail to be effective unless provision was made to lighten the burden of indebtedness already incurred by the farming community as a result of the fall in prices of farm-produce. Following is a brief statement of the essential provisions of measures taken with this purpose in view:—

Mortgagors Relief Acts.—A Mortgagors Relief Act was passed during the 1931 session of Parliament with a view to retaining mortgagors (rural or urban) in possession of their properties, notwithstanding default in payment of principal or interest. Several amendments have been passed since the introduction of the 1931 Act with the purpose of extending the nature of relief given and the transactions coming within the scope of this legislation. The essence of the law on this subject as it stands at present is: (a) Provision for the voluntary adjustment of the respective rights and obligations of mortgagors and mortgagees through the agency of Commissions set up under the Act; (b) provision for the Supreme Court to make orders—(1) to protect the mortgagor from foreclosure, (2) to postpone (for not more than two years) the due dates of payment of principal or interest, (3) to reduce the rate of interest chargeable under the mortgage, and (4) to remit (in whole or part) arrears of interest.

The Finance Act, 1932.—This Act contains, inter alia, amendments of the State Advances Act, most of them being rendered necessary by reason of the financial difficulties which beset the mortgagors of the Department by reason of the persistence of the economic depression. One of the most important of these amendments is that which provides for the capitalization of arrears of instalments of principal and interest.

The Finance Act (No. 3), 1934.—Authority is given to State lending Departments to grant any relief to mortgagors that could have been granted by the Supreme Court upon application under the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1933.

The Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35.—This Act represents a definite effort on the part of the Legislature to effect a permanent settlement of the question of rural indebtedness arising from the agricultural crisis.

The Act is designed with the intention that capital liabilities will be so reduced that they will bear a proper relationship to the productive value of the lands on which they are secured. The general purpose of the Act is expressed to be “to retain efficient farmers in the use and occupation of their farms, and to make provision for the adjustment of all their liabilities (whether secured or unsecured).” It establishes a special Court of Record, with equitable jurisdiction, for the purpose of making the necessary adjustments as between mortgagors and their mortgagees and other creditors.

The Act contemplates that farmer-mortgagors who come within its scope (either on their own application or on the application of their mortgagee-creditors) will, for a period of five years, carry on their farming operations under a system of budgetary control. At the end of that period a special valuation of their farm lands is to be made in manner prescribed, and any excess of mortgage liability over the ascertained value will then be written off. When this is done an adjustment of unsecured liabilities is to be made, and if the assets of the mortgagor are insufficient to meet them they, too, are written off. The farmer-mortgagor will then be in the position of being in possession of his farm, mortgaged up to 100 per cent. of its ascertained value, but without other financial obligations.

Mortgage Corporation.—The current lending rate recently announced by the Corporation (4⅛ per cent.) is somewhat below the ruling interest-rates on mortgages taken over from the State Advances Department. Applications by present mortgagors for a reduction in interest to the lending-rate for new mortgages will be considered by the Corporation. Upon such application being granted, the mortgagor must either pay in cash a sum equal to 2 per cent. of the then outstanding amount of the mortgage, or, alternatively, agree to the addition of this sum to the amount outstanding. This arrangement amounts in effect to a readjustment of existing liabilities, and is accordingly included under this heading. The Mortgage Corporation Act is referred to under a previous heading.

Remission of Penalty on Unpaid Rates.—From 1930–31 onwards, successive Finance Acts have included a provision authorizing local bodies to remit the statutory 10-per-cent. penalty on unpaid rates.

MARKETING.

The progressive imposition of import duties on farm-products has reached the stage of amounting to a virtual prohibition of imports in many countries which were previously important avenues for the disposal of exports of such commodities. In addition, the quantitative regulation of farm-produced imports has become a major feature of the economic policies of consuming countries, thus further reducing the potential markets of exporting countries. These developments have created, a marketing problem of considerable urgency, and efforts to preserve existing markets and to establish new markets have occupied a prominent place in governmental plans for the re-establishment of the farming industry in the Dominion.

New Zealand's major exports of farm-products are at present practically limited to wool, butter, cheese, and meats. Of these commodities, wool alone has an international market, the problem of disposal of the wool-clip being affected rather by the state of world activity in the woollen-manufacturing industries than by import restrictions and quotas.

New Zealand's export market for butter, cheese, and meats is now practically confined to the United Kingdom. With the decline in consumption of these commodities in continental countries, partly as a result of the decline in purchasing-power caused by the depression and partly as a consequence of the artificial raising of agricultural prices in those countries by duties and import restrictions, much produce which previously found an outlet in those countries has been diverted to the United Kingdom; while a further factor affecting that market has been the increase in production in the major exporting countries. British plans for the rehabilitation of agriculture have been seriously hampered by the increased influx of farm-produce from abroad, with the consequent lowering of prices on a market which became oversupplied, despite increased consumption of certain farm-produced commodities—notably butter. Import duties and restrictions on imports of such products have, in consequence, become an integral part of British policy in relation to agriculture.

The necessity for developing new markets as an outlet for part of the Dominion's exports of dairy-products and meats has become a major problem; but plans directed towards this end must inevitably take considerable time before reaching fruition. The immediate problem of retaining New Zealand's share in the British market has been the subject of prolonged negotiations by the Government and the producers' Boards. A brief résumé follows of the agreements made in respect of dairy-products and meats:—

Imperial Economic Conference, Ottawa, 1932.—Representatives from all parts of the Empire met at Ottawa in July, 1932, with the object of drawing up Empire trade agreements.

The essential provisions of the trade agreement made between the United Kingdom and New Zealand are—

  1. New Zealand produce is exempted from the United Kingdom's 10-per-cent. general revenue tariff. A temporary exemption granted when the tariff came into force would have expired in September, 1932.

  2. An increased margin of preference over foreign-produced commodities—mainly 15 per cent., as compared with 10 per cent. formerly—is granted to New Zealand products as a result of the agreement.

  3. In most instances the above preferences are conceded for a period of five years from the date of the agreement coming into force (November, 1932); a reservation was made in the case of dairy-produce enabling the United Kingdom, after the expiry of three years, and in the interests of the United Kingdom producer, to impose a duty on New Zealand produce, while maintaining the existing margin of preference over foreign produce, or to introduce a system of quantitative regulation of all supplies. Unrestricted entry of New Zealand dairy-produce was thus assured up till November, 1935. Agreements with Denmark and other European countries prevent the United Kingdom Government from increasing the duty on imports of butter from those countries beyond 15s. per hundredweight before the end of 1936. Since imports of New Zealand butter are granted a preference of 15s. per hundredweight over foreign butters, it must therefore retain free entry until 1937. The Minister of Finance, in a report on the recent Imperial discussions, stated that the United Kingdom Government has indicated its future intentions regarding dairy-produce supplies, which, on present showing, involve a levy on all produce (Empire included) rather than supply regulation.

  4. While the United Kingdom representatives were unable to accede to requests for the imposition of a duty on imports of meat from foreign sources, a scheme of regulation of imports was adopted with a view to increasing the share of the Dominions and the home producer in the United Kingdom meat-market. By the agreement the following restrictions on imports from foreign sources were imposed:—

    Mutton and Lamb.—The United Kingdom agreed to reduce the imports of foreign mutton and lamb by the following percentages, as compared with the total for the twelve months ended 30th June, 1932:—

    For Quarter ending 
    31st March, 1933, by10 per cent.
    30th June, 1933, by15 per cent.
    30th September, 1933, by20 per cent.
    31st December, 1933, by25 per cent.
    31st March, 1934, by30 per cent.
    30th June, 1934, by35 per cent.

    and thereafter at not less than 35 per cent. for the period of the Ottawa Agreement, which expires in 1937.

    Foreign frozen beef was made subject to the same percentage reductions as those just mentioned. Chilled-beef imports from foreign sources are regulated so that no increase beyond the quantity for the year ended 30th June, 1932, is permitted.

  5. Under the agreement the United Kingdom Government undertook not to place any restrictions on supplies of meat from the Dominions before the 1st July, 1934. The New Zealand representatives agreed to supply an estimate of exports of mutton and lamb at the commencement of each export season, and to keep shipments within the estimate.

  6. In return for these concessions granted to New Zealand exports, the New Zealand Government agreed to certain modifications of its Customs tariff favouring United Kingdom exporters. The consequent amendments to the New Zealand tariff are referred to in the subsection on Customs Tariff and Revenue.

Meat-marketing Difficulties.—In July, 1933, the British authorities were seriously perturbed at the price-position of Home-killed beef, and, having regard to August-December being their peak marketing period, it was decided to stop shipping beef in quarters from New Zealand until the end of November.

When this matter was under discussion in London, stocks of frozen beef from all sources in store in the United Kingdom showed a large increase over the quantities held at the same date in the previous year. The London representatives of the larger New Zealand exporters all agreed, in view of the position of the market, that it was useless to bring stocks forward to go into store.

The New Zealand Meat Producers' Board arranged with the owners to voluntarily stop shipping beef in quarters until the end of November. Arrangements were eventually made for the shipment of the carry-over beef in vessels sailing in December of 1933 and January of 1934.

British Long-term Meat Policy.—Despite the restrictions on imports of foreign meats resulting from the Ottawa Agreements, the position of the cattle-raising industry in Britain remained precarious. A cabled communication to the New Zealand Government in February, 1935, sets out the United Kingdom Government's long-term policy in relation to the live-stock situation. The final clause in the communication, summing up that Government's views, is quoted below:—

  1. It is the firm intention of His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. to safeguard the position of the United Kingdom live-stock industry.

  2. Having regard to the terms of the Ottawa and Argentine Agreements, the only practicable means at present available to them for this purpose is a drastic reduction of imports of meat into the United Kingdom from all sources.

  3. If, however, the consent of the Dominions concerned, of Southern Rhodesia, and of Argentina can be obtained to the necessary variation of their respective agreements, it would be possible to deal with the situation by the imposition of a levy upon imports of meat into the United Kingdom, with or without a measure of supply regulation.

  4. The policy which His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom desire to bring into operation as soon as they are in a position to do so is to assist the United Kingdom live-stock industry, according to the needs of the market, from the proceeds of a levy on imports (with a preference to the Dominions), overseas producers being left free to regulate their exports to this market themselves.

  5. The question therefore arises whether, with the consent of the Governments concerned, a levy should be imposed upon imports forthwith as an alternative to the drastic reduction of imports which would otherwise be necessary.

  6. If so, the following further questions arise:—

    1. Whether all import regulations should cease as from the date on which the levy comes into operation, or whether there should be a transitional period after the imposition of the levy, during which a moderate degree of import regulation would be maintained ?

    2. Whether the levy should be imposed on all meats, or only upon beef, veal, and live cattle, bearing in mind that in the latter case a higher rate of levy may be necessary than if the levy were applied over the whole field of imported meat, and that it would also be necessary to ensure that imports of lamb, mutton, and pork are adequately controlled ?

Meat Agreement, 1935.—The New Zealand Government, in reply to this cable, urged reconsideration of certain of the proposals, especially the suggested levy on imports. The presence of Empire representatives in London for Their Majesties' Jubilee celebrations in May, 1935, rendered possible a full discussion with the United Kingdom Government of the meat situation, while problems affecting dairy-produce and fruits also came within the ambit of the conversations. An agreement was arrived at, the full text of which is not available for publication at present (October, 1935).

The main lines on which agreement has been arrived at between the New Zealand and United Kingdom Governments have, however, been indicated in an official statement made immediately alter the return of the New Zealand representatives.

Following is a résumé of the decisions regarding meats:—

Mutton and Lamb.—Exemption from any levy on imports of New Zealand mutton and lamb into the United Kingdom is provided for in the agreement. Quotas are contained in the agreement covering exports of mutton and lamb from New Zealand to the United Kingdom up till the end of 1936. The permitted quantity during the six months July-December, 1935, is 1,578,000 cwt.; and during the calendar year 1936, 3,900,000 cwt. These quantities are regarded as satisfactory from the New Zealand point of view.

Beef.—The only information released up to the present regarding beef is that quantities of exports from New Zealand up to the end of 1935 have been agreed on. New Zealand has agreed to export not more than 478,000 cwt. of beef (including 66,000 cwt. of chilled beef) to the United Kingdom during the six months ending on the 31st December, 1935.

Pork.—The quantities of imports of New Zealand baconers and porkers into the United Kingdom permitted by the agreement are regarded as being satisfactory to New Zealand producers.

It has been stated officially that New Zealand and the United Kingdom have reached agreement on a long-term policy in regard to meats. The details have not yet been disclosed.

Promotion of New Markets.—In addition to the measures (outlined above) taken to preserve New Zealand's share in the United Kingdom market, vigorous efforts have been made towards the permanent expansion of the Dominion's export trade in other markets. Special investigations have been made through the agency of the Industries and Commerce Department as to the possibilities of expanding trade in various markets, the results of such inquiries being made available to exporters and others interested. In particular, the possibilities of securing a share in Eastern markets and in the West Indies have been explored. A marked increase has occurred in New Zealand's trade with Japan, while New Zealand butter now dominates in the Jamaica market. Appointments of additional Trade Commissioners in Europe and in North America have been made recently with a view to fostering trade relationships.

Marketing for Dominion Consumption.—The marketing measures hitherto described have been directed towards the regulation of the export trade in farm-products. Marketing of wheat, both for home consumption and for export, is regulated by the Wheat Purchase Board, established in 1933; while the Poultry Act, 1924, contains certain previsions relating to the marketing of eggs. The Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act of 1934 contains provisions, inter alia, relating to the control of the marketing of dairy-produce for consumption within the Dominion.

Regulation of Shipments.—An important function exercised by the Boards controlling the export marketing of various commodities is the regulation of shipments, both to ensure a continuous supply of New Zealand produce on export markets throughout the whole year and to avoid flooding the overseas markets during flush periods. Provisions for the control of slaughtering for export are contained in the Slaughtering and Inspection Amendment Act, 1934, section 2 of which empowers the Minister of Agriculture, acting on the recommendations of the New-Zealand Meat Producers' Board, to regulate the number of stock, or the number of any kind of stock, that may be slaughtered in any meat-export slaughterhouse during any period. Complementary provisions confer on the Minister power to control the erection or structural alteration of meat-export slaughterhouses. Provisions similar in intent, but relating to the dairy industry, fire included in the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934, next described.

THE AGRICULTURE (EMERGENCY POWERS) ACT, 1934.

This Act contains some very important innovations not previously contemplated in legislation designed for the welfare of farming interests. Very wide powers for the control of the production and marketing of dairy-produce are vested in the Executive Commission set up under the provisions of the Act.

The Act arose out of the report of the Dairy Commission (being a Commission appointed under the Commissions of Inquiry Act, 1908, to inquire into and report upon the conditions affecting the dairy industry of New Zealand). In the course of its report the Commission expressed the view that “a policy of co-operation and co-ordination for the several Boards now functioning in respect of the export of the primary products of New Zealand has become urgently necessary”; and, also, that “independent Boards, each concerned with the marketing of one group of commodities, are no longer able, as isolated units, to cope effectively with the problems confronting them.”

The Act now under review was passed to give effect to the recommendations of the Commission. It provides for the appointment of an administrative body of four members, to be called “The Executive Commission of Agriculture.” The Commission consists of the Minister of Agriculture (who is the Chairman), a deputy chairman, and two other members. The Governor-General in Council is given power to transfer to the Commission all or any of the powers of the several Boards that are now concerned with the marketing of primary products. On the transfer to the Commission of any such powers, the Boards concerned can exercise their functions only with the authority and under the supervision of the Commission. It reconstitutes the New Zealand Dairy Board, and extends its powers; in particular, the reconstituted Board is given authority to regulate the production of dairy-produce and the handling, marketing, transport, and distribution of dairy-produce intended for consumption in New Zealand. The Act authorizes levies on dairy-produce for the purpose of providing administrative charges, and, for the first time, the imposition of levies on dairy-produce intended for local consumption.

The financial provisions of the Act are referred to under a previous heading. Briefly, they authorize the expenditure of Government moneys towards the rehabilitation of the dairy industry.

DIVERSIFICATION OF FARM PRODUCTION.

While the recent progress of production in the major fields of farming enterprise in the Dominion suggests that the ultimate limit of production of dairy-products, mutton, lamb, and wool is not yet within sight, the growth of difficulties in finding export markets for these products has focussed attention on the possibilities of developing alternative avenues of farm production. Following is a brief outline of recent developments in that direction:—

Pig Products.—New Zealand has a surprisingly small pig population in relation to the number of dairy cattle. In recent years there has been a marked expansion in pig-raising, exports of frozen pork having quadrupled since the 1931–32 export season. The Dairy Commission, in its report, pointed out that pig-production has been stimulated by the low prices ruling for but tor fat rather than by recognition by dairy-farmers that pig-raising forms an integral part of the scientific management of dairy farms. While the Commission urged that greater attention should be paid by farmers to this branch of dairy production, and made specific recommendations towards that end, it drew attention to the difficulties of developing an export market for pig products.

The agreement arrived at after the discussion with the United Kingdom Government in 1935 contains provisions favourable to the expansion of pig-raising in New Zealand, the quantities of imports of pig-meats into the United Kingdom permitted by the terms of the agreement being regarded as satisfactory to New-Zealand producers.

A Dominion Advisory Pig Industry Committee was established in 1932 to place the industry on a sound footing. The Committee has drafted provisions (gazetted in 1933) for the adoption of a uniform system of grading for the local and export markets; while investigations have been conducted into pig-management methods generally, including the establishment of a pig-recording scheme on a national basis.

The Co-operative Pig-marketing Companies Act, passed in 1933, was designed to encourage the pig industry. By the Co-operative Dairy Companies Act, 1907, provision was first made for the registration of co-operative companies having for their principal object the manufacture of dairy-produce from milk supplied by shareholders. One of the special features of these co-operative companies is the statutory right to require the surrender of shares, and the power to reissue surrendered shares. The present Act is an adaptation, to meet the requirements of the newer industry, of the special provisions of the earlier Act relating to co-operative dairy companies.

Pig-recording clubs have been founded in some rural centres with a view to the selection of suitable breeding types. The movement has the encouragement of and financial assistance from the Meat Producers' Board.

Chilled Beef.—Until recently New Zealand was hindered in the extension of its export trade in beef by the loss of “bloom” and other disadvantages of frozen beef as compared with the chilled product. The discovery of a satisfactory process by which beef may be kept in the chilled state for a much longer period of time than was previously possible has now permitted New Zealand's entry into world markets for chilled beef. An experimental shipment in February, 1933, opened up satisfactorily on arrival at the London market, and since then the chilled-beef industry has become definitely established. While the eventual prospects for the industry are clouded by the uncertainty as to markets, the probable immediate expansion in production was taken into account in designing the quotas for this item included in the Meat Agreement recently arrived at with the United Kingdom.

Poultry Industry.—Measures for the furthering of poultry-production have received a considerable amount of attention in recent years. The Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in 1933 as a complementary measure to the Poultry Act, 1924. That Act was concerned with the avoidance of disease and the marketing of produce, while the later Act provides for the registration of all commercial poultry-runs where more than twenty-five head of poultry are kept, and for the constitution of an elective Board whose general function is to organize and develop the poultry industry.

In view of the present shortage of domestic-grown fowl-wheat consequent on an exceptionally poor harvest, the Government has decided as an emergency measure to permit for the time being the import of Australian fowl-wheat free of duty and primage.

Egg-export committees have been set up in each of the four main centres to control the supply to the local market during the flush production-period by the export of a greater quantity of eggs during that period.

Tobacco Industry.—Considerable progress has been made in the growing of tobacco in the Dominion, the area under this crop having increased from 1,000 acres in 1928–29 to 2,126 acres in 1932–33, dropping during the next two seasons to 1,358 acres in 1934–35. The leaf is used in local manufacture, growing for export not being practicable as yet.

An important measure affecting this industry was passed in the 1935 session of Parliament. The Act provides for the establishment of a Board to control the industry. Among the functions of the Board will be the granting of licenses to grow tobacco. Without such a license a grower is not permitted to grow tobacco. Raw tobacco is not to be sold, purchased, or manufactured except pursuant to a warrant issued by the Board.

Passion-fruit Industry.—This is a recently established primary industry which has made considerable progress, particularly in North Auckland. While the market for the fruit is limited to local requirements, endeavours are being made, with reasonable prospects of success, to build up an export market for passion-fruit juice.

Citrus Industry.—By Order in Council dated 15th December, 1932, the importations of all fruit and vegetables (other than dried, canned, pickled, pulped, or bottled fruit and vegetables) grown or produced in the Commonwealth of Australia was prohibited, save with the consent of the Minister of Customs.

This prohibition was varied in August, 1933, to allow South Australian oranges to enter the Dominion, the first shipment arriving on the 20th August in that year, while further importations have since been allowed. Since the coming into force of these regulations a much improved local market has been obtained for New Zealand lemons, which has encouraged the growers to improve the curing and get-up of this fruit for the market.

By the instructions of the Minister of Industries and Commerce a survey of the grape-fruit industry was carried out during 1933. The local fruit is little known to the public, and is very low in price compared with the imported article. It is hoped that by improving the grading and packing of the fruit, and organizing the marketing on better lines, a much improved demand will be obtained, and that in time the local fruit will entirely replace the imported grape-fruit. This tree seems to be the hardiest of all the citrus family in New Zealand, and it has been successfully established over a considerable part of the North Island, more especially in the Auckland Province, and on a great variety of soils where aspect and shelter were favourable and a reasonable amount of manure and cultural attention given. With the development of the industry, New Zealand grape-fruit should fill a much more important place in the dietary of the people.

Tung Oil Industry.—In recent years considerable attention has been given to the growing of tung-trees in suitable localities in the Dominion. In 1931–32 there were 1,018 acres of these trees in New Zealand, the acreage in 1934–35 being 4,780.

GENERAL.

Various matters having a direct bearing on the subject-matter of this section, but not logically coming within the scope of previous headings, are discussed in the following paragraphs:—

Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1932, and Amendments.—The Unemployment Amendment Act, 1932, contained provisions for the establishment of unemployed on farmlets, the Legislature, in framing this Act, having in mind the authorized but informal occupation of land by persons otherwise unemployed that they might be thus assisted to provide in part for the suitable maintenance of themselves and their families. This informal tenure soon proved unsatisfactory, and the Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1932, was passed, providing for the granting of leases of suitable land to persons registered as unemployed or to other persons (not themselves unemployed) whose occupation of land 'would tend to reduce general unemployment. The tenure contemplated is a lease for ten years, with a right to the tenant to acquire the fee-simple of his holding. Special provisions are made for the acquisition of land for the purposes of the Act on terms favourable to the prospective tenants. If sufficient land is not voluntarily made available for acquisition by the Crown for the purposes of the Act it may, in certain circumstances, be compulsorily acquired. Where land acquired is subject to mortgage, provision is made for protection of the interests of the mortgagee (whose consent is not essential) by the application for his benefit of part of the rent and purchase-money.

The Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Amendment Act, 1933, extends the Act of 1932, express authority being given to the Minister to expend money for the purchase of stock, implements, manures, &c., in connection with the small-farms scheme. Lands vested as endowments in local authorities, but not immediately required for other purposes, may be leased as small farms; but in such cases the tenant is not given a right to acquire the fee-simple. By section 8 of the amending Act certain concessions in respect of liability to land-tax and the capacity to hold land are granted to incorporated “land-settlement societies” whose objects include the relief of unemployment by means of land-settlement and whose rules do not allow of any pecuniary gain being derived by members from the operations of the society.

While the purpose of the Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act was obviously to relieve unemployment, it was also considered that the placing of men on small farms would be of material assistance to the farming community, in that a supply of skilled farm labour would thus be available to meet seasonal demands.

The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933.—This Act reflects the fall in land-values consequent on the fall in prices of primary products. Under the Act of 1925 and previous enactments an owner who was dissatisfied with the Government valuation of his land (which is adopted as the basis for the levying of local rates and of land-tax) could demand either a reduced valuation or that the land be acquired by the Crown at the Government valuation. This afforded a too-easy method of securing reductions in valuation and consequent reductions in taxation, for it was impracticable for the Government to purchase, even at a reasonable price, all the land that might be offered to it under depressed economic conditions. This Act was therefore amended by requiring a dissatisfied owner to oiler the land for sale either to the Government or to any purchaser approved by the Government. Another section enables a local authority to fix as a basis for rates a proportion of the Government valuation. The purpose of this provision is to adjust inequalities caused by the action of certain owners in securing special valuations of their land since the fall of values set in, while earlier valuations subsist in the case of other owners.

Fruit-export Guarantee Fund.—A clause in the Finance Act, 1934–35, authorizes the New Zealand Fruit-export Control Board to establish a special reserve fund for the purpose of minimizing fluctuations in returns from exports of fruit. The Board is authorized to make advances from the fund on account of exports of fruit on the basis of a guaranteed price; and if the net amount realized from sales of such fruit does not cover the amount of the advance, the deficiency is treated as a loan to the producer. The Board is empowered to set off any such deficiency against surpluses accruing to the producer's account in subsequent years.

The Dairy Industry Amendment Act, 1933.—Acting under the authority conferred by the Dairy Industry Act, 1908, the Governor-General in Council made regulations known as the Dairy-produce General Regulations. These regulations included a provision in the following terms:—

“No owner or manager of any cheese-factory, creamery, or skimming-station shall, at any time during the period of ten months extending from the 1st day of August in any year till the 31st day of May in the next succeeding year, purchase milk or cream produced in any supplying dairy if at any time previously during the same period milk or cream produced in such supplying dairy has been supplied to the owner of any other cheese-factory, creamery, or skimming-station.”

Proceedings to test the validity of this regulation were taken on originating summons under the Declaratory Judgments Act, 1908; and, because of the importance of the subject-matter, the proceedings were moved into the Court of Appeal for argument and determination. The Court of Appeal held that the regulation in dispute was ultra vires.

It being the policy of the Government that the Governor-General in Council should have that very authority which was declared non-existent by the Court of Appeal in its construction of the then existing law, express authority to make regulations controlling the supply of milk and cream to dairy factories has now been conferred by the present Act. The qualifications and appointment of dairy-factory managers have also by the same Act been made the subject-matter of regulations.

Improvement of Quality.—An account of recent developments in agricultural policy would not be complete without reference to the increasing attention being given to research work and its practical application towards the improvement of the quality of New Zealand's farm-produce. For example, seed certification has made great advances in recent years under the direction of the Agriculture Department. The certification of seed types is regarded as a very important step towards the elimination of undesirable strains and the wider use of varieties best suited to individual localities. Problems relating to the farming industry occupy a very important place in the research activities of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research—soil surveys, research into the mineral-content of pastures, openness in cheese, wheat research, treatment of fruit-juices, and wool research being samples of the activities of various committees operating under the direction of this Department.

Hemp.—The flax industry has always been one of the larger of the minor rural industries; and with the partial exhaustion of natural stands of phormium tenax the cultivation of this useful plant in suitable localities has assumed considerable proportions. Unfortunately, the low level of prices ruling in the hemp-market in recent years has had a decidedly adverse effect on the industry, which was threatened with virtual extinction.

The Unemployment Board commenced a scheme of subsidizing the exports of hemp in 1931, the following amounts having been paid from the Unemployment Fund in each financial year since the scheme was brought into operation:—

Financial Year.Amount of Subsidy.
 £
1931–321,998
1932–3321,881
1933–3416,142
1934–3518,887

This subsidy was an important influence towards keeping the industry in existence during the difficult times of the depression.

The discovery of processes for making woolpacks from flax hemp, and for the manufacture of cellulose products from flax, have definitely opened new possibilities for the development of this industry. Production of woolpacks is established as a commercial proposition; but it is, as yet, a little early to envisage the probable future extension of this branch of the industry.

SUBSECTION B.—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

NEW ZEALAND is a country very favourably situated for grazing purposes, and consequently the cropping of the soil is not carried out on a very extensive scale, the greater proportion of the area in occupation either being under permanent artificially-sown pastures or still remaining in tussock or other native grasses. Certain districts in the Dominion, however, have been found to be particularly suited for the growing of wheat, oats, and other cereal crops, and the production of grain is now almost exclusively limited to those areas which are especially so suited. On the other hand, the desirability of supplementing the supply of fodder during the winter months of the year, for the large number of sheep and cattle in the Dominion, has necessitated the cultivation of considerable areas of turnips, mangolds, and green fodder crops, besides the maintenance of large acreages of grasses and clovers and of lucerne for the production of hay and ensilage. Fairly large areas are also sown down annually in the better-class grasses and clovers for the production of grass-seed.

In general, agricultural farming in the Dominion may be said to be now limited to the growing of those crops necessary for the augmentation of existing pastures in order to maintain a high standard of production, and to the growing of grain for local consumption. Grass-seed and peas are the only two crops that regularly have a sufficient margin for export.

AREA UNDER CROP.

Generally speaking, there is very little movement from year to year in the total area under field crops. Green and root crops comprise a high proportion, 683,418 acres, or 34 per cent., of the 1,982,394 acres under crop in 1934–35 being sown down in these crops. Of the total area under grain and pulse crops, 52 per cent. was threshed and the balance of 48 per cent. was cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage, or fed off to stock. The condition of the crop at the time of harvesting greatly influences the proportions utilized for either purpose.

The Canterbury Land District had 70 per cent. of the total area under grain and pulse crops for threshing, and 49 per cent. of the area for chaff, hay, ensilage, &c. About 73 per cent. of the area in green and root crops was grown in the Canterbury, Otago, and Southland Districts, while grasses and clovers cut for seed were mainly confined to Canterbury and Southland. On the other hand, grasses and clovers (including lucerne) cut for hay and ensilage show the North Island in a more favourable position, the districts of Auckland and Taranaki accounting for 51 per cent. of the total area. These two districts are the centre of the dairying industry in New Zealand.

Canterbury, Otago, and Southland together account for 62 per cent. of the total area under crop in the Dominion.

In the following table the area under crop according to the different classes of crop is given for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Grain and Pulse Crops.Green, Root, and other Crops.Grasses, Clovers, and Lucerne.Total Area under Crop.
For Threshing.For Chaff, Hay, Ensilage, &c.Cut for Seed.Cut for Hay, Ensilage, &c.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1925–26309,641267,236764,51679,549224,7771,645,719
1926–27398,868272,300722,54087,699285,4551,769,862
1927–28411,822218,507713,11865,681280,2411,689,369
1928–29378,571213,228735,27768,017351,1071,746,200
1929–30348,331218,900716,71666,855412,5881,763,390
1930–31390,609295,621718,28189,184443,0881,936,783
1931–32378,781321,791720,82373,582464,1601,959,137
1932–33467,249325,911700,567135,962562,3362,192,025
1933–34427,098312,709725,07893,344506,3182,064,547
1934–35333,725307,480683,418133,933523,8381,982,394

PRINCIPAL CROPS.

The areas under each of the principal crops for the last five years have been as follows:—

Crop.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
* Excluding wheat, oats, barley, and maize fed off.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Wheat252,219280,602305,924294,992230,523
Oats367,551364,345424,587364,729336,418
Barley31,03427,04023,47629,60728,731
Maize12,10311,46015,15017,27516,100
Peas10,55814,70122,37030,36225,366
Beans14016893263127
Linseed12,2001,7653331,4412,930
Hops634466355510590
Potatoes28,45923,78624,60525,02823,001
Turnips493,902482,229472,995478,652449,513
Mangolds10,7069,82411,96113,74511,211
Onions7718741,1341,112923
Tobacco9321,7262,1261,8031,358
Green fodder*180,308199,624184,992201,508193,942
Grasses and clovers for seed89,18473,582135,96293,344133,933
Grasses and clovers for hay, ensilage, &c.409,586431,592526,469470,412484,751
Lucerne33,50232,56835,86735,90639,087
Other crops2,9942,7853,6263,8583,890
     Totals1,936,7831,959,1372,192,0252,064,5471,982,394

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS.

The total area under grain and pulse crops in 1934–35 was 641,205 acres, as compared with 739,807 acres in 1933–34. Of the total in 1934–35, 333,725 acres were for threshing and 307,480 acres were for chaff, hay, ensilage, &c., 52 per cent. of the total area under grain and pulse crops thus being threshed out during the year, as against 58 per cent. (427,098 acres) in 1933–34. In the table below the areas of the principal crops threshed, and the total and per-acre yields, are given for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas.*Linseed.
* Including beans prior to 1928–29.
AREAS.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1925–26151,673102,48525,9698,50811,7498,143
1926–27220,083117,32629,88610,24915,4954,933
1927–28260,987188,22321,09110,29125,1285,213
1928–29255,31273,10119,5008,98617,8932,800
1929–30235,94267,72218,2297,9579,8557,757
1930–31249,01487,15223,9527,16810,55812,200
1931–32268,75668,69018,2455,96514,7011,765
1932–33302,531116,20616,3368,15322,370333
1933–34286,27178,34321,0248,25630,3621,441
1934–35225,38952,51618,4417,94625,3662,930
TOTAL YIELDS.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1925–264,617,0414,115,606947,002423,700287,77547,220
1926–277,952,4424,997,5351,243,333491,468454,72238,580
1927–289,541,4443,852,687861,985482,928802,41631,265
1928–298,832,8643,065,113781,102456,296527,50423,227
1929–307,239,5563,002,288755,007377,955294,24270,377
1930–317,579,1533,376,609837,696316,845241,40287,344
1931–326,582,6982,818,152537,398258,612309,38312,757
1932–3311,054,9725,132,183561,017389,432585,4182,705
1933–349,036,0173,242,500730,963373,212698,29312,564
1934–355,933,2451,890,145484,689373,219436,53417,208
YIELDS PER ACRE.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.BushelsCwt.
1925–2630.4440.1436.4749.8024.495.80
1926–2736.1342.5841.6047.9529.357.82
1927–2836.5643.6640.8746.9331.936.00
1928–2934.6041.9340.0650.7829.488.30
1929–3030.6844.3341.4247.5029.869.07
1930–3130.4438.7434.9744.2022.867.16
1931–3224.4941.0329.4543.3521.057.23
1932–3336.5444.1634.3447.7726.178.12
1933–3431.5641.3934.7745.2023.008.72
1934–3526.3235.9926.2846.9717.215.87

Further particulars for wheat and oats follow under their respective headings. Regarding barley, two-thirds of the grain produced in the Dominion is supplied by Canterbury and Otago, Marlborough furnishing most of the remainder. Maize, on the other hand, is almost exclusively confined to the northern part of the North Island, Auckland and Gisborne supplying 88 per cent. of the total corn produced. Peas are grown to considerable extent only in Canterbury and Marlborough, while linseed is evidently not looked upon as a suitable crop outside of Canterbury. The latter crop has diminished to relatively inconsequential proportions in recent years.

WHEAT.

Wheat is the most important grain crop grown in New Zealand. The industry enjoys a sliding scale of Customs duties levied on imports of wheat and flour (vide subsection dealing with Customs Tariff and Revenue); but, even so, production is usually insufficient to satisfy Dominion requirements. During the last five years net imports of wheat and flour have averaged 260,000 bushels and 11,100 tons per annum respectively.

An unusually abundant yield of 11,054,972 bushels in the season 1932–33 resulted in the creation of a Wheat-purchase Board to regulate prices and to control the purchase and disposal of the exportable surplus. The Board still continues to be the medium through which the wheat crop is marketed.

The wheat harvest of 1934–35 was a poor one as regards both area cropped and yield per acre. Extremely wet conditions ruled from May to September, seriously hampering winter sowings. Subsequent hot and dry conditions from November onwards caused crops, particularly late-sown ones, to ripen prematurely, with the result that heads were poorly filled. Autumn-sown wheat was not affected to the same extent. The total area harvested was 230,523 acres, of which 225,389 acres were threshed for a total yield of 5,933,245 bushels of grain. The average yield was 26.32 bushels per acre.

Wheat is grown principally in Canterbury, 80 per cent. of the total grain being produced in that district in 1934–35; Otago, with 12 per cent., supplied the bulk of the remainder.

CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT.

Based upon the figures in the table following, the average annual consumption of wheat is 8,440,000 bushels. Of this total, 6,280,000 bushels are converted into flour, 410,000 bushels are utilized for the next season's sowings, and 1,750,000 bushels are used as poultry-food, pig-food, or for other purposes.

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* Excess of exports over imports.
Wheat.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
Wheat-production at preceding harvest7,239,5507,579,1536,582,69811,054,9729,036,017
Excess of imports over exports279,231188,2471,361,250−639,019*111,725
 7,518,7877,767,4007,943,94810,415,9539,147,742
Change in carry-over−1,132,758−438,026−495,735+ 2,531,654+ 136,956
Estimated total consumption8,651,5458,205,4268,439,0837,884,2999,010,786
Converted to flour6,281,6356,245,7706,140,2296,413,9526,307,872
Used for sowing (estimated)378,329420,903458,886442,488345,785
Apparent, farm and other consumption1,991,5811,538,7531,840,5681,027,8592,357,129
Flour.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Production135,732129,602130,721133,624131,414
Excess of imports over exports9,34611,68912,83510,98910,791
Change in carry-over+ 686−181+ 2,445+ 359+ 466
Apparent consumption144,392141,472141,111144,254141,739

OATS.

Although, as stated above, wheat is the most important grain crop of New Zealand, the area under oats exceeds that under wheat. Of the total area under oats in 1934–35, 85 per cent. was grown in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, 6 per cent. in the remainder of the South Island, and 9 per cent. in the North Island. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chaff without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends partly on the condition of the crop and partly on market conditions. In 1930–31, 28.02 per cent. of the area harvested was threshed; in 1931–32, 18.86 per cent.; in 1932–33, 27.37 per cent.; in 1933–34, 21.48 per cent.; and in 1934–35, 15.61 per cent. Canterbury yielded 38 per cent. of the total grain produced in 1934–35, followed by Southland with 33 per cent. and Otago with 23 per cent., these combined districts accounting for 94 per cent. of the total oat-grain yield.

The total and average yields of grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the last ten seasons were as follows:—

 Grain.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.
Season.Total Yield.Average per Acre.Total Yield.Average per Acre.
 Bushels.Bushels.Tons.Tons.
1925–264,115,60640.14354,3731.45
1926–274,997,53542.58434,9671.70
1927–283,852,68743.66344,3221.71
1928–293,065,11341.93333,2201.71
1929–303,002,28844.33314,7341.65
1930–313,376,60938.74367,1981.64
1931–322,818,15241.03309,3011.35
1932–335,132,18344.16453,5031.75
1933–343,242,50041.39357,8621.64
1934–351,890,14535.99315,5891.42

POTATOES.

Potatoes are grown extensively in the Dominion. In 1934–35, 56 per cent. of the total potato area was in Canterbury Land District. The figures for the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Tons.Tons.
1925–2623,484143,7816.09
1926–2724,616116,7714.73
1927–2821,693121,4025.59
1928–2921,304123,6075.77
1929–3023,214130,1075.60
1930–3128,459151,5255.32
1931–3223,786116,7434.91
1932–3324,605129,0795.25
1933–3425,028131,0455.24
1934–3523,001109,1234.74

The total yield of 109,123 tons in 1934–35 was made up of 70,275 tons of table potatoes, 25,426 tons of seed potatoes, and 13,422 tons of pig, &c., potatoes. The corresponding quantities in 1933–34 were 86,995 tons, 28,901 tons, and 15,149 tons respectively.

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS.

Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, it has been found that at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order that the grassland may not become unduly exhausted, and also in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In midwinter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses a great amount of its nutritive value. During these periods, therefore, it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or ensilage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops available during each of the last ten years:—

Year.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.Green Fodder.Root Crops for feeding to Stock.Total Area of Fodder Crops.
Cereal Crops.Grasses and Clovers, including Lucerne.Wheat and Oats not harvested.Other Crops.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1925–26246,810224,77720,412255,429484,4411,231,869
1926–27257,558288,45514,742219,031477,4921,257,278
1927–28203,838280,24114,669216,702472,1011,187,551
1928–29196,545351,10716,683219,088491,8421,275,265
1929–30192,660412,58826,240203,438486,9691,321,895
1930–31228,215443,08856,735190,979506,1431,425,160
1931–32232,925464,16075,826212,664493,7891,479,364
1932–33262,970562,33650,300197,633486,8001,560,039
1933–34221,644506,31874,688217,885494,6431,515,178
1934–35225,521523,83864,706211,195462,9951,488,255

In 1934–35, grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage totalled 484,751 acres, and lucerne 39,087 acres; oats was the only cereal crop utilized in any quantity for this purpose, the area in 1934–35 being 222,100 acres. Of the cereal crops fed off to stock during the past year, oats comprised 61,802 acres of the total area. Turnips are the principal root crop grown in the Dominion, the total acreage in 1934–35 being 449,513 acres (including 62,829 acres of turnips and rape mixed). Other root crops comprised 11,211 acres of mangolds, and 1,118 acres of carrots and parsnips. Pumpkins and marrows were grown for fodder to the extent of 1,153 acres.

The total and per-acre yields obtained from the various crops cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage are as follows for the last two seasons:—

 1933–34.1931–35.
Crop.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Wheat3,3731.493,9971.79
Oats357,8621.64315,5891.42
Barley1,9312.491,5472.05
Maize3,6018.042,9806.80
Grasses and clovers for hay690,8751.83744,2721.83
Glasses and clovers for ensilage369,0024.00323,8544.02
Lucerne107,1782.98115,0052.94

GRASS-SEED.

The total area of grasses and clovers cut for seed during the year 1934–35 was 133,933 acres, yielding 1,465,403 bushels of 20 lb., as against 1,041,495 bushels from 93,344 acres in 1933–34. Canterbury, Otago, and Southland Land Districts between them provide 87 per cent. of the area cut.

A considerable export of grass-seed has been built up during recent years, especially with the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America, the quantity exported to these countries in 1934 amounting to 45,059 cwt., valued at £155,174. The total quantity of locally-produced grass and clover seed exported to all countries amounted to 48,751 cwt., with a recorded value of £166,511.

The areas and yields of the principal grass and clover crops harvested for seed during each of the ten years 1925–26 to 1934–35 are given in the following table. Second or catch crops are taken account of in the yield figures, the total yield including crops obtained from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. The areas, however, do not include second crops, and average yields cannot therefore be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area shown.

AREAS.

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Brown Top.*
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1925–2645,1549,7456,9022,6796,5795,358..
1926–2742,0829,8209,6349,3078,5404,029..
1927–2823,54511,49310,0218,9487,8872,294..
1928–2926,34311,2559,5065,7029,7503,338..
1929–3030,05511,7299,8083,4044,7033,710..
1930–3147,94214,00110,5933,3123,3233,3395,158
1931–3230,1419,43713,0102,6963,8672,42310,758
1932–3386,92411,2939,4262,93510,6334,3608,465
1933–3445,9309,4967,8342,69911,5656,6987,936
1934–3556,44812,30911,2943,47513,49610,29215,140

YIELDS.

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Brown Top.*

* Not available prior to 1030–31.

† Of 20 lb.

 Bushels.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
1925–261,041,7161,381,6071,574,502469,598l,517,763954,082..
1926–27904,1561,858,0822,177,1251,482,2141,935,328671,828..
1927–28523,4121,992,3772,684,6012,116,4882,041,413399,298..
1928–29564,5112,048,8322,723,1241,276,7851,936,088566,395..
1929–30641,3162,009,9702,416,381828,8941,040,022604,874..
1930–31987,4662,666,2802,337,070575,664647,949574,224412,273
1931–32466,873919,9112,383,941491,348786,782284,333311,358
1932–331,796,9742,335,4972,295,763708,6091,738,218568,888188,531
1933–34758,180724,6841,403,151458,2201,838,736834,552268,877
1934–351,095,8821,876,3861,214,230459,5881,894,9651,335,414390,318

PASTURE GRASSES.

Grass is by far the most important crop to the farmer, the soils, the climate, and other natural conditions obtaining in the Dominion being very favourable for the growth of grass. Wherever there is light and moisture English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off, and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are very few places where there is not some growth even in the coldest months of the year, enabling cattle to be kept all the year round in the open.

At the beginning of the year 1935 there were 17,388,174 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 657,771 acres cut for seed, hay, or ensilage during the preceding season), and in addition 14,184,044 acres of occupied land still remained in tussock or other native grasses, making a total of 31,572,218 acres of grassland in occupation. The following table shows the respective areas occupied by artificially sown grasses and tussock and self-sown native grasses during the last ten years.

 Artificially Sown Pasture Grasses.  
Year.Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage.Not Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage.Tussock and other Native Grosses.Total Area under Grass.
Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres. 
1925–26304,32616,615,96014,298,61831,218,904
1926–27376,15416,680,34814,197,85331,254,355
1927–28345,92216,871,53014,091,71731,309,169
1928–29419,12416,855,51214,131,63031,406,266
1929–30479,44316,872,94814,182,14231,534,533
1930–31532,27216,722,21314,124,03031,378,515
1931–32537,74216,494,91714,294,46331,327,122
1932–33698,29816,422,16314,137,37531,257,836
1933–34599,66216,736,82814,014,17731,350,667
1934–35657,77116,730;40314,184,04431,572,218

During the year 1934–35, 80,503 acres of land which had not previously been cultivated was sown down in new pasture, as against 76,859 acres in 1933–34.

PHORMIUM.

Large areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium, or New Zealand flax, the fibre of which is largely used for rope-making, &c. Of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion, 72,823 acres were returned as in phormium in 1934–35. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Area. Acres.
1925–2657,780
1926–2769,420
1927–2866,492
1928–2962,704
1929–3068,260
1930–3171,219
1931–3277,437
1932–3364,206
1933–3472,853
1934–3572,823

Three-fifths of the area in phormium in 1934–35 was in the North Island (vide p. 295).

Flax-milling in recent years has recorded a very heavy decline. At the census of factory production for the year 1934–35 there were only 21 flax-mills in operation employing 316 hands, the total value of the output being £80,711. Flax used by the mills totalled 39,216 tons, resulting in 4,860 tons of dressed fibre and 778 tons of tow. The total area of flax cut by the above mills was 2,489 acres, and 5,840 acres attached to the mills were not cut or not ready for cutting during the year.

During the year 1934 a large wool-pack and sacking factory commenced operations at Foxton, thus providing a fresh avenue for fibre consumption.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.

In 1934–35 there were 7,284 acres in market gardens. Nurseries and seed-gardens occupied 1,276 acres, while 81,694 acres were in private gardens, grounds, &c. The area in plantations (not virgin bush; was 781,684 acres, made up of 760,420 acres of conifers and 21,264 acres of eucalyptus and other broad-leaved trees. State plantations are covered by these figures.

The figures for the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Market Gardens.Nurseries, &c.Private Gardens, &c.Plantations.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1925–264,59950564,87288,656
1926–275,10246464,783160,188
1927–285,65548968,566232,083
1928–295,85558273,263293,911
1929–305,87165774,434289,020
1930–316,6841,00470,208341,591
1931–327,61498476,247399,307
1932–336,8521,00377,886409,860
1933–346,63488879,160427,471
1934–357,2841,27681,694781,684

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.

A great impetus to the planting of fruit-trees was given by the discovery some years ago that tracts of land, principally in the Nelson Land District, which formerly were looked on as being practically useless, were eminently suited for growing fruit, particularly apples. For a time, considerable areas of this and other land were annually added to the Dominion's orchards, but the acreage then declined until it became stabilized in the neighbourhood of the present figure.

The following table shows the area outside the borough boundaries which has been returned as under fruit-trees at each of the last ten annual enumerations:—

 Acres.
1925–2627,068
1926–2725,377
1927–2824,987
1928–2924,538
1929–3024,861
1930–3128,134
1931–3225,755
1932–3325,317
1933–3425,069
1934–3525,087

A good market exists locally for fruit of all descriptions. However, growers of apples and pears are mainly concerned with exports, which are controlled by the New Zealand Fruit-export Control Board. This Board came into being as a result of the Fruit Control Act, 1924, and commenced functioning in 1926.

Since 1911 the Government has assisted the export trade in apples and pears by the provision of guaranteed returns to growers exporting these fruits. Originally at the rate of 1d. net per pound, the basis of the guarantee was changed in 1927 to a per-case rate calculated to cover packing and transportation costs. Since then the guarantee rate has been annually reviewed by the Government.

Commencing with 1935, the Government guarantee ceases, except in respect of apples and pears exported to new markets. As an inducement to explore and develop new territory, the Government now guarantees an average c.i.f. return of 9s. per case (New Zealand currency) on approved varieties, grades, and sizes of apples and pears exported to approved new markets through the Fruit-export Control Board. The guarantee also provides for transportation-costs in excess of those entailed in shipping fruit to the United Kingdom.

Regarding established markets, the market guarantee for 1935 and subsequent seasons will be given by the Fruit-export Control Board, and the liability of such guarantee will be met out of an Export Guarantee Fund which is being built up by the Board. Growers exporting to new or established markets will contribute to this fund a fixed sum per case so as to yield an aggregate contribution of not more than £12,500 in each of the seasons 1935 to 1937 inclusive. The Government has undertaken to contribute to the fund up to £12,500 on a pound-for-pound basis with the industry in 1935.

The Export Guarantee Fund will enable the Fruit-export Control Board to finance the packing and transportation of fruit, and will also be used to grant loans to those growers whose market-returns do not average a price-level to be annually determined by the Board. Such loans are repayable from export proceeds of subsequent years.

All fruit intended for export is subjected to a rigid inspection by Government officials. The success of the export trade is to a very large extent due to the goodwill gained through this inspection which, in addition to protecting the guarantee interests, assures overseas buyers of high-quality fruit of uniform standard. In 1934 the value of apples exported aggregated £716,780, of which exports to the United Kingdom represented £558,900. Pears exported aggregated £62,060 in value, the United Kingdom likewise receiving the bulk of the fruit. The rapid progress of the export trade can be gauged by comparing the foregoing figures with those for 1927, in which year exports of apples and pears amounted to £264,446 and £8,456 respectively.

The Department of Agriculture assists orchardists by supplying information on fruitgrowing generally, and as to the most up-to-date methods to adopt for the control of diseases and insect pests, pruning, &c. Practical demonstrations of pruning, spraying, and the grading and packing of fruit are given regularly by the Orchard Instructors attached to the Department. A comprehensive scheme of experiments is being conducted by the Department, the operations covering a wide field. These embrace the testing of spraying specifics and other materials for the better and more economic control of diseases and pests, orchard manurial experiments, &c.

The total acreage in vineyards outside of borough boundaries is 433 acres. The growing of outdoor grapes is briefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay greater portion of the crop is used for wine-making, but considerable quantities of outdoor-grown grapes are sold for table use.

Passion-fruit is grown to the extent of 244 acres, mainly in the North Auckland Land District where climatic conditions are favourable to production.

Since 1913 the State has had authority to borrow money for the purpose of making advances for the establishment of cold stores for fruit and of fruit-canning works, and otherwise for the assistance of the fruitgrowing industry. (Vide Section XXIIID.)

The Orchard-tax Act, 1927 (amended in 1933 and 1934) continuing legislation dating from 1916, provides for the levying in each year of a tax of 2s. per acre on commercial orchards, with a minimum tax of 5s. Of the proceeds, £850 is to be paid over to the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, and the balance credited to the vote of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research for use as required in assisting the industry. Authority also exists for the imposition of an additional tax in the case of apple, pear, and quince orchards in commercial fruitgrowing districts for the purpose of combating fireblight. No tax is payable in respect of any orchard with fewer than 120 fruit-trees.

Commercial orchards registered as at March, 1935, numbered 6,497, 2,850 being taxable and 3,647 non-taxable. The total orchard-tax payable in respect of the year 1934–35 was £2,350.

TOBACCO.

Although the cultivation of tobacco leaf was initiated only a few years ago, the industry has made marked progress. Certain districts appear to be well suited to the growth of good quality leaf, and growers are becoming increasingly familiar with the methods and plant required for the production of cured leaf acceptable to manufacturers. Much of the production is in accordance with contracts arranged between local manufacturers and growers. The market for leaf has at present definite limits.

Figures collected from occupiers throughout the Dominion of holdings of 1 acre or more situated outside boroughs show the following areas planted in tobacco in the years specified:—

 Acres.
1928–291,000
1929–301,073
1930–31932
1931–321,726
1932–332,126
1933–341,803
1934–351,358

Practically the whole of the tobacco crop is produced in Waimea County. From the total Dominion area of 1,358 acres shown above for 1934–35 the yield of leaf was returned as 1,106,4241b.

The Tobacco-growing Industry Act, 1935, which provides for the regulation of the industry, is briefly referred to in the preceding subsection.

TOP-DRESSING.

Top-dressing operations during the twelve months ended 31st January, 1935, covered a total area of 2,684,114 acres, as shown in the following table, an increase of 434,944 acres as compared with the area returned as top-dressed during the preceding twelve months:—

Nature of Top-dressing.North Island.South Island.Dominion.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Artificial fertilizers only1,529,725173,6001,703,325
Lime only83,60362,383145,986
Both artificial fertilizers and lime681,922152,881834,803
        Totals2,295,250388,8642,684,114

SUBSECTION C—PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK.

THE numbers of live-stock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations are as shown in the following table. With the exception of the figures for sheep as disclosed by the special annual collection of sheep returns as at the 30th April, the figures relate to the 31st January.

1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* Not available.
Horses295,743280,994276,897273,906272,986
Dairy cows1,601,6331,702,0701,845,9721,932,5111,952,094
Cattle (including dairy cows)4,080,5254,072,3834,192,0234,301,1284,293,499
Sheep shorn during season27,574,28926,205,01925,069,40925,017,65625,639,654
Lambs shorn during season*2,542,4702,629,8373,508,0083,529,202
Lambs tailed during season14,528,30914,974,99115,015,62815,278,79715,689,492
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April29,792,51628,691,78827,755,96628,649,03829,076,754
Pigs476,194513,416591,582660,393762,755

The live-stock census formerly covered asses, mules, and goats also, but these classes have been dropped since 1930. Numbers in 1930 were: Asses and mules, 218; Angora goats, 9,514; other goats, 29,613. There are great numbers of wild pigs, goats, and deer in the forested and rougher country.

SHEEP.

The Dominion is eminently suited for sheep-breeding, practically every description of sheep finding a favourable local habitat. In the hilly and down country of the South Island the Merino has been bred for very many years, and was the original sheep depastured. In fact, the Merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock which has made Canterbury mutton famous on British meat-markets. In the early days of the Canterbury meat trade the English Leicester of the original type was the favourite ram for putting to the Merino ewe. Of later years the Lincoln has been largely employed to cross with the Merino, and black-faced rams have been further employed to put to the crossbred ewes. Systematic inbreeding of Merino-longwool half-bred sheep produced the now world-known Corriedale breed. In the North Island the Romney sheep, which suits the rather moist climate of this portion of the Dominion, has become the most popular sheep; it is also increasing in numbers in the South Island. The Lincoln and the Border Leicester are also favoured in both Islands, while the Southdown is taking the lead for fat-lamb production throughout the Dominion.

The number of sheep at the 30th April reached its maximum (30,841,287) in 1930. An annual decline of about 1,000,000 then set in and continued until 1933; since then, however, successive increases have raised the total to the present figure of 29,076,754.

In the following table the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. In dealing with land districts, however, they are included with Wellington.

Year.North Island.South Island.Total.
192613,830,25011,074,74324,904,993
192713,957,82011,691,19625,649,016
192814,482,10512,651,70527,133,810
192915,588,44413,462,93829,051,382
193016,535,91314,305,37430,841,287
193115,886,87613,905,64029,792,516
193214,946,98713,744,80128,691,788
193314,954,02912,801,93727,755,966
193415,264,58813,384,45028,649,038
193515,749,01613,327,73829,076,754

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding-ewes, dry ewes, and lambs in the Dominion for the last five years:—

Year.Rams.Wethers.Breeding-ewes.Dry Ewes.Lambs.Totals.
Stud Sheep (entered in Flock-book),
193115,001..238,2818,081169,879431,242
193217,169..232,0067,855164,750421,780
193313,353..226,3306,625160,265406,573
193412,034..228,7697,083162,631410,517
193511,249..231,6057,292169,041419,187
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but not entered in Flock-book.
1931447,0081,250,6004,538,476370,7341,907,1458,513,963
1932451,8821,172,9734,783,296383,0932,012,4668,803,710
1933450,2661,092,5334,780,723334,0391,941,1318,598,692
1934455,1771,019,5734,159,764260,3611,782,2877,677,162
1935459,821996,3073,905,470248,3431,712,1597,322,100
Crossbred and other Sheep not otherwise enumerated.
1931..2,178,94112,831,972831,8995,004,49920,847,311
1932..1,557,85312,047,758877,2304,983,45719,466,298
1933..1,322,65012,202,644657,2224,568,18518,750,701
1934..1,418,04513,182,893665,7125,294,70920,561,359
1935..1,485,04713,675,342732,4305,442,64821,335,467
Totals.
1931462,0093,429,54117,608,7291,210,7147,081,52329,792,516
1932469,0512,730,82617,063,0601,268,1787,160,67328,691,788
1923463,6192,415,18317,209,697997,8866,669,58127,755,966
1934467,2112,437,61817,571,426933,1567,239,62728,649,038
1935471,0702,481,35417,812,417988,0657,323,84829,076,754

The average size of the flocks was 968 in 1931, 942 in 1932, 923 in 1933, 961 in 1934, and 962 in 1935. A classification according to size shows the following position:—

Size of Flocks.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
     1– 2008,0608,6248,9038,1317,979
   201– 5007,3786,9377,1066,9647,342
   501– 1,0006,6926,6526,2526,4756,503
 1,001–2,5006,1575,8375,4745,8485,994
 2,501– 5,0001,7591,6691,6071,6701,695
 5,001–10,000571563554544551
10,001–20,000146143141142149
20,001 and over2624262625
        Total flocks30,78930,44930,06329,80030,238

The numbers of the different classes composing the flocks in April, 1935, were as follows:—

Breed of Sheep.Stud Sheep entered In Flock-book.Sheep of a Distinctive Breed, not entered in Flock-book.Total.
Merino25,304997,1201,022,424
Lincoln3,20418,42021,624
Reinney178,4992,659,3382,837,837
Border Leicester16,60138,04754,648
English Leicester17,46633,29150,757
Shropshire1,73212,45514,187
Southdown118,074188,424306,498
Corriedale49,7551,159,8291,209,584
Ryeland5,1373,1798,316
Half-bred3,3752,209,0442,212,419
Other breeds402,9532,993
          Totals419,1877,322,1007,741,287
Flock sheep—   
  Crossbreds and others not otherwise enumerated....21,335,467
           Grand total....29,076,754

SHEEP FLOCKS OF THE WORLD.

The latest figures obtainable showing the number of sheep in the principal sheep countries for which information is available are given hereunder:—

Country.Number of Sheep.
* Including goats.
Australia109,921,053
Russia (U.S.S.R.)*51,949,000
United States49,766,000
South African Union46,091,158
Argentina44,413,221
India (whole)43,481,462
New Zealand29,076,754
England and Wales16,517,700
Spain16,470,639
Uruguay15,405,607
Rumania12,293,566
Peru11,209,000
China10,984,883
Turkey10,719,000
Brazil10,701,672
Italy10,268,119
France9,571,000
Persia8,915,940
Yugoslavia8,867,685
Bulgaria8,739,803
French Morocco8,590,469
French West Africa8,577,366
Scotland7,811,144
Greece7,427,129
Chile6,263,482
Algeria5,513,000
Bolivia5,232,000
Irak3,932,792
Portugal3,721,000
Mexico3,673,887
Germany3,482,000
Canada3,421,000
Irish Free State3,406,660
Kenya3,227,772
Tunis3,076,027
Poland2,549,000
British Somaliland2,500,000
Manchuria2,369,920
Tanganyika2,346,018
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan2,300,000
Nigeria2,241,453
Syria and Lebanon1,778,737

WOOL PRODUCTION AND EXPORT.

Although appearing seventh in order in the preceding table of flocks, in point of actual production of wool New Zealand is the fourth largest in the world and ranks third in the list of principal exporting countries, according to figures collected by the Imperial Economic Committee. With the exception of some 6,000,000 lb. or 7,000,000 lb. annually, the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported.

From figures of exports, consumption by local mills, and stocks at the end of the season it is possible to estimate the total annual production of wool with a fair degree of accuracy. In the following computation scoured, washed, and slipe wool has been converted to a greasy basis on the assumption of an average loss of 33⅓ per cent. in weight, while wool on skins has been taken at an average of 4 lb. per skin.

 Year ended 30th June,
 1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Million lb.
Export of wool252.2207.2244.3248.1310.0308.9222.3
Exports of wool on skins4.74.86.46.811.114.49.0
Used by New Zealand mills6.66.16.27.06.66.07.1
 263.5218.1256.9261.9327.7329.3238.4
Variation in stocks+8.5+54.8+14.2+20.9−39.3−28.8+37.5
Estimated production272.0272.9271.1282.8288.4300.5275.9

PRODUCTION OF WOOL IN PRINCIPAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES.

The following table, compiled from official sources, shows the wool-production of the principal producing countries in the years specified. Production in these countries accounts for approximately 75 per cent. of the world's total.

 Wool-production (on n greasy basis).
Country.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35 (provisional).
Principal Exportinglb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
    Countries(mil'ns.)(mil'ns.)(mil'ns.)(mil'ns.)(mil'ns.)(mil'ns.)(mil'ns.)
  Australia9689389131,0071,0629901,020
  Argentine New Zealand347353361378388385385
  New Zealand272273271283288301276
South Africa285309290314330284213
Uruguay139148149115120110130
    Total of above countries2,0112,0211,9842,0972,1882,0702,024
Other Important Countries       
  United States400433460434450440400
  Soviet Russia394306212142138143..
  United Kingdom110111113119120110..

STOCKS OF WOOL.

Statistics relating to stocks of wool held in the Dominion on 30th June are compiled from returns obtained from woolbrokers, woollen-mills, freezing-works, wool-scouring works, shipping companies, Harbour Board stores, farmers, and the New Zealand Railways Department. A little wool held by farmers is probably omitted, but the statistics are complete enough for practical purposes.

Comparative figures since the first complete official collection in 1927 are—

At 30th June,Greasy.Scoured and Washed.Sliped.Crutchings, &c.Wool on Skins.Unspecified Wool.Total, converted to Greasy Basis.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
19276,362,0222,437,4713,951,2582,767,942946,700349,17520,000,000
19285,313,7371,584,0894,675,3683,318,045550,494926,44019,500,000
19298,270,5432,510,0356,693,6594,183,987732,515989,10228,000,000
193052,396,4294,278,92510,411,7486,289,208696,5821,323,65482,800,000
193159,811,2596,616,46810,915,8917,067,4971,620,5882,115,01497,000,000
193274,560,0056,168,17415,133,3617,151,6421,796,3242,319,800117,900,000
193355,580,6623,985,5225,352,3656,458,8412,090,007538,60678,600,000
193427,444,1834,157,0495,932,9293,869,9571,510,3561,797,48049,800,000
193559,910,0824,972,8847,503,6516,826,2461,452,441442,06487,300,000

Of the total stocks at 30th June, 1935, woolbrokers held 40,650,0001b. and farmers 18,190,000 lb; both these figures are on a greasy basis. The balance was divided between woollen-mills, freezing-works, wool-scouring works, shipping companies, and railway and Harbour Board stores. The classification is made on the basis of possession and not of beneficial ownership.

Details of wool at 30th June, 1935 (without conversion to a greasy basis) are as follows:—

 Greasy.Scoured.Washed.Sliped.Crutchings &c.Wool on Skins.Unspecified.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
Merino1,798,579111,97311413,590160,99928,356..
Half-bred6,566,456480,470144,302l,055,798831,149342,692..
Corriedale999,29540,802..400103,38914,02384
Other (Including crossbred)       
  Sheep46,954,4081,835,432243,3792,188,6825,385,401592,1531,910
  Lambs2,464,072782,791536,0013,205,141345,308372,710150
Unspecified1,127,272795,9602,1601,040,040..102,507439,920
    Totals59,910,0824,046,928925,9567,503,6516,826,2461,452,441442,064

The rise in stocks between 30th June, 1934, and 30th June, 1935, was due to the much lower prices ruling in 1934–35 than in 1933–34. Subsequent improvements in price have been followed by fairly heavy shipments, and at 31st October, 1935—i.e., immediately prior to the opening sales of the 1935–36 season—stocks remaining from previous seasons are estimated at 43,000,000 lb. on a greasy basis.

WOOL SHIPMENTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES.

Shipments of wool from the principal exporting countries during the twelve months ended 30th June, 1935, are shown below according to the country to which shipped. The figures represent actual weights shipped to the countries shown, irrespective of the condition of the wool (scoured, greasy, &c.), and without making allowance for subsequent re-exports to other countries.

The absence of figures in some cases does not necessarily indicate that no wool was shipped; shipments may be included in the figures for “Other Countries.”

Country to which shipped.Shipments from 1st July, 1934, to 30th June, 1935, from 
Australia.New Zealand.South Africa.Argentina.Uruguay. 
(In Millions of Pounds.) 
United Kingdom344.3140.142.185.016.8 
Japan194.614.82.0.... 
Belgium155.017.621.215.29.6 
Netherlands.....1.541 
France84.58.351.442.410.5 
Germany34.1..66.270.926.9 
Austria........ 
Italy18.3..22.639.221.5 
United States7.8....32.92.4 
Canada........ 
Other countries33.915.517.117.63.7 
     Totals872.5196.3222.6304.795.5 

CATTLE.

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in the Dominion by herds bred on sound lines, though the development of the beef breeds in later years has received a check partly owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations and partly through the difficulties of competing with other countries in the British market. There are still very many fine Shorthorn herds of the beef type, while Hereford and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are also largely bred. There are herd-books for each of these breeds.

The breeding of dairy cattle has made great progress in recent years. Herd-book societies are established for the Jersey, Friesian, Ayrshire, Milking Shorthorn, and Red Poll breeds. The various societies have heartily co-operated in a scheme for establishing registers of merit in connection with the certificate-of-record testing of purebred dairy cattle, thus giving a great fillip to the breeding of purebred dairy stock. The dairy-farmer is encouraged to use purebred bulls and thereby to assist materially in raising the standard of the dairy stock of the country. He is now familiar with the value of herd-testing work, and is utilizing this knowledge to improve the quality of his herd.

The total number of cattle in the Dominion at the enumeration of 1935 was 4,293,499, as against 4,301,128 in 1934. The figures for the two years, according to the classification in use, are as follows:—

Bulls two years old and over, for breeding purposes—1934.1935.
    For beef purposes15,04215,667
    For dairy purposes60,47863,165
Cows and heifers two years and over, for dairying—  
    In milk1,816,4021,827,962
    Dry116,109124,132
Cows and heifers two years old and over, other than  
    for dairying534,887565,647
Heifers one and under two years old—  
    Intended for dairying365,126364,081
    Other145,971154,853
Steers two years old and over364,909327,694
Steers and bulls one and under two years old153,328165,719
Calves under one year old—  
    Heifers Intended for dairying379,030330,532
     0ther159,832153,722
    Bulls and steers190,014200,325
            Totals4,301,1284,293,499

Eighty-four per cent. of the total cattle in the Dominion are located in the North Island, the figures being 3,618,075 in the North Island and 675,424 in the South Island. The proportion of dairy cows in the North Island works out at 45½ per cent. and in the South Island at 45¼ per cent.

More than half of the total cattle in the Land Districts of North Auckland, Auckland, and Taranaki respectively are cows and heifers over two years old used or intended for dairying purposes. Auckland Land District has the greatest number of dairy cows, followed by North Auckland, Wellington, and Taranaki. The order of the principal land districts for cattle other than dairy cows is: Wellington, Auckland, Gisborne, and North Auckland.

In point of density Taranaki takes first position with 167 dairy cows to every 1,000 acres occupied, Auckland coming next with 132, and North Auckland third with 124.

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

In connection with the enumeration of live-stock, additional information as to breeds of cattle, horses, and pigs was collected thrice in each decade until 1928, since when the inquiry has been discontinued as an economy measure. A summary of the results of the 1928 enumeration as regards cattle (exclusive of a few within borough boundaries) is given in the table following.

Breed.Total Cattle.
Purebred— 
  Jersey39,379
  Guernsey70
  Friesian10,670
  Ayrshire4,905
  Red Poll831
  Shorthorn (including Milking Shorthorn)6,829
  Hereford4,210
  Polled Angus4,269
  Devon116
Crossbred with predominating strain of— 
  Jersey and other Channel Island breeds1,236,289
  Friesian231,022
  Ayrshire48,192
Crossbred with predominating strain of—continued. 
  Milking Shorthorn440,585
  Red Poll6,909
  Other dairy breeds (including unspecified)1,286
  Shorthorn417,493
  Hereford426,241
  Polled Angus351,118
  Devon2,121
  Other beef breeds (including unspecified)6,164
      Total, purebred71,279
      Total, crossbred3,167,420
      Dominion totals3,238,699

THE WORLD'S CATTLE.

The latest available information showing the number of cattle in the main cattle countries of the world is as follows:—

Country.Number of Cattle.
India (whole)158,573,936
United States60,667,000
Brazil42,539,203
Russia (U.S.S.R.)42,437,000
Argentina32,211,835
China22,327,199
Germany19,165,000
France15,704,000
Australia13,512,487
South African Union10,573,869
Mexico10,082,958
Poland9,237,000
Canada8,952,000
Colombia7,592,020
Uruguay7,372,381
Italy7,088,752
England and Wales6,659,000
Madagascar6,168,675
Tanganyika5,450,280
Kenya5,192,824
Turkey5,169,000
Siam5,119,784
Dutch East Indies4,962,629
Czechoslovakia4,404,796
New Zealand4,293,499
Rumania4,188,596
Spain4,163,540
Irish Free State4,136,591
Cuba4,032,907
Yugoslavia3,989,941
French West Africa3,632,170
Sweden3,086,000
Denmark3,059,000
Paraguay2,972,861
Nigeria2,798,545
Netherlands2,764,829
Southern Rhodesia2,688,677
Chile2,387,940
Austria2,348,627
Venezuela2,278,000
Uganda Protectorate2,106,890
Bolivia2,064,300
French Morocco2,049,073

DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The Dairy Industry Act, 1908 (a consolidation of previous legislation), with its amendments may in general terms be described as an Act to regulate the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture under proper sanitary conditions of dairy-produce—i.e., milk, cream, butter, or cheese, and any other product of milk or cream—intended for sale for human consumption or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy-produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises or the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection therewith may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the Inspector, and until so remedied their use for the purposes of dairy-produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorized to condemn any dairy-produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited.

Milk or cream purchased for the manufacture of dairy-produce and paid for according to the percentage of butterfat contained therein must have this percentage determined by the Babcock or Gerber test. Owners of dairy factories are required by regulations under the Act to pay different prices for different grades of milk or cream supplied for the manufacture of dairy-produce. Owners are also required to furnish to suppliers a certified annual statement of overrun, and provision is made for an independent investigation by the Audit Department where a supplier is dissatisfied with the statement received.

Dairy-produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking. The export of butter containing more than 16 per cent. of water or less than 80 per cent. of butterfat is prohibited. The export of cheese of which the water-free substance consists of less than 50 per cent. of fats wholly derived from milk is also illegal.

Wide powers are conferred to make regulations prescribing matters of detail with regard to the production, manufacture, sale, and export of dairy-produce. In particular, regulations may be made for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture of dairy-produce, the registration of brands to be used on dairy-produce, and for the inspection, grading, packing, marking, stamping, and labelling of dairy-produce. Regulations relating to the manufacture and export of dairy-produce are now contained in the Dairy-produce General Regulations, 1933, gazetted on the 18th May, 1933, and consolidating all previous regulations on the subject. Further regulations were gazetted on the 10th July, 1935, and on the 9th September, 1935.

Since 1926 provision has been made for a national brand comprising a design of a fern-leaf bearing the words “New Zealand” to be placed on packages of butter or cheese exported and grading 90 points or over, but since the enactment of the consolidating regulations in May, 1933, the grading points in respect of cheese have been raised to 91 points or over.

The Act provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies. Companies so registered are authorized to accept or to compel the surrender of shares issued in certain cases, subject to the rights of shareholders being safeguarded. A dairy company must not include in its registered name the word “co-operative” unless it is entitled to be registered as a co-operative dairy company under the Act.

Under the extension of powers provided by the Dairy Industry Amendment Act, 1933, an important amendment to existing regulations was gazetted on the 22nd February, 1934. The new regulations made it illegal for a supplier of milk or cream to a factory to transfer (without the antecedent consent in writing of the owner or manager of the factory) his supply to another factory during the same season. New regulations were gazetted at the same date, effective from the 1st April, 1934, in respect of managers of dairy factories, by which no uncertificated person may act as manager after the expiration of three months from the 1st April, 1934. The qualifications necessary for applicants for registration are prescribed, and a Registration Board constituted with a Registrar as executive officer. Provision is made for appeals against the decision of the Board.

The following table shows the number of factories registered under the Dairy Industry Act as at 31st March, 1935, together with the amount of butter and cheese forwarded for export during the preceding twelve months, and the number of suppliers to such factories:—

 Number of Factories.Forwarded for Export, 1934–35.Number of Suppliers.
District.Butter.Cheese.Dual Plant.Butter.Cheese.Butter.Cheese and Dual Plant.
    Tons.Tons.  
Auckland6738490,00817,75326,2581,520
Hawke's Bay111716,4524,0614,797698
Taranaki58693014,22040,7673,3874,045
Wellington2750514,55812,6336,7471,669
Nelson7211,775801,71996
Marlborough55..530577879159
Westland81..779276988
Canterbury1116..2,0321,6467,363562
Otago and Southland117711,19215,2776,5103,615
    Totals, 1934–3520527542131,61292,82158,35812,372
    Totals, 1933–3421027445141,943103,84559,13512,702

The butter-factories shown in the above table include both creameries and whey-butter factories.

From a survey in 1930–31, covering some 1,654 farms, the average per-acre production of butterfat was ascertained as 80 lb.

The estimated* yield per cow measured in terms of butterfat-production has been—

 lb.

* Department of Agriculture.

† Provisional estimate.

1905–06124.74
1906–07124.79
1907–08127.66
1908–09139.25
1909–10148.45
1910–11139.46
1911–12140.10
1912–13150.78
1913–14156.52
1914–15154.07
1915–16160.52
1916–17163.96
1917–18152.23
1918–19150.64
1919–20152.04
1920–21154.25
1921–22174.97
1922–23180.62
1923–24174.10
1924–25182.09
1925–26179.40
1926–27198.50
1927–28195.38
1928–29210.84
1929–30218.05
1930–31201.05
1931–32199.65
1932–33215.10
1933–34220.80
1934–35210.00

Statistics were formerly compiled monthly showing by district of production the quantities of butter and cheese loaded out from grading-store for export. These have now been discontinued.

Returns of factory production show that during the 1933–34 factory year 3,187,212 cwt. of butter was produced by butter-factories in the Dominion. In addition to this, 50,826 cwt. of whey butter was manufactured. For the twelve months ended 31st January, 1930 (since when the collection of data has been discontinued), 52,158 cwt. of butter was produced on holdings of 1 acre and over.

Returns from cheese-factories give the quantity of cheese manufactured during 1933–34 as 2,135,599 cwt.

The total export of butter and cheese in the last ten years, and the total quantity of each commodity sent to the United Kingdom, are given in the next table. The butter export figures for 1934 are slightly below the record established in 1933, while the cheese figures constitute a record.

Calendar Year.Total Export of Butter.Butter exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
19251,245,3241,186,9651,376,7541,371,986
19261,168,0401,062,2781,461,5481,450,637
19271,455,5391,188,6641,492,7921,478,870
19281,449,5701,158,2341,567,2721,551,523
19291,653,8071,276,8411,779,0931,770,150
19301,884,2371,553,7251,812,9811,809,348
19311,988,5661,962,3201,636,3471,635,233
19322,185,5452,156,1271,790,4311,788,989
19332,635,2472,597,0081,982,9421,980,872
19342,614,5192,568,0561,984,4961,983,058

On a value basis, butter exports greatly exceed those of cheese, the figures for 1934 being £10,042,776 for butter and £4,694,459 for cheese.

DAIRY BOARD.

Under the Dairy-produce Export Control Act, 1923, a Dairy-produce Export Control Board was established consisting of two Government nominees, nine representatives of suppliers to dairy factories, and one person representing exporters and manufacturers of dairy-produce. Until the passing of the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934, the duties of the Board, broadly defined, were to control the export of butter and cheese in the interests of the producers, and to aid in the marketing of dairy-produce outside of New Zealand. Under the more recent legislation, the constitution of the Board was amended to three Government nominees, three representatives of owners of dairy factories, and one appointee of the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Co., Ltd. The name of the Board was changed to the New Zealand Dairy Board, and its powers extended to cover the production of dairy-produce in New Zealand and the handling and marketing of dairy-produce intended for consumption in New Zealand.

The Board inspects the conditions of loading and discharging of dairy-produce; regulates quantities to be shipped each month; arranges contracts in regard to freight, marine insurance, cold storage, and landing conditions; and conducts a continuous advertising campaign in England. The Board also prescribes conditions under which London merchants market dairy-produce on behalf of dairy companies, and is kept informed by the manager in charge of the London agency as to current prices and other matters relating to the disposal of New Zealand dairy-produce in England. One result of the Board's activities has been shown in a steady reduction in freight, insurance, and cold-storage rates, as witness the following figures in respect of freight and insurance:—

Freight rates—Butter.Cheese.
* Less 21 per cent., plus 13⅛ per cent. exchange surcharge.
1923–244s. 6d. per box.1d. per pound.
1933–364s. per box.*⅞d. per pound.*
Marine insurance rates—Butter.Cheese.
1923–249s. 6½d. per cent.11s. 4d. per cent.
 (plus 1s. 9d. for transhipments.)
1935–384s. 6d. per cent.4s. 11d. per cent.

Over the nine years ending July, 1935, the sum of approximately £200,000 has been spent in advertising in the United Kingdom, including £45,000 in 1934–35. Results have been shown in a greatly increased demand for New Zealand dairy-produce, more especially in the North of England, where Danish butter finds its main market.

The funds of the New Zealand Dairy Board are derived from levies on butter and cheese exported, the present levies being 3/64 d. per pound on butter and 3/125 d. per pound on cheese. The gross amount collected through the Customs Department in respect of these levies during the twelve months ended 31st July, 1935, was £77,928.

Generally, the Board is working in close co-operation with the Executive Commission of Agriculture and the Department of Agriculture. It has power to exercise either limited or absolute control over the export of dairy-produce. The “absolute control” powers were exercised only during the period 1st August, 1926, to 30th September, 1927, inclusive.

In September, 1935, the New Zealand Dairy Conference approved the adoption of a system of group marketing, to come into operation on the termination of existing marketing regulations in July, 1936.

The following table of monthly arrivals in Great Britain will give an indication of the trend during recent years, the aim being to keep New Zealand butter and cheese on the British market all the year round:—

Month.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Butter (Boxes).
August102,02295,0821 232,895193,849271,034357,126296,204
September64,60274,385147,357212,458276,392315,250217,495
October137,35658,014133,129160,593154,101314,609388,696
November225,188209,103299,486253,486425,791489,757427,208
December191,777274,928345,128600,660612,010568,348481,507
January379,962343,935477,783413,316553,599617,719534,215
February287,703292,603340,868426,653386,513575,906550,785
March483,140207,425382,839404,309451,256584,206519,114
April220,260429,405412,303360,939460,201462,952427,257
May246,447255,699313,285397,399504,963591,420413,107
June132,144131,005212,270232,791356,137366,026324,899
July127,336157,324304,493233,382331,731357,533279,040
     Totals2,597,9372,588,9083,601,8303,889,8354,783,7285,601,4524,859,527
Cheese (Crates).
August74,17376,526102,54437,39064,29294,78999,588
September14,86939,97770,19244,26773,22479,18174,899
October7,23021,70616,67447,65233,76854,59768,362
November66,44846,29464,90830,29653,30663,38873,940
December81,99899,184133,283135,898138,064112,403111,648
January159,315159,562178,977136,516164,893160,480150,553
February170,931126,406105,693148,800141,205156,086144,763
March148,258134,635156,865130,813156,242154,889125,398
April108,941147,286174,355107,280150,699139,372132,445
May124,243113,679136,780156,859155,024166,291115,936
June95,67588,97864,31595,316121,395112,081101,775
July88,70690,42087,80983,699110,478117,79681,980
     Totals1,146,7871,144,6531,292,3951,154,7861,302,5901,411,3531,281,287

WORLD PRODUCTION OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The following table shows the production of butter and cheese in the principal dairying countries:—

Country.Year.Butter.Cheese.
Quantity.Place on List.Quantity.Place on List.
   1,000 lb. 1,000 1b. 
ArgentinaT.193281,2931341,07211
AustraliaT.1933419,675336,93312
CanadaT.1933325,7187112,0907
ChileP.19307,727205,51817
CzechoslovakiaF.193219,888182,75018
DenmarkT.1933407,851468,7849
GermanyT.1933936,9552278,0003
FinlandF.193257,1451413,54715
FranceT.1931385,8055418,8742
United KingdomF.1930113,4561151,72410
Irish Free StateT.1932170,800918219
LatviaF.193246,91816....
NetherlandsT.1932187,8638263,4224
New ZealandT.1933–34368,5026239,1875
NorwayF.193217,3771933,09513
Russian Soviet UnionF.1931132,2721028,34714
SwedenF.1932113,2771269,6768
SwitzerlandF.193356,22415122,1366
Union of South AfricaF.193320,475178,40916
United StatesF19331,762,6881543,7351

NOTE.—The letter “T” denotes total production, while the letter “F” denotes production of creameries and factories only.

The following table, taken mainly from the International Review of Agriculture, shows the quantities of butter and cheese exported from the principal countries engaged in the export trade during the last six calendar years. The New Zealand figures relate to the twelve months ended 30th June following the year shown.

Country.1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Butter.
 1,000 1b.1,000 1b.1,000 1b.1,000 1b.1,000 1b.1,000 lb.
Denmark350,620372,582378,429347,886333,087330,311
New Zealand203,593202,522220,493272,186316,500288,467
Australia102,917126,325208,924229,105211,532246,784
Russia57,84626,01568,02468,19882,023..
Netherlands104,32592,37472,66044,92662,55481,320
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania68,87397,96492,34890,51176,11378,242
Irish Free State62,83658,86442,30736,93245,23256,886
Sweden54,98358,86443,16229,87537,75951,152
Finland36,61037,69938,36732,02026,21124,467
Argentina36,81148,94351,16755,92530,66018,347
Poland33,24826,67627,4702,7073,5479,782
Cheese.
 1,000 lb.1,000 lb.1,000 lb.1,000 1b.1,000 lb.1,000 lb.
New Zealand187,701200,466181,821214,945223,131208,178
Netherlands211,237206,794190,460170,061140,900134,892
Canada92,94567,02184,79086,94074,16861,167
Italy72,41380,91089,03266,37052,34355,283
Switzerland69,73565,91854,30743,70045,32139,143
France40,60938,92134,28929,21125,03425,973
Denmark14,51312,5669,38114,53522,21813,891

CONSUMPTION AND EXPORT OF MEAT.

MUTTON AND LAMB.

Figures showing sheep and lambs slaughtered for food purposes, together with the exports of frozen mutton and lamb, are given in the tables following.

The balance between killings and exports during the period, with due allowance for variations in stocks, represents an annual consumption of over 91 lb. of mutton and lamb per head of population, including Maoris.

Year ended 31st March,Slaughterings.Exports (including Pieces).Excess of Slaughterings over Exports.
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.Number.Approximate Weight.
* Year ended 31st January.
Mutton.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
19313,563,952699,5844,263,5362,581,4771,682,059901,103
19324,464,894768,8255,233,7192,343,1482,890,5711,548,520
19333,569,598786,8144,356,4122,354,1842,002,2281,072,622
19342,867,245688,8893,556,1342,010,0841,546,050828,241
19353,335,943606,8803,942,8232,088,8811,853,942993,183
 Totals for five years17,801,6323,550,99221,352,62411,377,7749,974,8505,343,669
Lamb.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
19318,092,795104,7578,197,5527,819,980377,572121,362
19328,689,196138,4428,827,6387,574,1471,253,491402,908
19339,718,585135,3459,853,9309,056,071797,859256,455
19348,726,39099,0328,825,4228,719,301106,12134,110
19359,690,05475,5729,765,6269,383,081382,545122,961
 Totals for five years44,917,020553,14845,470,16842,552,5802,917,588937,796

As the United Kingdom provides practically the only market for the mutton and lamb exported from New Zealand, it is interesting to note the extent to which the Dominion contributes to this market in comparison with importations from other countries. The position during the live calendar years up to 1934 is given in the following statements respecting the commodities specified:—

IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM.

 Country of Origin.
Year.New Zealand.Australia.South America.Other Countries.Total.
Mutton.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.
19302,576,749664,2691,928,09626,7595,195,873
19312,319,6691,342,8011,259,4441,1064,923,020
19322,799,216518,7231,238,8743,2344,560,047
19332,107,203982,492854,4033,5143,947,612
19341,861,6111,208,496522,458..3,592,565
Lamb.
19306,711,4331,912,7864,763,22774,49013,461,936
19317,956,2013,406,5865,254,41625,11416,642,317
19328,540,6883,166,2954,758,509120,11516,585,607
19338,875,3143,380,3014,467,76767,17816,790,560
19348,665,0784,159,4933,839,17784,43216,748,180

Of the total importations of both mutton and lamb, New Zealand supplies one-half. Features of the tables are the growth of exports from Australia, which have doubled in the last five years, and the decline in exports from South America, which is particularly marked in the case of mutton.

BEEF.

New Zealand mutton and lamb meet with a ready sale in the London market, but the Dominion's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that exports of frozen beef from the Dominion have declined in recent years.

During 1933 several trial shipments of New Zealand chilled beef were despatched to England. The experiments proved very successful, and were followed by larger shipments. Up to the 30th June, 1934, 16,112 quarters had been forwarded to the United Kingdom. During the following twelve months a further 53,755 quarters were shipped, representing 13½ per cent. of the total quantity of both chilled and frozen beef sent forward.

The following table, which is exclusive of veal, shows the number and approximate weight of cattle slaughtered for food purposes in each of the last five years, together with the weight of beef exported. In the figures of slaughterings an average weight of 600 lb. per carcass is taken, and the export figures include potted and preserved meats, the greater portion of which is beef. After making allowance for variations in stocks, it is found that consumption of beef per head of population (including Maoris) during the period averaged 118 lb. per annum.

Year ended 31st March,Slaughterings.Exports.Excess of Slaughterings over Exports (Approximate Weight).
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.Approximate Weight.
* Year ended 81st January.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
1931320,1368,635334,7711,793,416354,5761,438,840
1932322,9427,537330,4791,770,423317,8341,452,589
1933393,60811,373404,9812,169,541600,2581,569,283
1934475,14913,255488,4042,616,450853,4881,762,962
1935488,98213,581502,5632,692,302901,2821,791,020
 Totals for five years2,006,81754,3812,061,19811,042,1323,027,4388,014,694

VEAL.

In recent years the veal industry developed rapidly, mainly as a result of the organization of the “bobby” calf trade. An appreciable increase in exports resulted. As a consequence of British Government meat restrictions, an embargo was placed on the export of “bobby” calf meat as from the 12th July, 1934. This embargo has since been lifted, and the 1935 season promises to show a further expansion of this industry.

The following table gives particulars of slaughterings and exports for the past five years:—

Year ended 31st March,Slaughterings.Exports during Twelve Months ended 31st March.
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.
* Year ended 31st January.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
1931551,7027,444559,20683,582
1932593,02914,558607,587117,420
1933599,33514,538613,87391,341
1934941,70512,705954,410134,092
1935746,77115,986762,75771,356
    Totals for five years3,432,60265,2313,497,833497,791

MEAT-EXPORT CONTROL.

The New Zealand Meat-producers' Board was constituted under the provisions of the Meat-export Control Act, 1921–22. It consists of eight members—five representing the producers of meat for export, two representing the Government, and one representing the stock and station agents. Briefly, the objects of the Board are to control the export of meat in the interests of the producers.

Since the Board was constituted in 1922 freight charges have been considerably reduced. Rates now current, a three-year contract commencing 1st September, 1933, are (per pound): Mutton (or lamb over 42 1b.), l 3/22d.; lamb, l 9/22 d.; veal, ⅞d.; pork, ⅞d.; beef quarters, ⅞d.; other items at various rates. The rates quoted are all less 21 per cent., but plus exchange surcharge, which was reduced from 13⅔ per cent. to 13⅕ per cent. as from the 1st August, 1934, consequent upon a slight improvement in exchange rates.

Probably one of the most important, functions of the Board is to regulate shipments so as to keep a steady flow of meat going on to the British markets over the twelve months of the year, having due regard to the months of the highest consumption of each class of meat. The Board is enabled to carry out this work as it has the freight arrangements for the shipment of New Zealand meat in its hands under its statutory powers.

The Board has been very closely associated with the New Zealand Government in connection with the Ottawa Agreement and the subsequent meat-imports policy of the British Government. The regulation of meat shipments, so far as New Zealand is concerned, has been in the hands of the Board.

Another very important section of the Board's work comes under the heading of advertising. Along with the Dominion's increasing lamb-production, the Board is making every effort to expand our trade by advertising, and has spent large sums of money in the United Kingdom for this purpose.

Other important functions of the Board include supervision of grading, inspection of loading and unloading of vessels, trial shipments to new markets, scientific survey work, and grants to the Royal Agricultural Society and other bodies to encourage production of suitable export types of lambs, pigs, &c.

The Board has taken an active part in the development of the chilled-beef industry and has also encouraged the expansion of the pig industry by grants to recording clubs and in other directions.

The following table shows shipments during each month of the season 1933–34 and the first eleven months of the season 1934–35:—

 Season 1933–34.Season 1934–35.
Month of Shipment.Beef.Mutton.Lamb.Beef.Mutton.Lamb.
 Quarters.Carcasses.Carcasses.Quarters.Carcasses.Carcasses.
November7,6637,614279,84535,49734,928227,758
December89,92374,997758,8938,910106,657770,249
January48,118124,472737,34818,280147,342679,021
February18,171177,8051,002,78842,743244,6781,180,678
March33,491221,9521,063,97836,68S279,7981,361,153
April47,008195,883871,37616,727236,808908,805
May94,840160,2881,124,47273,583219,0271,289,303
June42,395141,286929,33262,035158,339985,639
July24,689174,443777,70133,936111,805470,717
August8,742288,143752,45035,301236,741739,048
September26,927164,542372,77619,664144,355143,904
October43,73490,26292,318......

HORSES.

Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,284 was reached, horses have tended to decline numerically. The number recorded as at 31st January, 1935, was 272,986, and shows a recession of 920 from the 1934 figures.

Totals for the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Horses on 31st January.
1931295,743
1932280,994
1933276,897
1934273,906
1935272,986

The following numbers of horses were returned in 1935 in the classes specified:—

Draught and three-quarter draught125,553
Spring-cart or light artillery (including half-draught)48,979
Hacks and light-working horses83,826
Thoroughbred and other horses14,628
           Total horses272,986

PIGS.

After earlier vicissitudes, pig-breeding showed signs of being in a more stable condition, as increases in the total number were recorded in each year from 1919 until 1928. A check then occurred, the figures gradually receding from 580,898 in 1928 to 470,194 in 1931. Since then successive increases have been noted, and the number of pigs returned in 1935 (702,755) is the highest ever recorded.

The following table shows the classification by breeds as at the special collection conducted in 1928. The figures are exclusive of pigs within borough boundaries.

Breed.Pig under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Totals.
Pure Berkshire56,4415,77216,54578,758
Pure Yorkshire5,5996422,3148,555
Other purebred9,5201,4914,54515,556
Crossbred410,3737,46259,000476,835
       Totals481,93315,36782,404579,704

Figures (including pigs within borough boundaries) as at the 31st January for each of the years shown are given in the next table.

Year.Pigs under Six Months Old.Pigs Six Months and under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Total Pigs.
1931291,737106,59212,88464,981476,194
1932319,467104,15614,38475,409513,416
1933372,856114,29216,74887,686591,582
1934422,185121,69518,21498,299660,393
1935499,499131,04820,415111,793762,755

During the five years ended the 31st March, 1935, 3,083,075 pigs were slaughtered at abattoirs and registered slaughterhouses, and during the quinquennium to the 31st January, 1935, 265,244 were slaughtered by farmers on holdings of 1 acre or over, the total slaughterings during the five years representing approximately 3,056,500 cwt. of pork, bacon, and ham, of which total 42 per cent. was exported. The balance of 58 per cent. was consumed in the Dominion, the average annual consumption per head of population being 25 lb. The figures for each year are:—

Year ended 31st March,Pigs slaughtered.Export of Frozen Pork, and Bacon and Ham.Excess of Slaughterings over Exports (Approximate Weight).
At Abattoirs, &c.On Farms.*Total.Approximate Weight.
* Year ended 31st January.
 Number.Number.Number.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
1931450,49051,180501,670482,460150,024332,436
1932430,91451,536482,450465,110104,889360,221
1933532,12358,484590,607549,190186,646362,544
1934744,56955,498800,067719,670378,760340,910
1935924,97948,546973,525840,080451,825388,255
Totals for five years3,083,075265,2443,348,3193,056,5101,272,1441,784,366

POULTRY.

The number of poultry in New Zealand at the taking of the 1926 census was ascertained to be 3,781,145, a decrease of 209,864 as compared with the number for the year 1921 (3,991,009). The number of poultry per head of population was 2.8, which is the lowest figure since 1864.

The figures of poultry for each of the last five censuses are as follows:—

Census Year.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.Total.
19062,784,269281,99944,30077,1013,187,669
19113,215,031329,23045,38997,9333,687,583
19163,141,354220,80846,95556,5213,465,638
19213,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009
19263,308,384352,03043,87976,8523,781,145

In connection with the census of 1926, statistics were compiled as to the sizes of flocks of fowls, and the results are instructive as showing that, though poultry-farming as a definite branch of farming existed to some small extent, poultry-keeping was generally carried on merely as a side-line.

The average number of fowls per flock was only twenty-one. The total number of households keeping poultry of any kind was 158,856, of which no fewer than 68,133 were in cities and boroughs.

The Poultry Act, 1924, provides for the regulating of poultry-keeping and of the sale and export of poultry and eggs. Provision is made for the appointment of inspectors, on whom certain powers of entry for purposes of inspection of poultry or eggs intended for export are conferred. Poultry are required to be kept under sanitary conditions, and cruelty to poultry is made an offence. Every owner of poultry is required to notify an inspector of any outbreak of disease among his poultry and to comply with the inspector's directions. It is an offence to sell diseased poultry. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to declare diseases, to appoint ports of export, and to appoint grading-stores.

In order to provide moneys for the organization and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in December, 1933. The Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry-run which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than twenty-five head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. The fee payable annually for registration is 2s. 6d. if the flock does not exceed one hundred head. For each additional hundred (or part thereof) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable. A Board is constituted for the administration of the Act. Further clauses provide for a poll to be taken as to the expiry of the Act if a petition signed by not less than 20 per cent. of registered producers is presented to the Minister during February, 1937. If such a poll is carried the Act is to be deemed to be repealed as from the 31st May, 1937.

BEES.

The dairying-lands of the Dominion are eminently suited for the rearing of bees and a very high-grade product is put on the market from local apiaries. The export trade is, of course, small when compared with the main primary industries, but is capable of considerable development. Honey from the apiaries of the Dominion is much appreciated wherever it is known.

In New Zealand the Department of Agriculture devotes proportionately the same attention to detail in the case of honey for export as is given to butter and cheese forwarded for consumption beyond the Dominion. Honey must be forwarded to grading-stores at Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Lyttelton, Greymouth, Timaru, Dunedin, and Bluff for grading prior to export, and may be exported only through those ports. The Apiaries Act, 1927, which came into operation on 1st January, 1928, was passed to consolidate and amend the law relating to the bee industry. Stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee-moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register their apiaries, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that as at 7th August, 1935, 7,864 beekeepers and 121,700 colonies were registered.

Exports of honey for the last five years were—

Year.Quantity. lb.Value. £
1930171,5366,216
1931584,73919,401
1932226,2437,054
1933757,10621,823
1934669,68319,731

A system of control on much the same lines as in the case of meat and dairy-produce was introduced by the Honey-export Control Act, 1924. The function of the Board set up (after a poll of producers, who decided by a large majority in favour of the scheme) is to control all honey intended for export.

Chapter 18. SECTION XVIII.—FORESTRY.

STATE FORESTS.

AT the 31st March, 1935, the area of State forest was 3,872,456 acres, and of provisional State forest 4,015,829 acres, these totals including 087,403 acres and 1,222,988 acres respectively of national-endowment lands. The aggregate area (7,888,285 acres) represents 11–88 per cent, of the superficial area of the Dominion.

The administration of the State forests and of the afforestation activities of New Zealand is controlled by the State Forest Service.

The legislation governing the State forests is contained in the Forests Act, 1921–22, and its amendments of 1925 and 1926, and in section 17 of the Finance; Act, 1924. Section 5 of the Finance Act, 1930 (No. 2), authorized the borrowing of a maximum of £1,000,000 for the purposes of the Forests Act, 1921–22. Regulations have been issued under the State Forests Act, 1908, and the Forests Act, 1921–22. Section 23 of the Mining Amendment Act, 1934, provides for payment to the Crown pf compensation for damage resulting from mining operations to any land vested in the Crown. Such compensation in respect of State forests may from time to time, as damage is caused, be claimed by the Commissioner of State Forests.

FOREST AREAS.

The areas of indigenous forests estimated at intervals since the settlement in the Dominion are—

 Acres.
184727,600,000
186923,500,000
188621,200,000
189320,500,000
190917,000,000
1923–3212,600,000

FOREST POLICY.

The national forest policy has a two-fold purpose—the maintenance of climatic, soil, and water equilibria, and the supply of timber and other forest-produce. Owing to its influence upon agriculture, the former objective—viz., the conservation of the protection forests—is of the greater national significance. Conservation may be defined as the preservation of the forests by wise use, and the intensive management of these forests will assist to solve the problem of timber-supplies. It is with this latter consideration that the establishment of exotic forests is most intimately associated.

Important features of the national timber-supply situation are—

  1. Eighty per cent, of the remaining virgin forests are overmature, and there is no net growth, now growth being offset by decay, &c.:

  2. The conversion of overmature forests into healthy growing stands of indigenous species producing timber to the maximum capacity of the forest soil will necessitate silvicultural management extending over a long period, probably one hundred and fifty years :

  3. Current timber demands are depleting the virgin indigenous forests at such a rate that, without other provision being made, an adequate supply of timber would not be available during the whole of the intervening period :

  4. The establishment of exotic plantations to supplement the indigenous forest resources is therefore of great importance, and large forests of exotic trees have accordingly been established during recent years :

  5. The part which exotic forests will ultimately play in the forest economy of the Dominion is difficult to predict. Experience in foreign countries where forestry has been practised over a period of several centuries indicates, however, that exotic species have definite limitations, and for this reason the national policy must envisage the management of the indigenous forests to secure their maximum possible production of timber.

MANAGEMENT OF INDIGENOUS FORESTS.

The idea is prevalent that to preserve the existing indigenous forests to posterity it is sufficient to fence them against stock and to protect them from fire : this is entirely erroneous. The composition of the forest gradually changes, one typo of forest growth succeeding another. Generally the valuable timber- producing species are replaced by weed species such as kamahi, taraire, rewarewa. &c. The outstanding example is the remaining kauri forests. Of all the indigenous softwoods amenable to silvicultural treatment kauri is outstanding, and the results of investigations have been most promising. Plans for perpetuating the kauri forests and for rationing the supply of kauri timber are now in operation. Both the remaining virgin stands and the cut-over areas carrying regeneration are being brought under forest working-plans which govern both the extraction of logs and the silvicultural treatment required to maintain the forest in a state of maximum productivity. The first forest to be so treated is the Omahuta State Forest, not far removed from Russell, in which permanent extraction routes are now being constructed. Dead and over-mature trees will be extracted along with such large healthy trees as can be removed without endangering subsequent regeneration, and logs will be disposed of on the extraction routes. A minimum diameter cutting- limit of 27 in. breast high has been imposed for virgin stands; and provisions have been made for the preservation of exceptionally large trees and other special trees in advantageous situations for seeding purposes to assist regeneration. The more recent examinations and inspections of the kauri forests indicate beyond all possible doubt the feasibility not merely of preserving to posterity those few magnificent monarchs which the State Forest Service guards in its forests as national monuments, but also of maintaining the kauri forests in full vigour of growth to yield an everlasting supply of this world-famous wood.

Reconnaissances in the rimu pole-type forests of Westland are also being made to locate suitable demonstration forest units which may be placed under working- plans as in the case of the kauri forests, and so managed as to maintain mills in permanent production. A similar search for demonstration units is being conducted in the silver-beech forests of Southland, and it is anticipated that within two years working-plans for both rimu and silver beech forests will be in active operation.

The saw log has always been visualized as the major product of the exotic forests, and no exotic forests have been established for the production of any other particular product. As the population of the Dominion increases and likewise the consumption of pulp and paper products, it is possible that economically sized pulp-production units may become feasible. Should this prove to be the case, a supply of raw material for the cheaper classes of pulp and paper products, which form the bulk of the trade, may become available from the exotic forests, but in the form of low-grade logs and sawmill waste, since for the utilization of high-grade logs down to 4 in. diameter inside bark (which is the smallest timber usually accepted by pulp-mills) the Scandinavian type of sawmill is as well adapted as the pulping unit, possessing the additional advantages of smaller size and lower investment.

Already the production of exotic timber has attained a level of over 21,000,000 ft. board measure per annum, and is rapidly increasing, the increase being limited solely by the lack of available supplies of mature trees. All available supplies of thinnings will probably be required for many years to maintain this increasing production : and the fact that over 80 per cent, of the Dominion's fruit and cheese exports, and enormous quantities of other boxed goods, are shipped in exotic-pine timber containers is evidence of the growing popularity of these woods. Likewise they are replacing white-pine for concrete boxing and rimu for rough constructional, scaffolding, and genera! building framework, while in some districts complete houses and other buildings are being constructed of exotic timbers.

RESEARCH.

A forest entomologist is stationed at the Cawthron Institute in Nelson and a forest mycologist at the Plant Research Station in Palmerston North. Both of these officers are responsible to the Director of Forestry. Silvicultural investigation has centred round kauri and rimu. Experiments have been made to test the value of underplanting cut-over bush lands with exotics, but further time must elapse before definite conclusions can be arrived at.

FOREST UTILIZATION.

Investigations into all the major problems relating to the utilization of forest products have been in progress for many years, and cover the fields of physical and mechanical properties of timber, timber physics, and kiln-drying, wood-preservation, pulp and paper, derived products, and industrial uses of timber.

A pre-requisite to the extended utilization of the indigenous timbers by the local wood-using industries is a thorough knowledge of their mechanical and physical properties. Tests to determine these have been carried out over a period of ten years, and the results presented in a number of publications describing the properties and uses of the different woods, leaflets dealing with kauri, miro (Podocarpus ferrugineus), matai (Podocorpus spicatus), and totara (Podocarpus totara) having been printed. As a direct outcome of the work, allowable working-stresses for the design of poles and cross-arms were substantially increased during the year.

In accordance with the Department's policy of encouraging better seasoning practices for New Zealand timbers, the services of technical officers wore made available to timber operators who installed dry kilns in Westland and lnvercargill. These officers supervised the drying of initial charges and trained operators for the subsequent management of the kilns. Schedules were developed in Westland for the drying of white pine, and in Southland for the drying of rimu.

Markets for New Zealand timbers generally have gradually been extended and new uses found. Thus, pencil-manufacturers in Australia and Great Britain were interested in totara for lead-pencil manufacture, while locally the use of tawa for the manufacture of clothes-pegs, dowels, and handles was considerably increased. Tests are at present in progress to determine the suitability of silver-beech for cable-separators, of southern rata (Metrosideros lucida) for telegraph cross-arms, of silver-beech for beer-barrels, and of tawa for shoe-heels.

With the increased shortage of mature insignis-pine stands in New Zealand, Sawmillers are giving attention to the possibility of utilizing exotic softwood thinnings for the manufacture of boxes and crates. The first sale of timber for such purposes was made during 1933–34, a substantial volume of thinnings having been contracted for from the older stands in the Dusky and Conical Hills Plantations. The material available is particularly suitable for crates and boxes of the batten type, such as cheese-crates, fruit-cases for the Island trade, –c, and cases for the banana trade have already been supplied to Samoa. Thinnings from the exotic forests have also found favour for mining work, and, with the development of cheap preservative treatments, may be expected to dominate this market.

Fencing-posts of various exotic species, preserved with creosote and erected at varying periods during the past thirteen years, show the excellent durability which can be secured by suitable preservative treatments with timbers which are naturally non-durable in the ground.

FOREST-FIRE PROTECTION.

One of the greatest problems of forest-conservation is that of fire-prevention, and fire-fighting methods have been improved by the establishment of fire lookout stations, access tracks, tool caches, improved telephone communication, and the provision of mobile fire-fighting equipment. It has taken several years to educate the general public to a realization of the value of fire districts as a means of preventing indiscriminate fire-lighting and “burning off” except under expert supervision, but that this is gradually being recognized is given point to by the fact that fire districts constituted in the interests of local bodies and private companies now number ten, while the fire districts constituted to protect State indigenous and exotic forests total thirty-six.

The system continues to work smoothly, and has undoubtedly contributed in no small measure to the comparative freedom from serious forest fires in State forests which has been the fortunate lot of the Dominion for almost the past decade.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIGENOUS FORESTS.

The forests of New Zealand, as a whole, belong to that great division of the earth's vegetation entitled rain-forest—a community with its most extreme development in the tropics (vide article on “Flora and Vegetation” in Section I). New Zealand rain-forest may be naturally divided into the two classes, subtropical rain- forest and subantarctic rain-forest, the former, in regard to its trees, being a mixed community of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of beech (Nothofagus). For practical purposes the names rain-forest proper and beech-forest suffice. Between these two classes there are many intermediates, the one gradually grading into the other.

Rain-forest proper consists of many kinds of tall, medium-sized, and small trees, together with a dense undergrowth of numerous species of shrubs and ferns. Woody lianes and huge epiphytes are characteristic, and bryophytes abound. This class of forest is generally confined to the coastal, lowland, and montane belts—the upper altitudinal line of the last-named becoming gradually lower in proceeding from north to south.

In regard to appraisal of timber, rain-forest proper is divided into the following groups, to each of which is appended its distribution : The kauri (extending northwards from a fine joining Port Waikato to Tauranga); the rimu (throughout all three Islands, its heaviest stands in the central part of the North Island and on the west coast of the South Island); the kahikatea (throughout the North and South Islands, occupying low-lying swampy ground); and the totara (throughout, but mainly in the central part of the North Island).

Beech-forest must be divided into milling-forest and protection-forest. The former consists of (1) forest where the hard beech (Nothofagus truncata) and the black beech (Nothofagus Solandri) are present in quantity, or where there is only the latter (this extends from the south of lat. 38° southwards to northern Nelson, Marlborough, and eastern Canterbury); (2) forest where the silver beech (Nothofagus Menziesii) and the red beech (Nothofagus fusca) are either the sole or the principal species; they extend from the Thames mountains through the montane and lower subalpine belts southwards to north-western Nelson, Westland (but absent from the Taramakau River southwards for one hundred miles), and the fiord country of Otago; and (3) forest where the silver beech is pure or nearly so, such principally in southern and western Southland, and extending over the western slopes of the Dividing Range. Protection-forest, where beeches dominate, particularly the mountain-beech (Nothofagus fusca cliffortioides), is essentially high-mountain forest, but on Mount Egmont and on the western side of the Southern Alps, from somewhat north of the Taramakau River for rather more than one hundred miles southwards, the forest is modified rain-forest proper with thin-bark totara (Podocarpus Hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus Ridwilli) as important trees. In Stewart Island Nothofagus is absent, and the theses of the upper forest are mainly kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa) and southern-rata (Melrosideros lucida).

In addition to the high forests there are scrub forests, of which those made up of manuka (in a wide sense)—Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides—are commercially important on account of the value of their wood for fuel, and because, in many instances, they are an early stage of rain-forest.

The foregoing gives merely a general classification of the forests, but, from the aspect of forestry, a division into smaller groups is essential, such to be based on the composition, structure, and life-history of each group. In this regard, altitude, climate, latitudinal change, and the nature of the soil have to be taken into consideration, as well as the combination and forms of the species composing the forest and their arrangement within the forest. In all forests changes, progressive or retrogressive, are taking place, and, so far as rain-forest proper is concerned (leaving swamp-forest on one side), that of the North Island and the northern part of the South Island is tending towards the dominance of the tawa (Beilachmiedia tawa), and, for the remainder of the South Island and Stewart Island, to that of the kamahi. On the other hand, beech-forest regenerates into similar forest.

Though the forest-trees of New Zealand number about 112, only a few are of value as timber-trees; in fact, at present only six are being used to any extent by sawmillers, and, of these, five are coniferous (softwood) timbers. There are several—e.g., puriri, kohekohe, pukatea—which possess very high qualities, but which are now to be obtained only in such small quantities that they are of little commercial importance.

CHIEF FOREST TREES.

A brief description of the principal forest-trees, with their distribution and the uses of their timber, is now given. The weights shown for the timber are per cubic foot, air-dry. For a description of additional forest-trees the reader is referred to the 1934 Year-Book or its immediate predecessors.

SOFTWOODS.

KAHIKATEA; WHITE PINE(Podocarpus dacrydioides).—This tree occurs to some extent in all forests except the beech-forests from north to south of the North and South Islands; formerly it was found in almost pure stands in swampy areas, but most of these stands have now been exploited. The average height of the tree is about 120 ft., and the average diameter about 32 in. The sapwood, which comprises the greater part of the log, is white, and the heartwood yellow. The timber (29 lb.) is straight in the grain, easily worked, and long, clean lengths and wide widths can be obtained. The yellow heartwood is durable, but the sapwood is very susceptible to the attacks of the larva? of the white-pine borer. The timber is inodorous, and is at the present time used mainly for butter-boxes, cheese-crates, and other packages.

KAIKAWAKA; MOUNTAIN CEDAR(Libocedrus Bidwillii).—Though the distribution of this tree is often local, its range extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the forests of South Otago. It is most plentiful on the west coast of the South Island. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., with an average diameter of about 18 in. The timber (27 lb.) is dark red in colour, easy to work, light, and rather -weak; it has considerable resemblance to totara, but is not so strong, and generally not so durable. The timber has been used for telegraph-poles, shingles, and palings. It has also been proved suitable for the manufacture of second-grade lead pencils, and at the present time is used for the manufacture of window-frames in the districts where it is obtainable. Being difficult to burn, it is specified for the construction of fireproof doors. Unfortunately, though occurring over a wide area, it is limited in quantity, and, if used freely, the supply would soon be exhausted.

KAURI(Agathis australis).—This, the largest tree of the New Zealand forest and the most celebrated, is rather restricted in its distribution, extending as it does only from a little to the north of lat. 38° S. to the extreme north of the North Island. Its average height is about 100 ft. The maximum diameter which has been measured is 22 ft., and a few trees still exist with diameters of 14 ft. The average diameter is, however, about 40 in. The timber (361b.) is light yellowish-brown in colour; it is straight in the grain, strong, easily worked, and remarkably free from knots and defects; probably there is no more generally useful softwood in the world. Though formerly much used for house-building, its present high price confines its use to railway-carriage building, and cabinet and general joinery purposes. Mottled and figured kauri is much prized for cabinet-work. The kauri yields a very valuable resin called kauri-gum. It is regrettable that the remaining stands of this valuable timber-tree are now limited.

MTATAI; BLACK PINE(Podocarpus spicatus).—This tree occurs more or less plentifully in forests throughout the North, South, and Stewart Islands. Its average height is about 60 ft., and average diameter about 24 in. The timber (38 lb.) is light yellowish-brown in colour, straight in the grain, and easily worked. In the ground it is of second- rate durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is used chiefly for weather- boarding, exterior joinery, and flooring, and for the last-mentioned purpose is one of the best timbers in the world.

MIRO(Podocarpus ferrurgineus).—This tree occurs in lowland and Montane forests from the north of the North Island to the south of Stewart Island, but is most abundant in Southland. The average height is about 65 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber (30 lb.) is used in house-building, and is often sold as rimu, to which it bears considerable resemblance. The heartwood is brownish in colour, very find in the grain, easily worked, and of exceptional strength, though not durable in the ground.

RIMU; RED PIKE(Dacrydium cupressinum).—This, the principal timber-tree of the New Zealand forest, is to be found more or less in all forests except the pure beech forests. The average height is about 100ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber (37 lb.) when first cut is reddish-brown, but it changes when seasoned to a light brown with darker and lighter streaks. It is fairly straight in the grain, easily worked, and it is the chief timber used in house-building. It is often beautifully figured, and when we is used for furniture, doors, and panelling. A high grade of kraft pulp may be produced from rimu.

SILVER FINE; YELLOW SILVER TINE; PINK PINE(Dacrydium Cohnsoi, D. intermedium. D. biforme, and D. Kirkii). — The group of small podocarps, here taken together, is far from well known, while as commercial timbers there is no uniformity in the timber supplied, that of D. Colensoi and D. intermedium being both sold as “silver pine.” In the case of the so - called “yellow silver pine” the timber is white and not yellow. As at present defined, D. Colensoi occurs from near Kaitaia (but one occasionally) to the volcanic plateau, where it is fairly common, and in the South Island it forms (or originally formed) considerable stands in north-western Nelson and West land. D. intermedium has much the same range in the North Island, but rather wider (Thames mountains, Ruahine-Tararua Mountains), and in the South Island it occurs in north-western Nelson, south-west Otago, and Stewart Island. D. biforme, except in the southern part of its range, belongs essentially to the mountains, and extends from the volcanic plateau to Stewart Island, but only where the rainfall is high. D. Kirkii is confined to the North Auckland Peninsula from the Manukau Harbour northwards. Considering here only the extremely valuable timber (39 lb.) of the silver-pine, it is whitish when first cut, but darkening to a light yellowish-brown : it is straight in the grain and easy to work. Owing to its extreme durability it has been used mainly for railway-sleepers, telegraph-poles, and posts; it is occasionally beautifully mottled, and is then used for cabinet-work. The remaining supplies are now limited.

TANEKAHA(Phyllocladiis trichomanoides).—This tree occurs, but not in great numbers, throughout the North Island and in the South Island in northern Marlborough and Nelson, extending southwards to near Westport. In height it is from 50 ft. to 70 ft., with a diameter of 1 ft. to 2 ft. The timber (42 lb.) is yellowish-white, free from knots, close-grained, dense, heavy, and very strong, and shrinks very little in seasoning, and for tins reason is-favoured for the manufacture of astragals in greenhouses, which have to remain straight in varying conditions of heat and moisture. Tanekaha is the strongest New Zealand softwood. It is of uncertain durability in the ground, but is very durable out of the ground. In the past it was used for bridge-building, sleepers, and mine-props. It is now used in railway-carriage construction. The bark is very valuable, for it contains as much as 28 per cent, of tannin.

TOTARA(Podocarpus totara and P. Hallii).—These trees, which are very closely related and hybridize freely, extend throughout all three Islands (P. Hallii only in Stewart Island and subalpine forests), though in many localities the totara is rare. It is most plentiful in the forests of the central portion of the North Island. The average height is about SO ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber (30 lb.) is reddish when first cut, seasoning to a reddish-brown. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle. Its great durability (that of P. totara being the most durable) has caused it to be much used for railway-sleepers, wharf-piles, telegraph-poles, and posts. Its high price and its freedom from warping and shrinking are now, however, causing it to be used for such special purposes as window and door frames; it is also much used for veranda-posts, flooring, and steps.

HARDWOODS.

BLACK BEECH(Nothofagus Solandri).— This tree occurs in abundance—but not everywhere—in the lowland and montane belts of the North Island southwards from about lat. 38° S. (but absent in south-western Auckland and western Taranaki), and, in the South Island, in northern Marlborough and Nelson, extending southwards through eastern Marlborough and Canterbury to Banks Peninsula and Alford Forest. The timber (49 lb.) is pale-reddish, or greyish, and frequently streaked with black. Probably it is fairly durable when in the ground, and it is suitable—to say the least—for rough buildings, fencing-posts, and structural purposes. At present it is used only for fencing- posts and firewood.

HARD BEECH(N. truncata).—This tree occurs in a few localities in the North Island from Kaitaia southwards to the Thames mountains, whence its distribution is the same as that of N. Solarulri. In the South Island it is abundant in northern Marlborough, and extends through Nelson with its southern limit just north of the Taramakau River. Its height ranges from CO ft. to 100 ft. or more, and its diameter from 2 ft. to 5 ft. Until recently its timber (weight 48 lb. per cubic foot) was confused with that of the red-beech, but it is harder and probably more durable. When first cut it is pinkish in colour. Its uses are the same as those of its near relative, the red- beech. With the black-beech it forms many hybrids.

RED BEECH (N fusca).—This tree extends from about lat. 37° S. on the Thames mountains southwards throughout the North Island in the montane belt (Mount Egmont excepted), and throughout the South Island where the rainfall is high (except southwards from the Taramakau River for one hundred miles), and in the south of Southland. It is a tall and massive tree, ranging from 60 ft. to rather more than 100 ft. in height, and 3 ft. to 6 ft. in diameter. The timber (44 lb.) when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split., durable, and of about the same weight as English ash. It is difficult to season, being particularly prone to honeycombing in drying, and for this reason has not been much used for house-building, except at one time on the Otago goldfields, where it has proved very durable; its chief use at present is for posts and mine-props, and it is used to a small extent for sleepers and bridge-work. It is valuable for furniture and bentwood work. With the increasing scarcity of Australian hardwoods it is certain to have a much more extended use in the future.

SILVER BEECH(N. Menziesii).— This tree has much the same distribution as the rod-beech, but it ascends higher, and is plentiful in the west of Southland, east of the Divide, extending to the Longwood Range. It also occurs at several places near Dunedin, and in the vicinity of Mount Cook and on the Blue Mountains. The average height of the tree is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about. 2 ft. The timber (34 lb.) is of a pinkish colour when first cut, but it changes to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, and strong; it is, however, not durable in contact with the ground. It is tow being used for flooring, interior finish, furniture, bentwood work, agricultural implements, bodies of motor-cars, billiard-tables, tool-handles, dowels, rifle-stocks, shoe-heels, casks, barrels, cheese-crates, and packing-cases, and its use for these and in other directions is sure to extend.

BLACK MAIRE(Olea Cunninghamii).—This tree occurs in all forests (except the beech-forests) throughout the North Island, but it is only in the central portion that it is fairly plentiful. In the South Island it is found only in Marlborough, and is very rare. It occasionally reaches a height of 70 ft. and a diameter of 4 ft., but the average height and diameter are 40 ft. and 18 in. respectively. The wood (62 lb.) is light brown, often with dark streaks, and bears considerable resemblance to that of its relative, the European olive. It is extremely dense, heavy, hard, strong, and durable. It has been used to a small extent for framing for machinery and for bridge-building, but owing to its exceptional heat-giving property its chief use has been for firewood.

NORTHERN RATA and SOUTHERN RATA(Metrosideros robusta and M. lucida).—The first-mentioned of these trees is found in most forests below 2,000 ft. in the North Island; it is rather rare in the South Island, being found only occasionally in the lowland forests of Marlborough and Nelson. This tree generally commences life as a “perching-plant”in the forks of other large trees, and there from sends down huge roots, which generally envelope and strangle the supporting tree. These roots usually (but not always) coalesce, and so form a huge role with an average diameter of about 54 in., which is generally hollow. The southern-rata, though found only rarely in the North Island, is plentiful in the South Island and Stewart Island. It has usually the same habit of growth as an ordinary tree; its average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter is about 20 in. The timber of both trees is reddish-brown in colour, extremely hard, heavy, strong, and (out of the ground) very durable; it is highly valued as firewood. On account of the difficulty of seasoning southern rata (71 lb.) without excessive twisting and warping it has not the same value as the northern species (55 lb.), which is used to a small extent for cross-arms for telegraph-poles and for wheel-wrights' work.

TAWA(Beilschmiedia tawa).—This tree is to be found in most forests of the North Island up to an altitude of about 1,700 ft. In the South Island it occurs in the coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is light brownish-white in colour, rather hard, straight in the grain, but somewhat brittle. It is difficult to season satisfactorily, and requires special treatment to ensure fungi-free timber. At present it is used for clothes-pegs and to a small extent only for inside lining and packing-cases, but, if kiln-dried, should find more extensive employment for flooring and interior finish. It has been proved suitable for the manufacture of many classes of pulp and paper.

OUTPUT AND CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER.

The principal timbers milled in New Zealand at present are rimu and kahikatea. The subjoined table gives particulars regarding the output of timber by species for the last five years. Quantities are quoted in board measure feet—i.e., units of 12 in. X 12 in. x 1 in.

Species of Timber.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.
Kauri10,471,2978,943,4806,891,3525,410,3904,945,843
Rimu163,293,288124,998,82571,082,07476,192,51396,125,000
Kahikatea58,505,36449,009,10943,161,29947,997,70047,949,396
Matai17,972,24313,917,1877,474,8078,160,87310,759,556
Totara9,046,1599,467,6975,344,1006,346,9427,197,389
Beech10,225,2557,680,9135,756,8685,781,4416,972,717
Pinus radiata (insignia)10,381,58512,739,92513,404,70014,676,01021,494,382
Other and unspecified2,509,9822,710,8861,077,2501,703,5412,210,617
Totals282,405,173229,468,022154,192,510166,269,410197,654,900
 Per Cent, of TotalPer Cent, of TotalPer Cent, of TotalPer Cent, of TotalPer Cent, of Total
Kauri3.713.904.473.252.50
Rimu57.8254.4746.1045.8248.63
Kahikatea20.7221.3627.9928.8724.26
Matai6.366.064.854.915.44
Totara3.204.133.473.823.64
Beech3.623.353.733.483.53
Pinus radiata (insignis)3.685.558.698.8310.88
Other and unspecified0.891.180.701.021.12
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The total of 2,210,617 ft. b.m. shown for “Other and unspecified” species for 1933–34 is made up as follows:—

species.Ft. B.M
Miro671,297
Taraire417,450
Tawa213,945
Tanekaha171,092
Puriri125,331
Rata96,699
Poplar31,039
Yellow pine27,409
Pukatea15,051
Blue-gum13,250
Mangeao13,000
Rewarewa6,570
Kawaka5,319
Hinau2,742
Unspecified400,423
Total2,210,017

Exports of New Zealand timber during the calendar year 1934 amounted to 34,530,279 ft. b.m., valued at £320,527, the principal species being kahikatea (22,784,987 ft.), rimu (7,150,514 ft.), beech (2,410,208ft.), Pinus radiata (712,205 ft.), and kauri (651,766 ft.). Imports during the year comprised 9,855,411 ft. b.m. of sawn timber (including 3,128,353 ft. of Oregon pine (Douglas fir), 4,097,222 ft. of /Australian hardwoods, 751,525 ft. of redwood, and 1,655,300 ft. of oak), valued at £132,473; 2,492,511ft. b.m. of logs and poles, valued at £30,217; 848,584 ft. b.m. of butter-boxes and cheese-crates, valued at £15,252; 3,751 ft. b.m. of cases, valued at £42; and laths, sleepers, and other items of a value of £48,054. The figures of exports and imports of timber during the last five years are:—

year.Exports of New Zealand Timber.Imports of Timber.Other Items.Total Value.
Measured In Feet.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Ft.B.M.£N.Z.Ft.B.M.£ N.Z.£N.Z.£ N.Z.
193026,676,131300,58259,324,130732,327197,149929,476
193117,532,304172,63315,888,663180,11033,707213,817
193227,280,884253,8836,982,70383,8532,38886,241
193325,829,404237,52810,258,839139,06420,768159,832
193434,530,279320,52713,200,257183,98448,054232,038

SALES OF STATE TIMBER.

Under the timber - sales policy in operation for the disposal of the mature timber in State forests the standing timber is appraised and disposed of by tender as a block sale, the quantity of each species being shown in cubic feet, with the equivalent board-foot measurement. During the depressed state of the timber- market, timber has not been offered for sale unless definitely applied for.

Year.Timber sold.Sale Price.
 Ft. B.M.£
1930–3142,118,02441,853
1931–3212,240,00016,435
1932–3332,314,95435,693
1933–3449,026,30252,118
1934–3565,302,70071,243

FINANCE.

Up to and including the financial year 1915–16 the expenditure on afforestation was provided out of rents and royalties received from State Forest reserves and by an annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund. In 1916–17 provision was made for the borrowing of money for forestry purposes, and since that date all receipts and payments are shown in a State Forests Account. Commencing with the year 1933–34. interest on loans is carried forward as a liability to the Consolidated Fund until realization of the plantations.

1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 Receipts.   
 £££££
Timber-sales (native forest)56,39136,32027,12931,01747,179
Timber royalties and trespass3,5383,7513,6673,1645,449
National-endowment allocation9,8666,3916,2216,61210,990
Leases—Grazing2,0931,7041,6371,8161,646
Sawmill-sites, &c.1,6361,8651,4121,3481,417
Nurseries and plantations7,4683,2783,5426,5464,094
Miscellaneous3,7232,2491,5872,2062,125
Total84,71555,55845,19552,70972,900
 Payments   
Interest and loan expenses82,80990,22397,256269172
National-endowment and local-body allocations19,84112,7537,0997,4019,339
Staff salaries49,52640,97434,23232,90134,155
Management, &c, native forests32,33114,47110,5809,75712,985
Nurseries and plantations194,556107,79549,34854,29259,136
Research, &c..4,8671,1991,0171,022528
Land-purchase6,3616,87412,64610,542 
Miscellaneous2,774888205202343
Total393,065275,177212,383116,386116,658

The revenue from indigenous forests is heavily reduced by statutory payments in favour of local bodies and the National Endowment Account, and during recent years the residue has been little more than sufficient to meet the expenses of supervision and management; consequently the establishment of plantations has been financed almost exclusively from loan-moneys.

STATE AFFORESTATION.

State afforestation on an organized basis dates from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed, and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island, and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, when a total of 54 acres was established.

Figures of the areas planted each year in the last decade are shown below. Figures in parentheses are areas of direct formation and have been included in the totals with which they are associated.

Year.Acres.
1925–2615,875
1926–2722,305(1,257)
1927–2836,792(2,576)
1928–2960,635(3,215)
1929–3056,630(30)
1930–3153,847(95)
1931–3240,979
1932–3316,997(1,163)
1933–3430,532
1934–3512,211

STATE EXOTIC FORESTS.

The gross area of State plantations at the 31st March, 1935, was 597,151 acres, of which the areas actually established in plantation was 406,179 acres, exclusive of lire-breaks, waste lands, reserves, &c. The new area planted during the year was 12,211 acres. Particulars of State plantations are given below.

Locality.Plantation.Year of Establishment.Total Net Area established.
   Acres.
 Waipoua19251,057
 Puhipuhi1904871
AucklandRiverhead192611,029
 Maramarua.192812,299
 Tairua193010,515
 Whakarewarewa18987,591
RotoruaWaiotapu19017,051
 Kaingaroa1913242,600
 Erua19302,518
WellingtonKarioi192716,033
NelsonGolden Downs192719,181
WestlandWest-land19223,017
 Hammer19017,737
CanterburyBalmoral191620,G52
 Eyrewell192818,152
 Dusky Hill18984,368
 Conical Hills19033,551
OtagoNaseby19003,308
 Pukerau1915565
 Blue Mountains19258,752
SouthlandPebbly Hills19304,341
VariousMinor areas1875–1934991
Total  406,179

While many species were experimented with hi the initial stages of the work, the chief species used in the North Island were European larch (Larix decidua), Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca), Corsican pine (P. Laricio), Western yellow pine (P. ponilerosa), and a number of eucalypts. Of more recent years the species used for planting have been Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxi folia). Western yellow pine, insignis pine (P. radiata), Corsican pine, lodge-pole pine (P. Murrayana), and Western red cedar (Thuya plicata).

In the South Island practically all the best-known commercial trees of the Northern Hemisphere have been tried, but many have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, until at the present time operations are being conducted with a comparatively small range of conifers which experience has shown will most readily adapt themselves to local conditions. The principal species planted now being used are Western yellow pine, Corsican pine, Douglas fir. insignis pine. lodge-pole pine, and Western red cedar.

The cessation of State exotic planting on a large scale now appears advisable in view of the possession of sufficient planted areas. The Government exotic forest activities will therefore be concentrated upon the consolidation of those areas already planted. The large-scale planting of previous years has disclosed the limitations and weaknesses of various species, and experimental planting of new species is fundamental to the provision of possible alternatives should any further weaknesses develop at a later stage in the establishment of the exotic forests. For similar reasons experimental planting of exotics in cut-over forests is also contemplated.

COMMERCIAL AFFORESTATION.

INTRODUCTORY.

In 1923 the planting of forests was undertaken by commercial concerns. Two classes of companies have been formed to carry out the various ventures. The first is the ordinary joint-stock company, where the property is vested in the company and the shareholders receive a pro rata share of the profits according to the amount of capital contributed; the second is a private company registered with a comparatively small capital, but of which the investing public do not become shareholders. The company contracts with each investor that in consideration of his paying the prescribed amount of cash it will convey to him at the end of a given term n certain area of land duly planted according to a prescribed agreement. The interests of bond-holders are watched over by trustees until the time for conveyance to the bond-holders arrives. Of the thirty-one returns received from companies engaged in afforestation operations during the year ended 31st March, 1934, fourteen were from companies organized on the latter basis; but, though in the minority in point of numbers, their operations form the greater part of the work carried out.

The figures for the year ended 31st March, 1934, show that total assets and liabilities increased from £3,150,788 in 1932–33 to £3,247,458 in 1933–34. or by 3 per cent. The increase in receipts and payments during the same period of 58 per cent, and 72 per cent, respectively is due, to a large extent, to changes in investment, the sum involved being over £390,000.

The following comparative statements show the classifications of the liabilities and assets of all afforestation companies as at 31st March in each of the last five years :—

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
  Liabilities.   
 £££££
Paid-up share capital824,899814,106833,782962,194960,383
Loan-money24,8186,8014,33318,54211,893
Forfeited Shares Account5,71010,7058,43313,32515,241
Mortgages286,464128,454140,022127,176132,724
Sundry creditors129,330158,816137,388129,87978,812
Bondholders1,315,5501,435,3481,405,1511,655,9381,733,958
Other160,651193,709232,941249,734314,447
Totals2,747,4222,747,9392,762,0503,156,7883,247,458
  Assets.   
Land for afforestation purposes554,993545,596510,671518,606470,243
Land for other purposes1,301
Development Account1,106,795936,247957,863979,885745,674
Investments700,879786,700976,4061,167,4551,414,808
Goodwill and preliminary expenses109,36668,80029,34964,72142,196
Other274,088410,596287,761426,121574,537
Totals2,747,4222,747,9392,762,0503,156,7883,247,458

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The following statement shows a classification of the receipts recorded for afforestation companies for each of the last five (March) years. Attention is drawn to the fact that the figures in the following receipts table represent receipts from the cash point of view and should not be confused with revenue.

1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
  Receipts.   
 £££££
Share capital101,02578,95292,73031,33840,910
Instalments on bonds662,876624,568454,971501,269425,566
Loan-money2,230
Other receipts72,049137,96879,75979,734503,965
Totals838,180841,488627,460612,341970,441
  Payments   
Tree-raising25,16923,05714,8849,9296,494
Establishment charges91,50885,16838,90335,81116,946
Maintenance32,29628,76725,69418,66518,832
Management, &c.223,338277,469146,509123,820113,888
Land-purchase100,00570,51534,53018,10836,995
Investments243,30472,340154,413276,480705,423
Dividends11,57021,17217,97516,77216,778
Other114,332206,735207,08591,575101,864
Totals841,522785,223640,593591,1601,017,220

SALES OF FOREST AREAS.

The eleven companies engaged in the sale of forest areas effected sales involving 13,325 acres of land during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1934, making a total of 302,367 acres sold up to that date. The instalments paid during the year in accordance with the contracts of sale amounted to £425,566, while the total instalments paid up to 31st March, 1934, on all bonds amounted to £5,008,234. The total commitments of the investing public on account of contracts entered into during the year amounted to £396,388, bringing the total for this item to £8,587,079 at 31st March, 1934.

Against the foregoing must be set contracts involving 107,779 acres, of a total selling-price of £3,009,804, which have been cancelled by the purchasers. Instalments amounting to £218,666 were paid up on these cancelled contracts.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The average number of employees engaged during 1933–34 was 380, of whom 60 were engaged in tree-raising, 117 in planting, 68 in maintenance, 92 in fire-prevention, and 43 in management. This number represents a decline of 511 from the peak year (1930). The total wages and salaries paid during 1933–34 were £50,834.

PLANTING OPERATIONS.

The following table shows particulars regarding the species and number of trees planted during the year ended 31st March, 1934, together with particulars as to the areas planted :—

 Number of Trees.New Area planted during the YearTotal Area planted to 31st March 1934.
Species.To replace Blanks.On New Areas.  
   Acres.Acres.
Pinus radiata (insignis pine)5,733,6768,455,49610,343235,583
Pinus pondcrosa1,492,0001,416,1002,48824,424
Pinus pinester3,820
Pinus Laricio190
Redwood212,8005323,155
Douglas fir1,2002,588
Cupressus Lawsoniana7
Cupressus macrocarpa1,0001521257
Eucalypts3,0009,23891,098
Unspecified6,23010011,214
Totals, 1933–347,237,10610,093,88613,374272,336

LAND HELD FOR AFFORESTATION PURPOSES.

At 31st March, 1934, the total area of land held by companies for afforestation purposes was 394,691 acres, valued at £761,443, which amounts to £1 18s. 7d. per acre.

STATE ASSISTANCE TO AFFORESTATION.

The method first adopted in New Zealand for encouraging the planting of trees for the production of timber was by means of “land grants” — a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. Several large plantations were established in Canterbury by this method, which, however, was abandoned in the “eighties.” The Selwyn and Ashburton County Councils are the outstanding examples of local authorities which took advantage of this scheme, and are now receiving substantial revenues from their tree plantations.

The State assists also by reduction of rent to Crown tenants planting trees on their land.

Under the system of taxation in operation in New Zealand, encouragement is given to the conservation of indigenous forests and plantations and to the establishment of new plantations, by exempting the trees from land-tax and local rates.

The taxes to which indigenous forests and plantations are subject are— (a) Land-tax; (b) income-tax; (c) local rates; (d) stamp duties; (e) death duties; (f) heavy on sawn timber (indigenous forests only).

Land supporting indigenous forests and plantations is subject to land-tax. The tax, however, is assessed on the unimproved value, which for taxation purposes does not include the value of any trees or the value of the labour or capital expended in planting them.

Local rates on land supporting indigenous forests and plantations are levied on the value of the land only. A County Council is empowered to make an annual levy of ½d. per hundred feet board measure on timber in the county converted from the log into sawn timber; but this levy is not applicable to timber cut from plantations.

Appraisements of timber are not liable to stamp duty if made for the Crown, for a local authority, or for the information of one party only.

Licenses granted by the Crown to cut timber are exempt from stamp duty; other licenses are not exempt.

Land on which trees of any kind are growing is subject to death duties (estate duty, succession duty, and gift duty), which are assessed on the capital value of the land, which includes the value of the trees.

Chapter 19. SECTION XIX.—FISHERIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE following article is by Mr. A. E. Hefford, M.Sc., Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Marine Department:—

With its great extent of coast-line, splendid natural harbours, and numerous sheltered bays, New Zealand has from the earliest times been famed for the productivity of its coastal fisheries. Off its more northerly coasts, which come within the influence of the south equatorial current, a rich variety of subtropical fish-life is found, as exemplified by such species as the flying-fish, the sunfish, the swordfish, and several shark species. On the other hand, its southern coasts, washed by the antarctic drift, are the natural haunt of the fur-bearing seal, and yield varieties of fish which are characteristic of cold-water conditions.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the flounders of different species (Rhombosolea), which occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters, the snapper (Pagrosomus auratus), which is particularly abundant in the north, the blue cod (Parapercis colias), which provides the staple product of the southern line fisheries, the groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios), which is caught on lines in the deeper water from the North Cape to Stewart Island, and the tarakihi (Dactylopagrus macropterus), taken mainly by trawlers in the more off-shore waters of Hauraki Gulf. Bay of Plenty, Hawke's Bay, and in the vicinity of Cook Strait.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow water, and, except for groper and ling fishing by means of long lines, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 40 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at comparatively small distance from the coast, and up to the present it is not known to what extent these deeper waters may be productive of marketable fishes. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling. “hake” or “kingfish,” and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which, flounders, snapper, tarakihi. gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet, and seines are also employed principally for the capture of flat-fish and snapper. Though sardines or pilchards (Sardinia neopilchardus) and other species of the herring family are known to occur in large shoals off some parts of the coast, there is as yet no regular fishery for these kinds.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.

A statement is compiled annually by the Chief Inspector of Fisheries as to the weight and value of fish caught. The figures for principal fishing-ports are as follows for the year ended 31st March, 1935, a period of financial depression and diminished demand in the Dominion. Both quantities and values are approximations.

Port.Principal Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.
 £  
RussellSnapper, mullet, hapuku, flounder, kingfish, garfish, tarakihi, gurnard, maumau, crayfish1,680 cwt.1,570
WhangareiSnapper, mullet, flounder, hapuku, blue cod3,930 cwt.5,996
KaiparaSnapper, flounder, mullet3,864 cwt.5,107
Port.Principal Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.
Auckland DistrictSnapper, tarakihi, trevally, flounder, gurnard, hapuku, dory, kingfish, blue cod, barracouta, mullet, garfish102,213 cwt.72,586
 Crayfish1,368 cwt.1,271
 Mussels7,152 sacks1,432
ThamesSnapper, gurnard, dory, mullet, flounder, dab, pioke17,614 cwt.13,957
Mercury BaySnapper, tarakihi, hapuku, gurnard, blue cod, flounder, kingfish, crayfish2,794 cwt.1,710
TaurangaSnapper, hapuku, trevally, blue cod, tarakihi, mullet, kingfish4,800 cwt.2,821
OpotikiFlounder, hapuku, gurnard, snapper, tarakihi255 cwt.670
GisborneTarakihi, gurnard, snapper, flounder, sole, kahawai, hapuku3,320 cwt.4,648
NapierTarakihi, snapper, moki, kahawai, gurnard, trevally, hapuku, kingfish, barracouta, john-dory, flounder, sole, brill, warehou14,887 cwt.12,196
New PlymouthSnapper, hapuku, kingfish, tarakihi, kahawai, cod, crayfish, gurnard3,105 cwt.3,535
WanganuiBlue cod, hapuku, flounder, snapper397 cwt.658
WellingtonTarakihi, gurnard, flounder, sole, snapper, ling, warehou, hapuku, moki, butterfish, blue cod, southern kingfish, crayfish, hake, trevally54,887 cwt.55,144
PictonHapuku, moki, butterfish, garfish, crayfish, blue cod, flounder3,350 cwt.3,135
BlenheimRed cod, sole, flounder, snapper, moki, hapuku, gurnard, tarakihi, butterfish, crayfish3,000 cwt.2,950
Nelson and French PassSnapper, flounder, gurnard, bream, hapuku, cod, crayfish5,380 cwt.5,100
WestportSole, hapuku, turbot, flounder, ling, crayfish, snapper372 cwt.453
GreymouthWhitebait, flounder, sole, cod, hapuku, snapper, gurnard, hake, tarakihi, turbot2,891 cwt.2,761
KaikouraHapuku, ling, trumpeter, southern kingfish, cod, hake, tarakihi, crayfish5,562 cwt.6,490
AkaroaHapuku, conger eel, flounder, sole, brill, blue and red cod, crayfish, barracouta, kingfish, moki, butterfish4,342 cwt.6,141
LytteltonHapuku, barracouta, flounder, sole, gurnard, brill, tarakihi, ling6,470 cwt.7,691
TimaruFlounder, sole, brill, hapuku, ling, red cod, gurnard, barracouta11,892 cwt.15,838
Oamaru and MoerakiHapuku, red cod, blue cod, moki, barracouta, ling, crayfish4,760 cwt.4,640
Dunedin and Otago DistrictHapuku, ling, red cod, barracouta, kingfish, blue cod, moki, trumpeter, tarakihi, trevally, mullet, garfish, kahawai, kelpfish, sole, flounder, brill, skate42,616 cwt.34,801
Bluff and In-Hapuku, blue cod, flounder14,483 cwt.13,716
vercargillOysters52,254 sacks27,486
Stewart IslandBlue cod, hapuku8,523 cwt.8,120
Chatham IslandsBlue cod, hapuku3,928 cwt.1,833

The total for Wellington includes 9,611 cwt. caught at the Chatham Islands and shipped direct to Wellington.

The quantity of fish recorded as having been brought in from the fishing-grounds for the year ended the 31st March, 1935, was 331,415 cwt., which, with 3,241 cwt. of whitebait, 7,152 sacks of mussels, and 6,894 cwt. of crayfish, represented a wholesale value of approximately £321,963. The wholesale value of the oysters landed from the various beds was £33,546, and in addition the produce of the mainland whale-fisheries was 260 tons of oil.

The following table shows the quantities and values of New Zealand fish and shell-fish exported for each of the last five years (1st April to 31st March).

1930–1931.1931–1932.1932–1933.1933–1934.1934–1935.
Fish (frozen)Cwt.16,67814,09819,85434,73846,714
Fish (frozen)£47,04730,39539,66264,66997,469
Fish (smoked, dried, pickled, or salted)Cwt.1,1286385211,2431,968
Fish (smoked, dried, pickled, or salted)£3,7441,8511,2162,3774,064
Oysters (fresh)Doz.140,28945,68128,101105,941206,060
Oysters (fresh)£1,5005433491,0451,895
Oysters (canned)Lb.15,07969,49751,620128,02895,270
Oysters (canned)£1,2072,4902,4284,5713,818
Toheroa (canned)Lb.46,2209,72413,34019,26624,688
Toheroa (canned)£3,3559921,2091,6191,867
Whitebait (canned)Lb.39,06666,38641,72384,788105,899
Whitebait (canned)£4,9087,4593,9547,4979,561
Other kinds (canned)Lb.2,34736,02848,123280,22854,561
Other kinds (canned)£4112,2432,85216,4393,229
Value of total exports of New Zealand fish and shell-fish £62,172£45,973£51,670£98,417£121,903

VESSELS AND PERSONS EMPLOYED IN FISHING INDUSTRY.

A table showing the various classes of vessels engaged in the fishing industry, together with the number of persons employed, is given below for the year ended 31st March, 1935 :—

Whole Time.Part Time.Total.
Vessels engaged in fishing for wet fish—   
Steam trawlers16319
Motor trawlers394685
Steamers—Danish seining1 1
Motor–vessels—Danish seining501363
Motor–vessels—Set–net and line fishing632273905
Sailing–boats 11
Row–boats113288401
Vessels engaged in shell–fishing—   
Oyster–dredging vessels7 7
Mussel–dredging vessels314
Crayfishing—vessels15142157
Number of persons employed—   
Fishermen1,8418352,676
Others (excluding retailers)268119387

OYSTER-BEDS.

The principal oyster-beds round the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland Peninsula. The Foveaux Strait beds are very extensive.

During the 1934 season 52,254 sacks of oysters, valued at £27,486, were dredged from the Foveaux Strait beds, as compared with 42,176 sacks, valued at £21,088, in 1933.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but owing to stripping of the beds close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock-oysters from the North Island beds has been undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. Oysters picked and sold by the State in 1934 realized £5,925 (1933, £5,337); the cost of picking and selling, including interest and depreciation on the cost of the oil-launches used by the Inspectors and all overhead expenses, was in 1934 £5,401 (1933, £5,067). A profit accrues to the State in most years, and the scheme has, moreover, resulted in the conservation and extension of the beds.

Oyster-cultivation work 13 being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

CRAYFISH.

Marine crayfish occur in abundance off many parts of the New Zealand coast, and are caught in baited traps and nets for supplying the local markets. A small but increasing canning industry is also carried on. An export trade in frozen crayfish-tails, which had begun to develop in 1933 and 1934, has received a setback owing to the restrictions on imports into European markets.

WHALING.

With the enormous development of pelagic whaling that has taken place in recent years, the whaling industry in New Zealand has greatly declined from the important position which it occupied in the earlier days of the colony. Since 1923 only two stations have remained—one at Whangamumu, near the Bay of Islands, and the other in Tory Channel,.Marlborough Sounds—but no commercial operations have been carried on at the former station since 1931. In 1934 fifty-two hump-back whales, which produced 260 tons of oil, were caught in the Marlborough Sounds district.

References to whaling operations carried out in the Ross Sea and international whaling statistics appear in the section on “Dependencies.”

The Whaling Industry Act, 1935, was passed in order to give effect to an International Convention for the regulation of whaling and matters incidental thereto.

SEALS.

For many years past the taking of seals has been prohibited, the close season originally declared having been extended from time to time for periods of three years. The latest extension carries the close season to 30th November, 1937.

WHITEBAIT.

A fishery that is peculiar to New Zealand both with regard to the product and to the methods of operation, carried on from July to November in the tidal reaches of many rivers, is the whitebait fishery. New Zealand “whitebait” are the young of Galaxias attenuatus, a species that lives for the greater part of its adult life in fresh water, descending to tidal water to spawn in late summer and autumn. The spawn is deposited among grass and similar herbage on the margin of the river above the ordinary high-water mark in a zone that is submerged only at the highest spring tides. Here it remains under cover of the herbage and secure from aquatic enemies until it is once more reached by a spring tide about a fortnight or, it may be, a month later. The young then hatch out, and are carried by the ebb tide to the sea. Here they remain until at the age of about five months the young fish, then about 2 in. long and still possessing the almost glassy transparency of the larval stage, migrate up the rivers in dense shoals. This is the time of the whitebait fishery, when they are caught in nets made of wire gauze or mosquito-netting. The cultivation and drainage of riparian lands has considerably diminished the extent of spawning and feeding areas that were available in earlier times. From these causes, as well as from the intensity of the fishing operations, there are now few rivers where the runs of whitebait show anything like the abundance of former years. The most productive whitebait fisheries are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. During the 193–1 season the whitebait fishery gave employment to over three hundred regular fishermen, mostly Maoris, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and produced not less than 3,000 cwt. of whitebait. The canned whitebait packed in the West Coast and Waikato factories is a much-esteemed delicacy.

MARINE FISH-HATCHERY AND BIOLOGICAL STATION.

The erection of the marine fish-hatchery at Portobello, Otago Harbour, was carried out by a Board set up to superintend the work of the hatchery, funds being provided by the State, and grants being made by the Otago Institute, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and a number of acclimatization societies. Up to 1935 the State made an annual grant towards the maintenance of the hatchery, the buildings and equipment of which have also been added to from time to time.

Experiments have been carried out with a view to introducing certain English food fishes to New Zealand waters—viz., lobsters, edible crabs, and turbot. Valuable work has also been done in the direction of hatching the spawn of various indigenous fishes and in making a study of their life-habits.

The acclimatization projects not having shown any material results, and experience elsewhere having demonstrated the impracticability of artificial propagation of marine fishes, the principal usefulness of the station has been the educational value of the well-stocked aquarium to the visiting public, and the limited facilities it has afforded for marine research and the collection of material for museums and biological laboratories. As a station for research its usefulness has been nullified by the reduction in the grants from Government funds since the financial depression, and since from its situation and for other reasons it is not the most suitable centre for the prosecution of fishery research it is possible that this station may be abandoned in the near future.

BIG-GAME FISHING.

Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Province, and are pursued by resident and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), and Whitianga (.Mercury Bay), where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The world's record black marlin swordfish (970 1b.) was caught off the Bay of Islands in February, 1920.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES.

NATIVE FISHES.

Of fresh - water fishes indigenous to New Zealand the species of most commercial importance at the present time is Galaxias attenuatus, which provides the whitebait fishery above mentioned. Other species of Galaxias are known in the streams and lakes of the Dominion. A remarkable mud-fish (Neochanna apoda) belonging to the same family is capable of surviving for long periods without being in water. A small fish belonging to the smelt family. Retropinna retropinna, occurs in abundance in salt, brackish, and fresh water, and there are inland lakes where a purely fresh-water variety of smelt is found. The New Zealand grayling (Prototroctes oxyrhynchus) was found in abundance in many rivers in the earlier years of settlement, but for some unknown reason has become exceedingly rare during recent years. A small fish belonging to the goby family, and very abundant in most rivers and lakes, is the bully. With the exception of the eels, which may attain an extraordinarily large size compared with those of the Northern Hemisphere, all the native fresh-water fishes are small, and are therefore not considered to possess any sporting value except to the most-juvenile of anglers. There are two species of eels—Anguilla australis, predominant in the northern rivers and lakes, and Anguilla aucklandi, which is found more abundantly in the South. Both species are found in the southern portion of the North Island and in the northern parts of the South Island. Eels constituted an important food-supply to the Maoris, who devised very efficient traps for their capture as the adults migrated to the sea. This fishery is still carried on by the Natives of some districts, and the commercial exploitation of fresh-water eels by Europeans has recently begun to be undertaken.

The following is a complete list of the definitely known indigenous freshwater species :—

Scientific Name.European Name.Maori Name.Usual Maximum Size.
   Inches.
Galaxias attenuatus“ Minnow”Inanga7
Galaxias fasciatusNative trout or mountain troutKokopu10
Galaxias brevipinnis“ Gudgeon”Taiwharu or kokopu6
Galaxias Huttoni Koaro6
Galaxias BurrowsiiCanterbury mudfish 5 to 6
Neochanna apodaMudfishHauhau or waikaka8
Retropinna retropinnaSmeltParaki6
Prototroctes oxyrhynchusGraylingUpokororo12
Gheimarrichthys FosteriTorrent-fish or shark-bullyPapanoko7
Gobiomorphus gobioidesBullyToitoi6
   Feet.
Anguilla australisShort-finned eelTuna3 to 4
Anguilla aucklandiLong-finned eelTuna4 to 5
Geotria australisLampreyKoro-koro or kuna-kuna2

The “minnow,” smelt, grayling, and, of course, the eels and lamprey are migratory fish which spend parts of their lives in the sea or in estuarine tidal waters.

ACCLIMATIZED FISHES.

Although most of the above-mentioned indigenous fishes—especially the eels, kokopu, and upokororo—provided an appreciable portion of the food-supplies of the Maoris, and have been a welcome addition to the camp provision of surveyors, bushmen, and prospectors since the pioneering days, there were many among the early settlers to whom the New Zealand rivers and lakes appeared uninteresting and unproductive in comparison with their native salmon and trout streams. By means of private agency in some cases and by more organized efforts on the part of Government and local acclimatization societies, attempts to introduce British salmon and trout were commenced in the early “sixties.” The first brown trout to be established in New Zealand waters were reared in 1867 from ova obtained from Tasmania, where the species had been successfully acclimatized from South of England stock a few years earlier. Further shipments of ova from Tasmania and also from Britain followed, from which the fry were hatched out and liberated by various acclimatization societies, with the result that in the “eighties” and “nineties” most of the rivers and many of the lakes in both North and South Islands carried stocks of brown trout of such phenomenal size and in such abundance that New Zealand's claim to the title of “the Angler's Paradise” was already established. The remarkably rapid growth of trout in New Zealand waters is doubtless due to the abundance of suitable food afforded by the native aquatic fauna and by especially favourable climatic conditions in comparison with the original habitat of the species in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, where the long and rigorous winters bring about a more or less complete cessation of feeding and of growth during the coldest months of the year. Sea trout were introduced in the “seventies” and “eighties” and the progeny distributed throughout New Zealand. Our present stocks of European trout have thus been derived from English and Scottish brown trout, sea trout, and the Loch Leven variety, which have doubtless interbred. Some migrate to sea and acquire salmonlike characters, others are permanent inhabitants of fresh water.

Rainbow-trout ova were imported from California in 1883 and 1884 by the Auckland Acclimatization Society, and there is now scarcely a district to which this species has not been introduced. It has flourished exceedingly in the larger lakes of both Islands. Lake Taupo, with its tributary rivers, principal among which is the Tongariro, is regarded as providing the finest rainbow-trout fishing in the world. The earlier-established brown-trout stocks of Taupo and of many other lakes have declined in the face of the competition of this species. In rivers its establishment has been more uncertain, and some streams have failed to maintain a stock in spite of repeated plantings. In a few the rainbow has succeeded where the brown trout was a comparative failure, those being generally the warmer rivers of the North; while in some, such as the Wanganui. the two species are found together.

The American brook trout or speckled trout was first imported from the United States in 1877, and the latest shipment came from the Solway Fisheries (Scotland) in 1887. Prom these stocks ova and fry were widely distributed throughout this country. Generally speaking, they have been a failure, partly through being put into unfavourable environments, but probably more through inability to compete in the same waters with the more dominant brown and rainbow species. They still persist, however, in a few streams in well-bushed districts in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and have been caught up to 3 lb. in weight in the Pareora River. In 1933 fish of this species, some exceeding 3 lb. in weight, were found spawning in the month of April in a stream flowing from Lake Emily in the Ashburton district.

The Mackinaw trout or great American lake trout was introduced in 1906, and fry were planted in two Canterbury lakes (Pearson and Grasmere). Fish up to 10 lb. weight have been recently taken by anglers in Lake Pearson.

Contemporaneously with the steps taken for the introduction of trout many attempts were made to acclimatize salmon in New Zealand. These failed because the relatively small numbers of ova imported were rendered still less effective by being subdivided and apportioned among several different districts, no recognition apparently being given to the considerable degree of mortality occurring during the marine phase in the life of these migratory species. In 1901 the acclimatization of quinnat salmon was undertaken by the Marine Department. Between that year and 1907 five shipments of ova, each consisting of half a million eggs, were made and the fry liberated in the Hakataramea, a tributary of the Waitaki River. Early success was achieved, some quinnat salmon being caught in the Waitaki in 1905. From 1910 onwards mature fish returning to the Hakataramea and other tributaries of the Waitaki have been trapped for hatchery purposes, and the ova used for the introduction of the species to other rivers. The Hokitika River was the first to be stocked, more than three and a half million ova being sent there between 1910 and 1928. No stock of sea-running quinnat salmon has resulted from these undertakings, though in Lake Kanieri, from which a tributary stream runs into the Hokitika River, a stock of small lake-dwelling quinnat salmon was produced. There have been reports, however, of quinnat salmon being taken in some of the remote and inaccessible rivers in South Westland, which may be the result of migration from the Hokitika River, or may be the progeny from the stocking of the Seaforth River with 6,000 quinnat fry in the years 1910 and 1911. The Wairau River, Marlborough, has also received fry from over five million eggs, but only a few odd quinnat salmon have ever been seen in this river. By natural migration, however, the species has spread from the Waitaki to all the large rivers of Canterbury, and to some of the small ones, such as the Opihi and Orari. It has also found its way into some of the rivers of the North Island—namely, the Rangitikei and Wanganui on the west coast and the Tukituki and Tarawera Rivers on the east coast, and specimens have been taken in Wellington Harbour and the lower Wairarapa Lake. The principal runs take place between January and May into the large so-called snow rivers of Canterbury—the Waitaki (dividing South Canterbury from North Otago), the Eangitata. Rakaia, and Waimakariri. The Clutha, stocked with fry from Hakataramea ova between 1917 and 1922 also has an annual quinnat run, though apparently few fish are caught until they reach Lake Wanaka, from which the Upper Clutha flows. In this lake and in Lake Wakatipu at the head of a large tributary there are stocks of small quinnat which remain throughout life in the fresh water.

Ova of the sockeye or red salmon were imported from Western America in 1902, and fry were planted in the tributaries of Lake Ohau at the headwaters of the Waitaki River system. The species appears to have taken exclusively to a lake-dwelling habit, resulting in the stock of dwarf salmon of this species found at the present time in Lake Ohau.

In 1908 the Marine Department undertook the task of the introduction of Atlantic salmon on more intensive lines than had been the case in the many previous attempts, and concentrated on the Waiau River, which has two large lakes (Manapouri and To Anau) at its headwaters. A hatchery was established at Te Anau, near the Upokororo River, into which tributary the earliest fry were liberated, in 1908 150,000 ova were obtained from the Mirimichi River in Eastern Canada. In 1910 just over a million eggs were landed from England, which had been collected from the following sources : 375,000 from the River Tay (Scotland) : 125,000 from 1 he River Blackwater (Ireland); 55,000 from the Test (England): 110,000 from the Dee (England); and 350,000 from the Rhine (Germany). In 1911 a further million ova. consisting of 400,000 from the River Wye (England) and 600,000 from the Rhine, were landed. The fry were liberated in the Upokororo and tributary streams. Within about ten years evidence of the establishment of the species was obtained, and in 1923 mature Atlantic salmon were trapped in the Upokororo River, and artificially hatched fry were planted in the Wanganui River in the North Island. After an average of more than 450,000 ova each year had been transferred for seven successive years without appreciable result, it was concluded that this river, flowing to the west coast of the North Island, did not afford a suitable habitat for the species. The Upokororo-bred salmon have are used considerable interest in biological circles in that the majority of them have refrained from migrating to the sea as is their habit in the Northern Hemisphere. For the most part they have moved from the Upokororo River to Lake Te Anau, and have remained there feeding in fresh water for the rest of their lives, although there is no obstacle to their exit down the Waiau River to the sea. They have, in fact, assumed the habits of lake trout. A certain proportion of them have, however, found their way to the sea, and some have been caught in the breakers entering the mouth of the Waiau. No general migration of smolts has ever been observed, and half-grown and maturing salmon are frequently caught feeding not only in the lake but also in the River Waiau between the upper lake (Te Anau) and the lower lake (Manapouri), as well as between Manapouri and the sea. Atlantic salmon in New Zealand attain maturity at an earlier age than is the rule in the Northern Hemisphere. All of them apparently spawn as grilse, and thereafter, owing doubtless to their fresh-water habitat, do not increase very much in weight. The majority of Waiau salmon taken by anglers are between 3 lb. and 5 lb. The highest weight recorded is 17 lb. A 13 lb. fish was taken in 1935.

Besides the above-mentioned members of the salmon and trout family, other species of fish from the Northern Hemisphere which have been acclimatized in New Zealand are the European perch, tench, and carp, and the North American catfish (Ameiurus catus).

ANGLING.

The local administration and management of fresh-water fisheries are in the hands of the acclimatization societies, of which there are twenty-eight in the Dominion. Licenses to angle for acclimatized fish are issued by these societies in conformity with the Fishery Acts. A license for the season costs £1, and is available for any part of the Dominion except the Taupo and Rotorua Acclimatization Districts in the thermal-lakes region. For the Taupo district there is a higher scale of license fees as follows : Local residents, £1 10s.; persons domiciled in New Zealand, £2; other persons (from overseas), £6. These are for the whole season. Weekly and day licenses are also available. For Rotorua district the license for the season costs £1. and there are lower fees for half-season, monthly, weekly, and daily licenses. These two acclimatization districts are under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs. The funds from fishing licenses are used by acclimatization societies for the stocking and protection of fishing waters, and in the case of the Taupo district also for payments to the Natives from whom rights of fishing and access have been purchased.

The ordinary fishing license is available for either trout or salmon fishing. The brown-trout fishing-season opens on the 1st October and closes on the 30th April. In certain rainbow-trout fishing districts—e.g., Taupo and Rotorua— the season opens and closes one month later.

Brown trout may be caught in practically every river and stream in New Zealand, with the exception of those in the extreme north of Auckland. A considerable proportion of riparian land on good fishing waters is public, but, generally speaking, access to private land is freely given to anglers. The selling or letting of the right to fish is forbidden by law. In a country so favoured with numerous trout streams suitable for either wet or dry fly angling or for minnow-fishing, it is difficult to enumerate a list of rivers or even districts that may be labelled as the best. Nowadays the big bags are more easily obtained from the more remote waters in the back-country districts. In most districts certain rivers are limited to artificial-fly fishing only. Several of the Auckland rivers carry rainbow trout only, while in others both rainbow and brown trout fishing may be obtained. The lakes in the thermal region of the North Island, especially Taupo, Rotorua. and Rotoiti, together with Waikaremoana, are notable rainbow-trout waters, but this species in more recent years has made great headway in several South Island lakes. In Lake Coleridge, sixty miles from Christchurch, Canterbury, rainbow trout, brown trout, lake-dwelling quinnat, and Atlantic salmon have all been caught on a single angling trip. This lake was stocked with 40,000 Atlantic-salmon fry in 1928 in order to ascertain the growth of this species under indubitably “land-locked” conditions. The first specimens captured (in 1930) had attained a weight of rather more than 3 lb. when under two and a quarter years of age. With the exception of this lake, the only water where fishing for Atlantic salmon can be obtained is in the Waiau River system, Southland. Both fly- and minnow-fishing methods are used, and large brown or rainbow trout may be taken in the same pools as the salmon. Angling for quinnat salmon is carried on principally in the lower reaches of the large Canterbury rivers—the Waimakariri, Rakaia, Rangitata, and. to a less extent, the Waitaki, Opihi, Hurunui. and others. A spoon bait well sunk is the most successful. Anglers are permitted to sell quinnat salmon on taking out a license, the fee for which is £1 for the season. A limited amount of commercial salmon-seining is carried on in the estuary of the Waimakariri River. The number of licensed nets is restricted to four, and three days—Friday to Sunday inclusive—are prescribed as a weekly close season. The total salmon netted for each of the last five years was 512, 1,118, 92S, 1,157, and 732 respectively; the average weights of the fish were respectively 11.4 lb., 12.1 lb., 13.3 lb., 13.3 lb., and 12.9 lb. The run of fish from the sea begins in January and ends in May, with the maximum in March. Several fish exceeding 401b. in weight, and one fish weighing 52 lb., have been taken with rod and line.

Chapter 20. SECTION XX.—MINING.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN no other country of equal size to New Zealand are indications of a greater number of economic minerals to be found, yet, with the exception of iron-ore, the known mineral reserves are not great in comparison with those in many other countries. The coal reserves of the Dominion are considerable, however, and their duration will be extended by the utilization of the enormous water-power resources of the country.

The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, has again come into prominence, mainly on account of the enhanced price of gold. The present depression has also caused a large number of unemployed men to turn their attention to gold prospecting.

In chronological comparisons of values of production or export, particularly in the case of gold, it is important not to overlook the fact that all monetary expressions of value in this section are in terms of New Zealand currency, which since 1929 has been at varying levels below gold-standard or sterling parity.

The law relating to mining and quarrying is contained for the most part in the Mining Act, 1926, with its amendments of 1927, 1931, 1934, and 1935; the Coal-mines Act, 1925, as amended in 1927, 1933, and 1935: and the Stone- quarries Act, 1910, as amended in 1911, 1920, and 1922.

The following statement shows the production of metalliferous mines, of stone- quarries under the Stone-quarries Act, and of coal-mines :—

Mineral.1933. 1934.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value. 
* Includes l,500 1b. valued at £240 produce: in 1932, but not recorded in that year.
  £ £
Gold and silver592,247 oz.1,099,579542,863 oz.1,195,840
Platinum21....
Pig-iron3,280 tons16,8421,337 tons6,484
Stone..196,481..261,637
Pumice2,387 tons8,5442,491 tons6,796
Coal1,821,258 tons1,821,2582,060,315 tons2,060,315
Tungsten-ore....394,678
Quicksilver*9,000 lb.1,2403,852 lb.516
Totals..3,143,965..3,536,266

The production of gold and silver is of necessity taken- together, as separate figures are not available; an estimate is, however, given on the next page. Kauri-gum, the (chiefly) fossilized resin of former kauri forests, is counted as a mineral, but is not included in the above table.

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals and allied substances exported:—

Mineral.1932.1933.1934.Total from 1st January, 1853, to 31st December, 1934.
 ££££
Gold1,092,2881,281,6121,320,69098,734,134
Silver40,73736,66639,3723,340,885
Tungsten-ore7107664,462317,467
Antimony-ore......55,081
Quicksilver..1,23051019,024
Other minerals11,8328,5576,796540,871
Kauri-gum62,13777,97386,91723,186,889
Coal (including bunker)56,32153,69051,4897,316,625
Totals1,264,0251,460,4941,510,236133,510,976

GOLD-MINING.

The actual figures of gold-production are not available owing to no distinction being made between gold and silver in the case of certain mines which produce both. The following statement shows bullion-production during 1934:—

* Production of Bullion.Number of Persons ordinarily employed at Productive and Unproductive Mines and Dredges.Number of Productive Mines and Dredges
Quantity.Value.
* Including a proportion of silver.
 Oz.£  
Quartz-mining475,230699,2731,65273
Dredge mining24,092190,31917512
Alluvial mining43,541306,2484,6934,357
Totals, 1934542,8631,195,8406,5204,442

The number of persons employed in gold-mining has increased to 6,520 from 6,212 during 1933 and 3,636 during 1932; while the number of mines has increased from 1,960 in 1932 and 2,468 in 1933 to 4,442 in 1934. This improvement has been caused partly by the enhanced price of gold and partly by the system of assistance to miners by subsidies from the Unemployment Fund (vide Section XXXIX).

The following table shows the production of bullion and the estimated gold content for the last five years. It will also be seen from the last column what the advance in the price of gold has meant to the industry. The price of gold reached a record level of (N.Z.) £9 5s. lid. per fine ounce on the 6th March, 1935. The present (October, 1935) price of gold is (X.Z.) £8 16s. 3d.

Year.Production of Gold and Silver Bullion.Estimated Gold Content.Approximate Average London Price of Gold per Ounce.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Ounces of fineness of 20 carats or upwards.

†Pine ounces—i.e., 24 carats.

Prices are given in New Zealand currency.

 Oz.*£Oz.*££s.
1930639,795550,978120,931499,74448
1931564,871657,189129,861627,451517
1932729,1461,019,814166,354974,73469
1933592,2471,099,579161,7551,063,543716
1934542,8631,195,840160,2481,158,607812

It is to be noted that export duties on gold hare been raised considerably in recent years (vide Section IXD—Customs Tariff and Revenue).

The export of gold (New Zealand produce only) according to districts of production during the last two years, together with the total since April, 1857, when the first parcel was exported, is as shown in the next table. Quantities are in ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards (actually they approach closely to a 24-carat standard; investigation in a fairly recent year gave an actual average of 23.5 carats). The figures comprise gold in the form of bar, dust, ingot, sheet, concentrates, ores, jewellers' sweepings, &c, or contained in or recovered from old jewellery.

District.1933.1934.Total, 1857–1934.
 Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Oz.£Oz.£Oz.£
Auckland76,722578,93073,332614,5337,950,31831,752,595
Wellington........188706
Marlborough1,55210,5562,64220,648116,560471,547
Nelson5,29337,3887,21956,8251,758,5857,021,906
West Coast58,405419,03450,809410,0226,832,48727,597,875
Canterbury212216164661
Otago23,009158,73923,328181,6907,874,91231,553,826
Unknown12,25876,3475,15836,95664,189335,018
Totals177,2411,281,612162,4901,320,09024,597,40398,734,134

With the departure of Britain from the gold standard in September, 1931, and the consequent depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of gold, the resultant high prices ruling for gold induced a considerable export of old jewellery or metal obtained therefrom. The gold content of this export in 1933 and 1934 amounted to 21,492 oz. and 9,356 oz. respectively, valued at £135,146 and £66,377. Of the 1934 total, some 4,686 oz. (1933, 11,757 oz.), valued at £33,352 (1933. £73,167), was classed as New Zealand produce, and is therefore included in the preceding table and also in the second table in this section.

The most important gold-mining operations in New Zealand consist in the working of quartz lodes and the extraction of the precious metals therefrom. Quartz-mining in the North Island is conducted mainly in Waihi Borough, whence was derived a great part (£543,379) of the raw gold exported during 1934. In the South Island quartz-mining operations are carried on principally in the Reefton and Blackwater districts and in Otago. The average value per ton of ore treated during 1934 amounted to £2 15s. 2d., as compared with £2 9s. during 1933.

Alluvial gold, the production of which in 1934 was greater by 8,160 oz. than in the previous year and the value by £88,394, is found chiefly on the West Coast of the South Island and in Otago, where mining operations have been conducted over an area of 17,000 square miles. Greatly increased activity has taken place in prospecting the auriferous alluvium of the West Coast and Otago during the last three years.

Gold-dredging possibilities present an entirely now aspect not only on account of the price of gold, but also on account of the great depths to which modem machines can work and their low cost of operation per cubic yard. The peak of gold-production from dredging occurred in 1902, when there were about two hundred plants in actual operation, and probably totalled about 160,000 oz. per annum. Provided the price of gold remains as at present, it is not beyond the realms of possibility again to reach this figure.

During the year the Mining Amendment Act, 1934, was passed. Several sections in this Act are designed to assist development by increasing the maximum size of dredging claims, and so encouraging the introduction of the large amount of capital necessary to provide modern dredges.

The number of productive dredges increased from seven during 1933 to twelve during 1934. Five others are in course of construction (three on the West Coast, one in Otago, and one in Southland). Of the total dredge production of £190,319 in 1934, £181,467 was won by seven dredges on the West Coast, the largest producer of which was the Rimu dredge with £122,526. Five dredges in Otago and Southland won gold to the value of £8,852.

WORLD'S GOLD-PRODUCTION.

The following figures showing the world's gold-production for the last ten years have been compiled from official sources by the American Bureau of Metal Statistics:—

Year.Fine Ounces.
192519,031,137
192619,369,364
192719,445,612
192819,583,153
192919,673,022
193020,721,981
193122,370,71s
193224,265,514
193325,513,615
193427,339,233

SILVER.

Nearly the whole of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand, amounting in value up to the end of 1934 to £3,340,885, has been obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz-mines, principally those of the Hauraki Goldfield, where gold and silver are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in this country. Estimated production during the last four years has been (fine ounces): 1931, 435,010: 1932, 562,792; 1933, 430,492; and 1934, 382,615.

IRON-ORES.

The most extensive iron-ore deposits occur near Parapara and Onakaka, Golden Hay, in the Nelson Provincial District. The limonite deposit of this locality is of great extent, and it is estimated in “Iron-ore Resources of the World,” published by the International Geological Congress, to contain 64,000,000 metric tons, of which about 30,000,000 tons occur in the Onakaka Block.

In 1921 an iron and steel company constructed a blast-furnace installation on its lease at Onakaka, and, subsequently, a pipe-making plant. A considerable output of excellent quality was maintained for some years, but production ceased in 1931. The plant was re-opened for several months in 1933 and again in November, 1934. During 1934 1,337 tons of pig iron was produced. At present it is understood that there is a possibility of a large-scale rehabilitation at Onakaka in the near future.

A trial of the Onakaka pig iron carried out during 1931 yielded the exceptionally good test of 35,000 lb., British standard specification showing a test at 2S,000 lb.

Several attempts have been made to smelt Taranaki ironsand, but the results have not been quite satisfactory, as the cost was too high.

During 1914 the Government, with a view to stimulating interest in this industry, passed an Act having for its object the payment of fairly large bonuses for the production in New Zealand of pig iron, puddled bar iron, and steel.

TUNGSTEN-ORE.

Scheelite, one of the principal ores of tungsten, was for a number of years mined on a fairly extensive scale in conjunction with gold, the principal gold-scheelite mines being those at or near Glenorchy, Paradise, Macrae's, Stoneburn, Hyde, and Barewood, Otago; and at Wakamarina Valley, Marlborough.

Exports which in 1910–19 averaged £26,000 annually fell to a low figure from 1920 onwards. There has been no production for several years on account of the continued low values. Early in 1934, as the result of a substantial rise in the price of tungsten, production was resumed at both Glenorchy and Macrae's, and from a total of 513 tons of ore 39 tons of concentrates, valued at £4,678. were recovered.

The total quantity of locally produced ore exported to 31st December, 1934, was 2,515 tons, valued at £317,467.

COPPER.

Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities. but the total recorded copper export to the end of 1934 amounted in value to only £19,390. There has been no production for a considerable number of years. Prior to the inauguration of systematic records there was a considerable production from mines on Great Barrier and Kawau Islands.

MANGANESE-ORE.

Manganese-ore has been found at Otau, Wairoa, Bay of Islands, Purua Bay, Mangapai, Otonga, Waiheke Island, and Taieri Mouth, and has been mined at Tikiora, near the Bay of Islands, and at Waiheke Island. Fluctuating prices have prevented expansion of this industry. The total quantity of locally produced manganese- ore exported to the end of 1934 amounted to 19,387 tons, of a value of £62,011.

CINNABAR.

Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand. The most important accumulations are in North Auckland, where for some years efforts were made to place the production on a commercial basis. The deposits are large enough to make this a reasonable expectation. Since mercury-ore bodies are notoriously irregular in form, no reliable estimate of the amount available can be made on the present data.

At Ngawha Springs, North Auckland, production ceased in 1931 owing to difficulties in recovering the mercury and the substantial fall in price.

Preparations are being made to work the New Zealand Quicksilver Mine at Puhipuhi again, and a small treatment plant has been erected near the mine.

The total quantity of quicksilver of New Zealand origin exported to the 31st December, 1934, was 87,993 lbs., valued at £19,024.

TIN.

Cassiterite in the form of “stream-tin” occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, where it has been worked to some extent. “Lode-tin” has been found in the same locality. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Reefton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.

In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand platinum is stated to occur in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been exported.

The Customs Department has not kept any separate record of the quantity and value of platinum entered for exportation, the value of this metal exported being included in a general total of exports by parcel-post, by which means platinum has generally been despatched from the Dominion.

No platinum was recovered during 1934.

SULPHUR.

Native sulphur in sufficient quantity to be worked profitably occurs in the thermal districts of the North Island, near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island.

White Island also contains several guano deposits, but no reliable estimate has yet been made of the quantity and quality available.

Sulphur is mostly disposed of locally as fertilizer, but exports of New Zealand origin to the end of 193–4 have aggregated £13,241. None of the sulphur deposits were worked during 1934.

COAL.

Coal, varying in grade from anthracite to lignite, occurs in many parts of New Zealand. An estimate of the proved coal resources of New Zealand prepared in 1927 is as follows (millions of tons): Anthracite, very little; bituminous, 206; semi-bituminous, 60; brown, 247; lignite, 150: total, 663. The probable resources are estimated at 1,631,000,000 tons.

The following table summarizes coal-mining operations :—

Year.Output. (Tons.)Persons employed above and below Ground.Tons raised per Person employed Under ground.Lives lost
Number.Per Million Tons raised.Per Thousand Persons employed.
Prior to 192559,604,348....3796.36..
19252,114,9954,77760683.781.67
19262,239,9995,159586156.692.90
19272,366,7405,374593104.231.86
19282,436,7535,37660893.691.67
19292,535,8645,497614124.732.18
19302,542,0925,867574145.502.38
19312,157,7565,74549841.850.69
19321,842,0224,636545126.512.59
19331,821,2584,38657073.841.69
19342,060,3154,47863483.881.78
Totals to date81,722,142....4785.85..

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1934 is summarized as follows :—

Class of Coal.Northern (North Island).West Coast (South Island).Southern (South Island).Totals.Total Output to the End of 1934.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous and sub bituminous94,938736,764..831,70248,152,502
Brown712,47545,191346,3021,103,96828,671,583
Lignite..1,484123,161124,6454,898,057
Totals, 1934807,413783,439469,4632,060,31581,722,142
Totals, 1933626,926783,385410,9471,821,258..

The industry recovered 13.1 per cent, in its output in 1934, as compared with the following figures for several of the principal coal-producing countries of the world for the same period :—

 Per Cent
Great Britain6.7
Germany10.8
Franco1.7
United States8.5
Canada15.9
New South Wales10.6

The output for 1934 is only 19 per cent, below the peak production of New Zealand mines, which occurred in 1930.

A notable feature, however, is that the output of the West Coast mines remained practically stationary, while the production of the North Island mines increased by 28–8 per cent, and that of the mines in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland increased by 14–2 per cent.

The better use of lower-grade coal in many plants has resulted in the displacement, to a certain extent, of the high calorific-value coals. This tendency appears to he reflected in the increased production of brown coal and lignite and the practically stationary output from bituminous mines. Co-operative mining continues to be successfully carried out in the Northern and West Coast districts.

Regular and systematic coal-research work at the Dominion Laboratory has not been possible since the disbandment of the Coal Research Association in 1932. Some further work, however, is in progress in connection with the utilization of New Zealand coal for gasmaking at works equipped with vertical retort settings with a view to solving the handicap caused by the excessive swelling of some of the Dominion's best coals.

During the year two carbonizing and briquetting plants were operating at Sockburn and Rotowaro respectively, although in the latter case the plant was shut down temporarily during the summer months. A new briquetting plant, at which a mixture of West Coast and Waikato slack coals is being used, has been erected at Onehunga. There is an increasing demand for carbonettes, while by-products, such as fuel-oil and weed-killer, find a ready sale. Experiments were also carried out in regard to the production of Diesel oils, disinfectant, and sheep-dip. Production at Rotowaro in 1931 was: Raw coal treated, 13,32–4 tons; carbonettes manufactured, 8,070 tons; tar treated, 183,045 gallons; oil made, 123,680 gallons; and pitch made, 246 tons. Further plant has been installed at Rotowaro for the purpose of increasing the yield of pitch from the tar. Results of briquetting experiments have been published in Bulletin No. 39, New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

In order to reduce the economic waste caused by unmarketable slack coal produced at mines, a Coal-mines Amendment Act was passed in October, 1935. The Minister of Mines is given authority to purchase and store slack, to acquire the necessary plant, &c, for its treatment, and to manufacture and sell any fuel or other products.

STATE COLLIERIES.

The Coal-mines Act of 1901 provided for the acquisition and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines. At the present time two State collieries are in operation.

During l934–35 the Liverpool Colliery produced 90,880 tons of marketable coal, an increase of S,010 tons on the previous year's production. The James Colliery produced 25,905 tons of marketable coal during the year, a decrease of 8,014 tons on the production for 1933–34.

The disposal, inclusive of stocks on hand at the beginning of the year, was as follows :—

Supplied toTons.
Depots38,890
Railways26,666
Other Government Departments2,818
Shipping companies5,947
Gas companies51,053
Other consumers2,919
Total128,293

The total sales of State coal from the Liverpool Mine for the year amounted to 99,328 tons, value £110,744, as compared with 87,104 ions, value £104,191, for 1933–34, an increase of 12,224 tons, value £6,553. The average price realized by the mine on the total sales for the year was £1 2s. 3–6d. per ton, a decrease of Is. 7.5d. on the previous year's average.

The total sales of State coal from the James Mine for the year amounted to 28,965 tons, value £34,885, giving an average of £1 4s. l.d. per ton, a decrease of 5s. 2d. on the previous year's average. As compared with 1933–34, there is an increase in quantity of 717 tons, with a decrease in value of £6,443. The values for both mines include sales made c. and f. and f.o.b. as well as f.o.r.

The sales of coal, &c., through the medium of the depots totalled 93,074 tons, value £140,586, as against 86,176 tons, value £144,025 for 1933–34. The net profit for 1934–35 at the mines was £2,761, and the net profit at the depots, royalties, &c, £10,244, making a total net profit of £13,005. The sum of £8,510 was transferred to Sinking Fund Account, leaving a balance of £4,495 in the Profit and Loss Account.

The average number of miners, &c, employed in and about the State collieries during the year ended 31st March, 1935, was 399.

PETROLEUM.

Drilling for petroleum has in recent years been carried out in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Southland, and Westland. A considerable number of deep boreholes in search of petroleum have been drilled, the deepest being at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which attained a depth of approximately 6,000 ft. Petroleum of good quality but in limited quantity has been proved, but up to the present time boring for petroleum in the Dominion has achieved only a small flow.

During 1934 a limited amount of drilling was carried on in the New Plymouth district. A total production of 155,698 gallons of oil was obtained from Moturoa Nos. 2 and 4 wells at Now Plymouth. The total production of crude petroleum oil to the 31st December, 1934, is estimated at 2,223,162 gallons.

Oil-prospecting operations throughout the Dominion have received very liberal financial assistance from the Government in the form of bonuses, subsidies, and loans.

KAURI-GUM.

The European market for kauri-gum—used in the manufacture of varnish and linoleum—being greatly restricted by the war, new but smaller markets were obtained. The Kauri-gum Industry Amendment Act, 1914, providing for State purchase of gum from diggers and the disposal of the gum, served a useful purpose in enabling the industry to keep going in spite of the disorganization occasioned by the war.

A system of control of the trade in and export of kauri-gum was provided by the Kauri-gum Control Act, 1925. The Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2) provides for the repeal of the Control Act, 1925. The property of the Kauri-gum Control Board is vested in the Crown, the Minister of Lands taking over the powers and obligations of the Board.

During 1934 3,209 tons of kauri-gum, valued at £86,917, were exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1934 being 428,546 tons, valued at £23,180,889.

Production of kauri-gum can be gauged approximately by export figures or by the following figures showing kauri-gum received at Auckland from the gumfields: 1930–31, 3,526 tons; 1931–32, 3,004 tons; 1932–33, 2,229 tons; 1933–34, 2,804 tons; 1934–35, 2,858 tons. The Kauri-gum Industry Account (account abolished 31st March, 1931) showed an accumulated loss of £72,995 at 31st March, 1935, with further losses in suspense totalling £1,588.

PHOSPHATE ROCK.

At Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, considerable deposits of phosphate rock were discovered in 1902, and up to recent years were actively worked. There has been no output, however, since 1924. A thin bed of phosphatic rock has been identified at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, in Marlborough. A similar bed occurs near Port Robinson. Phosphatic nodules are found in the Kaikorai Valley (near Dunedin), at Weka Pass (North Canterbury), and elsewhere. A limestone containing 10–6 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate occurs in the neighbourhood of One where, Waikato district. Other districts where phosphatic material of good quality, though, so far as known, not in commercial quantity, is found are Amberley, Dipton, Oamaru, Waimate, Wangapeka, Clarence Valley, Tutira Block (Mangaharuru Survey District, Hawke'a Bay), and Whangarei.

GREENSTONE.

The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi- transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” whenever observed in aitu occurs as rounded segregations in talc or talc-serpentine rocks. These segregations vary up to 2 ft. or even more in lateral dimensions. As a rule they average less than 1 ft. in width. So far as is known, the mineral has been found in its original locus only in the Griffin Range, Turiwhate Survey District, North Westland.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.

New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, and andesite, porphyrite and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. In addition there are the Whangarei limestone and the Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesite of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesite of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there are the granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. The Parliamentary Buildings at Wellington were constructed of this marble. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, North Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent budding-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there are the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

The following table relates to quarries under the Stone-quarries Act for the year 1934:—

   Output of Stone.
Provincial District.Number of Working Quarries under the Act.Number of Persons ordinarily employed.Stone or Gravel for Macadamizing of Ballast.Stone for Harbour Works.Building or Monumental Stone.Lime Stone for Agriculture.Lime Stone for Cement Motor.Miscellaneous.Value at Quarry.
   Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.£
Auckland187953470,823..3,76278,599103,854..115,672
Hawke's Bay2110541,997....27,793....13,590
Taranaki189717,560....877....2,631
Wellington3616954,184....8,603..5,00016,584
Nelson         
Westland2110715,42011,747..5,76324,89510,01414,046
Marlborough         
Canterbury         
Otago44387141,44455,49427,738140,30539,913..99,114
Southland         
Totals, 19343271,818741,42867,2413l,500261,940168,66215,014261,637
Totals, 19333191,711621,92358,7431,994191,888137,03917,821196,481

The Stone-quarries Act, 1910, with amendments, applies to every place, not being a mine, in which persons work in quarrying stone and any part of which has a face more than 15 ft. deep, and also to any tunnel in the construction of which explosives are used. The Act, however, does not apply to any Government operations, or any road or railway cutting, or excavations for buildings.

PERSONS ENGAGED IN MINING AND QUARRYING.

The following table shows the number of persons employed in or about mines and stone-quarries during the last five years:—

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Metalliferous mines1,8162,0103,6526,2216,552
Coal-mines5,8675,7454,6364,3864,478
Stone-quarries1,9581,9951,8881,7111,818
Totals9,6419,75010,17612,31812,848

STATE AID TO MINING.

State aid to mining in this Dominion is given in several forms—viz., (1) Geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) Government prospecting- drills: (4) schools of mines; (5) subsidized roads to mining-fields.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Since the first discovery of coal and the precious metals in New Zealand the Government has employed skilled geologists, who have reported, after examination, on all the known mineral deposits. Since 1916 the Geological Survey has been enlarged.

During the field season of 1934–35 the Geological Survey continued detailed investigations in the Eketahuna, Amuri, and Nascby districts. The work in the Eketahuna and Nascby districts has been completed, and investigations are being carried out in the Waikaia district.

The time of one officer was fully occupied, and that of several other officers partly occupied, in making geophysical surveys in connection with mining problems the greater portion of the work being carried out at Waihi, Reefton, Ida Valley, Alexandra, and Waikaia. The information obtained by geophysical surveys directs the miner to the most favourable points to prospect, but it does not determine definitely the mineral-content of any deposit, and only very rarely should capital be expended on development-work before the value and extent of the deposit have been proved by the other usual well-known prospecting methods.

FINANCIAL AID TO PROSPECTING.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Native land, and ho may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licenses for coal.

During the year ended 31st March, 1935, a total of £3,787 was expended by the Mines Department in subsidies for prospecting (exclusive of £89 in connection with the Unemployment Board's prospecting schemes), and 120 persons were given employment thereby. In addition, an average of 3,6OO men were engaged during the year under the Unemployment Board's prospecting schemes at a net cost of £187,689 (vide Section XXXIX).

GOVERNMENT PROSPECTING-DRILLS.

Prospecting-drills of various types suitable for the conditions existing in the Dominion are lent to bona fide prospectors. A monthly rental is charged for the plant, and the hirer is required to maintain it in good order and condition. Working-expenses are also paid by the hirer, including renewals, &c, and the loss on carbons.

The hirer is required to furnish to the Mines Department weekly reports of boring results.

Considerable use was made of the Government prospecting-drills during 1934, an aggregate of 12,717 ft. being drilled in 316 holes for sixteen parties.

SCHOOLS OF MINES.

For the education of prospectors and mining students six schools of mines are subsidized by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Westport, Reefton, and Runanga. Six scholarships, tenable for four years, are offered annually by the Mines Department.

The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended the 31st March, 1935, was £3,470., as against £3,269 during the previous year.

SUBSIDIZED ROADS.

The expenditure in the form of subsidies and direct grants upon roads on goldfields during the year ended the 31st March, 1935, amounted to £767, as compared with £1,227 during the previous year.

LEAFLETS.

Another form of Government assistance to mining consists of the publication of several leaflets as a guide to the prospector. These leaflets may be obtained on application to the Mines Department, and deal with : (a) Description of fields which may be considered to warrant further examination for gold; (b) description of best ways of seeking for and saving gold; (c) brief summary of statutory procedure to be followed to obtain a right to prospect or mine for metals or mineral under the Mining Act; (d) notes on the taking of samples of mineral deposits and the valuation of mining prospects; (e) notes for drilling and a method of calculating gold value of alluvial deposits.

BOARD OF EXAMINERS.

The Board of Examiners annually conducts examinations of candidates for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers and mine-surveyors under the Coal-mines Act. Examinations of candidates for certificates as underviewers and firemen and deputies under the Coal-mines Act are held periodically when necessary. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners. Thirty-nine certificates were issued in 1934.

SICK AND ACCIDENT AND COAL-MINERS’ RELIEF FUNDS.

As required by the Coal-mines Act, 1925, the owner of every coal-mine contributes |d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of coal-miners who may he injured while working, and for the relief of families of coal-miners who may he killed or injured.

Under that Act the Miners’ Sick and Accident Funds were as from the 1st April, 192G, abolished and incorporated in the Coal-miners’ Relief Fund. All accident relief payments are now made from the Coal-miners’ Relief Fund, which is administered by the Public Trustee with the assistance of local committees.

During the year ended 31st March. 1934, the fund benefited to the extent of £590, the balance from Cardiff Mine Sick and Accident Fund which had not been previously transferred. The income from the ½d. per ton contribution was £4,094 during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1935, as compared with £3,806 during 1933–34, and interest earnings brought the total receipts to £4,932 and £5,230 for the respective years. The total expenditure for the year ended 31st March, 1935, amounted to £1,199, as against £4,005 for the previous year. The amount standing to the credit of the fund as at the 31st March, 1935, was £2–1,482, as against £23,749 twelve months earlier.

MINER'S PHTHISIS PENSIONS.

Information concerning pensions for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis appears in the section of this book dealing with pensions, superannuation, &c.

Chapter 21. SECTION XXI.—FACTORY PRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

AT present the Dominion's industrial field is for the main part limited to the treatment of the principal primary products. Statistics for recent years, however, indicate advancement among the principal branches of manufacture, as well as a tendency, with the increasing population, for greater diversity in the branches covered. Statistics of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census. Commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one. Years quoted in this section correspond approximately to fiscal years ending 3lst March. Figures will be found in greater detail than is possible here in the annual “Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.”

Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of factory production a “factory”is denned as an establishment engaged in the manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export, which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies, waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even although employing less than two hands and not using motive power: Tanneries; bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories: brickyards; and limeworks.

The definition is fairly comprehensive, and includes such industries as, for instance, jewellery and watch repairing and hoot, shoe, and saddlery repairing. Small establishments thus engaged were at one time included in the statistics, but they are now excluded unless they are also engaged in actual manufacture and have at least two persons engaged or use motive power.

Other classes of establishments formerly covered by the statistics but excluded from 1921– onwards are those engaged in dressmaking and millinery (unless manufacturing wholesale for sale in retail shops), bespoke tailoring, and establishments engaged in tea blending and packing, bottling liquor, stone quarrying and crushing, asphalting, or monumental masonry. The latter industries were excluded to bring the statistics into line with those of other British countries. In addition, returns are not required from plumbers or from builders who make joinery for their own building contracts. Builders are, however, required to furnish annual returns of building and construction, which are dealt with in the next section.

It should be noted that factory-production statistics do not cover, and do not purport to cover, all establishments registered as factories in the Dominion, for the following reasons : “One man”businesses are excluded with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap, or candle factories, brickyards, or lime-works; some small repair-shops (as explained previously) are excluded even although they may employ two or more hands; and in some cases where a factory has two or more branches it has been found impracticable to obtain separate returns, and all branches have been treated as one establishment. The effect of this is seen from the fact that while for the year 1933–34 15,598 factories, employing 85,968 hands, were registered under the Factories Act, only 5,028 factories (with, however, 72,651 persons engaged) were covered by the statistics of factory production.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

Both the present magnitude and the steady growth of New Zealand's factory production are made manifest in the table below. The last four years show a recession, but this is symptomatic of the present conditions of world-depression and does not represent a real decline. If the year 1929–30, as the year preceding the depression, be compared with the year 1910–11, the number of establishments has increased by 48 per cent, of the 1910–11 figure; the cost of materials used by 210 per cent.; the value of output by 210 per cent.; and the “added value”by 206 per cent. The last three figures are, of course, affected by the changes in the purchasing-value of the monetary unit. During the same period the population increased by 41 per cent. The year 1933.34 shows definite improvements as compared with its predecessor. Establishments reporting operations and the number of persons engaged recorded increases of 0.7 per cent, and 3.4 per cent, repectively. The cost of materials used, the value of products, and the “added value” advanced by 10.1 per cent., 8.6 per cent., and 5.7 per cent. respectively. Salaries and wages paid advanced by 0–5 per cent., while the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery' receded by 2.2 per cent.

The increase of 8.6 per cent, in the value of products is accounted for to the extent of 70 per cent, in the rise in the value of output for the meat-freezing, butter and cheese, and woolscouring and fellmongering industries.

In the calculation of “value of products,” the rule is that values at the factory are taken. This rule has, however, hitherto had one important exception, in that in the case of dairy-produce exported the values included have been the gross receipts from abroad, marketing charges being included in “Other expenses.” Commencing with 1933–34, the dairy industry has been brought into line with other industries in this respect, and the values are now those at the factory-door. The necessary adjustments have been made in the figures for previous years, and all statistics quoted in this section are on a comparable basis.

Year.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.“ Other Expenses”(i.e., Expenses of Operation other than Salaries and Wages and Cost of Materials).Value of Output.Added Value.

* Productive employees only.

† Not available.

   £££££
1910–113,48345,924*4,786,698*18,782,92929,317,02310,534,094
1915–163,75548,744*5,791,704*30,197,78443,034,03312,836,249
1920–214,02269,68113,172,99652,933,49477,828,01324,894,519
1924–254,53877,18314,945,97551,337,11582,479,37831,142,263
1925–264,79478,70816,153,82251,668,1008,395,92182,358,85130,690,751
1926–275,07878,61316,255,17749,344,4428,646,77980,334,60130,990,159
1927–285,15678,62016,053,21054,558,1678,792,72185,059,79930,501,632
1928–295,12680,61816,291,21259,136,5529,330,05190,478,23231,341,680
1929–305,16882,86116,846,28658,484,2459,954,86190,757,98132,273,736
1930–315,19477,91415,617,05248,458,3569,388,62677,745,24929,286,893
1931–324,96968,69712,642,93542,343,0788,392,58766,588,74424,245,666
1932–334,99368,92112,048,14842,600,4908,222,59566,109,45523,508,965
1933–345,02872,65112,106,50046,919,1938,257,26171,770,87224,851,679

In making use of the following summary for the year 1933–34 it is necessary to keep in mind the differences in size and population of the respective provincial districts (vide page 61).

Provincial District.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.Other Expenses of Operation.Value of Output.Added Value.
   £££££
Auckland1,57024,4074,030,56918,303,0532,965,45326,559,2528,256,199
Hawke's Bay2472,854490,9922,472,210368,2473,815,6051,342,855
Taranaki3002,473462,3193,680,294338,7174,576,838896,544
Wellington1,05015,9342,653,5779,359,4251,614,33614,729,4115,369,986
Marlborough7346174,146255,81255,299432,629176,817
Nelson1691,230197,081523,303162,984924,997401,694
Westland981,160212,918199,754162,441591,187391,433
Canterbury75611,9511,980,1326,423,1171,238,45110,323,9743,900,857
Otago4959,3751,505,1823,505,793979,3136,585,5513,079,758
Southland2702,806499,5842,196,432372,0203,231,9681,035,536
Totals5,02872,65112,106,50046,919,1938,257,26171,770,87224,851,679

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES.

The establishments recorded in 1933–34 numbered 5,028, an increase of 35 over that for the previous year (4,993). The number of establishments in most industries remained practically stationary. The sawmilling industry, however, advanced by 67, and other industries showing increases were: Concrete-block and fibrous-plaster making, 6; small machines, 6; grain-milling, 5. Decreases of 18 each were shown for (1) coach-building and motor engineering, and (2) furniture-making.

The following table shows the average (monthly) number of wage-earners and of total persons engaged in each class of industry and the number of establishments operating for the year 1933–34 :—

Class of Industry.Number of Establishments.Wage-earning Employees.Total Persons engaged.
M.F.M.F.
Animal food5719,99318611,950562
Vegetable food1381,9631,5802,5521,784
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants2551,2636111,832747
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)6664395823138
Working in wood5615,296156,23276
Vegetable produce for fodder1128..464
Paper manufactures20219274286304
Heat, light, and power1453,155204,192369
Processes in stone, clay, glass, &c.2181,39731,78754
Metals other than gold or silver42S3,6771384,534306
Precious metals35115215516
Books and publications3664,8051,0856,2401,498
Ornaments and minor art products39801911727
Designs, medals, type, and dies1991312510
Machines, tools, and implements8870778922133
Carriages and vehicles1,0243,18334,241250
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware1349021351,149164
Ships, boats, and their equipment58443164550189
House-furnishings3051,1901751,585235
Chemicals and by-products758262571,115344
Textile fabrics189311,4461,0611,471
Apparel3902,3597,9943,1918,434
Fibrous materials34396103455111
Miscellaneous30122105153126
Totals5,02843,79614,49755,29917,352

The distribution of the sexes among the employees shows a considerable preponderance of males. The number of females per hundred males in each of the five years ending 1933–34 has been : 26, 28, 30, 31, and 31.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent; but the male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in greater demand. In Otago the excess of males is less than in any other district, due to the comparative importance of its woollen-milling industry.

The following figures show that for every eight wage-earners there is one proprietor (actively engaged), manager, or overseer.

Group.1932–33.1933–34.
 Number of Persons.Per cent of Total.Number of Persons.Per cent of Total.
Proprietors actively engaged2,2683.32,3123.2
Managers, overseers, &c.4,5626.64,5016.2
Accountants, clerks, &c.7,43210.87,54510.4
Wage-earning employees54,65979.358,29380.2
Totals68,921100.072,051100.0

An interesting classification of establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, for the last five years is—

Year.10 or under.11–20.21–50.51–100.Over 100.Totals.
  Number of Factories.   
1929–303,4768005911641375,168
1930–313,6067565491531305,194
1931–323,6476304451331144,969
1932–333,6825994611331184,993
1933–343,6376794611261255,028
  Number of Employees.  
1929–3015,47411,78517,97711,65825,96782,861
1930–3114,96910,98516,57410,58624,80077,914
1931–3214,6539,30413,3969,26722,07768,697
1932–3314,6658,77713,7869,06422,62968,921
1933–3414,4239,97113,8928,75725,60872,651

SALARIES AND WAGES.

The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages cover the amounts paid in the ordinary way as salaries and wages, as well as bonuses and overtime. Figures illustrative of the rise in the aggregate amount paid in salaries and wages will he found in the first table of this section.

The amounts received by male and female employees, and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below :—

 MalesFemales.Both Sexes.
Year.Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 ££££££
1929–3015,102,667230.41,743,619100.716,846,286203.3
1930–3113,974,531228.71,642,52197.715,617,052200.4
1931–3211,194,608211.51,448,32791.812,642,935184.0
1932–3310,588,745201.91,459,40388.612,048,148174.8
1933–3410,611,161191.91,495,33986.212,106,500166.6

Owing to the fact that employees who were engaged for part of the year only could not be excluded from the figures in computing the averages given above, and, further, as it was not practicable to take into consideration other factors which would disturb their accuracy, the averages shown cannot be regarded in other than a general way.

The table following shows the total salaries and wages paid in each class of industry during the year 1933–34.

Class of Industry.Males.Females.
 ££
Animal food2,402,95552,584
Vegetable food501,920122,854
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants406,33771,771
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)170,49212,342
Working in wood1,015,5936,726
Vegetable produce for fodder8,416557
Paper manufactures62,27625,195
Heat, light, and power982,17543,986
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.330,8474,951
Metals other than gold or silver790,61225,813
Precious metals31,1731,483
Books and publications1,292,641151,491
Ornaments and minor art products17,1181,747
Designs, medals, type, and dies25,787935
Machines, tools, and implements156,22712,239
Carriages and vehicles673,10919,973
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware213,28413,656
Ships, boats, and their equipment111,46318,312
House-furnishings248,36720,282
Chemicals and by-products252,06033,183
Textile fabrics207,177129,416
Apparel609,793709,670
Fibrous materials72,7117,962
Miscellaneous28,6288,211
Totals10,611,1611,495,339

Special returns as to employees and wages in a selected week are collected each year. The period covered is the nearest normal week to 31st March, and the data collected include the number of employees engaged at each wage-rate, as well as the total employees and the total earnings during the specified week. Working proprietors, managers, overseers, accountants, and clerks do not come within the scope of the inquiry, which covers wage-earning employees only, and out-workers, if any. All productive employees are covered, irrespective of age or sex, and the figures are therefore inclusive of many young male and female workers receiving low wages. The inclusion of these workers has the effect of making the average earnings lower than they would otherwise be, and this fact must not be overlooked when the figures are made use of.

 Total Wage-earning Employees.Earnings during Specified Week.
Year.  Total.Average.
 Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
   £££s.d.£s.d.
192554,14012,048240,54621,39948101156
192653,90012,287239,16923,3454891180
192753,41212,807236,44524,4394871182
192854,09513,224237,93825,5294801187
192954,65113,696244,54327,0514961196
193057,31714,823262,20027,88041161177
193148,41612,776208,63322,94446211511
193242,29113,143162,69522,81231701149
193343,62113,659160,65522,70531381133
193446,30515,184163,30324,26531061120

Due attention should also be paid to the fact that, although every endeavour is made to choose comparable weeks each year, certain factors may disturb the comparability of the figures from year to year. An unduly late or early season, abnormally wet weather, &c, would conceivably operate to affect the usefulness of either the number of employees or their earnings as indexes of the volume of employment. In using the average earnings it should be borne in mind that these have been computed from the amount earned during the specified week, and are, of course, affected by overtime and short time.

In the table following a summary showing the number of employees within the various wage-groups is given for the specifed weeks covered by the returns in 1924 and 1934. Some noteworthy changes in the distribution have occurred in the ten years.

Weekly Rate of Wages.Males.Females.
 1924.1934.1924.1934.
Under 20s.1,3662,5161,2373,434
20s. and under 25s.1,5941,4621,3371,699
25s. and under 30s1,2731,2081,2461,183
30s. and under 35s.1,3701,3621,2491,507
35s. and under 40s.8531,2469341,196
40s. and under 45s.95S1,2171,9153,488
45s. and under 50s.7891,6091,4801,474
50s. and under 55s.6851,2591,117592
55s. and under 60s.452920491271
60s. and under 65s.9161,798375150
65s. and under 70s.6622,15816544
70s. and under 75s.1,0223,97110542
75s. and under 8Os.3,3844,4844323
80s. and under 85s.5,7206,3915125
85s and under 90s.4,2434,334159
90s. and under 95s.6,1773,521239
95s and under 100s...4,5962,07241
100s. and under 105s.4,6651,5871514
105s. and under 110s.2,98983824
110s. and under 115s.2,51968063
115s. and under 120s.781304....
120s and under 130s.2,43764528
130s. and under 140s.933305....
140s. and under 160s.1,00525811
160s. and over64916011
Totals52,03846,30511,82015,184

MOTIVE POWER.

A supply of cheap motive power is essential for industrial development, New Zealand industries have in the past been somewhat handicapped in this respect, as coal and oil, which were in the earlier days the only sources of power, were by no means cheap. The difficulties in the way of obtaining a plentiful supply of cheap motive power are now met by the steady development of hydro-electric power, for which New Zealand is topographically well suited. The State has in recent years developed this phase of the Dominion's resources, and in doing so has provided a margin of power for attracting special industries depending on a supply of cheap motive power, as well as meeting present demands.

The following table shows the numbers of each class of engine used in factories for the last five years, with figures of horse-power:—

Class of Engine1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34
SteamNo.1,8181,7911,6171,5621,603
 H.P.129,347130,736135,211134,065132,788
Coal-gasNo.162149116116104
 H.P.5,3645,0802,0353,1583,079
Suction gasNo.123941168880
 H.P.8,3735,9745,94,15,6855,173
OilNo.336372391445411
 H.P.17,45621,01630,00330,31530,165
ElectricNo.15,02916,02716,42216,94217,838
 H.P.131,463136,240134,282139,173144,584
WaterNo.232205201305241
 H.P.295,549224,601226,316329,720329,758
Totals 17,70018,63818,84319,45820,277
 H.P.587,552523,647533,788642,116645,547

It should be borne in mind that the figures relating to the horse-power represent the indicated horse-power of the engine installed. This may be, and probably is, in many cases quite a different thing from the actual horse-power used. Attention is also directed to the fact that the statistics include the horse- power of turbines, pelton wheels, and other engines used in the generation of electric current.

 1928–291933–34
Class of Industry.Number of Engines.Horse-power.Number of Engines.Horse-power.
Animal food3,75565,1184,33867,330
Vegetable food71510,79597713,124
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants8715,5761,0566,563
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1962,2962472,601
Working in wood1,89036,8232,22835,646
Vegetable produce for fodder1627427488
Paper manufactures823,1681354,028
Heat, light, and power200260,358202429,020
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.77226,30195028,103
Metals other than gold or silver1,23810,4011,54912,613
Precious metals52644869
Books and publications1,8998,4182,2909,921
Ornaments and minor art products40742755
Designs, medals, type, and dies345671140
Machines, tools, and implements1521,1473921,801
Carriages and vehicles1,5104,4811,7854,598
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware3463,2033943,227
Ships, boats, and their equipment128938148876
House-furnishings7464,0119594,581
Chemicals and by-products4955,1767847,825
Textile fabrics2315,9343026,063
Apparel7872,7041,1353,021
Fibrous materials2125,5621222,846
Miscellaneous1267881111,008
Totals16,493463,66620,277645,547

A drawback to the statistics arises through the lack of information relating to the actual or estimated period during which the engines or motors were in use. This is an important aspect of considerations affecting the quantitative measurement of the motive power in use.

CONSUMPTION OF COAL.

During the year 1933–34 630,315 tons of coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production, an increase of 14,465 tons, or 2.3 per cent., as compared with the previous year. Of this amount, 166,830 tons represented New Zealand coal, and the balance (69,485 tons) imported coal.

Four industries utilized 76 per cent, of the total coal used for the year—namely, gas-making, 203,669 tons; butter, cheese, and condensed milk making. 127,487 tons; lime crushing and burning, 53,998 tons; meat freezing and preserving, 100,420 tons.

MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.

The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. For instance, materials used or operated upon in the tanning, fell- mongering, and wool-scouring industry were in 1933–34 valued at £1,109,123, while those used in printing, publishing, and bookbinding were valued at £930,659. If, however, value of output is considered, it is found that the figure for printing and publishing (£3,525,188) is over £2,000,000 greater than that for tanning, &c. (£1,493,315).

The cost of materials used in the various classes of industries during the last five years is given in the table hereunder:—

Class of Industry.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
Animal food34,135,15026,415,23223,912,26823,920,19127,201,435
Vegetable food4,489,3534,255,2573,802,0773,481,2073,550,554
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,351,6741,438,8971,175,6091,142,5651,198,247
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)734,610682,621384,748382,084395,504
Working in wood1,787,3501,410,4311,053,5351,023,1591,138,587
Vegetable produce for fodder71,78880,64474,13040,13032,552
Paper manufactures183,972187,848174,514174,864196,158
Heat, light, and power4,072,7714,230,3724,149,3044,316,6914,079,104
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.493,471419,953258,538199,595255,015
Metals other than gold or silver1,457,1601,263,259894,570831,064950,571
Precious metals38,29337,49127,38029,25235,421
Books and publications1,203,1311,170,299980,520933,103930,059
Ornaments and minor art products45,58941,98324,92020,85719,732
Designs, medals, type, and dies16,28212,0809,3707,58510,648
Machines, tools, and implements501,138344,623209,768257,643298,269
Carriages and vehicles966,966863,767717,813793,292846,262
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware1,388,177828,737608,901728,7911,212,859
Ships, boats, and their equipment185,587146,786106,036119,602129,381
House-furnishings755,774642,987408,292325,548328,378
Chemicals and by-products1,232,1161,079,4091,000,0041,283,2201,228,126
Textile fabrics513,501359,105285,217352,572407,707
Apparel2,431,5662,245,5971,825,0881,995,9082,224,870
Fibrous materials298,822173,137136,129169,879171,079
Miscellaneous130,004127,78162,78770,96878,075
Totals58,484,24548,458,35642,343,07842,600,49046,919,193

In considerations affecting the cost of materials used it should he borne in mind that the semi-primary industries (e.g., meat-freezing and butter and cheese making) bulk very largely therein. In 1933–34, for example, the two industries mentioned accounted for approximately £26,640,000 out of a total of £46,919,193 for cost of materials used. Constituting as they do over 50 per cent, of the total cost of materials used in all industries, the figures for the semi-primary industries influence the total figures for any year. Indeed, a study of the total cost of materials over a number of years shows that frequent and wide oscillations in primary-produce prices are clearly reflected therein. Again, difficulty has been experienced in determining what actually constitutes materials in connection with the electric-supply industry. For the purpose of factory-production statistics the figure for materials in respect of this industry is deemed to be the total expenditure for the year, less salaries and wages met out of revenue from the sale of energy.

PRODUCTS.

The value of products is calculated upon the current selling-price at the factory, and where goods are actually sold no difficulty is experienced. The stock on hand at the end of the year, however, presents some difficulties; but in such cases it is the practice to estimate the value, basing the estimation on the current selling-price at the factory.

In making use of the gross value of products it must he borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which constitutes more than half of the total value; in fact, the cost of materials used has represented no less than 64, 62, 64, 64, and 65 per cent, respectively of the value of the products in the last five years. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture- making, joinery, &c, it must be obvious that part of the value of timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of joinery and furniture made. Duplication of this kind is apparent in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of products by classes of industries as recorded in the last five collections:—

Class of Industry.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
Animal food39,453,56931,329,02529,085,63629,259,65932,757,524
Vegetable food6,488,0226,287,1745,641,4825,167,8955,317,505
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants3,259,9473,291,6863,006,8702,788,1753,036,809
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1,238,5171,194,128836,962827,093868,657
Working in wood5,356,2324,334,9662,715,7152,689,9813,034,568
Vegetable produce for fodder109,826115,139101,42862,80648,393
Paper manufactures377,316389,073375,371384,906414,515
Heat, light, and power5,865,7086,024,2775,837,7445,950,2475,802,564
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2,367,0182,106,1031,208,530959,1271,145,871
Metals other than gold or silver3,798,9673,402,7732,316,8772,143,2152,313,620
Precious metals101,169100,56475,78177,41285,740
Books and publications4,772,8114,509,7863,772,3233,473,9873,525,188
Ornaments and minor art products123,937105,29162,10851,98447,846
Designs, medals, type, and dies..77,02871,48254,63947,36853,538
Machines, tools, and implements1,025,366746,067454,557523,417607,393
Carriages and vehicles3,120,4602,652,6082,016,6831,895,2531,963,497
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware1,848,8041,220,015962,0691,143,4831,694,089
Ships, boats, and their equipment523,296440,087307,181326,908334,051
House-furnishings1,697,0511,426,441918,847737,560743,505
Chemicals and by-products2,319,3252,003,3021,887,6582,235,6752,130,902
Textile fabrics1,156,686954,229843,269931,0181,028,705
Apparel4,757,0091,410,7223,729,3023,975,5704,279,614
Fibrous materials641,535317,234249,460304,930319,558
Miscellaneous277,732247,077128,192151,880157,220
Totals90,757,98177,745,24966,588,74466,109,45571,770,872

ADDED VALUE.

As indicated under the heading of “Products,” the value of products is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. Another part, and in many cases by far the larger portion, represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, therefore, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the products, and is referred to as the “added value.” As the basis of the added value is the value of products, it is clear that it must be affected by fluctuations in values, and this fact should not be lost sight of when use is made of these figures.

The table given hereunder shows the added value by classes of industries for each of the last five years:—

lass of Industry.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
Animal food5,318,4194,913,7935,173,3685,339,4685,550,089
Vegetable food1,998,6692,031,9171,838,5051,686,6281,766,951
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,908,2731,852,7891,831,2611,645,6101,838,562
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)503,907511,507452,214444,409473,153
Working in wood3,568,8822,924,5351,662,1801,666,8221,895,981
Vegetable produce for fodder38,03834,49527,29822,67615,841
Paper manufactures193,344201,225200,857210,042218,357
Heat, light, and power1,792,9371,793,9051,688,3801,633,5561,783,460
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,873,5471,686,150949,992759,532890,856
Metals other than gold or silver2,341,8072,139,5141,422,3071,312,1511,303,049
Precious metals62,87603,07348,40148,16050,319
Books and publications3,569,6803,339,4872,791,8032,540,8242,594,529
Ornaments and minor art products78,34863,30837,18831,12728,114
Designs, medals, type, and dies60,74659,40245,26939,78342,890
Machines, tools, and implements524,228401,444244,789265,774309,124
Carriages and vehicles2,153,4941,788,8411,298,8701,101,9611,117,235
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware460,627391,278353,168414,692481,230
Ships, boats, and their equipment337,709299,301201,145207,306204,670
House-furnishings941,277783,454510,555412,012415,127
Chemicals and by-products1,087,209983,893827,654952,355902,776
Textile fabrics643,185595,064558,052578,446620,998
Apparel2,326,0432,165,1251,903,6741,979,6682,054,744
Fibrous materials342,713144,097113,331135,051148,479
Miscellaneous147,778119,29665,40580,91279,145
Totals32,273,73629,286,89324,245,66623,508,96524,851,679

In 1919–20 the added value per person engaged was ^329, while in 1933–34 it was recorded as £342, an increase of approximately 4 per cent. The index numbers of prices computed in regard to New Zealand manufactures decreased considerably—from 1592 in 1919–20 to 1067 in 1933–34, or by 33 per cent. During the same period the aggregate mechanical power available increased by 233 per cent., which is quite out of proportion to the increase of 13 per cent, in the total persons engaged. In view of the” above, it seems a reasonable conclusion that the increase in the added value per employee since 1919–20 has been due to increased motive power combined to a certain extent with an increase in the productivity of labour.

The following table shows various percentages and rates that have been computed in connection with the added value for the last five years:—

1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
Added value per head of mean population21.8419.5515.9815.3716.12
Added value per person engaged389.49375.89352.94341.10342.07
Added value per £l00 expended on Salaries and wages191.58187.53191.77195.13205.28
Percentage of salaries and wages to added valuePer Cent. 52.20Per Cent. 53.32Per Cent. 52.15Per Cent. 51.25Per Cent. 48.72
Percentage of added value to cost of materials used55.1860.4457.2655.1852.97

Although the relation between the aggregates of wages paid and of added value bears out to a certain extent the changing times through which industry has passed, definite conclusions cannot be arrived at without due regard to the effects brought about by the increased use of machinery and changes in the relative importance of different groups of industries. Some idea of the effects of the latter consideration can be seen from the following table showing the percentages of salaries and wages to added value in some principal classes of industries during the last five years:—

Class of Industry.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Animal food49.6553.8148.1146.5044.20
Vegetable food35.5435.1934.3537.0935.36
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants31.4031.3927.6230.2226.00
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)48.0548.8943.0741.4438.64
Working in wood.55.3255.6160.4358.3253.92
Heat, light, and power60.1262.9363.1761.6457.54
books and publications52.0854.0756.3756.9855.66
Machines, tools, and implements52.3660.9962.4758.8954.50
Apparel65.7167.3366.4364.8564.22
Fibrous materials59.0052.6752.0554.2454.33

OTHER EXPENSES OF OPERATION.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operations other than salaries and wages and cost of materials for the last five years :—

Item.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
Cost of coal746,529699,481544,346471,661486,074
Cost of other fuel and power546,652553,610484,915520,980536,760
Insurance289,304271,443249,608238,276210,865
Depreciation1,436,9541,405,3541,296,5261,331,0151,345,238
All other expenses6,935,4226,458,7385,817,1925,060,6635,678,324
Totals9,954,8619,388,6268,392,5878,222,5958,257,261

In 1929–30, “other” expenses totalled £9,954,861, the highest figure yet recorded for this item. Declines were registered for the years 1930–31 to 1932–33, while an increase of £34,000, or 0–4 per cent., was shown for the year 1933–34.

It is necessary when attempting to gauge the success or otherwise of an industry to take into consideration the figure for “other” expenses. The operating costs of an industry are determined by adding together the salaries and wages, cost of materials used, and other expenses. This result, when contrasted 'with the value of the output of the industry, indicates either a surplus or a deficit. Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1933–34 amounted to £07,282,954 (£12,106,500, salaries and wages; £40,919,193, coat of materials; £S,257,261, other expenses), while value of output totalled £71,770,872, showing therefore a surplus of £4,487,918.

FIXED ASSETS.

The values of the fixed assets give some idea as to the permanency and stability of the manufacturing industries in New Zealand, and afford the means of judging to some extent of the amount of capital that has been invested therein.

In connection with the statistics of fixed assets, it should he understood that the figures given are of necessity only approximate, the principal reason for this being that where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries an apportionment has to be made between the industries, and this cannot he done with accuracy. Furthermore, in many instances fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an understatement owing to appreciated site value, or an overstatement owing to insufficient allowance being made for depreciation, obsolescence, &c. Where premises occupied are rented or leased it is the practice to ascertain the annual rental value and capitalize this.

The value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery may be taken as representing approximately the fixed capital, and a classification by classes of industries is therefore interesting, as it shows to a certain extent the amount of this capital required in the various classes. It is recognized that electric-supply undertakings and gasworks require heavy expenditure on plant and machinery, &c, and it is not surprising that the value of fixed assets employed in the industries coming under the “Heat, light, and power” class is much greater than that for any other class, notwithstanding that the added value in this case is relatively small. It is particularly interesting to note that while the added value in the “Animal food”class amounts to £5,556,089, as against £1,783,460 for heat, light, and power, the fixed capital in the latter case is £31,745,616, while in the former it is £8,629,093—over £23,000,000 less. The following table shows the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery by classes of industries for the latest five years available :—

Class of Industry.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
Animal food9,006,9958,833,5888,740,8668,844,9818,620,093
Vegetable food2,316,7542,392,2862,384,9112,368,1652,267,609
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,900,9011,877,6821,823,8171,862,8641,860,870
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)521,662520,894535,967517,248528,283
Working in wood2,958,8912,846,8352,457,9752,396,0232,243,043
Vegetable produce for fodder62,09375,11876,19574,73369,060
Paper manufactures260,463268,689288,715270,184283,907
Heat, light, and power30,025,46431,405,21732,203,00732,107,03531,745,616
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2,122,6152,101,9292,007,1311,951,8441,802,619
Metals other than gold or silver2,638,9142,608,0342,433,9382,507,2292,410,305
Precious metals93,559113,40899,28097,92690,903
Books and publications4,008,0934,093,4633,867,0083,842,4793,792,591
Ornaments and minor art products121,655106,48090,71866,90658,029
Designs, medals, type, and dies75,13973,59173,20165,68667,467
Machines, tools, and implements416,549409,128396,256397,016398,455
Carriages and vehicles2,863,7002,677,9122,320,1442,241,9062,108,689
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware518,736468,346441,679437,748442,810
Ships, boats, and their equipment292,505286,663262,641269,519263,158
House-furnishings932,737884,123816,070712,532657,832
Chemicals and by-products1,770,3821,675,9291,604,7661,723,7901,682,742
Textile fabrics950,472850,222827,420813,301856,095
Apparel1,900,3221,890,4821,863,2611,863,3821,795,900
Fibrous materials367,000191,217156,219177,150171,410
Miscellaneous171,430154,914135,833156,100163,918
Totals66,357,93166,818,15065,907,01865,855,44764,390,404

Successive substantial increases in the total value Of land, buildings, plant, and machinery were a feature of the factory-production statistics until 1930–31. However, since then, recorded values have fallen each year until the figure shown for 1933–34 (£64,390,404) is approximately £2,500,000 less than that for 1930–31.

The relation between the value of (a) land and buildings, and (b) plant and machinery illustrates the tendency for the latter to increase at a proportionately faster rate than the former. In 1905–6 the proportions per cent, of land and buildings and of plant and machinery to the total fixed assets were 57 and 43 respectively, but these positions are now more than reversed, the percentages in 1933–34 being 34 and 66. Each collection since 1966 has shown a gradual and consistent decrease in the percentage of the value of land and buildings to the total fixed assets. The table given hereunder shows the movement during the last five years:—

Year.Land and Buildings.Plant and Machinery.Total Amount.
Amount.Per Cent of Total.Amount.Per Cent of Total.
 £ £ £
1929–3024,697,48037.2241,660,45162.7866,357,931
1930–3123,563,84235.2743,254,30864.7366,818,l50
1931–3222,988,57734.8842,918,44165.1265,907,018
1932–3322,909,67734.7942,945,77065.2165,855,447
1933–3422,159,07334.4142,231,33165.5964,390,404

CAPITAL.

Although information as to the amount of capital invested in each factory has been collected for some years, the figures in this respect have been found to be inaccurate and have not been made use of. The chief factors militating against the collection of satisfactory information in this connection are the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning the capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing. In the case of joint-stock companies the capital figures have been found to be reasonably accurate. In the following table the figures in the second column relate to the number of companies, not the number of works.

Year.Number of Companies.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Percentage of Paid-up Capital to Total Capital.Loan and Reserve Capital of (excluding Bank Overdraft).Percentage of Loan Capital to Total Capital.Total CapitalPaid-up Shares issued Vendors as Part of Purchase Consideration, included under leading “Paid-up Capital.”
   Private Companies.      
  ££ £ ££ 
1929–301,40013,981,43712,888,12781.003,022,38819.0015,910,5152,269,966 
1930–311,44713,953,26512,843,08082.172,787,23117.8315,630,3111,930,318 
1931–321,45213,676,98112,669,24482.082,765,61617.9215,434,8602,029,841 
1932–331,47613,618,30212,783,43080.763,046,41719.2415,829,8562,010,279 
1933–341,50413,339,43712,481,89781.232,883,66618.7715,365,5631,638,559 
  Public and Co.operative Companies.   
1929–3074625,835,55723,092,85178.966,151,85921.0429,244,7103,710,008 
1930–3172825,873,18023,074,21480.175,706,58719.8328,780,8014,228,743 
1931–3271525,227,36922,699,82480.585,471,22319.4228,171,0474,185,640 
1932–3371726,107,74823,660,33980.835,611,45619.1729,271,7954,145,908 
1933–3471826,017,97923,519,47280.715,619,78019.2929,139,2523,864,089 
   Total (All Companies).    
1929–302,14639,816,99435,980,97879.689,174,24720.3245,155,2255,979,974 
1930–312,17539,826,44535,917,29480.878,493,81819.1344,111,1126,159,061 
1931–322,16738,904,35035,369 06881.118,236,83918.8943,605,9076,215,481 
1932–332,19239,726,35036,443,77880.808,657,87319.2045,101,6516,156,187 
1933–342,22239,357,41636,001,36980.898,503,44619.1144,504,8155,502,648 

In considering the figures given in regard to capital it must be borne in mind that the registered capital is taken in each case, except where the company may not be fully engaged in manufacture (in which case an apportionment is made), and that the capital necessarily includes capital invested in securities outside the company. This excess capital, as it may be called, would for various reasons be more likely to be found to any great extent in public companies than in private companies, and has, no doubt, the effect of swelling the capital figure for public companies to some considerable extent, beyond the amount actually invested in the various factories.

CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION.

Information as to the character of organization of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1933–34 is given in the following table.

Character of Organization.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Horse power available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Manufactures or Products.Added Value.
   H.p.£££
Individual1,7187,4581 14,2931,324,1493,047,3561,723,207
Private firm or partnership6433,7867,183689,8731,586,706896,833
Public registered company46522,599101,15213,806,21023,457,8569,651,646
Private registered company1,59930,60876,72512,154,10121,502,2129,348,111
Municipal and General Government1363,317421,5463,838,2874,903,1651,064,878
Co-operative and miscellaneous4674,88324,64815,106,57317,273,5772,167,004
Totals5,02872,651645,54746,919,19371,770,87224,851,679

AGES OF INDUSTRIES.

Out of the 5,028 manufacturing establishments in existence in New Zealand during the year 1933–34, 2,163 were shown to have been in operation prior to 1915, so that, excluding those cases where the date of establishment is unknown, 2,521 of the present establishments came into existence during the last nineteen years, at an average rate over this period of 133 per annum. Some 1,234 date from the decade 1915–24; 779 from the quinquennium 1925–29; 406 from 1930–32; and 102 from 1933; while in 344 cases the date of establishment was not given.

ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY.

New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organized on a relatively small scale. The statistical evidence does not appear to indicate a concentrative tendency so marked as in older countries where the industrial arts are in a relatively more advanced stage.

The law in the Dominion restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 10 persons, a private company to not fewer than 2 or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than 7 persons. Co-operation in industry is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the preparation of primary produce for the market. The principal of these is the butter and cheese making industry. Municipal enterprises are confined mainly to publicutility industries—e.g., gasworks and the generation and distribution of electricity— while the State operates the chief central hydro-electric generating stations and the Government Printing Office.

There are considerable differences in the average size of the industrial units operated under the different kinds of organization; the order of magnitude, however, has remained substantially the same.

ADDED VALUE PER ESTABLISHMENT.

Year.Individual.Partnership.Joint-stock Companies.Municipal and General GovernmentCo-operative and MiscellaneousTotal.
PublicPrivate.
 £££££££
1926–271,8372,62623,4897,8948,3345,0936,091
1927–281,7202,37423,6207,7486,8144,7205,904
1928–291,6752,55023,7087,9557,5804,8076,102
1929–301,6362,29023,9308,5588,3125,1806,284
1930–311,3581,94823,0467,3798,1214,2365,657
1931–329811,29518,7005,7457,2384,6214,660
1932–339371,35218,4595,8487,5334,7024,731
1933–341,0031,39520,7565,8467,8304,6404,943

The above figures represent the arithmetic average in each case—i.e., the total added value for each class divided by the number of establishments.

The table following shows the relative position of each kind of organization to the total for all classes.

Year.Individual.Partnership.Joint-stock Companies.Municipal and General GovernmentCo-operative and Miscellaneous.Totals.
PublicPrivate.
 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ESTABLISHMENTS.  
 Per CentPer Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1929–3035.1014.619.3128.932.619.44100.00
1930–3134.6414.079.5930.072.648.99100.00
1931–3234.0113.509.6830.872.709.24100.00
1932–3334.4712.929.5331.242.699.15100.00
1933–3434.1712.799.2531.802.709.29100.00
 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PERSONS ENGAGED.  
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1929–3012.487.2430.9639.814.215.30100.00
1930–3111.086.5031.6040.474.915.44100.00
1931–3210.545.5032.0340.865.245.83100.00
1932–3310.385.4931.1341.925.026.06100.00
1933–3410.275.2131.1142.134.566.72100.00
 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL HORSE-POWER.  
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1929–302.491.5516.9012.0762.984.01100.00
1930–312.661.9119.7513.4457.974.27100.00
1931–322.381.7018.8513.2459.584.25100.00
1932–332.081.1315.6211.3766.113.69100.00
1933–342.211.1115.6711.8965.303.82100.00
 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ADDED VALUE.  
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1929–309.295.6030.5537.343.667.56100.00
1930–318.415.0237.8537.673.997.06100.00
1931–327.283.9038.5437.024.368.90100.00
1932–336.733.8637.7738.164.299.19100.00
1933–346.933.6138.8437.624.288.72100.00

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES.

The true position of the real manufacturing industries is somewhat obscured by the incorporation of figures relating to such industries as meat-freezing and butter and cheese making, &c. To enable the formation of a more accurate view of the extent of the real manufacturing industries in the Dominion it is necessary to attempt a classification of the industries according to the nature of the work carried, on. The results of the classification drawn up for this purpose are presented in the table that follows. The main purpose of the classification is to separate those industries which are closely associated with the primary industries of the Dominion, or represent the provision of public utilities under monopoly conditions, and thus are not in normal usage covered by the term “secondary industries.”

Group I comprises those industries engaged in the preparation of farm products for the market, with the resulting by-products. In this group the “added value”is relatively small in proportion to the value of the output. The specific industries falling under this category are: Meat freezing and preserving, ham and bacon curing, butter and cheese making, sausage-casing, fellmongering and wool-scouring, boiling-down and manure making.

Group II covers those industries which provide public utility services under monopoly conditions in so far as competition within the industry is concerned. It comprises gasworks and electricity generation and supply.

Group III consists of another portion of what are generally referred to as semi-primary industries. It covers industries arising from the utilization of natural resources. The added value in these industries is large in proportion to the value of output, and represents principally wages. The following industries come within this group: Fish-curing, sawmilling, lime-crushing, brick, tile, and pottery making, concrete-block and fibrous-plaster making, pumice-insulation making, and flax-milling.

Group IV comprises all industries for which statistics are available and which do not come under the previous groups. It includes several industries, such as grain-milling, iron-smelting, &c, which may be considered to be on the border-line between it and Group I or Group III, and also several industries, such as motor and cycle engineering and repairing, &c., which are not perhaps covered by the term “secondary industries” as this is generally understood.

The following table shows the principal statistics for the various groups enumerated above for the years 1932–33 and 1933–34:—

Group.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Materials used.Other Expenses of Operation.Products.Added Value.Land, Buildings, Plant, and Machinery.
   1932–33.   
  ££££££
I11,6842,634,26024,440,7492,287,85330,066,1895,625,4409,158,560
II4,4061,003,9614,316,691413,2765,950,2471,633,55632,197,635
III6,5011,099,682871,247944,7802,956,4212,085,1743,892,480
IV46,3307,310,24512,971,8034,576,68627,136,59814, 164,79520,606,772
Totals68,92112,018,14812,600,4908,222,59566,109,45523,508,96565,855,447
  1933–34.    
I13,2852,603,54728,179,1952,242,67034,127,2145,948,0198,908,253
II4,5611,026,1614,079,104397,6115,862,5641,783,46031,745,616
III7,1481,187,510998,9071,046,3503,445,3242,446,4173,651,266
IV47,6577,289,28213,661,9874,570,63028,335,77014,673,78320,085,269
Totals72,65112,106,50046,919,1938,257,26171,770,87224,851,67964,390,404

Comparisons of Group IV—i.e., secondary industries — for the years 1932–33 and 1933–34 reveal that persons engaged in 1933–34 advanced by 1,327 in number,. while there was a drop of 0.3 per cent, in the salaries and wages paid. Both the cost of materials and the value of products increased—by 5.3 per cent, and 4.4 per cent, respectively. Added value advanced by 3.6 per cent., while other expenses moved slightly downwards by 0.1 per cent. The value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery registered a shrinkage of 2.5 per cent.

It is not claimed that the classification adopted above will suit all requirements. Some rearrangement may be necessary to meet particular cases. Nor is it claimed that it is mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive throughout.

OVERTIME AND SHORT TIME.

The amount of overtime worked or short time recorded by industries gives a fairly good though not an infallible indication as to whether an industry has been busy or slack. Statistics in connection with these two phases of factory production have been collected for a number of years, and the tables presented hereunder throw some interesting light on one phase of industrial production during the last ten years.

Overtime needs no explanation, and as particulars of overtime are readily ascertainable from the records kept in the wages-books, the information may be accepted as of a reliable character. For statistical purposes short time is deemed to be time lost through machinery, tools, &c, being out of order, lack of materials, adverse market conditions, and other cognate causes. Time lost through holidays (annual, ordinary, or public, holidays) and sickness is not counted as short time. Information as to how much short time is attributable to each cause is not available.

The following table summarizes overtime worked and short time recorded in factories in respect of wage-earning employees.

 Overtime.Short Time.
Year.Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
 Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.
1924–251,366,158153,2041,519,362724,686161,550886,236
1925–261,492,467154,0911,646,558705,274141,279846,553
1926–271,388,503178,780l,567,283954,922163,7411,118,663
1927–281,472,869187,4291,660,2981,456,049154,9421,610,991
1928–291,532,711213,1391,745,8501,055,337154,2331,209,570
1929–301,621,910243,4091,865,319909,063192,8971,101,960
1930–311,211,078117,6291,328,7072,723,274722,8233,446,097
1931–32933,700176,5581,110,2583,789,0561,209,9274,998,983
1932–331,072,759331,7091,404,4683,028,668953,7223,982,390
1933–341,135,648364,0761,499,7242,597,954747,7963,345,750

Prior to the year 1930–31, the number of hours' overtime worked each year exceeded the number of hours short time recorded. The years 1930–31 to 1933–34 show the reverse, however, to be the case. The big drop in overtime registered for the years 1930–31 and 1931–32 was arrested in 1932–33 and 1933–34, and short time recorded in 1933–34 is more than 1,650,000 hours below the figure for 1931–32. As between industries, it is interesting to note that the meat freezing and preserving industry (with 388T04 hours) accounted for 34 per cent, of the total overtime worked by male wage-earners in 1933–34. The same industry recorded the greatest amount of short time (628,748 hours), while 600,804 hours and 332,466 hours were accounted for in the sawmilling industry and the clothing industry respectively.

The following table gives for overtime and short time the average number of hours per employee affected per week, and the average number of hours during the year for all employees whether or not working overtime or short time.

Year.Overtime.Short Time.
Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Overtime during Year for all Employees, whether working Overtime or not.Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Short Time during Year for all Employees, whether working Short Time or not.
 M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
1924–256.86.025.113.012.614.313.313.8
1925–266.15.427.712.512.817.613111.5
1926–275.85.026.014.012.519.917.912.8
1927–286.56.227.214.211.716.726.911.7
1928–295.95.328.115.6ll.916.619.311.3
1929–305.55.728.316.412.515.115.913.0
1930–315.45.225.09.213.615.256.256.5
1931–325.87.122.113.415.014.889.692.1
1932–335.66.924.624.313.914.269.469.5
1933–345.96.324.524.013.713.156.149.2

DETAILS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.

The principal statistics regarding the leading factory industries for the last three years are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual “Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.”

STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Meat Freezing and Preserving. 
Number of—Works 353635
Persons engaged 6,0406,3657,653
Salaries and wages paid£1,553,4671,549,3611,511,669
Cost of all materials used£8,466,6349,119,43510,889,530
Other expenses£701,252765,956823,359
Frozen sheep—    
CarcassesNo.2,802,8182,660,5851,995,435
Value£1,574,7981,486,7411,461,056
Frozen lambs—    
CarcassesNo.8,395,6619,235,6088,582,957
Value£5,775,7086,163,2417,095,262
Frozen mutton and lamb pieces—    
QuantityCwt.19,53620,02612,024
Value£24,62723,41817,459
Frozen beef—    
QuantityCwt.545,957782,082981,757
Value£546,252846,842924,758
Frozen rabbits—Value£25,33423,80731,663

STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIEScontinued

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.

* Including milk used (54,568,052 lb. in 1933–34) in making dried whole milk and condensed milk.

† Including butterfat (2,257,680 lb. in 1933–34) contained in milk used for making dried whole milk and condensed milk.

 Meat Freezing and Preserving—continued. 
Preserved meats—    
QuantityCwt.34,23351,53146,324
Value£103,100137,309127,658
Tallow—    
QuantityCwt.391,818446,356425,540
Value£336,374399,954345,744
Bonedust—    
QuantityCwt.119,56965,00985,356
Value£39,19322,12625,468
Other manures—    
QuantityCwt.406,809646,494669,351
Value£121,419167,734168,443
Hides and pelts—    
Quantity 12,233,68812,803,56311,317,533
Value£660,870783,5131,087,645
Wool—    
Quantitylb.34,670,98832,784,93928,664,526
Value£844,110726,8271,016,609
Total value of output£10,974,95211,881,47414,034,747
 Ham and Bacon curing  
Number of—    
Works 394039
Persons engaged 384398427
Salaries and wages paid£87,08887,67591,000
Pigs dealt with—    
Number 184,739188,456209,954
Cost£458,796392,674499,903
Cost of other materials used£35,52734,19630,402
Other expenses£149,308142,188117,090
Ham and bacon—QuantityCwt.151,233144,575147,130
Lard—QuantityCwt.8,6898,6548,400
Total value of output£761,121702,442755,716
 Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories. 
Number of—    
Factories 480478482
Persons engaged 3,9914,1374,346
Salaries and wages paid£830,179838,361837,991
Number of separators—    
At home 52,18258,24760,131
At factories 456487507
Butterfat separated—    
At homelb.217,100,103259,565,402277,245,222
At butter-factorieslb.6,871,2847,334,38016,121,240
Milk received by cheeselb.2,110,030,8252,244,198,4242,284,944,727
factories*    
Butterfat receivedlb.82,022,02794,696,89497,130,864
Value of materials used£14,891,50614,337,53415,749,984
Other expenses£1,274,8301,290,9891,200,919
Butter produced (including whey butter)—    
QuantityCwt.2,479,1762,974,7823,238,038
Value£11,940,19811,533,70812,679,430
Cheese produced—    
QuantityCwt.1,781,7822,071,1812,135,509
Value£4,723,7794,482,6414,486,510
Total value of output£17,256,93216,612,98117,911,129

STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIEScontinued.

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
* Including beer duty.
 Grain-mills.  
Number of—    
Mills 494853
Persons engaged 682695747
Salaries and wages paid£157,355157,407167,475
Wheat used—QuantityBushels6,245,7706,140,2296,305.,15
Total grain—Cost£1,953,2681,703,8831,675,167
Cost of other materials£125,090114,252121,184
Other expenses£314,433290,888306,097
Flour producedTons129,602130,721133,624
Oatmeal producedTons4,5804,4424,588
Other oaten products forTons3,7373,0584,055
human consumption    
Total value of output£2,716,6732,384,3922,411,257
 Biscuit and Confectionery Making.Number of— 
Works 575857
Persons engaged 2,5232,5122,738
Salaries and wages paid£315,664313,210312,012
Flour usedTons4,1753,8783,924
Sugar usedTons5,5866,0966,416
Cost of other materials£440,102401,992481,313
Other expenses£308,694287,200312,327
Biscuits and confectionery£1,243,9181,174,6291,329,568
made    
Total value of products£1,327,0131,246,7331,379,760
 Fruit-preserving and Jam-making.  
Number of    
Works 11119
Persons engaged 441388347
Salaries and wages paid£59,07455,30248,830
Fruit usedTons3,8633,3173,915
Cost of—    
Fruit used£72,32459,44653,590
Sugar and other materials£112,256106,6138O,236
Other expenses£28,16128,93230,352
Jams and jellies made—    
QuantityCwt.51,65041,93434,197
Value£158,507126,815105,732
Fruit bottled or canned£40,57254,35052,150
Other products—Value£106,72996,70199,381
Total value of output£305,808277,866257,263
 Breweries and Malt-houses.  
Number of—    
Establishments 505050
Persons engaged 870810807
Salaries and wages paid£228,813208,756193,782
Barley used in production ofBushels450,673434,856427,534
malt    
Hops usedCwt.3,8963,4543,576
Sugar usedCwt.20,21518,34518,706
Total cost of materials used£330,105300,629289,095
Other expenses*£977,397931,985960,086
Ale brewedGallons8,977,0278,120,8408,141,000
Stout brewedGallons789,484683,713857,537
Value of output*£1,691,6971,557,5571,571,352

STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIEScontinued.

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Aerated-water and Cordial Factories. 
Number of—    
Works 123123123
Persons engaged 518541507
Salaries and wages paid£101,373100,96493,981
Total cost of materials used£65,21971,31270,225
Other expenses£67,36271,33966,068
Aerated waters—In bottlesDozen1,385,5391,378,6301,336,130
Aerated waters—In bulkGallons114,984109,95097,858
Cordials—In bottlesDozen38,78139,46437,176
Hop-beer—In bottlesDozen95,25956,38047,937
Hop-beer—In bulkGallons72,80363,42835,115
Total value of manufactures£256,189260,063249,789
 Sauce Pickle, and Vinegar Making. 
Number of—    
Works 202019
Persons engaged 224219237
Salaries and wages paid£39,38638,08639,940
Cost of materials used£75,07974,75773,894
Other expenses of manufacture£33,27934,01832,888
Total value of manufactures£187,334177,861176,561
 Soap and candle works. 
Number of—    
Works 212324
Persons engaged 422470468
Salaries and wages paid£86,61186,57085,207
Cost of materials used£185,150216,136210,664
Other expenses£67,01162,97654,461
Soap manufacturedTons6,8087,6337,350
Soap-powder (including washing-powder)lb.2,686,3232,989,0033,181,268
Candles manufacturedlb.2,295,8622,424,9482,380,989
Total value of products£444,270467,393468,983
 Clothing Factories.  
Number of works 244254249
Number of persons engaged—    
 Males 1,2031,2781,346
 Females 5,9526,3386,531
Salaries and wages paid—    
 To males£265,124268,909275,671
 To females£519,544538,297556,200
Cost of materials used£1,044,1911,212,4461,366,878
Other expenses£241,608272,178275,501
Output—    
SuitsNo.114,445152,252172,050
ShirtsDozen74,90797,195104,597
Hats and capsDozen21,07024,39426,583
Total value of products£2,153,4672,400,5992,631,182
 Hosiery-factories.  
Number of—    
Works 263232
Persons engaged 714757913
Salaries and wages paid£86,30590,33295,763
Cost of materials used£171,535189,013204,022
Other expenses£57,32351,51561,580
Total value of manufactures£347,423365,327386,746

STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIEScontinued.

1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Boot and Shoe Factories.  
Number of works 697071
Number of persons engaged—    
 Males 1,3241,3581,439
 Females 859919990
Salaries and wages paid—    
 To males£257,106253,436254,419
 To females£78,30978,62581,972
Cost of materials used —    
 New Zealand leather£253,906259,162280,951
 Imported leather£125,647118,333126,065
 Other materials£110,293115,819134,041
 Total£489,846493,314541,057
Other expenses£115,155115,685119,988
Manufactures—    
 Adults' boots and shoesPairs1,256,0431,445,2761,440,010
 Children's boots and shoesPairs93,15387,755153,261
SlippersPairs306,128434,172689,251
UppersPairs1,4779941,373
Total value of manufactures£1,010,5601,029,0111,064,544
 Flax-mills.  
Number of—    
 Mills 172023
 Persons engaged 135213258
Salaries and wages paid£13,19827,34935,456
Raw material used—    
 QuantityTons16,71020,56441,196
 Cost£9,44215,97515,629
Other expenses£11,74718,75318,643
Fibre dressedTons2,0463,9164,770
Tow producedTons313738652
Total value of output£33,87854,65874,291
 Sawmills.  
Number of—    
 Mills 345355422
 Persons engaged 4,5914,7875,323
Salaries and wages paid£820,163796,965859,472
Cost of materials used£704,501659,784747,256
Other expenses£635,381621,760670,000
Sawn timber—    
 QuantityFt.154,192,510166,269,410197,654,900
 Value£1,171,5051,144,6721,357,880
Posts, rails, &c.—Value£5,8055,4797,407
Resawing, planed flooring, skirting, &c.—    
 QuantityFt.81,669,47136,430,18738,237,308
 Value£538,054481,816528,854
Doors and sashes—Value£80,47162,26565,381
Other products£275,627343,550392,551
Total value of output£2,071,4622,037,7822,352,073
 Gasworks.  
Number of—    
Works 464646
Persons engaged 1,7841,787;1,758
Salaries and wages paid£400,018394,650384,202
Coal used —    
 Quantity.Tons220,101207,329203,669
 Cost£432,649393,951378,698
1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Gasworks—continued.  
Other expenses£435,698413,276397,611
Total gas generated1,000 cub. ft.4,083,2833,961,6513,832,264
Gas sold1,000 cub. ft.3,438,4293,338,4343,281,828
Coke soldTons65,32465,00064,181
Tar soldGallons2,344,1391,996,0751,994,713
Total receipts£1,475,2771,408,7121,377,281
Total expenditure£1,268,3651,201,8771,160,511
 Electric Current (see also Section XLII). 
Number of    
 Works 10010099
 Persons engaged 3,7103,2393,251
Salaries and wages paid£873,778726,323730,483
Horse-power availableH.p.325,400431,905429,020
Fuel used—    
 CoalTons185,49724,9147,805
 Motor-spiritGallons1,073....
 Crude oilTons2,3314,2341,043
Units generated or purchased 1,242,969,0151,434,329,7261,488,520,509
Revenue£4,362,4674,541,5354,485,283
Expenditure£4,383,3004,532,0514,342,365
Units retailed 614,525,266635,260,201667,289,250
 Lime and Cement Works 
Number of—    
Works 434545
Persons engaged 794688631
Salaries and wages paid£164,665134,842130,675
Cost of materials used£127,028101,937112,300
Other expenses£221,352179,361213,114
Total value of output£601,849483,849556,425
 Brick, Tile, and Pottery Works. 
Number of—    
 Works 504443
Persons engaged 563405467
Salaries and wages paid£102,69474,16782,664
Cost of materials used£19,38712,23714,279
Other expenses£137,03486,28081,678
Bricks manufactured—    
 CommonNo.10,955,3557,704,89411,193,556
 FireNo.527,677506,920461,616
Total value of all bricks£62,08547,42963,465
manufactured    
Value of pottery manufactured£154,52596,267117,880
Total value of manufactures£253,356180,785212,263
 Tinware and Sheet-metal Works. 
Number of    
 Works 124125125
 Persons engaged 1,2291,2621,282
Salaries and wages paid£206,150200,000197,655
Cost of materials used£280,204294,702344,350
Other expenses£89,37090,18188,973
Total value of manufactures£597,074628,294675,104
1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Iron and Brass Foundries. 
Number of—    
 Works 474744
 Persons engaged 595529545
Salaries and wages paid£114,24194,69998,835
Cost of materials used£60,73255,88265,639
Other expenses£48,55143,53439,192
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£206,446189,060214,780
 Engineering-works.  
Number of—    
 Works 198188181
 Persons engaged 2,6912,3292,283
Salaries and wages paid£513,554414,409398,721
Cost of materials used£413,728351,411402,005
Other expenses£257,290219,316214,646
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£1,161,974974,4901,054,643
 Printing and Publishing Establishments. 
Number of works 355362366
Persons engaged—    
 MalesNo.6,1786,0596,246
FemalesNo.1,4321,3941,498
Salaries and wages paid—    
 To males£1,410,3291,300,4961,292,641
 To females£163,341147,239151,491
Cost of materials used£980,520933,163930,659
Other expenses£965,827905,023911,215
Total value of output£3,772,3233,473,9873,525,188
 Agricultural and Dairying Machinery and Implement Maki
Number of—    
 Works 323737
 Persons engaged 505542532
Salaries and wages paid£97,76197,09495,301
Cost of all materials used£132,784158,001159,017
Other expenses£53,44751,60350,514
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£280,751329,476338,049
 Coachbuilding and Motor and Cycle Engineering. 
Number of—    
 Works 1,0491,0421,024
 Persons engaged 5,0904,5604,491
Salaries and wages paid£895,789731,296693,082
Cost of materials used—    
 Coach building£143,686110,405123,001
 Motor engineering£574,127682,887723,261
Other expenses£319,677325,737304,882
Value of work done—    
 Coach building£469,008411,680466,220
Motor engineering£1,547,6751,483,5731,497,277
 Tanning, Fellmongering, and Wool-scouring. 
Number of—    
 Works 454747
 Persons engaged 683809880
Salaries and wages paid£144,123157,468162,592
Cost of materials used£529,188632,0921,109,123
Materials operated upon—    
 Sheep-skinsNo.807,8531,263,473774,762
 Greasy woollb.14,613,36119,994,48122,616,996
Hides, pelts, &c.No.780,345879,946517,853
Bark usedTons1,7981,7941,791
1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Tanning, Fellmongering and Wool-scouring —continued. 
Other expenses£93,95091,21296,878
Output—    
 Scoured and sliped woollb.11,380,41215,229,19317,210,044
 PeltsNo.162,67341,006727,056
 Leatherlb.4,805,5994,867,6375,478,303
 Basilslb.104,721367,381214,754
 Pickled peltsNo.960,1821,127,615359,494
Total value of output£795,621946,8881,493,315
 Ship and Boat Building.  
Number of—    
 Establishments 292724
 Persons engaged 598460407
Salaries and wages paid£113,25393,48183,800
Cost of materials used£58,21148,15436,713
Other expenses£26,15720,87917,026
Number of vessels built 36124
Total value of manufactures and repairs£208,950198,045166,811
 Furniture-making Works.  
Number of—    
 Factories 308299281
 Persons engaged 1,7791,5841,576
Salaries and wages paid£285,649236,860233,300
Cost of materials used£309,068262,039269,244
Other expenses£93,78581,79073,385
Total value of manufactures£726,795611,019616,365
 Woollen-mills.  
Number of—    
 Mills 101012
 Persona engaged 2,2162,3492,466
Salaries and wages paid£300,399316,352326,156
Scoured wool used—    
 Quantitylb.3,314,6923,900,5474,037,338
Cost£194,935241,422294,105
Cost of other materials used£66,12682,18881,568
Other expenses£153,142154,015171,425
Output—    
 Tweed and clothYarn1,012,4921,276,1441,347,793
FlannelYards774,597865,726871,302
 BlanketsPairs116,714110,668116,301
 Rugs and shawlsNo.47,97939,20146,236
 Yarnlb.544,669829,470809,884
 Total value£802,105888,546976,813

Chapter 22. SECTION XXII.—BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN 1925 the annual collection of returns covering the operations of builders and contractors, on the same lines as the returns of factory production, was instituted. The basis of the annual inquiry is the list of builders and contractors subscribing to the Carpenters and Joiners' award as members of the New Zealand Federated Builders and Contractors' Industrial Association of Employers, together with such other builders and contractors as can be traced through various sources.

The regulations empowering the collection of the statistics define the term “building and contracting establishment” as including establishments engaged in the construction or repair of buildings, wharves, jetties, bridges, or other construction work which employ two or more hands, inclusive of working proprietors, and the period to be covered as the twelve months ended the 31st March each year.

The statistics of building and construction do not include the construction of railways, roads, streets, bridges, wharves, buildings, &c, erected by the Public Works Department or local authorities, except in the case of bridges, wharves, and buildings where the work has been carried out by contract. Particulars are included in respect of local authorities which carry on building contracts in their own name or have a special staff engaged on repairing and making alterations to existing structures.

From the nature of the industry, it is obviously impossible to collect returns from all who engage in building operations. Undoubtedly many who only intermittently undertake building contracts or whose operations are small do not furnish returns. Nevertheless, the statistics cover the great bulk of building operations throughout the Dominion, all builders and contractors engaged in a large way or on big contracts and the great majority of others regularly undertaking building and construction work being included among those from whom returns are received.

The value of building permits issued in boroughs, town districts, and certain suburban counties and road districts during the year ended 31st March, 1934, was £3,141,897 for new work and £747,993 for alterations and additions to existing premises, compared with work amounting to £1,870,029 and £683,690 respectively actually done throughout the Dominion by concerns furnishing returns. As stated above, returns of building operations are not received from all builders, and there are other factors affecting the comparability of the building returns with the permit figures. No permits are included for the great majority of counties; the permit totals are exclusive of such construction work as bridges, wharves, &c, which may (as above) be included in the building returns; and construction may be spread over one or more years following that in which the permit for the whole work is recorded. The last-mentioned factor is particularly noticeable in the permit figures for 1933–1934, which include three buildings of a total value of over £750,000.

The explanations given hereunder will be found of assistance in interpreting the terms used in connection with the statistics:—

“Average number of persons engaged”: This represents the sum of the persons engaged each month during the year covered, divided by twelve.

“Cost of materials used”: This covers materials supplied by the builders as well as payments to subcontractors.

“Other expenses of operation”: This heading comprises expenditure on fuel and power, insurance, depreciation, and other items not coming under the headings of salaries and wages or cost of materials.

“Value of work clone”: This represents the total contract price of the work actually commenced and finished during the year. Where contracts were not commenced and finished within the period covered, the value of the work done was assessed as being a proportion of the total contract price equal to the proportion which the total expenditure during the period bears to the total estimated expenditure on the contract.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The number of persons engaged (including working proprietors but excluding subcontractors) and the salaries and wages paid to these during the year ended 31st March, 1934, are given hereunder:—

 Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.
Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.
    £££
Proprietors896..896135,281..135,281
Managers and overseers137..13740,272..40,272
Accountants, clerks, &c.725913110,9485,33416,282
Wage-earners3,295..3,295520,564..520,564
Totals4,400594,459707,0655,334712,399

The decline in the building trade consequent upon the economic depression is exemplified in the following summary table:—

 Persons engaged.  
Year ended 31st March,Proprietors.Managers and Overseers.Accountants, Clerks, &c.Wage-earners.Total.Salaries and Wages paid.Average paid as Salary or Wage (Males).
      ££
19261,1572342058,3469,9422,429,831245
19271,0492562369,20410,7452,532,900237
19281,1462682418,84510,5002,417,669231
19291,5652542879,59711,7032,736,588235
19301,4442162869,36611,3122,665,458237
19311,2812452457,7349,5052,096,420222
19329231501453,6514,869920,010190
19339001311312,7603,922662,036170
19348961371313,2954,459712,399161

MATERIALS USED AND WORK DONE.

In the table following, the cost of materials includes payments to sub-contractors. The year 1933–34, as compared with 1932–33, shows an increase of £260,875, or 18 per cent., in the cost of materials used. In total value of work done the increase is £326,231. or 15 per cent. of the 1932–33 figure.

Jobbing and repair work in 1933–34 accounted for 27 per cent. of the total value of work done.

  Value of Work done.
Year ended 3lst March,Cost of Materials.Buildings.Bridges, Wharves.Other Construction.Jobbing and Repairs.Total.
 ££££££
19264,957,1076,577,676126,914240,7961,207,9978,153,383
19275,132,8286,269,513294,1001,088,1831,062,9478,714,743
19284,968,1916,204,96686,9651,009,5111,117,0218,418,463
19296,224,8267,666,096201,534344,2631,492,1699,704,062
19306,010,1137,294,729197,790280,8231,634,5399,407,881
19314,600,0595,230,024233,589289,4911,463,5237,216,627
19321,955,1381,873,87792,623161,816945,1023,073,418
19331,446,8571,445,62866,31936,735673,8062,227,488
19341,707,7321,730,67576,68662,668683,6902,553,719

BUILDINGS COMPLETED.

The following summary shows a classification of the buildings completed during the last four years.

Number—1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Private dwellings2,5901,0689821,446
Blocks of flats308529
Business premises457274216187
Other1,058528436492
Totals4,1351,8781,6392,154
Value—££££
Private dwellings2,196,857796,703590,096869,714
Blocks of flats126,32811,4224,42730,952
Business premises1,866,388572,855525,155394,148
Other1,332,449434,690287,412260,749
Totals£5,522,022£1,815,670£1,407,090£1,555,563

BUILDING-COSTS.

The following table shows, for the last two years, the number of private dwellings (excluding blocks of flats) completed, together with the total cost and cost per room:—

 Number of Dwellings.Value.Value per Room.
Number of Rooms.1932–33.1933–34.1932–33.1933–34.1932–33.1933–34.
   ££££
One54394,5853,2008582
Two56538,6388,2147777
Three898824,17424,8339194
Four287447131,458196,527115110
Five327544216,911348,833133128
Six10319198,703163,794160143
Seven274833,42456,937177169
Eight201926,71427,418167180
Nine9717,3039,773214155
Ten6415,7597,572263189
Over ten4612,42722,613....
Totals9821,446590,096869,714....

No special definition of the term “room” is made on the forms, and the customary interpretation must therefore be placed upon it. Under this, bathrooms, pantries, and kitchenettes are not counted as rooms. The four- and five-roomed dwellings erected during 1933–34 totalled 991, or 69 per cent. of the aggregate.

CLASSIFICATION BY DISTRICTS.

The subjoined table shows the principal statistics for the year 1933–34:—

Provincial District.Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials (including Payments to Subcontractors).Value of Buildings completed during Year.Total Value of Work done.
   ££££
Auckland2221,121173,332461,592412,323068,508
Hawke's Bay5033757,270136,192150,045209,977
Taranaki4321430,66171,01077,699105,956
Wellington165919157,502381,740310,954570,295
Marlborough12446,27516,53613,69525,418
Nelson2616125,65154,60453,84585,040
Westland5486,3458,1428,78615,863
Canterbury140935152,041298,974298,345469,613
Otago11348875,850178,769143,399268,901
Southland5319227,472100,17386,472134,148
Totals8294,459712,3991,707,7321,555,5632,553,719

Of the total number of persons finding employment in the building industry (4,459), no fewer than 2,040, or 46 per cent., are located in the Auckland and Wellington Provincial Districts. As between Auckland and Wellington, Auckland leads in the volume of building done.

BUILDING PERMITS.

Statistics of building permits have been collected annually from 1921–22 for all boroughs and town districts. In 1926–27 certain road districts in Eden County (suburban to Auckland) were added, and in 1928–29 two counties (increased to four in 1929–30), adjacent to Wellington and Christchurch, were also incorporated in the collection.

Year.Number of New Private Dwellings.Value of New Buildings, all Classes.Value of Alterations and Additions.Total Value of all Building Operations.
  £££
1925–266,8508,613,5491,555,98110,169,530
1926–277,1799,357,9771,661,41211,019,389
1927–285,6908,127,7321,537,4849,665,216
1928–295,2127,326,4641,727,9579,054,421
1929–305,7477,917,3492,042,5289,959,877
1930–313,4634,240,2381,233,1575,473,395
1931–321,5551,936,447792,0392,728,486
1932–331,4961,874,795600,0712,474,866
1933–342,6493,141,897747,9933,889,890
1934–352,8922,742,495901,1933,643,688

In 90 per cent. of the total instances in 1934–35 (including most of the larger towns) the basis of value was the contract price; in other instances official valuations, estimates, &c, were returned.

Building activities for the year 1934–35 show a decrease of approximately £246,000 (equivalent to 6 per cent.) on the 1933–34 figures.

A more detailed summary for the last three years follows:—

BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED.

Private dwellings,—   
New buildings—1032–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Number1,4962,6492,892
Value£860,593£1,597,035£1,997,482
Value of alterations and additions£298,925£304,004£327,455
Business premises,—   
New buildings—   
Number348345370
Value£620,833£1,120,161£546,813
Value of alterations and additions£236,136£359,750£461,556
Total, including other buildings,—   
New buildings—   
Number1,9603,1353,417
Value£1,874,795£3,141,897£2,742,495
Value of alterations and additions£600,071£747,993£901,193

Of the £1,997,482.covered by permits for new dwellings in 1934–35, £1,462,865 represented wooden residences and £534,617 houses in other materials. Blocks of flats, which numbered 4 in 1932–33, 6 in 1933–34, and 34 in 1934–35, are included with private dwellings.

Building operations in respect of new private dwellings show an increase of 243 (value, £400,447), as compared with the previous year. New business premises show an increase on the previous year of 25 in number, but a decrease of £573,348 in value. The inclusion of two unusually large buildings accounts for over £600,000 of the 1933–34 total for new business premises. Compared with the peak year, 1926–27, the total value of all building operations in 1934–35 showed a decline of £7,375,701. It is probable that the 1926–27 level was the highest in the history of the country.

The following table arranges districts with minimum building values of £50,000 in descending order.

 £
Wellington City445,341
Auckland City414,308
Christchurch City320,423
Dunedin City257,857
Invercargill City140,141
Hastings Borough114,419
Palmerston North City88,704
 £
Timaru Borough86,116
Hamilton Borough83,301
Lower Hutt Borough81,818
New Plymouth Borough77,131
Napier Borough66,077
Masterton Borough57,236
Nelson City55,559

MONTHLY PERMIT STATISTICS.

In addition to the more comprehensive annual returns of building permits obtained from all boroughs and town districts, monthly returns are also collected from twenty-one principal towns, with their suburban boroughs and town districts, and certain adjacent counties and road districts. These monthly returns, while not giving a complete record for all towns in the Dominion, nevertheless cover a population of nearly 800,000, and afford a good index of the movement in building activity.

BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER TOWNS.

Month.Alterations to Existing Buildings.New Buildings.Total Permits.
Number.Value.Dwellings only.Totals.Number.Value.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
1934. £ £ £ £
January38137,029188131,899217226,800598263,829
February40059,434162107,764187345,699587405,133
March47692,52813681,917177520,769653613,297
April43041,50210768,118135105,320565146,822
May59380,12411387,048139192,211732272,335
June50952,7299767,72012598,309634151,038
July47183,5147949,63712587,239596170,753
August60872,284149107,673183139,815791212,099
September46558,252247182,910280238,979745297,231
October56186,224303218,662354306,109915392,333
November50652,627246220,342284274,770790327,397
December38361,441179119,681207212,585590274,026
1935        
January39540,916233178,608254216,275649257,191
February46070,255195164,963240189,124700259,379
March60381,282225165,428276250,794879332,076
April63575,212204135,895239461,960874537,172
May62178,763239186,227279267,404900346,167
June50084,769213150,253241197,294741282,063
July63095,402226101,143268295,982898391,384
August579109,057294228,185341282,448920391,505
September587121,449312244,380344294,555931416,004

Chapter 23. SECTION XXIII.—PUBLIC FINANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1926, which consolidated and amended the then existing enactments on the subject. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post and Telegraph Department, the Government Insurance Department, the Public Trust Office, the Native Trust Office, the State Advances Office, the State Fire and Accident Insurance Office, the various Public Service Superannuation Funds, and the National Provident Fund, are paid into one account at the bank called the “Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following funds or accounts in the books of the Treasury: The Consolidated Fund, the Public Works Fund, separate accounts or funds specially created. The Public Account, formerly held at the Bank of New Zealand, was taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand from 1st August, 1934.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The revenue of any financial year is the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year, together with that received into the Public Account at London, of which advice is received in time for inclusion in the accounts for the year. The expenditure is the money paid (a) at the Treasury within the year, (b) by imprestees of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year, and (c) at London of which advice is received in time for inclusion.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Act of that year lapses, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The normal practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year and to vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed. Where a later session of Parliament is foreseen, as has happened in both 1933–34 and 1935–36, a temporary amendment to the provisions set out in the preceding paragraph is made.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.

In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees, temporary officers, and officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; unauthorized expenditure; transfers between Government accounts; or expenditure chargeable against the accounts of local bodies. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

GROSS TRANSACTIONS OF ACCOUNTS.

Recent years have witnessed the cutting out of many small accounts and their merging with other accounts or funds. Accounts and funds which were included in the Public Account during 1934–35 are listed in the table on the next page, which shows for each the year's transactions and the balance at the beginning and end of the year. For reasons that will be apparent later, the figures of gross transactions afford no indication of actual receipts and payments.

The State Advances Account covering State advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities, together with several minor accounts dealing with advances for various purposes, which are administered directly by the State Advances organization, are not included; nor are the other funds mentioned in the first paragraph on the preceding page. Particulars concerning these funds and the working of the Departments concerned will be found elsewhere in this hook.

Account.Balance, 1st April, 1934.Receipts.*Credits.Payments.*Balance, 31st March, 1935.
* Excluding credits.
Consolidated Fund—£££££
Ordinary Revenue16,027,720122,500,6449,743,652138,323,529204,835
Local Bodies21,33149,125..53,67416,782
Deposits789,9273,666,320..3,114,1841,342,063
Public Works Fund—     
General Purposes825,9601,910,481914,8191,543,1101,193,331
Electric Supply416,2601,087,29834,4511,171,100332,458
Electric Supply Sinking Fund107,87141,833..148,0351,669
Bank of New Zealand Shares1,859,375164,062..164,0621,859,375
Discharged Soldiers Settlement427,9691,437,217..1,271,038594,148
Land for Settlements72,570835,64939,821638,238269,981
Loans Redemption414,50126,114,539..26,052,640476,400
Loans Redemption—..12,675..12,675..
Part II, Conversion     
Main Highways—     
Constriction Fund68,507431,52454,832317,895182,136
Revenue Fund181,9071,478,15288,1891,626,49133,568
Public Debt Repayment47,9631,578,667..1,623,1613,469
Remittances from London..21,208,136..21,208,136..
Remittances to London..1,000,000..1,000,000..
Reserve Fund406,69228,3478195,811339,228
Silver and Bronze Coin22,714573,700..37,988558,426
States Advances Loan17119,641..19,641171
State Coal-mines66,102191,5691,143186,59871,073
State Coal-mines Sinking Fund8,4238,568..8,4008,591
State Forests25,792133,4393,501117,37941,852
Unemployment Fund621,5174,623,56132,6693,912,1321,332,946
Working Railways1,731,5606,418,834319,8816,310,2201,840,174
Totals24,144,832195,513,98111,233,039208,956,13710,702,676

NET RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

In ascertaining the aggregate net receipts and payments of a financial year it is always necessary to deduct substantial amounts from the figures of gross receipts and payments. Special factors operating during the last two years swelled the gross transactions to a figure ten times greater than the net receipts and payments in 1933–34 and five times greater in 1934–35.

Many of the accounts have their receipts and payments increased through the transfer of moneys from one account to another. Some of these transfers rank as credits, and are not included as receipts or payments in the table under the previous heading. The principal transfers between accounts which are treated as credits in reduction of expenditure are recoupments to the Consolidated Fund in respect of interest paid by that fund on loan-money.

There are, however, substantial transfers between accounts (or between items of an account) which rank as receipts of the receiving account. These are not always disclosed in the published statements, but an approximate total can be arrived at. This is found to have been in the neighbourhood of £5,600,000 for the year 1934–35. The principal item was the transfer of £1,578,293 from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Debt Repayment Account in accordance with the scheme of debt-reduction. Next in importance among transfers from the Consolidated Fund was the payment of £1,455,143 motor-vehicles-taxation revenue to the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account.

On the other hand, the Consolidated Fund received a good deal of revenue from other accounts, the principal items being £1,088,050 from the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability, £164,062 by way of dividends first paid into the Bank of New Zealand Shares Account, and £200,000 from the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account as interest on surplus moneys transferred from the Consolidated Fund some years ago and now forming part of the Public Debt Redemption Fund. Payments aggregating £136,876 were made from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account to other accounts or funds, and £92,343 was paid from the Land for Settlements Account to other accounts.

Most payments from one item of the Consolidated Fund to another rank as credits, but there are two classes of exceptions—viz., interest payments on certain balances, and receipts of the Printing and Stationery Department from other Government Departments. The former totalled approximately £18,000 in 1934–35 and the latter £165,000. In addition, £61,000 of interest payments of the Consolidated Fund were paid into other accounts.

Although, as stated previously, pest and telegraph receipts and payments are not included in the Public Accounts, interest on capital liability, as well as profits of the Post and Telegraph Department, are now payable to the Consolidated Fund. As costs of other Departments for postages and for other services performed by the Post and Telegraph Department aggregated approximately £200,000 for the year, this latter amount represents in effect a transfer to the Consolidated Fund revenue from various votes of that fund or of other accounts.

The revenue of the Working Railways Account also includes a considerable amount received from Government Departments and paid out of the Consolidated Fund and other accounts. The amount under this head in 1934–35 was approximately £395,000, exclusive of payments from the Post Office Account.

Included in the gross receipts of the Consolidated Fund are Treasury bill issues and renewals to the huge aggregate of £82,710,550, while redemptions and renewals of Treasury bills swell the expenditure by £104,037,531. The receipts also include £8,614,000 transferred from the Indemnity Exchange Account in London, and the expenditure £3,136,190 in respect of the purchase of surplus exchange under the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 1932–33. The three first-mentioned items are definitely not true receipts or payments, while the exchange purchased was in the nature of a temporary investment, the surplus amount held at the conclusion of operations being taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. The transactions in connection with the purchase of surplus exchange were treated in the accounts as in suspense, and were not included in the net receipts and payments of the Ordinary Revenue Account of the Consolidated Fund.

A further deduction of £4,050,000 has also to be made from both receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund in respect of entries representing advances from the Post Office Savings-bank in substitution for advances previously obtained from trading banks by the hypothecation of securities.

Practically the whole of the receipts and payments of the Loans Redemption Account, proper are nominal only, consisting in the main of entries due to the renewal of loan-moneys. A deduction of £25,249,090 must be made on this account from receipts and of £25,249,890 from expenditure in 1934–35, and a further deduction of £754,475 from each side in respect of sinking funds paid into the account for the redemption of securities.

The Remittances from and to London Accounts merely cover the withdrawal of money in London or Wellington for remittance to or from New Zealand, and are in practically the same category as the Loans Redemption Account, the receipts and payments representing book entries only, and usually balancing. Receipts and payments of these two accounts in 1934–35 totalled £22,208,136.

Further deductions have still to be made from the gross totals before a figure approximately representing true Governmental revenue and expenditure (apart from State advances and other activities not included in the Public Account) can be arrived at. The accounts of local bodies merely record the receipt of moneys collected by the Government on behalf of local bodies and the payment of these to the local bodies concerned. The Deposits Account represents only lodgments and withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government moneys. The State Advances Loan Account covers the raising of moneys for advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities, and the transfer of these to the State Advances Office, whose operations are, as previously stated, outside the Public Account. The three accounts referred to had in 1934–35 an aggregate of £3,735,116 receipts and £3,187,529 payments.

Including small per contra items not already referred to (£55,340), the total deductions to be made from aggregate nominal receipts are approximately £153,000,000, and from payments £168,250,000, leaving net totals of £42,500,000 receipts and £40,700,000 payments for the year.

The gross and net figures of receipts and payments are as follows for each of the last five years :—

Year ended 31st March,Gross Transactions.*Credits.Net Transactions.
Receipts.Payments.Receipts.Payments.
Excluding credits. †£4.9 m. of this was from exchange on sale of surplus sterling assets.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
193188.689.67.642.343.2
193284.185.06.935.738.7
193387.888.66.234.734.9
1934396.2380.06.037.337.7
1935195.5209.011.2†42.540.7

The net totals would be still further reduced if only the net increase (£646,202 in 1934–35) in long-term debt were taken into account as a receipt, and both receipts and payments diminished by the amount of loan-money redeemed.

THE CONSOLIDATED FUND.

The Ordinary Revenue Account of the Consolidated Fund covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the General Government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, &c. Until recent years its operations afforded an excellent comparison of State revenue and expenditure from year to year, but changes in system during the last few years have largely destroyed the comparability of the figures. The principal of these changes are as follows :—

  1. The removal of railway revenue and expenditure from the Consolidated Fund from 1st April, 1925. Consolidated Fund receipts now include an amount paid by the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability.

  2. Similar action in regard to post and telegraph revenue and expenditure from 1st April, 1928. In addition to interest on capital liability, the Consolidated Fund now (commencing 1931–32) receives Post and Telegraph Department profits.

  3. Payment of motor-vehicles taxation receipts into the Consolidated Fund since 5th December, 1927, the great bulk of the money being later transferred to the Main Highways Account, into which these receipts were previously paid direct. In 1932–33 £500,000, in 1933–34 £500,000, and in 1934–35 £321,754 of motor-vehicles taxation receipts were retained in the Consolidated Fund.

  4. The transfer of reserve moneys into the Consolidated Fund, £1,494,825 in 1931–32, £2,500,000 in 1932–33, and £2,000,000 in 1933–34, £2,250,000 of the 1932–33 amount and the whole of the 1933–34 total having been obtained by hypothecation of securities of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account.

  5. Exchange charges on overseas payments, in consequence of the depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of sterling.

  6. Profits of £1,364,118 in 1934–35 from the sale of coined gold, taken over under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act.

Fifty years’ figures of receipts and expenditure of the Consolidated Fund will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume. Figures for the last ten years are :—

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Surplus.
* Deficit.
 £££
192624,725,76223,570,0831,155,679
192724,943,10724,355,965587,142
192825,123,98024,944,905179,075
192923,599,67624,176,928−577,252*
193025,349,86125,200,882148,979
193123,068,93124,708,042−1,639,111*
193222,719,73324,860,552−2,140,819*
193322,568,52122,528,37940,142
193423,492,74924,202,027−709,278*
193526,126,09424,499,5951,626,499

REVENUE.

The revenue of the Consolidated Fund is now derived principally from taxation and from interest on the Public Debt Redemption Fund and other public moneys, with transfers from the Working Railways Account and from the Post and Telegraph Department in respect of interest on capital liability. An additional source— viz., profits of the Post and Telegraph Department—was added in 1931–32, certain reserve moneys were paid into the Consolidated Fund in 1931–32 and the two following years, and in 1934–35 the revenue benefited to the extent of £1,364,118 from profits on the sale of coined gold taken over by the Reserve Rank of New Zealand. Details of revenue during the last three years are given in the table following:—

 Year ended 31st March,
Source.1933.1034.1935.

* This excludes unemployment-taxation receipts, which are not paid into the Consolidated Fund. For details of taxation receipts see Subsection B.

† Payment on account.

 £££
Taxation*15,604,04117,057,60620,176,345
Registration and other fees197,380218,248228,563
Marine131,473133,110139,168
Interest on Public Debt Redemption Fund620,089629,496632,066
Interest on railway capital liability850,5441,085,0001,088,050
Interest on post and telegraph capital liability546,000553,000546,000
Interest on other public moneys625,077596,360664,130
Post and Telegraph Department profits456,000154,38813,000
Tourist and health resorts60,17965,70077,308
National-endowment revenue81,732134,249147,761
Other territorial revenue153,812245,163291,415
Departmental receipts450,953418,549467,215
From reserves2,500,0002,000,000..
Profits on sale of gold....1,364,118
Miscellaneous (including recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years)291,241201,880290,955
Totals22,568,52123,492,74926,126,094

EXPENDITURE

Expenditure under the main heads of permanent appropriations and each head of annual appropriations during the last three years was as follows (the figures are net—i.e., exclusive of credits) :—

 Year ended 31st March,
Head.1933.1934.1935.
Permanent appropriations—£££
Civil List22,18422,50423,100
Debt services—   
Interest8,498,6818,836,4678,023,812
Amortization1,308,4451,412,9591,596,478
Administration and management48,02861,045117,733
Payments on guaranteed loans34,80086,86142,605
For education purposes51,93853,22187,207
Transfers to Main Highways Account Revenue Fund1,059,9401,080,2301,455,143
Motor-spirits tax paid to borough councils98,591100,060110,748
Contribution towards Singapore Naval Base100,000100,000100,000
Exchange812,4511,797,1881,459,159
Other158,090199,619425,777
Totals, permanent appropriations12,193,20813,750,15413,441,762
Annual appropriations—   
Legislative86,78774,10788,273
Prime Minister's Department22,18123,99122,596
Treasury27,25931,08037,722
Customs78,23583,51187,627
Land and Income Tax62,39559,36764,604
Stamp Duties77,96577,40081,903
Audit19,76722,21826,738
Public Service Commissioner's Office4,2904,3494,377
Internal Affairs523,418320,414367,802
External Affairs83,09481,16095,353
Printing and Stationery122,566137,901155,015
Marine91,754103,488109,182
Labour42,82235,48439,961
Native56,74365,16361,583
Valuation29,99736,60838,953
Electoral5,9245,6425,148
Justice and Prisons251,786241,208239,240
Crown Law Office4,4504,7235,625
Police426,988427,341435,545
Naval Defence362,094397,384437,839
Defence207,827264,723465,232
Maintenance of public works and services52,37272,40391,845
Lands and Survey144,911151,658160,215
Agriculture555,614675,464539,247
Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and Publicity61,227118,235133,995
Scientific and Industrial Research51,76848,74953,127
Mines20,80319,54019,567
Transport17,19523,09627,469
Health708,449741,846779,216
Mental Hospitals240,047233,501252,442
Education2,620,2272,526,0782,595,661
Pensions3,139,2253,260,1093,439,879
National Provident and Friendly Societies89,26680,28577,538
Services not provided for45,7253,64417,314
Totals, annual appropriations10,335,17110,451,87311,057,833
Grand totals22,528,37924,202,02724,499,595

Expenditure from the Consolidated Fund is divided into two main groups, according to whether it is made under permanent or under annual appropriation. The latter heading covers the expenditure under the various departmental votes, while the former covers interest on and amortization of the public debt, exchange, disposal of special taxation for main highways, and expenditure under numerous special Acts. Several items which formerly ranked as permanent appropriations, including expenditure on pensions, superannuation, and Hospital Boards subsidies, are now (commencing 1932–33) the subject of annual appropriations.

The amounts shown under the head of “Education Department” do not represent the full payment on education services, expenditure under special Acts and from certain reserves revenue not being, included. A statement of public expenditure on education is given at the close of Section VT (Education) of this volume.

A system of Departmental balance-sheets and statements of accounts was inaugurated on commercial lines in 1920 to show the true cost of the various Departments and services, as distinct from payments out of appropriations on the basis referred to at the beginning of this subsection. These balance-sheets and statements of accounts are published annually in Parliamentary Paper B.-l [Part IV], to which the reader is referred for details of income, expenditure, &c, in respect of the various Departments and services. A State balance-sheet covering all Departments and services, with the exception of the Post Office Savings-bank, the Public Trust Office, and the Insurance Departments, is now included in the publication mentioned. (Vide also Section XXXIII—Wealth.)

PUBLIC WORKS.

For the prosecution of the policy of public works inaugurated in 1870 there was set up a Public Works Fund. For many years all expenditure on public works was borne by this fund, but in course of time separate subsidiary accounts were established to deal with certain special activities. These subsidiary accounts have in general either become merged in the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund or have ceased to exist on the completion of the work for which they were called into existence. The Electric Supply Account, with its separate Sinking Fund Account, is the only one now remaining.

The Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account, which was established in 1923–24 to provide finance for the construction, reconstruction, &c, of main highways, is analogous to the Public Works Fund, and its operations are included in the following brief conspectus of public works receipts and payments. Several other accounts formerly treated similarly have now been merged in the Public Works Fund.

RECEIPTS.

A summary of the receipts of the accounts covering the construction of Public works is given below for the last five years. The figures are exclusive of credits, and transfers between the accounts considered are omitted, as are also temporary transfers from other accounts.

Year ended 3lst March,Loan-money.Transfers from Other Accounts.Recoveries on account of Expenditure of Previous Years.Interest on Investments &c.Sales of Electrical Energy.Land Sales, Repayment of Advances, &c*Other and Unspecified.Total.
* Native land settlement and settlement of unemployed workers.
 ££££££££
19313,820,700153,73646,97533,469686,443..40,9099,782,232
19324,393,5502,83672,45615,628648,029..20,3175,152,816
19331,019,851100,00074,4238,917823,644..11,7012,038,536
19341,607,5053,44547,0927,278880,37410,23710,7842,566,775
19352,078,900..378,7127,297932,68023,99910,3083,431,896

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of the various accounts dealing with the construction of public works is summarized below for the last five years. As in the case of receipts, the figures are exclusive of credits and of transfers between the various accounts.

Year ended 31st March,Public Works.Maintenance and Working- expenses.*Charges and Expenses of raising or transferring Loan-money.Amortization of Debt.Interest.Management Charges of Consolidated Stock.Other Items (Noncapital).Total.
Where shown separately.
 ££££££££
19318,221,64685204,14423,783505,8402,2382,8308,960,566
19324,634,4752,754129,33317,163537,3042,3694555,323,853
19331,773,9597932,85537,876571,3692,6484392,419,225
19342,179,0508869920,539561,1702,7094392,764,694
19352,415,391911,20139,240574,3531,3874423,032,105

No distinction is now made in the Electric Supply Account between capital and maintenance expenditure out of vote. The item “Departmental” in the Public Works Fund covers both construction and maintenance, and other items also are probably affected.

The principal items of public-works expenditure included in the first column are as follows for the five years :—

Year ended 31st March,Railways.Roads.Telegraph Extension.Development of Water power.*Public Buildings.Lands and River improvement, Irrigation, &c.Lands Settlement.Departmental and other.

* Including maintenance. Native land settlement.

†Settlement of unemployed workers and (from 1933–34)

 ££££££££
19313,015,2922,233,430419,7561,187,797924,364233,526..207,481
1932952,3881,465,237249,9781,241,796454,803117,560..152,713
1933160,853538,44899,999589,06190,567107,003118,72269,306
1934132,111551,950144,160570,323149,392152,622351,594126,898
1935125,600689,465135,933555,519286,968188,352347,97785,577

In addition to expenditure on roads included in accounts taken as covering public works, there is the expenditure incurred in roading Crown lands and lands purchased for settlement, which is a charge on the Land for Settlements Account, and is included in the values upon which the rentals of the lands are based.

A more detailed statement of the net expenditure out of public works accounts during 1934–35 is now given :—

 £
Public works, departmental76,486
Railways125,600
Public buildings— 
  General30,801
  Courthouses533
  Education buildings51,506
  Prison buildings and works1,605 ?
  Police-stations2,754
  Postal and Telegraph100,484
  Mental-hospital buildings98,629
  Health and hospital institutions656
Lighthouses4,021
Harbour-works2,581
Development of tourist resorts12,880
Main highways317,892
Roads, &c.371,573
Telegraph extension135,933
Lands, miscellaneous82,092
Irrigation and water-supply91,241
Swamp-land drainage15,019
Settlement of unemployed workers222,309
Native land settlement125,668
Development of water-power555,519
Plant, material, and stores.Cr. 10,513
Services not provided for122
Subsidy to Ellesmere Lands Drainage Board439
Administration expenses in connection with Ellesmere lands91
Charges of raising loans891
Stamp duty310
Interest574,353
Managements charge of consolidated stock, &c.1,387
Amortization of debt39,240
Transfers to other accounts3
Total£3,032,105

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.

As stated, the figures given under the two preceding sub-headings include the operations of the Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account and, prior to 1932–33, these of various other accounts. The following figures relate only to these accounts which form part of the Public Works Fund—i.e., the General Purposes Account and subsidiary accounts.

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.£Payments.£
19317,350,0506,547,883
19325,179,8984,895,861
19331,958,3802,277,336
19342,363,7752,572,415
19353,000,3722,714,210

Similar figures, covering a period of fifty years, are contained in the Statistical Summary at the end of this publication.

GENERAL PURPOSES ACCOUNT.

The total net expenditure of the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund from its inception in 1870 to 31st March, 1935, has been £123,458,020, spread over the various classes of public works as follows :—

Class.£
Immigration3,313,421
Public works, departmental3,020,723
Railways56,459,021
Roads22,542,180
Land-purchases2,054,024
Settlement of unemployed workers513,140
Development of mining881,015
Telegraph extension11,560,538
Public buildings11,722,278
Lighthouses, harbour-works, and defences1,319,127
Contingent defence1,401,847
Rates on Native lands68,672
Thermal springs14,000
Development of tourist resorts703,473
Lands improvement891,133
Swamp-land drainage43,258
Plant, material, and stores118,967
Charges and expenses of raising loans3,828,307
Coal-mines10,835
Interest and sinking fund218,500
Irrigation and water-supply1,217,765
Motor-transport service33,635
Transfer to Main Highways Account Construction Fund1,226,000
Native land settlement295,501
Total£123,458,020

The total receipts of the General Purposes Account to 31st March, 1935, were £124,651,351, of which £108,939,453 represented the proceeds of loans, and £14,555,000 transfers from the Consolidated Fund. The largest item in the residue of £1,150,898 was an amount of £500,820 in respect of sinking funds set free, next in importance being receipts from stamp duties to 31st December, 1876 (£204,658). The balance of the account at 31st March, 1935, was £1,193,331.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS.

Thanks to the closing of several accounts and the merging of these in other accounts or funds, there now remain only two accounts dealing primarily with land-settlement—viz., the Land for Settlements Account and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account. The former has numerous and diverse activities in connection with land-settlement, while the latter is mainly concerned with the receipt of principal and interest in respect of advances to returned-soldier settlers and the making of fresh advances from repaid principal moneys.

The following summary of receipts and payments of land-settlement accounts includes in 1932–33 the operations of the Native Land Settlement Account, which was merged in the Public Works Fund in 1933–34.

The principal advances accounts, these relating to State advances to settlers and workers, are, as stated earlier in this subsection, outside the Public Account and are not included here.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS—RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

Receipts.1932–33.£1933–34.£1934–35.£
Repayments of advances633,230772,082860,471
Sales of land52,65071,999138,222
Rents317,018359,455443,270
Survey liens7,364....
Valuation fees396140120
Interest—   
  On advances465,374493,773558,631
  On sales of land22,82326,91122,844
  On survey liens584....
  On investments12,97511,43710,139
Loan-money441,000198,000160,635
Profit on redemption of investments....12
Transfers from other accounts19,789....
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years781,941625
Sale of live-stock, produce, &c.39,71945,26943,137
Suspense Account (net)..2,6561,070
Totals£2,013,000£1,983,663£2,239,176
Payments.£££

* Excluding Native lands.

† Not included under other headings.

 
Administration57,781*57,68484,111
Purchase of lands244*Cr.  128Cr.  5,460
Incidental expenses—roading, surveys, &c..1,497*1,3723,658
Purchase and improvement of Native lands261,066....
Development of unoccupied lands81,18291,09154,750
Payments to lessees for improvements..135..
Refunds of rent, &c. (deteriorated lands)1519..
Farm accounts5,6006,2206,965
Advances made390,347416,690500,195
Interest payments996,0881,014,1731,017,296
Management charges of consolidated stock1,015799399
Expenses of raising or transferring loan-money8,2334506,669
Principal refunded to Consolidated Fund..200,000200,000
Amortization of debt100....
Transfers to other accounts†258,84916,2107,821
“Halves,” “thirds,” and “fourths“ to Local Bodies' Deposits Accounts1,3678361
Suspense Account (net)1,836....
Totals£2,065,356£1,804,788£1,875,465

TRADING ACCOUNTS.

Several important trading operations of the Government (Public Trust, Post and Telegraph, fire, life, and accident insurance) are outside the orbit of the Public Account, while certain others are included in the Consolidated Fund; and the Electric Supply Account covers both construction and trading operations. Trading accounts other than these which might be so regarded but have already been dealt with under previous headings are now as follows:—

Working Railways Account.

State Coal-mines Account.

State Forests Account.

The revenue of these three accounts during the last three years was as follows :—

Item.Account.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
  £££
Railway revenueWorking Railways5,751,7505,986,2246,371,687
Contributions and subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit FundDitto8,0008,0008,000
Sale of coal and wood, rents, &c.State Coalmines216,038199,168187,971
Forests revenueState Forests44,53752,23571,982
Administration expenses recoveredState Forests662475914
Loan-moneyState Forests170,00075,00060,000
Transfers from other accountsState Forests1,120....
Interest receiptsVarious26,73840,00442,978
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous yearsVarious2,6141,059368
Totals..£6,221,459£6,362,165£6,743,900

Expenditure during the same three years was composed of the following amounts :—

 1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Out of appropriations—£££
   Working railways4,476,2204,471,4375,214,171
   State coal-mines187,053176,750173,583
   State forests113,294112,462113,059
Interest953,5991,091,8941,092,547
Management charges of consolidated stock797939
Charges and expenses of raising or transferring loans74149140
Amortization of debt8,21419,5788,510
Transfers to other accounts4,3183,8934,157
Subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit Fund8,0008,0008,000
Totals£5,750,851£5,884,242£6,614,197

UNEMPLOYMENT FUND.

The Unemployment Fund was set up in 1930–31 to handle receipts of taxation and other revenue for unemployment purposes and the disbursement of moneys for the relief of unemployment. Receipts and payments during the last three years have been as follows :—

Item.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 Receipts.  
 £££
Unemployment levy429,004428,550433,665
Emergency unemployment charge3,591,4323,998,3174,171,054
Repayment of loans3,2414,3406,242
Interest on loans8331,2101,287
Interest on investments, &c.2,6757,36510,754
Fines808356208
Miscellaneous6194229
Total4,027,9994,440,3324,623,439
 Payments.  
Administration100,043112,555139,000
Employment grants and subsidies3,594,0373,972,1863,436,461
Loans21,03320,92022,403
Sustenance payments12,96033,302239,983
Food, clothing, &c.58,667104,27874,285
Total3,788,5404,243,2413,912,132

MAIN HIGHWAYS ACCOUNT.—REVENUE FUND.

The Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account is concerned with the maintenance of main highways and the payment of subsidies to local authorities. Its revenue consists mainly of special taxation collected by the Consolidated Fund and paid over, less certain deductions. Receipts and payments of the Revenue Fund during the last three years have been :—

Item.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
* Including interest on loan-moneys raised for construction purposes.
 Receipts.  
 £££
Taxation1,059,9401,080,2301,455,143
Repayment of advances12,87312,85512,654
Interest9,5256,3858,130
Recoveries on account expenditure of previous years....1,955
Miscellaneous372160270
Total1,082,7101,099,6301,478,152
 Payments.  
Maintenance of highways*802,727803,9711,083,892
Subsidies to local authorities181,171157,847359,351
Advances to local authorities38,5193,13218,939
Transfers to Construction Fund100,000....
Commutation of Hutt Road fees23,55025,11225,168
Abolition of toll-gates1,6041,6621,793
Interest on transfers from Public Works Fund61,30061,30061,300
Loan charges..,11472
Amortization of debt67,80769,57975,576
Total1,276,6781,122,6141,626,491

The separate Revenue and Construction Funds of the Main Highways Account merge into one account as from 1st April, 1936, by the Finance Act (No. 2). 1935.

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.

TOTAL TAXATION.

ALL revenue collected by means of taxation was until the end of the financial year !–22 paid into the Consolidated Fund and applied to general purposes. From 1922–23 to the 5th December, 1927, however, certain items were paid into the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund to help to defray the cost of improving and maintaining roads. From the last-mentioned date all such moneys are paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first instance, and (with certain exceptions) transferred to the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund. The proceeds of the unemployment taxation introduced in 1930–31 are paid direct into the Unemployment Fund.

A summary of tax collections (total and per head) during the last ten years is given in the following table. From 1925–26 to 1927–28 the figures include amounts paid direct into the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account, while for 1930–31 and subsequent years gross collections of unemployment taxation are included.

Year ended 31st March,Total.Per Head
*? Excluding unemployment taxation, the total is £20,176,345, equal to £12 19s. 10d. per head.
 ££s.d.
192617,254,68812711
192717,437,8271256
192817,145,14511177
192917,832,0331243
193019,471,1311337
193118,878,28512121
193217,405,6221196
193319,703,70312179
193421,470,82713187
1935*24,737,93915187

The following table shows receipts under the various heads of taxation during the last five years :—

 Revenue for Year ended 31st March,
Head.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Customs revenue7,605,9765,904,3486,131,4146,485,0147,423,597
Beer-duty575,100641,080654,227655,464671,008
Motor-vehicles taxation1,840,5901,814,1861,680,6051,703,5271,910,452
Land-tax1,145,617542,128498,916498,978492,526
Income-tax4,003,6064,447,8143,556,7752,961,2433,796,477
Death duties1,809,7351,444,2981,511,6951,390,7422,205,394
Bank composition233,318260,206268,122279,244218,017
Stamp duty on interest....309,13278,77168
Duty on instruments326,121228,975192,179199,639238,093
Totalizator revenue529,143410,878302,371340,740371,985
Amusements-tax105,93674,76353,56448,71549,526
Other stamps taxation380,558378,288361,050372,780436,379
Unemployment taxation280,8291,217,4514,099,6624,413,2214,561,594
Film-hire tax41,75641,20730,10232,96044,491
Sales tax....38,2531,847,3332,170,503
Gold-export duty....15,636117,090102,617
Interest-tax......45,00044,979
Mileage-tax residue......366233
Totals18,878,28517,405,62219,703,70321,470,82724,737,939

The aggregate revenue from taxation in the year 1934–35 is the highest ever recorded in New Zealand, although the per caput rate was once exceeded (in 1920–21). The increase of £3,267,112 over the taxation returns of the preceding year are not in any way due to heavier rates of taxation or the imposition of new taxes; on the contrary, reductions in rates of tax have been effected in two important fields—viz., Customs and unemployment taxation.

In general, the improved receipts in 1934–35 are due to improved business conditions and heavier imports; also, owing to a few large estates, receipts from death duties were £814,652 in excess of 1933–34 figures. Customs revenue in 1934–35 was £938,583 above 1933–34 revenue, despite a number of reductions in tariffs arising out of the Ottawa Agreement. Unemployment taxation rose by £148,373, although the rate of tax was reduced by 2d. in the pound from the 1st October, 1934. Sales tax (a gain of £323,170) and income-tax (a gain of £835,234) reflect more prosperous conditions.

The amounts of £309,132 shown for 1932–33, £78,771 for 1933–34, and £68 for 1934–35 as stamp duty on interest represent the Government's proportion of the special duty imposed by Part IV of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, on interest received from Government and local-body securities domiciled in New Zealand. Though imposed in the form of a tax and its proceeds treated as such in the Public Account, this duty was, in effect, a temporary means towards reducing interest and expenditure, rather than a means to increase revenue. It has now been superseded by a debt-conversion plan, under which a similar effect will be achieved, but without the saving in expenditure ranking as taxation. Commencing with 1933–34, however, there is an interest-tax, which is payable on interest on “dissented” securities—i.e., those the holders of which declined to participate in the 1933 conversion scheme.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.

The figures shown under the heading of Customs revenue in the table on the preceding page are exclusive of receipts from tire-tax and from that portion of the petrol-tax which is imposed to provide funds for roading purposes, as referred to under the next heading. The following figures show Customs and excise revenue both exclusive and inclusive of these items.

Year ended 31st March,Customs Duties.*Excise Duties.*Total Customs and Excise Duties.
Excluding Main Highways Items.Including Main Highways Items.Excluding Main Highways Items.Including Main Highways Items.
* Excise duties in this table cover only beer-duty; other excise duties are here included with | Customs duties.
 £££££
19268,344,6778,573,388629,5588,974,2359,202,946
19278,204,4748,395,049621,8138,826,2879,016,862
19287,891,6218,262,588609,6248,501,2458,872,212
19297,954,2528,953,231611,4848,565,7369,564,715
19308,897,04710,016,469620,3129,517,35910,636,781
19317,605,9769,052,769575,1008,181,0769,627,869
19325,904,3487,348,408641,0806,545,4287,989,488
19336,131,4147,459,458654,2276,785,6418,113,685
19346,485,0147,840,694655,4647,140,4788,496,158
19357,423,5978,940,993671,0088,094,6059,612,001

For fuller information on the subject of Customs (and excise) taxation the reader is referred to Section IXD of this book. It should be noted that gold-export duty and sales tax receipts are not counted as Customs revenue, although collected by the Customs Department.

MAIN HIGHWAYS TAXATION.

The Main Highways Act, 1922, laid down that the Revenue Fund (the Revenue and Construction Funds merge as from 1st April, 1936) of the Main Highways Account was to he credited, inter alia, with—

All moneys received as Customs duties imposed in respect of rubber tires, rubber tiring, and inner tubes of rubber for pneumatic tires, n.e.i. (as per the Customs tariff):

All moneys received by the Crown under any Act in respect of the licensing of motor-vehicles.

The tire-tax had been imposed by the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, prior to the passing of which tires had been admitted free. The licensing of motor-vehicles by the Crown became operative in the financial year 1924—25, consequent on the passing of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

A third class of taxation for main-highways purposes was introduced towards the end of 1927 by the Motor-spirits Taxation Act of that year, which imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon on all motor-spirits imported. The rate was increased to 6d. per gallon in 1930. The duty collected is paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first place, and after deduction of expenses of administration and of refunds (which are Provided for in cases where the motor-spirit is used otherwise than for motor-vehicles) the residue is divided between (1) the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account, and (2) boroughs with a population of 6,000 or over, in the proportions of 92 per cent, and 8 per cent respectively. An additional 2d. per gallon was imposed from 7th October, 1931, and a further 2d. from 9th February, 1933, but these imposts (totalling 4d. per gallon, or 4½d. with the surtax of½ per gallon on imports from foreign countries) are for general purposes, and the proceeds are paid into the Consolidated Fund as part of the ordinary Customs revenue. For each of the years 1932–33 and 1933–34 £500,000 of petrol-tax receipts otherwise payable to the Main Highways Account were retained (by special legislative authority) in the Consolidated Fund. In 1934–35 the amount so retained was £321,754. It is not proposed to so retain any portion of petrol-tax receipts in 1935–36.

By section 19 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), a mileage-tax was imposed on motor-vehicles using motive-power other than petrol. Part of the receipts is regarded as the equivalent of Customs taxation on petrol and remains in the Consolidated Fund, the balance for highway purposes being divided between the Main Highways Account and the larger boroughs after deduction of administration expenses and of refunds.

With the exception of a proportion of the tire-tax in respect of tires attached to or imported with motor-vehicles (which was first paid into the Consolidated Fund and an allocation later made for transfer), the whole of the proceeds of the tire- tax and license fees was formerly paid direct to the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account. In accordance with section 24 of the Finance Act, 1927 (No. 2), however, all taxation receipts for main - highways purposes since the 5th December 1927, are paid into the Cons Fund in the first place, and then as permanent appropriations.

The receipts for main-highways purposes have been as follows during the last ten years. Reference may be made also to the section relating to Roads and Road Transport.

Year Ended 31st March,Motor-vehicles Act.Tire-tax.Motor-spirits Taxation.Mileage-tax.Total.Proportion of Total Taxation.
 £££££Per Cent.
1926 228,711....315,3921.83
1927 190,575....586,3723.36
1928345,510227,451143,516..716,4774.18
1929244,598196,747802,232..1,243,5776.97
1930391,368157,474961,948..1,510,7907.76
1931393,797130,4081,316,385..1,840,5909.75
1932370,12685,4371,358,623..1,814,18610.42
1933352,56164,1631,263,881..1,680,6058.53
1934346,25063,8011,291,8791,5971,703,5277.93
1935391,66092,5871,424,8091,3961,910,4527.72

The low figure shown for 1925–26 in respect of fees under the Motor-vehicles Act is due to the fact that a considerable proportion of revenue from this source, which in the ordinary course of events would have been collected during the last quarter of the year, was not paid into the account until early in 1926–27. A change in the registration year is responsible for the apparent fall in 1928–29.

During 1931–32 £253,776 and during 1934–35 £178,246 were paid out of the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund for the purpose of effecting a 12½-per-cent. rebate or refund to ratepayers of rates levied on farm lands. Further reference will be found in the section relating to Local Government.

LAND AND INCOME TAX.

Except in regard to minor details, the system of land and income taxation in force at the outbreak of the Great War had remained unaltered for many years. Probably the only noteworthy point was the gradual hardening-up of the graduated land-tax, designed to prevent aggregation of land and to compel the cutting-up of large estates rather than to secure additional revenue.

The war taxation of 1915, however, not only included increased rates of 33¾ per cent, in the case of income-tax, ⅓d. in the pound in the case of land-tax payable on mortgages, and 50 per cent, in the case of graduated land-tax, but also involved an important change of principle. Among the incomes previously exempt from income-tax were those derived directly from land, but in 1915 income-tax was made payable on such incomes.

With the exception of the abolition of the land-tax on mortgages and the substitution of an income-tax in its place, the principles of land-tax assessment were not altered in 1916, nor were the rates increased, but an entirely new scheme known as the excess-profits tax was brought into operation in respect of income-tax, the 1915 system remaining also, with increased rates, for ordinary income-tax. The excess-profits tax being found inequitable and otherwise unsatisfactory, a system of progressive land and income tax, with a special war tax on incomes, was adopted in 1917.

In 1920 a complete revision of the rates of taxation was made. A feature of that year's legislation was the introduction of a deduction from the amount of tax payable of 10 per cent, in respect of tax assessed on “earned income.”

In 1923 further alterations were made, the principal being the restoration of the exemption from income-tax of income derived from the direct use or cultivation of land. Reductions in the rates of taxation were also made.

Further reductions in income-tax rates were made in 1924 and 1925, and other alterations in respect of exemptions, method of assessment, &c., were also made. Alterations made in 1927.in the progressive scale of increases in the rate of tax and also in the scale of reduction of exemptions had the effect of slightly increasing income-tax except on the very highest incomes and those below £450.

In 1929 the maximum mortgage exemption for which full allowance is made in the computation of land-tax was reduced from £10,000 to £7,500, and special land-tax (additional to ordinary tax) was imposed on farm-lands exceeding £14,000 in unimproved value. At the same time income-tax was provided for in the case of farm-lands in excess of £14,000. From the income-tax assessed in such cases land-tax (including special) was deductible.

In 1930 the special land-tax was discontinued, but income-tax was imposed on profits from farm-lands of an unimproved value of £7,500 or over. Income-tax rates were increased by 10 per cent., and in place of the income exemption of 5 per cent, of capital value of land used in the derivation of income, a 5 per cent. unimproved-value exemption, with allowance for depreciation of premises, was substituted. An increase in the land-tax rates was also made, through the deduction of 5 per cent. from the computed tax (which had been in force for some years) being discontinued.

In 1931 the graduated scale of land-tax was abolished, only the flat rate of Id. in the pound of unimproved value being retained. To balance the reduction in land-tax and to provide additional revenue, the following alterations were made in respect of income-tax :—

Reduction of general exemption to £260, diminished by £1 for every £3 of income between £260 and £560, and by £1 for every £1 10s. between £560 and £800.

Increase of surtax to 30 per cent.

Imposition of a special flat-rate tax of 4d. in the pound on incomes of individuals, with a general exemption of £500.

Imposition of a special emergency tax on unearned income of individuals, equal to one-third of the income-tax payable on such unearned income.

Elimination of 10-per-ccnt. Reduction on earned incomes up to £2,000.

Elimination of exemption of 5 per cent, of unimproved value of land used in production of income.

Extension (from 1st April, 1932) of income-tax provisions to farmers with £3,000 unimproved value or over.

Inclusion in assessments (but only for purpose of fixing rate and general exemption) of all tax-free income and income taxed at the source.

Removal of discrimination on income derived from local-body debentures issued before and after the 28th August, 1923.

In 1933 the general exemption was reduced to £210, but a special exemption of £50 (reducible by £1 for every £1 10s. of income over £725) was provided for a married man in respect of his wife if he supports her and if her own income does not exceed £50. A further amendment in 1933 extended this exemption to cover the case of a woman supporting her husband, and made a similar exemption in respect of the employment of a housekeeper by a widower or widow.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act passed in October, 1935, extended the £50 exemption in respect of contributions to the support of a widowed mother to cover also the case of a widowed mother-in-law. Other provisions included amendments to the assessment of banking companies for income-tax consequent upon the establishment of the Reserve Bank, and to the assessment of co-operative dairy companies and co-operative pig-marketing companies.

LAND-TAX.

Land-tax is assessed at the rate of Id. for every £1 of unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. An owner of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,500 is allowed an exemption of £500, and where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £2 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when £2,500 is reached.

Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale of exemption is provided—viz., £7,500 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £7,500, the exemption of £7,500 being diminished £1 for every £1 above the margin of £7,500 of unimproved value, and disappearing altogether at £15,000. Where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is deducted instead.

No special exemption is allowed in the case of land not situated in a borough, which has been owned by a person for three years and not improved to the extent of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the unimproved value, when in the opinion of the Commissioner of Taxes it should have been so improved. In the case of such land, also, the rate of land-tax is 50 per cent. more than the ordinary rate.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and also severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital or half (in nominal value) of the allotted shares of each company is held by or on behalf of shareholders in the other.

In case of default by a taxpayer in respect of land-tax the amount of tax may be demanded from his successor in title, from a tenant of the taxpayer or his successor, or from a mortgagee of the estate or interest concerned. Land-tax constitutes a charge on the land, and, notwithstanding any disposition of it, such land continues to be liable in the hands of a purchaser or other holder thereof for the payment of the tax so long as the charge remains in force. Registration of the charge is required, and no disposition of the land or of any interest in it may be registered while the charge remains in force. Relief in cases of hardship is provided for.

INCOME-TAX.

Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies and of absentees, and in other cases on income in excess of £210 per annum. The exemption of the first £210 of income applies fully only to income not exceeding £260. On income between £260 and £560 it is reduced by £1 for every £3 above £260, and between £560 and £725 by £1 for every £1 10s. above £560, no exemption at all being allowed under this head for incomes above £725. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation, and a further £50 (reducible by £1 for every 30s. of income in excess of £725) is deductible from assessable income in respect of a dependent wife or husband whose personal income does not exceed £50. A similar exemption is allowed in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widower or widow, £50 deduction is allowed for each child or grandchild under eighteen years of age who is dependent on the taxpayer, and amounts up to £50 contributed towards the support of the taxpayer's widowed mother or widowed mother-in-law are also deductible from assessable income. Exemption (maximum 15 per cent.) is allowed for life-insurance premiums and National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. By the Unemployment Amendment Act, 1931, amounts paid as unemployment-relief tax may also be claimed as a special exemption. Allowance is made for depreciation of premises and plant used in the production of income, the scale of depreciation adopted in the case of premises being 3 per cent, for wooden-frame buildings; 2 per cent, for brick, stone, or concrete walled buildings; and 1½ per cent, for buildings of reinforced stone or concrete throughout.

Income derived from farm-lands of an unimproved value of £3,000 or over is subject to income-tax, as also is income from (1) Crown land held as small grazing-runs or for pastoral purposes; (2) the extraction, removal, or sale of minerals, timber, or flax; or (3) the business of dealing in agricultural and pastoral products. Otherwise income derived by any person from his direct, use or occupation of land is exempt from income-tax.

The present scale rate of tax is 7d. in the pound for incomes not exceeding £300, the rate being increased by 1/200 d. for every £1 in excess of £300 up to maximum of £1,500. For incomes between £1,500 and £3,900 the rate is Is. 7d., increased by 1/200 d. for every £1 in excess of £1,500; and for those between £3,900 and £5,900 it is 3s. Id., increased by 1/200 d. for every £1 in excess of £3,900. Above £5,900 the rate is 3s. lid. in the pound, increased by 1/200 d. for every £1 in excess of £5,900, but with a limit of 4s. 6d. in the pound. At present all scale rates are increased by 30 per cent. Except in the case of companies (and, as added in 1935, public authorities), an additional 33⅓ per cent, is imposed in respect of unearned income, and a flat rate tax of 4d. in the pound on assessable income in excess of £500.

On income derived from company debentures issued prior to the 28th August, 1923, there is a uniform tax of 3s. in the pound. Income from company debentures issued after that date, or from local-body debentures, pays a rate of 4s. 6d. in the pound. Debenture-income paying 3s. in the pound is exempt from the 33⅓ per cent, imposed in respect of unearned income; otherwise the additional rates mentioned in the preceding paragraph (30 per cent., 33⅓ per cent., and 4d. in the pound) are payable where applicable.

A holder, if resident outside New Zealand, of stock or debentures issued by the Government of New Zealand, or any local or public authority, or by the Public Trustee as agent of a land-settlement association, the interest on which is payable out of New Zealand, is not liable in New Zealand for income-tax on such interest.

DEATH DUTIES.

The law dealing with these classes of duty is embodied in the Death Duties Act, 1921, as subsequently amended. The main heads of taxation are estate and succession duties, which are generally referred to by the collective title of “death duties.” In addition to these there are gift duties and Native succession duties.

Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Commissioner of Stamp Duties on assessment, an additional 5 per cent, penalty, together with interest at 5 per cent, per annum, being payable if duty is not paid within three months (this period may be extended in certain cases) after death. Gift duties are payable at the time the gift is made, and Native succession duties before the registration of the succession order by the Native Land Court. Generally the decision of the Commissioner of Stamp Duties in regard to matters of fact incidental to the assessment of duty is final, but there is an appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court. An appeal on a question of law may be referred to the Court of Appeal.

The net revenue received from death duties during each of the last five years was—

Year ended 31st March,Estate Duty.Succession Duty.Gift Duty.Total Death Duties.
 ££££
19311,425,287319,41065,0381,809,735
19321,092,741302,34249,2151,444,298
19331,120,395349,43141,8691,511,695
19341,064,503263,14763,0321,390,742
19351,740,318419,67245,4042,205,394

ESTATE DUTY.

When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased poison, estimated as at the date of his death, exceeds £1,000 an estates duty is levied on the amount thereof. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5,000 is exempt from estate duty. The value of any life-insurance policy or policies comprised in the estate is also deductible up to a maximum of £1,000, irrespective of the amount of the estate. The rate of duty on the whole estate must, however, be determined before any deduction is made under either head.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent, in cases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 15 per cent, for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increased the duty payable, the rates, which were embodied in the Act of 1921, ranging from 1 per cent, on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent, on estates of more than £100,000. Part II of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed a rate of 30 per cent, on the amount by which the final balance exceeds £100,000. The present scale of duties is as follows :—

Final Balance of Estate.Kate per Cent.
*20 per cent, on first £100,000, and 30 per cent, on excess over £100,000. 16—Ybk.
££ 
1,000 to2,0001
2,000 to3,0002
3,000 to4,0003
4,000 to6,0004
6,000 to8,0005
8,000 to10,0006
10,000 to15,0007
15,000 to20,0008
20,000 to25,0009
25,000 to30,00010
30,000 to35,00011
35,000 to40,00012
40,000 to45,00013
45,000 to50,00014
50,000 to00,00015
60,000 to70,00016
70,000 to80,00017
80,000 to90,00018
90,000 to100,00019
Exceeding100,000*

SUCCESSION DUTY.

In addition to the estate duty referred to above, a succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will or by intestacy. An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of the war of 1914–19 is allowed a £5,000 exemption additional to the amounts otherwise provided.

The rates of duty vary according to the nearness of kin of the beneficiary to the deceased person. The rates shown below were introduced in amending legislation in 1920, and, as in the case of the estate duties, are embodied in the 1921 consolidating Act.

If Successor isValue of EstateRate per Cent.
* Including step-father, step-mother, half-brother, or half-sister.
 £ 
 Up to 10,000Nil.
Wife10,000 to 20,0002
 Over 20,0004
 Up to 500Nil.
 500 to 1,5001
Husband1,500 to 2,5002
 Over 2,5003
Father, mother, brother, or sister*Up to 500500 to 20,000
Nil510
 Up to 1,000Nil.
 1,000 to 5,0001
Child or lineal descendant5,000 to 10,0002
 10,000 to 15,0003
 15,000 to 20,000
 over 20,0004
 Up to 500Nil.
Other relative to 4th degree500 to 10,0005
 Over 10,00010
 Up to 500Nil.
Other person500 to 20,00010
 Over 20,00020

In respect to moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persona domiciled out of New Zealand, and where the beneficiary is not the husband or wife of the deceased or a relative of the deceased within the third degree of consanguinity, there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent, of the excess over £1,000.

NATIVE SUCCESSION DUTY.

Where any succession order is made by the Native Land Court on the death of a Native, no death duty in the ordinary way is payable on the property included in it, but a Native succession duty of 2 per cent, is payable on the value of the property, with a general exemption of £200.

GIFT DUTY.

A gift means any disposition of property (situate in New Zealand at the time of the gift) which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £500, and exemption from gift duty is provided in cases of the voluntary discharge of a mortgage debt where the donor and beneficiary are not connected by ties of blood or marriage. Various other exemptions were made by the Death Duties Amendment Act, 1923.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made are required to be furnished for assessment of duty within one month of the date of the gift,and in default an additional duty of 50 per cent, is payable. Where duty is payable, the rate is based on the following scale:—

Value of Gift.Bate of Duty. Per Cent.
£500 to £1,000
£1,000 to £5,0005
£5,000 to £10,000
Over £10,00010

Prior to 1920 there was a flat rate of 5 per cent, on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value. Gifts between £500 and £1,000 were made dutiable in 1930.

STAMP DUTIES.

The term “stamp duties" covers a miscellany of items of taxation imposed by the Stamp Duties Act, 1923, as amended subsequently.

The receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads of stamp duties revenue used in the public accounts.

 Year ended 31st March,
1031.1032.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Adhesive stamps91,483104,05770,10480,581125,955
Duty on instruments326,121228,975192,179199,639238,093
Impressed stamps198,512174,470168,709173,311186,741
Stamp duty on interest....309,13278,77168
Licenses to companies87,49085,35183,91084,98483,856
Sharebrokers' licenses1,4701,5211,5832,1782,051
Bank composition233,318260,206268,122279,244218,017
Totalizator revenue529,143410,878302,371340,740371,985
Amusements-tax105,93674,76353,56448,71549,526
Lottery duty..9,66117,30615,24518,000
Oversea-passenger duty..1,66818,24615,34818,455
Mortgagees'indemnity fees1,5411,5671,1651,0751,316
Miscellaneous62Dr. 727585
Totals1,575,0761,353,1101,486,4181,319,8891,314,068

Bank-note tax (i.e., bank composition) will yield diminishing returns from 1st August, 1934, when Reserve Bank notes commenced to replace those of the trading banks. As from 1st August, 1936, trading banks are required to pay to the Reserve Bank amounts equal to their then outstanding notes, and the former assumes liability in respect thereof. As the Reserve Bank is not required to pay note-tax, this item of revenue will then disappear.

Totalizator revenue, amusements-tax, and stamp duty on interest are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

TOTALIZATOR-TAX.

The Government tax on totalizator investments is 5 per cent, of the gross amount passed through the machines. This percentage was substituted in August, 1930 (by Part I of the Finance Act, 1930), for the former rate of 2£ per cent., which had been in force since March, 1910, prior to which the percentage was 1£. A refund of 2J per cent, (raised from 1J per cent, by the Finance Act, No. 2, 1935) of gross totalizator takings (up to a limit of £500) may be made to a racing club, the Minister of Internal Affairs having the right to specify the purpose or purposes for which the amount refunded in any ease is to be applied. For the financial years 1932–33 and 1933–34 one-fifth and for the financial year 1934–35 one-tenth of the duty collected on totalizator investments was retainable by the racing clubs concerned; one-fifth is retainable in 1935–36.

From the 1st November, 1915, a tax of 1 per cent, was imposed on the total value of all stakes, and a tax of 2A per cent, on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments. The tax on dividends is computed on the gross amount paid into the totalizator for any horse-race after deducting the club's commission of 12A per cent, (raised from 10 per cent, by the Finance Act, 1930). From the 22nd December, 1921, the tax on stakes was increased to 10 per cent., and that on dividends to 5 per cent. From the 1st April, 1924, the tax on stakes was reduced to 5 per cent., with a further reduction to 1 per cent, from 1st August, 1935.

The following figures relate to the racing-year, which ends on the 31st July :—

 Year ended 31st July,
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
*Retained by the clubs.
Number of racing days320312319319320
Number of races2,5132,4222,4702,4792,485
 £££££
Amount of stakes511,021352,173312,788335,985348,815
Totalizator investments5,279,4043,680,0083,678,2513,904,9484,017,150
Amount paid in dividends4,366,0833,036,7473,033,5103,221,8123,314,961
Government taxes—     
On totalizator investments257,638176,447147,130161,383174,809
On dividends231,227160,943160,839170,753175,667
On stakes25,55117,60915,63916,79917,441
Totals514,416354,999323,608348,935367,917
Percentage of totalizator investments retained by clubs395,955283,554312,651326,735327,335
Unpaid fractions*28,50122,31724,12124,265 24,378

The gross totalizator revenue accruing to the State during the 1933–34 racing-year is seen to have totalled £307,917. For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1935, the amount was £371,985. Refunds to racing clubs totalled £27,289 in the financial year 1934–35, as against £26,404 during the preceding twelve months.

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.

A form of tax first introduced in 1917 is the amusements-tax, payable on payments for admission to entertainments. The present authority is the Amusements-tax Act, 1922, amended in 1923 and in 1930.“ Entertainment” is defined as “any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” The maximum admission charge above which tax is payable was originally fixed at 9d., but has been successively altered to Is., 2s., and (in 1930) Is. 6d. When the payment for admission exceeds Is. 6d., but is not more than 2s., the tax is 3d.; thereafter, up to 3s., it is 4d.; up to 3s. 6d., 5d.; and above 3s. 6d., Id. for each Is. or part thereof plus 2d. “Payment for admission” includes reservation charges. Provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases—viz., shows promoted by agricultural, pastoral, horticultural,or poultry societies; meetings held for educational, scientific, patriotic, or philanthropic purposes; and swimming-sports.

The following net amounts have been collected during the last ten years :—

Year ended 31st March,Amount collected.
 £
192664,163
192763,555
192863,165
192960,586
193079,887
1931105,936
193274,763
193353,564
193448,715
193549,526

FILM-HIRE TAX.

Part V of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed, as from 1st July, 1930, a film-hire tax, which is payable monthly by holders of renters' licenses under Part IV of the Cinematograph Films Act, 1928.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net monthly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British films the tax is 10 per cent., and on foreign films 25 per cent., of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of £41,756 in 1930–31 (nine months), £41,207 in 1931–32, £30,102 in 1932–33, £32,960 in 1933–34, and £44,491 in 1934–35.

UNEMPLOYMENT TAXATION.

Towards the provision of funds for the relief of unemployment, an unemployment levy was instituted as from December, 1930. Originally at the rate of £1 10s. per annum, payable quarterly, the levy was imposed on all males of the age of twenty years and over, with certain exceptions.

In 1931 the levy was reduced to £1 per annum, but an “emergency unemployment charge” was imposed at the rate of Id. for every 6s. 8d. of salaries or wages (other than those of domestic servants in private homes and of relief workers employed by public authorities, but with their wages wholly (from 1934, partly) borne by the Unemployment Fund) and of incomes received from other sources by all males not wholly exempt from the levy and by women with incomes of £250 or over (from any source). In 1932 the emergency unemployment charge was altered to Id. for every Is. 8d. of wages, &c, and in the case of income of women other than from salary or wages was made applicable to the portion of such income in excess of £20 per annum. From 1st October, 1934, the emergency unemployment charge was reduced to Id. for every 2s. or part thereof, and from 1st October, 1935, to Id. for every 2s. 6d. or part thereof.

An amendment passed in November, 1934, exempted persons under twenty from tax on earned income. Women under twenty; women in receipt of pensions; and men of sixty-five, or women of sixty upwards, or permanently disabled persons whose incomes (in all cases) are under £105 are exempted from the tax on unearned income. Natives (male and female) of twenty years or over are required to pay tax on unearned income in the same way as if Europeans. The £20 exemption of women on unearned income was increased to £50.

For the portion of 1930–31 during which the Unemployment Act was in force, levy receipts totalled £280,829. Unemployment taxation yielded £1,217,451 in 1931–32, £4,099,662 in 1932–33, £4,413,221 in 1933–34, and £4,561,594 in 1934–35. Towards the 1933–34 total, the tax on salaries and wages provided £2,866,626, and on other income £1,114,035, the balance of £432,560 representing levy receipts. Corresponding figures for 1934–35 were: Tax on salaries and wages, £2,793,266; on other income, £1,354,022; and levy receipts, £414,306.

TAXATION OF INTEREST RECEIPTS.

Part IV of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, imposed a stamp duty of 3d. for every 2s. 6d. of interest derived from New Zealand Government and local-body debentures or other securities, with certain specified exceptions. The duty receipts in respect of securities of local bodies, the State Advances Department, and the Rural Intermediate Credit Board (less 5 per cent, thereof to cover administrative expenses) were payable to the respective authorities. The proportion of the duty accruing to governmental revenue during the year 1932–33 amounted to £309,132, a further sum of £78,771 being received in the early portion of 1933–34, and £68 in 1934–35.

The stamp duty on interest was imposed not only to aid the public revenues, but to assist in equalizing in equity the 20-per-cent. reduction in mortgage interest and in rents. The balance of the equivalent reduction in interest on Government and local-body securities was to be obtained by an adjustment of income-tax rates on investment income, but the stamp duty ceased to operate on 31st March, 1933.

In lieu thereof a general conversion of the whole internal public debt on the basis of a 20-per-cent. reduction to a minimum effective rate of 4 per cent., operative from 1st April, 1933, was undertaken, while as a preliminary to conversion a statutory reduction of 20 per cent, to a minimum of 4J per cent. was made in the interest on local-body securities.

Interest on such part of the public debt as continued to bear a higher rate than 4 per cent i.e., the small “dissented” balance—was made subject to an interest-tax of 33J per cent., and this provision is also applicable to dissenters from local-body conversions. Post Office investment certificates are at maturity dutiable at 20 per cent, in respect of interest accruing after 1st April, 1933. A tax of 20 per cent., payable (less 5 per cent, of proceeds) to the Departments concerned, was also imposed on State Advances, Rural Intermediate Credit, and Land Settlement Association securities.

Governmental receipts from the new interest-tax amounted to £45,000 in 1933–34 and to £44,979 in 1934–35.

SALES TAX.

The 9th February, 1933, marked the inauguration of a sales tax in New Zealand. The tax is at the rate of 5 per cent, of the sale value of the goods to which it applies, a discount of 5 per cent, of the amount of tax otherwise payable being allowed for prompt payment. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable once only (there may possibly be exceptions) and, so far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to the retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department. The net amount yielded by the sales tax has been : 1932–33 (less than two months), £38,253; 1933–34, £1,847,333; 1934–35, £2,170,503.

Numerous classes of goods are exempt from the tax, these being, in the main, commodities of primary production, articles used in the primary industries, machinery for use in manufacture, and foodstuffs for household consumption. Goods exported from the Dominion are exempt, as are also certain commodities (e.g., gold, motor-spirit), subject to special taxation.

Monthly net collections of sales tax to date are as follows:—

Month.1933.1934.1935.
 £££
January..187,649211,137
February10,785143,631157,653
March27,469162,416179,568
April191,091168,313191,607
May119,967165,007194,685
June136,733160,877196,571
July129,951168,662189,657
August134,290185,037201,446
September151,796172,945200,300
October158,073194,397..
November164,829205,256..
December166,847202,383..

The collections during a month relate in general to sales during the preceding month. At the commencement of the scheme tax on goods sold in February and March, 1933, except in the case of importing retailers, was not payable until April, hence the low figures for February and March and the high aggregate for April.

LOCAL TAXATION.

Local governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes as set out in another section of this book. The amount of revenue collected for local purposes during the ten years ended 31st March, 1934, is shown below, and the subject is dealt with in more detail in the section (No. XXV) of this book relating to local government.

Year ended 31st March,Rates.Licenses and other Taxes.Total.Per Head of Population
 ££££s.d.
19254,668,884344,2485,013,1323138
19265,039,645435,7245,475,3693188
19275,311,260576,7615,888,0214211
19285,615,672507,7036,123,3754410
19295,844,495503,2656,347,7604611
19306,010,987535,8096,546,796487
19315,637,254535,8476,173,101425
19325,511,818508,8576,020,6753195
19335,237,688505,7965,743,4843152
19345,541,255489,2246,030,4793183

The figures are exclusive of wharfage dues, tolls, &c, received by Harbour Boards, such receipts being regarded as in respect of charges for services.

SUBSECTION C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS.

INTRODUCTORY.

THEMinister of Finance may raise loans, when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion, and may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment of loans, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured, as well as for the redemption and cancellation of securities before maturity.

During the war period provision was made for the issue to the public of “Post Office investment certificates“ of a nominal value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation was enacted which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates. Receipts from this source are utilized for the purposes of any loan which may be authorized by Parliament. The term of the certificates, formerly a minimum of five years, was altered in 1927 to such term as the Minister of Finance may determine. Certificates are now issued with a definite currency of six years, the redemption value being calculated at 3½ per cent, compound interest. After six months from date of issue the certificates have a graduated redemption value, and, in addition, if not presented for payment at date of maturity, remain interest-bearing (at the maximum rate payable on Post Office Savings-bank deposits) for four years more.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of the Dominion. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

The public debt is domiciled partly in New Zealand and partly in the United Kingdom, with a little in Australia.

In the debt tables the whole debt is shown (in pounds) at its nominal amount, no adjustment having been made on account of the fact that New Zealand currency is at present at a discount on sterling and at a slight premium on Australian currency. If the whole of the debt (£161 millions) domiciled in the United Kingdom were redeemed in cash at the present time, an amount equal to £200 millions in New Zealand currency would be required for the purpose.

Similarly, the present depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of sterling is not taken into account in reckoning the rate or amount of interest on the debt domiciled in the United Kingdom. Interest is taken at its nominal rate, and the cost of purchasing sterling for payment in London is included in the public accounts as expenditure on exchange.

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS.

The gross debt of the General Government stood at £280,081,217 at 31st March, 1935, as compared with £302,791,996 a year earlier. The floating debt of £22,856,981, comprising outstanding Treasury revenue bills amounting to £3,452,109 and Treasury bills for £19,404,872 in respect of the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, was entirely paid off during the financial year. After the establishment of the Reserve Bank (1st August, 1934), £20,229,700 of sterling funds held by the Government in London were transferred to New Zealand at the current rate of exchange through the Reserve Bank, the credit received (£25,084,828 in New Zealand currency) being sufficient with other funds available to redeem all Treasury bills outstanding. The increase in long-term debt during 1934—35 was only £646,202; and, in fact, the debt is now £1,361,583 less than at 31st March, 1932.

The gross indebtedness of the General Government and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (inclusive of Maoris) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table:—

A3 at 31st March,Amount.Per Head of Population.

* Including £5,379,105 raised in January, 1920, for expenditure in 1929–30.

†Increase mainly floating debt, paid off in 1934–35.

 ££s.d.
1916109,637,3979564
1917129,830,105112162
1918150,840,0551301211
1919176,076,26014985
1920201,170,755162129
1921206,324,319162157
1922219,054,385168610
1923218,953,32416542
1924221,616,36116485
1925227,814,647165211
 ££s.d.
1926238,855,47816986
1927245,850,889170195
1928251,396,252172192
1929264,191,983*1791210
1930267,383,343179125
1931276,033,3581821310
1932281,942,800184186
1933282,622,958183178
1934302,791,99619599
1935280,581,217179181

On only two previous occasions in the history of New Zealand has a reduction in the gross public debt been effected during the financial year. The first occasion was in 1891–92, when the debt was reduced by £117,282; and the second in 1922–23, when another slight reduction (£101,061) was recorded.

The public debt figures do not include loans under the Rural Advances Act, 1926, amounting to £4,213,050 at 31st March, 1935; nor an amount of £3,850,000 in respect of Discharged Soldier Settlement securities subject to a deed of hypothecation; this latter is held departmentally.

The history of the public debt in New Zealand may conveniently and with advantage be divided into four distinct periods—viz., (1) Up to the end of the financial year 1890–91; (2) from the 1st April, 1891, to the 31st March, 1914; (3) from the 1st April, 1914, to the 31st March, 1920; and (4) from the 1st April, 1920, to date.

Up to the 31st March, 1891, loan expenditure had been chiefly concerned with railways and roads, the taking-over of the loan liabilities of the Provincial Governments on their abolition, and the Maori War. The year 1891 marks the beginning of a period during which the functions of the State were widely extended, most notably as regards financial assistance to settlers, workers, and local bodies, the repurchase of alienated lands, the working of coal-mines, the development of hydro-electric power, and the establishment of State fire- and accident-insurance offices.

The advent of the war in 1914 created a second point of demarcation in the history of the loan expenditure of the General Government, necessitating as it did the postponement of all public works, &c, except those of pressing necessity. Expenditure of an unproductive nature occasioned by the war was necessarily continued for some time after the Armistice, but the end of the financial year 1919–20 may be fairly regarded as concluding this period.

The gross indebtedness at the 31st March, 1891, 1914, 1920, and 1935, with the increase between these dates, is as follows:—

 £
* Excluding £4,976,600 raised in March, 1914, for redemptions early in 1914–15.
At 31st March, 189138,830,350
Increase to 31st March, 191455,923,477*
At 31st March, 191494,753,827*
Increase to 31st March, 1920106,416,928
At 31st March, 1920201,170,755
Increase to 31st March, 193579,410,462
At 31st March, 1935£280,581,217

In addition to the foregoing, there are certain contingent liabilities, consisting of (1) loans guaranteed by the State; (2) liabilities in respect of superannuation funds; and (3) State guarantees in respect of various undertakings.

In regard to the first item, the amount of guaranteed loans outstanding at 31st March, 1935, was £3,019,175, as against which accumulated sinking funds amounted to £941,541. With the exception of £44,100 in respect of landsettlement finance debentures, the loans are those of certain local authorities. Net payments on guaranteed loans during the year 1934–35 aggregated £42,605, comprising £41,864 in respect of interest and principal in arrear made good under the authority of the Land Settlement Finance Act, 1909 (section 13), and £741 as subsidies on sinking funds, &c., in the case of local authorities' loans.

As at 31st March, 1934, the total of subsidies (not including accumulated interest) short paid to the Teachers' and Public Service Superannuation Funds, and the excess of subsidies recommended by the Actuary over subsidies paid to the Railways Superannuation Fund, was £4,634,151. This subject is covered in detail in the next section (No. XXIV).

The third class of contingent liabilities comprises various items, such as: the State guarantee to policyholders of the Government Insurance Department under the Government Life Insurance Act, 1908; the guarantee to the Reserve Bank under the Finance Act, 1934, in respect of sterling exchange; and certain undertakings under the Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35.

CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DEBT.

In classifying the public debt according to nature or purpose the most usual distinction is that made on the basis of whether raised for ordinary purposes, war purposes, the settlement of discharged soldiers, or State advances. The following summary shows that the whole of the increase between 31st March, 1920, and 31st March, 1935, is in respect of the ordinary and State advances debt, the war and discharged soldiers sections showing substantial reductions. The total warloans raised amounted to £82,245,673, of which nearly £17,000,000 has been redeemed to the 31st March, 1935.

 Total.Per Head.
Class.1920.1935.1920.1935.
 £££s.d.£s.d.
Ordinary95,483,658173,922,80077311111104
War80,089,02565,330,8106415041179
Discharged soldiers11,120,0006,843,4518199479
State advances14,478,07234,484,156111412223
Total201,170,755280,581,217162129179181

A somewhat more detailed allocation of the debt as at the 31st March, 1935, is now given:—

 £
Railways60,823,969
Hydro-electric schemes12,140,336
Post and telegraph13,085,424
Public buildings, schools, and sites13,576,082
Roads and highways27,281,583
Harbours and lighthouses1,939,043
State forests1,930,046
State advances37,986,438
Land settlement and improvement29,097,360
Shares in Bank of New Zealand875,000
Shares in Reserve Bank of New Zealand1,000,000
Share in Nauru and Ocean Island phosphates431,475
Development of mining1,025,109
Tourist resorts733,081
Immigration3,318,140
War and defence70,627,573
Revenue deficiencies (prior to 1893)2,216,856
Old provincial liabilities878,739
Miscellaneous421,632
Cash and investments in hand1,193,331
Total£280,581,217

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1934–35.

New loan - money aggregating £3,299,560 was raised during 1934–35 for the following purposes:—

Public Works—£
  General Purposes Account1,506,000
  Electric Supply Account141,400
Land for Settlements Account160,635
Main Highways Account431,500
State Forests Account60,000
Premiums under conversion operations25
Investment in Reserve Bank1,000,000

Of the above sum, £406,090 was obtained front, the public at 3¾ per cent., while £2,893,445 was derived from departmental investments.

Redemptions of long-term debt during the year aggregated £2,653,358, of which £724,500 was domiciled in Australia, £37,000 in London, and the balance in New Zealand. The net increase in long-term debt was therefore £646,202. As notedpreviously, the whole of the floating debt of £22,856,981 outstanding at the 31st March, 1934, was paid off during 1934–35. The decrease in debt for the year 1934–35 was £22,210,779.

PUBLIC DEBT CONVERSION.

A scheme of conversion of practically the whole of the locally domiciled debt bearing interest higher than 4 per cent, was successfully carried out in the early part of 1933. Holders had the option of dissenting, but, as mentioned in the preceding subsection, interest on the dissented portion was made subject to an interest-tax of 33⅓ per cent. Holders who signified neither assent nor dissent were regarded as having assented.

On the new securities issued in lieu of converted securities the interest-rate is 4 per cent, per annum, except that in the case of securities exempt from income-tax the rate will be ½ per cent, until expiration of the period of exemption and 4 per cent, thereafter. The new securities are spread over six maturity dates as follows:—

15th January, 1940.

15th March, 1943.*

15th February, 1946.

15th April, 1949.

15th May, 1952.*

15th June, 1955.

* For securities exempt from income-tax.

In cases where interest was reduced by not more than 20 per cent., the new securities issued were for the same amount of principal as the converted securities. Where the reduction of interest amounted to more than 20 per cent., the holder received a premium, the conversion scheme thus involving a slight increase (£491,254) in the aggregate gross debt.

The amount of debt to which the conversion scheme applied was £115,000,000. Actual assent to conversion was given in respect of some £110,000,000, and implied assent to approximately £5,000,000, dissents expressed covering only £480,000, or less than ½ per cent, of the total.

The successful conversion of £5,000,000 5-per-cent. debt into 3½-per-cent. securities at £97 in October, 1933, was the only debt operation undertaken in England during the fiscal year 1933–34.

During 1934–35 and 1935–36 further conversion operations were carried out in respect of external debt, where, of course, it is possible to take action only in the case of loans where the right to repay has accrued. The first comprised £3,989,100 of 4-per-cent. stock, which was converted to ½-per-cent. stock at par in October, 1934. The second and larger operation concerned £10,135,800 of 5-per-cent. stock maturing in 1945 but with a right to redeem on or after 1st July, 1935. Of this, £8,000,000 was converted to 3-per-cent. stock at £98½. Allowing for discount on issue and other expenses over the period of the loan, the average cost is approximately £3 4s. 8d. per cent. It was decided to utilize New Zealand resources for the redemption of the remaining £2,135,800, which was consequently not offered for conversion.

In 1936 the right accrues to redeem £5,869,989 of 6-per-cent debt.

DOMICILE OF DEBT.

Between the 31st March, 1914, and the 31st March, 1935, the amount of New Zealand's public debt domiciled in London increased from 78½ to 161 millions, while that domiciled in New Zealand increased from 17 to 117 millions. The amount domiciled in Australia is relatively negligible. The table following shows,of the total amount outstanding in each of the last ten years, the amount domiciled in London, Australia, and New Zealand.

 Amount.Percentage of Tot.
At 31st March,London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1926128,047,6593,643,100107,104,71953–611–5244–87
1927132,512,8054,042,450109,295,03453–901–6444–46
1928139,756,9734,168,850107,470,42955–591–6642–75
1929149,346,2444,168,350110,677,38956–531–5841–89
1930146,580,5024,276,750116,526,09154–821–6043–58
1931154,546,9414,175,350117,311,06755–991–5142–50
1932159,641,8553,914,550118,386,39556–621–3941–99
1933161,400,7032,868,710118,353,54557–111–0141–88
1934160,908,1052,908,150138,975,74153–140–9645–90
1935160,972,2302,183,550117,425,43757–370–7841–85

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT.

The maturity years of the debt outstanding at the 31st March, 1935, are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between the various countries of domicile.

   Due in New Zealand. 
Maturity Year (ended 31st March).Due in London.Due in Australia.Public.Departmental.Total.

* Advances by Imperial Government for State Advances purposes.

† Government has option to redeem on or after the earlier date on giving notice.

‡ Funded debt—repayable by instalments.

 £££££
Overdue..1,2002,420..3,620
1925–452,090,909......*2,090,909
1933–43....10,900..10,900
1935–36120,800186,70022,470..329,970
1935–4510,135,800......10,135,800
1936–377,500667,75031,230..706,480
1936–515,869,989......5,869,989
1937–38..92,600752,000..844,600
1937–40101,125..12,334,915..12,436,040
1938–394,0003,000265,130..272,130
1938–41....3,842,885..3,842,885
1939–4017,173,191..15,141..17,188,332
1940–43....13,745,930..13,745,930
1940–41....500,015..500,015
1941–42..17,30039,600..56,900
1943–447,339,656......7,339,656
1943–46....10,304,240..10,304,240
1943–6310,505,989..378,639..10,884,628
1944–457,780,408......7,780,408
1945–4622,543,590..2,500..22,546,090
1946–49....9,476,595..9,476,595
1947–4811,221,609......11,221,609
1948–49......10,50010,500
1948–5819,225,465......19,225,465
1949–507,500,000......7,500,000
1949–52....13,723,145..13,723,145
1949–545,000,000......5,000,000
1950–511,250,0001,215,000250,000..2,715,000
l952–55....10,656,740..10,656,740
1955–56......354,456354,456
1955–603,989,100......3,989,100
1956–715,000,000......5,000,000
1956–5712,900....4,033,4904,046,390
1957–5824,100,199....13,421,54537,521,744
1958–59......15,638,06615,638,066
1959–60......7,612,8857,612,885
Totals160,972,2302,183,55076,354,49541,070,942280,581,217

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCKS.

The highest and lowest London prices for the principal New Zealand stocks, taken over a range of five years, are quoted.

  Highest.Lowest
Hate per cent.Maturing.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1030.1931.1932.1933.1934.
3194582¼81⅜92½95¼100⅜77¼70⅜63 3/1690 1/1694 11/16
34½19409189¾98 15/16100½103 15/1685797398 5/16100 1/4
41933–4393⅝92¼l00 7/16102 7/161028686739999 7/16
41943–6389¾91⅝102102 15/16105 11/1682½7466100101
194498⅞97½104⅞1071119285½77 7/16101 15/16105 3/16
19459997 9/16104⅞10711192¼85½77⅜101 7/8105 3/16
194798¼97 7/16106½107 1/16111 1/1692¼83⅛77⅛102 11/16105⅝
1948–5898½97 3/16106⅝107 9/16110 13/169184½74 7/16101 15/16105⅞
51935–45103½101 7/16103103⅜102 11/16998984101⅛101 3/15
51946105102 13/16107½109 11/1611599⅝8984106¾109⅜
51949105102 13/16110⅞113 7/16116¾1018983 11/16110¼112 3/16
61936–51106½103 7/16105107 7/16106⅜1029096104¾105 3/16

INTEREST.

Of the public debt outstanding at 31st March, 1932, only £78,749,156, or 29 per cent, of the total (excluding Treasury bills), bore interest at a rate of 4 per cent, or lower. Chiefly as a result of conversion operations, the corresponding figures at the 31st March, 1935, were £163,759,267 and 58 per cent.

The rates of interest on the debt as at the 31st March 1935, were as given below. The table shows the amount of loan which must be repaid and the rate of interest which must be paid thereon. It should be recalled that the issue prices of loans are not always at par—commonly, they are slightly below par. Omitting the matter of flotation expenses, the rate of interest upon the sum actually received would be very slightly higher than the nominal rate. For instance, if a 5-per-cent. loan were issued at 98, the return to the investor would be 5,102 per cent.

rate of Interest.Debt maturing in—Total.Gross Annual Interest
London.Australia.New Zealand.
* Funded debt.
Per cent.—£££££
....9,919,0009,919,000247,975
39,670,380..15,164,90624,835,286745,059
3⅛....250,000250,0007,813
....500,000500,00016,250
26,161,291..42,236,11768,397,4082,393,911
....4,231,7854,231,785158,691
410,607,114..45,018,67455,625,7882,225,033
47,463,54720,30014,33547,498,1822,137,415
£4 19s. 5.88d,*24,100,200....24,100,2001,193,230
535,721,410..11,42035,732,8301,786,641
5⅛..466,1501,880468,03023,987
..177,4002,500179,9009,445
1,378,3001,518,50072,4002,969,200163,306
65,869,988....5,869,988352,199
Overdue (unpresented)..1,2002,4203,620..
Totals160,972,2302,183,550117,425,437280,581,21711,460,955

The total annual amount of interest payable on the public debt as at the 31st March, 1935, including the funded debt (payments in respect of which are at present in abeyance), is £11,460,955, which gives an average rate of £4 Is. 8d. per £100. The total interest and the average rate per cent, payable on the debt domiciled in the various markets are:—

 Total.Average Rate.
 ££s.d.
London (sterling)7,173,206491
Australia117,635579
New Zealand4,170,1143110

The actual net interest payments during the last twenty years out of the Consolidated Fund Ordinary Revenue Account are shown in the table following, together with the rate per head of mean population. The figures for recent years have been affected by the discontinuance of payments on the funded debt, by conversion operations, and (adversely) by the existence of Treasury bills of considerable proportions.

Year ended 31st March,Amount.Rate per Head.
 ££s.d.
19162,933,7622110
19173,705,961346
19183,936,080384
19195,409,2104129
19206,352,344552
19216,807,217588
19227,390,8645150
19237,904,260607
19247,877,5975181
19257,865,2625158
 ££s.d.
19268,129,79951610
19278,450,7945190
19288,397,0745156
19298,675,22051810
19309,136,301638
19319,266,676639
19329,035,0255191
19338,498,6815112
19348,836,4675148
19358,023,813534

The above amounts are net payments out of the Consolidated Fund only, and do not comprise the whole of the interest payments in respect of moneys raised by way of loans. For loans raised for the purposes of State advances to settlers, workers, local authorities, &c., the interest, although made a charge upon the Consolidated Fund, is recovered from the receipts derived from interest paid by borrowers. Other loan-money coming within the same category is that raised for land-settlement, State coal-mines, the development of water-power, and a number of other purposes. Such interest does not become a burden upon the taxpayer, and consequently is not included in the figures upon which the rate per head of mean population is calculated.

The gross interest charges borne by the Consolidated Fund during the year ended 31st March, 1935, totalled £10,833,737, of which £2,809,924 was recovered from other accounts, &c. In addition there should be set off against the interest charges certain amounts shown in the public accounts not as recoveries but as revenue. These are interest on railway capital liability (£1,088,050), interest on post and telegraph capital liability (£546,000), and interest earned on the investment of public moneys (£664,130).

Of the gross interest payments from the Consolidated Fund during 1934—35 £5,921,037 was paid in London, £151,539 in Australia, and £4,761,161 in New Zealand. The figure for payments in London represents interest only, exchange being additional. At the instance of the Imperial Government, no payments were made in respect of the funded debt (vide later reference).

Administration and management charges in respect of debt services amounted to £117,733 in 1934–35 and payments on guaranteed loans to £42,605. Amortization charges are shown under the next heading.

AMORTIZATION OF DEBT.

PUBLIC DEBT REPAYMENT.

A brief historical account of the provisions for paying off loan-moneys will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. With certain exceptions, the public debt is now subject to the provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925. This Act, which repealed the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, substitutedfor the long-term sinking-fund system a method whereby the Dominion's debt-reduction resources may be available to purchase and cancel Government securities as the market price is advantageous, or pay them off at maturity, and so ensure an actual reduction in the public debt annually. For this purpose there is issued annually out of the Consolidated Fund a sum equal to ½ per cent, of the debt affected as at the 31st March, plus ½ per cent, of the total amount previously repaid or redeemed under the provisions of the Act. To this is added a sum equal to interest at 3½ per cent, per annum on the debt paid off under the scheme. By this means the bulk of the savings in interest on debt paid off is applied to further repayments of debt, and the debt existing at the commencement of the scheme will be liquidated in about sixty years, while all future loans will be liquidated within a similar period from the date of their inception.

Under the Act of 1925 a capital fund termed “The Public Debt Redemption Fund” was created, consisting of (1) the accumulations of sinking funds, amounting to £11,225,045 (leaving aside the State Advances, Westport Harbour, and other special sinking funds); (2) the amount advanced out of surplus revenue for discharged soldiers settlement, originally £13,500,000, but since reduced to £6,000,000 through £4,850,000 having been transferred to the Consolidated Fund and £2,650,000 written off as a result of the revaluation of the properties of discharged soldiers. The net earnings from the Public Debt Redemption Fund are credited to the Consolidated Fund and applied towards meeting the charge against that fund created by the Act.

The Act does not apply to the whole of the public debt, revenue bills and certain classes of the debt for which there are special amortization provisions being excluded. The latter include funded debt, loans raised for State advances, and loans raised in respect of electric supply. Of the total gross indebtedness of £227,814,047 at the 31st March, 1925, £174,128,135 was subject to the operations of the Act. The corresponding figure at the 31st March, 1935, was £208,599,968.

To the 31st March, 1935, securities of a nominal value of £11,832,034, had been redeemed under the operation of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act. These transactions have effected an annual saving of interest to the Consolidated Fund amounting to £160,953, the difference between the rate formerly payable on the securities redeemed and the rate of 3½ per cent, now payable to the Public Debt Repayment Account in respect of these securities.

The following table shows the operations of the Public Debt Repayment Account during each of the ten years of its existence, together with the interest earnings of the Redemption Fund. In addition to transfers from the Consolidated Fund, the Public Debt Repayment Account is credited with interest earnings (£6,035 to 31st March, 1935) on its investments. On the expenditure side there have been £242 for cost of exchange and transfers of £23,672 to the Consolidated Fund in respect of premium on exchange. The account had an unexpended balance of £3,469 at 31st March, 1935.

year ended 31st march,Interest on Redemption Fund (paid to Consolidated Fund).Transfers from Consolidated Fund.Utilized to redeem and cancel Securities.Nominal Value of Securities redeemed and cancelled.
½ per cent. of debt at beginning of year or redeemed under act.3½ per cent. of debt redeemed.total.
prior to beginning of year.during year.*
* Computed from dates of redemption.
 £££££££
1926897,756870,641..2,093872,734870,637889,733
1927863,942890,05131,14113,737941,529939,231942,020
1928878,408919,72704,1119,926993,764998,188999,811
1929995,202944,45499,1053,3091,046,9281,041,8711,046,000
1930990,095993,567135,71524,9631,154,2451,158,4721,158,472
1931858,8931,006,800176,26123,9981,207,0591,209,9281,209,928
1932699,7901,047,637218,60912,9041,279,2001,243,1181,264,330
1933620,0891,066,173262,8616,9361,336,020919,850922,310
1934629,4961,083,209295,14113,9121,302,2021,776,2301,776,270
1935632,0051,183,701357,31137,2211,578,2931,623,1011,623,161

The funds in the Public Debt Repayment Account are not the only source from which debt-redemptions are made. Other accounts provided £2,560,197 for redemption purposes in 1934–35.

AMORTIZATION OF FUNDED DEBT.

At the 31st March, 1922, £27,532,164 of New Zealand's public debt was owing to the British Government, all but £1,191,919 of this being on account of war expenditure. Arrangements were made with the Imperial Government in 1922 for the funding of this debt.

The funding was carried out on an annuity basis of 6 per cent., the total payment each year (payable half-yearly at 1st Juno and 1st December) being£1,651,930. Interest is at the rate of £4 19s. 5.88d. per cent., the balance of the 6 per cent. going to reduction of the debt.

Under the agreement the original amount of £27,532,164 would have been automatically discharged from the public debt by the end of the financial year 1958–59. The British Government has, however, following the Hoover proposals regarding war debts, voluntarily suspended New Zealand's obligations in respect of the funded-debt payments due in and since December, 1931. On the other hand, a provision that any part of the funded debt may be redeemed at any time was taken advantage of in 1924, when £200,000 was paid off the Naval Defence Loan.

Payments to the end of 1934–35 have been:—

Year ended 31st March,Interest.Principal.Balance of Debt outstanding.

* Half-year only.

† Including £200,000 additional, paid off Naval Defence loan.

 £££
1923*684,794141,17127,390,993
19241,358,966292,96427,098,029
19251,344,212507,71826,590,311
19261,318,641333,28926,257,022
19271,301,856350,07425,906,948
19281,284,224367,70625,539,242
19291,265,706386,22425,153,018
19301,246,254405,67624,747,342
19311,225,822426,10824,321,234
1932*604,930221,03524,100,199
1933, 1934, and 1935NilNil24,100,199

The provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, do not apply to the funded debt.

ACCRUED SINKING FUNDS.

The passing of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, has robbed the comparative figures of accrued sinking funds of much of their significance. The table following is nevertheless of interest, as showing the growth of the sinking funds up to the date of the alteration of the system.

As at 31st March,Accrued Sinking Funds.
Amount.Proportion of Gross Debt.
 £Per Cent.
19163,679,9043.36
19174,263,5903.28
19184,971,6053.30
19195,951,0563.38
19207,257,564.
19218,763,0724.25
192210,655,3944.86
192311,879,2565.43
192412,974,0285.85
192513,462,8395.91
19262,274,2620.95
19272,443,5400.99
19282,635,7661.05
19292,156,5610.82
19307,257,5643.61
19312,313,6730.84
19322,435,1170.86
19332,509,5450.89
19342,647,9850.88
19352,657,8320.95

Payments to sinking funds during the year ended 31st March, 1935, totalled £62,627, and the funds earned £108,014 by way of interest. Sinking-fund holdings to the amount of £160,770 were utilized for the redemption of debentures during the year, and an administration fee of £25 was paid in the case of Westport Harbour.

Details of the accrued sinking funds as at 31st March, 1935, were as follows:—

 £
State advances to settlers2,076,621
State advances to workers93,828
State advances to local authorities200,223
State coal-mines8,591
Westport Harbour loans276,900
Electric supply1,669
Total£2,657,832

NET INDEBTEDNESS.

While the sinking funds were annually increasing it was customary to regard the net-indebtedness figures as giving the best comparison between one year and another. The initiation of the present system of amortization has, however, destroyed the comparison on this basis, and the gross figures now afford a better and more comparable index. The figures of net indebtedness for the last twenty years are as follows:—

As at 31st March,Amount.Per Head of Population.
 ££s.d.
1916105,957,4339224
1917125,572,51510921
1918145,868,450126610
1919170,125,20414475
1920193,913,191156155
1921197,561,222155174
1922208,241,12116008
1923207,024,04815642
1924208,595,743154153
 ££s.d.
1926236,581,216167163
1927243,407,34916955
1928248,740,73617127
1929256,652,371174104
1930265,051,92017811
1931273,715,71018131
1932279,507,68318367
1933280,113,41318250
1934300,144,011193157
1935277,923,38517840

In general the net indebtedness shown in the foregoing table is merely the balance left after deducting the accrued sinking funds from the amount of debentures and stock in circulation. In some years, however, a further deduction has been made on account of loan-money, included in the gross indebtedness, having been raised towards the end of the financial year for the redemption of debentures falling due early in the succeeding financial year, or (in 1928–29) for expenditure in the next year. The years concerned and the amounts so deducted on this account are—

Year ended 31st March.Amount.
 £
192125
1922157,870
192350,020
192446,590
192564,680
192819,750
19296,383,051
19313,975

In computing the net indebtedness, no allowance is made for the fact that portion of the debt is actually held by the Government itself. In the course ofthe year's financial transactions securities are bought and sold by Treasury accounts, and the investments held as at the 31st March in each year, while forming part of the debt, do not represent amounts due directly or indirectly to the public. Public debt held by Treasury accounts as at the 31st March of the last five years has been: 1931, £2,051,110; 1932, £2,085,828; 1933, £3,201,668; 1934, £429,663; 1935, £1,188,555.

GENERAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT DEBT.

The statistics given throughout this subsection refer to the indebtedness of the General Government only, and do not include the debt of local governing authorities, which is dealt with in the section of this volume relating to local government.

Local governing authorities had at the 31st March, 1934, a gross indebtedness of £73,364,342, and if this amount be added to the gross debt of the General Government at 31st March, 1935 (£280,581,217) the aggregate becomes £353,945,559. From this total should be deducted £4,879,280 in respect of outstanding loans to local authorities from the State Advances Office and the Main Highways Board, and £1,821,210 on account of inscribed debt under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, leaving £347,245,069 as the sum total of the public and semi-public debt. This figure represents a rate of £224 per head of population.

The figures relating to local authorities' indebtedness in the foregoing paragraph are inclusive of Hospital Boards, and to this extent differ from those given in the section on local government. Hospital Board indebtedness at 31st March, 1934, totalled £1,394,955, including £68,806 from the State Advances Office.

SUBSECTION D.—STATE ADVANCES.

INTRODUCTORY.

As is shown in Subsection C of this section, an appreciable proportion of the public debt of New Zealand is represented by money borrowed by the State not for its own requirements, but for the purpose of lending out at easy rates of interest for various defined purposes.

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c., for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes varied considerably in detail, but all lay in one of two main classes—those in which the money was advanced on security, and those in which the expenditure was incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, and discharged soldiers are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlements (including the settlement of discharged soldiers) is the principal of the latter.

Of the advances proper, several classes were administered by a separate Department known as the State Advances Department, and the accounts relating to these are not included in the Public Account, nor are they dealt with in Subsection A of this section. The various systems of advances administered by the State Advances Department are dealt with in the present subsection, as is also the rural intermediate credits scheme. The system of advances to discharged soldiers for settlement purposes is dealt with in the section of this book dealing with land tenure and settlement, while particulars of advances for mining purposes are given in the section relating to mining.

Statements appearing later in this subsection are to be read subject to certain temporary modifications imposed by legislation passed in the first session of 1932.

The National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, effected a reduction in the rate of interest of existing mortgages as from 1st April, 1932, until the expiry of its provisions three years (extended to five years by the Finance Act, 1934) later. The standard reduction is 20 per cent, in the case of mortgages entered into on the 1st January, 1930, or within five years immediately preceding, and in the case of earlier mortgages 20 per cent, of the rate of interest (to be determined in manner laid down) that would have been fixed by the mortgage had it been entered into on the 1st January, 1930. No such deduction shall, however, have the effect of bringing the net interest rate on chattel mortgages below 6½ per cent, or on other mortgages below 5 per cent.

During the last four years legislation has widened the powers of granting relief to, and otherwise ameliorating the conditions of, mortgagors who have been unable to meet their obligations in full.

Statistical and other information in this subsection refers to the position existing at the close of the financial year 1934–35. Subsequent to that date the system of State Advances has, in respect of its major operations, virtually been brought to an end by the enactment referred to under the next heading.

TRANSFER OF ADVANCES TO MORTGAGE CORPORATION.

A radical change in the policy of advances by the State was effected by the Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35, which received assent on the 5th April, 1935. This statute authorized the creation of a corporation under a Board composed of directors appointed partly by the State and partly by the shareholders of the Corporation. Reference to the Mortgage Corporation appears elsewhere in this edition; present mention is limited to its relationship to state advances.

Section 36 of the Act authorizes the transfer to the Corporation at a date or dates to be specified by Order in Council of the following classes of securities :—

  1. Mortgages in respect of advances to settlers or workers under the State Advances Act, 1913.

  2. Mortgages in respect of advances under the Rural Advances Act, 1926.

  3. Debentures or other securities vested in the State Advances Superintendent in respect of advances to local authorities under Part III of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, or corresponding provisions of former Acts.

    The above three classes refer to advances made by the State Advances Department. The same section authorizes the transfer also of—

  4. Crown mortgages in respect of advances under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. 1915, or any amendments thereof (including advances under section 11 of the Finance Act, 1933).

  5. Crown mortgages in respect of advances made out of the Land for Settlements Account by direction of the Lands Development Board established under Part I of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929.

Section 40 provides that upon a date to be fixed by Order in Council the Board of Management of the Mortgage Corporation shall constitute the Rural Intermediate Credit Board established under the Rural Intermediate Credit Act, 1927.

The effect of the Order in Council fixing the date of transfer of securities is to vest them from the date specified in the Mortgage Corporation without the necessity of any further instrument. Any specified security or class of securities to which an Order in Council relates may be excluded from the transfer by the same or by a subsequent Order in Council.

By Order in Council of the 30th July, 1935, securities of classes (1) and (2) above—i.e., advances to settlers and workers and rural advances—were transferred to the Mortgage Corporation as from the 1st August, 1935. No Orders in Council have yet (October, 1935) been issued in respect of other classes of securities.

As consideration for the mortgages transferred to it pursuant to section 36 of the Act (vide above), the Corporation is required to issue to the State stock up to an amount to be agreed upon, and the difference between the aggregate amount of mortgages transferred and the nominal value of the stock is to constitute a contingent liability of the Corporation to the State. All ascertained losses that may be suffered by the Corporation in respect of mortgages transferred from the State are to be deducted from the amount of the Corporation's contingent liability to the State. In effect, all mortgages transferred from the State are thus guaranteed fully by the State.

The amount of State Advances mortgages involved in the transfer to the Corporation is £36,485,373, in consideration for which the Corporation has agreed to issue stock to the amount of £29,485,000, the remaining £7,000,000 ranking as a contingent liability to the State. This liability of £7,000,000 amounts to no more than a tentative provision for possible losses, and does not involve any immediate writing-off so far as the State is concerned. Overdue interest and interest accruing at the date of transfer were also taken over by the Corporation and the amount owing to the State in the contingent liability account is thereby increased to approximately £8,850,000.

The mortgagor under any mortgage of land transferred as above to the Mortgage Corporation has the right, within three years of the date of transfer, to require that his mortgage be varied in accordance with the three following provisions :—

  1. Reduction (where in excess) of rate of interest on the mortgage to that charged by the Corporation.

    [NOTE.—The lending-rate for moneys available from the first debenture issue of the Corporation has been announced as 4⅛ per cent.]

  2. Increase of capital sum secured by 2 per cent., such increase being credited to the General Reserve Fund of the Corporation.

  3. Conversion (unless already a table mortgage) to a table mortgage with a period of not more than fifty years from date of variation.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

The following résumé covers collectively the three major fields of operation of the State Advances Department—viz., Advances to Settlers (including Rural Advances), Advances to Workers, and Advances to Local Authorities.

From the inception of the Department in 1894 to the 31st March, 1935, a total amount of £75,878,208 has been advanced. Repayments in full and payments of instalments have aggregated £34,622,507, leaving a balance of principal outstanding of £41,255,701, comprising outstanding loans to settlers, £22,520,021; to workers, £14,302,257; and to local authorities, £4,433,423. These figures are exclusive of £235,939 earthquake advances, referred to later in this subsection.

The average balance of principal outstanding per mortgagor at 31st March, 1935, was:—

 £
Loans on rural properties1,065
Loans on urban and suburban properties548
Loans to local authorities15,341

The total losses from the inception up to the 31st March, 1935, amount to £885,396, or £1 3s. 4d. in every £100 of advances. This total does not include losses which may in fact exist, but are not definitely ascertainable until securities are realized.

At the 31st March, 1935, the proportion of arrears to the balance of advances outstanding was 6.196 per cent., as compared with 5.519 per cent, a year earlier. The increase in arrears of interest and instalments of principal during 1934–35 was £207,671; in 1933–34, £508,132; in 1932–33, £559,210; and in 1931–32, £642,184. These exclude arrears from local-body investments under Part III of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. Postponements of principal are excluded from arrears, except where the postponement arises after due date. Arrears have also been capitalized in some instances.

The total capital amounted; to £44,229,509 at the end of 1934–35 and the cost of management in 1934–35 was £70,172, being thus 0.159 per cent., or 3s. 2d. per £100, of capital employed.

During 1934–35 mortgages and instalments of principal repaid amounted to £1,671,592. Interest collected totalled £1,991,578, and interest capitalized £40,294. The interest paid on loan-moneys during the year was £1,652,377. Interest earned for the year on the sinking funds administered was : Public Debt Sinking Funds, £123,989; Advances Office Sinking Funds, £95,340. The assets of the Advances Office sinking funds amounted to £2,374,017 at the close of the year.

To assist those urban and suburban mortgagors who, through adverse circumstances, are unable to meet their commitments in full on the half-yearly due date, the Department has instituted a system of frequent and regular collections. For the year ended the 31st March, 1935, the number of cases under collection was— Instalments, 11,922; rentals, 3,534. A total of 364,701 collections brought in £606,526, of which £158,975 was in respect of rentals.

Consequent on the Department exercising its powers of sale, the following advances granted to purchasers replaced existing mortgages during the year:—

 Number.Amount.
  £
Loans to settlers158171,440
Loans to workers63,900

Under the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1933, power was given, on the application of a mortgagor, to agree to the postponement of principal repayment by way of temporary relief. The Finance Act, 1932, gave the necessary authority for the capitalization of arrears of interest. The following table illustrates the relief extended during the financial year 1934—35 :—

 Number of Cases. Amount.
   £
Arrears of interest remitted131 16,694
Current interest reduced82 ..
Arrears of interest capitalized306 40,294
Suspension of principal repayments3,188 106,187
Mortgage readjusted108Annual instalments reduced— 
  From9,549
  To5,798
  Annual reduction£3,751
Term of mortgage extended8Annual instalments reduced—£
  From776
  To711
  Annual reduction£65

The following table, which relates to the position of advances to settlers and workers at June, 1935, is illuminating in view of the financial stresses upon the community during the last four years. Out of 50,884 mortgagors, 20,736, equal to nearly 41 per cent., were in arrears. The original amount of advances in respect of those in arrears was £20,279,400, of which the balance of principal outstanding (i.e., original advances less instalments repaid) was £17,932,589. The 30,148 mortgagors who were up to date in payments had an aggregate balance of principal outstanding of £18,498,801, out of original advances totalling £24,133,305.

Percentage of Principal repaid.Farm, 75 Per Cent. Limit.Farm, 66⅔ Per Cent. Limit.Residential 75 Per Cent. Limit.Residential, 95 Per Cent. Limit.Rental Properties, 75 Per Cent. Limit.Rental Properties, 95 Per Cent. Limit.
Mortgagors up to Date.
50 per cent, or over1,67996,12062151
25 per cent., but under 501,864214,9001,217143
10 per cent., but under 252,598851,5051,53969
Under 10 per cent.1,9181,1771,4983,8811413
Total8,0591,29214,0236,6994926
Mortgagors in Arrears.
50 per cent, or over310..1,0848381
25 per cent., but under 5080461,96848623269
10 per cent., but under 251,461418151,192209416
Under 10 per cent.2,5901,1991,0754,2183632,151
Total5,1651,2464,9425,9048422,637
Grand total13,2242,53818,96512,6038912,663

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS.

The Advances to Settlers Office was established by an Act passed in 1894. An account of the system will be found in the 1935 or an earlier number of the Year-Book.

Statistics given under this heading include advances, &c, from the Rural Advances Branch.

The number and amount of advances which were outstanding at the 31st March, 1935, were classified according to amount as follows:—

 Number of Advances.Amount outstanding.
  £
Freeholds19,78518,218,126
Leaseholds8,9223,903,712
Freeholds and leaseholds combined308398,183
Totals29,075£22,520,021

The number and amounts of current advances on rural and on urban and suburban land are—

 NumberAmount.
£
On rural land16,32517,380,182
On urban and suburban land12,7505,139,839

During the year 1934–35 234 advances, aggregating £161,590, were paid over as loans to settlers.

At 31st March, 1935, interest overdue on loans amounted to £1,050,340, as compared with £1,100,328 at 31st March, 1934, and £905,209 at 31st March, 1933. Instalments of principal overdue at 31st March, 1935, amounted to £514,626. Since 1932 a postponement of principal has not been included in the arrears position unless the postponement arises after due date-i.e., through a Court order. Furthermore, arrears have been cleared in some cases by way of capitalization since the Finance Act, 1932, was passed.

RURAL ADVANCES.

The Rural Advances Act, 1926, established, as from the 1st April, 1927, a separate branch of the State Advances Office, known as the Rural Advances Branch, and controlled by the Slate Advances Board (vide 1935 or an earlier Year-Book).

To provide funds wherewith to make rural advances, the Superintendent of the State Advances Office issued bonds or stock or other securities, which constitute a floating charge on all the assets of the Rural Advances Branch, including all mortgages for the time being securing loans granted under the Act. Such bonds, &c., are not secured on the public revenues, and do not form part of the public debt. Bonds to an aggregate value of £4,213,050 have been issued to the 31st March, 1934. No bonds were issued during 1934–35.

All statistics of loans, repayments, &c, are incorporated in those of advances to settlers, given previously. It may be mentioned that principal owing by mortgagors at the 31st March, 1935, amounted to £4,406,917, inclusive of £61,535 representing overdue instalments of principal. Overdue interest on mortgages at the end of 1934–35 amounted to £270,683. At the same date half-yearly instalments of interest and principal postponed totalled £13,853.

RURAL INTERMEDIATE CREDIT.

The Rural Intermediate Credit Act, which was passed during the 1927 session of Parliament and came into force on the 1st January, 1928, provided for the setting-up of a special Rural Intermediate Credit Board, and the making of advances as follows :—

  1. To members of co-operative rural intermediate credit associations, whose formation (with not less than twenty members and with certain defined objects) is provided for. The application for the loan is received and considered by the association concerned, which, on approving it, applies to the Board to advance the amount required to cover the loan. The term of the loan is not more than five years. An association may arrange with a bank or other approved financial institution for a loan in cases where the term is less than six months.

  2. To persons engaged in farming operations on their own account, or to trustees, executors, or administrators carrying on farming operations, the loan (for certain specified purposes and for a term of not more than five years) being advanced direct.

  3. To co-operative societies (with not less than thirty members and with a subscribed capital of at least £2,500) having for their principal objects the production or sale of staple agricultural or pastoral products. In this case the term of the loan is not less than six months nor more than three years.

The Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), authorizes the Board, or an association with the consent of the Board, to grant an extension of time or other concession in the case of an existing loan. Every loan granted after 10th March, 1933, by the Board or an association may be made repayable upon demand, or by instalments, and upon such other conditions as the Board thinks fit.

The Board may also carry on the business of discounting farmers' promissory notes and bills of exchange.

The total amount of advances in force at any time to a person in classes (a) or (b) was originally set down as not to exceed £1,000. This limit was extended to £2,000 by the Rural Intermediate Credit Amendment Act, 1929. In the case of cooperative societies the amount advanced may be not more than 80 per cent, of the fair market value of the live-stock or produce upon which the loan is secured.

The Rural Intermediate Credit Board now consists of seven members, including the Public Trustee, who is the principal executive member, and in his capacity as such is styled the Commissioner of Rural Intermediate Credit. [NOTE.— Vide page 469 in respect of future transfer of operations to the Mortgage Corporation.] The funds of the Board are obtained partly by way of advance from the Consolidated Fund and partly by the issue of debentures.

There are also throughout the Dominion sixteen District Rural Intermediate Credit Boards to which has been delegated authority to approve applications referred to in classes (a) and (b) above, up to certain amounts and subject to certain stipulated conditions.

The accounting year under the scheme ends on the 30th June. The following figures show the position at 30th June, 1935 :—

 £
Investments (including loans made and face value of bills and notes discounted)260,144
Loans granted but not completed12,869
Applications entertained and in course of consideration2,389
Total£275,402
The investments referred to above were made up as follows :—£
Advances to associations for preliminary expenses835
Advances to associations under Part II of the Act195,513
Advances to farmers under Part III of the Act62,339
Bills and notes discounted (face value)1,457
Total£260,144

From the inception of the scheme on 1st January, 1928, up to the 30th June, 1935, advances made and bills discounted totalled £1,150,132, and the business dealt with up to or under consideration at that date reached the total of £1,165,390.

The interest fixed for advances other than to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations is now 5 per cent, per annum, this being also the discount rate. In the case of loans to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations the rate charged is 4½ per cent., so that associations may be in a position to make advances to their members at 5 per cent. The Board has imposed conditions as to the manner in which this margin of ½ per cent is to be employed by the associations.

Advances totalling £400,000 have been received from the Consolidated Fund, and £262,900 had been raised to the 30th June, 1935, by the issue of debentures. Income from investments during the year ended 30th June, 1935, totalled £13,450, and expenditure for the year was £15,773, resulting in a net loss of £2,323. The income referred to does not include £7,469 earned by the investments of the Rural Intermediate Credit Redemption Fund, to which one-third of all advances received from the Consolidated Fund must be allocated and invested in Government securities. The interest earned by this Fund, plus one-half of the net profits on the year's working, is credited to the Redemption Fund, the grand total of which amounted at the end of the year to £191,040.

ADVANCES TO WORKERS.

The system of advances to workers was instituted in 1906. Particulars will be found in the 1935 or an earlier Year-Book.

The net amount of the 22,709 advances outstanding at the end of the financial year was £14,302,257, secured upon the following tenures:—

Tenure.Number of Loans outstanding.Aggregate Amount outstanding.
  £
Freehold21,29013,530,693
Leasehold1,419771,564

The whole of advances current are secured upon urban or suburban land.

During the year 1934–35 £38,485 was actually paid over in respect of seventy-two advances to workers.

Interest overdue on loans to workers at 31st March, 1935, was £802,198, as compared with £686,414 at 31st March, 1934, and £543,058 at 31st March, 1933. Instalments of principal overdue at 31st March, 1935, amounted to £331,378. Remarks at the close of paragraphs relating to advances to settlers should be noted.

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The system of State advances to local authorities was initiated in 1910. The total advances current at 31st March, 1935, were £4,433,423, of which £2,312,465 was classified as upon rural land and £2,120,958 as upon urban or suburban lands. The security consists of debentures issued by the local authority.

Interest overdue on loans to local authorities at 31st March, 1935, amounted to £17,646, and may be compared with £22,002 overdue at the end of 1933–34 and £20,602 at the end of 1932–33. Instalments of principal overdue at 31st March, 1935, totalled £12,265.

No advances were made to local authorities in the year 1934–35.

The foregoing figures are exclusive of funds (£237,115) provided by the Treasury and advanced under the Hawke's Bay Earthquake (1931) rehabilitation scheme. The balance outstanding at the close of the year was £235,939.

MISCELLANEOUS ADVANCES.

The administration of the following accounts, created as national emergency measures during the war period, were transferred by amalgamation to the State Advances Superintendent in 1922. The functions in respect of each account are now limited.

Housing Account.—No moneys were expended during the year 1934–35 in acquiring land, in preparing land for dwellings, or in the erection of houses.

The amount outstanding at the close of the year in respect of 473 homes under agreements to purchase was £251,906, and the arrears at the close of the year were £12,470, as compared with £13,270 a year earlier. The net loss for the year was £1,817.

Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings Account.—The investments under this account have been repaid and the relative loan liability redeemed during 1934–35. The account is now closed.

Repatriation.—During the year 1934–35 the sum of £8,540 principal-moneys was repaid by borrowers.

The present position is that 910 borrowers are indebted to the extent of £113,967 for business loans, and 3,592 borrowers owe £74,389 for furniture loans: a total of £188,356 in respect of principal-moneys. Overdue interest on bills of sale at the end of the year amounted to £4,483, as compared with £4,697 a year earlier.

Repatriation advances should not be confused with the system of advances to discharged soldiers to enable them to acquire farms and homes. Discharged soldiers' settlement advances are dealt with in Section XVIB of this book.

Fruit-preserving Industry Advances Account.—At 31st March, 1935, principal owing amounted to £27,690 and overdue interest on mortgages to £2,708.

Cold-storage Advances Account.—At 31st March, 1935, the sum of £12,518 was owing by mortgagors in respect of principal and £1,203 in respect of overdue interest.

Fishing-industry Promotion Account.—The principal (instalments overdue) owing on bills of sale at the 31st March, 1935, was only £75, with a further £8 as overdue interest.

Chapter 24. SECTION XXIV.—PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

SUMMARY OF PENSIONS.

A SUMMARY showing the total amount of pensions administered by the Pensions Department during the last two fiscal years is as follows:—

class of PensionAnnual Value.Gross Payments.
As at 31st Mar.,1934.As at 31st Mar., 1935.1933–34.1934–35.
* Excludes payments under section 45 of Pensions Act, 1926. These are included in old-age pensions.
 ££££
War1,228,5721,264,3751,246,4411,264,110
Old-age1,403,15751,583,4131,350,9821,519,889
Widows'301,388294,437302,020296,565
Maori War4,2143,1854,5223,607
Miners'56,18460,51056,81058,740
Epidemic2,6351,5633,2901,983
Blind20,39922,15119,30621,227
Boer War*2,0822,1082,1632,084
Civil Service Act4,9335,0735,9175,211
Sundry pensions and annuities12,36712,17611,67812,120
Family allowances151,765151,169146,766152,818
Totals3,187,9143,400,1603,149,8953,338,354

Total payments in 1934.35 represented £2 5s. 2d. per head of mean population other than Maori.

As an illustration of the growth of the pension responsibilities of the State, figures are appended covering total and per caput payments at five-yearly intervals on account of civil pensions and family allowances. Civil pensions comprise old-age, widows', miners', blind, epidemic, and Maori war. Only old-age pensions were in force over the whole period.

Year ended 31st March,Payments during Year.
Total.Per Head of European Population.
 ££s.d.
1900157,343042
1905195,475047
1910362,496075
1915540,0490910
1920931,5200161
19251,132,6020174
19301,577,641124
19352,054,829179

The aggregate amount paid to the 31st March, 1935, in respect of civil pensions and family allowances is £30,627,116.

War and other pensions paid by the Pensions Department in 1934–35 on behalf of other Governments amounted to £222,931 in actual payments for the year.

The necessity for restoring budgetary equilibrium led to the passing in May, 1992, of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Inter alia, this Act imposed reductions in the rates of certain classes of pensions. Apart from certain other provisions, the general effect may be stated as a reduction of 10 per cent. in the case of old-age, widows', and miners' pensions, and family allowances, and 17½ per cent, in the case of war pensions payable to dependants of a deceased soldier. Varying reductions (maximum, 30 per cent.) were made in economic, pensions. The maximum income, without affecting pension rates, of South African War pensioners who receive the additional 5s. per week from old-age-pension funds was reduced by 18 per cent.

From the 1st April, 1934, the Finance Act (No. 2), 1934, effected a partial restoration of 5 per cent, of existing pension rates in the ease of old-age pensions, and of 5 per cent, of the existing maximum income of South African War pensioners referred to in the immediately preceding paragraph.

The Finance Act, 1935, operative from the 1st August, 1935, completed the restoration of old-age, widows', miners', and South African War pension reductions, and increased by 7A per cent, of the existing rates pensions for dependants of soldiers whose pensions had been reduced, and economic pensions. A new type of non-contributory pension was provided by the War Veterans' Allowances Act referred to later.

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

The history of old-age pensions in New Zealand dates back to 1898, in which year was passed the original Old-age Pension Act. The law relating to old-age pensions is now contained in the Pensions Act, 192G (which is a consolidation of previous enactments on the subject), and its amendments.

The qualifications for the old-age pension are briefly as follows:—

  1. The applicant, if a male, must have reached the age of sixty-five, or, if a female, must have reached the age of sixty, except in cases where the applicant is the parent of two or more children under fifteen years of age who are dependent on him (or her). The pension-age in such cases is sixty for men and fifty-five for women, and the pension payable may be any sum up to £13 per annum, in addition to the ordinary pension payable.

  2. The applicant must be resident in New Zealand, and must have, resided continuously in the Dominion for the past twenty-five years.

  3. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have been imprisoned for four months or on four occasions for an offence punishable by twelve months' imprisonment and dishonouring him in the public estimation.

  4. The applicant must not during the past twenty-five years have been imprisoned for five years for any offence dishonouring him in the public estimation.

  5. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have deserted his wife (or husband, as the case may be) or his children under the age of fifteen years.

  6. The applicant must have lived a sober and reputable life during the past year.

  7. The yearly income (including pension) of the applicant, if single, must not exceed £97 10s., and, if married, £143 (joint income of husband and wife, plus pension).

  8. The not value of accumulated property (see below) must be under £410.

  9. The applicant must not have deprived himself or herself of property or income to qualify for a pension.

All residents of New Zealand who fulfil the necessary conditions are eligible for the old-age pension, with the exception of—

  1. Maoris who receive votes other than pensions out of the grant appropriated by the Civil List Act, 1908.

  2. Aliens.

  3. Naturalized subjects who have not been naturalized one year.

  4. Chinese or other Asiatics, whether naturalized or not, and whether British subjects by birth or not.

The term “alien “is deemed not to include a woman who ceased to be a British subject by reason of marriage with an alien who is since deceased, or from whom she is legally separated. The position of women who have married aliens is further improved in this respect by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Amendment Act, 1934.

The original Act of 1898 provided for a maximum general pension of £18 per annum. This maximum was increased to £26 in 1905; to £39 in 1917; to £45 10s. (in certain cases in 1924; all cases, 1925); in 1932 was reduced to £40 19s.; from the 1st April, 1934, increased to £43; and from the 1st August, 1935, restored to £45 10s. The maximum general pension, £45 10s., is reducible by—

  1. £1 for every complete £1 of income over £52.

  2. £1 for every complete £10 of net capital value of accumulated property.

A further deduction of £1 for every year or part of a year by which the age of a woman pensioner is less than 65 is also made, except in cases where the pensioner is the mother of two or more children under 15 years of age who are dependent on her.

The income of a married applicant for pension purposes is considered to be half of the joint incomes of husband and wife. The joint incomes of a married couple must not exceed, with pension added, the sum of £143.

Net accumulated property is the capital value (reduced by £50) of all real and personal property owned by an applicant, other than any property on which he permanently resides, or life-assurance policies and annuities, or other life interests in the capital Bum of which the applicant has no interest beyond the income derived therefrom. The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for pension purposes is half of the total net accumulated properties of both.

The exemption of the total value of the home in the computation of net accumulated property was not provided for prior to 1925, but a substantial allowance was made.

From the inception of the scheme to 31st March, 1935, 111,334 old-age pensions have been granted. Of these, 57,760 have been discontinued on account of the death of the pensioner, and 13,433 for other causes. The number of pensions in force on the 31st March, 1935, was 40,141, an increase of 2,634 on the figure for the previous year. The annual liability was £1,583,413, being an average of £39 8s. lld. per pension. A decennial summary is—

At 31st March,Pensioners.Amount paid during Year.
  £
192622,905903,577
192723,751982,356
192824,8751,010,575
192920,1101,060,760
193026,9091,107,993
  £
193128,9951,158,788
193232,3171,277,107
193334,9321,271,157
193437,5071,350,982
193540,1411,519,889

The total payments in respect of old-age pensions have aggregated £23,377,017 to the 31st March, 1935. Thirty per cent, of the net revenue from national endowments is apportioned to old-age-pensions expenditure, the total amount so credited to 31st March, 1935, being £778,320.

WIDOWS' PENSIONS.

The Widows' Pensions Act, 1911, came into operation on the 1st January, 1912. The scope of this Act, which is embodied in its amended form in the Pensions Act, 1926, has been widened from time to time by various amendments.

Applicants for widows' pensions must be British subjects of good character, with at least one child under fifteen, and applications require to be lodged with the local Registrar of Pensions, and to be investigated by a Magistrate, who alone (except as below) has power to grant pensions. The term “widow” includes a woman whose husband is detained in a mental hospital.

An Act of 1924 empowers the Minister in Charge of Pensions to grant, after investigation by a Magistrate, a widow's pension to a mother, otherwise ineligible, having care of her child or children whose father is dead and who are dependent upon her.

The maximum rate of pension (after 1st August, 1935) payable is 20s. per week to a widow with one child under fifteen years of age, with an additional 10s. per week added for each additional child under fifteen, the maximum gross pension payable being £4 per week. The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child legally adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant, but not an illegitimate child unless legitimized.

The total income, including her widow's pension, of a widow and her children must not exceed £2 per week plus 10s. per week for each child, or £5 10s. per week, whichever is the greater.

The number of widows' pensions in force on the 31st March, 1935, was 4,505, covering in addition 9,196 children. The figures for the last five years are as follows :—

Year ended 31st March,Number at End of Year.Annual Value.Annual Payments.
  ££
19314,566336,039325,998
19324,709345,471340,162
19334,687307,926311,317
19344,619301,388302,020
19354,505294,437296,565

The average pension as at 31st March, 1935, was £65 7s. 2d. The total widows' pension payments since the inauguration of the scheme in 1912 have been £4,539,522.

MAORI WAR PENSIONS.

The Military Pensions Act, 1912, was enacted to provide for the payment of an annual pension of £36 (now £49) to veterans of the Maori War who were awarded the New Zealand War Medal for active service in that war. This Act is now embodied in the Pensions Act of 1926.

The figures for five years are—

Year ended 31st March,Number at End of Year.Annual Value.Annual Payments.
  ££
19311708,3309,102
19321437,0077,582
19331065,1945,831
1934864,2144,522
1935653,1853,607

The grand total paid in pensions of this class since the institution of this scheme in 1912–13 has been £604,860.

MINERS' PENSIONS.

Miners' pensions are provided for by Part IV of the Pensions Act, 1926 (which incorporates the Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, and amendments), and by a section of the Finance Act, 1929, which extends the grounds on which a claim for pension may be based and increases the amount of pension where there are dependent children.

The pension is payable to any miner, qualified by residence, &c., who is totally incapacitated or seriously and permanently incapacitated for work owing to miner's phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand. The term “miner's phthisis” is extended to include tuberculosis of the lungs and any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with or a sequel to pneumoconiosis. The weekly pension (after the 1st August, 1935) payable during incapacity is as follows:—

To an unmarried man, £1 5s.

To a married man with wife or children under fifteen years of age dependent on him, £1 5s., plus 10s. in respect of his wife and 10s. in respect of each child.

To a widower with children under fifteen years of age dependent on him, £1 5s. plus 10s. for each child.

The maximum weekly pension is £4 5s. The annual amount payable in respect of any child or children is reducible by £1 for every £1 of income from other sources in excess of £104.

The qualifications for this class of pension are—

  1. The applicant must have been a British subject for one year.

  2. He must have resided continuously in New Zealand for five years immediately prior to his application. By an amendment of November, 1932, occasional absences not aggregating six months do not make an interruption.

  3. He must have been employed as a miner in New Zealand for two years and a half.

  4. He must not have deserted or failed to provide for his wife or children, not have been convicted for any offence punishable by imprisonment for two years.

  5. He must be of sober habits and good moral character.

The widow of any miner who is entitled to a pension under the Act and who dies of miner's phthisis is entitled to claim a pension of 17s. 6d. a week for two years (prior to April. 1932, the period was “during widowhood”) following her husband's death. The Pensions Amendment Act of November, 1932, as amended by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, provides, inter alia, that every widow in receipt of a pension as a miner's widow shall on the termination of that pension be entitled to a maximum pension of £40 10s. during widowhood or until entitled to an old-age pension. The actual reasonable expenses (not exceeding £20) of the funeral of a miner dying of miner's phthisis are also payable.

The average pension in force at 31st March, 1935, was £77 5s. 7d. Pension payments from the commencement of the scheme aggregate £752,371. Against this the amount of £54,742 was credited in respect of gold duty up to the 31st March, 1933, since when this credit has been discontinued. Funeral expenses paid to the 31st March, 1935, have totalled £8,168.

Year ended 31st March,Number.Annual Liability.Annual Payment.
  ££
193187662,57558,441
193299174,03569,785
193374356,61862,563
193473656,18456,810
193578360,51058,740

Of the 783 pensions in force at the 31st March, 1935, 668 were being paid to miners and 115 to widows of miners.

The total pensions granted since 1916 have been 2,249. Of these 902 have been discontinued on account of death, and 564 for other causes.

WAR PENSIONS.

The War Pensions Act, 1915, as amended, provides for the payment of pensions on certain conditions to disabled members of the New Zealand Forces (as defined by the Act) and to dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of the Forces.

No person in receipt of a pension under the Pensions Act, 1926 (other than an old-age pension) can now receive a pension under the War Pensions Act, 1915. War pensions (except economic pensions) payable to dependants of a deceased soldier (other than a widow, child, or widowed mother) were diminished by 17½ per cent, as from the 1st April, 1932, but an increase of 1½ per cent, of the then existing rates was granted as from the 1st August, 1935.

Provision was also made in the War Pensions Amendment Act, 1935, whereby a returned soldier's widow has now the right of pension if she was married within seven years (previously two years) of her husband's discharge from the Forces.

SUMMARY OF ANNUAL LIABILITY AT 31ST MARCH, 1935.

Class of Pension.Number of Pensioners.Number of Children.Annual Value.Average Pension.
   ££
Soldiers (permanent)9,98643535,05554
Soldiers (temporary)3,87559272,93570
Dependants of disabled soldiers2,2304,312161,40472
Widows (without children)1,149..106,09592
Widows (with children)26349941,530158
Other dependants of deceased soldiers—    
Parents3,8331131,69534
Other adult dependants83..2,35428
Guardians of children25948513,24751
Totals21,6785,3991,264,37558

Figures showing the number of pensions, according to class, in each of the last five years are given below :—

At 31st March,Soldiers (Permanent).Soldiers I Temporary).Wives and Parents (on account of Disablement).On account of Death.Total.
Widows (including Children's Pensions).Parents and other Dependants.
19319,4053,4861,3131,3945,42721,025
19329,5043,4721,5031,3945,16821,041
19339,5483,6151,7441,3884,80921,104
19349,6803,7621,9881,4034,47521,314
19359,9863,8752,2301,4124,1752l,178

The total payments on war pensions to the 31st March, 1935, were £23,477,772, the figures for the last ten years being—

Year ended 31st March,Pension Payments.
 £
19261,185,101
19271,128,988
19281,151,979
19291,184,003
19301,207,748
19311,245,499
19321,261,778
19331,217,586
19341,246,441
19351,264,110

During the year 1934—35 medical treatment of war pensioners cost £67,912; railway concessions to certain classes of war pensioners cost £1,084; and loading on life-insurance policies of war pensioners due to war-service disabilities amounted to £175.

War pensions payable outside New Zealand (chiefly in Great Britain and Australia) as at 31st March, 1935, numbered 1,776 with an annual liability of £94,318.

ECONOMIC PENSIONS.

By an amendment of the War Pensions Act, 1915, provision was made for the payment of economic pensions to soldiers or their dependants. An “economic pension”is defined under the Act as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds, and being in addition to any pension payable as a right in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the Forces.

Economic pensions consist of three classes. Rates, as from 1st August, 1935, are :—

  1. A maximum pension of £1 2s. 7d. weekly to disabled soldiers.

  2. A maximum pension of 8s. 8d. weekly to widows of soldiers with one child, with an additional 2s. 2d. weekly for each child in excess of one.

  3. A maximum pension of 17s. 3d. weekly to widowed mothers of deceased soldiers.

In every case the income of the pensioner affects the grant. Soldiers pensioned for minor (Usabilities do not receive economic pensions.

The total number of economic pensions in force at the 31st March, 1935, was 3,175, of an annual value of £156,319. Payments in respect of economic pensions are included in the general total of war pensions.

WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES.

The object of the War Veterans' Allowances Act, 1935, which is deemed part of the War Pensions Act, 1915, is to make provision for returned soldiers (or nurses) who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service, are ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unemployable by reason of physical or mental disability. The term “veteran”includes—

  1. Any person who, having been a member of the Forces within the meaning of the principal Act, served overseas as a member of the New Zealand Army Nursing Service, or, in the case of any other member of the Forces, served, as such with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy; and

  2. Any other person who, being domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the Great War, served therein as a member of any of His Majesty's Forces other than the New Zealand Forces with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy; and

  3. Any person who, being domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the South African War, served therein as a member of a New Zealand contingent raised for service in connection with that war, with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy.

The War Pensions Board is required to be satisfied that an applicant veteran is unfit for permanent employment by reason of physical or mental disability, and that he has resided continuously in New Zealand (irrespective of occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate) for five years immediately preceding his application.

The rates of allowances payable are;—

  1. Unmarried veteran: £52 per annum, diminished by fl for each complete £1 of his annual income (not including this allowance) in excess of £26.

  2. Married veteran or widowed veteran with dependent children : £52 per annum in respect of the veteran's persona claim; £39 per annum in respect of his wife; and £13 per annum in respect of each dependent child. These rates are diminished in every case by £1 for every complete £1 of combined annual income (not including this allowance) in excess of £39). The total allowance payable is limited to £143 per annum.

Other provisions of the Act authorize the payment of a gratuity to the widow of a deceased veteran in receipt of an allowance. The receipt of an allowance under this Act does not affect any right to receive a pension under the War Pensions Act.

SOUTH AFRICAN VETERANS' WAR PENSIONS.

The total number of pensions in force under this heading at the 31st March, 1935, was 53. corresponding to an annual liability of £2,108. The amount actually paid out on claims during the year was £2,084. Pensions are granted under authority of the Defence Act, 1909.

In addition to the war pensions granted to South African veterans, old-age pensioners who served in the South African War may receive additional old-age pension of 5s. per week in cases where the total income, including pension, does not exceed £97 10s. Prior to April, 1932, the total was not to exceed £97 10s., but was then reduced to £79 19s. and increased to £84 from 1st April, 1934. Full restoration was made as from 1st August, 1935. Payments under this head are included with o ld-age pensions and not with South African War pensions.

DEFENCE PENSIONS.

Section 34 of the Finance Act, 1926, provides for pensions to be paid in the event of the death or disablement of members of the New Zealand Defence or Naval Forces by reason of misadventure suffered in the performance of their duties. The pensions rates under this section are not to exceed the corresponding pension rates under the War Pensions Act, and all applications for pensions of this class are dealt with by the War Pensions Board.

EPIDEMIC PENSIONS.

To relieve distress arising out of the influenza epidemic of 1918 a system of pensions was instituted. The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1935, was 34, representing an annual liability of £1,563, the average pension being £45 19s. 5d. The amount paid during the financial year 1934–35 in respect of epidemic pensions was £1,983, and the total amount paid since the commencement of the scheme £472,927.

The number of pensions is rapidly decreasing, having fallen during the past year by 34, and since the 31st March. 1920, by 905.

PENSIONS FOR THE BLIND.

Part III of the Pensions Act, 1926, which incorporates legislation passed in 1924 and amended in 1925, provides for the payment of a pension of £45 10s. per annum to blind people over the age of twenty. To be eligible for a pension an applicant must (1) have been born blind in New Zealand, or (2) have become blind while permanently resident in New Zealand, or (3) have been permanently resident in New Zealand for at least ten years before the 29th October, 1924, or twenty-five years before the date of applying for the pension. Ten years' continuous residence in the Dominion is required in every case.

Similar provisions apply in regard to property and unearned income as in the case of old-age pensions. In regard to earned income, however, personal earnings up to £2 15s. per week are not taken into account, while an additional pension equal to 25 per cent, of earnings is granted, with a proviso that total income and pension must not exceed £3 12s. 6d. per week.

The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1935, was 474, representing an annual liability of £22,151, or an average of £46 14s. 8d. per annum. The total amount of pension-money that has been paid under this head to the 31st March, 1935, is £150,866.

FAMILY ALLOWANCES.

The Family Allowances Act was passed in the session of 1926, to provide for the granting of allowances towards the maintenance of children by parents of limited income. The Act came into force on the 1st April, 1927.

The allowance is at the rate of 2s. per week for each child in excess of two, the average weekly income of the applicant and his wife and children, including allowance, not to exceed £4 (reduced to £3 5s. by section 26 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932) plus 2s. for each child in excess of two. For the purposes of the Act the term “child”in general means a child under the age of fifteen.

The application for the allowance is made by the father, but in general the allowance is paid to the mother.

The number of claims dealt with during the year ended 31st March, 1935, totalled 2,743, of which 2,166 were granted and 295 rejected, the remaining 282 being held over. Of the rejected claims, 135 represent cases where the income of the family was in excess of the limit. The total number of family allowances in force at the 31st March, 1935, was 12,321, with an annual liability of £151,169. This averages £12 5s. 5d. per annum each. The total amount paid out during the year was £152,818, the aggregate for the eight years during which the Act has been in force being £729,553. Altogether, 19,063 family allowances have been granted to 31st March, 1935, and of these 6,742 have been discontinued.

The total number of children of the 12,321 families receiving allowances at 31st March, 1935, was 54,040, and the number in excess of two was 29,398, the average per family being 439 and 2 39 respectively. The number of families granted allowances during the year 1934–35 according to the number of children in excess of two is set out in the following table :—

Number of Children in Excess of Two.Number of Families.
One1,240
Two497
Three243
Four101
Five54
Six22
Seven6
Nine3

Of the 2,166 families granted allowances during the year 178 had incomes of £1 or under; 983 over £1 and up to £2; 642 over £2 and up to £3; 337 over £3 and up to £3 5s.; and 2G over £3 5s. The weekly rates at which allowances were granted were—

Rate.Number.
1s.8
2s.1,249
3s.8
4s.497
5s.3
6s.233
7s.2
8s.94
9s.1
10s.48
12s.18
14s.4
18s.1

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS.

In addition to the various classes of pensions enumerated in the foregoing part of this section, the Pensions Department is charged with the payment of pensions under the Civil Service Act, 1908, and other miscellaneous pensions and annuities.

The total number and the gross annual value of pensions in force under the Civil Service Act at the 31st March, 1935, were 15 and £5,073 respectively. The total payments during the year amounted to £5,211. These pensions are granted to ex-officers of the Civil Service, and since the introduction of compulsory contributory superannuation schemes are rapidly dwindling. There were at the 31st March, 1935, 139 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities,” of a total annual value of £12,176, the amount actually paid out during the year being £12,120. This class covers ex-members of the Legislative Department, and of the Police, Defence, and Naval Forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others by way of compassionate allowance, &c.

SUPERANNUATION FUNDS.

Schemes in force for the provision of superannuation pensions for public servants on their retirement embrace the State Railways, Public Service (including Police), Teachers, and Stipendiary Magistrates. Local bodies are empowered to establish schemes under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908.

The law relating to the various superannuation schemes, other than those for the Railways Department and local authorities, is contained in the Public Service Super annuation Act, 1927, a consolidation of former legislation on the subject.

PUBLIC SERVICE SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Public Service super annuation scheme, which includes all branches of the Public Service except the Railways Department and that part of the Education service which comes under the operations of the teachers' super annuation scheme, came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The scheme, although optional on the part of public servants permanently employed at that date, is compulsory on all persons appointed thereafter.

The Police Provident Fund, which was established on the 1st December, 1899, under the Police Provident Act, 1899, was merged in the Public Service Super annuation Fund on the 1st April, 1910.

The fund is administered by a Board, and consists of contributions from contributors, interest on investments, Government subsidy, fines imposed on public servants, and proceeds of sales of unclaimed property.

The contributions vary with the age on joining the fund: For ages under thirty they are 5 per cent, of the salary; ages thirty and under thirty-five, 6 per cent.; thirty-five and under forty, 7 per cent.; forty and under forty-five, 8 per cent.; forty-five and under fifty, 9 per cent.; fifty and over, 10 per cent.

The principal benefits are—

  1. A pension for every year of service equal to one-sixtieth of the average annual salary for the last three years, payable (a) after forty years' service, or (6) at age sixty-five, or (c) on retirement owing to ill-health. The maximum pension is not to exceed two-thirds of the salary, nor, in the case of entrants after the 24th December, 1909, £300 per annum.

  2. A pension of £31 per annum to the widow of a contributor or pensioner during widowhood, and £26 per annum for each child under the age of fourteen. Prior to the 1st April, 1925, widows' and children's pensions were £18 and £13 per annum respectively.

Special pensions may be given in the case of members of the Police Force for injuries received on duty.

Females may retire after thirty years' service or at the age of fifty-five. In certain cases, and subject to certain terms and conditions, the Minister in charge of a contributor's Department may reduce the retiring age to sixty years for males and fifty years for females, or may reduce the requisite service to thirty five years irrespective of age, or may reduce the retiring-age to fifty-five years if length of service is not less than thirty years.

Section 14 of the Finance Act, 1931, as amended by a section of the Finance Act (No. 4), 1931, modified the retiring qualifications to permit of a further reduction of five years in age or service in the case of contributors compulsorily retired through no fault of their own. A specially computed reduced superannuation was provided. The provisions covered the three major funds.

At the 31st March, 1935, there were 18,205 contributors, paying £240,407 per annum into the fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 3,597, and were entitled to £489,199 per annum, made up as follows :—

 Number.Pensions.
  £
Retired for age or length of service1,930416,956
Retired for ill health29529,944
Police injured on duty121,779
Widows1,03231,992
Children3288,528
Totals3,597£489,199

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the fund at the 31st March. 1935, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution :—

Rate per Cent. of Contribution as provided by the Act.Number.Annual Salary.Annual Contributions.
Male.Female.Total.
    ££
513,2592,01715,2763,650,158182,508
61,3101371,447418,71525,123
780788895260,62918,244
839747444132,24110,579
91141112538,3253,449
10162185,033503
Totals15,9032,30218,2054,505,101240,406

Accumulated funds at the 31st March, 1935, amounted to £2,917,452, total assets to £2,997,584, and investments to £2,720,234, £1,472,330 being invested in mortgage securities, £982,748 in local-body debentures and Government securities, and £265,156 in rural advances and rural intermediate credit bonds. The investment figures include £20,850 invested on Stipendiary Magistrates' account.

Officers who have retired since the initiation of the scheme, and who possessed compensation rights under the Civil Service Act, 1866, would have been entitled to receive the sum of £561,134, the amount of compensation accrued to the date when they joined the Superannuation Fund, had they not become participants in the benefits of the fund. To this amount must be added accretions to the date of retirement, approximately £143,000, for which the Consolidated Fund would otherwise have been liable, and the whole may be fairly set against the total subsidies paid to the fund, amounting to £2,203,415.

The Government subsidy to the fund was originally £20,000 per annum, rising in 1910 to £22,500, and in the next two years to £23,000. In 1913 it was increased to £48,000, and in 1919 to £86,000. In consequence of the position disclosed by the Actuary as at 31st December, 1919, an additional amount of £100,000 was contributed to the fund by the Government, divided between the years 1923–24 and 1924–25. An additional amount of £100,000 was also paid in 1929–30, following the actuarial investigation as at 31st March, 1927; and a special payment of £40,776 was made under the provisions of section 29, Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2). The additional charge on account of the increase granted in 1925 in the amount of pensions payable to widows and children is met by the Consolidated Fund.

The actuarial report for the triennium ended 31st March, 1930, shows that on the basis of valuation adopted the subsidies paid for 1911 and 1912 were too low by £25,000 per annum; for the three years 1914—16, too low by £18,000 per annum; for 1917 and 1918, too low by £38,000 per annum; for the three years 1920–22, too low by £39,000 per annum; for 1923, too low by £86,000; for the first three months of 1924, too low by £9,000; for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1925, too low by £104,000; for each of the next two years, too low by £154,000 per annum; for the next two years, too low by £199,000 per annum; and for 1929–30, too low by £99,000; making a total shortage to 31st March, 1930, of £1,301,000, or, with accumulations at 4½ per cent, to 1931, £1,776,357. The valuation of the fund as at the 31st March, 1930, gave the following results :—

  ££
Present value of existing pensions and allowances 3,375,540 
Present value of prospective benefits 11,157,495 
Less present value of members' contributions£3,208,114 
Less present value of State subsidy under section 114 of Act570,9783,779,0927,378,403
Total net liabilities  10,753,943
Funds in hand  2,882,504
Present value of total liability of State  7,871,439
Less present value of existing subsidy of £86,000 if treated as a perpetuity  1,911,111
Value of future subsidies to be provided for by the State over and above present subsidy of £86,000  £5,960,328

The actuarial report estimated that, apart from making provision for the shortages of past years, the subsidy for each of the three years ending 31st March, 1931 to 1933, should be increased to £248,000. It was stated that at least £80,000 per annum should be added to the subsidy to meet the deficiency in past subsidy payments; and administration expenses, which have hitherto been borne by the fund, were estimated to require a further £4,000 subsidy per annum.

All valuations of the fund prior to 1924 were made on the basis of interest at 4 per cent., a 4½per cent. rate being adopted for the last two periods. This rate is, however, much lower than that received for many years past, the average rate of interest earned on the mean funds being:—

Year ended 31st March,Average Bate per Cent.
 £8.d.
1926615
1927610
1928618
19295176
193051611
193151611
19325196
19335189
19345116
1935584

The total revenue of the fund for the year ended 31st March, 1935, was £561,215, including members contributions £238,844, interest on investments and on contributions £153,518, which includes a special payment of £30,420 from the Consolidated Fund to reimburse the Superannuation Fund of the amount of the statutory reduction of interest on all classes of securities, and Government subsidy £149,211, the last-mentioned including a special payment of £17,229 on account of increased benefits to widows and children. The total amount expended during the year was £543,327, including retiring and other allowances £488,836, refunds of contributions £40,065, transfers to other funds £356, and cost of administration £7,429.

A table is now given showing the progress of the fund for the last five years:—

Year ended 31st March,Number of Contributors.Annual Contributions.Interest receivable from Investments.Contributions from Government.Annual Value of Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
193118,197270,316162,888101,361383,9232,917,154
193217,516241,966168,453102,082458,4342,888,034
193317,219225,301166,814104,388482,5912,897,415
193417,369227,015157,200143,529488,0742,899,564
193518,205240,406153,333149,211489,1992,917,452

TEACHERS' SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The scheme of superannuation for teachers came into operation on 1st January, 1906. The benefits were brought into line with those of the Public Service Superannuation Fund in 1908, existing contributors having, however, the right of electing to remain subject to the provisions formerly in force.

There are a few slight differences between the Public Service and the Teachers' Funds, the chief being that where teachers' back service is recognized it need not be continuous, and that a contributor is not deemed to have retired from the Education service by reason of unemployment unless the unemployment extends for twelve months or unless the contributor deliberately retires from the service as distinct from a particular position in the service. In certain circumstances the period of twelve months can be extended by the Board.

The total amount of Government subsidy paid into the fund to the 31st January, 1935, is £1,266,623. The expenditure of the fund for the year ended 31st January, 1935, was £343,699, of which retiring and other allowances represented £306,350, and refunds of contributions £33,462. The revenue for the year was £329,824.

On the 31st January, 1935, there were 8,500 contributors, representing annual contributions amounting to £113,720.

The retiring and other allowances as at 31st January, 1935, were made up of—

 Number.Amount of Pension.
  £
Retired for age or length of service1,391271,233
Retired for ill health18423,280
Widows2798,657
Children651,690
 1,919£304,860

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown in the following table—

Year ended 31st January,Number of Contributors.Amount of Contributions received.Interest received.Government Subsidy.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
* After deducting £20,970 rebate allowed under Finance Act, 1031, in connection with reduction in salaries.
  £££££
19319,909143,39273,105126,106235,9021,272,148
19329,964115,961*72,68246,917254,9271,218,166
19339,355113,76461,11747,020283,7381,111,642
19348,903114,77554,31055,948299,5161,003,185
19358,500114,69948,327106,048306,350989,310

The actuarial report on the Teachers' Superannuation Fund for the triennium ending 31st January, 1930, gives the present value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund at that date as £5,559,202.

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Government Railways Superannuation Fund was established on the 1st January, 1903, by the Government Railways Superannuation Fund Act, 1902, now embodied in the Government Railways Act, 1926.

The pension is here also one-sixtieth of the annual rate of pay for every year of service, but the retiring-age is sixty for both males and females (of Public Service, supra). The only other difference of importance is that the annual allowances to widows and children are paid only in cases where contributors die before retiring on a pension.

From 1st April, 1924, the moneys belonging to the fund have been separately invested by the Public Trustee. The average rate of interest earned during the year 1934—35 was 5.70 per cent.

The income for the year totalled £470,980, including members' contributions £137,392, interest £67,994, and subsidies from Railways Department. £182,909 (including £12,999 on account of increased allowances to widows and children) and Consolidated Fund £87,000. The expenditure during the year amounted to £477,992, of which retiring-allowances represented £422,478, allowances to widows and children £29,020, and refunds of contributions, &c, £20,494.

At the 31st March 1935, there were 3,328 persons on the fund, receiving allowances involving an annual liability of £439,031.

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown below:—

Year ended 31st March,Number of Contributors.Amount received from Contributors.Interest earned by Fund.Amount received from Government.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
193113,872170,68680,049181,959296,0451,488,566
193212,828142,23984,483182,200373,6751,454,173
193312,172143,98482,297182,545451,5951,333,245
193411,865133,56075,220183,006454,1731,240,831
193511,832137,39267,994269,999451,49S1,239,705

The actuarial report on the Railways Superannuation Fund as at 31st March, 1927, gives the present value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund at that date as £6,810,204.

SUPERANNUATION OF MAGISTRATES.

The scheme for Magistrates provides for the same rates of contribution as under the Public Service scheme, but gives an annual retiring-allowance for each year of service (whether continuous or not) equal to one-fortieth of the annual salary receivable at the date of retirement, with, however, a limit of twenty-five fortieths. The retiring-age is also increased to sixty-eight, instead of sixty-five.

Members' contributions during the year ended the 31st March, 1935, totalled £1,429, and interest on investments brought in £1,140. Administration expenses during the year were £49, and retiring-allowances were £4,239. The accumulated fund at the 31st March, 1935, amounted to £20,798.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES SUPERANNUATION.

The Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, which came into force on the 10th October, 1908, applies to Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, Road Boards, Harbour Boards, Fire Boards, tramway companies, or any body possessing rating-powers over any district.

Statistical information as to the various funds which have been initiated under the authority of this statute is not available. The provisions of the Act, however, have not largely been availed of, special provisions concerning employees of local authorities having been subsequently made under the National Provident Fund scheme, referred to under the next heading.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.

The National Provident Fund was established by Act in 1910, and came into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The fund is administered by a Board composed of the Minister of Finance as Chairman and four members appointed by the Governor General, one of whom is the Superintendent of the fund.

The system is open to any person between the ages of sixteen and fifty years residing in New Zealand whose average income during the three years prior to joining has not exceeded £300 per annum. There is no medical examination on entry, and the method of joining is extremely simple, the applicant having merely to fill in a form at a postal money-order office or local office of the fund, and pay a first weekly contribution.

The following benefits are payable:—

  1. After contributing for twelve months, a payment not exceeding £6 (£4 in case of those joining after 28th April, 1931) for medical attendance and nursing on the birth of a contributor's child or children.

  2. After contributing for five years, an allowance, after three months' incapacity for work, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age; payable independent of any allowances due from friendly societies. No contributions payable while in receipt of incapacity allowance.

  3. After contributing for five years, an allowance, on the death of a contributor, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age, and 7s. 6d. for the widow so long as any child is under fourteen years of age.

  4. On reaching age sixty, a pension of 10s., 20s., 30s., or 40s. per week, according to the scale of contributions. The receipt of a pension under the National Provident Fund Act originally did not affect a person's claim to the old-age pension under the Pensions Act, but this provision was repealed in respect of persons joining the fund after the passing of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932 (10th May, 1932).

The maternity allowance is payable only if the combined income of a contributor and wife or husband does not exceed £270 (contributors who joined prior to 28tli April, 1931, £300) per annum at the time of claim, but this limitation does not debar from the other benefits. The incapacity allowance is not to exceed the pecuniary loss which, in the opinion of the Board, the contributor has probably suffered during incapacity, and the income of a contributor during incapacity, independent of the fund, is not to exceed the rate of £4 per week.

The contributions for each 10s. of weekly pension range from 9d. per week in the case of persons joining at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age fifty.

In the event of a contributor leaving the fund or dying, all contributions (less any benefits received) are returnable. If a contributor dies before the first five years are completed his representatives receive the contributions he has paid, less anything he received during lifetime. Should ho die after ago sixty, before receiving in benefits a sum equal to the contributions paid in during his lifetime, the difference is returnable to his representatives; and, further, if the allowances paid for widow and children do not exhaust the contributions his representatives are entitled to the residue. If a contributor dies before age sixty, leaving a widow and no children, all the contributions are returnable, less benefits paid out.

The benefits under the Act are guaranteed by the State, which subsidizes the contributions to the extent of one-fourth (for the four years from 1st April, 1931, the subsidy was one-fifth) of the amount paid into the fund.

An important extension of the fund was made in 1914, when it was provided that the employees of local authorities, &c, could be enrolled in the fund for super annuation purposes. The Amendment Act of 1931 provided certain modifications consequent upon the general reduction in wages and salaries in 1931. A further extension of the fund was made in 1916, whereby members of approved friendly societies were granted maternity allowances and offered annuities on reduced terms and under special tables.

In 1925 provision was made for the payment out of the National Provident Fund of retiring-allowances to nurse3 and other members of the permanent staffs of Hospital Boards. The National Provident Fund Act, 1926, which is a consolidation of previous legislation on the subject, imposes on Hospital Boards the obligation to contribute to the Fund on behalf of their permanent officers, and thus places Hospital Boards in a different category from other local bodies, which are empowered, but not obliged, to become contributors.

Schemes of contribution by employers on behalf of employees are provided for by sections of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1927, and the Finance Act, 1929.

Since the inauguration of the fund in 1911, 87,229 persons (72,543 males and 14,686 females) have entered, and of these 62,057 (males, 50,959; females, 11,098) have discontinued for one reason or another, leaving 25,172 (males, 21,u84; females, 3,588) on the books at the 31st December, 1934. Of 2,616 discontinuances in 1934, 76 were on account of death and 95 on account of having attained the pension-age.

The numbers of contributors for the various pension rates as at 31st December, 1934, were as follows, male and female Contributors being shown separately :—

Pension Rate.Males.Females.Total.
10s.15,22462715,851
20s.1,6823141,996
30s.19251243
40s.428114542
Other4,0582,4826,540
Totals21,5843,58825,172

Contributions received during the year 1934 amounted to £227,652 and interest to £165,829. Government contributions under the Act totalled £56,733, not including £29,878 for maternity claims, which are a charge on the Government. The largest item on the expenditure side was £61,610 by way of refund of contributions on lapse, reduction, or withdrawal.

As an emergency measure, the National Provident Fund provided for its own administration expenses during the last four years, but provision has been made for this item to be again met from the Consolidated Fund in 1935–30.

The progress of the National Provident Fund scheme during the last five years is indicated in the following table :—

Year.Number of Contributors.Annual Rate of Contribution payable.Total Amount of Fund.Claims paid during Year.
Maternity.In-capacity.Retiring.widows and Children.
  ££££££
193031,293262,7152,936,20342,9844,11025,99410,783
193129,359253,5253,263,00543,5825,78529,44511,559
193226,140233,7503,501,55041,0146,75735,20311,820
193324,949225,8163,756,98136,9787,64441,71511,981
193425,172231,8584,037,79335,1307,75346,40411,873

The latest actuarial investigation of the National Provident Fund (as at 3l8t December, 1925) showed the assets to exceed the liabilities by £54,200. The amounts required to provide maternity allowances are voted by Parliament annually, and these allowances are accordingly regarded as being outside the actuarial aspects of the scheme.

Chapter 25. SECTION XXV.—LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

INTRODUCTORY.

LOCAL government throughout New Zealand is exercised by a number of local authorities constituted under various Acts of Parliament. These Acts provide for the creation of districts over which the local authorities exercise jurisdiction. Different types of district are distinguishable, each type being identified with a specific function or group of functions. Geographically, the Dominion is divided into 129 counties, which comprise its total area, except for certain small islands which are not included within the boundaries of the adjacent counties. Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which &c contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties—e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are comprised of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose—e.g., electric-power districts. The number of local authorities actively functioning at the 1st April, 1935, was 679, made up as follows: County Councils, 125; Borough Councils, 124; Town Board3 (independent), 38; Town Boards (dependent), 26; Road Boards, 16; River Boards, 44; Land-drainage Boards, 52; Urban Drainage Boards, 3; Water-supply Boards, 4; Fire Boards, 53; Local Railway Board, 1; Harbour Boards, 45; Electric-power Boards, 41; Hospital Boards, 45; Tramway Board, 1; Transport Board, 1; Gas-lighting Board, 1; and Rabbit Boards, 59. In addition to the foregoing there are 18 District Councils of the Main Highways Board constituted under the Main Highways Act, 1922. These, although not local authorities in the strict sense of the word, are nevertheless intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, and have power to make recommendations of great importance.

Full details of the constitution, functions, powers, &c, of local authorities, and also an account of the origin and development of local government in the Dominion, are contained in the 1932 edition of the Local Authorities Handbook, an annual publication of the Census and Statistics Office. Detailed statistics relating to each local-governing body are also contained in each issue of that publication. Some of the principal powers of local authorities are briefly referred to under the next heading.

A recent occurrence of some interest was the appointment by the Napier Borough Council (under section 49 of the Municipal Corporations Act, 1920) of two persons to act as a special committee of management to whom the powers of the council were delegated. This appointment followed the disastrous Hawke's Bay earthquakes of 3rd February, 1931, and the powers of the committee were extended by section 64 of the Hawke's Bay Earthquake Act, 1931. The committee ceased to function in May, 1933. In view of the financial position of the Thames Borough, the Thames Borough Commissioner Act, 1932, was passed and a Commissioner appointed to administer the borough as from the 21st September, 1932. For similar reasons, section 10 of the Local Legislation Act, 1932–33, provided for the administration of Matakaoa County by a Commissioner whose appointment was made from the 1st May, 1933. The three cases of Napier, Thames, and Matakaoa represent a form of local-authority administration believed to be without precedent in New Zealand.

GENERAL POWERS.

Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act, 1925, and the Local Bodies’ Loans Act, 1926. In the case of Harbour Boards, there is in addition to a general Harbours Act a special Act for each Board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—Urban Drainage Boards, the Local Railway Board, the Tramway and Transport Boards, and the Gas-lighting Board— derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

TOWN-PLANNING.

Town-planning legislation of 192G and 1929 provides for the making and enforcement of tow, extra-urban, and regional planning schemes. Every town- planning scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the city or borough to which it relates (including the reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as to promote its healthfulness, amenity, convenience, and advancement. Extra-urban schemes have a like object in regard to their areas.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of their areas, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, services, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority.

The principal Act constitutes a Director of Town-planning and a representative Town-planning Board under the Minister of Internal Affairs as chairman. The office of Director is at present in abeyance. A Town-planning Adviser to the Department of Internal Affairs was, however, appointed in February, 1935.

All cities or boroughs with a population of one thousand or over at the census of 1926, together with certain road districts, are required to prepare town- planning schemes and submit them to the Town-planning Board by the end of 1936. Other boroughs may be added by Order in Council, and smaller boroughs may submit schemes voluntarily. Provision is made for a combined scheme by two or more adjoining local authorities.

Counties, inclusive of smaller boroughs and of town districts, comprise rural areas for the purpose of extra-urban schemes. The authority responsible for the scheme is the County Council, or where more than one local authority is concerned a representative committee approved by the Board.

When a town or extra-urban scheme has been approved by the Board it is the duty of the local authorities having jurisdiction to enforce the requirements of the scheme in respect of all new works of any description. The provisions of a regional planning scheme are not obligatory, but are intended to servo as a guide to the local authorities within the region.

One of the most important divisions of the town-planning legislation deals with betterment, which is defined as the increase in property values attributable to the approval or carrying-out of a town-planning scheme. Brief)y, one-half of betterment increase in the value of rateable property constitutes a debt payable to the local authority by the owner of the land. Moneys from this source are to be applied, inter alia, to compensate persons whose lands are acquired for town- or extra- urban-planning schemes, or who are otherwise injuriously affected within prescribed limits.

Town-planning activities have been restricted of later years by reason of the depression. During the year ended 31st March, 1935, one town-planning scheme was formally approved by the Board, and further progress was made towards finalizing two more schemes.

HOUSING SURVEY.

The Housing Survey Act, 1935. was passed in October, 1935. Its purpose is to ascertain the extent to which the existing housing-accommodation in the Dominion falls short of reasonable requirements. The Act applies to every borough (or city) or town district whose population was estimated by the Government Statistician to be not less than one thousand at 1st April, 19154. to certain road districts, and to any other local authority prescribed by Order in Council.

Such local authorities are required to make a housing survey, and are given for this purpose power to enter and inspect dwellings or to require occupiers to furnish a written statement within fourteen days of notice being given them. The results of the housing survey are to be reported to the Minister of Internal Affairs. In default of the local authority conducting a survey, it may be carried out by the Minister at the expense of the local authority.

The field covered by the survey is in respect of each dwelling:—

  1. Number and sizes of rooms.

  2. Physical condition of dwelling and appurtenances.

  3. Age, sex, and number of occupants.

  4. Owners and occupiers, mid rentals of rented houses.

  5. Extent of overcrowding.

  6. Population densities of residential areas.

  7. (Any other particulars prescribed by regulations.

The Native Housing Act, 1935, is a complementary measure to improve the housing conditions of the Maori people. Maoris are mainly rural dwellers, and as such are beyond the scope of inquiry of the Housing Survey Act. Under the Native Housing Act, the Board of Native Affairs (constituted under the Hoard of Native Affairs Act, 1934–35) is empowered to make advances to Natives out of moneys appropriated by Parliament for that purpose for the erection, repair, or improvement of dwellings and appurtenances; for the repair or installation of a system of lighting, heating, water-supply, sanitation or other conveniences; for the purchase of dwelling-sites; and for the improvement of land adjacent to a dwelling. Advances must be secured upon first mortgages of land or other securities approved by the Board.

BORROWING.

Under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. The Board consists of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department, and live other members appointed by the Governor-General. In cases where a poll of ratepayers is necessary preparatory to raising a loan, the Board's consent must be obtained before the poll is held. In no case may the Board sanction any application unless provision is made to its satisfaction for repayment of the loan within such period as it deems reasonable, having regard to the probable duration and continuing utility of the works on which the loan-moneys are to be expended.

The principal legislation dealing with the borrowing-powers of local authorities is contained in the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, which is mainly a consolidation of previous measures on the subject. A local authority is thereby empowered to raise a special loan for the construction of any public work, for the purchase of land or buildings, of for the purpose of engaging in any undertaking which the local authority may lawfully enter into. As explained previously, a loan proposal list requires the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. It must then be sanctioned by the ratepayers at a special poll held for the purpose (except in those cases where a poll is not required to be taken), and the proposal is not deemed to have been carried unless at least three - fifths of the valid votes recorded are in favour of it, save in the case of boroughs and town districts, where a bare majority only is necessary. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The special provisions for borrowing under the authority of the Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1926, and the (idem) Extension Act, 1931, were repealed by section 52 of the Finance Act, 1932.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospital and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, a Hospital Board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. In the case of Fire Boards the precedent consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs is required, and Rabbit Boards must first seek the approval of the Minister of Agriculture. In both of these cases the amount that may be borrowed is limited by statute. Harbour Boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour-works from special empowering legislation. Similar authority is given for the capital works of Urban Drainage Boards, the Christchurch Tramway Board, the Auckland Transport Board, and the Petone and Lower Hutt Gas-lighting Board.

The Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Amendment Act, 15)34, limits future borrowings to an interest-rate not exceeding 3½ per cent., provided however, that a different rate may be prescribed by Order in Council under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926. County Councils, under conditions specified, are authorized to raise loans for defined areas without taking polls.

The Finance Act (No. 2), 1935, extends the right of applying for a State guarantee of a special loan under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, to cover also any loans that a local authority is authorized to raise by the latter Act without taking a poll.

RATING.

Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are ultimately liquidated by such revenues—known then as special rates. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:—

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Separate rates are levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

  3. A special rate is imposed to secure the repayment of loan-money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be. Special rates can be levied only by resolution gazetted, and, unlike general and separate rates, are not subject to any statutory limit.

There are three main systems of rating: (1) Capital (land and improvements) value, (2) annual value, and (3) unimproved value. In a few cases rating is on an acreage basis; and in the case of certain Rabbit Boards the rate is according to the number of sheep or cattle owned.

The Rating Act, 1925, provides that the local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or on the capital value shall be in force in the district. The system of rating is upon the basis that Is. in the £1 on the annual value is deemed to be equivalent to |d. in the £1 on the capital value of rateable property; or where in a district not rating on the annual value it is necessary for any purpose to ascertain the annual value of any rateable property, then the annual value thereof is equal to 6 per cent, on the capital value of such property. The annual value is deemed to be the letting-value, less 20 per cent, in case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per cent, of land, but in no case is the rateable value to be less than 5 per cent, of the value of the fee-simple.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932, with the object of affording some relief to owners of farm lands subject to rating by a borough council, authorizes the preparation of a special farm-land roll, which is deemed part of the valuation roll for rating purposes.

Consequent upon the recent decline in property values, many owners took advantage of the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act permitting individual revaluations. In order to preserve equity in rating, the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (December), 1933, authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part, not being less than 75 per cent, of the values upon the roll. Where individual revaluations have been made, rates are to be levied either upon the new valuation or upon the proportionate part of the value existing prior to revaluation, whichever value was the lower.

RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE OF LAND.

The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, was passed by the General Assembly to afford local authorities the opportunity of adopting the principle of rating which is expressed in the title of the measure. The Act is now incorporated in the Rating Act, 1925. It is entirely at the option of the ratepayers of local districts to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years experience of the new one. The poll is to be taken in the same manner as in the case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. Under the original Act it was necessary for a minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers to vote, and a majority of their votes carried the proposal. Now the question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a bare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

The valuation roll is supplied to the local authority by the Valuer-General under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1925, and the definitions of “capital value,” “improvements,” “unimproved value,” and “value of improvements” found in that Act, as amended in 1926 and 1927, apply also to rating on unimproved value. Provision is made for adjustment of rating-powers given under other Acts by fixing equivalents. Thus a rate of Is. in the pound on the annual value is to be considered equal to ʼnd. in the pound on the capital value.

It should be noted that some local authorities automatically adopt rating on unimproved value. For example, a town district, borough, or another county formed from part of a county which itself rates on unimproved values, automatically rates on the system in force in the county at the time of the constitution of the new district; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their Councils agree to the contrary.

A table is given of systems in force during the fiscal year 1933–34:—

System of Hating.Total.
Unimproved value.Capital Value.Annual Value.Acreage Value Basis.On Stock.
* Includes one system based on water consumption. 
Counties5966......125
Boroughs791726....122
Town districts32305....67
Road districts314......17
River districts1623..4..43
Land-drainage districts3126......57
Electric-power districts1326......39
Water-supply districts..3*......3
Urban drainage districts..21....3
Tramway district..1......1
Rabbit districts..5..45555
Totals23321332495532

Although the figures referred to indicate that the number of local authorities rating on the unimproved value during 1933–34 was 44 per cent, of the total, yet on a population basis the figures reveal that 58 per cent, of the people of the Dominion are in districts so rating. The position in regard to the four major classes of local authorities at 1st April, 1934 (i.e., the beginning of the 1934–35 financial year), was as follows :—

District.Rating on Unimproved Value.Total for Dominion.*Ratio of Unimproved Value to Total.
No.Population.No.Population.No.Population.

* Exclusive of migratory, &c, population of 6,789.

† Includes the four counties, Eden, Taupo, Sounds, and Fiord, in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force.

     Per Cent.Per Cent.
Counties (excluding all town districts)59282,570129593,12045.7447.64
Boroughs79506,010122901,36064.7566.19
Town districts (independent)1819,0404138,07043.9050.01
Town districts (dependent)145,100269,57053.8553.29

For the purposes of the foregoing tables a district is deemed to rate on the unimproved value where the general rate is levied on an unimproved-value basis. In a number of instances, in particular of boroughs, certain of the subsidiary rates are levied on other systems.

FINANCIAL STATISTICS OF LOCAL GOVERNING AUTHORITIES.

A study of the finance of local governing authorities from their incipient stages to the present time reveals a process of evolution from a state of semi-dependence on the General Government to a stage where, with the exception of subsidies on rates, contributions from the Main Highways Board (or, for boroughs of 6,000 population or over, receipts under the Motor-spirits Taxation Act), together with occasional grants for special works, all expense is borne locally.

The sources from which the various classes of local authorities secure the moneys necessary to exercise their functions vary greatly according to the nature of the statutory duties of the local authority concerned. Generally, however, receipts fall under one of three main classes—viz., rates, licenses and fees, and receipts which cannot properly be regarded as revenue. These three classes are dealt with in detail below, where the nature and relative importance of each are more particularly referred to.

The tables given in this section cover the operations of all local authorities which furnish statistical returns to the Census and Statistics Office. Hospital Boards supply their returns to the Inspector-General of Hospitals, and their financial statistics are given in Section Vu of this volume.

The local-body year now uniformly ends on 31st March, except in the ease of most. Harbour Boards. In certain cases where the harbour is administered by a County or Borough Council, the year ends on 31st March, but in all other cases on 30th September.

RECEIPTS.

The receipts of local governing authorities, divided into the various groups shown above, are given for each of the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March,Revenue fromTotal RevenueReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
RatesLicenses, Fees, Rents, and other Source.Government.
 ££££££
19254,668,8847,213,306298,77412,180,9647,613,39919,794,363
19265,039,6458,014,583319,33813,373,5667,505,70220,879,268
19275,311,2608,621,964332,72114,265,9456,680,17620,946,121
19285,015,6729,454,315331,95015,401,9435,667,65121,009,594
19295,844,4959,190,655392,92115,428,0716,042,00721,470,078
19306,010,98710,309,785430,94016,757,7185,495,42722,253,145
19315,637,25410,201,076426,31516,264,6454,432,95620,697,601
19325,511,8189,054,187628,06415,194,0694,374,25119,568,320
19335,237,6888,462,628450,65714,150,9734,433,29418,584,267
19345,541,2558,245,173443,23914,229,6673,821,77918,051,446

Local governing authorities received by way of rates in the financial year 11)33–34 a total amount of £5,541,255, of which £2,402,258 consisted of general rates and £3,078,997 of other rates, including penalties on overdue rates. The sum of £367,625 was raised by licenses, and £121,599 by other taxes, making £6,030,479 altogether from taxation, which sum is equivalent to £3 18s. 3d. per head of the mean population (including Maoris).

During 1933–34 rates formed 38.9 per cent, of the revenue proper; licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 58.0 per cent.; and 3.1 per cent, came from the General Government.

Of the revenue proper of counties, which amounted to £2,215,682 in 1933–34, no less a sum than £1,507,845, or 68 per cent., was raised by way of rates. Town districts, road districts, river districts, land-drainage districts, and urban drainage districts also rely on taxing for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, electric-power districts, and Harbour Boards, on the other hand, rates supply a considerably lesser proportion of the total revenue. During 1933–34 this source of income accounted for 48 per cent, of the total revenue of boroughs, the corresponding proportion for Harbour Boards and electric-power districts being as low as 12 per cent, and 3 per cent, respectively.

LOCAL GOVERNING AUTHORITIES.—1933-34

Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Rents, &c.Government.
 £££££
Counties1,507,845530,106177,0711,583,9093,799,591
Boroughs3,270,8033,352,057189,6431,730,4168,542,919
Town districts110,21143,7306,83285,004245,837
Road districts46,8264,5373,10430,92891,455
River districts63,73413,3731,14475,501153,752
Land-drainage districts63,3581,71880134,830100,713
Electric-power districts67,2132,152,8661,322101,8082,323,209
Water-supply districts3,45413..1,7575,224
Urban drainage districts213,6883,7385,60150,073273,700
Urban transport districts..706,4121,1675,932713,511
Railway district..19,618....19,618
Gas-lighting district..44,7283247545,127
Rabbit districts18,5553,16612,1362,51836,375
Fire districts..142,9133,60615,273101,852
Harbour Boards175,5081,226,13839,76897,0891,538,563
Totals5,541,2558,245,173443,2393,821,77918,051,446

RATES.

As stated previously, rates contributed in 1933–34 the sum of £5,541,255 to the revenue of local governing authorities. General rates levied brought in £2,402,258, and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates), £3,078,997. Of the latter, £2,219,724 was received by boroughs and £642,091 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by Harbour Boards (£175,568) were general rates.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1933–34 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £4 74 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). In boroughs it was £11&65; in independent town districts, £1221; and in town districts forming parts of counties, £6*38 (excluding rates levied by County Councils).

Sections in successive Finance Acts from 1930 onwards authorized the remission or postponement in whole or in part of the 10-per-cent. penalty on unpaid rates.

LICENSES, TOLLS, RENTS, &c.

Rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publicans’ licenses, heavy-traffic fees, motor-drivers’ licenses, drivers’ (other vehicles) licenses, auctioneers’ and hawkers' licenses, abattoir fees, building permits, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, tolls, &c. Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are—rents; fines and penalties; market dues; sales of material; sales of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works; tramway receipts; interest on deposits; wharf dues, &c.

Of a total revenue of £3,352,057 accruing to boroughs under this head in 1933–34, £639,344 represented tramway and omnibus receipts, £1,265,729 sales of electric light and power, and £372,809 sales of gas.

RECEIPTS FROM GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

In addition to the following revenue receipts, there are special grants from the General Government (£3,030,259 in 1933–34) for various local works of a public or semi-public character, including from 1930–31 subsidies from the Unemployment Board, the amount in 1933–34 being £2,422,592. A further class of receipts from the Government is provided by loans from the State Advances Office and advances from the Main Highways Board. These totalled £5,650 in 1933–34, bringing the total receipts from Government during 1933–34 to £3,479,148. Of this total, counties received £1,656,844 and boroughs £1,456,308.

A statement of revenue receipts by controlling bodies of local districts from the Government during the last five financial years is given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March,
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £££££
Rates on Crown and Native lands1,1044,7991,5381,2421,052
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment or held on perpetual lease10,29710,3795,4604,5575,971
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs3,5182,153510563567
Timber and flax royalties15,24913,2329,4804,9454,375
Goldfields revenue and gold duty28,84828,50317,93420,98825,447
Subsidies on rates—     
 Ordinary241,441231,815204,644193,366171,078
 Under section 45 of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4)....253,143....
Petrol-tax74,56583,227101,08999,302100,794
Stamp duty on interest......105,600104,790
Fees and fines6,2967,0757,1165,7416,090
Other receipts55,62845,13227,15014,35323,075
Total, Revenue Account436,946426,315628,064450,657443,239

Section 45 of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4), as amended by section 39 of the Finance Act, 1932, provided for a subsidy to County Councils and Road Boards of 12J per cent, of the average annual amount of rates collected during the three years ending March, 1930. This subsidy, which was derived from the Main Highways Revenue Fund, was in general to be applied as a partial refund or rebate of rates paid or due in respect of the year 1931–32. The Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, authorized payment out of the Main Highways Revenue Fund not later than the 31st March, 1935, of a similar subsidy of 12J per cent, of rates made and levied. This applied to farm lands in counties and road districts, and also to urban farm lands within the meaning of the Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932. The subsidy was to be devoted to a refund or rebate of 12£ per cent, to ratepayers concerned. The Finance Act 1935 makes similar provision for the current financial year.

Reductions of 10 per cent, from 1st April, 1931, and a further 10 per cent. (on the reduced amount) from 1st April, 1932, were made in the rates of grants or subsidies from the Consolidated Fund to various classes of local authorities by section 7 of the Finance Act, 1931, and section 8 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of local governing authorities during each of the last ten years has been as follows :—

Year ended 31st March,Public Works (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Hoard Levies;Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Other.*Total Expenditure.
* Including payments for amortization of debt, the amount for 1933–34 being £1,150,061.
 ££££££
1925.14,256,887502,245843,4462,523,3031,296,95219,422,833
1926.15,454,839549,938908,6062,726,2771,275,98520,915,645
1927.15,831,600565,733941,7943,079,3781,329,05221,747,557
1928.15,200,280629,379965,3763,452,2932,175,83922,423,167
1929.13,298,839677,085964,0983,641,5492,718,45321,300,024
1930.14,486,488685,1341,053,6133,895,6321,940,22122,061,088
1931.14,402,327699,5841,029,0174,021,2332,022,36322,174,524
1932.12,694,508561,905989,3663,963,3341,878,26820,087,381
1933.11,584,311574,960907,6593,877,3401,940,90318,885,173
1934.10,754,446592,092879,2763,476,7672,035,21117,737,792

The progressive decline since 1930–31 has been achieved in spite of the inclusion in payments for subsequent years of expenditure out of grants from the Unemployment Board, the total grants received from this source in 1933–34 being £2,422,592. Included in other payments for 1933–34 is an amount of £188,060 for exchange, the bulk of which related to interest payments.

The expenditure of the various classes of local governing authorities during 1933–34 is shown below :—

Public Works (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Amortization of Debt.Total Expenditure.*

* Including other items.

† Included in “Construction and Maintenance.”

 ££££££
Counties2,568,000285,063260,680360,078146,4723,691,314
Boroughs5,163,009292,647368,6261,530,546601,8538,418,553
Town districts147,3259,19820,88240,03815,265236,524
Road districts63,0375,1846,62615,0042,41693,450
River districts104,871..12,76522,6696,353147,243
Land - drainage districts52,524..7,15521,1138,88590,153
Electric - power districts1,250,654....638,879196,7342,241,037
Water - supply districts3,709..6295502465,134
Urban drainage districts74,082..15,785134,95534,533280,134
Urban transport districts525,334..28,131162,85110,217775,629
Railway district7,836..1,9961,356..11,230
Gas-lighting district27,163..2,6536,3301,76640,287
Rabbit districts31,007..5,52333431837,583
Fire districts135,783..6,03412,9416,330162,449
Harbour Boards600,112..141,791529,120116,2731,507,072
Totals10,754,446592,092879,2763,476,7671,156,66117,737,792

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure on new works out of loan-money during the last ten years, classified under various heads:—

Year ended 31st March,Streets and Footways.Drainage and sanitation.Water-works.Tramways and Bus ServiceAbattoirs Slaughter-houses and Pounds.Lighting and Power Service.Other Public Works.Totals.
 ££££££££
1925700,380317,868309,033217,55712,177540,540310,3322,413,887
19261,039,948348,685456,359214,23725,089268,306266,7292,619,353
1927875,704311,820362,177223,44515,883235,018214,6482,238,695
1928939,786268,083394,026163,97526,390176,972149,9872,119,219
1929649,081236,068202,7441,4996,612259,796134,8061,490,606
1930715,818289,430154,4341,25411,042304,860119,5431,596,381
1931475,644271,906145,55539514,331308,589120,6731,337,093
1932359,486222,72785,22498819,265134,05677,504899,250
1933133,417164,08022,334..1,3768,01051,477380,694
193476,862105,72937,0622,3191,81921619,372243,379

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The assets and liabilities of local-governing authorities at the end of the financial year 1933–34 are as shown in the table following. Further details are given in the section relating to “Wealth.” The figures shown in the column “Other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete.

 Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets (as estimated in published Balance- sheets).Loans—Net Indebtedness (excluding Loans from Government).Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board (Amount owing on 31st March, 1934.)inscribed Stock, i.e., Loans from Treasury under Loans to Local Bodies Acts (Estimated Present indebtedness.)Liabilities other than the Loans included in preceding Columns (Bank Overdrafts, Temporary Loans, Outstanding Accounts, &c).
 ££££££
Counties1,607,6441,708,1873,718,1702,122,368306,510266,770
Boroughs4,O88,50129,873,91424,628,6062,092,121265,034916,955
Town districts103,089577,612500,927214,2331,83929,038
Road districts36,270185,404243,35415,1051,47419,025
River districts59,453260,987377,61947,62111,45132,339
Land - drainage districts60,25371,788215,665150,75122,34618,280
Electric - power districts3,529,01212,940,59911,319,297....487,335
Water-supply districts1,0332,2608,0951,254232215
Urban drainage districts153,9561,120,3322,422,899107..134,368
Urban transport37,3513,875,7432,301,815....124,225
Railway district2,265177,838......24,000
Gas-lighting district7,421169,681112,697....17,044
Rabbit districts30,50216,8324,633....4,291
Fire districts23,178590,623203,63110,350..62,483
Harbour Boards1,379,63415,451,0528,377,968150,564..263,869
Totals11,176,56267,118,85254,435,3764,810,474608,8862,400,237

It should be noted that the figure for “Other assets” is on the conservative side, inasmuch as no valuations are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads, which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, do not figure at all in the assets. In this connection it may be mentioned that the greater part of the expenditure of counties and road districts goes in this direction, while in the case of boroughs no less than 39 per cent, of the loan-money expended during the last five years went on streets and footways. Assets of all local authorities as returned for the last ten years are ns under :—

As at 31st March,Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).
 ££
19258,876,52248,299,927
19269,743,96953,646,527
19279,930,58156,999,264
19289,648,08760,328,936
192910,413,79462,550,235
193012,859,67664,509,880
193112,194,41766,504,801
193212,820,72467,811,808
193310,646,33667,323,298
193411,170,56267,118,852

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to £10,902,327 at 31st March, 1934, do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are comprised mainly of fixed assets and stocks of stores and materials.

Boroughs are responsible for 43 per cent, of the total assets, Harbour Boards for 22 per cent., and electric-power districts for 21 per cent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 4, but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure goes on roads, for which no valuation is available.

INDEBTEDNESS.

The total gross debt of local bodies at 31st March, 1934, was £71,969,387, made up of debentures and stock in circulation, £65,337,703; loans from the State- Advances Office, £4,739,704; loans from the Main Highways Board, £70,770; and inscribed debt (i.e., inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882), £1,821,210. The net indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and stock in circulation, and making an actuarial estimate of the liability on account of inscribed debt) was £59,854,736.

It is necessary to observe that figures of local-body debt given herein are not quoted in terms of New Zealand currency, except in such instances as refer solely to debt held in New Zealand. Debt held in Australia is expressed in Australian currency, and debt held in the United Kingdom is expressed in sterling. The total is ascertained by adding the three currencies together without conversion to a common basis. Australian currency is at present at a very slight depreciation in comparison with New Zealand currency, and the rate for sterling is approximately £(N.Z.)l24½ = £100 London. As, however, the question of immediate repayment is not involved, little gain would be achieved by expressing the figures in New Zealand currency converted at present rates of exchange.

Since 1913–14 the gross debt has increased by £48,195,958. Up to 1918–19 the increase was gradual, being on an average about £850,000 per annum. The following eight years, mainly because of the vigorous prosecution of electric- power and road works, marked a period of intensive borrowing, during which the debt increased by £35,937,297, an amount equal to practically half of the present total, and an average of £4,500,000 per annum. Since the coming into operation of the Local Government Loans Board Act in 1927 borrowing has best on a much lower scale, and during the seven years from April, 1027, to March, 1934, the net increase in the debt aggregated £7,957,140, a yearly average of £1,136,734. Since 1930–31 there has been an almost progressive decline, the total decrease to the end of 1933–34 being £716,649.

The outstanding loans of local authorities at the end of each of the last ten years are shown in the following table :—

As at 31st March,Debentures and Stock In Circulation.Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board.Inscribed Debt.Total Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt.Amount borrowed.Amount owing.Gross Debt.Present Indebtedness.Gross Debt.Net Debt.
 ££££££££
192545,720,79440,770,5276,029,9655,360,0742,272,5981,128,55253,353,40047,259,153
192051,720,89740,029,5496,228,3975,453,2402,239,6171,067,00959,419,75452,549,798
192750,412,75950,107,4646,293,8355,409,8012,189,6271,006,25464,012,24756,523,579
192853,949,02851,812,9716,325,7005,325,4012,129,743944,31566,404,17258,082,687
192962,003,78653,972,6926,328,0305,212,7452,078,088886,68669,294,61960,072,123
193064,052,02155,038,9066,370,4965,128,0482,027,470828,72071,207,53961,595,740
193165,692,60656,369,1456,391,5485,024,4031,969,027772,65172,680,03662,166,199
193265,467,71855,828,7456,506,1335,009,9991,924,565710,10272,402,28261,554,906
193365,642,54155,274,0506,601,7104,905,8131,867,702662,76972,470,05660,902,632
193465,337,70354,435,3766,588,7164,810,4741,821,210608,88671,909,38759,854,736

Of recent years loans advanced to local authorities by the State Advances Department have been less than the repayments, with the result that the amount outstanding under this head has decreased. In addition to the scheme of State advances, there exists a system whereby the State guarantee to the payment of interest and principal in the event of default by the local authority may be obtained by the borrowing authority. The amount outstanding in respect of local-body loans guaranteed by the State aggregated £2,975,075 at the 31st March, 103"), sinking funds in respect of these loans totalling £041,541. Included in these figures is one loan (£12,000: sinking fund, £5,790) to a Hospital Board. As noted previously, Hospital Boards are not included in the present section.

Of the total net indebtedness of £59,854,73(5 at the 31st March, 1934, boroughs were responsible for £26,985,781, which represents 9.01 per cent, of their rateable capital value. In the case of counties, which have a much less per caput expenditure on public works, the percentage is only 1.93.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross debt of local governing authorities and the annual charge thereon for the last ten years.

As at 31st March,Population.Gross Debt.Annual Loan Charge.
Amount.Rate per Head.Amount.Rate per Head.
  ££s.d.££s.d.
19251,379,48753,353,466381373,331,163283
19261,409,81259,419,754422113,740,6472131
19271,437,98064,012,247441044,050,8952164
19281,453,51766,404,172451384,255,4692186
19291,470,65469,294,61947244,479,1803011
19301,488,59571,207,539471684,682,1813211
19311,510,94072,686,03648224,828,7933 3 11  
19321,524,63372,402,28247994,905,467344
19331,536,96472,476,05647314,919,221340
19341,548,90971,969,387469 34,449,7772175

INCIDENCE OF DEBT.

During the ten years 1923–24 to 1933–34 the gross debt of all local authorities increased by £25,431,554, of which boroughs were responsible for £9,222,699, and electric-power districts for £8,472,214. It should be noted that the dent of electric-power districts does not represent the complete local-body debt on account of electric power, since a considerable portion of the borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose. The debt of “other districts” at 31st March, 1934, was mainly that of urban transport districts (£3,492,617) and urban drainage districts (£2,672,807).

The table below is of interest as showing the increase of loan indebtedness in each of the principal types of local authority. The figures represent the gross liability on all loans.

As at 31st March,Counties.Boroughs.Town DistrictsRoad DistrictsElectric power DistrictsHarbour Boards.Other Districts.Total.
 ££££££££
19255,901,67826,670,095658,356368,9906,514,7579,750,6603,479,93053,353,466
19266,650,71328,816,717702,810502,9988,745,7559,993,2594,007,50259,419,754
19277,215,85130,823,857804,079625,41610,113,40010,257,7814,171,80364,012,247
19287,374,70632,374,244831,181688,25510,175,36410,476,8834,483,53966,404,172
19297,483,63133,012,519904,780343,39011,986,70710,774,1394,789,45369,294,619
19307,624,39532,276,814810,178343,98012,036,35110,468,8817,046,94071,207,539
19317,699,17532,894,635835,205274,62513,011,52910,517,3967,453,47172,686,036
19327,719,43132,445,623820,219288,37513,121,96010,549,4937,457,18172,402,282
19337,610,69832,634,350820,917286,43513,031,93010,620,4427,571,28472,476,056
19347,523,01732,094,214810,820287,36313,213,07910,496,5337,544,36171,969,387

DOMICILE OF DEBT.

The loans outstanding, other than Government loans, at the end of the financial year 1933–34, are shown below, classified according to domicile, and also rate of interest. In the case of loans domiciled in New Zealand, the rates of interest shown are the reduced rates consequent upon the interest-reducing legislation referred to later in this section. Reference should be made to observations on page 501 in regard to the currencies in which local-body debts are expressed.

Bate of Interest Per Cent.Domiciled in New Zealand.Domiciled in United Kingdom.Domiciled in Australia.Total.
 ££££
Free of interest800....800
3..200,000..200,000
911104,400..105,311
3⅘3,600....3,600
41,084,171541,000..1,625,171
4⅛74,800....74,800
18,732,454237,700704,60019,674,754
4 3/1043,405....43,405
4 3/107,000....7,000
4⅖8,903,048....8,903,048
208,8931,672,725105,0331,986,651
4 3/1010,000....10,000
4 3/1042,000....42,000
4⅗6,900,411....6,900,411
4 3/1027,700....27,700
4 3/10109,392....109,392
8,082,427....8,082,427
56007,228,60020,8007,250,000
5⅛....50,00050,000
159,960....159,960
..2,218,50079,7502,298,250
..1,916,1001,187,7803,103,880
5⅝....175,000175,000
5 3/10....130,000130,000
..9,1001,405,9381,415,038
6..1,701,400210,2051,911,605
..918,70028,800947,500
7....100,000100,000
Totals44,391,57216,748,2254,197,90665,337,703

The interest-rates quoted above are those applicable to the amount of debt outstanding. They have not been adjusted to the prices at which the respective loans were raised—e.g., where a loan was issued below par the rate of interest on the sum actually received (omitting the question of flotation expenses) would be higher than the rate shown above.

During 1933–34 the amount domiciled in New Zealand increased by £1,482,030. The amount domiciled in the United Kingdom decreased by £255,096, and in Australia by £1,531,772. The great bulk of local-authority borrowing in recent years has been done within New Zealand, whose proportion of the total has increased continuously for several years past. The amount domiciled in New Zealand at 31st March. 1934. represented 68 per cent of the total, the United Kingdom's share being 26 per cent, and Australia's 6 per cent.

A five-year summary of the domicile of loans outstanding, other than loans from the Government, is given hereunder.

At 31st March,Amount.Percentage of Total.
London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
193017,715,0898,199,59938,137,33327.6612.8059.54
193117,533,4258,574,52939,584,65226.6913.0560.26
193217,362,7257,281,98140,823,01226.5211.1262.36
193317,003,3215,729,67842,909,54225.908.7365.37
193416,748,2254,197,90644,391,57225.636.4367.94

The increase since 1930–31 in the amount domiciled in New Zealand is mainly due to the transfer of loans formerly domiciled in Australia, for which reason also the amount domiciled in Australia shows a marked reduction.

PURPOSES OF DEBT.

In the 1935 and preceding editions of the Year-Book a detailed statement was included showing the purposes for which local-authority debt was raised. Owing to consolidation of loans as a result of conversion operations it is no longer practicable to compile this data.

DEBT CHARGES.

Particulars of the annual loan charge of local bodies during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

As at 81st March,On Debentures and Stock.On State Advances and Main Highways Debt.On Inscribed Dept.Total.Average Rate of
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.Interest on Debentures and Stock.Total Debt Charge (including Government Loans).
 ££££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19252,396,824523,8762,920,700326,26084,2033,331,1635.246.24
19262,740,445580,2003,320,645337,25982,7433,740,6475.306.30
19273,000,223628,7503,628,973341,41480,5084,050,8955.326.33
19283,158,359675,5103,833,869343,43778,1634,255,4695.366.41
19293,334,009725,5474,059,556343,69575,9294,479,1805.386.46
19303,467,994789,8214,257,815350,62273,7444,682,1815.406.57
19313,536,510866,6464,403,156354,32571,3124,828,7935.386.64
19323,536,936931,3664,468,302367,68069,4854,905,4675.406.78
19333,547,877931,4964,479,373372,69967,1494,919,2215.406.79
19343,058,282965,5024,023,784360,77365,2204,449,7774.686.18

The following table gives a more detailed analysis for 1933–84. It sets out the annual charge according to the rates of interest in force on 31st March, 1934. Further savings will accrue through the adoption of conversion schemes which local bodies are empowered to undertake.

* On actuarial computation, assuming that annual payments on Inscribed debt represent partly interest and partly extinction o£ debt. By statute the annual payments are regarded wholly as interest, and the original amount of the debt remains until the last Instalment of interest has been paid.
Interest charges— 
 on debt other than Government—1£
  Domiciled in New Zealand1,968,649
  Domiciled in United Kingdom862,279
  Domiciled in Australia227,354
 On inscribed debt*12,931
 On State Advances debt194,222
 On Main Highways Board debt3,112
  Total interest charges3,268,547
 Amortization charges— 
  On debt other than Government965,502
  On inscribed debt*52,289
  On State Advances debt150,809
  On Main Highways Board debt12,630
Total amortization charges1,181,230
Total interest and amortization charges£4,449,777

The average rate of interest on the locally domiciled portion of the debt (other than Government) at 31st March, 1934. was 4.44 per cent.; the average over the whole debt (excluding Government) being 4.08 per cent. On the debt domiciled in the United Kingdom the rate of interest averaged 5.15 per cent, and on that domiciled in Australia 5"42 per cent. Interest payable in the United Kingdom is subject to an additional charge for exchange (vide observations on page 501).

INTEREST REDUCTION AND LOANS CONVERSION.

As part of the interest-reduction policy of the. Government, Part IV of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, passed on the 10th May, 1932, imposed, inter alia, a stamp duty of 10 per cent, on interest derived from local authority debentures or other securities. All local authority interest coupons or warrants presented in New Zealand for payment on or after the 14th May, 1932, were chargeable. Interest payments made (as of express right) out of New Zealand were exempted from charge. After deduction of 5 per cent, of the proceeds as administrative charges the net amount of stained duty collected was returned to the respective local authorities. A hardship clause permitted the Minister of Finance to refund stamp duty where the total annual income of the. payer was not in excess of £100. An additional provision allowed payment of stamp duty of this nature to be treated as a special exemption under the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923. The stamp duty was abolished, in so far as it affected interest accruing after 31st March, 1933, by the legislation next mentioned.

A further step towards reduction of interest on local authority debt was taken by the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33, and its amendments of 1933 and 1934. This statute, passed on the 9th March, 1933, followed somewhat similar legislation dealing with the public debt. The principal section of this Act imposed a reduction in the rate of interest payable in New Zealand on all local authorities securities existing at the 1st April, 1933, by 20 per cent, or to 4y per cent, per annum, whichever rate was the higher. Loans domiciled outside New Zealand were again exempted, and rules laid down for the determination of domicile. The Act also empowered local authorities to draw up individual conversion schemes whereby existing securities could be converted to new securities at a lower and uniform rate of interest. Any such proposals are required to be submitted to the Local Government Loans Board and to receive the consent of the Governor-General given by Order in Council. Where any such conversion scheme is undertaken, and any holder of existing securities signifies his dissent from their conversion as prescribed in the Order in Council, the rate of interest in his case is then further reduced to 33J per cent, below the rate originally prescribed by the securities. Further sections of the Act limit the rate of interest for future loans, empower relief measures in certain cases of hardship, and create necessary machinery for implementing its provisions.

A number of conversion schemes were undertaken in the fiscal year 1933–34; the bulk, however, came later, and complete particulars are not yet available. However, out of a total convertible debt of £48,340,586 as at 1st April, 1933, conversion of £40,930,760 had been approved by the Local Government Loans Board up to 30th June, 1935; while a further portion involving £2,759,229 had been dealt with by way of renewal loans, leaving only £4,650,597 subject to the conversion legislation. Of this £4,050,597, approximately £2,500,000 represents loans raised by county councils; and major difficulties arise in this instance owing to numerous loans having been raised on the security of rates over special areas.

The 20-per-ccnt. reduction in interest referred to above provided a saving to local bodies of £400,000 per annum in round figures. As a result of conversion operations a further reduction of £117,000 in annual charges has been effected.

LOAN MATURITIES.

The following table classifies loans (other than from Government) according to years of maturity and countries of domicile.

Years of Maturity (ended 31st December).New Zealand.United Kingdom.Australia.Total.
 ££££
Prior to and during 19364,355,1351,138,500134,7005,628,335
1937–414,411,3834,325,40077,6168,814,399
1942–469,681,2943,953,6001,567,50515,202,399
1947–515,083,2821,665,225160,6816,909,188
1952–566,907,0492,625,200383,1809,915,429
1957–616,780,8552,338,300809,8229,928,977
1962–666,358,731702,000830,4027,891,133
1967–71227,548....227,548
1972–76581,000..234,000815,000
Unspecified5,295....5,295
Totals44,391,57216,748,2254,197,90665,337,703

Chapter 26. SECTION XXVI.—VALUATION OF LAND.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE.

THE existing law relating to the valuation of land in New Zealand is contained in the Valuation of Land Act, 1925 (a consolidation of previous legislation), and its amendments of 1926, 1927, 1932, and 1933. A brief historical account appears in the 1932 and earlier Year-Books.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General. The actual work of valuation is done by District Valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the “capital value” of the property. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides that in boroughs rating on the unimproved value the unimproved value only or the value of improvements only may be ascertained, the capital value being adjusted accordingly.

Under the New Zealand law the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local body expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value.” Any increased value, however, which is represented by the improvements effected by the individual possessor, either past or present, does not form part of the “unimproved value.”

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land under exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling-value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used. Land containing or supposed to contain oil, coal, or other mineral deposits is valued as for the surface use only.

THE VALUATION ROLL.

The Valuation of Land Act directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:—

  1. The name of the owner of the land and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the. beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:

  2. The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act:

  3. The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. The nature and value of the improvements on the land:

  5. The unimproved value of the land:

  6. The capital value of the land:

  7. Such other particulars as are prescribed.

The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

In December 1932, the Urban Farm Land Rating Act (amended in 1933 and 1935) was passed with the object of giving some rating relief to farm lands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town boards, and certain road boards. The Act provides for the preparation of farm-land rolls, which are deemed to be part of the valuation roll for rating purposes.

After the values in a district have been revised a new valuation roll is prepared, and the hae Valuer-General addresses to each person whose name appears thereon a notice setting forth the values at which his property is entered, and naming a date on or before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged.

THE ASSESSMENT COURT.

The Valuer-General refers objections to values to the District Valuer to enable him to review valuations before the sitting of the Assessment Court. If after careful reconsideration by the District Valuer it is decided that an objection will be allowed or a reasonable compromise effected, the valuation is altered accordingly. On the other hand, if the Valuer-General considers that the valuer's estimates are fair, the objection is heard and determined by the Assessment Court.

The Assessment Court consists of three members, of whom one—the President— is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Of the other two members of the Court, one is appointed by the Governor-General in Council, and the other by the local authority of the district whose roll has been revised, or by two or more local authorities acting in unison, provided the appointee is not a member or a paid officer of any local authority. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides for assessors representing local bodies to be elected (after nomination by two or more ratepayers) by a meeting of ratepayers convened for the purpose.

If the objection to the valuation is allowed, the new valuation is deemed to be entered on the valuation roll, for rating purposes, as on the 31st March of the calendar year following that on which notice of objection was duly given. If the objection is disallowed, the owner may, within fourteen days after the hearing by the Assessment Court, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the objector) considers to be the fair selling-value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of His Majesty at that value or sold in the prescribed manner.

If the Valuer-General is of opinion that the Assessment Court has made an unfair reduction in a valuation he may, within fourteen days of the hearing, require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair selling capital value, and, failing such consent being given within thirty days after notice is delivered at his address, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of His Majesty.

The decision of the Assessment Court on any objection is subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on a question of law. On all other questions the decision of the Assessment Court is final. The decision of a majority of the three members constitutes the decision of the Court, but if no two members agree the President's decision is taken.

Owing to the recent heavy decline in values and the impracticability of a universal revaluation, advantage of the provision enabling new valuations has been taken by many owners with the object of reducing their rate-payments. In order to maintain rating equity, the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933, authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part (not being under 75 per cent.) of values upon the roll. Where an individual owner has obtained a revaluation, the new figure or the proportionate part of the previously existing figure is taken, whichever is the lower.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND.

General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897–98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole Dominion have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of Tears, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures have been revised to include the latest valuations of small divisions.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES.

Year.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
187899,566,67962,573,868
1882101,000,000..
1885113,270,649..
1888111,137,71475,497,379
1891122,225,02975,832,465
1897138,591,34784,401,244
1902154,816,13294,847,727
1905197,684,475122,937,126
1907236,644,536149,682,689
1909271,516,022172,759,948
1911293,117,065184,062,798
1913340,559,728212,963,468
1915371,076,683230,705,147
1916389,164,729241,322,255
1917405,466,071251,087,708
1918421,383,373260,921,812
 ££
1919445,533,445275,988,409
1920470,093,697290,880,264
1921518,584,318317,631,245
1922544,503,376329,174,337
1923553,403,794330,790,991
1924568,500,653333,869,581
1925587,349,575339,310,260
1926603,250,306341,047,952
1927618,264,093341,519,107
1928631,454,676335,217,075
1929655,906,887344,757,796
1930664,571,181338,887,411
1931667,911,212331,634,774
1932662,829,264321,798,700
1933653,707,517314,556,174
1934650,362,355309,770,390

Recent revaluations have resulted in lower unimproved values being placed on country lands, a progressive decline having set in since 1925, the decrease to 1934 being nearly £43,000,000. This decline was partly counterbalanced by increases in urban districts up to 1931, but urban valuations have declined since that year, and the total unimproved value of the Dominion in 1934 was nearly £35,000,000 less than in 1929. The total capital value of the Dominion continued to increase until 1931, but dropped by over £17,500,000 in the next three years.

The values shown in the foregoing table and in that following are the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

GROSS VALUES.

Year.number.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (Included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value Land and 1mprovements).Unimproved Value of Land (included In previous Column).
Counties
  ££££££
1926129217,347,187138,452,089126,696,66693,162,705344,043,853231,614,794
1926129218,934,039137,478,551127,019,17693,135,848845,953,215230,614,399
1927129220,899,534136,669,081128,528,96493,546,458349,428,498230,215,539
1928129222,034,723128,466,999128,979,60093,112,481351,014,323221,579,480
1929129218,994,624125,113,171128,578,47792,339,116347,573,101217,452,287
1930129217,047,143120,939,919128,369,80590,038,141345,416,948210,978,090
1931129216,904,602119,125,252126,112,66784,989,699343,017,269204,114,951
1932129214,849,109115,921,478123,017,74879,835,590337,866,857195,757,077
1933129212,616,936113,753,386121,051,37178,032,440333,668,307191,785,835
1934120211,394,504111,951,849120,118,12476,809,704331,512,628188,761,553
Boroughs
  ££££££
1925118165,944,93477,762,00569,402,51226,505,881235,347,446104,267,886
1926119176,492,48479,937,20372,316,31526,911,670248,808,799106,848,878
1927119184,483,84980,253,29875,083,75727,279,451259,567,606107,532,749
1928119193,357,81682,113,91077,546,51527,760,690270,904,331109,874,600
1929119215,559,20792,633,63683,723,05731,178,700299,282,264123,812,336
1930121224,252,97693,192,26785,669,38731,108,515309,922,363124,300,782
1931122228,502,59593,016,63887,312,58331,204,231315,815,178124,220,869
1932122228,332,22891,862,45487,553,54130,934,909315,885,769122,797,363
1933122223,524,94088,941,86287,637,53030,724,359311,162,470119,666,221
1934122221,931,73187,589,82887,736,35530,445,661309,668,086118,035,489
Independent Town Districts,
1925407,043,1273,081,319915,149346,2617,958,2763,427,580
1926397,450,9253,202;3241,037,367382,3568,488,2623,584,680
1927408,221,3723,387,7361,046,617383,0889,267,9893,770,819
1928428,468,6863,397,3421,067,336365,6539,536,0223,762,995
1929427,977,8323,136,3771,073,690356,7969,051,5223,493,173
1930418,145,6443,277,4341,086,226331,1059,231,8703,608,539
1931407,936,5502,967,9641,142,215330,9909,078,7653,298,954
1932407,920,4862,911,4191,156,152332,8419,076,6383,244,260
1933407,676,6962,752,6901,200,044351,4288,876,7403,104,118
1934418,009,1742,642,6951,172,467330,6539,181,6412,973,348
Grand Totals
1925 390,335,248219,295,413197,014,327120,014,847587,349,575339,310,200
1926 402,877,448220,618,078200,372,858120,420,874603,250,306341,047,952
1927 413,604,755220,310,115204,659,338121,208,992618,264,093341,519,107
1923 423,861,225213,978,251207,593,451121,238,824631,454,676338,217,075
1920..442,861,663220,883,184213,375,224123,874,612655,906,887344,757,796
1930..449,445,763217,409,650215,125,418121,477,761664,571,181338,887,411
1931..453,343,747215,109,854214,567,465116,524,920667,911,212331,634,774
1932..451,101,823210,695,351211,727,441111,103,349662,829,264321,768,700
1933..443,818,572205,447,938209,888,945109,108,236653,707,517314,556,174
1934 441,335,409202,184,372206,026,946107,589,018653,362,355309,770,390

A summery of rateable values for the year 1934 is next given:—

North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included In previous Column).
 ££££££
Counties200,936,197106,583,142114,696,90174,069,790315,633,098180,652,032
Boroughs199,409,89877,116,12879,597,20227,609,994279,997,190104,726,092
Town districts (independent)6,927,6732,461,9411,067,190300,9497,994,8632,762,890
Totals407,363,768186,161,211195,361,383101,980,703602,725,151288,141,914

Of the gross capital value, counties represent 51.0 per cent., and boroughs and independent town districts 49.0 per cent. For unimproved value the proportions are 61.0 per cent, and 39.0 per cent, respectively.

On the basis of rateable values, counties possess 52.4 per cent, of capital and 62.7 per coot, of unimproved values, as against 47.6 and 37.3 per cent, for boroughs and independent town districts.

The gross capital and unimproved values for each county, borough, and independent town district as in 1934 are next given.

CONTINUES:

County (including Dependent Town Districts).Capital Value (Land and; Improvements).Unimproved Value, of Land (Included in previous Column).
 ££
Mongonui1,506,773598,725
Whangaroa436,854127,715
Bay of Islands2,245,295870,035
Hokianga1,593,841569,556
Whangarei4,874,3051,707,837
Hobson2,449,2561,034,855
Otamatea2,109,789875,223
Rodney1,745,948571,651
Waitemata4,682,3962,444,544
Eden3,387,8061,385,396
Manukau5,045,5582,881,860
Franklin5,992,4053,218,638
Great Barrier Island154,65097,820
Islands— Little Barrier, Waiheke, &c.537,530348,723
Waikato5,612,1483,120,075
Raglan4,022,6291,772,121
Waipa6,170,7703,327,226
Coromandel649,931365,208
Thames730,553370,853
Hauraki Plains2,101,9691,043,035
Ohinemuri781,488395,498
Tauranga2,279,7171,006,169
Piako4,440,4852,379,695
Matamata3,742,1021,785,517
Rotorua1,786,1721,335,809
Whakatane2,498,6681,432,555
Taupo798,094525,696
Taumarunui1,161,022489,530
Ohura1,028,689338,845
Kawhia093,055 
Waitomo2,794,2031,10b,:
Otorohanga2,152,048982,359
Island—Motiti33,12019,150
Opotiki1,672,747609,818
Matakaoa878,610357,891
Waiapu3,140,1581,173,318
Uawa1,503,307702,311
Waikohu3,886,3601,727,300
Cook5,336,6832,409,962
Wairoa3,831,8541,522,789
Hawke's Bay10,802,8896,664,058
Waipawa3,019,4682,114,354
Waipukurau954,913579,364
Dannevirke3,792,5292,029,698
Woodville1,765,6531,057,895
Patangata4,375,7472,931,945
Weber633,547356,865
Clifton1,373,591784,300
Taranaki2,760,4131,500,306
Inglewood1,402,587654,836
Egmont2,061,9971,090,054
Stratford3,119,5731,701,562
Whangamomona551,021169,159
Waimate West2,097,1691,344,254
Eltham2,612,6381,425,584
Hawera3,404,7022,091,315
Patea3,276,0011,877,534
Waitotara2,574,7441,475,010
Waimarino1,704,202469,395
Wanganui2,320,1171,018,685
Rangitikei9,798,2915,976,215
Kiwitea2,652,9821,509,635
Pohangina1,260,653670,730
Kaitieke1,035,240469,556
Manawatu3,567,5012,499,523
Oroua3,074,0682,084,427
Kairanga4,326,8552,697,656
Horowhenua5,256,5623,242,137
 ££
islands— Kapiti, Mann, and some17,98413,330
Chatham Islands274,591184,330
Pahiatua2,526,4981,421,344
Akitio1,494,021727,924
Castlepoint1,121,152638,609
Eketahuna1,829,064991,012
Mauriceville614,754334,064
Masterton4,326,8882,730,402
Wairarapa South3,047,8961,776,910
Featherston4,728,6403,005,897
Hutt4,009,3691,798,353
Makara1,553,644669,297
Collingwood448,744269,947
Takaka711,850390,808
Waimea3,492,0011,534,639
Sounds823,640493,545
Marlborough4,066,5892,474,271
Awatere2,065,2531,343,793
Buller1,456,372661,594
Murchison536,697219,337
Inangahua765,147392,355
Grey1,045,046613,725
Westland1,005,878576,749
Kaikoura1,568,8651,058,020
Cheviot1,455,0401,087,655
Amuri2,409,0961,661,006
Waipara3,625,4152,890,545
Ashley948,415730,585
Kowai1,384,8341,045,974
Oxford987,036692,081
Rangiora1,540,5551,062,270
Eyre1,447,3701,030,590
Walmairi4,620,4631,981,282
Paparua2,777,1221,746,268
Malvern2,439,8741,830,918
Tawera442,435332,495
Heathcote2,269,430922,590
Halswell1,129,485767,910
Selwyn1,566,0691,077,794
Springs1,218,125903,800
Ellesmere2,277,3701,720,930
Mount Herbert600,780421,775
Wairewa1,293,880988,080
Akaroa1,795,4901,282,290
Ashburton11,105,8058,531,700
Geraldine3,485,6452,389,635
Levels3,477,4282,621,348
Mackenzie2,499,4301,551,495
Waimate6,021,3684,072,178
Waitaki5,224,2883,933,199
Maniototo1,541,9451,036,815
Waihemo802,326587,358
Waikouaiti1,276,186770,261
Peninsula717,988346,145
Taieri2,418,8521,615,591
Tuapeka2,436,5481,536,160
Bruce1,801,8651,136,106
Clutha3,064,8711,711,513
Islands— Quarantine and Goat3,454900
Vincent1,652,6361,033,464
Lake843,298579,559
Fiord144,293137,513
Wallace4,177,9092,284,417
Southland12,815,8276,480,571
Stewart Island103,32549,950
Islands— Antipodes, &c.13,88013,880

BOROUGHS

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1934

Borough.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
Whangarei2,553,830924,273
Dargaville542,757140,111
Birkenhead784,065291,045
Devonport3,331,2011,339,635
AUCKLAND CITY—City Portion32,953,94516, 381,697
Parnell2,448,8731,064,545
Grey Lynn2,825,437888,082
Arch Hill543,464193,960
Eden Terrace608,630217,241
Point Chevalier1,188,454499,103
Avondale1,331,245492,764
Epsom3,140,0371,181,323
Remuera6,006,3992,310,481
Orakei335,250277,840
Tamaki2,175,5461,234,010
Total of City53,557,28024,741,046
Newmarket1,698,314852,993
Onehunga3,039,7521,046,481
Takapuna2,491,7071,021,959
Northcote535,987216,398
New Lynn679,294193,486
Mount Albert4,219,1791,371,450
Mount Eden5,933,6122,127,937
One Tree Hill3,447,0621,392,532
Otahuhu1,416,065431,114
Pukekohe867,733386,047
Hamilton5,851,5912,439,765
Cambridge810,546292,091
Huntly367,94996,174
Ngaruawahia263,26063,200
Te Awamutu705,183252,191
Thames724,780178,515
Tauranga939,225393,521
Paeroa524,853172,853
Walhi359,94752,950
Morrinsville486,256132,111
Te Aroha774,053285,355
Rotorua2,019,8971,010,236
Whakatane388,876101,572
Taumarunui711,838273,431
TeKuiti691,522250,868
Opotiki365,032139,659
Gisborne4,983,4511,714,799
Wairoa594,147192,622
Napier4,613,2711,667,501
Hastings3,776,5241,503,955
Dannevirke1,538,711493,139
Woodville191,15354,115
Waipawa297,781113,322
Waipukurau554,219157,083
New Plymouth5,345,3191,710,093
Hawera1,441,623582,613
Patea159,52857,528
Waitara336,383101,443
Inglewood292,95469,476
Stratford1,158,896433,446
Eltham384,488101,433
Wanganui City6,701,6082,027,958
Marton872,383214,873
Raetihi223,67749,130
Ohakune125,07136,012
Tailhape482,800192,725
Feilding1,504,574496,049
Palmerston North City8,025,6632,487,529
Foxton300,27568,001
Wellington City—  
City Portion38,770,44219,592,558
Wadestown1,404,800407,855
Northland1,021,310289,910
Melrose—  
Kilbirnie5,858,2271,672,792
Island Bay1,995,666555,185
Ohiro3,203,500898,570
Wellington City—ctd.££
Onslow Portion1,731,329475,897
Karori Portion2,352,287625,055
Miramar portion4,042,940999,669
Total of City60,389,56125,517,491
Shannon173,88058,300
Levin789,676215,998
Otaki339,371139,349
Pahiatua368,80096,025
Masterton2,834,947844,933
Carterton537,770102,880
Greytown229,17454,706
Upper Hutt862,506220,809
Lower Hutt5,763,4841,898,927
Petone3,250,688884,254
Eketahuna165,03442,099
Martinborough255,51547,940
Featherston207,49544,413
Eastbourne775,990286,030
Richmond283,832120,395
Nelson City3,319,9501,282,663
Picton397,478149,815
Blenheim1,608,508524,232
Motueka427,422189,639
Westport620,553177,522
Greymouth1,369,565351,078
Brunner176,80372,662
Kumara34,1566,788
Hokitika434,97889,221
Ross24,8797,427
Runanga86,72021,562
Rangiora615,745162,440
Kaiapoi335,47889,073
CHRISTCHURCH CITY— St.. Albans Portion5,245,9851,760,225
North Richmond Portion617,080157,970
Papanui Portion1,225,080396,330
Richmond Portion390,580121,815
North–east Portion1,208,270504,720
North–west Portion3,957,7652,032,490
South–east Portion2,799,1751,322,280
South–west Portion6,254,1553,637,005
Sydenham Portion3,087,4151,038,567
Opawa Portion324,135110,495
St. Martin's Portion278,21085,953
Beckenham– Fisherton Portion441,820112,610
Linwood Portion1,939,470605,600
Linwood North Portion552,310140,545
Avonside Portion440,575127,295
Linwood East Portion158,26043,665
Spreydon West Portion1,019,695302,500
Spreydon East Portion988,465262,795
Woolston Portion1,105,905335,522
Total of City32,034,30013,107,382
New Brighton910,460309,385
Sumner863,170308,547
Lyttelton799,900277,860
Akaroa126,81650,636
Riccarton1,559,193406,772
Ashburton769,936275,364
Timaru5,640,6821,928,477
Geraldine211,35450,385
Temuka432,740130,140
Waimate546,137127,775
Oamaru1,673,050557,207
Hampden34,8179,667
Naseby19,9782,583
Palmerston128,32829,253
Waikouaiti129,39939,582
 ££
Port Chalmers383,200120,383
West Harbour426,09081,050
DUNEDIN CITY—  
Valley Portion1,163,286296,242
Maori Hill Portion961,899244,435
Roslyn Portion1,792,859479,740
Mornington Portion1,240,751265,545
Leith Portion4,790,3941,831,756
Central Portion5,281,2702,200,870
Caversham Portion1,705,370407,575
South Dunedin Portion1,136,681278,375
Bay Portion1,194,336229,357
Total of City19,266,8466,233,895
St. Kilda1,833,616395,318
Green Island406,36586,000
 ££
Mosgiel329,29588,260
Roxburgh87,1352,715
Lawrence70,7208,702
Tapanui42,9209,125
Milton249,99355,826
Balclutha302,94585,180
Kaitangata112,90631,543
Cromwell86,57116,234
Alexandra98,31915,171
Arrowtown20,7002,780
Queenstown186,77034,295
Gore1,178,071315,670
Mataura318,07586,175
Winton191,73056,850
Invercargill City5,808,2931,662,480
South Invercargill136,20048,160
Riverton184,71248,997
Bluff398,460105,820

INDEPENDENT TOWN DISTRICTS.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES,1934.

Town District.Capital Value. (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
Kaitaia152,26343,980
Kaikohe166,72055,430
Hikurangi177,70142,856
Kamo131,70543,605
Warkworth96,41019,145
Helensville204,67954,947
Henderson777,109113,010
Glen Eden284,485103,673
Ellerslie628,996209,070
Waiuku281,33597,489
Howick246,020111,060
Papatoetoe653,565252,562
Manurewa456,135171,247
Papakura412,775168,265
Tuakau191,09878,960
Leamington148,60567,810
Te Puke329,476115,619
Matamata401,120140,865
Putaruru182,37568,305
Otorohanga186,84560,654
Taradale286,619113,825
 ££
Havelock North352,984132,614
Opunake217,74669,853
Manaia118,30325,982
Waverley116,29826,270
Ohura63,40221,028
Rangataua12,816869
Mangaweka50,03921,383
Hunterville106,26735,976
Bulls123,98638,025
Manunui71,31625,974
Johnsonville373,981112,344
Tahunanui188,67555,745
Cobden162,83532,709
Leeston166,91538,490
Tinwald136,10551,485
Pleasant Point118,72539,500
Nightcaps79,08015,140
Otautau142,23842,883
Lumsden54,41415,176
Wyndham123,48039,525

Chapter 27. SECTION XXVII.— BANKING AND CURRENCY.

INTRODUCTORY.

WITH the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, which commenced to function on 1st August. 1934, there was inaugurated an entirely new era in banking practice in New Zealand. The salient feature of the change in system is illustrated by the following extract from a statement issued by the Right Hon. the Minister of Finance shortly after the passing of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act:—

“At present New Zealand has six note-issuing banks, five of which have head offices outside New Zealand : four of these are predominantly Australian institutions. The Reserve Bank will, for the first time in the history of this Dominion, bring the control of our credit and currency into the hands of a New Zealand Board of Directors controlled by New-Zealanders.

“The Reserve Bank will exist to carry out such monetary policy as Parliament may enact, the administration being a matter for the Reserve Bank Board; it will provide a uniform note-issue; it will assist the taxpayer not only by its anticipated lower rates of interest on Treasury bills, but also by any profits made by the Reserve Bank which, apart from the £25,000 going to shareholders, will accrue to the State; it will assist the banks by pooling their reserves, extending them credit in a crisis, relieving them of note-tax, and freeing them of dead gold reserves which earn no profit; it will assist the people by providing a conscious monetary policy in place of the competitive extension of credit which aims at providing dividends for shareholders rather than at promoting the economic welfare of New Zealand; finally, it will make credit easier and cheaper in times of depression, and have a restraining influence to prevent speculation in boom times.

“The establishment of the Reserve Bank does not mean that New Zealand will be on the gold standard or on the gold-exchange standard. Nor does it mean that we will be bound to sterling at any fixed and unalterable ratio. The Act places us on the sterling-exchange standard, but, pending more settled world conditions, the relation of New Zealand currency to sterling is held over. The Act which has now been passed declares it to be the primary duty of the Reserve Bank to act so that ‘the economic welfare of the Dominion may be promoted and maintained’; this is the mandate entrusted to the Bank.”

A description of banking practice in New Zealand is beyond the scope of a Year-Book section, but those desiring information on this subject may usefully refer to the Report of the Parliamentary Monetary Committee, parliamentary paper B.-3 (1934), and to its minutes of evidence, published as an appendix.

TRADING BANKS.

The Banking Act, 1908, which consolidated the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in the Dominion, provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed by the Act, and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. Every bank trading in the Dominion is required to furnish quarterly statements of its business, for publication in the Gazette. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court, unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for bank holidays, and for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of ten years from the date or due date of such documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1908, consolidates the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The Companies Act, 1933, with the exception of Part XII (re companies incorporated outside New Zealand), and also of the provisions relating to branch registers, does not apply to banking companies formed within and operating only within the Dominion.

There are six banks trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand, being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of the Dominion. The Bank of New Zealand has branches in London, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa, while its branches and agencies within the Dominion number 217. The other five banks have between them 294 establishments within the Dominion, making a total of 511, or an average of one branch bank to every 3,047 inhabitants.

CAPITAL AND RESERVE FUNDS.

The total paid-up capital of the above banks, their reserve funds, and the rate of their last dividend as on the 31st December, 1934, were as follows:—

Bank.Paid-up Capital.Rate per Cent. per Annum of Last Dividend and Bonus.Amount of Reserved Profits at Time of declaring Dividend.
Bank of New Zealand—£Per Cent.£
“A” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)500,000103,918,608
“B” preference shares Issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)1,375,0003,918,608
“C” long-term mortgage shares Issued to the Crown234,37563,918,608
“D” long-term mortgage shares468,7503,918,608
Ordinary shares3,750,000103,918,608
Union Bank of Australia, Ltd.4,000,00064,850,000
Bank of New South Wales8,780,00056,150,000
Bank of Australasia4,500,00072,650,166
National Bank of New Zealand, Ltd.2,000,00042,146,416
Commercial Bank of Australia, Ltd.— Ordinary2,000,00052,250,000
Preference2,117,35042,250,000

It should be noted that four of these banks are predominantly Australian institutions; and, consequently, the statistics of paid-up capital, &c, quoted above are not necessarily indicative of the relative status of the banks in respect of New Zealand business.

The movement of paid-up capital and reserved profits, as at 31st December, during the last ten years is given below:—

Year.Paid-up Capital.Reserved Profits.
 ££
192524,581,06417,627,901
192624,772,28420,000,461
192727,041,13021,542,680
192828,439,26523,497,555
192928,754,16324,339,031
193028,898,86224,359,819
193130,255,46324,431,821
193230,255,46322,118,724
193330,255,46322,048,571
193429,725,47521,965,190

The fall of £529,988 in the paid-up capital of the banks, as compared with the total in 1933, was caused by the repayment by the Bank of New Zealand of an issue of 4-per-cent. stock which matured in July, 1934.

LIABILITIES.

The liabilities of the trading banks for the last ten years are shown in the table following, the figures given referring to New Zealand business only. The liabilities shown represent the average of the four quarters of the year.

Year.Notes iii Circulation.Bills in Circulation.Balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Total Liabilities.*
* Including from 1927 transfers from Long-term Mortgage Department in case of Bank of New Zealand.
 £££££
19256,775,470312,983924,04252,207,20260,219,697
19266,730,421292,370850,25650,135,11458,008,161
19276,510,018292,369948,92648,294,09656,321,397
19286,374,043307,0071,146,54353,799,22161,850,595
19296,433,911327,667850,44157,609,74665,232,866
19306,255,717269,2941,024,96356,425,01463,984,419
19315,782,354191,4171,798,37553,645,01861,463,034
19325,958,268158,8661,566,10752,851,73660,649,208
19336,205,429179,4271,111,97957,620,23365,281,375
19344,844,826197,882576,86363,417,29969,259,271

The average total liabilities of trading banks during 1934 were the highest on record—due to an unprecedented high level of deposits. The heavy excess of commodity exports revealed by statistics of external trade for 1934 contributed to the substantial increase in deposits; while, apart from this factor, other evidence—e.g., share prices, yields on Government bonds, &c.—points to a plenitude of available funds in relation to effective demand having existed during that year. The decrease in notes in circulation is accounted for by the transfer of the functions of note-issue to the Reserve Bank in August, 1934.

The next table shows the total liabilities for each quarter during the same period :—

QUARTERLY LIABILITIES.

YearMarch Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarters.
 £££££
192561,309,07562,215,23859,194,08458,160,39160,219,697
192659,484,11080,765,98957,219,99554,562,55158,008,161
192756,804,37158,092,95754,575,76355,812,49756,321,397
192860,554,20603,658,26961,789,57461,400,32961,850,595
192966,055,87567,481,60864,773,54362,620,43765,232,866
193064,982,78766,208,80963,547,53761,198,54363,984,419
193161,215,97762,672,52961,246,88460,716,74761,463,034
193261,517,25361,562,03559,815,24459,702,29860,649,208
193362,793,94865,745,00965,949,52066,637,02365,281,375
193469,780,02772,415,89970,664,67264,176,48669,259,271
193563,237,85263,160,81561,812,712....

Details of liabilities from September quarter of 1933 to the corresponding quarter of 1935 are now given.

LIABILITIES.

Quarter.Notes in Circulation.Bills in Circulation.Balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Transfers from Long-term Mortgage Department.*Total Liabilities.
* Bank of New Zealand only.
 ££££££
September, 19336,145,293180,195898,52258,558,951166,64965,949,520
December, 19336,366,631202,790602,09159,280,798184,71360,637,023
March, 19346,294,631228,530760,37062,304,082192,41469,780,027
June, 19346,423,115201,731827,36064,753,545210,14872,415,899
September, 19344,665,868177,798506,72765,085,749228,54070,664,672
December, 19341,995,698183,469212,99761,525,820258,50264,176,486
March, 19351,009,475195,20881,13361,688,089263,94763,237,852
June, 1935776,214183,12099,52561,825,156270,80063,100,815
September, 1935607,844176,72698,51360,585,889283,74061,812,712

It will be seen that the process of the transfer of the note-issue to the Reserve Bank has been practically completed, the value of trading-bank notes in circulation being only £667,844 in the September quarter of 1935. A large proportion of this amount is presumably accounted for by notes lost, destroyed, or, perhaps, hoarded. An appreciable diminution in deposits is revealed by the quarterly statistics for 1935.

ASSETS.

Assets are now presented in a manner similar to that in which liabilities are shown. The figures represent the average of the four quarters of the year.

Year.Coin and Bullion.Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due, exclusive of Bad Debts.Balances due from other Banks.Government Securities.Total Assets (Including others).
 ££££££
19257,722,9171,639,16843,659,7871,214,3214,782,17062,128,808
19267,797,3191,787,50447,361,756881,8454,654,84665,765,297
19277,874,9711,610,36848,421,835978,2644,647,19166,626,676
19287,511,8331,286,18544,893,2781,301,9074,790,40462,819,485
19297,051,3911,103,14948,175,045955,8034,887,46265,475,529
19306,798,5561,173,36752,484,0301,075,3344,777,89669,748,071
19316,917,897843,04151,576,4861,832,7814,505,58168,557,120
19325,957,944644,95349,610,7211,592,8948,521,01769,015,209
19335,105,846814,22844,890,8161,109,25715,266,03269,656,700
19343,477,2481,174,40740,215,0506,040,48618,105,02573,509,177

The next table shows the total assets for each quarter during the same period:—

QUARTERLY ASSETS.

Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarters.
 £££££
192561,199,18660,452,02961,340,14665,523,87062,128,808
192665,171,19465,624,70464,367,51067,897,77965,765,297
192767,646,15667,529,75764,668,32766,662,46366,626,676
192863,164,33962,736,74661,324,36764,052,48862,819,485
192962,650,70363,478,79265,979,61169,793,01165,475,529
193069,855,43670,211,06968,546,94370,378,83669,748,071
193169,413,04668,877,97567,210,65768,726,80168,557,120
193267,707,59069,359,67569,602,76369,390,80969,015,209
193366,913,94069,977,27869,798,02571,037,55569,656,700
193473,435,09876,620,05875,776,87568,204,67573,509,177
193562,845,11060,289,86260,518,026....

In the next table details of assets are given from September quarter, 1933, to September quarter, 1935.

ASSETS. 1933–35.

Quarter.Coin and Bullion.Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due, exclusive of Bad Debts.Balances due from other Banks.All other Assets (including Government Securities).Total Assets.
1933.££££££
September5,076,2541,095,02042,715,791883,97420,026,98669,798,025
December 1934.5,054,918986,71342,765,264589,64622,541,01471,937,555
March5,093,4181,264,10340,311,423764,14426,002,01073,435,098
June5,045,1991,915,03639,429,093792,77429,437,95676,620,058
September3,158,348963,61639,213,52110,181,31622,260,07475,776,875
December 1935.612,029554,87341,906,16212,423,70912,707,90268,204,675
March745,326535,34842,541,7676,593,80612,428,86362,845,110
June775,518491,08043,368,1654,159,11411,495,98560,289,862
September760,532474,59544,323,1304,180,47010,779,29960,518,026

The fall in the value of coin and bullion and in other assets (including Government securities) observed in recent quarterly statistics is the consequence of the establishment of the Reserve Bank, to which cause the increase in balances due from other banks is also attributable. These matters are discussed later in this section.

DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES.

The total amount of deposits, the amount per head of mean population, the total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits, taking the average of the four quarters for each of the last ten years, are as follows:—

 Deposits.Advances
Year.Total Amount.Per Head of Population.Total Amount.Ratio to Deposits.
 ££s.d.£Per Cent.
192552,207,2023714245,298,95586.77
192650,135,114359349,149,26098.03
192748,294,0963311450,032,203103.60
192853,799,2213619146,179,46385.84
192957,009,746392349,278,19485.54
193056,425,0143716253,657,39795.10
193153,645,0183581152,419,52797.72
193252,851,7363412750,255,67495.09
193357,620,233379045,705,04479.32
193463,417,2994018241,389,45765.27

A fifty-years table of deposits and advances will be found in the Statistical Summary at the latter end of this volume. Deposits for each quarter of the last ten years are now given.

QUARTERLY DEPOSITS.

YearMarch Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarters.
 £££££
192553,090,84254,551,31651,459,75149,720,89752,207,202
192651,314,67452,595,62750,010,35646,619,79850,135,114
192748,624,08449,773,41047,302,89847,475,99148,294,096
192852,336,87254,903,20854,224,70453,732,09653,799,221
192958,209,93459,840,14957,307,76655,015,13457,009,746
193057,469,32658,847,38750,150,53953,232,80356,425,014
193154,141,06554,990,12553,466,00351,976,87953,645,018
193253,336,88554,013,30052,138,35851,918,40052,851,736
193355,166,87357,474,31058,558,95159,280,79857,620,233
193462,304,08264,753,54565,085,74961,525,82063,417,299
193561,688,08961,825,15660,585,889....

The following table shows the three different classes of deposits for each quarter from 1930 onwards:—

CLASSES OF DEPOSITS.

Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.
Government.
 ££££
19303,466,0865,099,3493,600,1001,859,407
19312,889,1263,826,7382,694,7861,195,845
19321,871,7741,796,5181,429,1921,457,057
19332,496,6031,740,3071,250,3441,139,812
19341,190,6491,017,6491,533,887575,534
1935587,745552,614452,041..
Not bearing Interest.
 ££££
193023,905,82223,225,86420,803,17118,597,839
193118,329,85318,124,16216,590,66116,145,439
193216,998,82216,815,88215,370,15215,087,313
193317,461,28218,866,44518,395,72618,622,333
193421,657,55022,874,32722,111,52121,518,151
193523,965,03524,430,98922,793,143..
Bearing Interest.
193030,097,41830,522,17431,747,26832,775,557
193132,922,08633,045,22534,180,55634,635,595
193234,466,28935,400,90035,339,01435,374,030
193335,208,98836,867,55838,912,88139,518,653
193439,455,88340,861,56941,440,34139,432,135
193537,135,30936,841,55337,340,705..

In the non-interest-bearing class, which is made up of current accounts, the lowest level is generally associated with the final quarter of the year, and the highest with the second quarter, a state of affairs probably due largely to the seasonal influence of sheep-farming among the Dominion's productive activities. Interest-bearing deposits, and the proportion of these to the total, show a marked increase during recent years. The fall in Government deposits in the December quarter of 1934 was due to the partial transfer of the Government accounts to the Reserve Bank.

The table following shows the amount of advances quarterly during the last ten years, together with the ratio to deposits :—

QUARTERLY ADVANCES AND RATIO TO DEPOSITS.

 Total Advances.Percentage of Advances to Deposits.
Year.March.June.September.December.March.June.September.December
 ££££    
192543,730,26243,935,77144,975,36048,554,42682.3780.5487.4097.64
192648,285,14048,714,74248,323,94651,273,21194.0992.6296.63109.12
192750,800,80950,753,10748,815,23149,759,644103.88101.44102.52104.26
192846,070,37145,426,95645,119,42448,101,10488.0382.7483.2189.52
192946,359,74447,407,21149,537,99253,807,83279.6479.2286.3597.81
193053,676,77864,063,16252,506,90254,382,74893.4091.8793.51102.16
193154,332,23553,395,53550,933,55751,016,781100.3597.0995.2698.15
193250,232,33750,581,39549,975,21550,233,74894.1893.6595.8596.76
193348,500,27446,757,11243,810,81243,751,977187.9281.3574.8173.80
193441,575,52641,344,12940,177,13742,461,03566.7363.8561.7369.01
193543,077,11543,859,24544,797,725..69.8370.94;73.94..

The improvement hi the trading situation in 1933 and 1934 is reflected in a sharp fall in the ratio of advances to deposits, the increase in funds traceable to this cause being apparently greater than the effective demand for accommodation, with a consequent increase in deposits and a reduction in advances.

Since the provision of Treasury-bill finance has now become largely a function of the Reserve Bank, interest attaches to the following table showing the movements in advances, Government securities held by the trading banks, and deposits at quarterly intervals since the beginning of 1928.

ADVANCES, GOVERNMENT SECURITIES, AND DEPOSITS.

Quarter.Advances.Government Securities.Total Advances and Government Securities.Total Deposits.Ratio of Advances (plus Government Securities) to Total Deposits.
1928.££££Per Cent.
March46,070,3714,799,22050,869,59152,336,87297.20
June45,426,9564,792,89850,219,85454,903,20891.47
September45,119,4244,790,07349,909,49754,224,70492.04
December48,101,1044,779,42552,880,52953,732,09698.42
1929.     
March46,359,7444,779,37851,139,12258,209,93487.85
June47,407,2114,781,53952,188,75059,846,14987.20
September49,537,9924,984,33454,522,32657,367,76695.04
December53,807,8325,004,59658,812,42855,015,134106.90
1930.     
March53,676,7785,050,09358,726,87157,469,326102.19
June54,063,1625,177,60259,240,76458,847,387100.07
September52,506,9024,674,32957,181,23156,150,539101.84
December54,382,7484,209,56058,592,30853,232,803110.07
1931.     
March54,332,2354,030,37458,362,60954,141,005107.80
June53,395,5354,030,68257,420,21754,996,125104.42
September50,933,5574,501,04155,434,59853,466,003103.68
December51,016,7815,460,22756,477,00851,976,879108.66
1932.     
March50,232,3376,024,32656,256,60353,336,885105.47
June50,581,3958,594,87159,176,26654,013,300109.56
September49,975,2159,863,84959,839,06452,138,358114.77
December50,233,7489,601,02159,834,76951,918,400115.25
1933.     
March48,500,2749,259,90657,760,18055,166,873104.70
June46,757,11214,045,47560,802,58757,474,310105.79
September43,810,81217,626,02261,430,83458,558,951104.91
December43,751,97720,132,72563,884,70259,280,798107.77
1934.     
March41,575,52623,453,37765,028,90362,304,082104.37
June41,344,12926,886,24468,230,37364,753,545105.37
September40,177,13716,447,59756,624,73465,085,74987.00
December42,461,0355,632,88148,093,91661,525,82078.17
1935.     
March43,077,1155,840,39048,917,50561,088,08979.30
June43,859,2455,506,31249,365,55761,825,15679.85
September44,797,7255,181,64249,979,36760,585,88982.49

The sharp increase in 1933 and in the first two quarters of 1934 in the value of Government securities held by trading banks is due to the financing by the trading banks of the Government's holdings of London funds accumulated during that period. With the transfer of these funds to the Reserve Bank in August, 1934, the floating debt to the trading banks incurred on this account was repaid— hence the decreased holdings of Government securities.

SUMMARY OF ALL DEPOSITS.

The average deposits standing to the credit of depositors in the trading banks for the week nearest 31st March, 1935, were £62,936,761, and if to this figure be added the deposits in the Post Office and trustee savings-banks at the same date the grand total of bank deposits amounts to £123,646,537, representing an average of £79 5s. 7d. per head of population. In addition to deposits with banks there were at 31st March, 1935, deposits of £3,218,756 with building and investment societies, and of £5,846,414 with trading companies (including persons and firms accepting deposits).

MONTHLY BANKING STATISTICS.

The tables following show, from January, 1934, to the latest month available, a monthly summary of the weekly returns furnished (since April, 1928) by the six trading banks. The figures represent the average of four or five weekly returns, the period in each case terminating with the week ending on the last Monday of the month. In the weekly returns debits and clearings represent transactions during the week; all other items show the position at the end of the week.

ADVANCES AND DEPOSITS.

Weekly Average of Four or Five Weeks endedAdvances.Deposits.Ratio of Advances to Deposits.
Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due.Government.Not bearing Interest.Bearing Interest.
1934.£££££Per Cent.
January 29917,48141,199,6761,280,70620,503,17139,287,90368.90
February 261,119,55039,933,7081,050,99922,009,54639,386,90065.74
March 261,841,95830,578,8791,217,72822,073,50339,734,87665.10
April 301,398,67139,855,1661,219,09423,230,74440,187,13063.82
May 282,279,46439,342,948909,24922,983,90040,907,89864.17
June 252,196,05438,982,646874,24222,319,23041,598,26963.56
July 301,811,04238,785,898915,37521,930,11541,767,40662.83
August 27406,71239,172,5232,338,53322,125,86741,503,44159.95
September 24461,26130,789,0621,502,38022,273,92840,908,44762.17
October 29526,02841,208,125609,33221,550,22340,490,42966.61
November 26550,17141,928,869525,26821,229,16639,581,23669.20
December 31587,48042,586,039581,94721,717,26838,254,54971.30
1935.      
January 28572,69042,433,714534,90722,956,91237,580,08470.42
February 25512,64542,377,658555,26624,260,77737,196,82009.16
March 25520,70942,813,901673,07224,677,40136,629,00569.92
April 29532,55443,341,554542,69725,098,42936,757,79970.31
May 27489,69213,347,927545,45924,449,34736,874,55770.85
June 24440,71843,421,664572,16723,578,32336,913,49871.83
July 29432,80043,673,086470,89123,214,63037,043,55472.03
August 26485,81544,301,716449,19922,718,50937,268,00274.11
September 30507,41044,990,307435,46422,431,39137,695,99675.12

DEBITS, CLEARINGS, RESERVES, AND NOTES.

Weekly Average of Four or Five Weeks endedBank Debits.Bank Clearings.Coin Reserves.Notes.*
Government.Other.Gross Circulation.Net Circulation.
* Excluding Reserve Hank notes, which came into circulation on 1st August, 1934.
1934.££££££
January 294,595,64211,950,2277,909,6705,110,1626,406,0126,355,995
February 267,093,66915,534,01711,038,6615,051,9176,196,6926,154,095
March 268,170,86015,202,92411,390,6265,077,6956,253,3236,208,426
April 308,101,82114,678,08610,708,6045,036,0926,598,1256,553,234
May 284,906,24113,210,9768,494,2245,028,3966,331,8006,285,245
June 255,117,36611,733,1238,450,4485,038,0126,295,7026,246,941
July 304,448,68011,503,4377,726,9735,040,4046,247,9576,200,981
August 2710,120,41011,463,7776,546,4763,300,2324,375,2644,343,025
September 242,776,97110,624,9645,620,481663,8692,993,8922,975,561
October 294,294,92412,165,6206,345,642629,6592,388,3652,377,185
November 262,017,10711,717,1606,331,151598,7611,969,8731,962,053
December 312,335,32613,361,5647,084,400605,0201,623,6801,619,716
1935      
January 281,085,95211,470,2266,242,206712,0611,192,9061,188,794
February 251,442,24414,578,3508,053,196737,4958,438956,047
March 251,783,92715,649,9728,594,435780,4877,094875,250
April 291,415,44913,792,5057,062,766768,456819,755818,322
May 271,325,98412,864,5396,827,441780,568770,015768,867
June 241,393,77711,949,6376,395,567779,310727,985727,206
July 291,375,43812,236,3316,391,261701,521693,991693,407
August 261,404,80912,149,3336,530,789772,949666,829666,271
September 301,387,20912,832,9936,653,138809,622642,502642,064

DEBITS AND CLEARINGS.

The following table shows quarterly and annual aggregates of bank debits and clearings for the full period for which such information is available. Debits represent the total amount debited to customers' accounts at all branches, and clearings show the total outward exchanges delivered at all branches. These figures, which have been compiled from the weekly returns furnished by the six trading banks, give a reliable indication of appreciable changes in the volume of business, and strikingly reflect the depressed trade conditions which set in during 1930 and continued downward until the end of 1932, since when there has been a gradual improvement. The recent fall in Government debits is a consequence of the opening of the Reserve Bank.

Quarter or Year ended,Quarterly Aggregates.Annual Aggregates.
Debits other than Government.Government Debits.Total Debits.Clearings.Debits other than Government.Government Debits.Total Debits.Clearings.
* Commencing with week ended 9th April.
1928.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.
June*183.544.3227.8110.8........
September182.250.1232.3109.9........
December229.360.8290.1132.9........
1929.        
March228.770.7299.4139.1823.7225.91,049.6492.7
June221.261.9283.1129.5861.4243.51,104.9511.4
September213.767.5281.2130.5892.9260.91,153.8532.0
December217.162.1279.2129.5880.7262.21,142.9528.6
1930.        
March234.682.0316.6138.5880.6273.51,160.1528.0
June202.757.8260.5122.2868.1269.41,137.5520.7
September179.076.0255.0108.8833.4277.91,111.3499.0
December176.056.1232.1103.8792.3271.91,064.2473.3
1931.        
March165.266.2231.495.7722.9256.1979.0430.5
June153.945.5199.489.4674.1243.8917.9397.7
September134.458.0192.476.9629.5225.8855.3365.8
December139.054.4193.480.6592.5224.1816.6342.6
1932.        
March147.962.9210.885.8575.2220.8796.0332.7
June139.146.6185.776.6560.4221.9782.3319.9
September119.547.7167.269.1545.5211.6757.1312.1
December135.249.0184.275.2541.7206.2747.9306.7
1933.        
March145.969.9215.888.6539.7213.2752.9309.5
June136.160.5196.680.1536.7227.1763.8313.0
September130.559.1189.687.9547.7288.5780.2331.8
December146.058.7205.395.8559.1248.2807.3352.4
1934.        
March182.784.0266.7129.3595.9262.3858.2393.1
June173.280.6253.8121.3633.0282.4915.4434.3
September145.973.8219.787.3648.4297.1945.5433.7
December174.541.2215.792.5676.3279.6955.9430.4
1935.        
March166.817.2184.091.6660.4212.8873.2392.7
June168.218.0186.288.2655.4150.2805.6359.6
September174.019.4193.491.3683.595.8779.3363.6

THE RESERVE BANK.

The Reserve Bank was constituted by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933 (later to receive minor amendments by the Finance Act, 1934), with the primary object of exercising control, within defined limits, over monetary circulation and credit in New Zealand to the end that the economic welfare of the Dominion be promoted and maintained. The Bank is a body corporate, limited by shares in accordance with the Act. The shareholders were proclaimed to be a body corporate as from the 1st April, 1934. and the Bank commenced business on the 1st August. 1934. The capital of the Bank is £500,000, composed of 100,000 publicly subscribed shares of £5, bearing a cumulative dividend of 5 per cent. on the paid-up capital. The shares of the Bank are widely distributed. The rules provide that the Bank shall decline to accept transfers except to a British subject domiciled in New Zealand, or transfers which would increase the holding of any person beyond 200 (reduced from 500 as from 11th June, 1935) shares. A Government contribution to the Bank's Reserve Fund of £1,000,000 was authorized, this sum being irrecoverable except upon the winding-up of the Bank.

The management of the Bank is entrusted to a Board of Directors, consisting of the Governor and the Deputy-Governor, three State directors, and four shareholders' directors, of whom two represent primary industries and two industrial or commercial pursuits. The Secretary to the Treasury is an ex officio member without voting-power. All members of the Board (other than the Secretary to the Treasury) must be British subjects by birth, and may not be members of the Legislature, public servants of any Department, or undischarged bankrupts. Not more than one member may act as director of any other bank.

BUSINESS OF THE RESERVE BANK.

The transfer of the note-issuing functions of the trading banks to the Reserve Bank is dealt with later in this section under “Coinage and Currency.”

The Reserve Bank is further empowered to—

  1. Buy and sell gold and silver coin and bullion.

  2. Accept money on deposit or current account.

  3. Discount, rediscount, buy arid sell (a) bills, notes, &c, whether commercial or agricultural, maturing within one hundred and twenty days from date of document or ninety days after sight; (b) agricultural bills, notes, &c, maturing within six months of acquisition, with the proviso that the total held must never exceed 5 per cent. of the Bank's assets; (c) Treasury bills of any Government, or bills of any local body or public body in any British country, all such bills to be maturing within three months of acquisition.

  4. Grant advances, up to three months, against (a) gold coin or bullion or relative documents; (b) Government, local body, or other approved securities readily marketable in New Zealand; (c) bills, &c, as referred to above; (d) promissory notes of banks in New Zealand.

  5. Buy and sell securities of the New Zealand or United Kingdom Governments, with the proviso that the total held must never exceed three times the paid-up capital and reserves.

  6. Buy and sell currencies of other countries.

  7. Issue and manage, but not underwrite, loans for the Government or any local body or public body in New Zealand.

  8. Keep a register of inscribed stock on behalf of a local authority or public body.

  9. Organize a clearing system.

  10. Act as correspondent for overseas banks or as agent of other reserve banks.

  11. Do any other banking business not prohibited by the Act.

Other duties of the Bank in connection with note issue, exchange, and maintenance of reserves are referred to elsewhere in this section.

On the commencement of business on 1st August, 1934, the Public Account was transferred to the Reserve Bank. The Reserve Bank may also be required to act as agent for the Treasury in respect of interest-payments and management generally of the public debt.

Inter alia, the Bank is prohibited from engaging in trade; purchasing its own shares or those of other banks (except the Bank for International Settlements); making unsecured loans or advances; purchasing or making advances on real property; paying interest on moneys placed with it on deposit or on current account, except to the Government on Government funds held by the Bank outside New Zealand; renewing bills, except in exceptional circumstances; drawing or accepting bills payable otherwise than on demand. There is also a limit placed upon the accommodation that can be given Government Departments, local authorities, or public bodies.

The Bank is required, to furnish to the Treasury a weekly statement in prescribed form, and this is directed to be published in the Gazette. A copy of the annual accounts must be similarly furnished and published. A list of names and addresses of shareholders at the close of the year must be transmitted to the Treasury.

The net profits of the Bank, after payment to shareholders of a 5-per-cent. per annum cumulative dividend, are paid to the Consolidated Fund, provided that the Bank's General Reserve Fund is not less than twice the paid-up capital. If the Reserve Fund falls below that level part of the profits must be credited to the Reserve Fund.

OBLIGATIONS OF TRADING BANKS TO RESERVE BANK.

All gold coin or bullion held by trading banks for their own account was required to be transferred to the Reserve Bank in exchange for equivalent notes of the Reserve Bank or for credit with that Bank. The basis of payment was £3 17s. l0½d. per ounce of standard (i.e., eleven-twelfths fine) gold content, which was the price at which such gold (in actual fact, coin only) had originally been acquired by the banks. Any profit derived from the sale of this gold overseas by the Reserve Bank accrues to the State and not to the Reserve Bank. The profits on the sale of gold coin during the year ended on.31st March, 1935, are shown in the public accounts as £1,364,118. Each trading bank is required to maintain with the Reserve Bank a balance of not less than 7 per cent, of its demand liabilities in New Zealand, and 3 per cent. of its time liabilities in New Zealand.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The short time that has elapsed since the Reserve Bank commenced business precludes any effective survey of its operations. The following is a statement of assets and liabilities at the latest date (28th October, 1935) available at time of writing.

Assets.
Reserve—£
Gold2,801,732
Exchange16,831,482
Subsidiary coin218,027
Discounts 
Advances 
Investments1,529,987
Other assets40,927
Total assets£21,422,155
Liabilities.
Capital and General Reserve£
Fund1,500,000
Bank-notes8,950,612
Demand liabilities— 
State5,691,339
Banks4,495,911
Other687,267
Liabilities in non-New-Zealand currencies 
Other liabilities97,026
Total liabilities£21,422,155

The net reserve ratio—i.e., reserve, less liabilities in currencies other than New Zealand currency, expressed as percentage of notes and other demand liabilities—was 90.03 per cent.

NOTES IN CIRCULATION.

As indicated elsewhere, the Reserve Bank assumed the note-issuing function on the 1st August, 1934. At the present time notes of both the Reserve Bank and the trading banks are in circulation, those of the latter being in process of replacement by Reserve Bank notes. As from the 10th January. 1935, the notes of trading banks have ceased to be legal tender. The following table combines the two issues, and shows the total net circulation on the last Monday of each month since the inauguration of the Reserve Bank:—

As at Last Monday in Month.Notes in Circulation.Less Notes held by other Banks.Net Note Circulation.
Notes of Trading Banks.Notes of Reserve Banks.Gross Total.Notes of Trading Banks.Notes Reserve Banks.Total.
1934.£££££££
August 273,609,1637,975,31011,584,47323,8955,487,7135,511,6086,072,865
September 242,705,7318,664,80211,370,53314,5135,196,6845,211,1976,159,336
October 292,206,6518,878,28711,084,93810,8605,042,0675,052,9276,032,011
November 261,846,3729,611,47811,457,8503,6265,367,0345,370,6606,087,190
December 311,483,4999,772,27911,255,7785,5984,415,8994,421,4976,834,281
1935.       
January 281,043,4819,533,97410,577,4552,9394,489,8334,492,7726,084,683
February 25921,5529,326,97810,248,5302,1674,057,7334,059,9006,188,630
March 25852,7519,341,39210,194,1431,8453,955,9243,957,7696,236,374
April 29800,5799,433,67010,234,2491,8083,852,6823,854,4906,379,759
May 27753,2449,302,09310,055,3379623,877,3333,878,2956,177,042
June 24708,0279,111,2709,819,2977463,714,0243,714,7706,104,527
July 29681,9498,848,7419,530,6905243,435,6793,436,2036,094,487
August 26658,2238,769,3629,427,5854433,156,2013,150,6446,270,941
September 30632,5338,893,9659,526,4983433,032,8083,033,1516,493,347

OVERSEAS FUNDS OF BANKS.

Under section 46 of the Reserve Bank Act. 1933, the trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals, stating, inter alia, overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business. From these statements, published in the New Zealand Gazette, and the weekly gazetted statements of assets and liabilities of the Reserve Hank the following table has been compiled. All the amounts are expressed in New Zealand currency.

OVERSEAS FUNDS OF BANKS.

(On account of New Zealand business only.)

As atTrading Hanks' Overseas Assets.Reserve Hank's Holdings of Sterling Exchange.Total Overseas Assets.Overseas Liabilities of Trading Banks.Net Overseas Funds.
In London.Elsewhere.
1934.£ (N.Z.)£ (N.Z.)£ (N.Z.)£(N.Z.)£ (N.Z.)£(N.Z.)
July 30th8,821,5388,359,977....3,399,401..
August 27th11,171,9879,255,54224,487,09344,914,6225,897,24339,017,379
September 24th7,751,1719,129,64124,501,38041,382,1921,114,49440,267,698
October 29th10,494,5708,948,81123,222,18942,665,5701,016,68941,648,881
November 26th10,120,8689,069,11923,007,75742,797,7441,171,66241,620,082
December 31st10,618,3288,924,25422,092,02141,634,6031,105,98840,528,615
1935.      
January 28th12,234,3557,897,23421,867,95241,999,5411,076,02140,923,520
February 25th15,299,7867,351,60321,810,62544,462,0141,090,51143,371,503
March 25th10,605,2007,312,98022,434,59346,352,7731,124,03745,228,736
April 29th18,266,1337,081,88422,088,84547,436,8621,138,89640,297,966
May 27th18,746,1136,242,94422,789,22847,778,2851,197,34746,580,938
June 24th18,682,7945,813,84422,813,02447,309,6621,285,80846,023,854
July 29th18,034,0345,807,95321,053,70244,895,6891,649,89343,245,796
August 26th17,173,5016,024,54620,813,69144,011,7381,553,55442,458,184
September 30th16,206,5265,672,47519,688,59441,567,5951,522,00840,045,587

The statements of the Reserve Bank do not show, up to the present, any overseas liabilities; and, consequently, no column under this heading is included in the table.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

In connection with the Post Office in New Zealand a savings-bank has been conducted since the 1st February, 1867. The minimum deposit receivable, except in certain specified cases, is ls., and no interest is given on any sum less than £1. The present rate of interest on so much of the deposit as does not exceed £500 is 3 per cent. per annum, and on so much as exceeds £500 and does not exceed £2,000, 2½ per cent. for the amount over £500. No interest is payable to any depositor in respect of any amount of his deposit in excess of £2,000. Tins provision came into force on the 1st March, 1935.

The Postmaster-General may pay deposits to a maximum of £200 to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. This provision, together with another provision whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit after the depositor's death, enables a widow or orphan to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without either delay or cost.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at the 31st March, 1935, was 871. There were 90,958 new accounts opened during the year ended the 31st March, 1935, and 71,603 accounts were closed during the period. The total number of open accounts at the 31st March. 1935, was 817,617, or 52 to every 100 of the population, including Maoris.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.
  £££££
1926758,15531,833,62232,602,500–768,884*1,731,57847,911,322
1927783,82729,456,38330,149,629–693,246*1,767,42648,985,502
1928804,72527,611,06630,584,997–2,973,932*1,747,15647,758,726
1929828,29627,252,38128,111,940–859,559*1,745,05048,644,217
1930852,75728,561,85429,575,994–1,014,140*1,806,41449,430,491
1931878,04324,531,56928,063,338–3,531,769*1,763,82547,668,547
1932877,09019,463,98525,488,081–6,024,096*1,611,04843,255,499
1933797,09716,933,17619,035,928–2,702,752*1,475,87442,028,621
1934798,26219,428,85317,818,1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,391
1935817,61724,179,53720,946,5623,232,9751,320,34849,423,714

Section 26 of the Finance Act, 1932, provided that moneys lying in savings-bank accounts not operated on for twenty-five years should be treated as unclaimed moneys, which are payable into the Consolidated Fund The consequential closing of many years' accumulations of “dead” accounts (with average deposits of under £1) was responsible for the decrease of 80,000 which occurred in 1932.33 in the number of open accounts.

There was a steady increase in the average amount standing to the credit of each depositor up to the 31st March, 1921, but a practically continuous fall was recorded to 1932, when the average open account at 31st March was £49 6s. 4d. The average open account at the 31st March, 1935, was £60 8s. lld., as against £50 4s. 2d. in 1934.

The substantial increases shown in 1934 and 1935 are in conformity with the improvement in the economic situation and the “easy” monetary situation. It should be noted also that the Post Office interest-rate for small amounts (under £500) at present exceeds the maximum paid by trading banks on fixed deposits.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings-bank Fund on the 31st March, 1935, represented a nominal value of £46,342,348. A summary of the investments is as follows:—

 £
In New Zealand Government securities42,247,321
In local bodies' securities456,272
In Government stock of other British countries3,638,755
 £46,342,348

TRUSTEE SAVINGS-BANKS.

There are five savings-banks not connected with the Post Office—viz., Auckland, established in 1847; New Plymouth, 1850; Dunedin, 1864; Invercargill, 1864; and Hokitika, 1866. The total amount to the credit of depositors at the 31st March. 1935, was £11,286,062, representing an average account of £49 10s. 4d. Figures for ten years are as follows :—

Year ended 3l3t March,Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.
  £££££
1926135,0745,392,7295,022,121370,608253,6436,364,383
1927151,4075,500,2815,137,088363,193280,5347,008,110
1928166,6945,787,8355,453,091334,744314,5537,657,407
1929180,0156,307,5095,839,660467,849352,8638,478,119
1930193,0846,703,6226,324,762378,860376,5269,233,505
1931204,4676,555,2866,512,46942,817410,2649,686,586
1932214,5176,168,0326,138,77029,262416,38510,132,233
1933212,6735,678,8435,718,258–39,415*377,72010,470,538
1934219,7325,817,8465,741,98975,857301,31410,847,709
1935227,9256,199,2116,073,447125,764312,58911,286,062

The following table shows the results of the transactions of each of the trustee savings-banks during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1935.

Bank.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
  £££££
Auckland162,9693,803,5973,781,69221,905203,1047,328,806
New Plymouth13,043408,815350,26858,54718,837695,158
Hokitika1,99447,77743,8923,8854,043145,548
Dunedin33,293846,461843,7742,68764,4162,258,393
Invercargill16,6261,092,5611,053,82138,74022,189858,157
Totals227,9256,199,2116,073,447125,764312,58911,286,062

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES.

The overdraft rates and the rates of discount current in the Dominion were ½ per cent. higher in 1920 than the corresponding rates ruling prior to the 1914–19 war. A further increase of ½ per cent., following a period when importations had been made on a larger scale than at any previous time in the Dominion's history, was made in January, 1921, the demand on banks for money being very considerable. Another aspect of the position was the rapid diminution—from twenty millions to two millions—in the excess of deposits (other than Government) over advances during the closing six months of 1920. It is not surprising accordingly to find a further increase in the overdraft (and the discount) rates as from March, 1921. There was no further alteration in the rate until January, 1923, when the overdraft rate was reduced to 6½ per cent., a rate which ruled until April, 1927. As a result of financial stringency, occasioned by adverse trade conditions during 1926–27, both the overdraft and discount rates were increased to 7 per cent. in May, 1927. Vastly improved conditions, brought about by the successful export season of 1927–28 and a diminution in imports, were responsible for the reduction of both rates to 6½ per cent. in July, 1928; but by February, 1930, conditions had so changed that a return was made to the 7 per cent. rates. This rate remained in force until the 1st November, 1931, when a reduction to 6½ per cent. was made, followed by further reductions to 6 per cent. as from the 1st September, 1932, 5 per cent. as from the 1st May, 1933, and 4½ per cent. as from the 30th November, 1934.

The Reserve Bank's minimum discount or rediscount rate for New Zealand bills was originally 4 per cent., but was reduced to 3' per cent. from the 29th July, 1935.

TRADING BANKS' FIXED-DEPOSIT RATES.

The following is a complete schedule (since June, 1912) of the rates paid by the Associated Banks in New Zealand for moneys lodged on fixed deposit:—

Date Operative fromThree Months and under Six Months.Six Months and under Twelve Months.Twelve Months and under Twenty-four Months.Twenty-four Months.
* Five of six banks.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1st June, 1912..24
20th January, 192134
20th June, 19214
11th December, 19264
9th May, 192745
9th July, 192844
1st February, 19305
22nd April, 193045
1st August, 19314
1st June, 193234
2nd December, 19323
11th July, 193323
5th July, 19342
2nd November, 1934*

COINAGE AND CURRENCY.

The consolidating and amending Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain) empowered Her Majesty by Proclamation to direct that the whole or any part of the Act should apply to any British possession with or without modification. On the 1st August, 1896, Her Majesty directed that the Parts of the Act, as amended in 1891, that were set out in the Proclamation should be in force in New Zealand from the promulgation of the Proclamation in New Zealand. By Proclamation of the Administrator of 17th March, 1897, it was declared that Her Majesty's Proclamation should take effect from the publication of the Administrator's Proclamation in the Gazette (25th March, 1897).

The Coinage Act, 1920 (Great Britain) altered the fineness of silver coins. Its provisions were adopted for New Zealand by Proclamation of the Administrator of 14th September, 1920.

Subject to the modifications of the Coinage Act, 1933 (see below), the legal coinage of New Zealand was and is the coinage of Great Britain as determined from time to time by Royal Proclamation under the Act of 1870. In the past the necessary supply of coins has been obtained from the Royal Mints and put into circulation by the banks. In practice certain coins—e.g., £5, £2, crown, double florin, and farthing, have never circulated to any appreciable extent in New Zealand. Since the Proclamations referred to in a later paragraph gold has virtually disappeared from circulation.

NEW ZEALAND COIN.

Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), authorized the Minister of Finance to arrange with the Master of the Royal Mint (in England) for a special issue of silver and bronze coinage of distinctive design for use in New Zealand. Any coins minted in accordance with this arrangement would conform to the standard Mint requirements of weight, fineness, &c., and were given status as legal tender in New Zealand.

Before proceeding with the arrangement as authorized, the question of possible changes in the coinage system (e.g., to a metric basis) was, inter alia, referred to a committee of investigation appointed in May, 1933. This committee, which included a representative of the Treasury, Audit, Industries and Commerce, and Post and Telegraph Departments, together with a representative of the Associated Banks, of the Associated Chambers of Commerce, of retail interests, and of the New Zealand Numismatic Society respectively, in a report released 1st July, 1933, advocated, in the circumstances prevailing, adherence to coins of the existing face-value and mintage in England.

Arrangements were made under which the Royal Mint agreed to remint free of charge the Imperial and Australian silver coin circulating in the Dominion, replacing it with New Zealand coin of distinctive design, and to allow the New Zealand Government the bullion value of the coin not used in making such replacement.

It was at one time estimated that the profit arising to the New Zealand Government from the recoinage on this basis would be in the neighbourhood of £180,000, but this will depend on the amount of coin actually replaced, and the relative fineness of such coin. The profit arises from the fact that the Australian coinage and a proportion of the British coinage hitherto in circulation in New Zealand contained a larger proportion of silver than is required in the new coin under the standard set out in the Schedule to the Coinage Act, 1933, which is also the standard governing the present production of Imperial silver coin. The profit would have been much larger had it been possible to repatriate all such coin at its face-value, which was, of course, the value at which New Zealand actually purchased it. The Commonwealth Government agreed to the repatriation at face-value of a proportion of Australian coin circulating in the Dominion.

Up to the 30th June, 1935, New Zealand coins have been imported from the Mint of a total face-value of £1,670,000, and comprised of the following denominations and total face-values:—

 £
Half-crown590,000
Florin495,000
Shilling270,000
Sixpence165,000
Threepence150,000

The first consignment of New Zealand silver coins, consisting of half-crowns, arrived towards the end of November, 1933, and was put into circulation almost immediately. Since then other shipments have arrived and been put into circulation. A few crowns have also been ordered, but these will not be put into general circulation, being coined purely for numismatists.

By Order in Council of the 3rd May, 1934, New Zealand coins were made subject to the “Trial of the Pyx” in the same manner and by the same jury as in the case of British coins, one silver coin being set aside for this purpose from each journey weight consisting of 60 lb. troy weight. The verdict given was that the coins were within the permitted degrees of variation in weight and fineness.

Up to the 30th June, 1935, New Zealand coin of a nominal value of £1,670,000 had been handed to banks; Imperial coin of a nominal value of £855,740 and Australian coin of £208,360 nominal value had been forwarded to the Royal Mint; and Australian coin to the extent of £50,000 had been forwarded to Australia, for which £50,000 was received. A further amount of £1,000 in Imperial coin was disposed of at face-value to the Royal Mint. Expenses of the Silver and Bronze Coin Account totalled £8,430 to the 30th June, 1935, find the credit balance at that date amounted to £541,470, of which amount £141,470 was held in cash and £400,000 invested in securities.

The Coinage Act, 1933, which came into operation on the 1st December, 1933, repeals section 8 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), and makes necessary provisions in respect of silver and of bronze or cupro-nickel coins. The Act makes no provision for the issue of New Zealand gold coins. The denominations of bronze or cupro-nickel coins are to he determined by Proclamation under the Act. Section 5 (4) of the Act authorizes Proclamations declaring that British coins (other than gold coins) shall not be legal tender in New Zealand, and a Proclamation has been issued declaring British silver coins not legal tender in New Zealand on and after the 1st February, 1935; but otherwise the Act does not appear to affect the continued applicability to New Zealand of the Coinage Acts of Great Britain. A schedule to the Act gives the principal requirements of New Zealand silver coins; these are identical with Royal Mint standards.

Denomination of Coin.Standard Weight.Standard Fineness.Remedy Allowance.
Imperial Weight.Metric Weight.Weight per Piece.Millesimal Fineness.
* Not yet issued though on order (October, 1935).
Silver—Grains.Grammes. Imperial Grains.Metric Grammes. 
Crowns*436.3636328.27590500.02.0000.12965
Half-crown218.1818114.13795500.01.2160.07885
Florin174.5454511.31036500.00.9970.06465
Shilling87.272725.65518500.00.5780.03755
Sixpence43.636362.82759500.00.3460.02245
Threepence21.818181.41379500.00.2120.01385

The melting of current gold or silver is made an offence by section 48 of the Finance Act, 1920.

COIN NOT LEGAL TENDER.

In past years certain private tokens, mainly of penny-size, were issued in times of copper shortages. They have long disappeared, and their issue would now be unlawful.

Australian gold coins (the first Mint was established at Sydney in 1855) were not legal tender abroad until the Royal Proclamation of 1866, although they are understood to have circulated in New Zealand during those years. Under the Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain) gold coin struck at all the Australian Mints has been an integral part of the currency of Great Britain, distinguished from that struck at the Tower Mint only by an inconspicuous mint-mark. Australian gold coins, therefore, were and still are legal tender in New Zealand. Australian silver and bronze coins have never been legal tender in New Zealand, although in free circulation at face-value both among the general public and into and out of the banks. The quantity of Australian silver currency in circulation has been considerable in recent years, some private estimates placing it—prior to the introduction of the special New Zealand coinage—as high as 30 per cent. of the silver in circulation.

No other non-legal-tender coin circulates. As noted above, British silver coin ceased to be legal tender from 1st February, 1935.

RESTRICTIONS ON DEALING IN COIN.

During the period 1914–19 various Orders in Council (now revoked or lapsed) prohibited absolutely, or without the consent of the Minister of Customs, the exportation to a varying extent of silver coin, and in one instance of gold coin. The Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, authorizes the issue of Proclamations prohibiting the export of coined gold except with the consent of the Minister of Finance. Previous restrictions in respect of gold are referred to under the next sub-title.

The depreciation of the New Zealand pound in relation to sterling created an incentive for silver coins (which, for instance, in England would still preserve their face - value) to leave the country. Furthermore, the fact that, until January, 1933, the depreciation of the Australian pound was considerably greater than that of the New Zealand pound was a direct incentive for an influx of Australian silver coins. Accordingly, regulations effective from the 2nd April, 1931, were gazetted under the Customs Act, 1913, and its amendment of 1921, prohibiting the import or export of silver coins save with the consent of the Minister of Customs. These regulations were revoked as from the 23rd July, 1931, and were replaced as from the same date by regulations under the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 2). Under the new regulations a person entering New Zealand was permitted to bring with him silver coins to the value of £2, and a person departing to take silver coins of a value of £10 if going direct to the British Isles, or, if otherwise, £5. These sums could be increased only by consent of the Minister of Finance. Later amendments, dating from the 30th March, 1933, and still in force, diminished the latter sums to £o and £2 respectively. With the advent of New Zealand coins the necessity for these regulations has diminished. Although it is intended that the New Zealand issue of subsidiary coinage will eventually replace all previously circulating issues, no copper coinage has as yet been struck. Imperial and Australian copper coins still circulate freely. Regulations were gazetted in August, 1935, prohibiting the export of any bronze or copper coin, or of any coin inferior in value to silver, except with the consent of the Minister of Customs.

The appreciation in the price of gold having led to a temporarily large trade in the realization of jewellery and hoarded coin, and to attempts to melt or export the latter, it became necessary to introduce safeguards. The Board of Trade (Coined Gold) Regulations, 1932, were therefore enacted, whereby a system of licenses for dealers was introduced, evidence of character and suitability being required. To enable purchases of coin to be traced a register is required to be kept, open to police inspection. Under an amendment, effective from the 16th November, 1933, delivery of gold coin in the case of purchases must take place in the presence of a notary public, Justice of the Peace, or officer of the police to whom the purchaser is personally known, and whose signature must be affixed to the record.

LEGAL TENDER AND ISSUE OF NOTES.

By a provision of the Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain), made applicable to New Zealand, coins of Great Britain were legal tender in New Zealand to the same extent as in Great Britain—viz., gold, to any amount; silver, for amounts not exceeding £2; bronze, for amounts not exceeding Is. Section 5 (1) of the Coinage Act, 1933, declares that a tender or payment of money, if made in British coins or New Zealand coins of current weight, shall be a legal tender to the extent quoted above. Under section 5 (4) a Proclamation has been issued declaring that British silver coin shall no longer be legal tender in New Zealand from the 1st February, 1935.

Prior to the establishment of the Reserve Bank under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act passed on the 27th November, 1933, the Banking Act, 1908, dealt with the issue of notes generally. The Governor-General could empower any bank to issue and circulate notes, subject to the provisions and restrictions contained in the charter or letters patent under which such hank is incorporated; all such notes to be payable in gold only at the office of the bank at the place of to be a first charge on all assets of the bank.

Under the Bank-note Issue Act, 1893 (amended in 1894 and 1895) certain bank-notes were, for a short period, made legal tender in New Zealand.

On the 5th August, 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the late war, an amendment to the Banking Act was passed empowering the Governor-General in Council, from time to time, to make a Proclamation declaring “that the notes payable on demand by any bank therein named, and then issued or thereafter to be issued or reissued within New Zealand under any lawful authority in that behalf, shall during the period limited by the Proclamation be everywhere within New Zealand a good and legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable.” Conditions governing the issue of such Proclamation were laid down, and the bank might be required to give adequate security that it would redeem the notes in gold on the expiration of the period covered by the Proclamation. Provision was also made for payment by the State Treasury in case of default by the bank. During the period any such Proclamation was in force coined gold could not be exported except with the consent of the Minister of Finance. During the period between 5th August, 1914, and 5th November, 1919, this prohibition also applied to uncoined gold. Immediately on the passing of the amendment referred to, a Proclamation was gazetted declaring notes of all six banks of issue doing business in New Zealand to be legal tender from the 6th August to the 6th September, 1914. Further extensions were made from time to time. Under the Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, this legislation is repealed as from the 10th January, 1935. The position in respect of export of coined gold has been given under the preceding sub-title. That in respect of legal-tender notes is next referred to.

The position in respect of the note-issue was radically altered by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933. Section 15 enacted that on and after a date fixed by Proclamation—the Proclamation was signed on the 26th January 1934, and fixed the date as the 1st August, 1934—the Reserve Bank had the right to issue bank-notes in New Zealand; and thereupon the authority of every other bank to issue or re-issue bank-notes was terminated, and such banks were required to redeem their outstanding notes in Reserve Bank notes or subsidiary coin to the extent to which the latter was legal tender. On the expiration of a period of two years—i.e., on the 1st August, 193G—every other bank carrying on business in New Zealand is required to pay over to the Reserve Bank an amount equal to the value of its then outstanding notes issued or payable in New Zealand, and its liability in respect of such notes to the holders is deemed to have been assumed by the Reserve Bank. Bank-notes not presented for payment within forty years, commencing 1st April after date of issue in the case of Reserve Bank notes, or after assumption of liability (as above) in other cases, are deemed not to be in circulation, and an amount equal to the value thereof must be paid into the Consolidated Fund as if unclaimed moneys.

Reserve Bank notes are constituted legal tender up to any amount while the Bank continues to pay its notes in accordance with the provisions of section 16, as amended by the Finance Act, 1934, which requires the Bank, on presentation at its head office in Wellington of notes to any amount not less than £1,000, to give in exchange sterling for immediate delivery in London. On similar presentation of gold or of sterling for immediate delivery in London, in either case to an amount of £1,000 or more, the Bank must give its notes in exchange therefor. The rate of exchange for these transactions shall be fixed by the Bank.

The Bank is required at all times to maintain a minimum reserve of not less than 25 per cent. of the aggregate amount of its notes in circulation and other demand liabilities. The term “reserve” includes—

  1. Gold coin and bullion in the unrestricted ownership of the Bank.

  2. Sterling exchange, comprising (1) Deposits at the Bank of England, (2) British Treasury bills of not more than three months unexpired currency, (3) bills of exchange bearing at least two good signatures and of not more than three months unexpired currency.

  3. Net gold exchange, as defined in section 17 (c).

At the request in writing of the Board of Directors, the Minister of Finance may suspend the requirements as to maintenance of the above minimum reserve for a period not exceeding thirty days, with extensions, upon further request, of not more than fifteen days at any one time. If the reserve, whether requirements have been suspended or not, falls below the prescribed minimum the Bank is liable to pay to the Consolidated Fund a graduated tax computed on the amount of the deficiency. It must also add to its minimum discount rate a percentage not less than the rate of such graduated tax unless the Minister of Finance suspends such obligation in whole or in part.

The Reserve Bank may not issue bank-notes of a less denomination than 10s., except with the authority of the Governor-General in Council. The present issue of notes consists of the following denominations: 10s., £1, £5, and £50.

CURRENCY OTHER THAN LEGAL TENDER.

The use of Australian silver has been referred to in an earlier paragraph. Neither Australian nor other overseas paper-money circulates, presumably on account of the exchange fee charged by the banks on receiving it.

No consideration of the amount of credit currency in use at any moment can overlook the very large proportion of payments made by cheque, mainly upon the trading banks, but also upon trustee savings-banks and upon various stock and station agents which act in this respect for their customers in the capacity of banker. Such cheques usually go straight from the payee to the collecting bank, but in earlier days, and still occasionally in odd localities, they often passed from hand to hand.

At the present time Government postal notes (issued in thirty-nine denominations of from Is. to £1) sometimes enjoy a certain life in the form of currency.

NEW ZEALAND-STERLING EXCHANGE.

Although the movement of gold, whether internally or externally, was unrestricted in years prior to the War, certain of the conditions usually considered essential in the full operation of the gold standard were never effective in New Zealand. More correctly, New Zealand was, and still is, upon a sterling-exchange standard. The explanation is that the New Zealand banking system is not self-contained, in that, the banks normally hold a large amount of funds in London. In fact, these London balances are the real regulative factor and the key to the whole banking system. This system has evolved out of economic conditions, and, in general, has functioned smoothly without effective legislative regulation.

War conditions caused the abandonment of the gold standard by Great Britain. A return was made in May, 1925, but from September, 1931, Britain has again departed from a gold basis. While New Zealand currency was at parity with sterling, except for minor fluctuations above or below parity, no necessity existed for distinction between sterling and New Zealand currency. The latter is entitled to be considered as one of the sterling currencies; but, adopting the convenience of a growing usage, sterling is used herein to refer solely to the currency of Great Britain.

The relationship of New Zealand currency to sterling assumed added significance since December, 1929. Prior to that date the Dominion currency was at virtual parity with British currency, only slight deviations occurring from time to time, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931, a level of approximately £110 New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January, 1933, when as a result of Government intervention (referred to below) it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree.

The unusual significance of the currency level in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon its position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of the Dominion has not reached a stage where the country is self-contained to an average degree and the external trade per caput is greater than that of almost all, if not all, other countries. Most of this external trade is with the United Kingdom, while the function of London as an international clearing-house is also of importance in this connection. New Zealand's borrowings overseas, chiefly from the London financial market, have also been upon a high scale, requiring, as noted elsewhere (vide State and also Local Authority Indebtedness), heavy annual payments in London.

The following table gives, in order to complement and interpret other data in this volume, quotations representing the amount of New Zealand currency required to purchase £100 London. The period covered is from January, 1929, to the commencement of Reserve Bank operations (1st August, 1934). Figures are quoted for telegraphic transfer (cable) and sixty-day. rates New Zealand on London as sufficiently indicative of the position. The majority of quotations are from The Statist (London), supplemented in a few instances from other sources.

Operative fromBuying (£100 London).Selling (£100 London).
Cable.Sixty Days.Cable.Sixty Days.
* Actually from 15th November, 1928.
1929—    
1st January*..98⅜100¾99½
29th July..98⅝10199¾
4th September..98⅞101¼100
30th September..98⅞101½100¼
4th December..99101¾l00½
21st December..99¼102⅛100¾
1930—    
31st January..99⅝102⅝101¼
18th February..100⅛103⅛101¾
19th March..100⅝103⅝102¼
3rd April 102½105103⅝
1931—    
14th January..105107½106⅛
29th January..107½110108⅝
4th June..107¾110109
12th October..107½110109
1932—    
— March..107¾110109
3rd May..107⅞110109⅛
1933—    
20th January to 31st July,1934124½123½125124⅝

From the 1st August, 1934, Reserve Bank quotations for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London are: Buying rate, £124; selling rate, £125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. To assist in achieving this measure of stability, the Reserve Bank was prepared to enter into forward exchange contracts with the trading banks. While prepared to fill its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank does not desire to compete for exchange business, provided adequate facilities are available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted an adjusted scale of rates as from the 1st August, 1934. The following, quoted tor New Zealand on London, basis £100 London, will serve as an example: Telegraphic transfers—Buying-rate, £124; selling-rate, £124 10s. Sixty days—Buying-rate, £123; selling-rate, £124 2s. 6d. These rates represent a reduction of 10s. per £100 on the rates ruling from the 20th January, 1933, to the 31st July, 1934.

It may be observed that the above exchange rates have not had entirely universal operation. The primary purpose in raising the exchange rates in January, 1933, was to assist the farming community, and the increased exchange was intended only for genuine trading transactions, and did not apply in general to imports of capital, lottery prizes, private investments, &c. Legacies below a certain limit received the premium, and also if the money was intended to be applied to developmental purposes. Cases of hardship were considered on their merits. Revenue, such as interest from overseas investments, received the exchange premium. This position, however, was terminated as from the 1st August, 1934, exchange thenceforward functioning without restriction in this way. As most of the export credits are utilized for financing imports, it is advisable to note that the full exchange rate is not operative in respect of dutiable goods. This arises from the fact that, although Customs duties are assessed in sterling, payment of Customs duties is accepted in New Zealand currency without addition of exchange.

A proportion, although probably not a large one, of exchange business functions through channels other than those of the recognized banking institutions. Exchange rates in such instances are understood to fluctuate more widely than the “official” rates.

Based upon the average of daily London quotations of gold prices during the month of July, 1934, the New Zealand pound was worth 9s. l0¼d. in terms of gold, conversion New Zealand - London being lalowed at the ratio 125 = 100. At the latest available date (2nd November, 1935) the level was 9s. 7d.

Figures given previously link the New Zealand currency to that of Britain, but since the British suspension of the gold standard on the 21st September, 1931, it is necessary to provide complementary data giving the relationship of British currency to gold. For this purpose the following quotations of The Statist's index number (parity = 100) of the value of British currency in terms of the gold standard currencies serve admirably:—

* September 1.19, 100.18; September 21.30, 82.63.
 1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
January100.0770.7069.1265.5359.91
February100.1471.1670.2262–7659.61
March100.1174.5870.3962.3958.03
April100.1377.1170.2762.7459.09
May100.1775.3569.9462.1859.77
June100.2674.9469.4561.5960.07
July100.1073.0868–4961.5460.19
August100.1571.5567.3261.1660.44
September*71.5464.5460.1660.26
October79.7469.9964.4559.96..
November76.7667.5065.8960.99..
December69.5267.5467.2860.39..

The course of exchange Australia on London may be noted briefly. As in the case of New Zealand, depreciation of Australian currency commenced at the end of 1929. The principal movements have been (telegraphic transfer, equivalent of £100 London): 18th December, 1929, £102; 17th February, 1930, £103; 10th March, 1930, £104; 24th March, 1930, £106; 9th October, 1930, £109; 6th January, 1931, £115; 13th January, 1931, £118; 17th January, 1931, £125; 29th January, 1931, £130; 3rd December, 1931, £125. It has remained around the last-quoted figure since that date.

EXCHANGE POOL.

In order to ensure that funds would be available overseas to meet all commitments, arrangements were made with the banks in 1931 for the formation of an exchange pool. Regulations were gazetted in December, 1931, under the Customs Act, 1913, and the Board of Trade Act, 1919, prohibiting the export of goods after the 1st January, 1932, except under license. Conditions of such licenses, inter alia, provided for the proceeds of the sale of goods to be paid to an authorized bank to be remitted to New Zealand at the current rate of exchange at the time of payment to the bank.

The system of export licenses terminated as from the 30th June, 1932.

BANKS INDEMNITY (EXCHANGE) ACT, 1932.33.

As a matter of policy the Government arrived at the decision to raise the exchange-rate, New Zealand on London, to a level of approximately £125 New Zealand = £100 London, as from the 20th January, 1933.

At the request of the Government the banks carrying on business in New Zealand raised, as from the date quoted, the rates of exchange based on the rate for the telegraphic transmission of moneys from New Zealand to London. In return the Government undertook to insure the banks against any losses they might sustain by reason of such fixation of the rates of exchange and arising from the purchase and sale of exchange. Legislative sanction was given by the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, passed on the 1st March, 1933.

The Bank of New Zealand was constituted the agent of the Government for this purpose, and was authorized to buy surplus exchange held in London by other banks, or to re-sell to any such bank exchange up to the amount purchased from it under the Act. Sales to or from the Bank of New Zealand were required to be made at the fixed exchange-rate, subject to such concessions as might be mutually agreed upon. Payment of exchange purchased or sold on Government behalf was authorized to be paid for in cash or in Treasury bills, the latter to be discounted at a rate not exceeding the ruling rate fixed for overdrafts on best accounts. Provision was made regarding the issue of Treasury bills, &c. (part under the further authority of section 4 of the Finance Act, 1932—33 (No. 2)), and the investment of exchange purchased under the Act.

From the 20th January, 1933, to the commencement of Reserve Bank operations, exchange purchased and paid into the New Zealand Government Indemnity Exchange Account in London aggregated £36,208,000. The exchange cost of London funds treated as surplus sterling assets (i.e., additional to Government requirements) was £4,899,703. During the year 1934.35, £20,229,700 of sterling funds held by the Government were transferred to New Zealand, the resultant New Zealand credit of £25,084,828 being utilized to redeem outstanding Treasury bills.

The regulation of currency exchange is now a function of the Reserve Bank, as noted previously. Since the Reserve Bank commenced business the Suspense Account created for operations under the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act has been liquidated and the outstanding Treasury bills redeemed. The Act has been repealed, as from the 1st August, 1934, by the Finance Act, 1934, thus terminating the period in which the rate of sterling exchange was fixed by statute. The Finance Act, 1934, provides that any appreciation or depreciation of the assets of the Reserve Bank (expressed in the currency of New Zealand) due to any alteration that may subsequently be made in the exchange rate, while the value of the local currency is not fixed by statute in terms of sterling, shall be credited to or borne by the Consolidated Fund.

Chapter 28. SECTION XXVIII.—INSURANCE.

SUBSECTION A. — LIFE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statutory provisions affecting life insurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendments of 1920, 1921–22, and 1925; the Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910; and the Government Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendment of 1912. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Every life company must deposit with the Public Trustee money or securities of the statutory character to the value of from £5,000 to £50,000. Deposits aggregating £750,575, representing statutory deposits by life-insurance companies, were held by the Public Trustee as at 31st March, 1935.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making such funds available only for liabilities arising from life business.

The law bearing on industrial assurance has received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of insurance the premiums must be payable at shorter intervals than three months, and provision is made for its control by regulation. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements.

The most recent legislation on the subject of life insurance is contained in section 26 (2) of the Finance Act, 1932, which provides that the proceeds of a policy shall become “unclaimed moneys” on the expiration of six years from the date on which the company first has reason to suppose the policy has matured by death or the date (if any) on which it otherwise matures, whichever date is the earlier. This provision operates notwithstanding that the policy may provide for legal proof of death, or proof of age, &c.

Annual returns of life assurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance. It is from these returns that the statistical matter following has been compiled.

The number of life-assurance offices operating in the Dominion during 1933 was the same as in the previous year—viz., fourteen. Of these, three only are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, the Provident Life Assurance Co., and the Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand, Ltd.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in the Dominion.

LIFE INSURANCE.—ORDINARY AND INDUSTRIAL.

Ten years' figures for new business, discontinuances, and amount in force for the combined departments (ordinary and industrial) are given in the table following.

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
 £££
1924.11,008,9265,458,93575,935,818
1925.11,556,0226,091,48081,400,360
1926.11,769,2906,415,55686,754,094
1927.12,544,7227,188,59592,110,221
1928.13,576,8317,612,87898,074,174
1929.14,586,0397,388,794105,271,419
1930.14,928,1338,132,934112,066,618
1931.11,410,69910,774,277112,703,040
1932.10,375,17910,984,419112,093,800
1933.10,737,7329,955,758112,875,774

It is satisfactory to note that, although still a long way below the high-level totals of the 1928–30 period, the amount of new business transacted during 1933 exceeded that of 1932 by £362,553, indicating that the downward trend evidenced by the figures for 1931 and 1932 has been arrested. Discontinuances, which in 1932 exceeded the amount of new business for the first time since the information was first made available in 188S, showed a decrease during 1933 of £1,028,661. The net result of the transactions for 1933 was to increase the amount in force by £781,974, compared with a net decrease of £609,240 in the previous year. Preliminary figures show that the improvement noted above has been more than maintained during 1934. New insurances during that period amounted to £12,378,243, an increase of £1,640,511, while the amount written off, £8,697,260, is £1,258,498 less than the corresponding figure for 1933.

During the ten years from 1923 to 1933 the amount in force has increased by £42,489,947, or 60 per cent. The increase in the Dominion's population during the same period was 14 per cent. Policies existing at the end of 1933 represent a rate of 302 per 1,000 of population (other than Maoris) for 1923 and 379 per 1,000 for 1933. The sum assured rose from £54.6 per head of population in 1923 to £76–6 per head in 1933. According to a statement prepared in 1933 by the Los Angeles (U.S.A.) Chamber of Commerce, New Zealand occupies third place in the life-insurance world on a per caput, basis. United States was ranked first, with Canada, New Zealand, Australia, United Kingdom, Sweden, Italy, Norway, and the Netherlands following in that order.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.

A table showing the progress of business over a period of ten years is given below:—

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
192423,7869,016,163302,64014,7344,329,561148,403214,70967,805,6062,186,518
192524,3339,435,956318,62610,0434,861,071164,843222,32272,380,4912,340,272
192624,3809,425,686324,34916,2675,018,920172,408230,43570,787,2512,492,153
192724,7889,797,7321334,49917,0995,512,913187,813238,124.81,072,0702,638,839
192820,99710,826,619371,10017,7335,786,691212,017247,38886,111,9982,797,922
192928,18911,534,102393,68517,4415,515,811194,040258,13692,130,2892,997,567
193028,32111,975,3011413,69618,1066,969,955207,937268,35198,135,0953,203,326
193124,5339,166,928311,90422,6008,125,695281,384270,22499,176,9243,233,846
193222,8538,123,793280,57724,4038,594,783300,341208,17498,705,9343,214,082
193324,5038,357,590282,75622,8427,995,447281,020269,83599,068,0773,215,818

The amount of new business transacted during 1933 was greater than that of 1932 by £233,797, compared with decreases of £1,043,135 and £2,808,433 for 1932 and 1931 respectively. Discontinuances declined to the extent of £599,336, compared with the previous years increase of £469,084. As a result of the year's transactions, the amount in force has been added to by £362,143, as against the previous year's reduction of £470,990.

The tendency which set in during 1931 for the average sum assured under each policy of new business to decrease still continues. in 1930 the average amount per policy was £422, while the corresponding figure for the three succeeding years is £374, £363, and £341 respectively. The per-policy average annual premium for each of the years 1930–33 is £14 12s. 2d., £12 14s. 3d., £12 11s. 1d., and £11 10s. 10d.

The corresponding figures for total insurances in force are £367 and £11 18s. 4d. respectively.

Particulars of policies discontinued during the last five years are contained in the next table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Totals.
Number of Policies.
19291,5743,3874,7437,19754017,441
19301,6893,3294,6047,98849618,106
19311,6503,3427,06210,04656022,660
19321,6923,4158,9859,96534624,403
19331,7043,5048,1969,12731122,842
Sum assured.
 ££££££
1929541,801692,6581,531,3952,496,737253,2205,515,811
1930618,679651,4801,482,9623,006,977209,8575,969,955
1931627,687627,6062,550,2964,015,711304,3998,125,699
1932651,514660,4573,166,1053,859,950256,7578,594,783
1933733,402700,3512,891,9053,377,641286,1487,995,447

The amount surrendered during 1933, although still abnormally high, is £274,200 less than that of 1932. Lapses show an even greater improvement, the amount written off on this account having decreased by £482,309; while the figures for deaths and maturities show merely normal fluctuations. The total amounts written off represent for 1933 and 1932 8.10 per cent, and 8.67 per cent. respectively of the amount in force at the end of the year immediately preceding.

Reducing the amounts in the foregoing table to a percentage basis, the following result is arrived at:—

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
19299.8212.5627.7645.274.59100.00
193010.3610.9124.8450.373.52100.00
19317.727.7231.3949.423.75100.00
19327.587.6836.8444.912.99100.00
19339.178.8336.1742.253.58100.00

The proportions of the amount in force at the end of 1932 written off during 1933 on account of the four main causes give percentages of 0.74, 0.71, 2.93, and 3.42 for death, maturity, surrender, and laps? respectively.

A statement of the income and outgo of all the companies operating in the Dominion, so far as ordinary business only is concerned, further illustrates the progress of business during the last ten years. The ratio of management expenses to premium and total receipts is also given.

Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19243,115,1422,062,9611,052,181352,18016–3611–31
19253,275,6842,104,6091,171,075377,99416.4111.54
19263,472,5262,137,9451,334,581385,18715.7511.09
19273,616,3672,460,5221,155,845395,24015.3610.93
19283,855,1752,684,3441,170,831419,35815.2110.88
19294,139,9292,655,7671,484,162453,39615.3210.95
19304,495,0002,863,7661,631,234465,45614.7510.35
19314,943,2563,334,2501,609,006426,13613.338.62
19324,726,9183,421,9711,304,947415,28913.128.79
19334,856,1623,547,2941,308,868431,75513.328.89

With the exception of 1929, there was a gradual decline in the management expense ratio from 1925 up to and including 1932, although the falling-off in revenue from interest caused a slight increase in the proportion to total receipts in the latter year. As a result of the increase in new business, the 1933 ratio is a little above that for 1932. Details of the various items for the past five years are given in the next table.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).

1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Revenue.£££££
Renewal premiums2,578,7202,773,7202,897,7872,899,2162,936,009
New premiums381,550381,815298,957266,857305,145
Consideration for annuities44,96745,71933,95431,865123,495
Interest1,118,8491,289,0491,657,1701,527,2971,459,669
Other revenue15,8434,69725,3881,68331,844
Total revenue4,130,9294,495,0004,943,2564,7:16,9184,856,162
Expenditure.
Claims by death896,0761,040,3131,053,5951,102,6611,277,923
Claims by maturity729,892674,962652,979691,433696,726
Annuities39,00440,90441,96942,05244,197
Surrenders380,737428,907676,329790,030759,255
Cash bonuses50,57672,58199,300114,52199,176
Management453,396465,456426,136415,289431,755
Taxes61,53694,366125,160173,211154,098
Other expenditure44,55046,277258,78292,77184,164
Total expenditure2,655,7672,863,7663,334,2503,421,9713,547,294

With the exception of interest, each item of receipts shows an increase over the previous year, the outstanding one being “consideration for annuities.“ The former item has been considerably affected by the interest reductions imposed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, which commenced to operate on 1st April, 1932. The amount received by way of interest during 1932 was less than that of the previous year by £.159,873, while a further decrease of £67,628 was experienced in 1933. The various expenditure items show, with the exception of claims by death, little variation when compared with the previous year.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.

A summary of the progress of industrial assurance business is given in the following table:—

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
192436,70511,992,763120,273 j23,0191,129,37471,317197,0278,130,212505,425
192538,88212,120,066127,59724,9141,230,40977,782210,9959,019,869555,239
192642,99312,343,004141,178 j29,0051,396,630 !88,709224,9839,066,843607,708
192751,0592,746,990167,35434,1591,675,682106,804241,88311,038,151668,258
192851,16212,750,212168,40937,1331,826,187117,468255,91211,902,176719,199
192956,0603,051,937188,53038,2031,872,983120,455273,76913,141,130787,274
193053,6762,952,772182,30643,0392,162,979138,231284,40613,930,923831,349
193143,1732,243,771140,71143,03951,3232,648,578167,169276,25613,526,116
193246,0302,251,386137,73947,1482,380,036152,315275,13813,387,866790,315
193352,2232,380,142144,98338,7141,960,311123,559288,04713,807,607811,739

In this class of life assurance the improvement noted in 1932 continued during 1933. New business increased to the extent of £128,756, while discontinuances (which in 1931 and 1932 actually exceeded the amounts underwritten during those years) have receded by £429,325.

As a result of the years transactions, the amount in force has increased by £419,831. As in the case of the Ordinary Department, the average sum insured under each policy of new business has decreased considerably during the last three years, with a corresponding decrease in the average annual premium. The per-policy average in 1930 was £55 with an annual premium of £3 7s. lid., while the corresponding figures for 1931, 1932, and 1933 respectively were £52, £49, and £46 for the sum insured and £3 5s. 2d., £2 19s. 10d., and £2 15s. lid. for the annual premiums. Corresponding averages for the total policies in force at the end of 1933 are £48 and £2 16s. 3d. respectively.

A summary of the number of industrial policies and the sums assured written off according to the several causes is now given in the form of a five-years table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
  Number of Policies.    
19291,7297,8182,08326,24532838,203 
19301,7228,7792,22930,11119843,039 
19311,7578,6403,16837,55220651,323 
19321,8468,5124,13332,36529247,148 
19331,7166,4613,62126,73618038,714 
  Sum assured.     
 ££££££ 
192961,095211,725117,4111,465,55717,1951,872,983 
193062,574260,125117,2381,711,16511,8772,162,979 
193166,899278,751171,6552,118,58912,6842,648,578 
193268,839289,297218,7431,796,30716,4502,389,636 
193364,032237,290185,0781,463,54510,3661,960,311 

The amount written off under each heading in 1933 is considerably less than the corresponding figures for 1932, the principal feature again being the decline in lapsed policies. Lapses in 1932 were £322,282 less than in 1931, while a further recession of £332,762 in 1933 gives a reduction of 31 per cent, during the last two years.

The amount written off in each year is considerably greater in proportion in the industrial than in the Ordinary Branch. Whereas in the case of the latter 8.10 per cent, of the amount in force at the end of 1932 became void during 1933, the corresponding percentage for industrial insurance was 14.64. The cause showing the greatest difference in this respect is “lapses,” the proportions of total discontinuances for the respective sections for 1933 being 74.66 per cent, and 42.25 per cent., and the percentages of the amount in force at the end of 1932 lapsing being 10.93 and 3.42 respectively. Surrenders, on the other hand, are considerably less in proportion in Industrial Insurance, the percentage of the amounts in force at the end of 1932 written off on this account being 1.38. as against 2.93 in the Ordinary Section.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE. — INCOME AND OUTGO.

Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers,Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
1924539,409291,282248,127169,34735.3031.39
1925598,599322,156276,443186,76935.2331.20
1926655,244423,685231,559202,93335.0030.97
1927723,558503,165220,393229,12735.9731.67
1928797,797561,260236,537244,45734.9830.64
1929869,071803,228265,843264,31335.0330.41
1930944,406700,613243,793275,63633.9529.19
1931952,302767,129185,173261,46732.3427.46
19321,010,507771,068239,439257,72832.3825.50
19331,011,174693,676317,498264,62433.2026.17

The total receipts for 1933 exceeded the previous year's figure by £667, while expenditure was less to the extent of £77,392. During the past two years there has been a slight increase in the management-expense ratio, the 1933 figure being 33.20 per cent, of premium receipts. The corresponding ratio in the Ordinary Branch was 13.32 per cent. The difference is largely accounted for by the high cost of collection of premiums in the Industrial Branch, principally in the shape of renewal commission. In the Ordinary Branch commission (new and renewal) was equivalent to 5.67 per cent, of the premium income, and in the Industrial Branch to 21.47 per cent. Excluding commissions, the ratio of management expenses to total income works out at 9.25 per cent, in the Industrial Branch, as against 5.11 per cent, in the Ordinary.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE. — RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).

1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Revenue.£££££
Premiums754,478811,871808,394795,896797,099
Interest110,617128,16S140,231211,840209,712
Other revenue3,9764,3673,6772,7714,363
Total revenue869,071944,406952,3021,010,5071,011,174
Expenditure...........
Claims by death152,598191,470211,396217,007172,308
Claims by maturity135,054162,270170,010178,401164,711
Surrenders38,15040,59462,55162,21955,481
Management264,313275,636261,467257,728264,624
Taxes4,44111,63316,61921,57920,341
Other payments8,67219,01045,08634,13416,211
Total expenditure603,228700,613767,129771,068693,676

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The balance-sheets of the companies transacting industrial business do not in every case apportion their liabilities and assets over ordinary and industrial business, for, although the legislation in force requires separate statements to be furnished for receipts and expenditure, policies issued and discontinued, &c, no such requirement exists in regard to balance-sheets. The figures presented below accordingly refer to both classes of insurance, and, as indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

The aggregate capital and liabilities at the end of 1933, as compared with the two preceding years, were as follows:—

 1931.1932.1933.
 £££
Paid-up capital173,886174,231169,042
Life assurance and annuity funds35,169,50836,465,48637,888,557
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds398,038500,297606,869
Claims admitted but not paid163,375155,470237,473
Other liabilities749,891824,278914,559
Totals£36,654,69S£38,125,762£39,81(5,500

The New Zealand assets at the end of each of the five years 1929–33 were as follows :—

Assets.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 £££££
Mortgages on property7,010,9397,449,3247,575,3147,645,6627,652,001
Loans on policies4,121,0004,617,2735,343,6485,800,5315,979,782
New Zealand Government securities5,896,6226,153,3076,338,9746,949,9687,521,380
Securities of other Governments40,00040,00063,25569,74486,730
Municipal and local bodies securities3"748,41911,454,73713,299,07413,525,79014,082,990
Landed and house property1,404,4141,451,8611,441,3761,428,2251,444,398
Other investments90,55791,715106,091128,188237,749
Loans on personal security6,0163,1473,8543,3632,287
Agents' balances7,7517,8109,0377,0354,847
Outstanding premiums345,969380,553393,747366,180350,819
Interest accrued, &c.295,631447,458539,812546,609540,522
Cash294,71076,204312,066367,014562,204
Other assets1,946,4421,621,0321,228,4501,287,4531,350,791
Totals25,208,50033,794,42136,654,69838,125,76239,816,500

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.

The Life Insurance Department of the Government of New Zealand was founded in 1869, at a time when New-Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities for the insurance of their lives. The institution possesses the unique advantage of being based on the solid principle of State security, payment of all policies being guaranteed by the Government of the Dominion. Industrial insurance is not transacted by the Department.

The following table gives a synopsis of the activities of the Department for the last ten years in so far as the amount of business transacted is concerned. The improvement in the new business, as recorded by the figures for 1933, was maintained during 1934, and this resulted in the total for the latter year being the highest since 1930 (a record year).

Year.New Business.Policies in Force at End of Year.
Number of Policies.Premiums.Sum assured.Number of Policies.Premiums.Value of Business.
Sum assured.Bonuses.Total.
  ££ ££££
19255,83060,9511,910,01363,775549,95618,008,4021,584,92719,593,329
19265,71060,6091,883,70565,396575,42018,743,3971,475,00720,218,404
19275,57858,006;1,791,84566,856595,78019,303,9161,973,43421,277,350
192S5,80263,1381,915,46568,562617,64219,974,5812,109,89022,084,471
19295,73562,4141,918,60070,189642,14020,700,0692,265,53922,965,608
19305,78062,1371,946,32271,868665,44721,418,4132,426,62123,845,034
19314,03340,5291,506,44971,075660,39921,472,7612,580,58724,053,348
19322,97930,5201,088,44568,650638,42620,910,8112,708,94823,619,759
19333,57231,5791,295,65667,567625,90520,769,292,2,805,17723,574,469
19344,68237,1071,661,38468,094625,08521,191,16812,893,45324,084,621

The total income of the Department for 1934 was £1,106,508—viz., premium income, £667,488; interest and rents (after payment of land and income tax), £395,554 : annuity purchase money, £43,466. Corresponding figures for 1933 were: total income, £1,062,705; premium income, £649,082; interest, &c., £383,481; and annuity purchase money, £30,142. The income from interest has been considerably affected during the last three years by the interest reductions imposed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act from 1st April, 1932. The amount realized from this source in 1931 was £463,284.

During the year 1934 payments (including bonus additions) to the value of £323,462 were made on account of matured policies and £201,389 was paid out to representatives of deceased policyholders. Expenses of management totalled £51,240 and commission £31,806, making the total expenses £83,046, an increase of £6,097 compared with 1933. The ratio of expenses to total income was 7*51 per cent., and to premium income 11.68 per cent.

The total assurance, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from special reserves of £458,843, amounted at the end of 1934 to £9,241,764, an increase of £276,703 during the year.

The Department.s balance-sheet on the 31st December, 1934, showed that the total assets amounted to £9,768,759, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the four preceding years for purposes of comparison :—

Class of Investment.1030.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Mainly due and overdue premiums and Interest, and interest accrued.
 £££££
Mortgages on freehold property3,677,9233,777,1093,744,4043,702,3173,801,309
Loans on policies1,073,398l,198,9591,269,7061,302,7281,272,175
Government securities2,198,1602,235,4602,385,3602,526,8102,520,060
Rural advances bonds85,39585,56985,752168,909..
Local bodies' securities1,167,6971,179,8641,201,4551,262,2041,284,335
Landed and house property150,017136,626147,727164,836158,294
Miscellaneous assets*203,966254,710240,172247,911243,301
Cash in hand, on current account, and on deposit2,00744,56177,69566,628489,225
Totals8,558,568,912,8589,152,2719,442,3439,768,759

The rate of interest realized on the mean funds of the Department, after deduction of land and income tax from interest, was as follows:—

 £s.d.
1925591
19265111
192751010
1928599
192951010
19305117
19315134
193241010
1933486
19344810

SUBSECTION B.—ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident-insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal contingencies for which policies may be issued are in respect of—

  1. Accident, disease, or mental or physical disability;

  2. Employers liability under statutory or common law;

  3. Charges under the Workers' Compensation Act taking precedence of encumbrances, mortgages, or charges lawfully existing.

With the huge increase in motor traffic an important class of policy—viz., motor-car comprehensive, has come into existence, and has increased rapidly. Compulsory insurance to cover third-party risks was introduced in 1929, and is referred to later on in this subsection. Other important classes of accident-insurance policies are in respect of plate-glass insurance and fidelity-guarantee insurance.

Information relating to cash deposits required from companies transacting accident-insurance business is contained in the next subsection, which deals with the cognate subject of fire insurance.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1933 was 57, the principal registered offices of the companies concerned being as follows: Great Britain, 22; Australia, 10; Hong Kong, 1; United States, 1; Canada, 1; and New Zealand, 22.

The decline in premium income which has continued each year since the establishment of the peak level in 1930 would now appear to have been definitely arrested. The decrease for the year 1933 amounted to only £46,806, as against decreases of £192,113 and £217,806 for 1932 and 1931 respectively; while the preliminary figures for 1934 (£1,301,755) actually show an increase of £122,819 over 1933. Expenditure on account of claims receded still further during 1933, the total for that year being £328,607 less than in 1930. The preliminary claims figure for 1934 (£717,355) is only £37,529 above that of 1933, and when contrasted with the premium increase of £122,819 must be considered satisfactory.

The excess of income over expenditure during the three years 1931–33 amounted to £69,784, £137,673, and £153,843 respectively.

  Receipts.Expenditure.
Year.Number of offices.Premiums.Other Receipts.Total.Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other Expenses.Total.
  ££££££££
192436851,68217,248868,930440,759137,75185,902127,041791,453
1925401,116,46341,5051,157,968550,608188,879116,015124,381979,883
1926461,247,60183,0771,330,678674,133206,591139,502124,8911,146,117
1927471,279,31881,7351,361,053741,760199,743145,704136,4021,223,609
1928491,336,63386,4621,423,095810,277201,726155,400131,6081,299,011
1929511,560,241102,4791,662,720915,502222,260167,955143,4871,449,204
1930511,635,661109,7881,745,4491,008,493214,507,174,461151,5141,548,975
1931521,417,855108,4151,526,270957,644181,099161,366156,3771,456,486
1932531,225,74293,3481,319,090741,185141,051154,554144,6271,181,417
1933571,178,93687,2451,266,181679,826135,052152,080145,3801,112,338

An interesting review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of ten years are shown in percentages of outgo to income under various heads.

 Ratio per Cent. of
Year.Claims to Premiums.Commission to Premiums.Salaries to Premiums.Other Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses (other than Claims) to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Total Receipts.
192451.7516.1710.0914.9241.1892.9391.08
192549.3216.9210.3911.1438.4587.7784.62
19265,40316.5611.1810.0137.7591.7886.06
192757.9815.6111.3910.6637.6695.6489.90
192860.62150911.639.8536.5797.1991.28
192958.6814.2410.769.2034.2092.8887.16
193061.6613.1110.679.2633.0494.7088.74
193167.5412.7711.3811033,518102.7295.43
193260.4711.5012.6111.803,59196.3889.56
193357.6611.4612.9012.3336.6994.3587.85

The tendency towards an increase in the ratio of claims to premiums, which had been much in evidence for several years, was arrested in 1932, in which year the ratio dropped from 67.54 to 60.47. The decline continued in 1933, when the figure fell by 2.81 to 57.66. The upward tendency in the management-expense ratio, which was first apparent in 1931, has been maintained, the increase in 1933 being 0.78. The increases recorded in 1931 and 1932 were 2.14 and 0.73 respectively.

A noteworthy feature is the decrease in the ratio of commission to premiums. This in 1925 was 16.92, but each succeeding year has seen a reduction, the 1933 figure being less by 5.46.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.

In the following table, particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last five years. It will be noticed that there is an apparent discrepancy between the totals of premiums and claims as shown herein and the figures already quoted. This is accounted for by the fact that, in order to arrive at the net financial results of the year's operations, it is necessary to take into account reinsurance transactions, and up to this stage of the discussion premiums and claims have been taken at the net figure.

Year.Employers' Liability.Personal Accident.Motor-vehicle.Other Forms.Totals.
  Premiums.    
 £££££ 
1929635,657160,180852,63456,9121,705,383 
1930629,099157,999890,71056,0411,733,849 
1931522,018141,652751,75854,1641,469,592 
1932446,086129,685649,44458,611I,253,826 
1033427,376127,073614,20258,5201,227,771 
  Claims.    
1929443,96283,669447,11015,653990,394 
1930452,87285,512570,45513,2241,122,063 
1931373,91076,979508,25417,359976,502 
1932319,05364,069364,73119,830767,683 
19331,332,28560,120307,29516,432716,132 

Compared with 1932 gross premiums have declined to the extent of £56,055, the classes showing the largest decreases being motor-vehicle insurance with a reduction of £35,242, and employers' liability with one of £18,710. Gross claims have decreased by £51,551. Motor-vehicle claims declined to the extent of £57,436, and personal accident to the extent of £3,949, while employers' liability increased by £13,232.

Reducing the figures for the last three years to a percentage basis, the following results are arrived at:—

Class of Insurance.Claims to Premiums.Premiums to Total Premiums.Claims to Total Claims.
1931.1932.1933.1931.1932.1933.1931.1932.1933.
Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Employers' liability..71.6371.5277.7535.5234.7534.8138.2941.5646.40
Personal accident54.3449.4047.099.6410.1010.407.888.358.40
Motor.vehicle67.615,61650.0351.1550.5950.0252.0547.5142.91
Other forms32.0533.8328.083.694.564.771.782.582.29
Totals66.4559.8058.33100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

MORTGAGEES' INDEMNITY INSURANCE.

The Mortgagees' Indemnity (Workers' Charges) Act, 1927, provides that when mortgages are presented for stamping an additional stamp duty of Is. is to be paid, known as a mortgagee's indemnity fee. The indemnity fees are paid into the Consolidated Fund (up to 1930 they were paid into the now defunct Land Assurance Fund), from which losses incurred by mortgagees through the enforcement of charges under the Workers' Compensation Act are met. A section of the Act definitely absolves the mortgagor from any obligation to insure or keep insured the mortgagee against loss of this nature in respect of any mortgage under the Act.

MOTOR-VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS).

The Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act was passed in the session of 1928 for the purpose of compelling owners of motor-vehicles to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death of or bodily injury to another person.

The payment of the insurance premiums is made annually to Deputy Registrars of Motor-vehicles at the same time as the annual license fee is paid under the Motor-vehicles Act. Owners of motor-vehicles are required to nominate each year the insurance company with which the contract of insurance is to be made, and the contract is deemed to be complete on the payment of the premium.

Rates of premiums prescribed by regulations dated the 14th April, 1934, as amended by regulations dated the 10th April, 1935, include the following : Trailers, 6s.; tractors, traction-engines, 10s.; motor-cycles, £1; private motor-cars, 17s.; private motor-cars used wholly or in part for the purpose of trade or business, £2 Is.; motor-vehicles (other than trailers and motor-cycles) used by lire brigades, 18s.; hearses, ambulances, &c, 18s.; trade motors, £1 7s.; manufacturers' and dealers' motor-vehicles, £1 16s.; public motor-vehicles, £6, with a varying scale upwards according to seating-capacity.

The liability of any insurance company under any contract under this Act is limited to £2,000 in respect of any passenger in the motor-vehicle concerned, and to £20,000 for all claims made by or in respect of passengers. Otherwise there is no limit as to amount.

The following particulars give the experience of the last five years, with a summary covering the six years since the inception of this class of insurance. It should be noted that the figures for claims do not represent the amount paid during each year, but refer to accidents happening during each particular period.

 Registration Year ended 31st May,Total for Six Years (since inception).
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 ££££££
Premiums received242,864233,731229,133221,734211,7091,374,178
Claims paid and estimated liability in respect of claims outstanding at 31st May, 1935186,379161,216141,431170,333288,5541,150,293
Ratio per cent, of claims paid and outstanding to premiums76.7468.9861.7276.82136.3083.71

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE

In the year 1901 the Government (Life) Insurance Department opened an Accident Branch. On the 1st January, 1925, the accident business was transferred to the control of the State Fire Insurance Office. General accident business is undertaken, but the branch was opened more especially with a view to relieve employers of labour of the liability imposed upon them by the Workers' Compensation Act.

A summary of income and expenditure is contained in the following table :—

Year.Income.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other.Total.Claims.Other.Total.
 ££££££
192549,9678,98358,95030,55320,00650,559
192658,34010,19968,53933,85420,35254,206
192765,56010,89576,45538,97221,22860,200
192871,73112,36884,09943,80722,70066,507
192981,35313,34394,69649,85326,77676,629
1930104,93514,861119,79661,04134,22495,265
1931102,06216,316118,37882,56227,211109,773
193287,06815,734102,80263,76026,34390,103
193380,20715,23995,44648,59329,09977,692
193484,72715,328100,05562,03524,01586,050

An increase in the premiums for the first time since 1930 was recorded in 1934, the amount received being £4,520 greater than the 1933 total. The increase is mainly due to the enhanced workers' compensation business, which has benefited by the improved economic situation. Claims in 1934 showed a substantial increase of £13,442, as compared with the decreases of £15,167 and £18,802 in 1933 and 1932 respectively. The net surplus for each of the three years amounted to—1932, £12,699; 1933, £17,754; and 1934, £14,005.

The ratio of claims to premiums for the year 1934 worked out at 73.22 per cent., as against the previous year's percentage of 60.58. The ratio of working-expenses to premiums for 1934 was 2120 per cent., compared with 21.03 for 1933.

The total assets at the end of 1934 amounted to £411,715, compared with £401,987 at the end of 1933. New Zealand Government securities represent 40 per cent, of total assets, and local-authority securities 29 per cent. Reserves and funds, which stood at £342,508 at the end of 1933, have been increased to £356,513.

SUBSECTION C—FIRE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN the Dominion's legislation four separate classes of fire-insurance offices are distinguished, namely:— (1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) British offices similarly established; and (4) mutual fire-insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

Part XIV of the Companies Act, 1933, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum the company may not carry on insurance business except with unlimited liability. Insurance companies established or incorporated overseas require to have a like paid-up capital intact. The transaction of business by such companies is, however, subject also to special legislation as set out below. Mutual associations are referred to specially at a later stage in this subsection.

Statistics of fire insurance are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Office. For 1933, statistics were collected from 43 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: Great Britain, 22; New Zealand, 13; Australia, 5; Hong Kong, 1 : Canada 1; United States of America, 1.

INSURANCE COMPANIES' DEPOSITS.

Since the passing of the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act in 1922, and its amendment, also in 1922, deposits in cash must be made with the Public Trustee by fire and accident offices.

The actual amounts of the deposits under the principal Act were: British companies in respect of fire-insurance business, £15,000; employers' liability business, £15,000; and all other classes of business (except life and marine), £5,000. Foreign companies were required to deposit a sum of £35,000, which covered all classes of business (except life and marine). Overseas companies becoming established in New Zealand after the passing of the principal Act are required to make deposits on a somewhat higher scale than the foregoing—viz., British offices £22,500 on account of fire business, the same for employers' liability insurance business, and £5,000 in respect of all other classes (other than life and marine). A newly established foreign company must deposit the sum of £50,000, and this covers all classes of business other than life and marine.

A further amendment was passed in 1927 requiring agents operating, in New Zealand on behalf of underwriters established abroad to make deposits on the same scalers that ruling for companies.

The Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2), further provided that a company which was not already undertaking insurance business in terms of the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928, must deposit the sum of £10,000 before it could commence to do so.

Except for the provision contained in the preceding paragraph, no deposit is required from a company constituted in New Zealand under the New Zealand laws.

The amount held by the Public Trustee on the 31st March, 1935, under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act was £1,137,500, excluding interest accrued but not disbursed. These moneys are invested in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office, and interest is payable to the respective companies.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire-insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available to other phases of insurance transacted. The amount of funds (other than life) in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, in excess of £279,000,000.

Liabilities.Total Assets.
Overseas Companies.Local Offices.Mutual Associations.*
* These figures in the case of mutual associations relate to premium-note capital.
 ££££
Paid-up capital28,298,2973,195,024223,80431,717,125
Reserves179,203,0955,279,43754,810184,537,342
Other liabilities62,105,744890,39769562,996,836
Totals269,607,1369,364,858279,309279,251,303
Life funds542,352,695....542,352,695
Grand totals811,959,8319,364,858279,309821,603,998

In the following table the figures for the amount of assets in New Zealand under various heads are given as at the end of each of the last three years.

Assets in New Zealand.1931.1932.1033.
 £££
House and landed property1,019,5191,037,8201,035,858
New Zealand Government securities4,427,0015,026,1657,205,729
New Zealand local-authority securities1,698,9271,635,2352,053,650
Mortgagors, &c.294,732315,226522,890
Outstanding premiums399,115374,001326,950
Cash and other assets in New Zealand2,793,1092,835,8792,878,482
Total New Zealand assets10,632,40311,224,32614,023,565

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.

Looking now at the general progress of fire-insurance business in the Dominion, a comparison of recent operations is afforded by the table below.

The gross amount of insurance cover in force on the 31st December, 1933, was less than the corresponding figure for 1932 by £8,690,642, while the amount underwritten during the year was £14,713,936 less than the previous year's total Premiums charged on insurances underwritten decreased by £152,256. Return premiums on account of cancellations, &c, totalled £152,116, leaving the net premium income on account of direct insurances at £1,780,824, a decrease of £127,986 compared with 1932.

1931.1932.1933.
* Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.
Offices in New Zealand.   
Number of separate companies424243
Number of branches164174175
Number of agencies13,60713,53013,820
Amounts underwritten.   
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£433,256,255£417,206,888£408,516,246
Number of policies representing the foregoing*725,066717,731707,630
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year*£470,650,461£457,497,224£442,783,288
Number of policies representing the foregoing*787,545776,413762,246
Premiums.   
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year*£2,171,910£2,085,196£1,932,940
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten9s. 3d.9s. 1d.8s. 9d.
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£1,985,375£1,908,810£1,780,824
Losses.   
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned6,7615,8245,397
Gross losses£1,073,842£814,551£591,225
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.230.180.13
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)54.0942.6733.20
Average loss£159£140£110

A noteworthy feature is the reduction of 4d. per cent, in the average rate of premium charged. This factor contributed in a greater measure than did the reduced volume of business towards the decline in the premium income.

The table set out below shows the premium income and the fire losses, together with the percentage of loss in each year.

Year.Premium Income.Fire Losses.Percentage of Loss.
 ££ 
19241,772,9241,046,328590
19251,886,290876,35846.5
19261,903,6751,127,14059.2
19271,950,7361,257,51564.5
19281,951,0691,343,23368.8
19291,980,2121,122,30556.7
19302,006,9131,077,95153.7
19311,985,3751,073,84254.1
19321,908,810814,55142.7
19331,780,824591,22533.2

The amount paid out during 1933 in respect of fire losses shows a reduction of £223,320 compared with 1932, while the loss ratio, which is 9.5 below that of the previous year, is the lowest recorded since 1920. The number of separate claims with which the several offices were concerned showed a decrease of 427 during the year, while the average loss per fire was a little over £30 less than in 1932.

The results for 1934, which are still subject to revision, follow the genera) trend of the past few years—i.e., a further reduction in premium income, and a further decline in fire losses. The figures are : Premiums, £1,711,841; losses £546,936; loss ratio, 31.95 percent.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

A statement of the total income and outgo, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross reserve for unexpired risks, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

1931.1932.1933.
* The gross figures are inclusive of reinsurance premiums from other offices.
 Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.
Income.££££££
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at beginning of year954,308621,964085,702608,590057,001600,184
Amount of fire premiums receivable during year*2,220,6491,390,4632,180,0141,341,8562,028,0881,291,036
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c.124,773124,773121,030121,930113,718113,718
Rents32,05032,05027,23327,23321,81521,815
Other revenue4074071,0951,9951,8991,899
Totals3,332,2472,175,6573,317,7742,101,0043,122,5212,028,052
Outgo.      
Amount of Are losses Incurred during year, Including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage and amounts covered by reinsurance1,073,842827,709814,1351538,043591,225440,913
Fire Board levies66,83152,12062,49448,40063,08051,273
New Zealand Government taxes48,52547,17250,43049,42778,20573,235
Local-authority rates3,0752,6773,4302,9273,3363,074
License fees6,2035,8656,0226,0006,0086,570
Bents25,00324,04825,41123,91524,82023,067
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, sub-agents, and others246,928125,377234,551115,443218,132105,487
Salaries and wages, Including commissions on profits or bonuses254,740229,919263,003240,075260,779239,801
Other expenses of management148,949128,553152,247132,922142,377128,031
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year985,702614,271957,001600,118801,707581,055
Other expenditure8,1948,1947,9527,9527,3407,340
Totals2,868,9582,065,9142,578,0581,765,8882,288,5841,660,515.

The result of the year's operations was a surplus of net income over expenditure to the extent of £349,608, compared with similar balances of £327,244 and £102,050 for 1932 and 1931 respectively. The ratio of claims to premiums works out at 59-3 per cent., 40.1 per cent., and 34.1 per cent, for 1931, 1932, and 1933 respectively. Excluding fire losses, the net expenditure in 1933 was £10,220 greater than in 1932, while the net income was less to the extent of £64,546. It should be noted that these figures are exclusive of reserves to meet unexpired risks.

A summary of the net revenue and expenditure for 1933 of the three classes of offices operating in New Zealand is contained in the next table.

Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.*Claims.Salaries and Commissions.Total.*
*Excluding reserves to meet unexpired risks.
 £££££
Overseas companies696,507726,438260,388186,703599,565
Local companies575,871680,869173,553151,021460,996
Mutual associations18,65821,1616,9727,62418,299
Total1,291,0361,428,468440,913345,3481,078,860

Under the various heads below will be found the percentage ratio of working-expenses to premium income for the years 1929-33.

Items,1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income40.9339.6940.7042.5043.17
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to net premium income36.9335.9236 9638.8939.20
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)33.2632.7732.9134.3335.51
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)30.2329.8230.0031.4632.36

During the last three years there has been a continuous increase in the ratio of working-expenses to net premium income, despite a decreasing tendency in actual expenditure. This, of course, is the natural result of the substantially reduced premium income. It is contended in some quarters that Fire Board levies are not a working-expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and it is interesting to note that their exclusion from working-expenses reduces the 1933 ratio on the net figures from 4317 to 3920 per cent.

FIRES AND LOSSES.

The table following gives figures of fires and losses during each of the last ton years. It should be noted that these figures relate to calendar years, and the figures of losses thus differ somewhat from those shown elsewhere, which refer to varying periods covered by the accounts of the different offices.

The decrease of £377,227 in the amount of insured fire losses suffered during 1032 was outstanding, while the figures for 1933 showed a further reduction of £198,162. The preliminary figures for 1934 (£504,211) have declined still further, thus disclosing a welcome improvement during the last three years in the Dominion's fire-loss problem, which for some considerable time had occasioned no little concern. Incidentally the amount of loss in 1934 is the lowest recorded in any one year since 1920. The number of separate fires during 1933 was 130 less than in the previous year, conflagrations were down to the extent of two, while the number of buildings, &c., affected decreased by 170.

Year.Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings, &c., affectedGross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.

* Included In previous column. For statistical purposes a conflagration is declined as a Are where three or more buildings are affected.

†On buildings affected.

    ££Per Cent.
19244,124414,4054,368,6211,008,74623.09
19254,046284,3404,728,691861,97718.23
19264,628415,0146,249,0241,129,25718.07
19275,029465,3666,555,9881,210,66118.47
19284,972445,2757,661,8931,454,32818.98
19205,064365,3127,060,1321,093,56815.49
19304,863545,1457,058,9181,013,05914.35
19314,820565,0865,732,2221,148,52820.04
19324,482294,0785,528,316771,30113.95
19334,352274,5085,738,218573,1399.99

The next table shows for each of the four principal urban areas and the remainder of the Dominion the fires and losses for 1933 :—

Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings affected.Gross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.

* included in previous column.

†on buildings affected.

North Island.   ££Per Cent.
Auckland urban area45324G8938,30871,3887.61
Wellington urban area56915811,635,29527,7481.70
Secondary urban areas4561468358,97938,11210.62
Rest of North Island1,029131,085785,672215,50127.43
Totals for North Island2,507172,0023,718,254352,7499.49
South Island.      
Christchurch urban area4841498770,17368,8738.94
Dunedin urban area390..393578,94125,1774.35
Secondary urban areas2272236213,48215,4287.23
Rest of South Island7007735448,878106,40523.70
Totals for South Island1,801101,8622,011,474215,88310.73
Anywhere in New Zealand44..448,4904,50753.07
Totals for Dominion4,352274,5085,738,218573,1399.99

Decreases amounting to £7,468 and £16,877 are recorded for the Auckland and Wellington urban areas respectively, while for Christchurch the figures have risen by £16,173 and for Dunedin by £9,150.

Losses in the North Island during the year decreased by £185,767 and in the South Island by £14,218.

The lower lo3s ratio in the cases of the principal urban areas as compared with the rest of the Dominion is to be expected in view of the greater fire-brigade facilities for handling fires in the larger centres. Companies usually allow this factor to influence the premium required.

Provision exists for coronial inquiries into fires of suspicious origin, but, as will be seen from page 165, the yearly number of such inquests has been small.

In 1932, however, a system was instituted whereby extended inquiries are made by the Police Department into all fires where the possibility of incendiarism is not eliminated or where the cause is obscure. The results of such inquiries are considered by a committee consisting of the Commissioner of Police, the General Manager of the State Fire Office, and the Inspector of Fire Brigades, and should the circumstances warrant it a coroner's inquiry is then recommended.

The following table shows the amount of fire-insurance claims paid per head of population during the period 1929–33, separate figures being given for the various provincial districts and urban areas, and for the North and South Islands :—

NORTH ISLAND.

District.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1929–33.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Auckland Provincial District129134176127710129
Auckland urban area78102110736694
Hamilton urban area51181367521056
Gisborne urban area93128423131142184
Remainder189161119218492165
Hawke's Bay Provincial District2111252388151882110
Napier urban area18220317594611145
Hastings urban area357243119204331810
Remainder179282630l58122274
Taranaki Provincial District1601391511011103132
New Plymouth urban area88123140110811110
Remainder18514315510101081311
Wellington Provincial District19917016699641310
Wellington urban area258131017762310133
Wanganui urban area1589770792285
Palmerston North urban area17631181099281310
Remainder131020019314101151510
Totals, North Island161156187118771310
Urban areas15013115571155114
Remainder1741842251621021610

SOUTH ISLAND.

District.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1929–33.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Marlborough Provincial District6772383610203204338
Nelson Provincial District1471781349466123
Nelson urban area7518119103351190
Remainder161017414511268133
Westland Provincial District167124144131098134
Canterbury Provincial District14586106758699
Christchurch urban area125417118110687
Timaru urban area3457226031114145
Remainder1211151010117157105
Otago Provincial District64857351161169
Dunedin urban area510710663858511
Remainder70928381063711
Southland Provincial District11101809912892123
Invercargill urban area110191063358499
Remainder12417011817898138
Totals, South Island13911310986711105
Urban areas10177885971183
Remainder18614111211113710127
Grand totals, Dominion152131115910679128
Urban areas1321121317264103
Remainder17917018814393152

From 1924 onwards particulars regarding causes of fires have been obtained from insurance offices, and the summarized results for the quinquennium 1929–33 are contained in the following table:—

Cause of Fire.Urban Areas.Remainder of Dominion.Total.
Number Separate Fires.LossNumber Separate Fires.LossNumber Separate Fires.Loss
*Included in various causes from which spread.
  £ £ £
Electricity1,745147,432570149,6992,315297,131
Gas56117,831614,38062222,211
Naked lights42113,37650232,72592346,101
Defective chimneys and kindred causes800118,3371,011371,2201,811489,557
Smoking, and careless use of matches1,50889,34262054,4762,128143,818
Sparks from fireplaces4,723114,2162,328228,7947,051343,010
Heating, boiling-down27019,309938,60136327,910
Use and misuse of highly inflammable spirits and materials32160,17516924,36749084,542
Incendiarism and arson15891,15713126,093289117,250
Outside causes37647,24431043,01568690,259
Other causes811,982261,0861073,068
Totals, known causes10,964720,4015,821944,45616,7851,664,857
Fires spread from other buildings*450108,544531167,716981276,260
Floating, travelling, and transit risks........49135,352
Unknown causes2,6031,250,5603,7021,648,8266,3052,899,386
Totals13,5671,970,9619,5232,593,28223,5814,599,595

In all there were 23,581 separate fires during the period. This does not represent the number of buildings, &c, affected, as a fire spreading to other buildings has been counted as one only. Of the total, 491 were on account of floating risks such as motor-cars, &c, and have been excluded from the total of “known” causes. Of the remainder the cause was given in 16,785 cases, leaving 6,305, or 27 per cent, of cases, in which the insurance offices had no knowledge as to the cause of fire. It should also be remembered that in some instances, more especially where a total or semi - total loss was sustained, the actual cause was a matter of conjecture only. These cases, however, are few in number, as the vast majority of total losses are included in the total of unknown causes.

EXTENT OF LOSS.

The following table gives particulars of fire losses during the five years 1929–33, classified according to the amount of loss. No fewer than 17,450 fires, out of a total of 23,581, resulted in a loss of less than £10C; while in 12,901 cases, or 55 per cent of the total, the loss per fire was less than £10. The aggregate loss involved in these small fires is small—those under £10 accounting for under 1 per cent, of the total loss, and fires in which less than £100 was paid out being responsible for only 4.12 per cent, of the total.

Loss Category.Number of Separate Fires.Insurance Cover on Buildings, &c, affected.Amount of Loss.Average Amount of Loss per Fire.Proportion of Loss to Total Loss.
££ £££Per Cent.
Under1012,90110,651,16742,84230.93
10 and under252,3574,140,93135,138150.76
25 and under501,1562,127,94239,756340.86
50 and under1001,0361,881,39872,058701.57
100 and under2001,3021,269,055182,6031403.97
200 and under3009801,068,299237,1642425.16
300 and under400712770,667244,3063435.31
400 and under500633904,554280,1124436.09
500 and under7501,1081,363,437673,50060814.64
750 and under1,0005631,181,075478,96285110.41
1,000 and under2,0005511,2,070,017733,8701,33215.96
2,000 and under3,000132927,346316,8142,4006.89
3,000 and under4,00050360,068173,6573,4733.78
4,000 and under5,00029253,106127,9374,4122.78
5,000 and over.712,188,144960,81613,53320.89
Totals.23,58131,117,8064,599,595195100.00

MUTUAL FIRE-INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

Mutual associations are dealt with by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows at least 100 owners of isolated or farm property to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Such associations effect insurance on the premium-note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

In addition to furnishing returns to the Census and Statistics Office, each mutual association (of which there are three in existence) is required to furnish to the Public Trustee a statement of the condition of the association as at the 31st March in each year. Policies in force as at 31st March, 1935, amounted in the aggregate to £6,635,539. Premiums collected during the year totalled £28,460, while the total income amounted to £31,521. Fire losses amounted to £10,651, and total expenditure to £30,150.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.

On the 4th January, 1905, the State Fire Insurance Office opened for public business with an advance (long since repaid) of £2,000 borrowed from the Treasury. At the end of the first year the Office showed an income of £13,135 and a net surplus of £481. From this the progress of the Office may be gauged from the figures for 1934, which show an income of £244,376, while the reserves and funds now exceed £1,000,000.

The reduction in premium income during 1933, which amounted to £7,142, was due to two factors—the adjustment of amounts insured in accordance with reduced values, and the granting as from the 1st September, 1933, of an additional rebate of 12£ per cent, on dwellings in protected areas and an additional 7$ per cent. on dwellings and farm risks in other districts. The effect of these additional rebates in 1934 was to increase the amount so allowed by £11,151 over the previous year's figure; yet, despite this, the decline in premium income amounted to £770 only.

Fire losses in 1934 are £5,746 in excess of the 1933 total; but substantial reductions were recorded in the previous two years, and the losses in 1934 are less than half of the total for 1931.

The ratio of net claims to net premium income gives a percentage of 27.30, compared with 24.34 in 1933, 33.79 in 1932, and 52.28 in 1931.

Year.Net, Premium Income.Total Net Income.Net Losses.Accumulated Funds.Assets.
 £££££
1925176,664207,41856,997668,061604,096
1926197,471233,54579,062623,622661,519
1927207,611243,49698,135670,061707,826
1928211,634252,09481,585744,271771,959
1929217,991258,99575,317821,091862,285
1930221,910272,21390,001889,494931,577
1931216,007265,503112,932918,182977,477
1932208,493255,24270,444952,2991,000,009
1933201,351244,25749,005991,08711,060,513
1934200,581244,37654,7511,016,6881,069,127

Exclusive of Government taxes, which amounted to 17.41 per cent., the working-expense ratio to premium income in 1934 was 30.42 per cent., and without Fire Board contributions 2646 per cent. Comparative figures for 1933 were 16.84, 29.46, and 25.50 per cent, respectively.

FIRE BRIGADES.

The following table gives particulars of fire brigades (including branches) in the Dominion for each of the last five years:—

Year.Stations.O (Beers.Men.Total Personnel.
19301704512,0972,548
19311734492,1132,562
19321714602,1022,562
19331724462,1212,567
19341714612,1502,611

Chapter 29. SECTION XXIX.—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with a central Government officer entitled the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general oversight by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was introduced by the Finance Act, 1916, and is now embodied in the National Provident Fund Act, 1926. (Vide Section XXIV.)

LODGES AND MEMBERS.

The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, &c, registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31st December.

Name of Order.Registrations.Lodge Members.
1932.1933.1934.1932.1933.1934.
* Membership figures relate to “actuarial” societies only (7 in 1934).
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows25625625934,24133,87034,321
Independent Order of Oddfellows21021321612,51512,34612,337
National Independent Order of Oddfellows333214202202
British United Order of Oddfellows111888783
Ancient Order of Foresters16216216219,08318,67818,634
Ancient Order of Shepherds..11..3532..
United Ancient Order of Druids14814714721,70321,01820,886
Independent Order of Rechabites6868685,1315,1535,176
Order of Sons of Temperance101010529525532
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111155156155
Hibernian - Australasian Catholic Benefit Society6871683,7373,7053,928
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia141516971933937
Grand United Order of Oddfellows161414488427424
Isolated friendly societies6768683,162*3,105*3,093*
Working-men's clubs151313......
International Order of Good Templars111111......
Specially authorized societies161716......
Totals1,0671,0711,073102,052100,237100,708

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c, of lodges are required by law. For the year 1934 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 929 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 100,708 at the end of the year, as compared with 918 lodges and 100,237 members for 1933. During the year 6,519 members were admitted by initiation, &c, and 936 by clearance; 935 died, 957 left by clearance, and 5,092 by arrears, kc. The aggregate membership of lodges increased year by year, reaching a peak in 1930. The economic depression probably accounts for the subsequent fall, although an increase of 471 was recorded for 1934.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (929 in 1934) for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS.

In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence:—

Year.Deaths of Members.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.Deaths of Members' Wives.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.
19308217.703343.13
19318748.183723.48
19328348.003933.77
19338528.393633.57
19349359.263263.23

The number of members sick during 1934 was 23,295, representing 213 per cent, of members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1934 aggregated 260,264 six-day weeks, equal to 11 weeks 1 day per sick member, and 2 weeks 5 days for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

The total funds of the societies and branches as at the 31st December, 1934, amounted to £4,676,427, made up as follows :—

Funds.£
Sick and Funeral Funds 3,883,557
Surplus Appropriation Funds, &c.448,835
Management Funds, goods, &c188,988
Widow and Orphans' Funds31,978
Distress, Benevolent Funds, &c.123,069
 £4,676,427
Assets.£
Investments at interest3,986,159
value of land and buildings513,750
Cash not bearing interest107,763
Value of goods23,645
Owing by Management Funds5,752
Other assets39,358
 £4,676,427

Dividing the total funds by the number of members at the end of the year it is found that the average capital per member is £46 8s. 9d. There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last ten years amounting to 37 per cent., in spite of an increase in membership of 15 per cent.

Year.Total Funds.Average Capital per Member,Year.Total Funds.Average Capital per Member.
 ££s.d. ££s.d.
19253,136,237346719304,130,11738109
19263,337,683356819314,277,7154099
19273,526,71735171119324,398,15843111
19283,728,0873618919334,538,0954556
19293,927,433377019344,676,4274689

The funds of friendly societies are held chiefly in the form of mortgages on freehold property, as shown in the next table.

Year.Total Funds.Funds invested at Interest.Proportion of Funds invested at Interest.
Mortgages on Freehold Property.Government and Municipal Debentures.Deposited with Banks.Other Investments.Total.
 ££££££Per Cent.
19304,130,1173,186,455220,72381,80451,3853,540,36785.72
19314,277,7153,275,007244,15989,83955,7713,664,77685.67
19324,398,1583,350,709262,15592,97164,1623,769,99785.72
19334,538,0953,424,616276,262114,34965,0743,880,30185.51
19344,676,4273,501,236268,127148,59868,1983,986,15985.24

The figures of Sick and Funeral Funds and of interest earnings thereon during 1934 are given for each order in the following table:—

Order.Total Worth of Sick and Funeral Funds as atAverage Kate per Cent, of Interest earned.
1st January, 1934.13st December, 1934.1933.1934.
 ££££
M.U.I.O.O.F.1,314,1971,356,5944.434.46
L.O.O.F.356,319349,6794.314.43
N.I.O.O.F.5,4015,2873.402.98
B.U.O.O.F.6,5916,3185.475.02
A.O.F.718,051724,7754.194.37
A.O.S.1,246..4.02..
U.A.O.D.956,443.996,4754.434.44
I.O.R.184,352190,9184.194.49
O.S.T.29,30729,8474.415.11
S.D.T...12,56711,9184.464.51
H.A.C.B.S.99,595103,4294.614.18
P.A.F.S.A.50,17451,3414.564.39
G.U.O.O.F.3,4623,7923.944.22
Other societies51,82953,1844.935.29
Totals3,789,5343,883,5574.384.44

Receipts and expenditure of Sick and Funeral Funds for 1934 are quoted below. A surplus of £94,023 is recorded for the year.

Receipts.£
Members' contributions181,945
Interest and rent166,797
Repayments by central body72,571
Other receipts16,455
 £437,768
Expenditure.£
Sick pay to own members163,397
Funeral donations42,301
Contributions and levies to central body75,937
Other expenditure62,110
 £343 745

Members' contributions averaged £1 16s. 3d. per member, and interest and rent receipts amounted to £1 13s. 2d. per member, reckoned on the mean number of members for the year. Sickness benefits paid averaged £7 0s. 3d. per member sick, or £1 12s. 6d. when averaged over all members, while funeral benefits represented 8s. 5d. per member.

Chapter 30. SECTION XXX.—BUILDING SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE law relating to building societies incorporated in the Dominion is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908, which is a consolidation of legislation most of which has been operative since 1380. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must before registration be certified to as conforming to legal requirements by a revising barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. No stamp duties are payable on any instruments or documents made under the Act.

Building societies are afforded all the powers of an ordinary mortgagee, and where a mortgagor makes default in payment of moneys the society may exercise the usual power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Office. The dates upon which the societies close their accounts vary considerably within the year, but the figures given below may be taken as corresponding approximately to the financial years ended on the 31st March.

Orders in Council of 7th June and 8th August, 1932, of 20th March, 1933, and of 31st July, 1934, made under section 51 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, fixed the maximum interest payable on deposits with building societies. Present maxima are determined as 3 per cent, per annum from 1st August, 1934, for the savings-bank department (if any) and on other deposits, new or renewed (period 1st August, 1934, to 31st March, 1937), according to period of deposit, from 2 per cent, for deposits at call (or less than three months) up to 4 per cent, for deposits of not less than three years.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES.

The number of societies in existence in 1934–35 was 100. Of these 56 were permanent and 44 terminating, the latter being comprised of 194 groups. Of recent years there has been considerable growth in permanent building societies, which numbered 41 in 1924–25. For some years the number of terminating societies manifested a decline, although, on the contrary, their activities as measured by the aggregate number of groups was increasing. In the last decade the number of terminating societies remained stationary, but the number of groups advanced from 155 to 194.

SHARES.

A synopsis of the extent to which investments have been made in building-society shares during the last five years is contained in the table next presented:—

1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Investing Shares.     
Number of shares312,817290,562274,122253,547253,734
Members holding55,97050,61444,65543,64239,579
Aggregate value£3,585,468£3,685,880£3,666,745£3,602,743£3,535,032
Capital Shares.     
Number of shares513,094575,014539,299534,155543,304
Members holding4,7585,0365,0485,1225,783
Aggregate value£1,243,846£1,272,951£1,283,103£1,300,313£1,325,255

The average value in 1934–35 of each investing share paying periodic subscription was £13 18s. 8d., as compared with £10 18s. Id. in 1929–30, and of each capital share £2 8s. 9d., as compared with £2 8s. 3d. five years earlier. The steady and substantial decrease in the number of investing shares and in the number of members holding such shares is a feature of building society statistics of the last quinquennium. A comparison (1934–35) of the distribution of share-money and the number of holders of shares between permanent and terminating societies yields the following results:—

Permanent.Terminating.Total.
Investing Shares.   
Number of shares157,40996,325253,734
Members holding12,31727,26239,579
Aggregate value£1,420,612£2,114,420£3,535,032
Capital Shares.   
Number of shares543,304..543,304
Members holding5,783..5,783
Aggregate value£1,325,255..£1,325,255

Of the total aggregate value of both investing and capital shares, amounting to £4,860,287, 57 per cent, is held in permanent societies and 43 per cent, in terminating societies. On the other hand, the number of members holding shares in permanent societies is only 40 per cent, of the total, the terminating societies' shareholders representing 60 per cent. It should be pointed out, however, that one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

For several years up to and including 1929–30 building societies experienced an increasing demand for money available for house property; following 1929–30, however, there was a marked decline, due to economic stress. A substantial increase in advances is recorded in 1934–35, in sympathy with increased building activity.

1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Receipts.£££££
Investors' subscriptions and capital shares766,364668,672609,401548,082532,540
Advances repaid1,063,098973,267870,377921,317901,046
Deposits2,234,0341,824,0861,653,9631,414,3761,634,604
Interest322,024288,799273,669234,331238,506
Other receipts222,950139,245244,555235,156369,632
   Total receipts4,608,4703,894,0693,651,9653,353,2623,676,328
Payments.     
Withdrawals431,465561,367569,615592,889573,099
Advances1,452,108939,594848,539840,751909,630
Expenses of management65,91567,93867,34165,00766,571
Deposits repaid2,195,0801,850,2281,660,5611,368,5051,499,849
Interest, dividends, &c.473,496434,491463,685408,225578,838
   Total payments4,618,0643,853,6183,609,7413,275,3773,627,987

LOANS.

The numbers and amounts of loans at the end of each of the last five years, both of permanent and of terminating societies, were as follows:—

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number..Amount.
  £ £ £
1930–319,9995,528,8417,6532,523,35217,6528,052,193
1931–329,9535,404,8927,7202,631,86117,6738,036,753
1932–339,9285,290,9027,9682,586,55817,8967,877,460
1933–349,9545,202,0167,9832,633,19417,9377,835,210
1934–3510,6065,238,8297,9612,678,28018,5677,917,109

The amount of outstanding loans increased sharply in 1930–31, following the onset of the depression. The amount has decreased somewhat in following years, but a comparison of 1934–35 with 1929–30 shows a net increase of £586,199 in the amount owing. The number of loans outstanding increased by 2,108 during the five years. The average amount per loan current at the end of each of the last five years was:—

Class.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Permanent societies552189543010532186522121493190
Terminating societies329145340184324125329170348199
All societies456334541504403743616442642

Particulars of loans granted during each of the last four years are as follows:—

   Terminating Societies.
 Permanent Societies.By Ballot.By Auction.
Year.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Premiums.
  £ £ ££
1931–321,063480,354630225,200490201,53955,544
1932–33913431,598429214,700297158,15443,589
1933–341,002417,564439213,783323155,81336,272
1934–351,394515,302421205,836311134,99628,584

The premiums on loans auctioned gives an average of £21.2 per cent, for 1934–35, this—assuming the usual loan currency of twelve and a half years—being equivalent to a rate of interest of about 3¼ per cent. The average premium per cent, in 1933–34 was £23.3, and in both 1931–32 and 1932–33 £27.6, the lower rates since then being a reflection of the general downward trend in interest rates.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The liabilities and assets of building and investment societies for each of the last five years are as follows:—

LIABILITIES.

Year.To Shareholders (Including Reserve Funds and Undivided Proofs).Deposits.Appropriations not taken up or in Trust.To Bankers and other Creditors.Total Liabilities.

* Included in bankers and other creditors.

† Including appropriations not taken up or in trust.

 £££££
1930–315,778,7382,296,376*484,1228,559,236
1931–325,971,6862,273,972151,918206,1078,603,683
1932–335,959,9022,234,658181,578199,4168,575,554
1933–345,923,3512,285,874184,621190,3048,584,150
1934–355,907,1072,420,261200,249186,6218,714,238

ASSETS.

Year.Advances on Mortgage.Other Investments and Assets.Cash in Hand and at Bank.Total Assets.
 ££££
1930–318,051,886314,824192,5268,559,236
1931–328,036,753330,589236,3418,603,683
1932–337,945,894356,324273,3368,575,554
1933–347,881,372429,619273,1598,584,150
1934–357,917,538489,511307,1898,714,238

DEPOSITS.

From April, 1932, figures of deposits with building societies have become available under section 44 of the Building Societies Act, 1908, as amended by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Quarterly statements are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Investment societies are included with building societies in the following figures, as the two classes are not distinguished in the returns.

The average number of societies furnishing returns for the four quarters of the year ending 31st March, 1935, was 115. During the same fiscal year the amount borrowed (exclusive of renewals) was £1,398,874 and the amount repaid £1,298,102, the corresponding amounts for the previous year being £1,178,894 and £1,323,210 respectively.

The following were the deposits with building and investment societies at 31st March, 1935:—

Rate of Interest (Per Cent.).At Call.Three to Twelve Months (inclusive).Two Years or over.Total.
 ££££
Nil2,045....2,045
Under 4577,174560,124534,3701,671,668
4 and under 4½7,35943,124962,5071,012,990
4½ and under 510,354100361,377371,831
5 and under 5½10,0029,08860,05279,202
5½ and under 62,208..13,35815,566
6 and under 6½92040048,77550,095
6½ and under 738561,6001,991
7 and under 1010,912..2,45613,368
   Total621,419612,8421,984,4953,218,756
Average rate of interest2.843.074.023.61

Chapter 31. SECTION XXXI.—MORTGAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

UNDER the Property Law Act a “mortgage” is defined as including a charge on any property for securing money or money's worth; and “mortgage-money” means money or money's worth secured by a mortgage. Under the Land Transfer Act “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing—

  • The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt;

  • The repayment of future advances, or repayment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise;

  • The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge;

  • The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent-charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, vide p. 296, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act, and take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property re-registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

PROPERTY THAT MAY BE MORTGAGED.

Any land covered by the definitions of “land” in the Property Law Act, 1908, and the Land Transfer Act, 1915, may be mortgaged. Where, however, property is subject to restrictions upon alienation, these restrictions usually apply to prevent such property being mortgaged. The following are the main instances in which mortgage of property is forbidden by law :—

  • Family homes registered under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Maintenance-moneys under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Inalienable life annuities (Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910).

  • Various pensions (Pensions Act, 1926).

  • Property subject to restraint upon anticipation, unless by consent of the Supreme Court.

  • Property subject to restraint upon alienation in accordance with section 24 of the Property Law Act, 1908.

  • An infant's property, by the infant (Infants Act, 1908, sections 12 and 13).

REDEMPTION.

A memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage debt and operates as a deed of reconveyance of the estate and interest of the mortgagee in the mortgaged property “to the person for the time being entitled to the equity of redemption”; but the mortgagee may execute a deed of reconveyance “if he thinks fit and the mortgagor requires it.” The Public Trustee is empowered to receive mortgage-moneys on account of absentee mortgagees, and in the case of a deed of mortgage to execute the necessary memorandum of discharge. A mortgagor may redeem in the following cases :—

  • Before the due date, on payment of interest for the unexpired term of the mortgage.

  • At the due date, in accordance with the provisions of the mortgage.

  • After the due date, upon giving three months notice in writing or paying three months interest in lieu of notice, except where the mortgagee is or has been in possession or has taken steps to enforce his security, in which case the mortgagor may redeem at any time upon payment of ail moneys due.

  • After default and before sale by the mortgagee. If the mortgagee has entered into possession of the mortgaged land or part of it, the mortgagor loses his right of redemption after twenty years from the date of the mortgagee's entering into possession, or after twenty years from the last written acknowledgment of the mortgagor's title or of his right to redeem.

The Property Law Act abolished what was formerly known as the doctrine of consolidation of mortgages. Where a mortgagor is liable under more than one mortgage, he may now pay off one mortgage without being called on to pay off any mortgage or mortgages on property not comprised in the mortgage he is paying off.

RIGHTS OF MORTGAGEE.

Under New Zealand law a mortgage has no power of foreclosure in respect of realty. The following, however, represent his principal rights:—

  • He is entitled to the custody of the title-deeds of the property mortgaged.

  • He may sue on the personal covenant contained in the mortgage-deed.

  • He may enter and take possession. This right is exercisable either by actually entering upon the land or a part of it or by bringing an action for possession. If there is a tenant whoso rights are binding on the mortgagee, the latter can give notice to the tenant to pay the rent to him, and this will be equivalent to taking possession.

  • He may assign his interest, either absolutely or by way of submortgage.

  • He may sell, either under the express powers (if any) in the mortgage-deed, or under powers implied by statute, if these have not been negatived in the deed.

  • Instead of selling, as above, a mortgagee entitled to exercise his power of sale may apply to the Registrar of the Supreme Court to conduct the sale. The mortgagee must state in his application the estimated value of the land, and the date of the sale must be not less than one month and not more than three months from the date of the application. He may bid at the sale and become the purchaser of the land, but in such case the amount paid for the land shall not be less than the value of the land as estimated. If it is, the mortgagor must be allowed in account the full amount of the estimate.

Under the mortgage-relief legislation referred to below these rights are not necessarily enforceable at present.

MORTGAGORS AND TENANTS RELIEF.

The economic conditions prevailing in New Zealand consequent upon the world-wide economic depression commencing in 1929 led to the enactment in the early months of 1931 of legislation designed for the relief of mortgagors. The complexity of the problem necessitated much further legislation, and finally a consolidating Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act was passed in December, 1933.

This Act was originally operative until the end of 1935, but its duration was subsequently extended indefinitely.

The Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed in April, 1935, is referred to in some detail later under this heading.

For the purposes of the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, a mortgage includes a mortgage on land or chattels or any interest therein, an agreement for sale and purchase of land, and (with provisoes) instruments of security over life-insurance policies and annuities. A mortgagor includes a guarantor of any part of a mortgage. Subject to specific exemptions, mortgages within the Act are those either executed, operative, or designed to take effect before thel7th April, 1931; mortgages to which relief legislation has at any time applied and which have been varied by the parties; and mortgages executed since the 17th April, 1931, in substantial replacement of mortgages to which relief legislation has at any time applied.

Except in the case of a property abandoned by the mortgagor, a mortgagee is forbidden to exercise any power of sale, rescission, or entry into possession; to execute any judgment, decree, or order of the Court; or to file a bankruptcy or winding-up petition against the mortgagor otherwise then as laid down, in the Act. The mortgagee must first give to the mortgagor written notice of his intention to exercise his powers, whereupon the latter has one month (in respect of chattels, fourteen days) to apply to the Court for relief. Applications are made to the Supreme Court, or (subject to certain exceptions) to a Magistrate's Court if the mortgage principal does not exceed £2,000 or the annual rental, in the case of a lease, does not exceed £210. The parties nearly consent to an extended jurisdiction of the Magistrate's Court.

If a mortgagor fails to apply for relief within the time specified (an extension may be granted by the Court if reasonable grounds for the delay are proved) the mortgagee may proceed to exercise his powers. A mortgagor may apply for relief even where the mortgagee has not given notice under the Act; in such a case the Court has power to make an order authorizing the mortgagee forthwith or at a future fixed date to exercise his powers. Applications for further relief or for varying or discharging orders may be made in prescribed circumstances.

In determining relief the Court must consider : (1) The effect of the continuance of the mortgage upon the security afforded the mortgagee; (2) the inability of the mortgagor to redeem the property; (3) the conduct of the mortgagor in respect of any breaches by him of the covenants of the mortgage; (4) hardship to either party; (5) the extent to which default is due to general economic conditions.

By way of relief the Court may order that the mortgagee shall not exercise any of the prescribed powers save by leave of Court consequent upon a mortgagor's breach of the conditions of the order. The due date for payment of interest or principal may be postponed, the rate of interest may be reduced, arrears of interest may be remitted, the period of table mortgages may be extended, and the right of action under personal or other covenants postponed. There are also special provisions bringing stock mortgages into the scope of applications for relief. No appeal lies from an order of the Court, nor is it permissible to contract out of the effects of relief legislation. The duration of an order must not exceed two years.

Leases within the Act are those executed before the 31st March, 1932, and the Act may also be extended to various forms of licenses and other instruments. Applications by lessees for relief must specify the nature of the relief sought, being reduction of rent, remission of arrears, or both; and the Court is empowered to make such order within these limits as it thinks fit.

To assist the Court, and to encourage voluntary settlements between mortgagors and mortgagees or between lessors and lessees, authority is given for the establishment of Adjustment Commissions, each of three members. A number of these, under the name of Mortgagors' Liabilities Adjustment Commissions, are functioning. Every application to the Court for relief is referred to one of these Commissions unless the parties agree to accept the Court's determination without reference to a Commission. The Commission investigates and reports to the Court. Where as a result of the investigation a voluntary settlement is arrived at the Court may dismiss or adjourn the application. In addition to the foregoing, an Adjustment Commission may, upon direct application to it by any one of the parties, endeavour to promote a voluntary settlement, and for that purpose has the same powers of investigation.

Up to the 31st July, 1935, the following applications had been dealt with by Adjustment Commissions:—

Applications referred from Courts for investigation14,786
New applications investigated11,236
Number of applications awaiting investigation851
Total.. 26,873

Aresume of applications under relief legislation dealt with by the Courts up to 31st July, 1935, follows :—

 Mortgages. 
Applications received 14,869
Applications granted 6,265
Applications refused 1,886
Total principal involved£32,868,40212s. Od.
Total interest in arrear£2,148,1178s. 7d.
Total arrears remitted£509,14115s. 6d.
Cases in which interest reduced 2,568
Applications for review, variation, or discharge 1,384
 LEASES. 
Applications received 2,221
Total annual rent in respect of which relief applied for£610,51314s. Od.
Cases in which relief granted 986
Cases in which relief declined 262
Total arrears remitted£83,60719s. 5d.
Cases in which rent reduced 590
Applications for review, variation, or discharge 195

RURAL MORTGAGORS FINAL ADJUSTMENT ACT1934–35.

This Act, which was passed in April, 1935, was part of the Government's plan for the rehabilitation of the farming industry, and provides machinery to assist in the adjustment of the excessive liabilities of farmer mortgagors who have been adversely affected by the low prices for farm-produce prevailing in recent years.

The Act provides that a farmer mortgagor who is in difficulties in meeting his capital charges can apply to an Adjustment Commission for an adjustment of his liabilities. On the filing of such an application, the mortgagor automatically ceases to come within the protection of the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1933. The Commission is required forthwith to call a meeting of creditors in an endeavour to arrive at a voluntary adjustment of the mortgagor's liabilities. Failing a voluntary adjustment, the Commission must then decide whether a stay order should be made in respect of the mortgagor or whether he should be excluded from any further protection under the relief legislation. The paramount object of the Act as sot out therein is “to retain efficient farmers in the use and occupation of their farms, and to make provision for the adjustment of their liabilities.” If the Commission considers the mortgagor's difficulties are due to the economic conditions, and that it would be in the public interest to keep him on his farm, it may direct the issue of a stay order, the effect of which is that the mortgagor is placed on a budget for five years for the purpose of determining the productive value of his farm. During this budgetary period the mortgagor's financial affairs are placed under the control of a trustee appointed under the Act, who has full power to receive all income and to disburse it in accordance with the directions of the Adjustment Commission.

After the expiry of the period of the stay order the Adjustment Commission is required to determine the productive value from the records of production, and certain adjustments will be made to this to arrive at a provisional basic value. The mortgagees and creditors will be advised, and will be given the right to produce expert evidence to the Court if not satisfied with such value; and if the creditors so desire it they may nominate or apply for the appointment of assessors, when two assessors (one representing the mortgagor and one representing the mortgagees) will be associated with the Court for the purpose of determining the basic value.

The Court will then consider whether the circumstances are such that the mortgagee or mortgagees should be given the right to dispossess the mortgagor. The Court in so determining this matter will take into consideration the factors guiding it initially in granting the stay order and the question of undue hardship to the mortgagees arising from permitting the mortgagor to carry on.

If the Court decides that the mortgagor shall not be dispossessed, all his liabilities (secured and unsecured), in excess of the basic value are automatically discharged as he bankruptcy, and the reduced amount of such liabilities becomes repayable at the expiration of a period of five years, with interest in the meantime at a basic rate prescribed by the Court. Provision is also made that, in case of a sale of the farm within such period of five years, one-half of any amount received in excess of the basic value shall be applied—firstly, for the benefit of the mortgagees whose mortgages have been reduced; and, secondly, for the benefit of other creditors.

Should the Court give authority for the dispossession of the mortgagor, or should the mortgagor consider that it is not possible for him to carry on at the basic value determined, the Court shall assess an amount of compensation to the mortgagor, having regard to the extent the sum allowed him in the budget for living-expenses fell short of a reasonable wage during the operation of the stay order. The mortgagees will then be permitted to take over the property subject to the existing encumbrances. If the mortgagor docs not wish to continue in occupation, and the mortgagees do not elect to take the property over, the Court is to direct the sale of the property, the mortgagor's compensation to be paid out of the proceeds of the sale.

For the purpose of the administration of the Act, a special Court, known as the Court of Review of Mortgagors' Liabilities, consisting of a Judge of the Supreme Court and two lay members, has been constituted under the provisions of the Act. In addition to the important, functions (referred to above) devolving upon the Court upon the termination of the budgetary period, the Court acts as a Court of Appeal against decisions of the Adjustment Commissions, and one of its duties is to co-ordinate the work of the Adjustment Commissions.

The Act has been in actual operation for only a few months. The number of applications for adjustment filed up to the 30th September, 1935, was 397; and up to that date 122 stay orders, involving principal-moneys under the mortgages amounting to £365,495, have been made.

REDUCTION OF INTEREST.

Part III of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act (passed 10th May, 1932) had as its purpose reductions in rates of interest payable by mortgagors and in rents and certain other fixed charges, commensurate with reductions in salaries and wages made by Part I of the Act and by the Finance Act of 1931. An amending Act, passed 9th December, 1932, made certain modifications and enacted some necessary changes in the machinery -of legislation.

The term “mortgage” for the purpose of the Act has a wider meaning than in ordinary usage. It “means any deed, memorandum of mortgage, instrument, or agreement whereby security for the payment of moneys or for the performance of any contract is granted over land or chattels or any interest therein respectively”; and includes company debentures, mortgages of life-insurance policies, agreements for the sale and purchase of land, and customary hire-purchase agreements within the meaning of the Chattels Transfer Act, 1924.

The Act does not apply to mortgages (not being for a fixed term, expired or unexpired) securing the repayment of principal moneys repayable on demand, nor to mortgages executed after 1st April, 1932. Under the amending Act a policy for securing a fife insurance, endowment, or annuity is not a chattel within the Act, and is, therefore, not subject to its provisions.

The reduction in the rate of interest is 20 per centum, and it applies to all such interest accruing on or after 1st April, 1932, and before 1st April, 1935 (extended to 1st April, 1937, by the Finance Act, 1934). There is provision, however, that the rate of interest shall not be reduced below 6½ per cent, in the case of chattel-mortgages, nor 5 per cent, in the case of other mortgages except in the case of income–tax free company debentures to which section 171 of the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923, is applicable, where the minimum is 4½ per cent.

Provision is made for an appeal for relief by an aggrieved mortgagee to the Supreme Court or to a Stipendiary Magistrate (if the annual interest docs not exceed £300) on the ground that the existing rate of interest was fair in the circumstances, or that adequate concessions had already been given, or that the reduction would cause undue hardship.

MORTGAGE CORPORATION.

The Mortgage Corporation was established by the Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1934–35, and commenced business on 1st August, J 935. Its formation was an outcome of the difficult and complex situation of mortgage finance, and the obstacle to economic recovery which the existing situation represented. The statutory interest reductions under the National Expenditure Adjustment Act and the mortgagors–relief legislation were necessarily temporary expedients only. The solution appeared to be rather in facilitating the refinancing of existing debts at lower interest rates, and the restoration of confidence in loans upon broad acres.

A national mortgage corporation offered a means of taking adequate advantage of the lower market rates of interest, and of providing improved finance for farms, business premises, and dwellings. Another factor was the avoidance of legislative reductions which inevitably operated somewhat inequitably under the diverse conditions existing in mortgage investments. It was believed also that advantage would be derived by the investor from the system of mortgage bonds which not only ensured a greater degree of safety by the spread of risks, but also turned mortgages into readily saleable stock exchange securities representing small amounts. A system of mortgage finance that has proved successful in other countries has thus been introduced in New Zealand.

The capital of the Corporation consists of 1,000,000 shares of £1 each, carrying a cumulative dividend of 4½ per cent. Of these, 500,000 were allotted to the State at par in terms of the Act. No person or company may hold more than 5,000 shares.

Management is vested in a Board of eight directors, comprising four State directors (of whom one is Chairman and two are joint managing directors), three shareholders' directors, and a director ex officio representing the Treasury.

To provide funds for its business, the Corporation may from time to time issue bonds or other securities up to a limit not exceeding fifteen times the amount of its subscribed capital plus the amount of the general reserve fund at the time. Such securities form a floating charge on the assets, and may be for a term of up to fifty years.

Under the Act the General Reserve Fund comprises—(1) An amount equal to the capital moneys (approximately £2,750,000) representing securities in respect of State advances to local authorities transferred to the Corporation; (2) 2 per cent, of loans made (see later); (3) interest earnings of the Reserve Fund itself; and (4) surplus profits (see later).

Every mortgagor securing an advance upon land is required to pay to the credit of the Reserve Fund an amount equal to 2 per cent, of his loan; this amount may be in cash or may be added, if desired, to the principal of the loan.

After payment of dividends, allowance for depreciation, and other necessary charges, any annual surplus resulting from the operations of the Corporation must be paid into the Public Account as long as there exists any contingent liability to the Crown; if such liability no longer exists, the surplus must be credited to the Reserve Fund.

The business of the Corporation is mainly lending upon long–term instalment first mortgages of land. In addition, the Corporation may lend upon stock or other chattels, if desirable to safeguard its mortgage of land. Advances must not exceed two–thirds of the value of the security. In special cases of advances to repay existing loans upon farm land, the margin may be raised to four-fifths, the.'State guaranteeing against loss attributable to the excess over two–thirds.

Loans in special cases may be for a term of five years or less, repayable in one sum; but, in general, are required to be on table mortgage for a term of not over fifty years. The interest-rate on advances must not exceed by more than 1 per cent, the rate of interest payable by the Corporation upon its last issue of bonds or other securities preceding the mortgage date.

The initial flotation of stock and debentures was made in August, 1935. It comprised an issue of £500,000 at 3⅜ per cent, interest. The lending-rate for moneys available to borrowers from this issue has been fixed at 4⅛ per cent.

Mortgages held by the State Advances Department, the Lands and Survey Department, and the Rural Intermediate Credit Board are authorized to be transferred to the Corporation at dates to be appointed. A portion, totalling in value £36,500,000, has been so transferred as from 1st August, 1935. The conditions of this transfer of mortgage business from the State are discussed in more detail in Section XXIIID, dealing with State Advances.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.

A table is given showing the amount represented by mortgages registered and discharged during each of the last twenty years.

Year ended 31st March,Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.Year ended 31st March,Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
 ££ ££
191622,463,29712,802,549192647,093,78033,958,144
191721,056,87412,994,003192739,979,68129,233,329
191818,126,92411,614,517192833,190,51923,998,840
191919,007,28611,040,897192933,559,93225,269,613
192048,442,90023,086,746193038,869,14428,328,993
192166,960,43429,464,132193130,208,44720,056,691
192234,789,32413,234,365193213,410,58110,036,385
192326,031,59614,579,76719339,161,6638,149,355
192437,862,41922,246,51219347,802,8539,086,847
192541,123,96629,733,883193511,845,63413,732,853

The sum secured by mortgages registered in 1933–34 was the lowest since 1900–01.

Although affording a valuable index of the movement over the period, the figures cannot be accepted as recording the amount of indebtedness incurred by way of mortgage. Duplicate registrations are included prior to 1929–30; from 1929–30 the extent of duplication has been available and the net figures inserted after necessary deductions on that account. Furthermore, the figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness. On the other hand no amount is shown as secured in a proportion of cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances, &c. In addition there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not registered; and stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the statistics.

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. Moreover, in the case of table mortgages, the whole amount remains on the register till the last instalment of principal is repaid.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.

The total amount for which mortgages were registered, both under the deeds–registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the last five years is given in the next table.

In addition to a total of 12,494 mortgages which represent the net aggregate of £11,845,634 for 1934–35, there were 2,648 mortgages in which no amount was shown as secured.

All of the eleven registration districts show increases in the value of mortgages registered during 1934–35, as compared with the previous year, the aggregate increase in the net registrations for the whole Dominion being £4,042,781.

District.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
 £££££
Auckland8,438,7223,834,2042,905,8722,397,7812,923,309
Gisborne628,197406,614189,826136,475203,791
Hawke's Bay1,976,284989,3411,048,971649,2301,143,973
Taranaki1,527,284638,822486,253430,757580,168
Wellington8,463,3593,356,8322,150,1861,542,4792,750,806
Nelson497,919322,408179,419195,112224,598
Marlborough479,637218,170102,87386,044126,472
Canterbury4,867,8891,967,2371,143,0961,303,7821,987,461
Otago2,261,4521,133,394673,796783,4991,334,170
Southland1,279,365507,889476,871473,139696,997
Westland189,55888,71792,25940,42986,945
Gross totals30,609,66613,463,6289,449,4228,038,72712,058,690
Duplications401,21953,047287,759235,874213,056
Net totals30,208,44713,410,5819,161,6637,802,85311,845,634

Of the gross total of £12,058,690 registered in 1934–35, £11,695,641, or 97 per cent., came under the Land Transfer Act. The proportion is now approaching 100 per cent., owing to the operation of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924 (vide Section XVIA).

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.—CLASSIFIED BY AMOUNT.

Of the net total of £11,845,634 registered for the financial year 1934–35 mortgages up to £500 in value represented 16 per cent, of the total value registered, from £501 to £1,000 18 per cent., from £1,001 to £5,000 35 per cent., and above £5,000 31 per cent. The following table gives the number and amount in each registration district according to the sum secured:—

 £500 and under.£501 to £1,000.£1,001 to £5,000.Over £5,000.
District.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £ £
Auckland1,855513,790862630,6205991,177,18960601, 710
Gisborne8523,8633625,3804691,264663,284
Hawke's Bay346101,319178131,611127308,59840602,445
Taranaki29183,17911885,878124275,03714130,074
Wellington1,210317,911572419,559338733,590891,279,746
Nelson29881,7107253,3664173,772215, 750
Marlborough8523,6252316,9493271,959213,939
Canterbury1,221319,363502350,885295667,72566649,488
Otago1,156288,883395283,270191383,53716378,480
Southland544139,695262181,235135282,1581293,909
Westland14833,6901611,477926,878214,900
Gross totals7,2391,927,0283,0362,190,2301,9374,091,7073093,849,725
Duplications82,23575,085511,0857194,651
Net totals7,2311,924,7933,0292,185,1451,9324,080,6223023,655,074

In addition to the foregoing, there were 2,648 mortgages registered for which no amount was shown. Excluding these, the average advance for each mortgage registered was £948, as compared with £742 in 1933–34.

MORTGAGES ON URBAN AND RURAL SECURITIES.

Figures are available in the case of Land Transfer registrations showing for each registration district the amount advanced on urban and rural properties. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages registered under the deeds system, but bearing in mind that the latter constituted in 1934–35 only 3 per cent, of the total it will be evident that the figures given approximately indicate the character of the securities. The distinction is between “town and suburban” and “country” holdings, but information is not always available to enable a strictly accurate classification to be made. Generally, however, town and suburban mortgages are regarded as such if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs and include also mortgages secured on small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. Mortgages classified as town and suburban are secured on areas averaging a little less than two-fifths of an acre in extent, as compared with an average area in 1934–35 of some 365 acres in the case of “country” securities.

The value of mortgages on town and suburban property registered in 1934–35 was £1,520,573 less than that on country property. In point of numbers 63 per cent, of the mortgages referred to town and suburban areas, and 37 per cent, to country properties. The average amount secured per acre on rural holdings was £3 6s. 6d., as against £1,485 in the case of town and suburban properties. The average amount of each mortgage on country property was £1,214, as compared with £545 on town and suburban holdings. The following table gives mortgages registered during the year 1934–35 under the Land Transfer Act.

 Town and Suburban.Country.
District.Number.Area.Amount secured.Number.Area.Amount secured.
  Acres.£ Acres.£
Auckland2,0961,0941,169,1561,847426,3241,528,983
Gisborne1096273,399111113,194130,392
Hawke's Bay746220288,526293189,553855,447
Taranaki311159188,00338181,436392,165
Wellington1,9124121,303,34083S325,5401,447,466
Nelson28172109,32318848,581114,825
Marlborough805435,00390111,08991,469
Canterbury1,568384963,797803271,4781,023,664
Otago1,373538585,404457269,448611,337
Southland708380302,659400144,166394,338
Westland1505068,924337,36518,021
Totals9,3343,4255,087,5345,4411,988,1746,608,107

A decennial summary upon similar lines is also given. The low figures of the last four years evidence the force of the depression, and the decline is approximately equally marked in urban and in rural districts.

  AreaAmount secured.
Year ended 3lst March,Number.Town and Suburban.Country.Total.Town and Suburban.Country.Total.
  Acres.Acres.Acres.£££
192640,418126,2204,302,6584,428,87818,033,25421,783,94239,817,196
192738,5577,9854,004,8564,012,84117,475,12717,290,50334,765,630
192834,3027,3413,626,9373,634,27815,633,14213,773,80529,406,947
192934,7967,4364,303,8584,311,29415,432,01115,026,60430,458,615
193038,8628,0524,206,5984,214,65018,936,21917,681,48836,617,707
193132,3296,6693,689,5113,696,18014,262,91914,203,28728,466,206
193217,7934,0462,276,9592,281,0055,771,3646,814,78312,586,147
193313,2573,2311,784,7811,788,0124,133,5074,806,4188,939,925
193412,1922,7491,433,8921,436,6413,873,0763,779,9177,652,993
193514,7753,4251,988,1741,991,5995,087,5346,608,10711,695,641

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED.

Of the net total (i.e., deducting duplications) of mortgages released in 1934–35, £13,401,501 was under the Land Transfer Act and £331,352 under the deeds–registration system. The corresponding figures for the previous year were £8,829,477 and £257,370 respectively.

The total amount of mortgages discharged for the last three years is as follows :—

 1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
District.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £
Auckland3,4192,233,0323,5583,502,8544,2883,570,720
Gisborne228289,9221971,317,093229278,987
Hawke's Bay581562,282503464,3988781,286,013:
Taranaki599401,380583407,313759786,943
Wellington2,6202,308,7652,4462,959,2373,0693,296,574
Nelson361184,279337183,501401178,956
Marlborough123124,308135154,187184231,153
Canterbury1,517894,8421,4851,997,7072,1752,251,081
Otago1,146588,3981,2401,616,1281,7611,088,425
Southland600504,154543451,424841730,981
Westland10957,9937733,00514362,702
Gross totals11,3038,149,35511,10413,086,84714,72813,762,535
Duplications....44,000,000429,682
Net totals11,3038,149,35511,1009,086,84714,72413,732,853

The unusually large figure of duplications in 1933–34 is due to the discharge of a mortgage of £1,000,000 having been registered in each of five districts.

MONTHLY REGISTRATIONS AND DISCHARGES.

Monthly figures of registrations and discharges are regularly published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. The gross totals for each of recent months are as follows :—

 Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
Month.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
1934–35. £ £
April883615,207820611,414
May1,279993,4861,1731,036,309
June1,192795,5771,125989,651
July1,268881,5181,242936,715
August1,3681,301,6521,3251,254,142
September1,172814,3221,244942,553
October1,4521,180,7751,4651,710,954
November1,4021,171,8061,3911,266,036
December1,4611,443,2221,3541,329,427
January900681,558918975,791
February1,326987,3301,2311,210,527
March1,4701,192,2371,4401,499,016
1935–36.    
April1,2841,027,1861,1821,200,510
May1,6141,318,1221,5251,526,147
June1,4761,259,0841,4771,449,223
July1,8111,936,1381,8441,807,177
August1,7362,131,4801,6711,601,908
September1,5761,218,4761,5671,337,154

RATES OF INTEREST.

Classified according to the various rates of interest, and including duplicate registrations (to the extent of £235,874 in 1933–34 and £213,056 in 1934–35) the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered were :—

Rate per Cent.1933–34.1934–35.Rate per Cent.1933–34.1934–85.
* Including State Advances and Rural Intermediate Credits.
 ££ ££
01,100..12,92517,359
145423861,453,6991,046,176
23002,93847,93035,840
..2006⅖100..
2,5107,432411,777244,356
326,82119,857400450
500..7224,263174,920
7,7524,1097⅕250..
4163,633960,4817⅖..250
40,700270,16438,07824,834
4⅛150..890,76666,012
4⅜..5010,6766,228
43,6091,964,000916,2963,709
4⅗..750..700
17,62552,7751021,18935,547
52,356,6603,477,944;10½..4,000
5⅕28,8593,17512½10068
37,69044,90620100..
5⅜200..Unspecified*2,064,2152,685,869
913,975901,478   
5⅗2,9251,875Totals8,038,72712,058,690
5⅝500..   

Exclusive of cases where the rate of interest was not specified, 35 per cent. of the money raised by way of mortgage during 1934–35 was at rates below 5 per cent.; 4S per cent, was at the rate of 6 and under 6 per cent.; 14 per cent, was at 6 and under 7 per cent.; and 3 per cent, was at rates of 7 per cent, or over. The average rate of interest on mortgages registered has been as follows :—

Year ended 31st March,Average Rate per Cent.Year ended 31st March,Average Rate per Cent.
19135.7619256.30
19145.8219266.22
19155.7619276.47
19165.7419286.46
19175.8019296.46
19185.8419306.35
19195.8419316.25
19205.7519326.28
19215.8919335.88
19226.4219345.56
19236.5719355.06
19246.38  

The year 1921–22 witnessed a jump from 5–89 per cent, to 6.42 per cent., coinciding with the financial stringency associated with the post-war trade depression. The peak of 6*57 per cent, was reached in the following year, after which there was a gradual downward trend to 1925–26. The rise after 1925–26 is more apparent than real, and is probably due mainly to the fact that commencing with 1926–27 State Advances mortgages are all treated as unspecified (the rate of interest is generally not shown in the mortgage registration), whereas formerly in some districts they were included as unspecified and in others according to the known interest–rate.

A further classification, showing the downward trend of interest during recent years, is as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Not exceeding 4 per Cent.Exceeding 4 per Cent but not exceeding 5 per CentExceeding 5 per Cent but not exceeding 6 per Cent.Exceeding 6 per Cent.
  Amount.  
 ££££
193142,8711,274,61810,458,04611,396,829
193247,6451,015,8384,808,2674,478,563
1933135,6141,883,9383,456,6371,848,899
1934203,0702,458,7442,450,773861,925
1935995,2555,765,6832,014,969596,914
  Percentage of Total,,  
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19310.25.545.149.2
19320.49.846.543.3
19331.925.747.225.2
19343.441.241.014.4
193510.661.521.56.4

Seventy–two per cent, in 1934–35, as compared with 5.7 per cent, in 1930–31, of the specified amount bore interest at 5 per cent, or less.

ESTIMATE OF MORTGAGE INDEBTEDNESS.

The following estimates of aggregate nominal value of mortgages relate solely, to mortgages of real estate. Mortgages on stock or chattel securities are not included in the figures given hereunder.

Statistics of the registrations of mortgages on land and of the discharges of such mortgages date back to 1873. The amount of mortgages now in force, however, cannot be ascertained directly from the registration figures, for the following reasons :—

  • No amount is shown as secured in many cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances.

  • Many privately–arranged advances are not registered.

  • The figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness.

  • Duplicate registrations are included.

  • Many discharges are not registered.

  • In the case of table mortgages, the whole amount remains on the register till the last instalment is paid.

The factors leading to overstatement of the amount remaining are much more important than those tending to understatement, and the main source of weakness of the figures, for the purpose of ascertaining the amount in force, is undoubtedly the failure to register many discharges.

In connection with the compilation of the now discontinued statistics of land holdings, from the returns furnished annually to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purposes of land-tax assessment, supplementary statistics of mortgages in force on lands subject to land–tax were compiled as at 31st March, 1928, and 31st March, 1929. At the latter date mortgages on the lands coming within the scope of the investigation—i.e., practically all holdings of an unimproved value of £500 and over—aggregated £100,000,000, of which some £120,000,000 was secured on country lands and £40,000,000 on town lands or business–sites.

19–Ybk.

From a consideration of other data, principally the 1926 census statistics of dwellings and the nature of their occupancy, it would appear that the total mortgage indebtedness on land at 31st March, 1929, was ill the vicinity of £225,000,000, of which £125,000,00!) would be on country lands and £100,000,000 on town lands and business and residential sites.

If the figure of £225,000,000 be accepted as roughly correct for 1929, it affords a basis for estimating the amount of mortgages on land in force in earlier and later years. Up to 1900 registrations of mortgages under the Land Transfer Act had exceeded registrations of discharges by only £35,000,000, while the somewhat scanty figures of mortgages under the Deeds Registration Act showed small annual totals, with discharges practically balancing registrations of mortgages. It appears reasonable, therefore, to reckon the total mortgages on land which were in force at 31st March, 1900, at £35,000,000.

Interpolating between this figure of £35,000,000 in 1900 and that of £225,000,000 in 1929, it is possible to estimate figures for intervening years from a consideration of the annual registrations of mortgages and discharges. Allowance must be made for the widening degree of divergence between the mortgages nominally remaining on the register and the amount really in force, due to a number of factors, including the increased use of the table type of mortgage.

The calculation, on a similar basis, can be extended to cover years subsequent to 1929, though it is necessary to point out that in the figures for recent years in the following statement no attempt has been made to allow for unregistered reductions (temporary or permanent) in principal amounts that man have been made by arrangement, between mortgagor and mortgagee. The allocation between country and town lands has been made on the basis of separate registration statistics for these two classes from 1916 onward, and arbitrarily, though with some regard to the figures of Government valuation of land in boroughs and counties, for earlier years.

As at 31st March,On Town and Suburban Lands.On Country Lands.Total.As at 31st March,On Town and Suburban Lands.On Country Lands.Total.
 £(m.)£(m.)£(m.) £(m.)£(m.)£(m.)
190015203519184565110
190116213719194867115
190218224019205580135
190318244219216090150
190420254519226798165
1905222648192370105175
1906242852192475110185
1907253257192580115195
1908283462192685120205
1909303868192790120210
1910324072192898122220
19113342751929100125225
19123545801930105130235
19133748851931107133240
19144050901932110135245
19154253951933110135245
191645551001934105135240
191745601051935105135240

From the nature of the question and the shortcomings of the statistical data, it will be realized that no close degree of accuracy can be claimed for the foregoing figures, and it will be noticed that movements in recent years are shown only in units of £5,000,000. The figures are presented merely with a view to throwing some light on one aspect of an important question of the day on which even rough estimates have hitherto been lacking.

MORTGAGES AND LAND VALUES.

In the returns of land, which are required by law to be furnished annually to the Commissioner of Taxes by all owners of land of an aggregate unimproved value in excess of £500, provision is made for showing (for mortgage–exemption purposes) particulars of amounts owing by the taxpayer at noon on the 31st March, secured on the land either by registered mortgage or by agreement to purchase. Although this source of information does not cover all mortgages (owing to exemptions and to neglect to furnish returns in certain cases), nevertheless most informative figures on the question of the incidence of mortgages in conjunction with such matters as area, unimproved value, and location (i.e., urban or rural) are disclosed.

Statistics derived from these tax returns were last compiled for the tax–year 1929–30, since when compilation has not been practicable. A brief summary of the statistics appears in the 1935 Year–Book. More detailed figures will be found in the 1932 Year–Book.

Chapter 32. SECTION XXXII.—BANKRUPTCY.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Bankruptcy Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of previous enactments), and the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the liabilities do not exceed £300.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of £6 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in the case of a debtor's petition. Not less than £30 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors tiling a petition.

Immediately on a debtor's petition being filed or a creditor's petition being adjudicated on. the Registrar of the Court gives notice to the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy, in whom all the property of the bankrupt thereupon vests. The bankrupt must hand over his books to the Official Assignee, make out balance-sheets, give inventories of his property and debts, and generally assist in the realization of his property. The Assignee may summon the bankrupt before himself, or before a Magistrate, to be examined on oath. The Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, forbids (save with the consent of the Court, on the application of the Official Assignee) the publication of a report of any examination of a bankrupt before the Assignee or of any matter arising in the course of such an examination.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding-up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application, which must be made within four months after adjudication, may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee or a creditor.

Under the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1933, a mortgagee, creditor, or other person on whom notice has been served under the Act may not, while an application for relief is pending or an order for relief is in force, file or proceed with (without leave of Court) a bankruptcy or winding-up petition against the mortgagor or lessee.

By the Trustee Amendment Act, 1933, protection is afforded to a trustee who pays trust -moneys to a bankrupt in good faith and without knowledge of the bankruptcy.

Under the provisions of the Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1934–35, while a stay order issued under that Act remains in force no creditor may, except by leave of the Court of Review, file or proceed with a bankruptcy petition against the mortgagor named in the order.

UNDISCHARGED BANKRUPTS.

Section 14 of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, provides for the annual gazetting of the names, occupations, and other particulars of all persons who were adjudged bankrupt since 31st March, 1927, and who have not obtained an order of discharge, or whose order of discharge was suspended for a term, or was subject to conditions remaining unfulfilled. The number of undischarged bankrupts under this section at 31st March in each of the last eight years has been—

1928728
19291,236
19301,648
19312,272
19322,818
19333,082
19343,210
19353,283

TRANSACTIONS IN BANKRUPTCY.

The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last five years is given below. A fifty-year record of certain principal figures will be found in the Statistical Summary, near the end of this volume.

Year.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by Creditors.Cases in which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Orders of Discharge were suspended.
1930667113220842
1931723125226740
1932539122127960
193337179..21124
193427551215621

The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover private assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by Official Assignees. Certain statistics of private assignments are now available, and details of these appear at the end of this section.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities and assets, but there is usually a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realized by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors. During the last decade the amounts actually realized by Official Assignees averaged 34 per cent, of assets according to debtors' statements, and 14 per cent, of debts proved.

It should be understood that in the following table the figures in each column refer to all transactions under the respective heads during the year, the amounts realized by Assignees and paid in dividends and preferential claims relating partly to the current year's bankruptcies (many of which, however, are not disposed of during the year) and partly to previous bankruptcies.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid In Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
1925653235,37798,648471,02880,187
1926752236,916102,899585,68771,515
1927867331,363108,850679,47372,388
1928806236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,65591,180502,11254,769
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657624,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884
193432672,57244,533258,92033,788

A similar classification by districts for the year 1934 is given below :—

District or Sub-district.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
Whangarei144,2111,0199,206351
Auckland5530,4775,93377,0333,748
Hamilton326,4783,42412,2914,040
Gisborne113933435,132606
Wairoa53142881,274190
Napier215,2503,87311,8992,219
Dannevirke2125133702164
New Plymouth141093033,650198
Hawera215235035,832221
Wanganui78652,0614,962629
Taihape54428997,834103
Palmerston North159891,1257,827289
Pahiatua4591267963170
Masterton71431,2301,188963
Wellington274,4033,67326,4624,117
Blenheim33871,6509,772978
Nelson91,6388096,0351,324
Westport37168401,386287
Reef ton........3
Greymouth62,8102,3225,4641,992
Hokitika..........
Christchurch335,0706,86322,2685,151
Timaru82,0764,0838,5451,895
Oamaru2506731680
Dunedin163,7651,05724,5702,969
Invercargill67471,7684,3091,101
Totals32672,57244,533258,92033,788

The table following Shows for each of the last ten years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the average dividend paid.

Year.Average Debts proved per Estate.Proportion of Dividends to Debts.
 £Per Cent.
192572117.02
192677912.21
192778410.65
19289528.96
192973110.91
19301,0618.29
19311,2296.06
19329458.95
19331,0899.77
193479413.05
The total payments in 1934 made from assets realized were—£
Dividends to creditors (excluding preferential and secured claims)30,449
Preferential claims (rents, wages, &c.)3,339
Secured claims6,396
Government commission4,828
Costs of actions, solicitors' and supervisors' fees3,376
Expenses incurred in carrying on estates2,881
Other charges2,868
Total£54,137

Balances in bank to the credit of estates aggregated £14,584 on 31st December, 1934, a decrease of £10,824 during the year.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the number of bankruptcies with various amounts of liabilities :—

Liabilities.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Under £502521361616
£50 and under £1009055433531
£100 and under £25023518514710077
£250 and under £5001701951669572
£500 and under £1,0001471761369867
£1,000 and under £2,00080122695329
£2,000 and under £5,0002470453523
£5,000 and over924191811
Totals780848661450326

Liabilities in the bulk of failures do not exceed £1,000, the number under this amount in 1934 being 263, representing 81 per cent, of the total.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS.

The following table shows in summarized form the occupations of those adjudged bankrupt in the last four years:—

 1931.1932.1933.1934.
* Excluding two partnerships, the occupations of the partners only being shown.
Fishing and trapping434..
Agricultural and pastoral1601289953
Forestry9554
Mining and quarrying4431
Processes relating to minerals....5..
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products4261
Processes relating to metals, tools, jewellery, &c.241586
Makers of ships, boats, conveyances, &c.201486
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress12995
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco1525916
Processes relating to wood, &c, n.e.i.51316
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography6131
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals123813636
Transport and communication59493028
Commerce and finance1991569579
Public administration, clerical, and professional28201619
Entertainment, sport, and recreation7835
Personal or domestic service41513221
Dependent on public or private support2220187
Indefinite occupations106576030
Totals848661450324*

Of the 1934 total, 121 were employers of labour, 111 were working on their own account but not employing labour, and 92 were working for wages.

PRIVATE ASSIGNMENTS.

Official bankruptcies, as explained earlier, do not comprise all financial failures. In order to present a more complete picture of this phase of economic life, the bankruptcy statistics have been supplemented since 1928 by the collection of data relating to private assignments. The statistics cover all operations arising out of deeds of assignment made under section 167 (2) of the Stamp Duties Act, 1923.

If private assignments be added to bankruptcies, the total number of failures in 1934 was 425, made up of 326 bankruptcies and 99 assignments. The corresponding total for 1933 was 616.

The number of bankruptcies in 1934 was the lowest since 1920, and the number of assignments the lowest since such statistics have been available (1928).

The table following shows private assignments during 1934. The column for assets realized covers only the proceeds of realization in respect of 1934 assignments fully realized.

District or Sub-district.Number.Assets.Liabilities.Assets realized (Completed Estates).
Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.
* Includes ten estates for which no returns received.
   £££££
Whangarei156406,3571,5297,628558
Auckland111911,70233,17010,55835,8905,088
Hamilton221,2098732,1741,325764
Gisborne..1..1,102..838..
Wairoa..1..223..539..
Napier136997,9121,4717,727699
Dannevirke..1..1,208..3,881..
New Plymouth121627,19030916,986162
Hawera2..627..1,073..507
Wanganui119222,4739821,813206
Taihape..............
Palmerston North6..3,011..5,567..1,852
Pahiatua..............
Wellington431,2075,5832,02912,408754
Blenheim..............
Nelson222,3112,2552,6783,3601,074
Westport121,60111,7261,9748,717858
Greymouth113,5143,0001,9211,0002,029
Christchurch263173,0561,0634,479310
Ashburton..3..2,197..2,212..
Timaru..............
Oamaru228315,6201,6786,643739
Dunedin228461,7101,7722,161473
Invercargill221,96510,3694,24510,3241,939
Totals4158*31,564106,02441,023127,93118,012

Assets of the 89 estates for which returns were received were valued at £137,588, and the liabilities were estimated at £168,954. Assets realized in completed estates represented 44 per cent.- of liabilities.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES

The following table classifies estates assigned during the last five years according to the amount of liabilities:—

Liabilities.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
££    ..
50 and under1001111..
100 and under250131511116
250 and under5003938392718
500 and under1,0004868533818
1,000 and under2,0005378493829
2,000 and under5,000426847309
5,000 and over23271769
Unspecified2423191510
Totals24331823616699

Forty-two per cent, of the specified estates in 1934 show liabilities below £1,000. In the case of official bankruptcies the corresponding figure was 81 per cent.

OCCUPATIONS OF ASSIGNORS.

The occupations of assignors in broad classes during the last four years were as follows:—

 1931.1932.1933.1934.
Agricultural and pastoral1610163
Forestry321..
Processes relating to minerals1......
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products333..
Processes relating to metals, tools, jewellery, &c.8243
Makers of ships, boats, conveyances, &c.651..
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress132182
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco9633
Processes relating to wood, &c, u.e.i.61013
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography2..2..
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals4823149
Transport and communication1010106
Commerce and finance1641319057
Public administration, clerical, and professional12463
Entertainment, sport, and recreation3....1
Personal or domestic service9666
Dependent on public or private support..2....
Indefinite occupations5113
Totals31823616699

No fewer than 59 of the assignors in 1934 were employers of labour, 34 were working on their own account, and 6 only were working for wages.

Chapter 33. SECTION XXXIII.—WEALTH.

STATE ASSETS.

INCLUDED in the Financial Statement of the 17th September, 1935, is n State balance-sheet which is compiled by the Treasury from details recorded in departmental balance-sheets, and from which the following statement of assets and liabilities as at the 31st March, 1934, has been extracted:—

Assets.
* Total shown for public debt differs from figure shown in Section by £4,050,000, representing hypothecation of securities of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account. Of the amount shown as public debt. £451,163 is held by Investments within the Public Account. Interest in respect of this sum is also shown In both assets and liabilities.
 £
Land and buildings, including Crown, settlement, and endowment land, departmental land and buildings41,969,000
State forests, nurseries, and plantations38,038,000
Railways, Including permanent-way and works, rolling-stock, and unopened lines59,020,000
Telegraphs, telephones, and wireless systems10,964,000
Electrical schemes12,578,000
Drainage and irrigation schemes4,043,000
Collieries, sawmills, quarries, Ac.397,000
Armament and military stores, aviation equipment2,871,000
Oyster-beds, fish-hatcheries, equipment, &c.124,000
Wharves, bridges, harbour - works, lighthouses, &c.829,000
Plant, material, and furniture3,230,000
Libraries, books, museum exhibits stationery, stamps. &c.377,000
Live and dead stock, farm crops, &c.235,000
Government steamers, 1aunches, motor-cars, 'c.567,000
Advances on loan or mortgage57,476,000
Debtors— 
Sundry2,275,000
Unpaid purchase-price of land and buildings and interest thereon2,265,000
Postponed rents, 'c.371,000
Interest and rent, due and unpaid, and due and accrued*3,693,000
Special Investments— 
Nauru phosphate rights565,000
Bank of New Zealand shares2,109,000
Public Trust Office (Public Debt Redemption Fund)8,137,000
Special assets of various accounts— 
Native land schemes, 'c.921,000
Unallocated loan charges751,000
Earthquake expenditure23,000
Payments in advance315,000
Properties acquired by Crown and properties in course of realization990,000
Investments— 
Reserve Fund328,000
Sinking funds373,000
Miscellaneous, Including investment of Treasury accounts24,789,000
National Development Account— 
Expenditure on— 
Main highways, roads. 'c.27,845,000
Development of mining867,000
Education8,161,000
Immigration3,319,000
Harbour-works1,043,000
Land-development696,000
Cost of raising loans358,000
Other loan expenditure— 
War expenditure66,528,000
Naval defence1,390,000
Local bodies3,037,000
Maori-land settlement247,000
Miscellaneous6,163,000
Cash— 
New Zealand Government Indemnity Exchange Account1,000,000
Public Account778,000
Receiver-General3,000
State Advances Office Account63,000
Post Office or Post Office Savings bank464,000
Deposit accounts119,000
In hand and In transit84,000
Deposit with Bank of International Settlements36,000
Miscellaneous assets45,000
 £402,878,000
Liabilities.
Capital £
Public debt*306,842,000
Rural Advances bonds4,213,000
Public Debt Redemption Fund19,226,000
Creditors— 
Sundry2,186,000
Interest on debentures and stock due and unpaid*52,000
Interest accrued but not due*2,332,000
Wages and other payments accrued7,000
Payments In advance, 'c408,000
Reserves— 
General3,892,000
Sinking fund and reserves for loan redemption3,296,000
Depreciation7,996,000
Fire, accident, and marine insurance, bad debts, 'c.893,000
Amount held on deposit1,027,000
Suspense259,000
Post Office Investment and war-loan certificates1,561,000
Miscellaneous liabilities49,000
 £354,239,000
Excess of assets over liabilities£48,639,000

For contingent liabilities in addition to the above, reference should be made to Section XXIIIc.

In connection with the above balance-sheet, it is to be remembered that many of the assets and liabilities of a State cannot be expressed financially in the manner in which the goodwill of a business concern is assessed, and a State balance-sheet, or even in many cases a departmental balance-sheet, on strictly commercial lines it. a practical impossibility.

It is necessary to note that, in order that the public debt may be fully accounted for, nominal assets have been inserted by the Treasury for outstanding loan expenditure on war and other purposes in respect of which no material asset now exists. These are grouped under the heading of “Other loan expenditure.” Again, the National Development Account appearing in the assets statement represents the total expenditure of loan-money on the items enumerated therein, and these are not wholly represented by tangible assets. Even in those cases where items are represented in whole or in part by tangible assets the valuation is more or less arbitrary, and it is doubtful whether such valuations could be sustained at the present day. For instance, the item “Main highways, roads, &c,”; represents the total expenditure on roads, and includes in many cases improvements, &c, of the same road on more than one occasion. The same remark applies to the asset “Harbour-works.” Similar considerations apply to other assets shown, such as land and buildings, State forests, railways, &c, the values of which have probably depreciated owing to the economic conditions ruling. In an occasional instance— e.g., Bank of New Zealand shares—the market-value represents an appreciation on the figure shown.

Partly for the reasons just indicated, and partly because certain State expenditure is already reflected in the value of property (public or private), it is necessary to make certain deductions from the “assets” total in order to obtain a figure to be used as a component unit of an estimate of the value of property or wealth in New Zealand. The following items have been omitted: Drainage and irrigation schemes; main highways, roads, &c.; development of mining; immigration; harbour-works; land-development; cost of raising loans; and “other loan expenditure.” Amounts due to “creditors,” as shown under liabilities, have also been regarded as a deduction from cash assets. From the residue after these omissions and deductions a further arbitrary deduction of 5 per cent, has been made by way of allowance for depreciation. The result is a figure of £273,000,000, which may be accepted as a rough approximation of the value of State property at the 31st March, 1934.

ASSETS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The form of return in use for the collection of statistics of local governing authorities provides for particulars of cash assets and an estimate of other assets being supplied. The figures in respect of the latter are far from complete, no assets apart from cash assets being included by some local authorities, while in other cases no value is assigned to reserves. Nevertheless the following total as at 31st March, 1934, may be taken as an approximate though somewhat conservative estimate of the position:—

 £
Cash assets11,176,502
Other assets (estimated)67,118,852
Total£78,295,414

The distribution of assets among the various classes of local authorities will be found in Section XXV.

It may be stated that, although much of the expenditure of counties, boroughs, town districts, and road districts has been in respect of the construction of streets, roads, and bridges, these items are not included as assets of the respective bodies.

The foregoing figures are exclusive of sinking funds, which at 31st March, 1934, amounted to £10,902,327. The inclusion of sinking funds, as in the following table,which shows the nature of the assets, brings the total assets of these classes of local authorities to £89,198,000.

 £
Cash assets11,177,000
Sinking funds10,902,000
Halls, libraries, offices, sundry premises, furniture, &c.3,728,000
Electrical-works17,644,000
Gasworks1,392,000
Tramway-works5,821,000
Railway-works145,000
Wharves, quays, slips, docks, dredges, boats, tugs, sheds, &c9,895,000
Drainage, sewerage, and water-supply systems12,008,000
Reserves, parks, gardens, recreation-grounds, cemeteries, &c3,095,000
Endowments3,095,000
Reclaimed land4,050,000
Workers' dwellings, roadmen's cottages, &c.519,000
Sundry plant, tools, stocks, and materials2,360,000
Other and unspecified2,767,000
Total£89,198,000

Hospital Boards, which are not included in the foregoing figures, had assets (excluding outstanding fees and subsidies) of a little under £5,000,000 at 31st March. 1934, bringing the total for all local bodies to £94,000,000.

PUBLIC WEALTH.

In arriving at the aggregate public wealth of the Dominion, as distinct from private wealth, it is necessary to tako into account the fact that of the total indebtedness of local bodies at the 31st March, 1934, nearly £6,000,000 was owing to the General Government. The approximate public wealth of the Dominion phased on the foregoing statements of assets would thus be £273,000,000, plus £94,000,000, minus £6,000,000, making a net total of £361,000,000.

PRIVATE WEALTH.

Estimates of the private wealth of the Dominion are arrived at on the assumption that the wealth per head of the living is approximately equal to that left by the average person dying. The fact that the younger and more numerous members of the population do not possess as much accumulated wealth as the older members, taken in conjunction with the fact that the death-rate varies with age, renders it necessary for this purpose to divide the population into age-groups. The average wealth of persons dying within any one age-group being known, the average wealth of living persons belonging to that age-group is assumed to be identical, and an estimate of the total private wealth of the Dominion is arrived at by weighting the average wealth of persons in each quinquennial age-group by the number of persons in that group.

The average wealth of deceased persons is obtained by a consideration of the estates certified for stamp duty. The number of estates dealt with in any period, however, is usually equal to about one-third only of the total deaths registered during that period; and as most persons leave some estate, however small, it is necessary to make some allowance for estates which have not passed through the Stamp Duties Office. It should be noted in this connection that estates under £1,000 escape estate duty, and if under £500, succession duty, though many estates of a lower value than the figures indicated are passed for probate or letters of administration. An arbitrary allowance is made for unrecorded estates of persons aged fifteen years or over. No allowance at all is made for estates of persons under fifteen.

To obviate fictitious results due to the infrequency of very large estates in the returns, combined with the lapse of time between death and the certification of the estate, it is necessary to base the estimate on the experience of a series of years. On the other hand, movements in values render it undesirable to take a very long period, and the New Zealand estimate is usually based on the average of the last five years available. In a time of rapidly moving values, even a five-year uncorrected average will give incorrect results. The present figures have accordingly been based upon a triennial average. As the effects of the depression have been felt over the whole period, conclusions should not be seriously jeopardized by movements in values.

Based, then on the estate and death figures for the triennium 1932—34, the aggregate private wealth estimate for the Dominion at the end of 1934 is £645,000,000, of which £444,000,000 represents the wealth of men and £201,000,000 that of women. The total is equal to £435 per head of all population, excluding Maoris, and £685 per head of adult population (aged twenty-one and over).

It is obvious that estimates of private wealth based on the probate system are approximate only, owing to the various factors involved. For example, part of the wealth of deceased estates consists of insurance policies. In the probate returns the maturity value of the policy is taken, whereas among the living the average surrender value of policies in force is much below the maturity value. Against this, however, is the fact that pensions and annuities enjoyed by the living do not enter into deceased estates, while there is also a pronounced tendency towards conservatism in the valuation of personal property for death duty purposes. Further, a not inconsiderable amount of property is disposed of before death by way of gift and does not appear in the probate returns.

Any attempt to allow further for the effect of the various items referred to would probably only result in a spurious accuracy on a subject in regard to which all that is possible or even desired is a reasonably close approximation. The inevitable shortcomings of the system should not be overlooked, however, particularly in making comparisons between New Zealand and other countries.

It should be explained that the computation of private wealth relates to the population exclusive of Maoris. The inclusion of Maoris would not affect the per caput rate to any extent, but would involve on addition of less than 5 per cent, to the total. An addition for Maoris of 4 per cent, to the aggregate figure previously given for 1834 would bring the estimated private wealth of the Dominion to £671,000,000.

ESTATES PASSED FOR PROBATE.

A table is now given showing the number of estates finally passed during 1933 and 1934, classified according to amount. Estates of Maoris are here included.

Amount.Number of Estates.Aggregate Net Value of Estates.
1933.1934.1933.1934.
£ £  ££
Under5001,8401,880386,415392,050
500and under1,0001,013980750,982719,789
1,000and under2,0008638231,246,7151,196,343
2,000and under3,000391421971,7901,038,861
3,000and under4,000239258833,307887,716
4,000and under5,000151168676,484759,380
5,000and under7,5001982141,202,6391,276,246
7,500and under10,0001361301,170,3401,127,468
10,000and under15,000981071,204,7781,303,262
15,000and under20,0005059840,0441,029,400
20,000and over981115,438,8906,993,019
Totals5,0775,15714,728,38415,723,534

The table below shows for the period 1930 to 1934 the total number of estates, classified according to age of deceased and amount of estate.

Age.Under £500.£500 to £999.£1,000 to £1,999.£2,000 to £2,999.£3,000 to £3,999.£4,000 to £4,999.£5,000 to £7,499.£7,500 to £9,999.£10,000 to £14,999.£15,000 to £19,999.£20,000 and overTotals
Under 5 2....................2
5 and under1041..................5
10 and under151021..........1....14
15 and under205051..1....1......58
20 and under2517841164311111..247
25 and under30215753843..22212344
30 and under352388847107831121406
35 and under40295125802614854122562
40 and under45371170l10571514219533778
45 and under505242712391033731331514761,280
50 and under5565537829212568515820218171,693
55607424264251641006673584115292,139
60 and under6581952648822912590127655331502,603
65 and under70866606498309154121146786838582,942
70 and under759236376053091931191681039641803,274
75 and under8095161757628418811716911585521003,254
80 and under8570149140821213898153757239842,471
85 and under90407268241136724676454818501,407
90 and under951587889532721332711919525
95 and over 331322811261613106
Unspecified 25811889402619311715619638
Totals8,4004,9364,2052,0731,1828121,10563754127452324,748
Per cent.33.919.917.28.44.83.34.52.62.21.12.1100.0

AN ESTIMATE OF NATIONAL WEALTH.

The public wealth of the Dominion has been estimated (supra) at approximately £361,000,000. and the private wealth, including that of Maoris, at approximately £671,000,000. In the probate figures used as the basis of computation of private wealth, deductions are made on account of debts, mortgages, and other charges against property. As, however, these in general will rank as assets when estates to which the charges are owing are in their turn passed for probate, the general effect is negligible, except in so far as such items as State advances and debts owing overseas are concerned. The £ ate advances outstanding are included in the public-wealth figure.

In the case of the public wealth the figure given practically represents gross assets, no deduction having, of course, been made on account of indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing bodies. Were the whole of this indebtedness owing outside the Dominion, no deduction on this account would be necessary for the purpose of the present computation, which is merely to ascertain an approximation of the wealth of the Dominion, without taking account of the fact that there are external charges against that wealth. In arriving at the sum of public and private wealth, however, it is necessity to make allowance for the indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing bodies within the Dominion, this being included in the private-wealth estimate.

Of the gross public debt at the 31st March, 1934, £139,000,000 was domiciled in New Zealand, and of the gross debt of local governing bodies (other than Hospital Boards), at the same date, £44,000,000 was domiciled in the Dominion, exclusive of the £6,000,000 borrowed from the General Government, allowance for which has already been made in the estimation of the approximate public wealth. The Hospital Boards' debt of £1,395,000 (less £348,000 accrued sinking funds) may be assumed to be mainly domiciled in New Zealand.

To arrive at an estimate of the national wealth in 1934 the sum of £184,000,000 requires to be deducted from the aggregate of the public and private wealth figures previously given, the result in round numbers being:—

 £
Approximate public wealth360,000,000
Estimated private wealth670,000,000
Total1,030,000,000
Less public and local-body debt domiciled in Dominion180,000,000
Estimated national wealth, 1934£850,000,000

It appears scarcely necessary to recapitulate reasons why the estimate given can be regarded at best as a rough approximation only. No practicable system has yet been devised that will permit of a reliably close estimation of national wealth being arrived at, and the difficulties in this respect are enormously increased during a period of changing values, such as have been experienced during recent years.

VALUE OF LAND HOLDINGS.

The bulk of the wealth of the Dominion is represented by land and improvements thereon, particulars of the valuation of which are given in Section XXVI of this book. Further information concerning the value of land, with particular reference to its utilization and its relative distribution among the population, is obtainable from the annual returns of land which are furnished to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of land-tax assessment. Statistics compiled from these returns are available for the five years 1924–25, 1925–26, 1926–27, 1928–29, and 1929–30, and afford valuable information not only ns to the distribution of land on a value basis, but also as to the incidence of land taxation. For a detailed discussion of the statistics compiled from the land-tax returns reference should be made to the 1932 Year-Book; it is possible to repeat here only three concise tables.

It should be explained that in the statistical tabulation it was not found possible to cover each year the whole of the returns for that year, returns under query or not to hand at the time of tabulation being of necessity omitted. Apart from the fact that the actual totals would be somewhat in excess of those shown, the omission of a small percentage does not impair the statistical value of the tables or invalidate conclusions drawn from the figures.

The following table summarizes the principal heads of information from the 1929–30 tabulation. In connection with the division into country, town, and mixed lands, it should be noted that the last-mentioned includes only those cases where less than 75 per cent, (on an unimproved-value basis) is urban or rural respectively. In cases where 75 per cent, or over is urban or rural, as the case may be, the whole has been so classed.

Country or Farming Lands.Town Lands or Business Sites.Partly Country and partly Town Lands.Total.
Number of returns 47,93227,9271,11876,977
Number of taxpayers 30,44820,10883551,391
AreaAcres26,058,681342,942466,02126,867,644
Unimproved value of land£166,895,25567,192,7684,968,450239,056,473
Total mortgages£116,841,60338,117,5452,457,145157,416,293
Exemptions—     
Ordinary£6,303,9696,949,499178,68413,432,152
Mortgage£62,770,79215,918,7671,057,68179,747,240
Hardship£151,417111,6386,237269,292
Total exemptions£69,226,17822,979,9041,242,60293,448,684
Taxable balance£97,669,07744,212,8643,725,848145,607,789
Tax assessed£700,804440,82137,3401,178,965

The following table shows the distribution of holdings according to unimproved value for 1928–29 and 1929–30. The insignificant totals for holdings under £500 are due to the fact that, with few exceptions, such are entirely exempt from land-tax. It should be understood that the classification by amount is on the basis of the unimproved value of the land, and not, in the case of taxpayers, on the basis of taxable balance.

Amount.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Unimproved Value.
1928–29.1029–30.1928–29.1929–30.1928–29.1929–30.
££    ££
Under5007801,17232378175,306294,772
500-99923,73226,10615,06717,37917,016,70818,869,506
1,000-2,49925,66927,20415,54817,04239,756,31942,324,231
2,500-4,99911,94511,8217,4817,41441,727,35342,548,770
5,000-7,4996,3764,4474,3293,03944,045,31027,059,748
7,500-9,9992,1442,05618,455,089
10,000-14,9991,8271,9041,8181,90422,060,93423,071,659
15,000-19,99978881378781313,552,30413,946,956
20,000-29,99966171465971416,007,53317,244,468
30,000-39,9992632772632778,992,1049,482,113
40,000-49,9991111391111394,890,1006,109,294
50,000-99,99915619515619510,250,62312,936,622
100,000and over254125413,799,6066,713,245
 Totals72,33376,97746,27651,391222,274,200239,056,473

Area figures are of little value in the case of urban and mixed lands, on account of eighth- and quarter-acre sections being treated in the statistics as having no area at all. The following summary (1929–30), which gives valuable information as to area and value in conjunction, accordingly relates only to lands classified as rural:—

Area, In Acres.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Area.Unimproved Value
Total.Per Return.Per Acre.
    Acres.££s.d.£s.d.
Under57784801,4211,029,3591,32318724710
5 and under101,0426897,1391,008,1069679514143
10 and under201,8301,22525,4331,955,6271,068130761710
20 and under504,2752,818144,6795,455,9481,27641137143
50 and under1006,9744,013503,97811,487,8661,647410221511
100 and under2009,8875,7771,393,75022,166,1412,24119015181
200 and under3206,6114,0711,661,89318,884,5992,85610101173
320 and under6407,8045,1283,551,88020,762,7813,813159877
640 and under1,0003,2952,1772,626,10016,996,4775,15853695
1,000 and under2,0003,1002,1734,274,39922,943,9807,40158574
2,000 and under5,0001,5601,2054,663,06619,374,24512,41979431
5,000 and under10,0003683332,502,7987,961,89621,635119337
10,000 and under30,0001871642,924,1515,869,76431,38923202
30,000 and under50,0002119783,158573,54327,3111150148
50,000 and under100,00088604,582124,31315,53926041
100,000 and over 33390,24861,29520,431134032
Not stated 189159..1,239,3156,55745   
Totals47,93230,44820,058,681166,895,2553,481184681

Chapter 34. SECTION XXXIV.—INCOMES.

INTRODUCTORY.

No complete statistics of annual income are available for New Zealand, but valuable data exist in regard to incomes of those furnishing returns to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of income-tax assessment. In 1923 a system of annual statistics from the particulars on the income-tax returns was inaugurated, and the detailed results up to 1931–32 have been published by the Census and Statistics Office in successive issues of the Annual Statistical Report on Prices, Wage-rates, &c. For reasons of economy income-tax statistics were not compiled for the two years following. At present (October, 1935) compilation is proceeding from tax-returns received during 1934–35, but data will not be available in time for inclusion in this section.

With certain exceptions, the annual returns of income are not required where the income is less than £200. Prior to 1932 this figure stood at £250, but returns were not generally furnished where the income lay between £250 and £300. Consequently, income-tax returns are confined to a minority of the population, and do not permit of statistics being compiled covering the majority of incomes. This deficiency was partly remedied by the inclusion of a question in the schedule used at the census of 1926, referred to later in this section.

Information concerning the system of income-tax in New Zealand is given earlier under the heading of Taxation (vide pp. 446–48). To permit of a proper understanding of the statistics given in the present section it is advisable to peruse the observations under the reference given. The incidence of taxation on incomes has altered considerably since the date to which the last statistics herein refer. Since these changes exercise no retrospective influence on the figures given in this section, they have not been referred to in the discussion.

Part of the statistical information given in this section (that relating to income-tax) more properly belongs to Section XXIIIB (Taxation), but it is preferable to treat the figures relating to incidence of tax with those showing the distribution of the incomes on which the tax is assessed.

It should be explained that the incomes returned in any year are those received during the previous year. The figures given throughout this section in respect of 1931–32 returns, for instance, relate approximately to incomes received during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1931.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX.

The following table briefly summarizes the main items of information for each of the last five years available :—

Item.1927–28.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.

* Five per cent, of unimproved value.

† Abolished in 1931–32.

Number of returns104,581108,286113,838118,757130,704
Number of taxpayers51,93152,84655,23558,99480,245
 £££££
Earned income34,752,10536,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,802
Assessable income58,651,56161,026,60765,380,21766,218,06260,168,392
Exemptions—     
 5 per cent, of capital value2,895 1603,042,3443,464,4232,378,960*
Ordinary (under section 74)23,206,85924,739,01625,631,88126,879,17223,322,337
Children, &c.2,597,6212,686,7592,798,5782,938,1983,889,584
Life-insurance premiums, &c.936,0981,022,4041,140,7751,221,6011,473,320
Taxable balance29,015,82329,535,98432,344,56032,800,13131,483,151
Tax assessed3,104,8693,168,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,757

The preceding table reflects both changes in the aggregate income and alterations in the incidence and degree of taxation. This is particularly noticeable in the latest yea given, increases having taken place in the number of taxpayers in the groups below the £500 level and decreases in all groups above it.

INCOMES BY CLASSES.

Of 125,974 persons in the general class, which includes absentees other than non-resident traders, dealt with in 1931–32, no fewer than 51,668 had an income of less than £300, and 13,171 of these—absentees or trustees, or otherwise no entitled to exemption under section 74—were assessed for tax. Of the 74,30i with incomes of £300 or over, 62,344 were assessed as having to pay income tax, the remaining 11,962 having no taxable balance left after the various exemption and deductions had been taken into account.

A classification of returns and taxpayers on the basis of class is given in the following table for each of the last four years available :—

Class.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
Returns.Tax payers.Returns.Tax payers.Returns.Tax payers.Returns.Tax payers.
I. Individuals103,61448,330108,74250,330113,34953,626125,97475,515
II. Companies3,2623,1063,5973,4063,7243,6643,2873,287
III. Agents for debenture holders9797969634342323
IV. Non - resident traders1,3131,3131,4031,4031,6501,6501,4201,420
Totals108,28652,846113,83855,235l18,75758,994130,70480,245

The general class represents throughout the period the great majority of the returns (96 per cent, in 1931–32), and it occupies a similar position in regard to taxpayers, though in this respect its proportion of the total is somewhat less—viz. (in 1931–32), 94 per cent. When attention is turned to aggregate assessable income, the percentage of this class to the total is still further reduced, being in 1931–32 only 82 per cent., aggregating £49,611,556. Companies account for the greater portion of the remainder with £9,960,799, while non-resident traders and agents for debenture-holders follow with £447,481 and £148,556 respectively.

SOURCE OF INCOME.

In the compilation of the statistics a distinction is made as to the source from which the income is derived, incomes being divided into ten groups according to source, as follows :—

Group No.Source.
0Salary or wages.
1Professional occupations (on own account).
2Commerce, trade, or business.
3Industry or manufacture.
4Farming.
5Provision of transport or communication.
6Building and construction.
7Mining or extraction.
8Investments and the like.
9Provision of or engaging in entertainment, sport, or recreation.

Actual figures as to the amount of income derived from the various sources are not available on account of the fact that in a considerable proportion of cases income has been obtained from more than one source. The rule followed in such cases in compiling the statistics is to include the whole income under the principal source from which it was derived. As an indication of the extent to which the figures are affected, attention may be drawn to the inclusion of approximately 4 per cent, of earned income in the total assessable income of the source “Investments and the like”

Of the ten classes of source from which income is derived, source 0, “Salary or wages,” is the most important as regards number of incomes, number of taxpayers, amount of assessable income, and amount of earned income. It may be added that this source also leads in the matter of exemptions—so much so, in fact, that its total of £29,089,491 assessable income in 1931–32 shrank to a comparatively low taxable balance of £9,027,175, which yielded £660,574 of tax.

The following table shows the number of returns and of taxpayers classified according to source for each of the last four years available:—.

 1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
Source.Returns.Tax payers.Returns.Tax payers.Returns.Tax payers.Returns.Tax payers.
062,20325,44664,82426,66167,92228,40576,69647,094
13,4812,6723,5122,6953,4742,7463,4992,721
218,0429,73919,0519,99319,81510,43118,9009,414
31,6331,2641,5971,1911,3871,1081,120925
47034121,5989182,5401,0851,458585
51,0564721,1194741,1347851,183484
61,5888581,5887761,5248011,338626
7132741136813790172124
819,38111,87120,32812,37320,48213,23126,11518,060
9673810886342312223212
Totals108,28652,846113,83855,235118,75758,994130,70480,245

Source 4 (farming) ranked second to source 0 in 1922–23 as regards number of returns. For the year 1923–24 income derived from the direct use or cultivation of land was wholly exempted from income-tax, but the tax was composed in the following year in the case of Crown lands held as small grazing-runs or on pastoral lease, which would otherwise have escaped both land and income tax. For 1929–30 income-tax was placed on income from farm-lands in excess of £14,000 unimproved value (altered for 1930–31 to £7,500, and from 1st April, 1932, to £3,000).

A classification of assessable income on the foregoing basis is next given, the average assessable income being also shown for each source:—

Source.Aggregate.Average.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
 ££££££££
025,276,53326,389,58927,587,26529,089,491406407406379
12,945,5043,031,2632,995,9502,550,768846863862729
214,776,77815,665,89215,493,44111,784,388819822782624
33,501,7663,233,1593,913,1732,674,4442,1442,0252,8212,388
4540,0932,722,0242,101,776572,7337681,703827393
51,122,5771,087,945984,122674,5141,063972868570
6943,763904,421833,642534,228594570547399
7212,898176,795228,070296,2991,6131,5651,6651,723
811,631,22712,060,65911,934,20511,839,824600593583453
975,368108,470146,418151,7031,1251,004428680
Totals61,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,392564574558460

SIZE OF INCOMES.

A third principle of classification followed in the compilation of the statistics of incomes and income-tax is according to size of income. An annual report (data from returns 1931–32 to 1933–34 have not been compiled; compilation of 1934–35 data is proceeding) published by the Census and Statistics Office gives full details of incomes of the various sizes in conjunction with source of income and class of taxpayer. These details cannot be repeated here, but the following table showing the number of returns and of taxpayers according to size of income gives a good indication of the relative distribution of incomes over £300 per annum throughout the community.

Size of Income.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.
££       
Under 30035,8343,48237,3543,79838,8674,83654,16015,663
300– 39930,76112,00532,64012,52734,88313,78437,78826,881
400– 49915,05311,57015,73611,95316,57812,77115,31114,497
500– 5997,5707,1397,9317,4408,2017,7787,4557,356
600– 6994,6894,5514,7674,6174,9674,8314,4504,397
700– 7992,9392,8503,0352,9363,1643,1002,6492,616
800– 8992,1472,1062,1532,0962,2152,1511,7441,727
900– 9991,4191,3811,5351,5071,5121,4831,2891,273
1,000– 1,9995,4105,3195,7875,5435,7925,6954,246,4,226
2,000–4,9991,9551,9352,2222,1492,0362,0231,2731,271
5,000–9,999291290428421296296185185
10,000–19,9991131131281261321326867
20,000–49,9997070808070705252
50,000–99,9992222282826262323
100,000 and over1313141418181111
Totals108,28652,846113,83855,235118,75758,994130,70480,245

The reduction of the general exemption from £300 to £260 in 1931–32 has had the effect of increasing the proportion which the number of taxpayers bears to the number of returns in each income group up to £800, at which amount this exemption ceased to operate.

Of the 130,704 persons, companies, &c, dealt within 1931–32, 54,160, or 41 per cent., had incomes of less than £300, their aggregate incomes being £11,452,875, or only 19 per cent, of the total. Incomes under £1,000 aggregated £42,327,505, or 70 per cent, of the total, but represented 96 per cent, of the returns. Only 154 (less than Ķ per cent, of those who furnished returns) showed incomes of £10,000 or over, but their total incomes amounted to £7,364,750, or approximately 12 per cent. of the grand total of £00,168,392.

Information as to aggregate incomes within the various categories is given in the next table. A column is added showing for 1931–32 separate figures for the general class of taxpayers (Class I).

Size of Income.Aggregate Assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
Total.Class I.
£ ££££££
Under 3007,935,9378,150,5308,413,04411,452,87511,214,311
300– 39910,626,72411,175,57111,938,48612,547,94512,439,911
400– 4996,795,1766,927,2917,304,2406,765,7596,671,487
500– 5994,102,4214,299,0444,446,0204,040,1123,932,820
600– 6993,014,4283,062,4593,196,1842,856,4812,741,929
700– 7992,192,5062,262,7222,356,5461,972,5991,882,148
800– 8991,811,0951,816,7531,869,4381,472,6561,392,522
900– 9991,343,1061,453,9851,428,5671,219,0781,138,292
1,000– 1,9997,242,7547,811,2707,720,3435,651,1505,009,116
2,000–4,9995,606,3396,510,5775,843,6513,603,4572,632,574
5,000–9,9991,991,3422,898,4161,946,0971,221,530461,350
10,000–19,9991,556,8171,723,0331,806,735944,97095,096
20,000–49,9992,247,8452,374,6282,088,2481,617,445
50,000–99,9991,616,1071,944,4041,882,9441,739,810..
100,000 and over2,943,8502,969,5343,977,5193,062,525..
Totals61,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,39249,611,556

Class I represents 98 per cent, of aggregate assessable income in cases where the income is under £1,000, but only 1¼ per cent, among incomes of £10,000 or over.

EARNED INCOME.

Of the gross assessable income of £60,168,392 in 1931–32 £37,279,802, or nearly 62 per cent, of the total, ranked as earned income, and as such became entitled to a reduction of 10 per cent, in taxation prior to 1931–32, when for the 10 per cent, reduction there was substituted a 33J per cent, surtax on unearned income. Earned income is, of course, practically confined to the general class of taxpayers, no part of the income of companies and of agents for debenture-holders, and only a very small proportion of that of non-resident traders (including theatrical artists), coming ?within the definition of earned income. A comparison of aggregate assessable income and earned income for ten years is here given:—

Year.Individuals.Non-resident Traders.Totals of all Classes.
Assessable Income.Earned Income.Assessable Income.Earned Income.Assessable Income.Earned Income.
 ££££££
1922–2337,522,86728,648,205471,25919,69346,353,94128,667,898
1923–2433,612,63224,410,999313,9539,87144,738,06424,420,870
1924–2537,201,59627,017,388519,92417,95649,947,00927,035,344
1925–2639,270,53428,376,760520,71725,40252,032,48828,402,162
1926–2741,327,01930,306,769680,84256,66854,804,29330,363,437
1927–2846,286,85234,698,604609,90753,50158,051,56134,752,105
1928–2948,372,18236,347,872501,92215,50361,026,50736,363,375
1929–3051,947,72539,099,513525,411..65,380,21739,099,513
1930–3152,329,79139,620,423519,26245,43866,218,06239,665,801
1931–3249,611,55637,261,742447,48118,06060,168,39237,279,802

The distribution of earned income over the various sources, both absolutely and in proportion to assessable income, is shown in the next table for the last four years. More than half of the total increase in 1929–30 is due to the re-imposition of income-tax in the case of farm-lands over £14,000 in unimproved value. The reduction of the limit to £7,500 in 1930–31 was insufficient to balance the effect of the fall in farm incomes generally.

Source.Earned Income.Proportion of Assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
024,226,64825,218,62126,513,45027,914,38896969696
12,703,7442,779,6082,755,6592,384,98992929294
27,011,6526,886,2816,787,1005,076,54947444443
3321,723320,624247,726105,36791064
4461,5942,150,0481,722,011470,98385798282
5342,331366,934376,356307,11630343846
6775,515703,440666,295442,17282788083
743,09835,77743,02651,65320201917
8436,541621,591490,504492,5134544
940,52916,58963,73434,07254154422
Totals36,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,80260606062

The next table shows the amount of earned income included in the total assessable income for the various categories according to amount of assessable income.

Amount of Assessable Income.Earned Income.Proportion of Assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
£ £££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Under 3006,460,3846,650,5066,840,1259,195,10981828180
300– 3999,211,0489,665,39010,436,68510,680,70587868785
400– 4995,484,6455,580,7065,916,9075,277,00481818178
500– 5993,057,1803,164,2343,317,6232,878,00875747571
600– 6992,094,6942,126,9942,273,6711,906,02669697167
700– 7991,460,6231,502,3801,575,2741,272,60467666765
800– 8991,172,3551,155,3221,206,930859,40365646558
900– 999800,479909,511875,435707,48760636158
1,000– 1,9993,968,1044,359,5304,270,2232,999,57355565553
2,0007#x2013; 4,9992,215,5712,828,7662,393,7781,300,79340434136
5,000– 9,999317,702831,385378,687182,78816291915
10,000–19,99997,184297,093161,75520,30261792
20,000 and over23,40627,69618,768..0000
Totals36,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,80260606062

EXEMPTIONS.

As explained earlier in this section, non-resident traders and agents for debenture-holders are not entitled to any exemptions. In the following table the aggregate exemptions to each of the other two classes of taxpayers (I, Individuals, and IT, Companies), are shown for four years :—

Class.Aggregate Exemptions.Proportion of Assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
I30,146,08231,521,57932,855,83028,685,24162616358
II1,344,4411,514,078562,101..11124..
Totals31,490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

The whole of the exemption shown in the. case of companies was in respect of the unimproved-value provision, which was repealed in 1931–32. Of the £28,685,241 exemptions in Class I in 1931–32, £23,322,337 was allowed as ordinary exemption (£260), £3,889,584 on account of allowances for children and widowed mothers, and £1,473,320 on account of life-insurance premiums, payments to superannuation funds, &c.

The exemptions are next shown spread over incomes derived from the various sources set out earlier in this section :—

Source.Aggregate Exemptions.Proportion of Assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
019,218,23920,022,14920,985,50120,062,31076767669
1887,565912,248872,803730,56930302929
24,850,4354,972,2584,461,3063,263,99133322928
3572,113617,487226,47471,477161963
4186,120370,3571,165,155257,44134145545
5292,430308,853274,444230,93326282834
6413,422419,653392,669279,52644464752
735,49528,90128,79032,28517161311
85,017,8425,365,1224,986,2753,751,90143444232
916,86218,62924,5144,8022217173
Totals31,490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

The highest percentage of exemptions is recorded for source 10, which, is previously demonstrated, has the lowest average income.

As a percentage of assessable income, exemptions naturally show a decrease as income increases, as is well brought out in the proportion columns of the next table.

Size of Income.Aggregate Exemptions.Proportion of Assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291920–301930–311931–32
£ £££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Under 3007,585,4967,792,5157,984,10110,634,51496969593
300– 39910,018,18510,540,33411,251,04210,282,66194949482
400– 4995,456,9635,619,3545,893,0234,067,56980818160
500– 5992,539,5592,679,9382,720,1801,701,72962626142
600– 6991,399,3681,425,2761,455,260758,53146474627
700– 799772,085808,162792,556323,25535363416
800– 899413,910413,214415,797167,90423232211
900– 999226,604254,053232,639131,48217171611
1,000– 1,9991,170,9441,309,9241,225,956,438,0051617168
2,000– 4,999844,390961,351858,455144,1021515154
5,000– 9,999352,919357,026218,16922,7271812112
10,000–19,999165,721217,782120,58512,762111371
20,000–49,999330,877335,798133,008..15146..
50,000–99,999121,415196,57467,385..8104..
100,000 and over92,087124,35649,775..341..
Totals31,490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

There has been a decided movement over the period, incomes generally showing a fall in the percentage of exemption to assessed income. The substitution of an unimproved-value exemption for the former capital-value exemption is largely responsible for the differences between 1929–30 and 1930–31, while the repealing of the unimproved-value exemption and the reduction in the general exemption accounts for the differences between the percentages for the two latest years.

Figures for the three classes of exemptions for the year 1931–32 are given in the next table, which also shows the average exemption net return:—

Size of Income.Total Exemptions.Average Exemptions per Income returned.
Section 74*(£260).Children, &c.Life Insurance&c.Section 74* (£260).Children, &c.Life Insurance&c.
* As amended by the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1031.
££££££ 
Under 30010,187,340834,48292,99218872
300– 3998,392,888l,518,707376,1252224010
400– 4992,938,144806,721272,7042575618
500– 5991,126,711404,992170,0261515423
600– 699419,845228,608109,078945225
700– 799105,340139,59178,324405330
800– 89926,837 54,222155031
900– 99920,846 47,846164937
1,000– 1,99953,597193,372191,036134645
2,000– 4,99926,50644,36073,236213558
5,000– 9,99912,5313,1167,080681738
10,000–19,99911,811300651174410
Totals23,322,3373,889,5841,473,3201783011

The general (£260) exemption, which is reduced on incomes above that amount and does not apply at all to those above £800, averaged in 1931–32 £222 for incomes between £300 and £400, £257 for incomes between £400 and £500. and £151 between £500 and £600. Thereafter the average diminishes rapidly, but does not altogether disappear until the £10,000 class is reached, this being due to the inclusion in large trust returns of small amounts the recipients of which come within the provisions of the £260 exemption.

TAXABLE BALANCE.

After all exemptions have been deducted from the assessable income the balance of income (if any) is taxed in accordance with the schedule in force at the time. Figures of taxable balance are readily ascertained from a study of the corresponding totals of assessable income and of exemptions, and will be given here under one system of classification only—viz., that on the basis of amount of assessable income.

 Aggregate Taxable Balance.Proportion of Assessable Income.
Size of Income.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
£ £££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Under 300350,441358,015428,943818,3614457
300– 390608,539635,237687,4442,265,28466618
400– 4991,338,2131,307,9371,411,2172,698,19020191940
500– 5991,562,8621,619,1061,725,8402,338,38338383958
600– 6991,615,0601,637,1831,740,9242,097,95054535473
700– 7991,420,4811,454,5601,563,9901,649,34465646684
800– 8991,397,1851,403,5391,453,6411,304,75277777889
900– 9991,116,5021,199,9321,195,9281,087,59683838489
1,000– 1,9996,071,8106,501,3466,494,3875,213,14584838492
2,000– 4,9994,761,9495,549,2264,985,1963,459,35585858596
5,000– 9,9991,638,4232,541,3901,727,9281,198,80382888998
10,000–19,9991,391,0961,505,2511,686,150932,20889879399
20,000–49,9991,916,9682,038,8301,955,2401,617,445858694100
50,000–99,9991,494,6921,747,8301,815,5591,739,810929096100
100,000 and over2,851,7632,845,1783,927,7443,062,525979699100
Totals29,535,98432,344,56032,800,13131,483,15148495052

TAX ASSESSED.

The revenue from income-tax during the financial year ended the 31st March, 1932, was £4,447,814. This amount is £81,057 in excess of the total tax shown in the statistical tables as having been assessed for the same year (£4,366,757), the difference being due partly to the imposition of an additional 5 per cent in the event of late payment, partly to the inclusion of arrears in the total of tax collected, and partly to the omission of a few returns from the statistical tables.

A summary of assessments of income-tax during each of ten years gives the following results:—

Year.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed.
Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable Balance.
 ££s.d.£s.d.s.d.s.d.
1922–233,639,6033910494731735
1923–243,335,20544124928316211
1924–253,173,0853917976271325
1925–263,190,277391311721601322
1926–273,235,699384766301222
1927–283,104,86929146591741122
1928–293,166,0082949591821020
1929–303,322,672293960311021
1930–313,949,5583352661901225
1931–324,366,757338254841529

It should be noted that the maximum tax in the years under discussion fell from 7s. 4d. in the £1 in 1922–23 to 4s. 6d. in the £1 in 1925–26 and subsequent years and rose to 4s. 11⅖d. in 1930–31 and to a figure slightly in excess of 8s. in 1931–32.

In 1931–32 the 3,287 taxpaying companies were assessed for £2,311,214 income-tax, the 23 agents for debenture-holders for £12,595, and the 1,420 non-resident traders for £28,40C. The remaining £2,014,542 was divided among 75,515 taxpayers in the general class. The following table shows the tax assessed in the case of each of the four classes during four years, and also contrasts the incidence of the assessment between the classes in 1931–32 :—

Class.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1931–32.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable balance.
 ££££££s.d.s.d.
I1,126,2381,207,3221,349,8532,014,5421627010111
II1,979,6422,061,8602,563,6482,311,2147037034848
III31,57421,5552,70812,5955485481818
IV28,55431,93533,34928,40620201313
Totals3,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,75733541529

A table on the same lines as the foregoing is now given showing the figures for each of the ten groups of sources:—

Source.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1931–32.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable balance.
 ££££££s.d.S.d.
0303,919325,934365,382660,5749140516
1141,864151,220164,348195,56356721622
21,391,1721,556,8571,685,4131,589,805841692839
3527,562466,103781,415639,66857169249411
428,584110,73196,68439,00527671426
5153,606142,855129,29995,9548119821044
646,69343,42136,69625,120194001120
734,13127,91541,22966,9933895404651
8529,853485,548634,242l,029,01939571927
98,62412,08814,85025,0561121183435
Totals3,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,75733541529

The effect of the progressive rates of income-tax can be hotter seen from the next table, which gives information according to size of assessable income.

Size of Income.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1931–32.
1930–31.1931–32.Per Income.Per Taxpayer.    Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable balance.
£ ££££ s. d.£ s. d.s.d.s.d.    
Under 30014,27239,1160 14 52 9 1101011    
300– 39921,46499,0372 12 53 13 802010    
400– 49943,709119,1017 15 78 4 404011    
500– 59954,090119,59216 0 1016 5 20710    
600– 69960,996128,99428 19 929 6 901113    
700– 79963,364118,65844 15 1045 7 21215    
800– 89969,009107,47361 12 662 4 71618    
900– 99962,87095,19073 17 074 15 61719    
1,000– 1,999451,634624,099146 19 8147 13 72325    
   ££        
2,000– 4,999599,537687,85654054131040    
5,000– 9,999349,026335,4221,8131,8135657    
10,000–19,999441,873268,2433,9454,0045859    
20,000–49,999460,030434,1548,3498,3495454    
50,000–99,999390,539426,21918,53118,531411411    
100,000 and over867,145763,60369,41869,4185050    
Totals3,949,5584,366,75733541529    

The wide range between the different sources is due to the great variation in the average income derived from the respective sources, combined with the fact that the rate of taxation in the £1 increases with increasing taxable balance, the minimum rate during 1931–32 being 9ĕd. in the £1, and the maximum slightly in excess of 8s.

The average income between £300 and £400 paid in 1931–32 only £2 12s. 5d., or just under 2d. in the £1 of total assessable income returned, as compared with £147. or 2s. 3d. in the £1, for incomes between £1,000 and £2,000.

AGGREGATE PRIVATE INCOME.

It is advisable at the outset to stress the point that the figures given hereunder relate to aggregate private income and that their use as figures of “National Income” is an illegitimate one. Concepts of “national” income are both numerous and widely divergent, but the term “national” is here inapplicable, if only for the reason that all forms of public income are excluded.

The concept of “aggregate private income” is also by no means devoid of divergent interpretations. However, as used here, a definition roughly correct is that it comprises the sum total of the incomes of all the individuals of the population, plus the undistributed portion (inclusive of State taxation) of company profits. Under “incomes” are included monetary payments from all sources, such as salaries, wages, revenue from investments, gratuities, pensions, superannuation, &c. In the later estimates, although not in that derived chiefly from the 1926 census records, certain non-monetary emoluments—e.g., free housing, free fuel and lighting, &c, where such are in reality part-payments for services—are given a monetary equivalent and treated as income. Where an individual owns and occupies a dwelling the rental value is not assessed as income. Net receipts (gross receipts, less expenditure incurred in earning them) of business houses, farmers, professional men, landlords, employers of labour, &c, are taken. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayments of debts, &c.—are excluded. It is probable that the estimates tend to understate the aggregate private income, owing to the inclusion in some cases of domestic expenditure or living-costs among expenditure incurred in earning income. No allowance is made on this account in the statistical computation, and the estimates should be regarded as on the conservative side.

As estimates at a given date the data quoted possess recognized limitations, but when derived from the same sources the movement from year to year is of serviceable accuracy.

From the 1926 census statistics of income categories, taken in conjunction with the statistics compiled from the income-tax returns for the income year ended 31st March, 1926, an approximate estimate of the aggregate income of individual members of the community was compiled for the year 1925–26. Allowing for the effect of approximations and arbitrary allocations, the estimated sum total of the income of all individuals for 1925–26 may be set down conservatively as lying between £130 m. and £140 m. In such a computation certain weaknesses exist, reducing any estimate to a rough approximation only. The compilation is discussed at greater length in the 1932 Year-Book. Results are given in detail in Vol. XI of the 1926 census results.

The basis for the estimates of aggregate private income quoted in the table below is provided by the figures of receipts from the emergency unemployment charge imposed for the raising of funds for the relief of unemployment.

The charge on income other than salaries or wages is necessarily made on the income of the preceding year, so that the figure from which to estimate “other” income is that of taxation receipts from this source in the succeeding year. In other instances it has been necessary to make allowances and adjustments, chiefly of a minor character.

But certain types of income are not subject to the charge, exemptions including (1) company income not distributed to shareholders, &c.; (2) income of pensioners under the Pensions Act; (3) the first £20 (now £50) of income (other than wages) of women; (4) income (other than wages) of male Maoris. For these and other items estimates have been prepared in part upon a more or less arbitrary basis.

The estimates for three years are given below. Sufficient data upon which to base an estimate for the year 1934–35 are not, as yet, available. Preliminary figures, however, indicate that the 1934–35 total of wages and salary will be about £m. 5–6 above the 1933–34 level, and that the aggregate private income for 1934–35 will probably be in the vicinity of £m. 105–110.

 1931–32.1032–33.1933–34.
Subject to emergency charge—£m.£m.£m
 Wages60.555.057.3
 Other income25.022.329.0
Wages of exempt relief workers2.02.92.8
Wages of domestic servants1.01.01.0
“ Other” incomes under £20 of women3.13.13.1
“ Other “incomes of Maoris1.01.01.0
Undistributed company income (including income tax payments)3.02.53.5
Pensions under Pensions Act1.71.71.8
Other exempt income0.50.50.5
 £97.8£90.0£100.0

It need scarcely be stressed that the estimates are merely fairly rough approximations.

There is no fixed relationship between the aggregate private income and the value of production (given in Section XLIII). It is necessary to make this observation since there appears to be misconception upon the point. Reflection, however, will show the fictitious nature of such an assumption, and a comparison of the figures will afford a demonstration.

Chapter 35. SECTION XXXV.—PRICES.

RETAIL PRICES.—INTRODUCTORY.

RETAIL-PRICE quotations, from which index numbers are regularly calculated, are collected each month in twenty-five towns of the Dominion, selected as being representative of New Zealand as a whole. These twenty-five towns are distributed over both Islands, from Whangarei in the North to Invercargill in the South, and are representative of both coastal and inland districts, and of both large and small centres. Returns of prices are collected by local Inspectors of Factories, for the most part from representative retailers, and from these data index numbers are computed in the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. These index numbers are published each month in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The commodities for which monthly index numbers are compiled are foodstuffs and fuel and lighting, foodstuffs being divided into three groups—groceries, dairy-produce, and meat. House-rents have been collected at six-monthly intervals since the inauguration of price statistics in 1914, and later the inquiry was extended to cover clothing and miscellaneous items, figures for which are collected at quarterly intervals.

Separate series of index numbers of retail prices are compiled and published for the following groups :—

  1. Group I.—Groceries.

  2. Group II.—Dairy-produce.

  3. Group III.—Meat.

  4. Group IV.—Housing. Group VII.—Miscellaneous items.

  5. Group V.—Fuel and light.

  6. Group VI.—Clothing (including drapery and footwear).

In addition, index numbers are compiled and published for the food (that is, the first three) groups combined, and also for all groups combined.

Prior to the year 1931 the retail-price index numbers were compiled on a pre-war base; but during 1931 a series of index numbers was initiated based on the average of prices ruling during the five years 1926–30. In order to permit of the revision being carried out, a collection of household budgets was made in 1930, so that an estimate of the proportionate distribution of expenditure in the various main groups of household expenditure might be made. These data are used in combining the group index numbers in order to arrive at a single figure representing all groups combined. The results of the budget collection were published in some detail in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 793–795).

In the compilation of the index numbers for the food groups, rent, and fuel and light, the aggregate expenditure method is used—that is, the retail price of each individual item in these groups is “weighted” according to its average annual consumption in the Dominion during the years 1926 to 1930. In the clothing and drapery and miscellaneous groups the unweighted geometric average of price ratios is used for most subgroups, no reliable data being available as to the consumption of individual items in these groups, except in the case of two subgroups in the miscellaneous group (fares and cleaning supplies), where the aggregate expenditure method is adopted.

RETAIL FOOD-PRICES

The following table shows the annual average index numbers for the three food groups combined, for each of the four chief centres and for the Dominion as a whole during the past ten years. In the compilation of these indexes each item and separate group (groceries, dairy-produce, and meat) is accorded its proper relative importance in the combined food-groups index number. The average of annual Dominion index numbers for the years 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

THREE FOOD GROUPS.INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1925104610201008103010261030
1926102710151010104710251026
1927976978982986981983
1928100998099010069961004
19291030984995100910051013
1930983959946966964974
1931848827843829837845
1932773761770751764775
1933724719732700719732
1934781760765743762774

The index numbers in the table are comparable both horizontally and vertically, since each column has the same base.

To obtain a general estimate of the course of prices for the whole Dominion it has been necessary to obtain a weighted average of the index numbers for each of the twenty-five representative towns. Price-indexes for each town have been weighted in accordance with the number of people in the respective centres, and a composite index number has been obtained, which, though necessarily artificial. represents accurately enough the average level of retail prices in the Dominion.

The twenty-live towns considered have a total population of approximately half that of New Zealand, and they are therefore more or less completely representative of the Dominion. The four chief centres, which include nearly 40 per cent, of the Dominion's population, account for over 70 per cent, of the population of the twenty-five towns, 30 that their influence in the Dominion index number is naturally predominating. However, the chief centres not only comprise a great part of the people of the Dominion, but also set the standard which is generally followed throughout the country.

The 1933 index numbers for each of the four cities and the Dominion are the lowest recorded during the last decade, a substantial fall occurring between 1929 and 1933. The Dominion annual average index (732) for 1933 was only 4.1 per cent, above July, 1914, prices. The figures for 1934, however, generally indicate a restoration of prices to the 1932 level. For the most recent index numbers refer to “Latest Statistical Information” in the forefront of this volume.

Attention may be drawn in passing to the comparatively small differences recorded between the average figures for the four chief centres and the Dominion weighted averages. In this respect, as will be shown later on in this section, the average of the three food groups combined stands in marked contrast to the rent group.

RETAIL PRICES OF GROCERIES.

Index numbers of retail prices of groceries in each of the four chief centres are given in the following table, which also shows the unweighted average of the four centres and the Dominion weighted average. The average of the Dominion annual index numbers for 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
192510471042984104410291044
1926103810331021106510391047
19271021995989100610031015
192810421007989102010151033
1929985953932958957973
1930928922883924914932
1931899876842887876891
1932856837804863840857
1933813780787832803819
1934815837817850830845

Prices in the groceries group fell steadily, though slowly, during the decade ending 1933, the Dominion index number for that year being the lowest recorded during the period. Prices generally have risen during 1934, in some cases to the 1932 level.

The factors underlying the fluctuations in the groceries group will be more clearly understood when it is remembered that the items comprising the group are varied in and may be treated in three subgroups as shown below. The fundamental distinction is that the items comprising Group lA are almost wholly imported from overseas, while those in Group lB are almost wholly produced in the country. Sugar is not wholly a product of New Zealand, the raw material being imported and refined at Auckland. The Dominion weighted average index number, 1926–30, equals 1000 in each case.

GROCERIES SUBGROUPS.INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
 Group la.—General Groceries.  
1930965919881956930
1931901847815865857
1932872786787841822
1933842782777849813
1934870871857934883
Group lb.—Bread, Flour, Oatmeal, Potatoes, and Onions. 
1930931943893922922
1931941940839846892
1932833853783845829
1933734709725760732
1934731773740755750
  Group Ic.—Sugar.  
1930825831836850836
1931779772796779782
1932896890907918903
193311131108111411231115
193410781082108710931085

It is noteworthy that, despite the further depreciation of New Zealand currency on sterling in January, 1933, the average index number for Group lA (which is comprised almost wholly of imported foodstuffs) was slightly lower in 1933 than in 1932. The 1934 figure, however, is the highest recorded since 1930.

There has been but little fluctuation in Group lB, except in the case of Wellington, the considerable increase for that city in 1934 being due to an increase in the price of bread.

The retail prices index numbers for Group lc (sugar) fell considerably for some years prior to 1932, when a sharp rise was recorded, the effect of the imposition of an increased duty on sugar. The further rise in 1933 synchronized with the raising of the exchange rate. The 1934 figure shows a slight decrease.

RETAIL PRICES OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The next table shows annual average retail price index numbers for the dairy-produce group. The Dominion weighted average index number for 1926–1930 equals 1000.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
1925105910701010106110501043
1926106510721009106210521045
192710361032968102210151010
192810321025958102510101006
19291005103194310241001999
1930942954905954939939
1931819836766778800807
1932742761667680713722
1933652708617625651661
1934680704612651662666

between 1922 and 1929 dairy-produce prices did not fluctuate to any marked extent, the lowest Dominion annual index number during that period being 985 (in 1922) and the highest 1053 (in 1924). Between 1929 and 1933 a marked downward trend in dairy-produce prices is apparent. The 1933 annual average index (661) is considerably below that for any other year during the past decade, while the 1934 figure shows a rise of five points only as compared with 1933. It is interesting to note that the 1934 index represents a decrease of fifty-three points, or 7.4 per cent., as compared with the July, 1914, figure; while the decrease since the peak year (1921) is as much as 47 per cent.

RETAIL PRICES OF MEAT.

Between the years 1922 and 1929 the general trend of meat prices was upward. the lowest Dominion index number recorded during that period being 813 (in 1922) and the highest 1052 (in 1929). A slight falling-off in meat prices in 1930 was followed by a collapse in 1931, the index number for the latter year (834) representing a fall of 199 points, or 19.3 per cent., as compared with the 1930 figure. Retail prices of meat in 1931 were still slightly higher than in the year 1922; but during 1932 and 1933 prices fell to a lower level than was recorded during the slump of 1922, the annual average index number for 1933 (714) representing a considerable decrease on the 1922 annual average index number. Although the 1934 figure has advanced eight-two points as compared with the previous year, it is still lower than that of any year from 1915 to 1931, and is only 5 per cent. above the 1914 level.

MEAT.INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average. (1920–30 = 1,000.)
19251035961102899310041008
192699095910011021993994
1927896924985941937937
19289669261012980971979
192910809731079103610421052
193010529901023100510181033
1931829781897815831834
1932729702817714741747
1933705678769650701714
1934827740838725783796

FOOD-PRICES.—COMPARISON WITH JULY, 1914.

For purposes of all the foregoing tables the base period has been taken as the average of the years 1926–30. For some purposes, however, interest centres on the comparison between present prices and those prevailing immediately prior to the outbreak of the Great War. One of the advantages of the aggregate expenditure method is that it enables index numbers computed on one base to be converted by a simple application of the rule of proportion to another base regarded as desirable for some special purpose. The following table relates to the Dominion weighted average for the respective groups:—

Group.First Quarter, 1934.Second Quarter, 1934.Third Quarter, 1934.Fourth Quarter, 1934.Average for Year 1934.
Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*

* Over July, 1914.

† Decrease.

Groceries (index number, July, 1914 : 624)86438.584335.183033.084335.184535.4
Dairy-produce (index number, July, 1914 : 719)64510.87042.16766.064011.06667.4
Meat, (index number, July, 1914 : 759)7650.87802.88035.88339.77964.9
Three food groups (index number, July, 1914 : 703)7618.377810.777510.278111.177410.1

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL FOOD-PRICES.

Using the weights used in the compilation of the New Zealand food price-index, attempts have been made to determine the relation between food-prices in New Zealand and in other countries, experiments having shown that the use of the weights employed in the computation of the index numbers of the other countries respectively does not greatly affect the result in the case of comparisons between countries with not essentially dissimilar standards of living. The commodities included, though comparatively few, cover the most important foodstuffs. The percentages shown in the second column of figures in the table following are the results, taking food-prices in New Zealand (Dominion weighted average) in February, 1935, as 100.

 Percentage of Food Prices to New Zealand Food Prices.
Country.July, 1914.February, 1935.
South Africa141124
United States129127
Canada125109
Australia105½111

HOUSE-RENT.

In investigating changes in the cost of housing the Census and Statistics Office has traced the movements of house-rent over a series of years. Such normally provide a reasonably accurate indication (and, in effect, the only practical means available) of movements in housing-costs in general, not only for those paying rent, but also for those who own or partially own the dwellings they occupy. It is probable that this latter assumption is less valid in the abnormal conditions existing since 1930.

By reason of the fact that leases, infrequent changes of residence, and the difficulty of departing from customary rents all tend to make the movement of the general level of rents comparatively slow, it has not been deemed necessary to attempt to measure the changes over short periods. The data from which the rent figures are compiled are therefore collected semi-annually only, in the months of February and August. Annual index numbers for rent are computed on the assumption that the February index number represents conditions prevailing during the first four and a half months of the year, the August number conditions prevailing during the next six months, and the number for February of the following year conditions prevailing during the last one and a half months of the year.

HOUSE-RENT.INDEX NUMBERS.

YearAuckland,Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average (1926–30 = 1000).
19259341038947751918912
19269901111977808972962
192710191191101088010251000
192810041261100490910451014
1929985133699093710621019
1930953132697395810531007
19318761241926936995953
19327631063823846874844
1933693937748799794766
1934696929747792791758

It is advisable to stress that the index numbers in respect of rent indicate the movement in the average rentals of a large number of houses already let, in many cases for some time, and that they do not purport to convey any statement as to the price at which housing accommodation has been obtainable from time to time by would-be occupants of houses then being relet.

The index numbers for each of the twenty-five towns at each of the last five collections are appended, together with yearly index numbers for 1933 and 1934.

HOUSE-RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS for TWENTY-FIVE TOWNS.

Town.Yearly Average, 1933.Yearly Average 1934.August, 1933.February, 1934.August, 1934.February, 1935.August, 1935.
Auckland693696694688700704725
Wellington937929933927923958961
Christchurch748747746752743749756
Dunedin799792791793789797803
Whangarei778697703679709702694
Hamilton794701787762761756751
Rotorua834776817811753760778
Waihi450483437478485488501
Gisborne741701738713689710675
Napier838778826792770767791
Dannevirke604571579591559557612
New Plymouth822800818810793800808
Wanganui611588603588589585599
Taihape674643653638648634628
Palmerston North811780809791773771808
Masterton775774708787766767776
Blenheim602597585597599591614
Nelson756769739766770771748
Greymouth666680627742639654655
Ashburton733720734726718706694
Timaru698689090681694694709
Oamaru695694689691692713714
Alexandra569564571535586560604
Gore620627020623620664623
Invercargill680666083674659666677
Dominion weighted average (1926–30 = 1000)766758762759756766776

House-rents reached a peak level in 1929, since which year the Dominion rent-index number fell at each successive collection up to and inclusive of 1934. February and August, 1935, however, exhibit a definite upward trend. Although population increase has been slow, building also has fallen off during the depression. With internal movement of population affecting the position, there appears to be in some localities a shortage of at least the more modern type of house. This, doubtless, is not without its effect on rents.

FOOD AND RENT.

Generally speaking, apart from the consideration of different rates of population-increase, the chief centres have higher rentals than the minor centres. As, however, the four largest centres have lower indexes for food than the majority of the smaller towns, the combination of these two groups presents quite a different picture from that displayed by either group individually. The following figures represent yearly averages for 1934 :—

Group.Weighted Average of Four Chief Centres. (a.)Weighted Average of Twenty-one Smaller Centres. (b.)Excess of (b) over (a).Dominion Weighted Average.
* Excess of (a) over (b).
Groceries82688963845
Dairy-produce666666..666
Meat79380310796
Three food groups76779124774
House-rent78070773*758

The following table shows the index numbers for the various groups for each of the twenty-five towns on the base: Dominion weighted average expenditure, 1926–30, equals 1000 :—

FOOD GROUPS AND RENT.INDEX NUMBERS FOR TWENTY-FIVE TOWNS,1934.

Town.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.
Auckland815680827781696
Wellington837704740760929
Christchurch817612838765747
Dunedin850651725743792
Whangarei892646827796697
Hamilton919720868841761
Rotorua991720866864776
Waihi944660794803483
Gisborne934699670761701
Napier856668676730778
Dannevirke874654737756571
New Plymouth858627800769800
Wanganui913678789796588
Taihape983715741809643
Palmerston North900635834798780
Masterton921694748787774
Blenheim919660918844597
Nelson899707917851769
Greymouth816705814784680
Ashburton782664846774720
Timaru821617846772689
Oamaru836671768762694
Alexandra911700819814564
Gore887667796788627
Invercargill906635838802666
Weighted average for Dominion845666796774758

Auckland, Christchurch., and Greymouth are the cheapest in respect of prices of groceries, while Rotorua has the highest index for this group. Hamilton and Rotorua are dearest in respect of prices of dairy-produce, while the Blenheim index for meat is highest, closely followed by Nelson. Christchurch and Timaru show the lowest prices for dairy-produce, while meat is exceptionally cheap in Gisborne and Napier.

RETAIL PRICES OF FUEL AND LIGHT.

For the purposes of tracing the course of prices in the fuel and light group, a small group of seven items—coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas for lighting, electricity for lighting, and candles—is taken into account for the four chief centres. It is not feasible to extend this index to the remaining twenty-one centres covered by the food and rent indexes.

FUEL AND LIGHT.INDEX NUMBERS.

Period.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres (1920–80 = 1000.)
Year.     
192510599801041893993
1926107797710578971002
1927107897910619011005
1928111597410548991011
19291114968986898992
19301112968988897991
19311108951995892987
19321020925993894958
1933860931987781890
1934807880976695841
Quarter.     
First, 1934776917978714846
Second, 1934804899978703846
Third, 1934824864975682837
Fourth, 1934823864973681835
First, 1935847865974683842
Second, 1935914873975711868
Third, 1935913877974730874

The average index number for this group for the four chief centres fell sharply between 1922 and 1923, remained practically stationary between 1923 and 1931, and fell in 1932, 1933, and 1934, although an upward tendency is evident during the three quarters that have expired of 1935. Fuel and lighting prices are, on the average, cheaper in Dunedin that in any of the other centres.

RETAIL PRICES OF CLOTHING AND OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS.

In regard to the method of treatment of the clothing and miscellaneous groups, it is to be explained that, as in the case of fuel and light, the inquiry is in general restricted to the four chief centres; further, except c s regards fares, in respect of which accurate weights based on usage in the base period are available, enabling the aggregate-expenditure method to be employed, no satisfactory information is available or procurable which would enable individual weights to be allotted to each item. For this reason the same measure of precision is not possible in the treatment of these groups, but by selective balancing of representative items and arranging them in representative subgroups a measure of weighting is secured, each subgroup being treated as a separate unit. The ratios of prices at the date under investigation to the average of prices in 1926–30 for the various items comprising the different subgroups are first averaged (employing geometric averages), and the results so obtained are then combined in order to arrive at the price ratio for the group.

The movement of prices of clothing and miscellaneous items from year to year may be traced in the table under the next heading.

RETAIL PRICES.—ALL GROUPS.

From the collection of household budgets in 1930, the average household expenditure under various heads was found to be as follows:—

 Per Cent.
Food29.52
Housing21.93
Clothing, drapery, and footwear12.61
Fuel and light6.17
Miscellaneous29.77
 100.00

These weights are applied to the index numbers of the different groups in the process of arriving at the “all groups” retail price-index, with the exception that the weight applied to the miscellaneous group is 11.08 and not 29.77. Thus 81 per cent, of household expenditure is covered by the index number. The remaining 19 per cent, represents miscellaneous items for which it has been found impossible to obtain reliable price-quotations. Their omission has the effect of giving them the same general average price-movement as the 81 per cent, covered.

The following table shows the index numbers for all groups for each of the last ten years. It should be noted that the annual index numbers given represent the average price-level during each year, not at any of the particular points during the year at which the prices for the respective groups were collected:—

ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS.

(Base : Dominion weighted average of prices in 1926–30 in twenty-five centres in case of Groups I to IV, and average of prices in 1926–30 in four chief centres in case of Groups V, VI. and VII = 1000.)

Year.Food Groups.Rent. (IV.)Fuel and Light. (V.)Clothing, Drapery, and Footwear. (VI.)Miscellaneous. (VII.)All Groups combined. (I-VII.)Increase per Cent. over July, 1914.
Groceries. (I.)Dairy-produce. (II.)Meat. (III.)Three Food Groups (I-III.)
Month of July.
1914*624718759703535585686601628..
1925104410431008103091299311111015100459.9
1926104710459941020962100210601013101060.8
1927101510109379831000100510171033100159.4
1928103310069791004101410119951002100660.2
1929973999105210131019992980986100459.9
19309329391033974100799194798698156.2
193189180783484595398786998690644.3
193285772274777584495881497383833.4
193381966171473276689081697679526.6
193484566679677475884183297380828.7

The index numbers for all groups combined had not fluctuated to any great extent between 1923 and 1930, but after the latter year a considerable fall took place. In 1934 a slight upward tendency is again in evidence, the 1934 annual average index number (808) showing an increase of 1.6 per cent, over 1933, and of 28.7 per cent, above the 1914 level.

WHOLESALE PRICES.

In most countries index numbers of wholesale prices are compiled from the price data available in trade journals or from the published reports of wholesale markets. In New Zealand wholesale markets scarcely exist, and consequently price data for the wholesale-prices investigation have been collected from wholesale merchants and traders, who from the volume of the business they transact are able to supply representative information.

Since 1917 such wholesale-price quotations have been collected monthly, the inquiry being for the most part confined to the four chief centres. In the case of a few commodities e.g., newsprint), of which there is a local consumption so large that the article can scarcely be omitted from the price-index, yet for which no actual local market exists, the inclusion of the commodity in the index number has been rendered possible by ascertaining movements of prices from the import statistics. Statistics of imports and exports as a source of price data have, however, been avoided as far as possible, on the ground that where quotations are obtained from traders care can be taken to ensure that the grade, &c, quoted for is kept constant. A considerable volume of data as to wholesale prices was secured from merchants and traders (and in a few cases from import figures) by means of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information was secured to permit of the compilation for each year from 1891 onwards of a “general” wholesale-price index number based on the prices of 106 commodities.

During 1926 a revision of the wholesale price-index was effected specially designed, inter alia, to permit of the inclusion in the index number of several such items as motor-spirit, &c, the importance of which had increased enormously since the index was originally instituted. The list of commodities represents a wide range, covering articles of home production and of foreign production, of farm, mine, marine, factory, &c, origin, and representing all stages of production.

Index numbers under the revised system have been compiled only from 1913 onwards, the indexes shown for years prior to 1913 in the following table having been recomputed from the former indexes on the basis of the relationship of the old and new figures for 1913.

The base adopted for purposes of the wholesale-price inquiry is the average of the wholesale prices in the four chief centres during 1909 to 1913, the price quotations from the various merchants being so combined that each return from any given town has the same weight in the averaging process as any other return from that town, while in obtaining Dominion average prices for any given commodity each of the four centres is given the same weight.

WHOLESALE PRICES.GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Index Number.
1891975
1892953
1893954
1894909
1895902
1896925
1897924
1898953
1899876
1900899
1901913
1902956
1903936
1904904
1905975
1906996
1907996
1908987
1909931
1910964
1811975
10121021
19131012
19141053
19151184
19161273
19171449
19181705
19191782
19202092
19211942
19221665
19231598
19241634
19251627
19261553
19271478
19281492
19291488
19301449
19311346
19321297
19331308
19341330

Full details of the revised system were given in the 1927 number of this book. A schedule of the various commodities covered by the inquiry, classified by groups and with the class indicated in each case, was published in the 1926 number of the “Annual Statistical Report on Prices, &c.”

The wholesale-price index is purely a commodity index, no attempt having been made to cover the wholesale prices of services such as the supply of electric power, transportation, &c. The index relates only to commodities consumed locally, and is based on production, plus imports, less exports.

For purposes of the wholesale inquiry recourse is had to a modification of the method of the retail-prices investigation—the aggregate expenditure method. The 1927 Year-Book gives a detailed account of this also.

The following table shows annual wholesale index numbers by groups.

WHOLESALE PRICES.INDEX NUMBERS BY GROUPS.

Group.1013.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
1. Foodstuffs, &c., of vegetable origin—       
A. Agricultural produce967158415371275133610801171
B. Fresh fruit and vegetables10311408121511049141050879
C. Milled agricultural products982169617181645143613411321
D. Other vegetable foodstuffs and groceries1010164216231670178318931888
A-D. Four subgroups combined991161215761479150414511466
2. Textile manufactures1020195618621681156015431597
3. Wood and wood products1072197419981898184318581870
4. Animal products—       
A. Meats11111450144910378159411096
B. Raw animal products (not foods)10851341840649596760950
C. Leather1126171815021244126913341360
D. Manufactured foodstuffs and groceries of animal origin10301481128211121016946903
A-D. Four subgroups combined       
 10881465135310358779501047
5. Metals and their products9329689891061100810991074
6. Non-metallic minerals and their products—       
A. Mineral oils1004803802785834903854
B. Coals1037189118681848182417011717
C. Other non-metallic minerals and their products1026170216721661166617171705
A-C. Three subgroups combined1022141714011384139513801364
7. Chemicals and manures1030116311551101106310471060
All groups combined1012148814491346129713081330

In the next table index numbers are given by classes from 1925 to 1934. The table also shows the separate index number for such imported items as are included in the wholesale-price investigation; alongside which, for purposes of convenience of comparison, are set the index numbers of locally produced items included in the wholesale-price series. The export price index number is also included for purposes of comparison, but it should be noted that this index is computed by a different method from that adopted in connection with the computing of the wholesale-price index.

These index number should be taken for no more than they purport to represent— viz., the movement in wholesale prices of those commodities covered by the wholesale prices inquiry which belong to the respective classes. The figure for Class 111, for instance, does not purport to show the movement in building costs, nor should that for imported items be confused with the index number of import prices.

WHOLESALE PRICES.INDEX NUMBERS BY CLASSES.

Year.Consumers' Goods.Producers' Materials, Ac.Imported Commodities.Locally-Produced Commodities.All Classes Combined.Index Number of Export Prices.
Class I: Foodstuffs.Class II: Non-Foods.Class III: Materials for Bulling and ConstructionClass IV: Materials for other Industries.
Average 1909–1310001000100010001000100010001000
192516111634196315751516172016271893
192614961550187715351437164915531540
192714591489179514281376156214781525
192S15151466174414441346161314921683
192915191456175114351342160814881623
193014301433176414121332154514491283
19311243140816911322132913591346984
19321180137916551273129612981297892
19331221139017181253136112651308896
193412681394172512731345131913301109

Of the total base aggregate expenditure, Class I represented 30.-1 per cent., Class II 20.5 per cent., Class III 7.4 per cent., and Class IV 420 per cent., while the imported items aggregated 42.8 per cent, of the total.

The all-groups index fell in each successive year from 1928 to 1932. In 1933 a slight rise is recorded, caused by an increase in prices of imported commodities of sufficient magnitude to more than counteract a further fall in the index number for locally produced commodities. In 1934 all classes, with the exception of that for imported commodities, showed increases in varying degree.

EXPORT PRICES.

For some years past index numbers have been compiled and published at monthly intervals, indicating the direction and extent of fluctuation in the level of prices in New Zealand produce exported. These index numbers are based on the declared values (in New Zealand currency) for export as recorded by the Customs Department.

Formerly each commodity included in the compilation was accorded an importance corresponding to the quantity of that commodity exported during the particular month or year under investigation. For example, the annual index number for the year 1931 indicated the relationship between the total value in that year of exports of items included in the index numbers and the value of the quantities of the various commodities exported in 1931 at the average prices ruling during the years 1909–13, the base period of the investigation. Thus the “weight” or importance of each item in the regimen of the index number varied according to fluctuations in the quantities exported from month to month and from year to year.

Latterly, however, the fall in prices has not distributed itself evenly over the whole field of commodities exported. As a consequence, material fluctuations were caused in the monthly index numbers, which were not due to price-movements alone, but rather to fluctuations in the relative quantities of commodities exported from month to month.

In order to remedy this weakness in the index number, the system of compilation has been modified; the “weight” allotted to each item included in the new series now introduced being the average quantity of that item exported during the previous five exporting seasons—i.e., years ended 30th June. In the revision of the export-price index numbers also the opportunity has been taken of revising the grouping of commodities somewhat in order to permit of a closer analysis of the effect of price-movements on different sections of the producing community.

The revised index numbers for all groups combined and for all pastoral produce are shown in the next table, compiled on the base : 1909–13 = 1000.

EXPORT PRICES.INDEX NUMBERS (REVISED SERIES).

Calendar Year.Group I Dairy-produce.Group II Meat.Group III: Wool.Group IV: Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I-1V: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural Produce.Group VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I-VII All Groups combined.
191410311196109911001095988100010091089
1915120613921222114712511042102310391239
1916136414341725138014781238109010631460
1917153616571773196516031943118710951655
1918155216731777217116911875160211621681
1919171616651802247117871797192811991776
1920181916961800231818241418225213381806
192122731909835129717251329243713911713
192214951615924124013521451233313711363
1923164820091274142916191338213913301610
1924106120151902159518061377238313041788
1925152022182234195119141476247212501893
1926140918551427164315411449251511821540
1927137517631526161715291417240911291525
1928147618011924180517001350233810811683
1929145718271710170316341424238010781623
1930120617121003124312791267244710621283
19319891301679767965115521911177984
19329341109625622870110220731162892
19338391165671755867115721101416896
19347671518127388810891200218015541109

Export, prices collapsed in the later months of 1930, the annual average index number for that year (1283) representing a fall of 340 points as compared with the 1929 figure. This rapid downward movement in export prices continued during 1931 and 1932, the annual average figure for the latter year reaching the extremely low level of 892—10.8 per cent, below 1909–13 export prices. Each individual group shared in this collapse with the exception of the minerals group; while the index numbers for wool (625) and “other” pastoral produce (622) were considerably lower than those recorded for any of the other groups. Although the 1933 annual average index is only 4 points above the low figure recorded in 1932, a definite and sustained improvement in the monthly index numbers took place during the latter half of the year. This recovery has been maintained during 1934 in a greater or less degree in every group with the exception of that for dairy-produce. The greater advances, as compared with the previous year, are exhibited by the meat and wool groups with 30.3 per cent, and 89.7 per cent, respectively. The all groups index has reached the highest level since 1930, and is 1.8 per cent. above 1914, although still lower than in any year from 1915 to 1930 inclusive.

EXPORT PRICES.INDEX NUMBERS (JUNE YEARS).

Calendar Year.Group I Dairy-produce.Group II Meat.Group III: Wool.Group IV: Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I-1V: All Pastoral and Dairy Produce.Group V: Agricultural Produce.Group VI: Timber.Group VII: Minerals.Groups I-VII All Groups combined.
1926155720031477169416561453257312251648
1927131817791566155215151439256311691514
1928145217681873169516601400237310831647
1929149918331779182516811449240910821668
1930134117681120147113971353245710641397
19311029141972692110351219244110651052
19329741189641671914115821661107934
19338571093621598831115020781375861
19348101415121891110701183215714851089
1935806157781484410141228216516821046

As previously observed, the calendar year does not coincide at all closely with the farm-production year. This is expecially significant in New Zealand, since the great bulk of export goods are farm-produce. For a number of purposes the preceding table giving annual average export prices index numbers for years ended 30th June will be more useful. Index numbers are based upon prices in New Zealand currency.

The recovery in wool prices during the 1933–34 selling season is reflected in an increase in the June-year index number for this group, the index number rising from 621 in 1933 to 1218;n 1934. The recession in wool values in 1934–35 caused a fall to 814 in the 1935 index; but, since the close of the 1934–35 New Zealand selling season, a material increase in wool prices has taken place.

While the dairy produce index for 1935 (806) is the lowest during the ten-yearly period under review, a substantial increase in dairy-produce prices—particularly of butter—on the London market has occurred since the close of the June year.

IMPORT PRICES.

The import-prices index, like other series of New Zealand Price-index numbers, is compiled by the aggregate expenditure method, the weight allotted to each individual item in the regimen of the import-prices series representing the average quantity of that commodity imported during the calendar years 1926 to 1930. Owing to the relative rapidity of the changes in the nature of import trade, a series of import-price index numbers tends to lose its representative virtue more speedily than is the case with most other series. The present series was continued back to 1926 only, since sufficient data uniformly comparable with that collected in respect of more recent years were not available beyond that year. While the export-prices index is compiled for monthly as well as for annual periods, only annual index numbers have been compiled in the ease of import prices.

In order to avoid any possible confusion between the import-prices index number and the wholesale-prices index number for imported commodities, it seems desirable to draw attention to the fact that the price quotations on which the import-prices index is based are: (a) Declared value of commodities for import— i.e., prices in the exporting country plus 10 per cent, to cover freight, &c.; or (b) wholesale-price quotations (plus allowance for freight, &c.) of suitable representative items in Great Britain and other overseas countries in cases where no data are available as to declared values. These price quotations are converted to a New-Zealand-currency basis, so that the index numbers will be comparable with other series.

It will be noticed that the wholesale-price index number for imported commodities, which is based on wholesale-price quotations in the four chief centres, has been substantially higher than the import-prices index since 1929. Increases in Customs duties and the relative stability of handling-costs, overhead charges, and other expenses of marketing imported goods have contributed to this widening of the gap between import prices and wholesale prices of imported commodities. It is desirable to draw attention to the fact that the number of items included in the import-prices index (220) is considerably greater than the number included in the wholesale-prices index for imported commodities (112).

Notwithstanding the comparatively large number and wide range of commodities covered by the import-prices index the relatively high degree of accuracy in an export-prices or a wholesale-prices index cannot be hoped for in the case of import prices, index numbers of which are for this reason compiled on a three-figure base (100).

The import-prices index has moved in fairly close sympathy with wholesale-prices index numbers for similar groups of commodities in Great Britain. A gradual fall between 1926 and 1930 was followed by a sharp drop between 1930 and 1931. Since the import-prices index number is expressed in New Zealand currency, the fall in overseas wholesale prices has been recently counteracted to a large extent in its effect on this index by the decline of New Zealand currency in relation to sterling. For example, the British Board of Trade's index number of wholesale prices of non-foods in Great Britain fell by 14 per cent, between 1930 and 1933 as compared with a fall of 7 per cent, in the import-prices index in New Zealand currency.

Between 1926 and 1929 the per-unit purchasing-power of New Zealand's exports in terms of imported commodities rose considerably, the export-prices index increasing by 6 per cent, during that period, while the import-prices index fell by 14 per cent. This relatively favourable situation was reversed in 1930, a sharp drop in export prices being accompanied by only a slight fall hi import prices. Although import prices fell considerably between 1930 and 1933, the fall in export prices was even greater, so that the gap between the import-prices index and the export-prices index widened considerably during that period. In 1934 the import index fell a further two points, while the export index rose fourteen points, the purchasing-power of exports in terms of imports being much greater in 1934 than in any of the three years immediately preceding.

The following table shows index numbers of import, export, wholesale, and retail prices on base 1926 = 100. Each series of index numbers is compiled on a New-Zealand-currency basis. Index numbers are, of course, comparable vertically, but not horizontally.

Year.Import Prices.Export Prices.Wholesale Prices.Retail Prices (All Groups).
Pastoral and Dairy Produce.All Groups.Locally produced Commodities.Imported Commodities.All Groups.
1926100100100100100100100
192794999995969599
192890110109989496100
19298610610598939699
193084838394939397
193177636482938790
193275585879908483
193378565877958479
193476717280948680

EFFECT OF PRICE MOVEMENTS ON FARM EXPENDITURE.

Prices of a large selection of farm-products are included in the official wholesale and export price index numbers. Many of the principal items of farm expenditure, however, are Dot covered by the wholesale price index, which is purely a commodity index. A special index number is now constructed in which such items as interest-payments, rates and taxes, wages, freight, and commission are included in addition to the material commodities which are bought for use in farm production. Statistics of prices of farm-implements, saddlery, harness, and sundry other commodities not covered by the wholesale prices inquiry are also obtained from merchants and manufacturers of farm machinery, and included in this index, so that practically the whole of the working-expenses of the average farm are now represented. A full description of the method of compilation of this index number is contained in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book.

While the farm-expenditure index indicates the effect of price movements on farm expenditure generally, it is not intended to apply to particular types of farming or to particular localities. Again, the weights used in compiling the index are fixed, the purpose of the index being to measure movements in costs of a standard regimen of commodities and services.

Indexes for the years 1925 to 1934 (on base 1914 = 1000) are given below. For. purposes of comparison the general indexes of wholesale and retail prices, and the export index number for all pastoral and dairy produce combined, are also included on the same base year.

Year.Farm Expenditure Index.Pastoral and Dairy Produce Export Price Index.General Wholesale Price Index.All Groups Retail Price Index.
* Approximate. Recent changes in certain items are incapable of exact measurement.
19141000100010001000
19251582174815451599
19261555140714751608
19271574139614041594
19281642155314171602
19291636149214131599
19301628116813761562
1931149088112781447
19321250*79512321334
19331150*79212421266
19341150*99512631287

The peak year for the farm-expenditure and wholesale-price index numbers was the year 1920; for retail prices, the year 1921; and for export prices, the year 1925. Although the farm-expenditure index had a relatively low peak-level (1661) this index did not fall to the same extent as the other indexes, the 1933 and 1934 figure (1150) being still above the 1914 level of prices—in marked contrast to the export-price index number for pastoral and dairy produce, which was, in 1933, 20.8 per cent, below the corresponding figure for the year 1914. The export price index shows a marked recovery during 1934, and is now almost back to the 1914 level.

It is interesting to compare the farm-expenditure index with the export-price index. From 1915 to 1921 the export-price index was the higher—the difference being 235 points in 1917. In 1921 the position was reversed, the farm-expenditure index in that year being 31 points above the export price-level. By the year 1922 the export index had dropped to 1235, the farm-expenditure index for this year (1543) being 308 points above that figure. A recovery in export prices during the two succeeding years once mote brought this index to a higher level than the farm-expenditure index, the 1924 index being 63 points and the 1925 index 166 points higher. Export prices again fell away; and since 1925 the export index has remained below the farm-expenditure index, the difference in 1933 being 358 points and in 1934 155 points.

For a fuller discussion on the effect of price movements on the relationship between farm costs and returns see Subsection A of the Agricultural and Pastoral Production Section. In particular, the recent spreading in price levels is dealt with in some detail (pp. 318–19).

SHARE PRICES.

The fluctuations in the market value of shares listed on the Stock Exchange form a very sensitive indication of changes in business conditions generally, and an index number of ordinary share prices is thus a valuable complement to other business indicators—such as trade and production statistics, wholesale and export price index numbers, &c. Index numbers of share prices, based on the market prices of forty-nine leading shares on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges, are now compiled by the Census and Statistics Office. The selection of the shares for inclusion in the index number was made with the object of reflecting New Zealand economic conditions; and, consequently, only companies whose business is conducted largely or wholly in New Zealand are included. Again, only ordinary shares—the return on which varies directly. with the profits of the company in which shares are taken—are considered; preference shares and other investments normally bearing a fixed return being excluded.

The market prices on which the index numbers are based have been extracted from Stock Exchange lists of individual exchanges prior to September, 1929, and from the list of share prices included in the Stock Exchange Gazette and its successor, the Official Record of the Stock Exchanged of New Zealand, since that month. The prices quoted relate to the last trading day in each month; so that the “monthly” index numbers compiled from these data relate to that day only, while the annual averages represent the average of the monthly index numbers. The base adopted is the average price ruling during the year 1926 (= 1000). For further observations on the methods employed, refer to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for August, 1932.

Following are annual index numbers for various groups and all groups combined.

SHAKE-PRICE INDEX NUMBERS, INDIVIDUAL GROUPS.

Group.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Banks1029883718677742770
Insurance1143102392191911901450
Loan and agency1032763517470545660
Frozen meat1041835646701835868
Woollens11809777927789231159
Breweries13261201773602753989
Gas10971060100896910531235
Timber603480323348411547
Minerals1058991859700753883
Miscellaneous10528556787158891083
All groups combined1061913739703822957

NOTE.—These index numbers are comparable horizontally but not vertically.

In the following table index numbers of market prices of ordinary shares on the last trading-day of each month are shown. This index indicates the average movement in prices of forty-nine ordinary shares in companies operating in New Zealand; each individual share and group of shares included being “weighted” according to its importance in the investment market of the Dominion.

SHARE-PRICE INDEX NUMBERS, ALL GROUPS COMBINED.

 1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
* No list issued for this month.
January10569577487167229221027
February10589647516807309151010
March10599567796717539211006
April10569457816667739331036
May10679507556697959621028
June10799487426748219361032
July10849167387088499351046
August10918026977388629521028
September10838348877648859851013
October1052858Til74588310041014
November10388307347258931009..
December1012*7296839001017..
Annual average1061913739703822957..

International comparisons of price indexes can be made only with considerable caution; but, in the case of the indexes of share prices selected for inclusion in the table following, many of the difficulties attendant on such comparisons are lessened by the facts that all series are compiled on the same base year (1926) and that the method of compilation of each of the indexes is substantially comparable in each case. Naturally enough, the indexes for England, United States, and Canada are based on a much wider selection of shares than the. New Zealand or the Australian figures; and, moreover, the volume of transactions on the exchanges in these countries is such that a finer market price can be arrived at than is possible in the Dominion.

The following table shows the highest and lowest monthly indexes for each year from 1929 to 1934, and for the month of May, 1935 :—

Month.New Zealand (Official).Australia* (Melbourne Stock Exchange Record).England (Bankers' Magazine).Canada (Official).United States (Standard Statistics Company).

* May, 1920 = 100.

Not available.

1929—Highest108108124209225
Lowest10192110157151
1930—Highest9683111167181
Lowest835389103109
1931—Highest786590112122
Lowest6950676558
1932— Highest7682736558
Lowest6662594334
1933—Highest9096858780
Lowest7281724943
1934—Highest102107889181
Lowest9297848167
1935—May103869473

While the index numbers in the above table show the movement in ordinary share prices in each country covered, comparisons of recent index numbers for one country with those for another country should not be made without taking into account the relative exchange value of the various local currencies. For example, the index numbers quoted for New Zealand express the movement in share prices in New Zealand currency, the exchange value of which has depreciated since the beginning of 1930—a factor which should be borne in mind when comparing New Zealand indexes with figures for countries with currencies of higher or lower exchang value than the New Zealand pound. The following table is interesting in this connection, in that it shows the relative values in May, 1935, of an investment of £100 sterling made in 1926 in representative shares on the different stock exchanges.

Country.Month of May, 1935.
Index Number of Share Prices (1926 = 100)Average Rate of Exchange on London.Present Value of Shares bought in 1926 for †100 Sterling.
In Local Currency.In Sterling.
* Per £100 sterling.
England86..£8686
Canada94$5.100$45793
New Zealand103£124.25*£10383
United States73$4.888$35572

Chapter 36. SECTION XXXVI.—WAGE-RATES AND HOURS OF LABOUR.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE material used in the compilation of statistics of wages-rates in New Zealand is, with certain exceptions, taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court. It is recognized that the rates specified in such awards are minimum rates, and that wages may in some cases be above the prescribed minima, so that a rise or fall in the award rates does not necessarily connote an immediate change in the wage-rates of those ?workers who are being paid more than these rates. Nevertheless, for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage-rates over any considerable space of time, the award rates form a more reliable basis than any information which could be collected directly from employers or trade-union secretaries as to the ruling or predominant rates in any industry. In the case of two important classes of workers—agricultural and pastoral employees and railway employees—no awards exist. Information is obtained from the Labour Department as to the ruling rates of wages in the former ease, and from the Railways Department in the latter case.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, contains,inter alia, a provision that, in the event of parties to an industrial dispute being unable to come to agreement before the Conciliation Council, the award lapses. In cases where awards have lapsed under this provision, information has been collected as to the ruling rates of wages paid by the majority of employers.

The award rates for the four principal districts—Northern, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland—are in general taken as representative of the ruling wages throughout the Dominion. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in cases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts the award rates for that centre are used. For instance, the rates used for coal-mining and sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

The system of compilation of wage-rate index numbers was revised some years age, separate index numbers now being compiled for men and women workers.

WAGE-RATES OF MALE EMPLOYEES.

METHOD OF WEIGHTING.

The wage-rates used in the compilation of the index numbers for male workers are those paid to adult workers only. In weighting these rates three sources of information as to the numbers engaged in the various occupations have been drawn on—viz., (1) the occupations statistics of the 1926 census, (2) the annual factory production statistics, and (3) the membership rolls of trade-unions registered under the, Arbitration Act. It is possible to allocate weights to the individual occupations included in these computations. Although in some few cases absolute accuracy in weighting cannot be hoped for, the data are sufficiently accurate for-the purpose in view, since minor differences in weighting do not affect the accuracy of the index number. Occupations are grouped into industries, with an appropriate weight for each occupation and each industry; while industries are grouped into fourteen principal industrial groups. The weights for the individual occupations and industries have been Revised from the census or the factory production statistics; while the industrial-group weighting has been taken from the membership, as at 31st December, 1926, of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act, except in the case of agricultural and pastoral workers, the weights for which industrial group have been interpolated, using the 1926 census figures as a basis. Trade-union membership is relatively very low for this type of worker. For full detail of weighting refer to the “Statistical Report on Prices, Wages, £c," for the year 1928.

NOMINAL WAGE-RATE INDEX NUMBERS.

The following table shows the index numbers of nominal wage-rates of males for each industrial group and all groups combined. The base is the Dominion weighted average wage-rate for all groups combined, 1909–13 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1925.1926.1927.1028.1929.1030.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Food, drink, and tobacco1840186218751883188218851794168416191630
Clothing, boots,£e.1655167716981730173217331633155515611560
Textiles and weaving1571162816961096169616771533148114721474
Building and construction1737178418041810181518191715163416151607
Wood-manufacture1756176617921834184118411725164115531524
Printing, £c.2003201220132013201320141890179117191721
Metal-working and engineering1812182218821882188518851757166315711590
Other manufactures1707175517691773178017791672159815881569
Mining1840184918621849182218311724162115831611
Agricultural and pastoral1305133113781581158415761379110710131047
Land transport1712171417391748175117511639151914651508
Shipping and cargo-working1835184218491849186719211818172216701696
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1575160216261631163116311537145413761381
Miscellaneous1650168517101737173817381635156315511552
All industrial groups combined1659168317101765176717721644151214531466

NOTE.—The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally. Where board and (or) lodging is a usual perquisite attached to any occupation, an allowance estimated to cover the value of such has been added to I lie money wage-rate

The highest index numbers are recorded in the group “printing, £c.,” the 1934 index in this industry being 1721 and representing an increase of 72 per cent, above the “all groups” level in 1909–13. It is worthy of note that this group is consistently high, due, no doubt, to the preponderance of highly skilled tradesmen.

The lowest index for 1934 is that for the group “agricultural and pastoral “(1047), followed by “hotels and restaurants” (1381), and “textiles and weaving “(1474). In the “agricultural and pastoral,““hotels and restaurants,“and “shipping and cargo-working “groups the estimated value of board and lodging is added to the money wage-rate in order to make a legitimate comparison with other industries. In the case of waterside workers (an important subgroup of the shipping group) this allowance is, of course, omitted.

Wage-rates rose steadily and in fairly regular gradations from year to year from 1914 to 1918. When the provisions of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act providing for the regulation of wages in accordance with movements in the cost of living came into effect the lag between prices and wage-rates was partially eliminated : consequently sharp increases took place—100 points between 1919 and 1920., and 110 points between 1920 and 1921. The effect of the post-war slump thereafter became apparent, decreases being recorded in the two subsequent years (1922 and 1923), the nominal wage-rate index for all groups of industries falling from 1966 in 1921 to 1012 in 1923. Following the recovery from the slump, the index number rose year by year until in 1929 it reached 1767, and, in 1930, 1772, the highest level yet recorded. A general order of the Arbitration Court, dated 29th May, 1931, reduced all rates of pay and allowances prescribed by awards and industrial agreements by 10 per cent. The rates of remuneration of apprentices are exempt from this order; and, in addition, flax-mill employees in the Wellington Industrial District, who had already suffered a substantial cut in wages, wore exempted. The average rates of pay of agricultural and pastoral workers, although not subject, to the Court's order, were considerably below those ruling during previous years. As a consequence of these reductions a substantial fall occurred in the 1931 annual average index numbers for all groups. This reduction in wage-rates, being on a strictly percentage basis, caused a levelling-up in the group indexes, the relatively higher-paid groups of workers suffering the largest reduction in rates. The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, made provision for the review of existing awards, and for the cancellation of registration under the Act in the event of the parties failing to agree as to wages, working-conditions, £c, at Conciliation Council proceedings, unless the dispute is referred, by mutual consent, to the Arbitration Court for its decision. Consequently a number of awards have been cancelled; and in such cases data as to ruling rates of wages have been collected and used in the compilation of index numbers of wage-rates.

During 1932 and 1933 the rates of pay prescribed in several awards were reduced in new awards; and, again, wage-rates of two classes of labour not covered by awards (railway employees and permanent farm hands) suffered further reductions—in 1932 in the former case and in 1932 and 1933 in the latter case. Also in most instances the ruling rates of pay in cases where previously existing awards have been cancelled are below the former award rates. Consequently the general index number of wage-rates fell substantially, the 1933 index (1453, on the base: 1909–13 = 1000) being 3-9 per cent, below the 1932 figure, and 18-0 per cent, below the peak level of 1772 recorded in 1930. The 1933 index is the lowest annual average index since 1919, while that for 1934 shows an advance of only 13 points.

The following table shows the index numbers of male wage-rates for all groups combined for each industrial district and the Dominion weighted average. From this table comparisons may be made between the index numbers for the four principal industrial districts. The base is the Dominion weighted average of wage-rates for all industrial groups combined, 1909-13 (= 1000).

Year.Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Dominion.
192516471634169816701659
192616651658172916991683
192716871680177717201710
192817521759178417671765
192917551762178817701767
193017591765178817991772
193116451636166416291644
193215021496154915091512
193314481434148414541453
193414641456147814661466

NOTE.—The indexes in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

EFFECTIVE WAGE-RATES.

The index numbers quoted in the foregoing discussion relate to nominal wage-rates — that is, they are based on actual money rates without any allowance being* made for changes in the purchasing - power of the monetary unit during the period under review. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance; for a rise in wage-rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit. Changes in the index numbers of retail prices are inversely proportional to changes in the purchasing-power of the pound; and index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage-rates can be arrived at by dividing the index numbers for nominal wage-rates by the corresponding index numbers for retail prices covering all groups of domestic expenditure. To this end the index numbers of nominal wage-rates on the base 1909–13 = 1000 are first converted to the base 1914 by dividing them by the correction factor 1–066, the 1914 index number of nominal wage-rates of males on the former base being 1066. The resulting nominal wage-rate index numbers on the new base are then divided by the retail price indexes (all groups) on base July, 1914 = 1000, and the resulting quotient multiplied by 1000 yields the effective wage-rate indexes for the years concerned.

These index numbers afford a measure of the fluctuations in the “real” wage-rates of those in full-time employment; and in normal times this is a reasonably accurate basis of comparison of the relative earning-power from year to year of wage-earners covered by these index numbers.

At the present time, however, with unemployment and short-time rife, it appears necessary to stress that the index number of effective wage-rates (in common, of course, with that of nominal wage-rates) is applicable only to wage-earners in full-time employment on standard rates of pay, and not to the average of all wage-earners, inclusive of those unemployed or working short time.

The following table compares nominal and effective wage-rates of male workers in each of the last ten years. The base of the index-numbers is in each case the year 1914 (= 1000):—

Year.Retail Prices.Nominal Wage-rates.Effective Wage-rates.
192515991556973
192616081579982
1927159416041006
1928160216561034
1929159916581037
1930156216651066
1931144315421069
1932133414181063
1933126613631077
1934128713751068

It should be noted that an unemployment-relief wages-tax (Id. for every 6s. 8d. of wages from August, 1931, to April, 1932, Id. for every Is. 8d. from May, 1932, to September, 1934, Id. for every 2s. from October, 1934, to September, 1935, and Id. for every 2s. 6d. from October, 1935) is now in operation. This has not been taken into account in the compilation of index numbers of effective wage-rates.

MOVEMENT IN INDIVIDUAL GROUPS.

The index numbers in the preceding tables being all on a common base, comparisons between movements in the various groups cannot be readily made; an increase of (say) 10 per cent, in the group “clothing and boots,“in which the index numbers are consistently low, being considerably smaller numerically than an increase of the same percentage in (say) the printing trade, where the index numbers are considerably higher. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly. The bases are the Dominion average wage-rates for each industrial group respectively, 1914 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WAGE-RATE INDEX NUMBERS (MALES).

Industrial Group.1914.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Food, drink, and tobacco100016151537144213871396
Clothing, boots, £c.100016841587151115161516
Textiles and weaving100017481598154415351536
Building and construction100015691479141013931386
Wood-manufacture100017531643156314791452
Printing, £c.100015631468139113351336
Metal-working and engineering100015821476139613201335
Other manufactures100017311627155515451526
Mining100016031509141913851410
Agricultural and pastoral100017851562125311471186
Land transport100016811575146014071449
Shipping and cargo-working100017141622153614901513
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service100014581375130012301235
Miscellaneous100017381636156315511553
All industrial groups combined100016651542141813631375

NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative percentage increases of wage-rates in the different industrial groups since 1914, not of the actual relative levels of wage-rates in the different industries.

Care must be exercised hi drawing inferences from this table, for, while horizontal comparisons are quite valid, the vertical comparison between the various groups is valid only in so far as it shows in which groups the greater or the smaller increases have been observed since the base period (1914 in tibia case). For example, nominal wage-rates of males in the “textile and weaving” group show in 1934 an increase of 53.6 per cent, since 1914, while those in the group “mining “have increased by only 41 0 per cent.; nevertheless wage-rates were higher in the latter group in 1934, having been considerably higher in 1914—the base year.

WAGE-RATES OF WOMEN WORKERS.

Index numbers showing movements in the wage-rates paid to women workers are compiled, using the award rates of the Arbitration Court as representative of the ruling rates of wages. A much smaller list of occupations is used than is the case in computing index numbers of wage-movements for male workers. Although only fourteen occupations are taken into consideration in the case of women workers, it has been ascertained that these occupations cover a large proportion of the total women in industry—more than sufficient to be a representative sample for measuring movements in wages. The weights used have been computed from the data as to occupations made available by the 1926 census results. In order to arrive at district weights the Dominion totals were split up in proportion to the numbers of women registered in the various unions in the different industrial districts.

The table following shows index numbers for women divided into the principal industries in which women workers are engaged. It should be remembered that domestic servants (numerically a very important branch of women workers) are not represented in the compilation of these indexes.

The highest index numbers are recorded in the “hotel and restaurant workers” group. The comparatively high figure for this industry is, no doubt, accounted for by the fact that board and lodging is a usual perquisite of hotel workers, while meals are usually provided for restaurant employees. The estimated value of these additions has been added to the money wage-rates hi this industry. Women, in general, receive lower money wages than men, so that the addition of board and lodging has the effect of raising wage-rates for women in a much greater proportion than the addition of the same perquisite does in the case of men. Indeed, wages for men in this group are low as compared with most other industries.

In the shop-assistants group the next highest level of wage-rates is recorded, followed by that for the printing trade. Wage-rates in the clothing and textiles trades are at a lower level than those in the other industries under review.

In the table following the base is the Dominion “all groups”weighted average of wage-rates, 1909–13 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WAGE-RATE INDEX NUMBERS (WOMEN).

Year.Clothing-trade Workers.Textile Workers.Printing-trade Workers.Hotel and Restaurant Workers.Shop Assistants.All groups combined.
1925144413641800208715871740
1926151414451806210415871740.
1927151415031808210916421790
1928151915031809211317541803
1929151915041809211317541803
1930151915091815211317541804
1931143114151710198916511698
1932138313431626187115781616
1933136413531508178515661566
1934136413531508178515631566

The all-groups index for 1934 shows a decrease of 13-2 per cent, from the peak level recorded in 1930, each group having shared in this downward movement. The greatest decrease since 1930 (16-9 per cent.) is recorded in the case of employees in the printing trade, while the lowest decrease (10-0 per cent.) is observed among textile workers.

AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES.

The following table shows the unweighed averages of award rates for the four principal districts. In cases where awards have been allowed to lapse under the provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, the ruling rates of wages are quoted. The estimated value of board and lodging has been added to the wages in those occupations where it is a usual perquisite of employment.

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY ADULT WAGE-RATES.

OccupationAverage Wage-rate (Four Principal Districts).
At 31st March.
1914.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.S.d.s.d.s.d.
Bakers—Journeymen55010009008610894889
Labourers4808067267110744745
Butchers—First shopmen72611610¾1052105210411041
Second shopmen6261050946946940940
Butter-factory employees—            
 Churning and buttermaking—            
  General hands526819739729727727
Flour-milling—Kilnmen480960865865865865
Assistant smuttermen480880792792792792
Rollermen5601000900900900900
Meat-freezing—            
 Slaughtermen (per 100 sheep)276400360300306336
 General hands540918826799799799
Meat-preserving—            
 Boners6201037923909909909
 Meat-preservers—Second men5969548510826826826
Sausage - casing making — General hands5889548510826826826
Aerated-waters and cordial making—            
 Cordial-makers589930839839839839
 Bottle-washers450830749749749749
Brewing—Labourers47836749749749749
Tailors—Journeymen539950856860860860
Factory hands560876789789789808
Tailoresses (factory)—Journeywoman276450406406406420
Boot operatives—            
 Male5268811800799799799
 Female journey women276500450440440440
Woollen-mills—            
 Males—Spinners510939845845845845
   General hands466826745745745745
Females—All adults26345040640640C406
Building and construction—            
 Bricklayers681046941931931931
 Carpenters641019917880880880
 Joiners (outside work)641019917880880880
 Plasterers671041938927927913
 Plumbers (registered)660990891893893893
 Builders' labourers52826743743743743
Sawmilling, bush—            
 Engine-drivers, first class5401046941822822868
 Sawyers53103493084118411865
 Tailers-out43989108011749749763
 Yardmen5510029028248248310
 General hands510869781706706729
Boatbuilding—Shipwrights6281046941880880880
Metal-works, £c.            
 Blacksmiths, floormen617990891823823823
 Boilermaking—Journeymen628990891823823823
 Iron and brass moulders64990891823823823
 Tinsmiths—Journeymen62.8990891891856856
Engineering—            
 Fitters, £c.64990891823823823
 Electrical workers6410½990891852852843
 Motor mechanics6411½990891808808844

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY ADULT WAGE-RATES—continued.

OccupationAverage Wage-rate (Four Principal Districts).
At 31st March.
1914.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.S.d.s.d.s.d.
Skin and leather workers—            
 Curriers5801020919919900891
General hands496858771771754746
Mineral and stone workers—
 Brickmakers5311½1042939939939913
 General hands46874787787787773
Mining (coal)—            
 Surface—Tippers538777810746733733
Labourers548777810756733733
Engine-drivers, first class676117610591020990990
 Miners on day wages63310610952908891891
Truckers5511936842816802802
Mining (gold)—            
 Miners in rises or winzes with machines646942849809809886
Quarrymen528576976976117611
Agricultural and pastoral workers—            
 General farm hands (agricultural)4206904554134244311
 Threshing-mill hands6009911970840840840
 Ploughmen484700488454469493
 Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)230300260226230276
 Shepherds492800491148.9493525
 Wool-pressers300826750640650750
Dairy-farm hands444690435413374443
Railways—            
 Engine-drivers (average grade 1 and grade 2)7501124101190119011956
 Firemen (average grade 1 and grade 2)6009458411766766809
 Guards (average grade 1 and grade 2)6301100990892892937
Tramways—Motormen536950856860874901
Conductors47906816816829850
Shipping and cargo-working—            
 Assistant stewards, first class435933831181117911829
 Assistant stewards, second class3669011811079107710807
 Chief cooks789125611211111010901134
 Second cooks541110719649459259511
 A.B. seamen5411992972880860885
 Ordinary seamen, first class458773753686666684
 Waterside workers—Ordinary cargo6241028925880880954
Hotel workers—Chefs (male)112613201189111011101110
Waiters (male)530870783729729729
Cooks (female)526796717663663663
Housemaids326626563519519519
Waitresses431626563519519519
Miscellaneous—            
 Soft-goods assistants (male)550950856856852852
 Soft-goods storemen (male)500850766766762762
 Grocers' assistants (male)500950856847847847
Warehouse storemen (male)489850766729729729

The wage-rates published above are, with certain exceptions, minimum rates of pay as prescribed in awards of the Arbitration Court. No awards exist for general farm hands, information as to wage-rates for these wage-earners being collected from Inspectors of Factories in the principal industrial districts. A special inquiry as to rates of pay in this industry was made by the Census and Statistics Office in 1929 to ascertain how closely the wage-rates offered for labour engaged through the Employment Bureaux corresponded to the actual ruling rates for farm labour. The results of this inquiry are contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 813–815). The rates of wages quoted for railway employees are also actual ruling rates, and not award minima.

HOURS OF LABOUR.

The following table shows index numbers of the number of hours constituting a full week's work in the various industrial groups for 1914 and for each year from 1930 to 1934. The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court in most cases; but where hours are not prescribed in the awards reference has been made to the Factories Act and the Shops and Offices Act. The agricultural and pastoral workers group has been omitted from the computations, which distinguish between male and female employees. For each sex, the base is the Dominion weighted average for all industrial groups combined, 1909–13 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1914.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
  Males.    
Food, drink, and tobacco1037942942942945945
Clothing, boots, £c.935894894894894894
Textiles and weaving976915915915915915
Building and construction909897897897897897
Wood-manufacture942926926926924920
Printing, £c.894869869869869869
Metal-working and engineering954901901901901901
Other manufactures1011971971971971971
Mining907888888888888888
Land transport983958958958958958
Shipping and cargo-working114911131113111311131113
Hotel, restaurant, and other1214976976976076976
 personal service      
Miscellaneous976952952952952952
   All industrial groups com-994944944944945944
    bined      
  Females.    
Clothing, boots, £c.872852852852852852
Textiles and weaving930872872872872872
Printing, £c.880852852852852852
Hotel, restaurant, and other1066930930930930930
personal service      
Miscellaneous1007930930930930930
All industrial groups com-970893893893893893
    bined      

NOTE.— The index numbers in each section of the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

The index numbers in the above table being all on a common base, comparisons between movements in the different groups cannot be readily made. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly, the 1909–13 average in the case of each group being taken as the base (= 1000) in each case for that group.

Industrial Group1909–13.1914.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
  Males.     
Food, drink, and tobacco1000986896896896899899
Clothing, boots, £c.10001000957957957957957
Textiles and weaving10001000937937937937937
Building and construction1000991977977977977977
Wood-manufacture1000998981981981979975
Printing, £c.10001000971971971971971
Metal-working and engineering1000997941941941941941
Other manufactures10001000961961901961961
Mining10001000979979979979979
Land transport1000998973973973973973
Shipping and cargo working..10001000969969969969969
Hotel, restaurant, and other1000995800800800800800
   personal service       
Miscellaneous1000985961961961961961
   All industrial groups com-1000994944944944945944
    bined       
  Females.     
Clothing, boots, £c.10001000978978978978978
Textiles and weaving10001000938938938938938
Printing, £c.10001000968968968968968
Hotel, restaurant, and other1000938819819819819819
   personal service       
Miscellaneous10001000923923923923923
All industrial groups com-1000970893893893893893
bined       

NOTE.— Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative percentage changes in the length of the working week in the different industries since the base period, not of the actual respective number of hours of the different industrial groups.

The following table shows the index numbers for the various districts. In spite of the fact that certain industries are more or less confined to certain districts and that, consequently, fluctuations arise from this fact alone, the index numbers show remarkably little variation as between district and district. As in the previous tables, each sex is treated separately, the base in each case being the Dominion weighted average for all industrial groups combined, 1909–13 (= 1000).

Year.Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Dominion.
  Males.   
191410031006970986994
1930947951936941944
1931947951936941944
1932947951936941944
1933948950936941945
1934948950935941944
  Females.   
1914976976978939970
1930896896897880893
1931896896897880893
1932896896897880893
1933896896897880893
1934896896897880893

NOTE.— The index numbers in each section of the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

As indicated by the foregoing tables, changes in the length of the full working week have been relatively few in recent years. The greatest number of hours in the normal working week is found in the case of workers aboard ship, the hours prescribed by award for cooks and stewards while at sea being nine hours per day for a seven-day working week. In butter and cheese factories also the nature of the work involves a seven-day week, the working week in butter-factories being 56 hours for six months of the year and 44 hours for the remainder of the year. In the case of cheese-factories some awards specify 60 hours per week at the height of the season, 48 hours for another portion of the year, and 38 hours in the slack season. It is interesting to note that in a recent award for cheese-factories in one district the principle of set hours has been partially abandoned, the hours prescribed being as follows : “During eight months of the year the time to be worked in cheese-factories each clay shall be the time required to complete the manufacture of cheese, having due regard to all the technicalities of the process. During two months of the year the time to be worked shall be 48 hours per week, and during the remaining two months the time to be worked shall be 44 hours per week.”

The hours of labour prescribed by awards for hotel and restaurant workers and shop-assistants are 48 per week, while in the engineering, building, and clothing trades a 44-hour week is normal. In coal-mines an eight-hour day is usual with no work on alternate Saturdays. The lowest hours per week among occupations coming within the scope of these index numbers are recorded in certain branches of the printing trade— e.g., linotype operators—where a 42-hour working week is prescribed by award.

Chapter 37. SECTION XXXVII.—LEGISLATION SPECIALLY AFFECTING LABOUR.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

AT a very early stage in the economic history of New Zealand, legislative enactments designed for the protection of the wage-earner and the amelioration of social conditions generally were placed on the statute-book. It is not surprising that such Acts as the Trade-unions Act of 1878 and the Master and Apprentices Act of 1865 found places among the laws of this country so early in its history, since experience in the older countries in a more advanced state of economic development had proved the necessity for a certain amount of State regulation of the terms of the wage contract. But legislators of New Zealand were not content merely to follow in the wake of their brethren overseas; and we find the State, in its endeavour to improve social conditions, not only regulating industry by a rapidly growing code of labour laws but also venturing into the economic field itself when it considered such participation in the public interest. The establishment of a Government Life Insurance Department in 1869 and of a Public Trust Office in 1873. and in later years the establishment of a State Fire Insurance Office, are examples of this.

In addition to the Master and Apprentices Act and the Trade-unions Act, certain sections of other early Acts deal with labour conditions. Section 23 of the Offences against the Person Act of 1867 protected servants and apprentices from ill-treatment by their employers, while a considerable portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act of 1877 regulated conditions of life aboard ship, payment of wages, &c. The Inspection of Machinery Act of 1882 provided for the inspection of machinery in factories, &c, and required that persons in charge of boilers should be properly qualified. An Employers' Liability Act was passed in 1882, this Act legislating in the matter of industrial accidents with the object of mitigating the consequences to the worker without recourse to expensive litigation at common law.

Until more recent times factory production was of very minor importance in New Zealand when compared with that of the agricultural and pastoral industries; nevertheless, even in the “eighties” and early “nineties” it was apparent that some of the evils experienced in the early stages of the development of factory production in the older countries already existed in New Zealand. In 1889 it was alleged that “sweating”existed in New Zealand, especially in the clothing trades; and, although a Commission set up to inquire into the matter declared it could find no traces of this evil, a minority report did not fully agree with this view, and it was admitted that conditions were unsatisfactory in various respects.

An important measure indirectly affecting labour passed during this period of stress was the Electoral Act of 1889, which established the principle of “one man one vote.” This enactment prevented property-owners with holdings in several electorates from voting in each electorate. The extension of the franchise to women followed four years later.

The maritime strike of 1890, which caused great distress throughout the country, proved to the trade-unions that they were not sufficiently strong to obtain their demands by direct action; and, at the same time, aroused public interest and caused the Legislature to frame measures designed to prevent the recurrence of such industrial strife in the future. A brief resume of the enactments affecting labour passed during the period 1890–98 is here given.

The Truck Act of 1891 ensured to the worker the payment of his wages in full in coin of the realm; the Wages Attachment Act of 1895 limited a creditor's right to obtain orders of Court attaching forthcoming earnings; the Factories Act of 1891 provided for the inspection of factories and the regulation of conditions of employment therein; and the Shops and Shop-assistants Act of 1892 provided similarly for the benefit of workers in shops. Trade-unionists, who were protected by an Act passed in 1878 from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that they were in restraint of trade, were still further protected by the Conspiracy Law Amendment Act of 1894, which laid down that any act by a union in furtherance of a trade dispute should not be deemed unlawful so as to render such persons liable to criminal prosecution for conspiracy, if such act committed by one person would not be deemed unlawful. This removed a very serious handicap under which unionists up to this time had suffered. The Servants Registry Act of 1895 provided for the inspection of servants registry-offices and regulated the fees charged therein. The Shipping and Seamen Act Amendment Act, 1894, contained, inter alia, sections improving conditions aboard ship. The Coal-mines Act of 1891 contained, in addition to sections aiming at the improvement of working-conditions, provision for a fund—to be established by a levy on all coal sold—for the relief of the families of miners killed or injured during the course of their employment. The inspection of accommodation provided for shearers was dealt with in the Shearers' Accommodation Act of 1898, which also gave the Inspectors authority to demand that, where necessary, improvements should be made. The scope of this Act was extended in 1907 to include agricultural labourers and flax-mill and sawmill hands. Other important measures, though not strictly labour legislation, passed during these years were the Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, which provided for the payment of a yearly pension to every person (with only a limited number of exceptions) over sixty-five years of age with twenty-five years' residence in the country; and the State Advances to Settlers Act of 1894, which, by providing for the advancing of money to settlers on the land, gave the poorer classes an opportunity of acquiring rural holdings.

The most important of the labour laws passed during this period was the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act of 1894, which was designed for the peaceful settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. This Act is dealt with in some detail in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 707–710).

Another interesting experiment brought into operation at this time was the construction of public works under the co-operative system, which was adopted by the Government in 1891. Works such as road and railway formation have been carried out by this system, the plant, explosives, &c, being supplied to the men by the State at cost price or at low hire. A modified form of the system then adopted is still followed in public works construction.

The enactments passed during the period 1890–98 form the nucleus of the labour code at present in force in this country, although in some cases administrative experience has found defects in the working of certain sections of these Acts and rendered subsequent amendments necessary; while the rapid economic development of the country and the growth of new ideas on the subject of labour legislation has led to many additions to the enactments passed during that period. The passing of the Labour Department Act in 1903, giving statutory recognition and powers to the Department of Labour, which had been formed in 1891, was an important milestone in the progress of labour legislation in New Zealand. The duties of the Department are to administer the labour laws and to furnish information in all industrial matters, while power is given to collect statistics with the authority wherewith a commission of inquiry is invested.

In 1905 a Workers' Dwellings Act was passed authorizing the Minister of Labour to erect dwellings to be let tobona fide workers at a rental of 5 per cent. per annum of the capital value of such dwellings, and in the following year a system of advances to workers for the purpose of acquiring homes was instituted. Later statutes dealing with the same subject followed(vide Section XXIIID). Certain sections of the War Legislation Amendment Act of 1916 dealt with house rents; the maximum rent being fixed by statute at 8 per cent, per annum of the capital value of the dwelling, except in cases where the dwelling had been erected, improved, or structurally altered since the commencement of the Great War. Material alterations in the law from 1st August, 1927, were made by the Rent Restriction Act, 1926, which also enacted a repeal of the whole legislation on the subject as from 1st January, 1928. A postponement of the changes to 1st May, 1928, was made by the Rent Restriction Continuance Act, 1927, which kept the rent-restriction provisions in force till 1st January, 1929. Further postponements in respect of the latter have since been made, the date of expiry now standing at 31st October, 1936.

In order to encourage the principle of profit-sharing among workers the Companies Empowering Act was passed in 1924 (now embodied in the consolidating and amending Companies Act, 1933) empowering any company registered under the Companies Act to issue labour shares to its employees. Such shares, which are not transferable, have no nominal value, and do not form part of the ordinary capital of the company. Except as otherwise provided, these shares entitle the holders to the same privileges as the ordinary shareholders. In the event of an employee leaving his employment or dying, the shares must be surrendered in cash or capital shares to him or to his heirs. The Act of 1924 required the Arbitration Court to inquire into the merits of each scheme before such scheme could be validated, but this requirement was repealed in 1931.

In 1910 an Act was passed establishing a National Provident Fund subsidized by the State; and in the following year the Widows' Pensions Act was placed on the statute-book. In 1926 a scheme of allowances to parents (in poor circumstances) of three or more children was provided for by the Family Allowances Act. These Acts are referred to in detail in Section XXIV of this book.

An important addition to the labour laws of New Zealand was made in 1930 by the passing of the Unemployment Act. Details of this enactment and of its amendments are given later on in this section.

With but few exceptions, the labour legislation on the New Zealand statute-book is designed for the protection of individual sections of workers; for example, the Factories Act applies to factory workers, the Shops and Offices Act to employees in shops and offices, the labour sections of the Shipping and Seamen Act to seamen, and the Coal-mines Act to miners, &c. The Arbitration Act has a wider scope in that awards are made under it covering almost every type of industry carried on in the country. From another point of view, however, it is specific in application, in that only unions registered under the Act come under its provisions, and that each award applies to a particular body of workers in a particular trade and usually in a definite district or locality. Acts like the Workers' Compensation Act are more general in their application, but it is only such enactments as the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act (which has replaced the old Wages Protection Act), as well as other statutes on cognate subjects, which are general in application. Certain sections of the Bankruptcy Act, which give priority of payment for wages or salaries of workers (with certain limitations as to amount and period) in preference to certain other debts in the case of the bankruptcy of an employer, fall in the same category. Under the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, wages now take precedence over rents. Under the Companies' Act wages (with the same limitations as under the Bankruptcy Act) are a first claim on the assets of a company being wound up.

In no case do the provisions laid down by any particular labour law cancel the worker's rights at common law; but since, naturally enough, better conditions are laid down by statute than the worker is entitled to at common law, it is unusual to find in these days litigation under the common law affecting master and servant. It sometimes happens, however, notably in workers' compensation cases, that appeal is made at common law instead of under the Act, since there are no statutory limits to the damages which may be obtained at common law.

Since, with the exception of such of the labour statutes as are of general application, no labour legislation exists affecting certain classes of workers—e.g., domestic servants —their relations with their employers are still governed mainly by the common law affecting master and servant.

PRINCIPAL LABOUR LAWS.

Following is a list of the more important Acts dealing partially or exclusively with the regulation of conditions of employment and cognate subjects:—

  1. Factories Act, 1921–22.

  2. Shops and Offices Act, 1921–22.

  3. Workers' Compensation Act, 1922.

  4. Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act, 1908.

  5. Scaffolding and Excavation Act, 1922. Apprentices Act, 1923.

  6. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925.

  7. Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1913.

  8. Unemployment Act, 1930.

  9. Shipping and Seamen Act (certain sections), 1908.

  10. Mining Act (certain sections), 1926.

  11. Coal-mines Act (certain sections), 1925.

Each of the Acts listed above is reviewed in some detail in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 705–-716).

RECENT AMENDMENTS TO LABOUR LEGISLATION.

During the past two years several laws designed to mitigate the severity of the economic depression have been enacted. Certain of these laws formulate definite amendments to the previously existing code of labour legislation, while other enactments which cannot, however, be classed as labour laws, affect wage-earners in common with other sections of the community. Among the latter, the following emergency measures may be cited : The Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1933, a consolidation and amendment of legislation for the relief of mortgagors and tenants first passed in 1931, which,inter alia, empowers the Courts to vary the terms of a mortgage; and the Immigration Restriction Act, 1931, which empowers the Governor-General to make regulations restricting the number of immigrants entering the country.

The former Act, originally expiring at the end of 1935, was continued indefinitely by legislation during the 1934–35 session. The latter Act lapses on the 31st December, 1936, unless again extended. Again, certain sections of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, continued by the Finance Act, 1934, enforce a temporary reduction in rents and interest on mortgages; also reductions in old-age and other pensions (since wholly or partially restored), and in family allowances paid under the Family Allowances Act.

Recent amendments to laws directly regulating wages and working-conditions are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs:—

Finance Act, 1931.—Part I of this Act reduced salaries, wages, &c., of persons in the Public Service by 10 per cent. In Part II of the Act the Arbitration Court is empowered to amend, by general order, awards or industrial agreements with respect to rates of remuneration. The Court is also empowered to amend apprenticeship orders in respect of rates of wages.

National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.—This Act included provision for a further reduction in salaries, &c, of persons in the Public Service; salaries and wages not exceeding £225 per annum being reduced by.5 per cent., while those of £225 to £720 were reduced by 10 per cent.; those exceeding £720 by 12J per cent.; and, in addition, certain specific reductions of 15 per cent, were made. A restoration of 5 per cent, of the (reduced) salaries of persons in the Public Service and in old-age pensions was made by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1934. The Finance Act, 1935, provided for a further similar restoration of 7£ per cent, in Public Service salaries, and gave complete or partial restoration in the case of various classes of pensions.

Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932.—This Act amends the law in two important respects.

In the first place, the Act as now amended provides for compulsory conciliation but voluntary arbitration among unions registered. If an agreement is made between employers' and workers' representatives at Conciliation Council proceedings, such agreement is registered under the Act and becomes binding on both parties. In the event of no agreement being arrived at, the dispute may be forwarded by mutual consent to the Arbitration Court for decision; but if the parties fail to agree to either of these courses, the award lapses thirty days after the breakdown of conciliation proceedings. An exception is made, however, in the case of female workers. Upon application by an industrial union the Court will issue an order fixing minimum rates of wages that may be paid to female workers, notwithstanding the fact that the award covering these workers has been cancelled.

Secondly, the Act now makes provision for the review of existing awards. Any union (of employers or workers) may apply for the review of an existing award in force not less than six months, and with an unexpired term of not less than three months. Such an application is to be set down for hearing by the Conciliation Council as an industrial dispute.

Unemployment Act, 1930, and Amendments of 1931, 1932, and 1934.—Particulars of the taxation provisions of the Unemployment Act, 1930, as amended in 1931, 1932, and 1934, are given in Section XXIIIB of this volume. One-half of the total expenditure from the Unemployment Fund was originally borne by the Consolidated Fund by way of subsidy, but this provision in the Act was repealed in an amending Act in 1932.

An Unemployment Board is established to assist in the administration of the Act. An outline of its relief measures appears in Section XXXIX of this volume.

The Act of 1930 authorizes the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund, but the activities of the Board have been directed towards the placing of men in employment in preference to the payment of sustenance, the funds being mainly devoted to the subsidizing (or refunding in full) of wages of men for whom work has been provided under various relief schemes. The 1932 amendment authorizes the Unemployment Board to expend moneys in the purchase of food, clothing, or other necessities; and since the passing of this amendment ration-cards have been issued in necessitous cases as a supplement to payment for relief work. Sustenance allowances are, however, now paid to men over fifty who elect to receive sustenance (at a considerably lower rate of payment than is made to relief workers); while, in a number of other cases, sustenance payments are made where it has been found impossible to provide relief employment for men able to take such employment if it were offering. A 1934 amendment to the Act, inter alia, repeals a subsection to the original Act which, in effect, limited to a maximum of thirteen weeks the unbroken period during which sustenance might be paid to any one individual.

The employment of an unregistered person or of a person who is more than one month in arrears with any instalment of levy is an offence under the Act.

Finance Act, 1932.—-Section 50 of this Act makes provision for the amendment, suspension, or cancellation of contracts of apprenticeship entered into under the Apprentices Act, 1923. On application of any party a Stipendary Magistrate may vary the terms of, suspend, or cancel such a contract; provided the Magistrate is satisfied that, owing to the economic conditions affecting the industry, the employer cannot be reasonably expected to carry out the terms of the contract.

Chapter 38. SECTION XXXVIII.—TRADE-UNIONS.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN New Zealand dual provision for the registration and protection of unions of workers and employers exists in the Trade-unions Act and the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

Provision was made under section 7. subsection (17), of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1900 (now section 17 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925), for the furnishing of an annual return showing the number and membership of unions registered under the Act. It is from this return (vide Parliamentary Paper H.-ll) that the tables in this section have been compiled. Very little data are available as to registration of unions under the Trade-unions Act, which is now practically inoperative. Several of the few unions still registered under this Act are also registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS.

The numbers and membership of industrial unions of employers registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act as at the end of each of the last five years are shown in the following table.

 Industrial District. 
As at 31st DecemberNorthern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Totals.
   Number of Unions.   
1930313331287222136   
1931303229287221131   
1932283129277221127   
1933283230277231130   
1934273229267331128   
    Membership.    
19301,1601,1871,4781,787173611635,865  
19311,1301,0571,1591,268176751234,880  
19329679411,239840172801234,254  
19331,0028031,116764159842833,959  
19349858641,140854156772834,107  

The number of unions of employers and their membership rose gradually to 149 unions, with 5,819 members, in 1914, the year following that of the prolonged waterside workers' strike. Since that year there have been many slight variations, and considerable decreases in membership were recorded in 1931, 1932, and 1933.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF WORKERS.

Industrial unions of workers and their membership are shown in the following table as at the end of each of the last five years. It should be noted that the statistics cover only unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and that all unions are not so registered.

In drawing inferences from the table allowance must be made for the fact that, since these figures represent the numbers on the rolls of the various unions, a certain amount of duplication takes place, as it is possible for a worker to be a member of two or more unions at the one time, especially in the case of a casual occupation such as waterside working. It is impossible to form any idea as to the extent to which such duplication takes place; but it is very unlikely that it occurs to such an extent as to affect materially the total figures.

The membership of workers' unions rose year by year, without exception, from 17,989 in 1900 to 73,991 in 1914. It fell off during the war years, but a phenomenal rise was recorded in 1919, the year immediately following the cessation of hostilities. The total for 1928 (103,980) is the highest so far recorded. Decreases in membership were recorded annually from 1928 to 1933, a slight recovery being apparent in 1934.

As at 3lst December,  Industrial District.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Totals.*
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury. 
* Including unions of railway employees—not included in figures for any district. 
   Number of Unions. 
193010180711001991716416     
19311007769961991715405     
1932977767962071815400     
19331008170961771815407     
19341008068951781815404     
Membership.     
193026,01225,46316,86614,5571,8305967812,581101,526     
193123,23822,48415,65112,4731,7955757621,94690,526     
193219,80019,06813,24711,9891,6844676241,62779,283     
193318,75216,50911,86310,5641,2794965841,79071,888     
193419,43416,73812,14010,8511,2405226151,89774,391     

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership :—

Year.Under 50.50 and under 100.100 and under 200.200 and under 300.300 and under 500.500 and under 1,000.1,000 and under 2,000.2,000 and under 3,000.8,000 and over.Totals.
Number of Unions.
1901994330195411..202
19301498472273426203..416
193116277583130291431405
193216974583129251121400
19331688552412824711407
193416880563728231011404
Membership.
19012,7593,0181 4,0324,3152,073I 2,5201,6512,900..23,768
19303,9916,0719,9736,72613,36018,99126,6326,8578,925101,526
19311,3045,6657,9667,57811,244120,60218,5666,7447,85790,526
19324,2645,2107,7497,62211,143116,84814,2874,6607,50079,283
19334,1885,9706,7689,97710,20616,2779,6432,0866,77371,888
19344,2505,5387,6258,90010,48315,94212,8642,2006,58974,391
Percentage of Total Membership.
190111.6112.7016.9620.268.7210.606.9512.20..100.00
19303.945.989.826.6213.1618.7126.236.758.79100.00
19314.756.268.808.3712.4222.7620.517.458.68100.00
19325.386.579.779.6114.0521.2518.025.889.47100.00
19335.838.309.4113.8814.2022.6413.412.909.43100.00
19345.717.4510.2511.9614.0921.4317.292.968.86100.00

The steady growth in the average size of industrial unions of workers is brought out in the above table. It is noteworthy that while the actual number of unions has increased from 202 in 1901 to 404 in 1934, an increase of 100 per cent., the membership has increased from 23,768 to 74,391, an increase of 213 per cent. The increase in membership in unions containing 300 members and over is particularly marked. It will be noticed that between 1932 and 1933 a decrease of 4,644 is shown in the membership of visions containing one thousand to two thousand members, the number of such unions falling from eleven to seven. This decrease is accounted for by the cancellation of registration by certain large unions.Several new unions were registered in individual localities carrying workers previously included in the wider organizations, and this is reflected in the increase in membership of unions containing between two hundred and three hundred members.

INDUSTRIAL AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

In the next table industrial unions of employers as at the end of 1934 are shown according to industry, and membership according to industry and district.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions
NorthernWellingtonCanterburyOtago and SouthlandTaranakiMarboroughNelsonWestlandTotals
Food, drink, &c.26524217222939......94723
Clothing, boots, &c.3443291112..8..13711
Building and construction6418019916215......62025
Wood-manufacture743339..........1499
Paper - manufacture and printing6746284010......19113
Metal-working and engineering41142528........1087
Mining, &c.1....5........63
Agricultural and pastoral1912304533086060....1,30211
Land transport75401410....14..1535
Shipping and cargo-working13282612996310613
Hotels, restaurants, &c.160..101..118...2804
Miscellaneous..25449........1054
Totals9358641,140854156772834,107128

The most noteworthy feature of this table is the extremely high membership of unions of agricultural and pastoral employers. As will be seen from the table immediately following, this is in marked contrast to the position respecting unions of workers, a position due no doubt to the fact that many small farmers belong to the employers' unions. The workers, on the other hand, are almost entirely seasonal workers, especially in the case of the majority of those unionized—viz., the shearers and the threshing-mill employees. In these cases the workers travel round and work for several employers in the one season.

Similar information to that given for industrial unions of employers is now given for workers' unions, as at the end of 1934.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions
NorthernWellingtonCanterburyOtago and SouthlandTaranakiMarboroughNelsonWestlandTotals
*Including three unions of railway employees, with a total membership of 9,822.
Food, drink, &c.3,1532,7461,3121,3915488041..9,27174
Clothing, boots, &c.1,4821,0641,190895......114,64818
Textiles and weaving50216324537........1,1274
Building and construction1,6602,0651,08494911415159457,59155
Wood-manufacture75141928266025..201,0203,17723
Paper - manufacture and printing737951507544....12182,76917
Metal - working and engineering8201,07994269875..44293,68726
Other manufactures38818925531836..30..1,22231
Mining, Are&1,596....353......3462,29516
Agricultural and pastoral9561,0642,4191,191..247....5,87710
Land transport1,1051,236797530323646..13,610*25*
Shipping and cargo-working2,3743,6608191,143237501412618,68542
Hotels, restaurants, &c.2,2001,2521,0797151207690655,5979
Miscellaneous2,1021,0295249215318261024,83554
Totals19,43417,87012,14010,8511,2405226151,89774,391404

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS.

At 31st December, 1934, there were 13 industrial associations of employers and 31 of workers, the former having 65 affiliated unions and the latter 207. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case.

Industrial Group.Employers.Workers.
Associations.Affiliated Unions.Associations.Affiliated Unions.
1933.1934.1933.1934.1933.1934.1933.1934.
Food, drink, &c.11222266
Clothing, boots, &c.1143221213
Textiles and weaving....1..1144
Building and construction382221554548
Wood-manufacture2277221111
Paper-manufacture and printing221212321312
Metal-working and engineering1144542520
Other manufactures........1133
Mining, &c.........1122
Agricultural and pastoral1134........
Land transport........1199
Shipping and cargo-working111010443838
Hotels, restaurants, &c.........1199
Miscellaneous1122553432
Totals131366653331211207

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an analysis of the proportion of workers belonging to unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to the total number of wage-earners in the country (from Census returns). The percentages at five-yearly intervals 1900–25 were: 8, 11, 19, 24, 26, 24. Considering the proportions at the end of 1925, the lowest ratio of unionists was amongst agricultural and pastoral workers (6 per cent.), and the highest, shipping and cargo-working (67 per cent.), building and construction (65 per cent.), and food and drink, &c. (61 per cent.).

Chapter 39. SECTION XXXIX.— EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT.

INTRODUCTORY.

EXCEPT for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available.

Unemployment was well known to have been acute in the middle and late “sixties,” owing to the paralysing effect of the Maori wars in the North Island and to the collapse of the alluvial-gold booms in Otago and Westland. At no time, however, during the depression of the late “sixties” does there appear to have been any unemployment among females. With the inauguration at the beginning of the “seventies” of the Vogel policy of public works and assisted immigration, employment was available for large numbers of new arrivals. At the beginning of the “eighties” scarcity of funds for the prosecution of public works necessitated, along with other considerations, the checking for a space of the stream of assisted immigrants. By 1883 the position had materially improved; but unemployment once more became serious in the late “eighties” and early “nineties,” mainly owing to the fall in the prices that New Zealand's products (notably wool) were fetching in the World's markets, and to a further slackening of the rate of prosecution of public works. During both of these periods the unemployment position was so acute as to be responsible for a considerable exodus of male population to Australia and elsewhere.

Direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand is available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Labour Department (since 1896). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade-unionists (from trade-union secretaries), and of monthly employment in factories and works, have been collected in recent years by the Census and Statistics Office— the former from 1925 to 1930 and the latter from 1926.

CENSUS DATA ON UNEMPLOYMENT.

The great disadvantage of the Census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only.

Census.Number of Males Unemployed.Proportion per Thousand Male Wage-earners.
12 April, 189614,759100
31 March, 19018,46748
12 April, 19068,18939
2 April, 19117,15230
15 October, 19165,92026
17 April, 192111,06139
20 April, 192610,69434

A more comprehensive survey of unemployment than had previously been attempted was made at the 1926 census: a concise description of the results is contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 850–56), while full statistics are published in Volume X of the results of the 1926 census.

EMPLOYMENT BUREAUX OF LABOUR DEPARTMENT.

The creation of the Labour Department in 1891 has not only assisted to deal directly with the problem of unemployment, but has been the means of useful statistical data being obtained and recorded. The figures relating to the activities of the employment bureaux of the Department do not show the full volume of unemployment, but they may safely be regarded as roughly symptomatic of the general situation.

The following table shows the numbers of the unemployed assisted to employment from year to year by the Labour Department. The figures exclude the operations of the Women's Employment Branch of the Department, which was twice created (not under identical names) on occasions when there was a dearth of employment for women, and twice discontinued as urgency passed:—

Year ended 31st March,Number assisted.
* Excluding those engaged under Unemployment Board's No. 5 scheme.
18922,593
18933,874
18943,371
18953,030
18962,871
18971,718
18982,035
18992,115
19002,147
19013,124
19021,830
19033,704
19042,860
19053,130
19066,712
19077,393
19086,305
190910,391
19108,506
19117,102
19125,735
19135,848
19145,645
19157,515
19165,978
19172,966
19182,952
19193,199
19204,205
19213,364
19224,989
19233,987
19243,877
19253,890
19263,397
192710,268
192815,246
192916,363
193021,890
193130,223
1932*18,328
1933*29,942
1934*24,343
1935*16,256

UNEMPLOYMENT IN RECENT YEARS.

Commencing with 1926, unemployment, particularly during the winter months, assumed substantial proportions, in spite of steps taken by the Government, local bodies, and private organizations to provide work. In 1929 and 1930 matters reached a' stage which led to the passing of the Unemployment Act, 1930, the main provisions of which are given elsewhere in this book.

The slackness in industry and trade already evident when the Unemployment Act came into force intensified greatly during 1931, 1932, and the earlier portion of 1933. During 1931, indeed, the number of applicants on the registers totally unprovided for increased steadily, despite the fact that increasing numbers were being engaged under the various schemes of the Unemployment Board. In 1932 and 1933 the placements of men on relief work more than offset the number of new registrations, so that the number of men unprovided for fell considerably. The improvement in business conditions commencing late in 1933 is reflected in the table hereunder, showing the numbers on the unemployment registers. The maximum for each year is indicated by heavy type.

Date.Number on Unemployment Registers.
1930. 
17th February2,449
20th May3,388
18th August5,639
17th November6,768
15th December11,442
1931. 
16th February22,842
18th May17,698
17th August49,132
5th October51,408
18th November48,795
1932. 
15th February45,071
16th May52,451
15th August56,402
12th September56,498
19th November52,899
1933. 
18th February50,356
20th May54,998
22nd July57,352
19th August56,914
18th November51,175
1934. 
17th February45,217
19th May45,851
18th August50,532
1st September50,711
17th November46,638
1935. 
16th February43,047
18th May45,735
17th August51,079

The preceding table shows the position at quarterly intervals. It should be noted that men receiving relief under Scheme 5 of the Unemployment Board—the major individual scheme in point of numbers engaged—still remain on the unemployment registers, and are included in the figures shown. In the compilation of the statistics care is taken to exclude from the figures of applications remaining on the books all cases of applicants for employment from whom the Department of Labour has not heard for fourteen days, on the assumption that such applicants have obtained employment through other means.

An analysis of men on the registers into the principal occupational groupings during the first complete week in each quarter is set out below.

Date.Building Tradesmen.Engineering Tradesmen.Other Skilled Tradesmen.Labourers and Quarrymen.Farm Hands.Motel and Restaurant Workers and Cooks.Others.Total.**
* Includes cases unspecified as to classification.
1932.        
Mar. 75,7732,0085,24919,9742,0307108,17944,368
June 136,5892,1646,33625,3653,1498329,68754,122
Sept. 127,3752,2236,20125,0863,29985111,46356,498
Dec. 106,4211,9755,73122,1462,58481711,24352,510
1933.        
Mar. 116,3651,8736,14621,0522,44178110,94950,409
June 106,6051,9676,57723,9373,38895510,88455,993
Sept. 96,4901,8546,61224,9613,30192712,73656,881
Dec. 95,1771,5195,34721,4052,76987611,61048,703
1934.        
Mar. 105,0531,3175,11019,6882,22985410,64244,893
June 95,1251,2304,74021,2202,63087810,85246,675
Sept. 85,2141,2655,44923,1532,73094711,69150,449
Dec. 84,4981,1604,75920,9962,30390310,39545,014

Commencing with January, 1935, a more detailed classification according to occupation is available, and is given hereunder. The figures are as on the last working-day of the months specified :—

 March, 1935.June, 1935.Sept., 1935.
Bakers238261253
Butchers and freezing-works employees8271,0951,225
Building and construction—   
Carpenters2,1402,0671,961
Others2,5832,6762,758
Clerks1,1201,1481,246
Clothing- and boot-manufacture572598672
Commercial travellers and salesmen1,1141,1691,178
Hotels and personal service—   
Cooks and chefs423476492
Others706715718
Drivers (motor and horse) and carriers1,9122,0342,164
Engine-drivers406473420
Engineering—   
General and electric1,3981,3741,310
Motor and cycle644710661
Farming—   
Labourers2,0442,3852,310
Others1,5871,9051,937
Joinery and furniture749695702
Labourers, general17,12419,97921,118
Miners1,7961,7901,964
Profession, n.e.i.463446471
Sawmill employees452517514
Seamen, firemen, &c.9019801,064
Shopkeepers and shop-assistants935861926
Storemen and packers631703694
Waterside workers248305634
Other occupations2,5233,3243,481
Totals43,53648,68650,873

The seasonal variation in unemployment is illustrated below. The average number of men on the registers during each month of the years 1930 to 1934 is expressed as a percentage of the average number so registered during the five years 1930–34.

Month.1930.1931.1932.1033.1934.
January633114132120
February654113127114
March782113127113
April995120131113
May1199132138115
June13112136141119
July14119139144125
August14124142144127
September15129141142127
October15128139138123
November17123134130118
December24116132122113
Average for year13102132135119

The normal seasonal fluctuation is obscured in 1930 owing to the large increase in registrations consequent on the inauguration of the Unemployment Board's relief schemes, but in the four following years it again emerges, the maxima for the respective years occurring in the July-September period. The year 1933 was the first since 1929 in which the number at the end was less than that in the beginning, and the latter part of this period may be taken as the beginning of a definite downward trend in unemployment registrations.

Considerable interest attaches to the relative extent of unemployment in the major centres of population. In view of the fact that the areas served by the city bureaux vary considerably as between the four chief centres, the next table has been compiled on an urban-area basis, the figures quoted representing in each case the numbers on the unemployment registers at all bureaux or post-offices within the boundaries of the urban area.

NUMBER ON UNEMPLOYMENT REGISTERS.

Week endedUrban Areas.Rest of Dominion.Total.
Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.
1932.      
Mar. 78,8176,7324,6313,48320,70544,368
June 69,6097,1765,1973,67723,36854,027
Sept. 510,1796,8735,5123,82430,06856,456
Dec. 39,7906,5725,7043,63927,08052,785
1933.      
Mar. 410,2646,2505,5613,29124,78950,155
June 310,9066,9415,7843,40628,92855,965
Sept. 211,3667,1116,1703,37428,88056,901
Dec. 210,2396,5425,8302,94723,94849,506
1934.      
Mar. 39,9386,1995,3842,67420,99845,193
June 29,7266,2865,6202,40922,28846,329
Sept. 110,9056,7436,1602,48124,42250,711
Dec. 110,1166,2635,8862,17321,10645,544
1935.      
Jan. 1210,3116,1795,9632,03820,30944,800
Feb. 210,2365,9125,7531,91519,70143,517
Mar. 210,1975,9195,6201,82019,73343,289
April 610,1855,9595,6401,86520,29243,941
May 410,1586,1545,8431,95920,98645,100
June 110,1996,2576,1512,06221,99346,662
July 610,3986,2946,6422,24823,81149,393
Aug. 310,7616,3786,7522,39624,34250,629
Aug. 3110,6966,4556,7682,53924,61451,072

On the basis of numbers on the unemployment registers, the peak level of unemployment was reached in Auckland on 30th September, 1933, with 11,410 men on the registers; in Wellington on 11th January, 1932, with 7,610; in Dunedin on 16th May, 1931 (3,952); while Christchurch had two peaks approximately equal—viz., 5th August, 1933 (6,196), and 6th October, 1934 (6,210). Dunedin is the only one of the chief centres to show a consistent decline since the middle of 1932, and Wellington is the only other chief centre that has fewer men on the register at the present time than at the beginning of 1932.

In making comparisons between individual centres, it is necessary to take cognizance of relative populations. The following table is of interest in this connection:—

Urban Area.Estimated Population, 1st April, 1935.Number on Unemployment Registers.
31st August, 1935.Peak Level.
Number.Per l000 Inhabitants.Number.Per 1000 Inhabitants.
Auckland223,20010,6904811,41052
Wellington148,1006,455447,61053
Christchurch132,2006,768516,21048
Dunedin89,1002,539283,95245

It should be remembered that only males are registered at the Employment Bureaux of the Labour Department, so that the figures quoted in this section do not take account of unemployment among women. Although no recent data are available as to the number of women and girls unemployed, this aspect of the unemployment problem is also serious, and a special committee was set up by the Unemployment Board in 1931 to co-operate with voluntary organizations in the relief of unemployment among women; and grants have been since made from the Board's funds for this purpose.

The major relief scheme—in point of numbers engaged—administered by the Unemployment Board is the provision of part-time work by the payment of wages of men employed on relief works by local bodies (Scheme 5). Men provided with relief work under this scheme remain on the unemployment registers of the Labour Department, while men engaged in other employment subsidized from the Unemployment Fund an removed from the registers. The Board has devoted -considerable attention to the transfer of men from relatively unproductive parttime relief to more directly productive subsidized employment schemes.

The table in the next page covers all men remaining on the unemployment registers, plus those not on the registers but in employment which is subsidized from the Unemployment Fund. While the data on this basis is informative as indicating the extent of the Board's operations, the total under the care of the Board includes large numbers of men in full-time employment—in many cases in their own industries, and with only a small percentage of their wages paid out of moneys provided by the Unemployment Fund. In some schemes—e.g., the building-subsidy scheme—wages are not directly paid or subsidized from the fund, the subsidy being granted for the job.

The Unemployment Board has recently decided to recast its statistics of men coming within the scope of its operations so as to present a truer picture of unemployment. Figures on the amended system are not ready in time for inclusion in this issue of the Year-Book, but will be found in the November, 1935, number of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Date.Engaged under Board's Schemes.In Receipt of sustenance without workTotal under Care of Unemployment BoardUnplaced or Ineligible for ReliefTotal remaining on Registers
In Full-time employment(other than under Scheme 5).*Under Scheme No. 5.
Full Time.Part Time.
Gold- prospectingOther.

* Including varying numbers on gold-prospecting, latterly not more than 100.

† Approximate.

1931.        
June305,80038,60038,60038,600..44,4006,70045,264
September303,19043,80043,80043,800..46,9906,70051,375
December 316,98540,30040,30040,300....47,2854,80045,140
1932.        
March319,12038,40038,40038,400..47,5207,00045,383
June3014,35046,85046,85046,850..61,2007,45054,342
September3017,8681,24147,94847,948..67,0576,53955,728
December2416,6571,27446,15146,151..64,0825,19952,624
1933.         
January2115,1621,31945,11245,112..61,5936,27252,703
February1815,4261,46943,49343,493..60,3885,39450,356
March1815,9311,76243,37443,374..61,0675,58550,721
April 1")..10,1592,30844,41044,410....62,9435,31252,000
May1315,9502,63740,08540,085..64,6725,83054,552
June1016,9252,85447,33747,337..67,1165,80255,993
July818,0012,81848,70448,704..69,5235,51157,033
August520,7782,96949,21949,219..72,9665,12557,313
September221,7263,08540,299....74,1104,51756,901
September3023,1453,1293,70945,043..75,0174,30156,173
October2825,4143,2333,70043,893..76,2493,33854,173
November2525,9973,1903,66340,211..73,0613,07650,140
December2323,5893,4073,69038,057..68,7432,96048,114
1934.        
January2022,0753,3733,33930,936..65,7234,19847,846
February1723,3993,3232,19135,485..64,3084,22045,219
March1721,9963,4143,52933,329..62,2684,54944,821
April1421,8613,4213,45533,072..61,8094,80044,748
May1219,8433,4103,49233,468..60,2135,32745,697
June915,9583,4393,81334,024..57,2345,40346,679
July715,6553,4554,15633,7393,62860,6334,17849,156
August416,0013,5754,34333,5584,97462,4513,84050,290
September115,8053,5334,50033,4265,74863,0123,50450,711
September2914,7353 5384,63133,0165,56961,4893,27250,920
October2713,9683,4564,59730,8756,43159,3272,73548,094
November2413,3863,3854,37829,2276,06350,4392,91045,963
December2212,5153,2514,45628,5625,92354,7072,13144,323
1935.        
January1910,9463,2774,50927,2186,13652,0863,28044,420
February1010,2633,1524,64625,1256,94850,1343,18743,058
March1010,0643,2074,52224,3418,21150,3453,15343,434
April139,7793,2064,14724,7458,86650,7433,29244,256
May119,5073,2563,91725,5079,87452,0612,84745,401
June89,3153,2564,21725,18811,26253,2413,02546,951
July09,5893,2814,38825,46812,84255,5683,41440,393
August39,7483,2744,38825,72314,43857,5712,80650,629
August319,7343,1774,70225,26515,34758,2252,58151,072

In studying the above table the following considerations should be borne in mind :—

  1. The provision of employment for women and juveniles is outside the scope of the relief schemes of the Unemployment Board. While the farm employment subsidy schemes contain certain limited provision for the employment of youths, registration and employment under these schemes are, in the main, confined to adult males only.

  2. The Board has been forced by consideration of finance to limit assistance to cases where hardship would otherwise be suffered. Consequently, a number of unemployed men whose present financial position would debar them from receiving relief would not trouble to register as unemployed.

  3. The total remaining on the registers includes men in full-time employment under Scheme No. 5, but not those in full-time subsidized employment under other schemes.

UNEMPLOYMENT RELIEF.

Immediately unemployment began to be seriously felt in the winter of 1926, steps were taken by the State and by local authorities to absorb as much labour as possible on ordinary public works and on relief works. One of the first enactments of the 1926 session of Parliament was the Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment) Act (repealed in 1932) which empowered local authorities, without taking a poll of the ratepayers, to borrow moneys for the purpose of providing relief works for unemployed men.

In addition to providing direct employment as far as possible, the State further assisted by subsidizing expenditure by local authorities. In spite of the efforts of the general and local governments, however, unemployment continued in evidence; and, with a view to remedying the situation, the Government undertook, in September, 1929, to find employment within a specified time for all genuinely unemployed men, provided that they registered at the Government labour bureaux and were willing and able to accept the work offered.

As will be realized from a survey of the recent statistics included in the immediately preceding pages, the magnitude of unemployment has grown very considerably since the beginning of 1930. The question of providing some permanent solution of the problem has received a good deal of attention, and in 1928, arising out of a recommendation of the National Industrial Conference of that year, a committee was set up to go fully into the matter. Following on the report of this committee, an Unemployment Act was passed in the 1930 session of Parliament. References to this enactment and its amendments are contained elsewhere in this volume.

The Unemployment Board under the Act of 1930 and subsequent amendments comprises the Minister of Employment (Chairman), the Commissioner of Unemployment, and three other members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is Deputy Chairman of the Board. Full details of the operations of the Board will be found it its annual reports to Parliament, a brief résumé of its main activities being given below.

SUSTENANCE.

For nearly three years after the constitution of the Unemployment Board all applicants for relief from the Unemployment Fund were obliged to perform some kind of work in return for relief pay. While endeavours were made as far as possible to provide full-time employment for unemployed—on a subsidized basis, if necessary—there was a large residuum of applicants for relief for which part-time relief employment had to be found, with the co-operation of local authorities. Towards the end of 1933 it became evident that local employing authorities, particularly in the main urban areas, where over 50 per cent, of relief workers on a rationed basis are domiciled, were reaching the end of their resources, both from a financial point of view in meeting supervision and other costs and by reason of difficulty in finding suitable work.

One of the main difficulties arose in the continued provision of suitable light work for those of the unemployed who were unfit for heavy manual labour. Many local bodies were also faced with the position that all their useful works of a nature applicable to the absorption of relief labour under the Board's rules were rapidly nearing completion. From this state of affairs it was only a short step to the employment of relief workers on essential jobs in the nature of ordinary maintenance. There was only one alternative, and, in order to meet the position which arose, the Board was forced to review its stated policy that sustenance without work would not be granted.

For obvious reasons sustenance payments could not be granted on the same scales as relief pay, and those workers whom it was impossible to place on approved relief works were therefore granted sustenance in proportion to the ration of relief they would have been eligible for, but on a slightly lower scale. Every effort was made to rotate work and sustenance so that the men should not be penalized by circumstances over which they had no control. In other words, the available work was distributed as evenly as possible amongst the eligible and most deserving applicants for relief.

Later on it became evident that the position was still not being met satisfactorily, mainly because of the high proportion of men who were not fitted by age, physique, or previous experience for the class of work offering.

In August, 1934, it was decided that the time had arrived for the application of the sustenance principle upon a revised and more permanent basis. This decision was impelled by increasing difficulties in the larger centres of population where the provision of suitable and useful work under Scheme No. 5 was becoming a real problem.

The weekly sustenance rates payable at the present time are as follows:—

Classification.Four Main Urban Areas.Secondary Cities and Towns.Smaller Centres.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Single men01400120096
Married man with wife only1401100180
Married man with wife and one child180150120
Married man with wife and two children1120190160
Married man with wife and three children116011301100
Married man with wife and four children118011501120
Married man with wife and five children20011701140
Married man with wife and six children22011901160
Married man with wife and seven or more children2402101180

The number of men in receipt of sustenance on 31st August, 1935 (the latest available dale), was 15,347. On that date there were 42,878 men engaged on the Board's various subsidized employment schemes.

SUBSIDIZED EMPLOYMENT.

Information as to the various schemes of subsidized employment which have been introduced by the Unemployment Board is briefly set out below.

Scheme No. 4A.—Farmers willing to employ labour for developmental work additional to the labour usually or necessarily employed in routine operations may apply to any labour bureau for a man or men, who receive a subsidy from the Unemployment Fund at the rate of 10s. per week per man if single, or, if married, 15s. per week, plus an additional 2s. 6d. per week for each dependent child under sixteen years up to a maximum subsidy of £1 5s. per week. The employment of youths of eighteen or nineteen years of age may also be approved if there are no eligible men on the register, but in such cases the subsidy is not more than 5s. per week. The farmer is also required to find board and lodging for the employee and means or cost of transport to the job, and to supplement the subsidy from the Unemployment Fund by at least 5s, per week according to his means.

The scheme operates under certain restrictions, which aim to eliminate interference with normal seasonal employment. Farmers may, under certain conditions, be employed on their farms if circumstances are such that otherwise there would be no alternative to abandonment.

Payments from the Unemployment Fund on account of this scheme have been as follows: 1930–31, £1,056; 1931–32, £115,165; 1932–33, £217,047; 1933–34, £145,915; 1934–35, £81,834.

Scheme No. 4B.—This provides for a subsidy of 50 per cent, of labour cost (with a maximum subsidy of £75 on any one application) of co-operative contracts for work of a developmental character on farms, such as scrub-cutting, drainage, gorse-grubbing, fencing, eradication of noxious weeds, &c, in cases where the financial circumstances are such that the work could not otherwise be undertaken. Applications for subsidies are reported on by Fields Inspectors of the Department of Lands and Survey or supervising officers appointed for the purpose, who again report on the conclusion of the work. Workers, who must be genuinely unemployed and registered as such, must be obtained through a labour bureau, and after completion of a contract must re-register and stand down for fourteen days before they are again deemed to be eligible for relief.

Payments: 1931–32, £10,706; 1932–33, £23,403; 1933–34, £65,330; 1934–35, £113,327.

Scheme No. 4C.—This was instituted for the purpose of rehabilitating abandoned farms, and provided for the selection of an occupier, who would be granted an allowance of £1 15s. per week for a period, together with assistance in the shape of unemployed labour necessary to bring the farm back to a state of production. Half of the subsidy under this scheme is recoverable from the Lands Development Board. Only a very few farms, however, were found suitable for reoccupation.

Payments: 1931–32, £222; 1932–33, £1,257; 1933–34 (credit), £115; 1934–35, £476.

Farm Camp Scheme.—This scheme is an offshoot of 4A, and provides that if not less than four single men are employed, and circumstances justify it, a subsidy of 10s. per man per week is paid, and, in addition, an allowance not exceeding 7s. 6d. per man per week may be paid to the farmer towards the cost of such food provided as is not obtained from the farm.

The main conditions of employment of subsidized labour on farms are that the labour must be additional to that necessary for the routine operation of the farm, and that the work must be developmental.

Payments: 1931–32, £8; 1932–33, £16,452; 1933–34, £19,665; 1934–35, £9,619.

Small-farm Plan.—Operations under this scheme do not now come under the Unemployment Board, and are referred to later in this section.

Scheme No. 5.—Under this scheme local bodies may employ men (obtained through labour bureaux) on a rationed basis on work other than that which would ordinarily be performed by the usual employees, and the whole amount of wages, not exceeding certain rates, is refunded from the Unemployment Fund. Men placed under Scheme No. 5 are required to work an allotted time ration (varying according to the number of dependants) for which they receive payment at the rate of 10s. 6d. per day. Following are the maximum weekly payments to various classes of men under this scheme :—

* Classification.In Four Main Urban Areas.In Secondary Cities and Boroughs.In Smaller Towns and Rural Areas.For Maoris not living in European Fashion.
* Class A consists of single men, B of married men with no children, C to I of married men with from one to seven or more dependent children. Where suitable work cannot be provided, sustenance may be paid without work, and in such cases the payment is generally about 3s. per week less than the above scale.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
A017001400120096
B1701401100180
C1110180150120
D11501120190160
E1190116011301100
F210118011501120
G23020011701140
H25022011901160
I2702402101180

Work under the scheme was originally limited to work on roads, reserves, and other public areas; but work “over the fence”#x2014;that is, on private property—is now permitted on condition that the work is of a developmental nature and the relief labour is additional to and not displacing labour ordinarily employed. A condition pertaining to the placement of relief labour on private property is that the property-owner undertakes to contribute at least 25 per cent, of the relief-wages cost. Section 26 of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4), authorizes local bodies to employ relief labour in this manner.

Payments: 1930–31, £241,618; 1931–32, £2,002,874; 1932–33, £2,937,991;. 1933–34, £2,889,837; 1934–35, £2,481,951.

Camp Schemes.—Under No. 6A camps of single men may be formed to undertake roadwork on secondary highways under the Public Works Department. The cost of transport, accommodation, food, and allowance for pocket-money (given on the basis of work performed, and approximating 15s. per week) is borne by the Unemployment Fund.

Payments: 1931–32, £11,094; 1932–33, £54,514; 1933–34, £35,609; 1934–35, £18,416.

Scheme 6B is similar to Scheme 6A, but the employing authority is a local body.

Payments : 1931–32, £291; 1932–33, £4,773; 1933–34, £10,410; 1934–35, £5,022.

Scheme 6C also is a camp scheme for development by clearing, drainage, afforestation, &c, of (principally) Crown lands. It has been availed of to some extent by private individuals and companies, but most of the men employed are under the control of either Government Departments or local authorities.

Payments: 1931–32, £1,159; 1932–33, £121,196; 1933–34, £185,628; 1934–35, £154,736.

In some districts, principally in Auckland Province, camps have been set up through local bodies on a wages basis at present of £1 5s. per week for single men, £2 2s. 6d. per week for married men with not more than two children, and £2 15s. per week for married men with three or more children; but, as a matter of convenience of arrangement, these camps are a charge on Scheme No. 5. Generally speaking, the cost of accommodation is met by the local bodies, and the men are required to provide themselves with food out of the weekly wages quoted above.

Supplementary to these schemes is the employment of men (principally married men) on road-metalling and other works being undertaken by the Public Works Department. The Department pays the men standard rates for full-time employment, the Unemployment Board contributing towards the cost of camps to the-extent of £1 15s. per man per week for married men.

Scheme No. 7.—Youths aged sixteen to twenty years are placed on large stations or runs for training in farm-work. Farmers are required to take two or more youths and to undertake to give them a thorough training. Although required to conform to the discipline of the farm, the youths are not to be regarded as ordinary farm labourers. They are provided with pocket-money at the rate of 2s. 6d. per week.

Payments : 1931–32, £7; 1932–33, £388; 1933–34, £533; 1934–35, £344.

Gold-prospecting Schemes 8A. and 5 (Special).—Subsidies of 15s. per week for single men and £1 10s. per week for married men are paid to unemployed relief workers-prospecting in approved areas in parties of two or more. At least one of the party must be an experienced miner or prospector. Provision is made for advancing the cost of fares and equipment in certain cases, this cost to be deducted from the value of gold sold. In Central Otago, Thames, and Coromandel districts, and on the West Coast of the South Island, prospecting is carried out under a special division of Scheme No. 5, although payment to the men is on the same basis as subsidies under Scheme No. 8A— viz., 15s. and £1 10s. County Councils act as the nominal employing authorities, and with the co-operation of specially appointed Mining Executive Committees (fifteen in number) they are empowered to advance certain equipment, tools, clothing, &c, to unemployed men desirous of taking on this work with the object of ultimately making themselves independent of unemployment relief. The cost of such advances is recoverable from the men if and when they reach the gold-winning stage. The cost of expert supervision by mining engineers and other experienced men is also met from the Unemployment Fund.

In specially selected areas where intensive effort will possibly lead to important new discoveries, parties of men under proper supervision and with suitable equipment are sent out to improve access to auriferous areas and to prospect for new reefs. In co-operation with the Mines Department and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Board is arranging for the testing by geophysical survey, boring, &c, of areas where extensive alluvial deposits may be profitably worked, and thus absorb large numbers of men in ordinary industry.

Payments (Scheme No. 8A) : 1931–32, £12; 1932–33, £69,800; 1933–34, £191,041; 1934–35, £184,520.

Scheme No. 8B.—This scheme provides for a subsidy from the Unemployment Fund towards the wages cost of men removed from the Board's schemes and engaged by a company or syndicate in gold-prospecting operations, and paid a definite wage by the company or syndicate.

The subsidy offered by the Board is usually on a basis of 15s. and £1 10s. per week for single and married men respectively.

The main conditions are that 10 per cent, of the gold won by the company from the date subsidies are granted must be refunded up to the full amount of the subsidy, and that no dividends shall be paid to the shareholders until the full subsidy is repaid.

Payments: 1932–33, £406; 1933–34, £7,293; 1934–35, £3,169.

Scheme No. 10.—The object of this scheme was to revive the building industry. Under it persons putting in hand the erection, repair, alteration, &c, of buildings were given the opportunity of obtaining a subsidy on the wages of the labour employed.

The original scheme was in operation from June, 1932, to 31st December, 1932. It was reinstituted as from the 1st June, 1933, under amended conditions, and ceased operations in the following September.

Payments: 1932–33, £49,627; 1933–34, £229,460; 1934–35, £144,649.

Scheme No. 11.—The Unemployment Board, with the co-operation of the Departments of Lands and Survey and Agriculture, has introduced this scheme to provide for the utilization of unemployed labour to combat the rabbit pest. In some districts committees are set up for the purpose, and to these committees the Unemployment Board pays subsidies at the rate of £1 15s. per week for married men, and £1 per week for single men so employed. These payments cover, in addition to the men's wages, any necessary expenditure on equipment. Where committees are not operating, owners or occupiers of rabbit-infested lands may obtain men direct from employment bureaux, and when this is done subsidies are paid amounting to £1 10s. per week for married men and 15s. per week for single men, the employer being required to find food and lodgings. In the case of unoccupied Crown lands, men may be similarly engaged by the Stock Inspector for the district. The rates of pay are £2 per week for married men and £1 5s. per week for single'men (of which 10st per week is contributed by the Department of Lands and Survey), out of which the men are required to keep themselves in food. All skins obtained are the property of the workers, and the scheme is suspended from time to time when the market for skins is good.

Payments : 1932–33, £12,391; 1933–34, £22,965; 1934–35, £8,837.

House-building Subsidy Scheme (No. 12).—This scheme has the object of again giving the building trade a necessary stimulus and thereby creating work. Under the scheme persons considering the erection of new dwellings, or additions to existing dwellings, are encouraged to proceed with the work immediately by the offer of a subsidy. Applications in respect of residential flats (irrespective of capital cost) and applications in respect of dwellinghouses the estimated capital cost of which is over £1,000 are considered on their merits. The Board is prepared to negotiate with local authorities with a view to the elimination of slum areas and rebuilding on modern lines. The method of apportioning the subsidy is different from that adopted under the previous building scheme, and is based upon the rate of Is. per square foot of all new and totally enclosed floor-space, computed on overall measurement over external walls. In the case of any building, the subsidy payable must not exceed 8 per cent, of the contract price, with a maximum subsidy of £80 for a single dwelling.

One of the conditions of this scheme ensures the use of New Zealand materials wherever practicable, and following the procedure adopted under Scheme No. 10, the approved subsidy may be reduced subsequently, or even cancelled, if certain imported materials are used.

Payments: 1934–35, £38,544.

A subsidiary scheme, known as Scheme Bl, has also been introduced, providing for a subsidy on works such as alterations, painting and papering, repairs, and in certain cases where structural work is carried out the installation of electric power and light, gas and electric cooking, and water-heating appliances. The scheme is mainly restricted to dwellinghouses and residential fiats, but consideration is given to applications in respect of non-profit-earning buildings. The rate of subsidy is, in the case of dwellings, the sum of £3 on the first £15 of cost and Is. 2d. on each additional £1 up to £100.

NUMBERS ON RELIEF SCHEMES.

The following analysis shows the numbers of men in receipt of relief under the various schemes financed from the Unemployment Fund :—

Nature of Relief.Dec. 1932.,March, 1933.June, 1933.Sept., 1933.Dec., 1933.March, 1934.June, 1934.Sept., 1934.Dec., 1934.Mar., 1935.June, 1935.Aug., 1935.
* Excluding men engaged in gold-prospecting.
Scheme 5* (see letterpress, ante)46,15143,37447,33748,62641,74736,85837,83737,64733,01828,86329,40529,967
Sustenance without work..............5,5695,9238,21111,26215,347
Farm schemes9,2098,4509,97710,1109,6939,6457,4267,5515,6883,5793,2873,725
Land improvement and development, &c.3,8094,8483,5103,8533,0982,7913,0822,9982,5742,2492,2102,373
Gold-prospecting1,5002,2173,5953,9083,7603,5723,6083,6713,4043,3103,3423,253
Building - subsidy scheme3,2431,8084776,3007,4285,8922,2721,3901,005685395305
Subsidized employment by Public Works Department....2,1252,0632,8703,4402,9372,5242,9223,2853,1843,086
Miscellaneous16437095971477072139173163150169
Totals64,08261,00767,11075,01768,74362,20857,23461,48954,70750,34553,24158,225

SMALL-FARM SETTLEMENT.

Under the original Small-farms Scheme the Unemployment Board aimed at placing unemployed workers on small rural holdings of about 5 or 10 acres as a means of affording a partial livelihood which could be supplemented by seasonal and other work obtained from neighbouring farmers. Up to the 31st March, 1933, 488 individual settlers had been placed, together with 265 share milkers. The total expenditure to that date was £142,000.

In 1933–34 the administration was taken over by the Small-farms Board, constituted under the Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act of March, 1933. The Small-farms Board operates through the Department of Lands and Survey, and the only connection of the Unemployment Board (the Commissioner of Unemployment is a member of both Boards) is in the matter of sustenance payments,. such payments being made (where circumstances warrant) at rates up to £1 per week for thirteen weeks, when the position is reviewed.

The Small-farms Board initiated a wider policy of rural settlement, and decided to combine the actual settlement of unemployed men with the provision of work for as many more men as possible. To carry out this policy it was necessary that properties should be acquired which called for a large amount of developmental work of a manual nature. Crown land capable of economic development was not available in many districts, and private lands had to be purchased or leased. At the 31st March, 1935, there were 1,200 men engaged on development blocks, totalling 35,364 acres, and estimated to provide 459 farms. The principal line adopted has been dairying, as it is endeavoured to keep the establishment-cost. below £1,200 per settler, and this would have been insufficient, for example, to establish a settler as a sheep-farmer upon a self-supporting scale. No actual restriction is put upon the settlers, who are free to develop side-lines. In other cases mixed farming or lamb-fattening upon a small scale, but under intensive-conditions, has been encouraged, and also small holdings of about 5 acres in localities where settlers could grow fruit, market garden, or keep poultry, &c., and in other districts where seasonal work is procurable.

At the 31st March, 1935, the Small-farms Board had been in operation for approximately two years, and had issued authorities totalling £441,192. In addition to the development blocks noted above, 356 holdings of a total of 23,635-acres had been settled, and sixty-one share milkers established.

Where necessary, cottages are erected by the Public Works Department.

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT.

The growth of unemployment throughout the world in recent years has prompted in most countries statistical examination of the fluctuations or periodicity of employment. Until recent years the statistics available on this phenomenon in New Zealand have been somewhat scanty, being restricted to employment on public works. In addition to the material quoted in the earlier portion of this section data are now available on some of the avenues of industrial employment (including building and construction, but excluding transport and mining) as well as that contracted with local authorities.

FACTORY AND BUILDING INDUSTRIES.

In previous issues of the Year-Book tables have been given illustrating the fluctuation of employment under this heading, month by month. Considerations of space preclude their reproduction, but full details may be found in successive issues of the Annual Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production. During 1933, of the twenty-three industrial groups which are of sufficient importance to justify consideration, eleven had maximum employment in December, three each in January and October, and two each in February, March, and November. In the case of ten groups, minimum employment occurred in January, and in all other cases from April to September. The principal group (animal food) had the maximum in January and the minimum in July, while for all industries in combination the maximum was in December and the minimum in July.

PUBLIC WORKS.

Seasonal unemployment has to a certain extent been coped with by the institution of relief works by the Public Works Department, which has tended to swell the numbers engaged on public works. This employment on public works may be classified according to the authority meeting the cost of the works:—

  1. Public Works Department.

  2. Public Works Department and local authorities.

  3. Local authorities only.

  4. Unemployment Fund.

Unfortunately, complete statistics covering all phases of this employment are not extant. Those available for past years relate to class (a), and part of class (b) to the extent to which the cost is met by the Public Works Department; furthermore, they do not include the employees of contractors. The statistics are entirely exclusive of workmen engaged by local authorities, and are calculated by dividing the total amount paid as wages during each month by the sum which would represent the full-time earnings of one worker during each particular period. The statistics cover those workers who are employed on “time” as well as “piece” rates. Class (d) in 1932–33, 1933–34, and 1934–35 represents several thousand men, all of whom are also included in figures relating to the Unemployment Board's operations.

Even with the deficiencies referred to the available figures are not without interest, and afford some measure of the additional work provided by the State in periods of unemployment. The following figures show the monthly average number of men employed on public works over a range of years:—

Year ended 31st March,Roads.Railways, Buildings, &c.Total.
18951,1039622,065
19001,8251,2433,068
19051,4072,1193,526
19101,7623,9295,691
19152,4942,2344,728
19201,4952,4983,993
19251,6145,1516,765
19294,6434,1098,752
19305,3805,48710,867
19316,3656,05712,422
19325,2554,1829,437
19333,2133,5206,733
19343,9684,6138,581
19354,0944,8218,915

Figures for each month of the last six years are next given, in such form as readily to permit of a comparison between corresponding months, as well as showing the movement from month to month:—

Month.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
January11,14012,0618,2646,8808,9118,374
February12,01012,0008,8748,0008,9778,688
March12,03411,5808,9408,3109,2539,329
April11,97611,5436,5208,0669,3529,166
May12,43610,2136,4278,1539,4678,993
June12,81510,1836,2478,3509,3308,725
July13,0399,8976,5428,3449,0438,718
August13,0159,5336,4898,3218,9298,473
September12,5929,4456,2568,1528,9238,605
October12,5129,1556,2498,5998,679..
November12,7168,6056,4058,9438,446..
December12,3278,5916,4658,8978,423..

Figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics showing each month the numbers engaged on the various public works throughout the Dominion.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

Employment by local authorities comprises principally the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, and the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric supply, and tramways) and social services.

Particulars relating to wage-earning employees engaged by the various classes of local authorities during the local-body year ended March, 1934, are presented in the following table. The statistics do not cover Hospital Boards, Fire Boards, or Electric-power Boards. Employees of Electric-power Boards are included in the figures for manufacturing industries, published in the Annual Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.

Class of local District.Maximum for Year.Minimum for Year.Average of Twelve Months.
Number.Month.Number.Month.
Boroughs26,769Sept.22,823March25,421
Counties19,636Sept.15,538March17,881
Harbour districts1,282Aug.1,902July2,115
Urban transport districts1,603July1,508June1,549
Town districts1,282Aug.912March1,109
Urban drainage districts479April, May405Jan.445
River districts1,297Sept.856Jan.1,090
Road districts660Aug.466March582
Rabbit districts206March128April170
Land-drainage districts595April425Jan.504
gas-lighting district42June37Aug., March39
Railway district15Jan., Feb.12Various13
Water-supply districts50Dec.20April37
All districts55,967Aug.46,770March51,877

The figures in the above table include, besides permanent, temporary, and casual employees, a very large number of relief workers (vide earlier portion of this section). The inclusion of relief workers has somewhat obscured the normal characteristics of local-body employment, as exemplified in this way.

Chapter 40. SECTION XL.—INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE collection of information regarding industrial disputes was initiated by the Census and Statistics Office at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year was obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department.

Under the system originated in 1920 returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories from inquiries made in each district form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the statistics based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if parties to the dispute or other private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to demand information from the parties concerned in the dispute, and by exercising this power when necessary they can obtain complete information.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute” refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout, or where organized “go slow” or other passive resistance tactics are clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

It frequently occurs that there are strikes in different centres with the same or similar objects and with a certain degree of contemporaneity; in such cases the several disturbances have been treated as one strike if the available evidence is sufficient to justify such a course, while the duration of the strike has been taken as its maximum duration in any centre.

Reference to enactments framed to mitigate the severity of industrial disputes will be found in the section on labour legislation.

NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE.

Although for years prior to 1920 (in which the present system of reporting was instituted) it has been possible to extract from the records of the Labour Department certain information regarding industrial disputes, it is by no means complete, and has therefore been omitted from the following comparative table.

Year.Number of.Firms affectedWorkers Involved.Working days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Strikes.Lockouts.Total Disputes
       £
192077..77..15,138....
192177..7711210,433119,20890,477
192258..58676,41493,45660,782
192349..49797,162201,812114,074
192434..345814,81589,10562,732
192581283939,90574,55249,149
192659..59676,26447,81132,355
192738..38404,47612,48511,819
192837239569,25821,99722,304
192946147607,15125,88926,940
193038..38445,46731,66937,299
1931..23124376,35648,48644,544
193223..23679,355108,605105,715
193315..15433,55865,09959,334
193424..24373,77310,3937,121

The total number of working-days lost is calculated by multiplying the number of workers involved in each dispute by the number of days lost (exclusive of Sundays and public holidays). It is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place, and no allowance is made for loss of work from unemployment or other causes which might have occurred even if there had been no dispute. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of work done, but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

From the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 till the end of 1905 there were no industrial disputes between employers and workers coming within the scope of the Act; indeed, New Zealand may be said to have been almost entirely free from industrial disputes during that period. The greatest number of disputes in any one year since 1894 was recorded in 1925, when there were eighty-three disputes—mostly, however, of trivial importance. The number of workers concerned was greatest in 1920, when 15,138 workers were involved in industrial disputes, chiefly in the mining industry and in the railways. From the point of view of lost time the maximum was reached in 1923, when there were serious disputes in the coal-mining and shipping industries. Next in order come 1921 (marked by strikes of waterside workers) and 1932 (chiefly strikes of waterside workers and coal-miners).

PRINCIPAL DISPUTES IN 1934.

Although the number of disputes recorded in 1934 was greater than in the previous year, they were generally not of great extent or duration, the number of working-days lost being the lowest since the present system of statistics was instituted. At the end of July and the beginning of August there was a strike by seamen and firemen with the object of obtaining a restoration of the cut in wages. This dispute extended to a number of centres in the Dominion, but after a few days the men resumed work pending negotiations between the parties. The Cooks and Stewards Union was also involved in a strike with the same object and the same result; and this may be looked upon as the principal industrial dispute of the year, over four hundred workers being out of employment for eight days, and suffering a loss in wages estimated at an amount in excess of £4,000.

In both these cases the demands of the workers were subsequently partially conceded by the employers.

NATURE AND DURATION.

The next table shows the nature of disputes and the number of workers involved during the last ten years.

YearNature of Dispute.Number of Workers involved.
Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lockout.Total.Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.*Lockout.Total
* I.e., where no actual cessation of work, but a go slow “or other policy of protest adopted.
192573622837,6941,229479359,905
19264991..594,4371,78839..6,264
192735..3..384,389..87..4,476
192832412394,4473,864859889,258
192940241475,1141,837185157,151
19303413..385,170140157..5,467
193119311245,42935057256,356
1932185....237,9451,410....9,355
1933132....152,728830....3,558
19342211..243,62011538..3,773

INDUSTRIAL - DISPUTES-

It will be seen that the vast majority of disputes are in the nature of direct strikes, although in some years “sympathetic" strikes (when the workers go on strike in sympathy with the claims of other workers, and not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions) attain serious proportions. The table following illustrates the duration of disputes during 1934:—

Duration.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
* Includes one case where “go slow” policy adopted, but no actual loss of wages to great majority involved.
    £
1 day and less121,6611,315803
2 days and more than 1 day5475784472
3 days and more than 2 days25521,656*73*
Over 3 days and less than 1 week1200800800
1 week and less than 2 weeks38694,8624,473
2 months116976500
Totals243,77310,3937,121

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

The following table shows the number of disputes in each industrial district for the last five years and also the number of workers involved. The position of the Westland District is outstanding.

Year.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.MarlboroughNelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
* Include strikes which involved workers in more than one district.
   number of Disputes.      
19308..3....184538
19314..4....131124*
19325..4....82223*
1933414....21215*
19346..6....36124*
   Number of Workers involved      
1930877..65....4,0921642695,467
19311,798..739....3,54127356,356
19321,70878855....5,8153045959,355
19331,085601,032....3132887803,558
193485621828....6331,351843,773

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISPUTES.

In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industries in which disputes took place. The classification into industrial groups is the same as that used in the compilation of wage and trade-union statistics. In seven of the fourteen groups of the classification there were no disputes, and such groups have been omitted.

Industrial Group.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Number of Disputes.     
Food, drink, &c.312..1
Wood-manufacture1....1..
Metal-working and engineering....2....
Mining23161364
Agricultural and pastoral..1......
Shipping and cargo-working1166818
Miscellaneous........1
Totals3824231524
Number of Workers involved.     
Food, drink, &c.205481260..204
Wood-manufacture12....33..
Metal-working and engineering....482....
Mining4,9155,1447,8331,618762
Agricultural and pastoral..5......
Shipping and cargo-working3357261,0801,9072,777
Miscellaneous........30
Totals5,4676,3569,3553,5583,773

Out of a total of 124 disputes during the five years, sixty-two occurred in the mining industry. Of the 28,509 workers involved in disputes during the five years, 20,272 were engaged in this industry. The great majority of these disputes were, however, of very short duration. Disturbances in coal-mines have latterly shown a marked diminution, leaving the shipping industry decisively in the lead. Of the eighteen strikes in the latter industry during 1934, all but one were of very short duration, while the exception referred to, although extending over a period of two months, was of minor importance, only sixteen workers being involved. A more detailed analysis of disputes occurring during 1934 is given below.

Industrial Group.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms affectedNumber of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Directly.Indirectly.Total
       £
Food, drink, &c.11204..20420460
Mining44762..762962562
Shipping and cargo-working18312,728492,7779,1976,476
Miscellaneous11246303023
Totals24373,718553,77310,3937,121

CAUSES OF DISPUTES.

In the next table the causes of disputes occurring during the last five years are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included disputes concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piecework.

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment.” This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs—the employment of non-unionists, or the dismissal of men allegedly due solely or mainly to the fact that they are prominent in union activities.

“Other working conditions" are of diverse nature, but some may be mentioned as follows: Distribution of work in coal-mines and on wharves, reinstatement of individual workers after voluntary absence, conveyance to and from work, conditions with regard to gas in coal-mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, method of loading cargo.

Under the heading “Sympathy" are included all disputes caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance with their own particular employer, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

Cause.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Number of Disputes.
Wages661057
Hours........2
Employment102254
Other working-conditions1911519
Sympathy13521
Other causes22121
Number of Workers involved.
Wages1,1871,4826,1301,8331,274
Hours........400
Employment1,554573406372637
Other working-conditions2,5673,4911,393861,297
Sympathy1403501,410830115
Other canoes194601643750

The following table gives further details for the year 1934

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
    £
Wages.71,2744,8384,570
Hours2400495406
Employment46371,304860
Other working conditions91,2973,5411,135
Sympathy1115115150
Other causes150100..
Totals243,77310,3937,121

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT.

Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes during the last five years. “Negotiations under Act" covers negotiations under both the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act.

Method of Settlement.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under Act6121..
Private negotiations between parties8512715
Substitution321..5
Otherwise2116 874
Number of Workers involved.
Negotiations under Act8801,12027986..
Private negotiations between parties8941,4927,0302,0433,196
Substitution781415..185
Otherwise3,6153,7302,0311,429392

Further information for the year 1934 is

Method of Settlement.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
    £
Private negotiations between parties.153,1969,7996,601
Substitution5185187280
Otherwise4392407240
Totals243,77310,3937,121

RESULTS OF DISPUTES.

In compiling the table which follows no dispute has been included as ending in favour of either employers or workers unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or where a strike is merely a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

RESULTS OF DISPUTES.

Result.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Number of Disputes.     
In favour of workers143413
In favour of employers8104613
Compromise103922
Indeterminate68666
Number of Workers involved     
In favour of workers2,8091,18664831680
In favour of employers..9062,2688988961,778
Compromise1,0937406,3681,077645
Indeterminate6592,1621,4411,554670

RESULTS OF DISPUTEScontinued.

Result.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Number of Working-days lost.     
In favour of workers17,9678,5662,91493 i549
In favour of employers2,22721,42146,93045,5482,987
Compromise8,82412,84352,6179,4044,412
Indeterminate2,6515,6566,14410,0542,445

Of disputes ending definitely in favour of one party or the other during the five years, workers won in twenty-five instances and employers in forty-one. In the previous five years (1925–29) workers were successful in sixty-eight instances against the employers sixty-five.

In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1934: are shown in conjunction :—

 Cause.
Result.Wages.Hours.Employment.Other Working-conditions.Sympathy.Other Causes.Total.
 Number of Disputes.      
In favour of workers....111....3
In favour of employers51141113
Compromise2..........2
Indeterminate....24....6
 Number of Workers involved.      
In favour of workers..176300204....680
In favour of employers62922420740115501,778
Compromise645..........645
Indeterminate....317353....670
 Number of Working-days lost.      
In favour of workers..45300204....549
In favour of employers426450601,8361151002,987
Compromise4,412..........4,412
Indeterminate....9441,501....2,445-

Chapter 41. SECTION XLI.—INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

As a result of an international conference of official statisticians held at Geneva in 1923, under the auspices of the International Labour Office set up by the League of Nations, the collection and compilation of statistics of industrial accidents on substantially uniform lines is now being undertaken in virtually all of the principal countries. From the administrative standpoint, the principal types of industrial accidents occurring in New Zealand may be classified as follows:—

Factory Accidents.—Section 41 of the Factories Act requires the reporting to Inspectors of Factories of all accidents likely to incapacitate the injured person for at least forty–eight hours. Reports are compiled by Inspectors of Factories in connection with each such accident causing loss of work amounting to three days or upwards. These are ultimately forwarded to the Census and Statistics Office for statistical analysis.

Scaffolding Accidents.—The procedure adopted in connection with the compilation of statistics of scaffolding accidents is identical with that in connection with factory accidents.

Accidents lo Railway, Public Works, and Post and. Telegraph Employees.—Individual reports of all accidents involving loss of work for three days or upwards are supplied by the respective Departments to the Census and Statistics Office for detailed analysis and tabulation.

Accidents to Employees in Mines and Quarries.—Certain particulars of accidents to employees in metalliferous mines, in coal-mines, and in quarries and other places under the Stone-quarries Act, are given in successive numbers of the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C.–2.

Other Industrial Accidents.—There are numerous types of industrial accidents for which it has not as yet been found practicable to collect and compile statistics. The principal classes of such accidents are those occurring to persons engaged in land transport (other than railway operation), in “watersiding,” in bushfelling, and in marine navigation. Accidents of the last–mentioned type are reportable to the Marine Department under the Shipping and Seamen Act.

HAWKE'S BAY EARTHQUAKE ACCIDENTS.

The statistics of industrial accidents for the year 1931 do not include accidents caused by the Hawke's Bay earthquake to employees working at the time the earthquake took place. The total number of these accidents is not known; but in twenty–nine cases an appeal was made to the Court to decide whether there was any liability on the part of the employers to pay compensation in respect of such accidents. Ultimately, a decision of the Privy Council favoured the workers' claims, and compensation amounting to £2,902 was paid in respect of the twenty-nine cases cited. Of these twenty–nine accidents, twenty–seven were caused by the collapse of walls, two cases resulting in death and two cases in permanent partial disablement of the victims.

FREQUENCY RATES.

For the purpose of computing frequency rates in respect of industrial accidents in New Zealand, data as to the number of employees in establishments coming under the heading of various industries have been compiled in the Census and Statistics Office from returns furnished for the purpose by the Labour Department's Inspectors of Factories; while information as to the hours worked has been ascertained from awards, and supplemented by the statistics of short time and overtime compiled from data collected with the annual census of factory production.. Similar data have been obtained from the records of the Post and Telegraph, Public Works, and Railways Departments. One hour's work performed by one man is taken as a unit. Data as to man-hours are not available in the case of scaffolding operations.

Year.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man–hours worked.*Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* Excluding scaffolding accidents.

† Includes medical expenses.

    ££
19297,2182.5037,164136,48619.1
19307,1282.5577,099130,26818.4
19315,7932.5445,777103,13917.9
19324,7302.1954,71580,45317.1
19335,0942.3915,08977,63715.3

The distribution of industrial accidents in 1933 among the classes of industries covered by the statistics is indicated in the following table :—

Class.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man–hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* No Information available.

† Excluding scaffolding accidents.

    ££
Factory2,7461.8402,74338,05113.9
Public Works1,0225.3371,02113,66713.4
Scaffolding45*442,27851.8
Railways1,1384.1071,13819,37917.0
Post and telegraph1430.9531434,26229.8
Grand totals5,0942.3915,08977,63715.3

Scaffolding accidents involved the highest compensation payment per accident in 1933, due to the fact that out of a total of 45 accidents one terminated fatally, while nine resulted in permanent partial disability.

The number of accidents per 100,000 man–hours worked was highest in the case of accidents to Public Works employees.

In the table on the page following industrial accidents during the year 1933 are classified into certain important industrial groups. Details for individual industries, under this and other headings, are published in an annual report (Statistical Report on Prices, Wage–rates, &c.) issued by the Census and Statistics Office.

The average amount of compensation per case in respect of all accidents classified was lower in 1933 than in any of the previous four years—partly, no doubt, a reflection of the lower wage rates ruling in that year.

Industrial Group.Total Accidents.Accidents per l00,000 Man–hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* Data on which to compute not available.

† Excluding scaffolding accidents.

    ££
Food, drink, and tobacco2,1555.1522,15224,90411.6
Clothing, boots, and shoes430.151433678.5
Textiles and weaving560.8125688015.7
Public Works1,0225.3371,02113,66713.4
Scaffolding45*442,27851.8
Woodworking1120.6781126,60659.0
Paper–manufacture and printing600.679605419.0
Metal–working and engineering1890.8541892,82314.9
Other manufactures1030.5971031,57015.2
Transport and communication—     
Railways1,1384.1071,13819,37917.0
Post and Telegraph1430.9531434,26229.8
Tram–car construction and repair31.66736923.0
Personal service50.21257314.7
Miscellaneous200.4232021810.9
Total5,0942.3915,08977,63715.3

The average compensation paid in respect of industrial accidents naturally varies considerably in different industries and years according to the proportion of serious accidents occurring.

The following table shows for five years the average compensation paid in conjunction with the extent of disability :—

 Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
Year.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.
* Where amount of compensation known.
  £ £ £ £
19296,8889.5241194.235698.47,16419.1
19306,8209.0242189.537627.17,09918.4
19315,5889.2163203.426707.05,77717.9
19324,5649.3128161.523752.44,71517.1
19334,9168.1154158.819693.55,08915.3

The average amount of compensation paid in respect of fatalities is normally considerably below the maximum amount which may be paid under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of such accidents. This is due mainly to the facts that in cases whore the deceased worker had no dependants only medical and funeral expenses are paid; and that in cases of partial dependency the amount paid as compensation may be considerably less than the maximum.

CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND EXTENT OF INJURY SUSTAINED.

With regard to the extent and degree of the disability sustained, it is usual to distinguish fatal accidents, accidents causing temporary disability, accidents causing permanent partial disability, and accidents causing permanent total disability. In the actual compilation of the statistics difficulty occasionally arises as to whether a particular injury should be regarded as temporary or permanent; and in cases of doubt the conservative practice has been adopted of classifying the injury in the temporary–disability class. The following table relates to the five–years period, 1929–33.

Cause.Temporary–Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.Percentage of Total Accidents.
Machinery—     
Prime movers6961760.2
Transmission911131050.4
Lifting–machinery6083196482.2
Power–working machines2,13538572,5278.4
Vehicles1,80846371,8916.3
Explosions and fires1632892000.7
Poisonous, hot, and corrosive substances753347602.5
Electricity63410770.3
Falls of persons—     
From elevations1,43856191,5135.0
Into excavations2061..2070.7
Slipping and stumbling on the level2,37417..2,3918.0
Stepping on or striking against fixed objects—     
Stepping on327..13281.1
Striking against1,361711,3694.6
Falling objects, not being handled by the person injured77624108102.7
Falls of earth98727201,0343.5
Handling of objects—     
Heavy5,47610775,59018.7
Sharp1,9703112,0026.7
Hand–trucks, &c.4149..4231.4
Hand–tools—     
In hands of person injured—     
Glancing of tool4,4167714,49415.0
Breaking of tool72....720.2
Flying particles56341..6042.0
Other82715..8422.8
In hands of other than person injured390914001.3
Animals266312700.9
Miscellaneous—     
Strains, sprains, and septic wounds undefined as to cause (sustained while slaughtering)5154..5191.7
Doors, windows, covers, gates (excluding elevators)3046..3101.0
Other4821365011.7
Summary.     
Factories12,4305483513,01343.4
Public Works7,942224518,21727.4
Scaffolding1,21568191,3024.4
Railways..6,457114316,60222.0
Post and Telegraph8107128292.8
Totals28,85496114829,963100.0

NATURE OF INJURY.

A classification of accidents according to the nature of the injuries sustained gives the following results for the last five years :—

Nature of Injury.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.Totals, 1929–33.
Contusions and abrasions1,9621,9881,4369821,1187,486
Burns and scalds247202162163149923
Concussions4045362727175
Cuts and lacerations2,2612,1671,9031,6481,8189,797
Punctures4214103113012861,729
Amputations1821399175103590
Dislocations4234272825156
Fractures2862381941561781,052
Sprains and strains1,4941,6001,3219821,0416,438
Other and ill–defined2833053123683491,617
Totals7,2187,1285,7934,7305,09429,963
Number of cases where septic poisoning followed1,0029769308791,0014,788
Percentage of all accidents13.913.716.118.619.716.0

A feature of special interest brought out by this table is the relatively high and apparently increasing percentage of accidents in which septic poisoning followed.

PART OF BODY AFFECTED.

Informative figures showing the number of cases in which the different parts of the body were affected by industrial accidents occurring in 1929—33 are given in the following table:—

Part of Body affected.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.Totals, 1929–33.
Head1381371278299583
Eyes2862492201781761,109
Rest of face96101955864414
Neck282018141393
Back6076485243664202,565
Thorax and contents2932902471831961,209
Abdomen and contents1211368610299544
External genitals18222081078
Upper limbs—      
Collarbone and shoulder148145128105108634
Arm4474082872692911,702
Hand and wrist1,0121,0417657577574,332
Finger and thumb2,0491,9781,6991,4231,6328,781
Lower limbs—      
Pelvis, hip, and thigh1341401117384542
Leg6756445023904412,652
Ankle and foot9599647555936033,874
Undefined or multiple207205209129101851
Totals7,2187,1285,7934,7305,09429,963

Accidents to the ringers and hands form a large proportion of total accidents. Out of a total of 29,963 accidents classified during 1929 to 1933, 13,113 cases were recorded where fingers or hands were affected.

A tabulation made for 1933 correlating nature of injury with part of body affected showed that the most common type of accident was to the fingers and thumbs, resulting in cuts or lacerations: of the 5,094 accidents tabulated, 1,043 came under this category; of the 103 cases of amputations also, 100 resulted in loss of some part of the fingers or thumbs; contusions of the feet numbered 184, and cuts and lacerations of the hands 323; of the 1,041 sprains, 351 resulted in injury to the back, while sprained ankles, &c, accounted for a further 175.

DURATION OF INCAPACITY.

A further measure of the extent of disability is furnished in the cases of temporary disability by data as to duration of absence from work as the result of the accident. A summary of this aspect of the matter is given below.

 1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.Totals, 1929 to 1933.
Duration.No.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.
1 week or under1,5861,54921.71,26221.898320.81,06720.96,44721.5
1 week to 2 weeks2,1972,21731.11,81131.31,44230.51,59731.49,26430.9
2 weeks to 4 weeks1,8281,83625.81,49025.71,23126.01,33926.37,72425.8
4 weeks to 6 weeks5885708.05118.83958.44278.42,4918.3
6 weeks to 13 weeks5315087.13906.73757.93547.02,1587.2
13 weeks to 6 months1251211.71041.81172.51042.05711.9
Over 6 months352l0.3270.5230.4260.51320.5
Total specified cases of temporary disability6,8906,82295.75,59596.64,56696.54,91496.528,78796.1
Cases where employee did not return or duration not stated3590.270.1100.260.1670.2
Permanent partial disability2542583.61642.81302.81553.09613.2
Fatality39390.5270.5240.5190.41480.5
Totals7,2187,128100.05,793100.04,730100.05,094100.029,963100.0

In many cases the injured employee did not cease work immediately, in some instances a considerable period intervening. The following table shows for such cases occurring during the year 1933 the length of time elapsing before the employee left work, and the final cause of cessation of work.

——Factories.Public Works.Scaffolding.Hallways.Post and Telegraph.
Period elapsing.     
Under 1 week29452631134
Over 1 week and under 2 weeks84231515
Over 2 weeks3016..293
Final Cause.     
Incipient septic poisoning2724931146
Strains4611413413
Other causes9031..14323
Totals40891739142
Percentage of all accidents14.98.915.634.429.4

This table indicates that many employees suffering from minor injuries pay no immediate attention, especially in the case of small cuts, strains, or abrasions. The neglect may cause more severe pain (with abrasions, septic poisoning), and the absence then enforced is likely to be longer than if the first injury had received immediate attention. Lost time means lost wages, especially if the injury results in under three days' absence, in which case no compensation is payable. Further, in the case of apprentices, lost time has to be made up at the termination of the period of apprenticeship, and these two considerations are likely to militate against the worker ceasing work immediately on account of a minor injury.

In order to render the statistics of time lost and compensation paid as complete as possible supplementary reports on cases outstanding at the following 31st January are prepared by Inspectors of Factories for the Census and Statistics Office in the following June. By June most outstanding cases can be cleared up, although there remains a not altogether inconsiderable residuum of cases where employees fail to return to their former work — especially through having taken up other employment or through the seasonal closing – down of the industry (e.g., freezing) in connection with which the accident occurred, so that they cannot be traced. The cases still outstanding at the end of January must naturally be the severer cases, and, as the severest cases of all may still be outstanding in June, the toll of time lost as a result of factory accidents tends to be slightly understated in the statistics. The June clearing–up accounts for a few minor discrepancies between the statistics of factory accidents published in this volume and those published in the Annual Report of the Department of Labour.

ACCIDENT SEVERITIES.

In view of the fact that the age of the individual is not particularly relevant to the character of the hazard from which the injury has occurred, for the purpose of calculating accident-severity rates a constant loss of 60,000 working-hours is counted for each fatality irrespective of the age of the person at the time of death. In respect of permanent partial disablement an international scheme for the apportionment of loss of earning-power caused by this type of accident has been drawn up by the International Labour Office.

Under this scheme, which has been adopted with some slight modifications in the treatment of New Zealand statistics, time lost on account of permanent partial disability is assessed on the basis of a proportionate part of the time lost in connection with injuries resulting in death. For example, dismemberment or loss of use of hand is regarded as a 50-per-cent. disability—that is, the time lost on account of an injury of this type is assessed as 50 per cent, of 60,000 working-hours—i.e., 30,000 working-hours.

——1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
* Excluding scaffolding accidents.
Total cases resulting in—     
Temporary disability6,9256,8315,6024,5764,920
Permanent partial disability254258164130155
Fatality3939272419
Total7,2187,1285,7934,7305,094
Calendar days lost per accident12412511210995
Hours lost per 100,000 man–hours worked (i.e., severity rate)*1,9111,8741,5271,4131,350

A more detailed explanation of the method of compilation of accident severities is contained in the 1931 issue of the Year–Book.

The severity rate for all accidents during the period 1929–33 has varied between 1,350 (in 1933) and 1,911 (in 1929). The extent of the toll on industry exacted by industrial accidents is realized when it is considered that during the five years 1929–33 one hour was lost as a result of such accidents out of every sixty-two hours worked in the industries covered by these statistics.

Comparison of the severity rates as between different industrial groups is affected by the varying proportions of serious accidents and fatalities in different industries. In the main groups covered by the cumulative table for the five years 1929–33 shown below the effect of this factor is minimized by the relatively large number of accidents classified.

Industrial Group.Total Cases of Accidents resulting inCalendar Days lost per Accident.Hours lost per 100,000 Man – hours worked (Severity Rate).
Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
* Excluding scaffolding accidents.
Food, drink, &c.8,387201118,599571,503
Clothing, boots, &c.19212..2046552
Textiles and weaving226151242126500
Public Works7,942224518,2171285,866
Scaffolding1,21568191,302259..
Woodworking92816591,1022811,905
Paper-manufacture and printing286213310199701
Meta1 - working and engineering1,5088731,598108743
Other manufactures690347731186974
Transport and communication—      
(1) Railways6,457114316,602972,732
(2) Post and Telegraph8107128291741,161
(3) Tram-car construction and repair2311254483,745
Personal service233..26152194
Miscellaneous1679..176128520
Totals28,85496114829,9631151,650*

LOSS OF EARNING–POWER INVOLVED.

Provision is made in certain cases for the actual impairment of wage-earning capacity to be stated. Of the 155 cases of permanent partial incapacity in 1933, 94 answered the question as to what wages the employee would earn on resumption. In 78 cases it was reported that, though dismemberment or disablement had occurred, no diminution of earning-power had taken place. In 16 cases, however, definite impairment eventuated, in some cases to a serious extent.

HOUR OF OCCURRENCE.

The following tabulation of industrial accidents, according to the hour of occurrence, shows the effects of fatigue during the working day:—

 Year.Causes, 1929–33.
Time of Occurrence, to nearest Hour.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.Machinery.Falls of Persons.Handling ObjectsHand Tools.Other.
8 a.m.260291227204232134154277277372
9 a.m.638670550407470346314677745653
10 a.m.1,1681,0048206617394845591,2901,0241,035
11 a.m.1,0621,0908286396935235761,2179341,062
12 noon644577462423400282383623566652
1 p.m.199177172123138114138191149217
2 p.m.567569473372448295319665570580
3 p.m.856844667546612411451943798922
4 p.m.830747596472460346463837638821
5 p.m.387417321386308139252476399553
Other hours4636105944014802524625922151,027
Not stated92625787107233115276123
Not applicable5270269779752053
Totals7,2187,1285,7934,7305,0943,3564,1118,0156,4118,070

This table shows the latter part of the morning—10 a.m. and 11 a.m. being almost equal in incidence—as the time when most accidents occur; but it is apparent that the Saturday half-holiday reduces materially the number of accidents occurring in the late afternoon, and this should be considered in its interpretation. Finally, most establishments are idle between noon and 1 p.m. When these facts are allowed for, it would appear that for most classes of accidents there is a tendency for the risk to increase (in sympathy with increasing fatigue) with each additional hour of the working half-day, the midday and the night-time rest eliminating the cumulated effects of such fatigue. In the case of some causes of accidents, the increased risk with the number of hours continuously worked is much greater than in other cases : the increase, as the working half-day progresses, in the number of accidents caused by falls of persons in particular is exceptionally marked.

A more definite indication is given by considering the length of time the employee had worked when the accident occurred.

Number of Hours already worked.1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.Totals, 1929–33.
* Excluding accidents to Post and Telegraph employees.
Under 14094183592713391,796
1 and under 27127446405185553,169
2 and under 31,2021,0719166828014,672
3 and under 41,1361,0819056527324,506
4 and under 56196215023874742,603
5 and under 65705584824194322,461
6 and under 78698496675585693,512
7 and under 88388636395704683,378
8 or over4504423433233631,921
Not stated3602031832142141,174
Not applicable53572354142
Totals7,2186,907*5,659*4,599*4,951*29,334

The foregoing tabulation shows that the greatest number of accidents occurred during the third, and to a lesser extent during the fourth, hour worked in the day.

Chapter 42. SECTION XLII.—ELECTRIC POWER.

STATE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-POWER

ALTHOUGH abundant water-power is available throughout New Zealand, comparatively little use was made of it before 1900, but since then the development has been extensive. In 1903 water-power to the extent of 9,911 horse-power was actually in use. By 1913 this amount had risen to 34,956 horse-power, by 1923 to 54,244, and by 1935 to 382,538.

The Public Works Act vests the sole right to use the water-power of the Dominion in the Crown, subject to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right to develop such power, or to delegate it to any local authority, or, outside a mining district, to any- person or company, subject to conditions.

The regulations covering the delegation of this right, which were amended in June, 1934, make it essential for persons desiring to obtain a license to generate power by this means to obtain permission from the Minister of Public Works. The regulations provide for an annual rental to be paid to the Crown by the licensee, such rental to be paid, except in special cases, at the rate of £1 per kv.a. of maximum demand per annum, and to be not less than £10. A number of local authorities and private concerns have taken advantage of this provision of the Act.

Persistent demands were made for some years that the Government should itself develop the power resources of the Dominion for the benefit of the people generally, and in 1910 the Aid to Water-power Works Act was passed, and the Lake Coleridge scheme for the supply of Christchurch City and Canterbury Provincial District was selected for development. Operations were commenced on these works in 1911 and completed in 1915, with a capacity of 5,300kv.a., which was extended to 26,495 kv.a. in 1926, and further extended to 40,640 kv.a., in 1930. After the successful inauguration of the Lake Coleridge scheme a complete system was drawn up of interconnected power systems in both the North and South Islands.

For the North Island the scheme embraces three main stations—viz., Mangahao (24,000 h.p.), Lake Waikaremoana (40,000 h.p., capable of extension to 140,000 h.p.), and the Arapuni Rapids, on the Waikato River (100,000 h.p., capable of extension to 160,000 h.p.). These three stations have now been linked up, and are operated as one system. Two additional units, each of 24,000 kv.a. capacity are on order for Arapuni and are expected to be in commission in 1936.

In the South Island developments are in hand for an ultimate capacity as follows:—

 Horse-power.
Lake Coleridge (Public Works Department)46,000
Waitaki River, Kurow (Public Works Department)115,000
Waipori Falls (Dunedin City Council)28,000
Lake Monowai (Southland Electric-power Board)16,000
 205,000

As in the North Island, the two Government stations have been interconnected and are operated as one system. It is proposed that the other two stations will be linked up also, making a complete system covering the major portion of the South Island.

A commencement with the first of the major generating stations in the North Island was made at Mangahao in 1922, the full development of 24,000 kv.a. being undertaken. Mangahao was completed in 1925.

A start was made almost immediately with the Waikaremoana station of 40,000 kv.a., and power was turned on to full capacity in November, 1929.

In November, 1920, the Waihi Gold-mining Company's electric-power plant of 7,860 kv.a. at Horahora was acquired by the State- Considerable extension, to 12,860 kv.a., was made in 1925. The requirements of the whole of the Auckland District were in time to be supplied from Arapuni (60,000 kw.), and a commencement with this huge development was made in 1925. The first unit of 17,650 kv.a. was brought into operation in June, 1929, and the station linked up with Horahora. Two further units were in use by March, 1930, and the fourth (18,000 kv.a.) and final unit of the present development went into commission in 1932. Unfortunately, in June, 1930, an earth movement occurred, necessitating the temporary closing-down of the station. Remedial measures to recondition the headworks were made, and the station resumed operation in 1932.

The Waitaki River was selected as the next source of power for the South Island system. During the past six years this scheme has been undergoing construction, and at the end of 1934 commenced commercial operation.

The following table for the last five years covers those State systems in actual operation in each year :—

1930-31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
* Amount very small (see units); precise data lacking.
 £££££
Capital outlay9,150,51710,149,13710,566,15210,584,34812,900,752
Total revenue685,242680,003864,746901,383940,864
Power purchased55,61925,3896,543**
Working-costs162,779178,372229,249137,995151,518
Interest358,821339,619512,872537,861511,834
Sinking fund17,12618,06220,53929,812..
Depreciation110,149103,08382,10798,097229,072
Total costs704,494664,525851,400869,591930,111
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
Units generated465,928,407462,081,637652,853,396683,128,000729,266,587
Units purchased11,553,58016,295,2356,544,50734,00062,712
Totals477,481,987478,376,872659,402,963683,162,000729,329,299
Units sold427,138,304428,164,585583,963,603615,887,000656,465,321

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.

The policy of the government generally is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of the local authorities. Formerly the only local authorities available were the cities, boroughs, counties, and town districts, but with the extension of electric supply into the country areas a wider organization became necessary, and this was first provided under the Electric-power Boards Act of 1918. This Act Provides for several local districts to combine for the purpose of electric-power distribution, and to set up a special Electric-power Board to carry out the work, with rating-powers over the district concerned. The legislation was consolidated and amended in the Electric-power Boards Act, 192 amendments to which were enacted in 1927 and 1928. An Act of 1930 established an Association of Electric-power Boards and municipal electric-lighting authorities

So far only one of the four main cities—viz., Auckland—has been included in the inner area of a power district, but of the secondary centres the cities of Wanganui Palmerston North, and Invercargill, and the boroughs of Gisborne, Napier, Hasting Masterton, Lower Hutt, Petone, Blenheim, Greymouth, Timaru, and Oamaru are included.

Twenty - seven Boards — viz., Waitemata, Franklin, Cambridge, Central Te Awamutu, Waitomo, Thames Valley, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Wairoa Hawke's Bay, Central Hawke's Bay, Dannevirke, South Taranaki, Wanganui Rangitikei, Manawatu-Oroua, Horowhenua, Tararua, Wairarapa, Hutt Valley, North Canterbury, Malvern, Banks Peninsula, Springs-Ellesmere, Ashburton, South Canterbury, and Waitaki—have carried out fairly complete reticulation of their areas, and are distributing power taken in bulk from the systems of Horahora-Arapuni Mangahao-Waikaremoana, and Lake Coleridge. The Auckland Board, which took over the city electric-power station and has provided large extensions of both plant and mains, is now taking its supply from the Horahora-Arapuni scheme Nino Boards—viz., Wairere, Opunake, Taranaki, Marlborough, Waimea, Golden Bay Grey, Teviot, and Southland—have local water-power stations in operation. The Westland Board has delegated its license to a private company for a term of years The Tauranga, Otago, and Otago Central Boards have arranged to purchase power in bulk from other authorities. The other five—viz., North Auckland, Lake Wakatipu, Buller, Reefton, and Hurunui — were not actually functioning during 1934–35.

The following is a summary of actively functioning Electric-power Boards :—

  Revenue.Expenditure.
Year ended 31st March,Capital Outlay as at End of Year.Sale of Electricity (Gross).Sale of Material (Profit).Total.*Capital Charges.Power.Total.*
* Includes other items.
 £££££££
19267,350,516855,43215,900898,008375,806245,144802,970
19279,411,5921,243,52816,1191,312,212673,163488,5961,323,883
192811,078,6701,553,62715,3871,628,191720,388609,0031,520,489
192912,009,8911,788,71915,2981,850,453797,205735,7731,749,991
193012,920,1502,030,23912,1502,092,169859,262786,1471,887,500
193113,637,1772,157,22810,9762,223,379905,479667,5272,044,457
193213,847,7602,129,1924,5552,203,485944,868908,1162,076,822
193314,026,3202,120,6975,2092,248,6631,095,826896,3282,199,841
193414,226,2592,098,0884,5622,154,188981,190884,4602,066,683
193514,657,5142,198,4935,7232,252,387937,814937,0932,122,139

Revenue in the foregoing table is exclusive of moneys derived from rates. Rates, inclusive of arrears, brought in £54,064 in 1934–35. Capital charges are inclusive of interest, sinking-fund, and depreciation payments, while power charges include wages, stores, fuel, distribution, and street-lighting expenses.

ALL STATIONS.

In addition to the Government undertakings controlled by the Public Works Department and those undertakings operated by Electric-power Boards, there are fifty establishments which are operated by other organizations, six of which represent private enterprise, the rest being local bodies of various classes. A general summary covering all stations in operation for the last three years is given hereunder :—

 Year ended 31st March,
1933.1934.1935.
StationsNo.1009998
Persons engaged (both sexes)No.2,6192,8032,907
Salaries and wages£609,311641,959670,553
ConsumersNo.323,243334,792342,413
Number of—    
 Ranges 33,99836,98139,730
 Milking-machines 15,91316,99217,200
 Water-heaters 48,07050,27253,635
Generators (capacity)—    
 MainKw.254,442245,630271,970
 StandbyKw.77,08485,58392,699
Route-miles of linesMiles20,62220,99621,707
Revenue—    
 Current—    
  Retail£3,397,1973,374,5783,501,395
  Bulk£911,610944,652988,828
Other£232,728166,053150,239
Total£4,541,5354,485,2834,640,462
Expenditure—    
 Working expenses£2,024,9321,917,7352,051,725
 Capital charges£2,152,7222,008,3742,075,617
Total£4,177,6543,926,1094,127,342
Appropriations£354,397416,256341,650
Capital outlay—    
 Total expenditure£30,506,39630,709,05433,495,186
 Depreciation£3,403,7063,957,1634,332,940
 Book-value at 31st March£27,102,69026,751,89129,162,246
Units—    
 GeneratedThou'ds831,697857,806916,302
 Per head of mean populationUnits544556590
 Sold (retail)Thou'ds635,260667,289709,554
 Bulk salesThou'ds607,014633,902681,423

The figures given in respect of employees and salaries and wages are those which are met out of revenue.

CLASSIFICATION OF STATIONS.

Prior to the 1935 issue of the Year-Book electric-supply stations were classified in two groups, one being termed generating stations and the other distributing stations. Stations which were solely engaged in generating or generated more units than they purchased were classified as generating, while those which purchased all their energy or purchased more than they generated were classed as distributing stations.

The classification now adopted is a quadripartite one, as follows:—

  1. Generating stations:—

    1. Generating solely.

    2. Generating and purchasing, but generating bulk of supplies of power.

  2. Distributing stations :—

    1. Generating and purchasing, but purchasing bulk of supplies of power.

    2. Purchasing solely.

The following table sets out the main particulars of all stations classified in this manner for the year ended 31st March, 1935:—

Generating only.Both Generating and Purchasing.Purchasing only.Total.
Mainly Generating.Mainly Purchasing.
* 000 omitted.
StationsNo.2414164498
Capital outlay to£7,708,11911,260,2663,679,35110,847,45033,495,186
date      
Present book value£6,797,69610,095,8783,342,4658,926,20729,162,246
Revenue£655,4671,059,716786,6682,138,6114,640,462
Working-expenses£168,886227,050436,9601,218,8292,051,725
Capital charges and£521,499732,825319,700843,2432,417,267
appropriations      
Units generated* 274,874635,5555,873..916,302
Units purchased* ..6,124149,915516,901672,940
Units sold—      
 Bulk sales* 133,551505,2377,14635,489681,423
Retail sales* 105,89063,033126,100414,531709,554

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The following summary, covering all stations, shows for 1934–35 the principal details for employees and for salaries and wages paid:—

 Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.
Class of Employment.Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.
(a) Salaries or Wages paid out of Revenue from Sale of Energy. 
    £££
Secretaries, managers, engineers264..264105,016..105,016
Clerical staff40225065283,13931,076114,215
Wage-earning employees1,976151,991449,9191,403451,322
Totals2,6422652,907638,07432,479670,553
(b) Salaries or Wages not paid directly out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
    £££
House-wiring99110017,93224718,179
Trading departments5035310,67537811,053
New construction-works3001801176,357320176,677
Totals9495954204,964945205,909
Grand totals3,5912703,861843,03833,424876,462

CAPITAL OUTLAY.

The following is a summary of the data collected for 1934–35:—

Class of Expenditure.Expenditure during Year ended 31st March, 1935.Total Expenditure up to 31st March, 1935.
 ££
Land in connection with power - house, headworks, cottages, &c.1,379412,833
Power-house buildings, cottages, &c.13,2541,762,877
Generating plant, headworks, &c.226,1448,564,415
Special standby plant35,6251,040,154
Main transmission-line and main substations199,6995,378,153
Distribution system, substations, land, cottages, &c.304,96011,299,902
Public (street) lighting12,138443,446
Interest during construction78,7272,032,564
Motors and other apparatus on hire..14,983151,305
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, law-costs, &c, and other capital expenditure)230,1922,409,537
Totals1,117,10133,495,186

It should be noted that the capital-outlay figures no longer include the outlay in stocks of materials and capital invested in trading departments.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The following statement of assets and liabilities summarizes the financial position of the industry, in addition to setting out fully the state of reserves and invested funds :—

Assets. 
 ££
Capital expenditure33,495,186 
Less amounts written  
off, &c.1,368,756 
  32,126,430
Stocks, trading departments, and rolling-stock 707,170
Reserve funds accrued (invested outside the undertakings)—  
 Sinking funds 2,827,665
 Depreciation funds 601,851
 Renewal funds 443,133
 Other funds 166,395
Cash in hand and bank, sundry debtors,&c. 1,992,344
  £38,804,988
Liabilities, &c.
 £
Capital raised29,750,063
 Less repaid531,109
 Balance owing29,224,954
Other liabilities (including sundry creditors)790,447
Reserves— 
 Sinking fund reserve3,090,492
 Depreciation reserve2,904,184
 Renewal fund reserve502,129
 Accident fund reserve36,539
 Other special reserves850,480
 General reserve1,126,831
Credit balance, Revenue Account272,932
 £38,864,988

POWER PLANT.

Particulars relating to the power plant in use during the year ended 31st March, 1935, are set out hereunder:—

Source of Power.Main Plant.Standby Plant.Total.
 No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.
Steam-engines11,2493287,4723388,721
Water-turbines99379,064153,474114382,538
Gas-engines175102,149112,224
Oil-engines101,9413220,8934222,834

UNITS.

The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. It should be noted that the figures are inclusive of bulk sales.

Year ended 31st March,Units (000 omitted)
Generated.Purchased.Total.Sold.Lost in Transmission,&c.
1931759,827453,1081,212,9351,039,358173,577
1932787,650455,3191,242,9691,072,346170,623
1933831,697602,6331,434,3301,242,274192,056
1934857,806630,7151,488,5211,301,191187,330
1935916,302672,9401,589,2421,390,977198,265

REVENUE.

Revenue is derived chiefly from sale of energy, and in 1934–35 this source was responsible for over 96 per cent, of the total. Some local authorities supplement revenue by the levying of rates, and in 1934–35 this policy resulted in £56,787 being added to revenue. The following table sets out the revenue of all stations:—

Year ended 31st March,Sale of Energy.Profits, Sale of Apparatus.Miscellaneous.Interest.Rates.Total.
 ££££££
19314,261,54117,66759,40130,53077,0014,446,140
19324,180,5197,53277,44527,52669,4454,362,467
19334,308,8079,077139,32023,93060,4014,541,535
19344,319,2309,12867,25819,75269,9154,485,283
19354,490,2239,67363,16120,61856,7874,640,462

EXPENDITURE.

A study of the expenditure figures immediately reveals that overhead costs, comprising management expenses and capital charges, are considerably greater than prime costs, which may be taken as the operating-expenses. During the year ended 31st March, 1935, of the total expenditure recorded (£4,127,342), approximately 60 per cent, represented overhead expenses, while operating-expenses or prime costs stood at 40 per cent. It is apparent from these figures that the actual output of electrical energy can be greatly increased for a relatively small additional per-unit cost.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure:—

EXPENDITURE.

 Year ended 31st March,
Item.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 Operating Expenditure.  
 £££££
Cost of power777,627734,845907,264942,536985,696
Cost of generation121,633102,00777,78885,49690,325
Fuel231,469216,11626,33815,74610,423
Stores10,24613,2454,2423,7513,613
Repairs59,04169,71255,25231,48532,544
Standby plant20,17455,587131,64621,49719,354
Cost of transmission68,63860,22757,75667,49174,626
Cost of distribution387,222394,573388,389369,057402,047
Public (street) lighting20,81721,82521,53827,26530,547
Totals1,696,8671,668,1371,670,2131,564,3241,649,175

EXPENDITUREcontinued.

ItemYear ended 31st Marc
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 Miscellaneous Expenditure.   
 £££££ 
Cost of management281,032254,158250,500253,479271,124 
Insurance49,80148,79239,30919,53019,337 
Losses from trading4,3762,7153,5553,0861,568 
Other expenditure62,66061,38261,35577,316110,521 
Totals397,869367,047354,719353,411402,550 
 Capital Charges.   
Interest1,311,9371,324,5041,456,2571,366,8251,325,223 
Sinking fund270,562284,827271,166261,692284,711 
Depreciation reserve345,568334,194322,591289,229401,359 
Loan repayment  65,40631,73847,858 
Exchange....37,30258,89016,466 
Totals1,928,0671,943,5252,152,7222,008,3742,075,617 
Grand totals4,022,8033,978,7094,177,6543,926,1094,127,342 

The expression of the expenditure per unit sold is given hereunder:—

Year ended 31st March,
1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 d.d.d.d.d.
Operating-expenses0.390.370.320.290.28
Capital charges and miscellaneous expenses0.540.520.490.430.43
Totals0.930.890.810.720.71

APPROPRIATION OF SURPLUS.

The following table shows the appropriations of net surplus for years ended 31st March:—

1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
 £££££
Renewal Fund66,37665,17359,48875,11348,195
Reserve Fund108,649128,19456,510101,68990,059
Other242,992211,224238,399239,454203,396
Totals418,017404,591354,397416,256341,650

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER IN USE.

The following table shows the hydro-electric horse-power actually in use in the various districts at the 31st March in each of the last five years:—

District1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
* Due to exclusion of Arapuni plant during temporary close-down.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland North2,7942,7992,8393,1883,188
Auckland7,1207,1043493,1883,188
Auckland South66,477½16,447½*118,452118,445118,445
Gisborne56,01256,32946,33146,30646,279
Hawke's Bay349½56,32946,33146,30646,279
Taranaki North9,815½10,880½10,46210,43910,439
Taranaki1,572½1,3001,3001,4851,495
Wellington North1,16632,85343,08643,07343,071
Wellington35,396½1,5471,5471,5401,540
Nelson and Marlborough9212,4732,4732,471½2,827
Westland3,3975,2568,9069,1108,997
Canterbury51,349½51,37749,34449,31749,338
Canterbury South17751,37749,34449,31749,338
Otago27,169½26,065½31,169½31,34293,966½
Southland14,753½14,753½12,45012,457½12,493½
Totals278,471229,185328,708½329,174392,079

The following table gives an analysis of the purposes for which hydro-electric power was employed as at the 31st March, 1935 :—

District.Mining.Electric supply.Flax-Mills.Sawmills.Flour-mills.Dairying.Construction Works.Freezing-Works.Paper-mills.Miscellaneous.Totals.
 H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.H.P.
Auckland N.1492,920......24..50..453,188
Auckland1492,920......24..50..453,188
Auckland South1,013117,403..17..........12118,445
Gisborne..46,267..............1246,279
Hawke's Bay..46,267..............1246,279
Taranaki North..10,165....24211..20..1910,439
Taranaki..1,415..40..........401,495
Wellington N...43,040......8......2343,071
Wellington..1,523......7......101,540
Nelson..2,7192059..........292,827
Marlborough..2,7192059..........292,827
Westland2538,57736101..18......128,997
Canterbury..49,12950..1075......4749,338
Canterbury S...49,12950..1075......4749,338
Otago1,42091,080..7110........1,349½93,966½
Southland..10,893½..........1,200400..12,493½
Totals2,835385,131½106224241273..1,2704001,598½392,079

Chapter 43. SECTION XLIII.—MISCELLANEOUS.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

THE Public Trust Office is designed mainly to afford, at low rates of commission, a secure and convenient recourse in any case where a person residing either in New Zealand or abroad desires to draw a will, form a trust, or appoint an executor, trustee, agent, or attorney in the Dominion. The Office aims also to relieve those who for various reasons may be unable or unwilling to commence or continue the administration of trust property to which they may have been appointed.

The Public Trust Office commenced operations in 1873, at the end of which year 257 estates, of a total value of £17,500, were being administered by the Office. Since then there has been a progressive increase in both number and value of estates administered, the records at 31st March, 1935, showing 20,264 estates of a value of £60,706,016.

Year ended 31st March,Total Value of Estates in Office, including Unrealized Assets.Funds at Credit of Estates and Accounts.
 ££
192638,009,48024,426,009
192741,043,52326,485,917
192844,155,54828,485,442
192948,334,79031,043,172
193053,049,43734,049,290
193157,527,26336,488,434
193259,132,51236,859,518
193359,757,44936,815,941
193460,760,49337,155,883
193560,706,01636,666,196

The slight decline in 1934–35 is due to operations connected with conversion of local bodies' loans.

New estates which came into the Office during the year ended 31st March, 1935, numbered 2,980, and represented a value of £6,284,883. The classification of these and of the estates under administration at 31st March, 1935, is as follows:—

 New Estates during 1934–35.Estates under Administration at 31st March, 1935.
——Number.Value.Number.Value.
  £ £
Wills estates1,2683,281,9706,39718,656,655
Trust estates239547,5562,4918,385,857
Intestate estates451334,8192,4411,672,244
Mental patients' estates417506,9832,1362,551,296
Miscellaneous estates6051,613,5556,79929,439,964
     Totals2,9806,284,88320,26460,706,016

Testators and other clients appointing the Public Trustee their executor or trustee may direct investment of their funds either in the Common Fund of the Office or outside of the Common Fund. In the former case the investments are not earmarked to the estate, but capital and interest are guaranteed by the State. Interest, which is at such rate as is fixed from time to time by the Governor-General, accrues from the date the moneys reach the Office, and is free of all commission and other charges.

In the case of special investment outside of the Common Fond, the investments belong to the estate, but there is no State guarantee, and (subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee) any loss falls on the estate. Commission is charged on the interest collected.

In general, investment in the Common Fund is preferred by clients, the safety of such investment being an important consideration. The Common Fund at 31st March, 1935, held moneys to the total of £24,979,344.

The total amount invested by the Public Trust Office as at 31st March, 1935, on behalf of the estates and funds under administration was £35,617,059.

During the year ended 31st March, 1935, 4,177 wills were deposited with the Public Trustee, and 1,840 were withdrawn on account of the death of the testator or for other reasons, the net increase for the year being 2,337. The number of wills on deposit at the 3l3t March, 1915, was 7,844; by 1925 it had increased to 44,102; while at 31st March, 1935, it had risen to 83,740.

In addition to preparing wills in the first instance, the Office affords its clients special facilities for the revision of existing wills to provide for changes desired by them. During the past year 3,726 wills held on behalf of testators were so revised.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

Since the Companies Act of 1903, no comprehensive revision of statute law relating to companies was made in New Zealand, and the essential provisions of company law remained substantially unaltered. In 1930 the Attorney-General appointed an advisory committee, including representatives of the business community, and of the professions of law and accountancy, to act with the Law Draftsman in framing a new measure, which, in the form of the Companies Act, 1933, came into force on 1st April, 1934. In great part the measure is an adaptation of the Imperial Act of 1929 to suit the special conditions of New Zealand, and harmonizes also with similar measures already passed or in hand in Australian States.

A noteworthy step in the history of company legislation was taken by the Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 1934–35, which provided machinery for the incorporation of the holders of bonds issued by certain afforestation and other companies.

The position of certain investment companies in 1934 led to the appointment of a Commission of Inquiry and the passing of a novel series of legislative enactments designed to investigate their affairs and to protect the investors. The Acts passed comprised the Companies (Special Investigations) Act, 1934; the Companies (Special Liquidations) Act, 1934–35; and the Companies (Temporary Receivership) Act, 1935.

During the year ended 31st December, 1934, 933 joint-stock companies were registered, with a total nominal capital of £200,739,139. The figures are swelled by the inclusion of 187 overseas companies (aggregate nominal capital £193,023,363) which had previously established places of business in New Zealand and filed documents during the year under Part XII of the Companies Act, 1933. In the following table companies registered in 1934 are classified according to the amount of their nominal capital.

 Private Companies.Public Companies.Overseas Companies.*
Amount.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
* Figures include registrations under Part XII of the Companies Act, 1933.
  £ £ £
No fixed capital........7..
Under £1,000277109,51714002200
£1,000 and under £2,000147175,11844,90022,750
£2,000 and under £3,00071154,710919,500511,500
£3,000 and under £4,0002991,470515,50013,000
£4,000 and under £5,0001354,299416,500....
£5,000, and under £6,00029146,3001575,5001470,000
£6,000 and under £7,000954,981637,000....
£7,000 and under £8,000429,000322,040....
£8,000 and under £9,000433,41618,00018,000
£9,000 and under £10,000436,375218,000....
£10,000 and under £15,00012132,00018198,50015150,000
£15,000 and under £20,0007114,000462,000345,000
£20,000 and under £50,0006184,00019503,50016457,500
£50,000 and over2110,000122,264,250150195,320,413
     Totals6141,425,1861033,245,590216196,068,363

The next table gives figures of total registrations during each of the last three years, classified according to amount of nominal capital.

 1932.1933.1934.
Amount.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.NumberAggregate Nominal Capital.NumberAggregate Nominal Capital.
* Includes one company, capital not known.
  £ £ £
No fixed capital....6..7 
Under £1,000338140,499327125,970280110,117
£1,000 and under £2,000186220,209171203,904153182,768
£2,000 and under £3,00094205,95089193,83885185,710
£3,000 and under £4,00034104,26041127,65035109,970
£4,000 and under £5,0002395,4202393,1721770,799
£5,000 and under £6,00030151,50038190,50058291,800
£6,000 and under £7,0001167,5001272,8251591,981
£7,000 and under £8,00014100,500642,700751,040
£8,000 and under £9,000540,800324,000649,416
£9,000 and under £10,00019,000545,500654,375
£10,000 and under £15,00023247,89940420,90045480,500
£15,000 and under £20,0008122,85015237,50014221,000
£20,000 and under £50,00028749,382371,012,940411,145,000
£50,000 and over164,610,000174,509,600164197,694,663
     Totals812*6,865,7698307,300,999933200,739,139

In comparing one year with another, as in the following table, it should not be overlooked that re-registrations on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons are included. Such re-registrations may have a considerable effect on the year's total, when large companies are concerned.

Year.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £
19153044,431,830
19162584,072,803
19172615,367,201
19182003,055,351
19193285,942,605
19205019,563,933
19213373,498,208
192241713,125,494
192350213,006,085
192456521,367,310
192562114,760,398
192665510,748,231
19276988,701,808
192873610,984,907
192990312,472,057
19308936,702,675
19317958,283,581
19328126,865,769
19338307,300,999
1934933200,739,139

The huge increase in 1934 is due, as stated earlier, to the registration (under Part XII of the Companies Act, 1933) of previously established overseas companies with a very large aggregate capital; this capital, of course, is by no means all employed in New Zealand.

TOTAL COMPANIES ON REGISTER.

The tables which follow, the result of a special compilation, show the number and capital of all companies on the register at 31st December, 1932. In the case of public companies, the information was obtained from the statutory returns furnished annually by each public company to the Registrar of Companies, and includes details of the nominal, subscribed, and paid-up capital, and also of the amount of mortgages registered under the Companies Act. As regards private companies, the information is less complete, there being no annual return as in the case of public companies. On the registration of a private company, however, it is necessary that all the capital be subscribed for in accordance with the Act, so that, except in cases where the capital has been subsequently increased by resolution, the subscribed capital is identical with the nominal capital. The paid-up and loan capital, as explained later, is capable of approximate estimation.

PUBLIC COMPANIES ON REGISTER, 31ST DECEMBER, 1932.

Amount of Nominal Capital.Number.Nominal Capital.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Mortgages under Companies Act.
  ££££
Under £1,0008639,86730,86927,21736,484
£1,000 and under £2,00083101,37968,32657,53628,852
£2,000 and under £3,000127271,351192,028163,18863,969
£3,000 and under £4,00084258,275185,874152,90050,264
£4,000 and under £5,00045185,521133,652108,71467,605
£5,000 and under £6,000117587,900379,013318,181158,156
£6,000 and under £7,00040241,777172,595141,466166,265
£7,000 and under £8,00034244,500172,210137,05519,637
£8,000, and under £9,00042339,450263,677216,253101,250
£9,000 and under £10,000654,00044,92134,2616,000
£10,000 and under £15,0001962,094,3211,445,7131,174,715472,408
£15,000 and under £20,000821,268,422960,580828,330259,712
£20,000 and under £50,0003599,916,3127,280,0376,117,0712,233,446
£50,000 and under £100,00019911,711,9598,614,2297,315,9552,564,822
£100,000 and over23270,238,54451,078,01242,314,0609,219,297
   Totals, 31st December, 19321,73297,553,57871,021,73659,106,90215,453,164
   Totals, 31st December, 19261,63089,544,85858,807,51949,982,59316,181,126

The total capital employed by the 1,732 public companies on the register at the 31st December, 1932, amounted to £74,560,066, as compared with £66,163,719 for 1,630 companies at the date of the previous tabulation (31st December, 1926). In regard to the mortgages included in the foregoing amounts, it should be noted that complete accuracy is impossible, owing to the fact that many of the mortgages are to secure current accounts which vary from time to time, Moreover, information regarding bank overdrafts and other accommodation not requiring registration is not available.

PRIVATE COMPANIES ON REGISTER, 31ST DECEMBER, 1932.

Amount of Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £
Under £1,0001,129488,590
£1,000 and under £2,0001,0211,250,409
£2,000 and under £3,0007361,594,938
£3,000 and under £4,0004951,556,926
£4,000 and under £5,0003141,307,221
£5,000 and under £6,0004592,319,577
£6,000 and under £7,0002541,558,212
£7,000 and under £8,0001501,081,421
£8,000 and under £9,000121982,854
£9,000 and under £10,00071647,080
£10,000 and under £15,0005515,974,744
£15,000 and under £20,0002013,194,469
£20,000 and under £50,00044711,783,657
£50,000 and under £100,000845,074,298
£100,000 and over509,548,710
   Totals, 31st December, 19326,08348,363,106
   Totals, 31st December, 19263,43936,060,343

Assuming that the subscribed capital of private companies is equivalent to the nominal capital, and that the ratio of subscribed capital to paid-up capital obtaining in the case of private companies engaged in manufacturing industries (this information being available from the annual returns of factory production) is constant throughout all private companies, the total paid-up capital of all private companies may he put down as approximately £44,800,000. Making a similar assumption in regard to the ratio of mortgages to paid-up capital, the mortgages of all private companies total about £9,800,000, which, added to the paid-up capital, gives a total working capital of £54,600,000, compared with £41,600,000 in 1926. For both public and private companies the total working capital is thus estimated at approximately £129,000,000, the corresponding figure for 1926 being £108,000,000.

The figures given above in respect of companies on the register in December, 1932, do not include foreign companies, regarding which information is extremely scanty, only the total nominal capital being recorded with the Registrar of Companies. At the end of 1932 there were 203 foreign companies on the register, with a total nominal capital of £143,800,000, this being a small decrease on the 1926 total of £145,300,000 (205 companies). This capital, however, gives no indication whatever as to the amount of overseas capital employed in the Dominion, which, nevertheless, must be only a small proportion of the totals shown.

In addition to the foregoing there were at the end of 1932 41 companies limited by guarantee, 16 unlimited companies, 33 rural intermediate credit associations, and 11 companies of a miscellaneous character.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.

There were 1,766 applications for letters patent during 1934, 928 of these being filed with provisional specifications, and 838 with complete specifications. Patent fees for the year amounted to £8,880.

The total number of applications received up to the 31st December, 1934, was 73,667, and the patents in force in New Zealand at that date numbered 7,511. The number of patent agents on the register was 10.

In the following table are shown the countries of residence of persons who applied for patents in New Zealand during the last three years. Owing to applications being received from joint applicants resident in different countries, also from applicants giving two addresses, the figures usually total more than the actual number of applications received.

Country.1932.1933.1934.
New Zealand1,2111,009921
Great Britain267320307
Australia182182207
United States827079
Germany51124112
France101214
Netherlands1731
Canada664
Sweden31010
Austria141
Switzerland438
Union of South Africa5....
Denmark547
All other countries131013
Totals1,8461,7651,775

A large number of the applications for patents deal with telephony and telegraphy, the figures for 1934 and 1933 being 306 and 313 respectively. These show a considerable increase on the average number for the quinquennium 1928–32 (216).

The total number of applications during 1934 in respect of trade-marks was 915, and the fees received totalled £3,297. Of the total applications (remarks above regarding joint applicants are applicable here also). 459 were made by residents of New Zealand, 216 came from Great Britain, 122 from Australia, 62 from the United States, 15 from Germany, 7 from Canada, and 9 from France.

The number of applications for registration of designs totalled 146, and the fees received for the year, 123.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade-marks and designs in each of the last ten years: —

Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.
19252,0461,332203
19262,1371,143204
19272,0521,325145
19282,0701,201163
19292,2511,359125
19302,1031,265169
19312,065999151
19321,846925164
19331,762814143
19341,766915146

For the year 1934 the total receipts of the Patent Office were £12,376 and the payments £4,709, leaving a surplus of £7,667, compared with £7,316 in 1933.

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.

The Inspection of Machinery Act makes provision for the inspection of all steam boilers, digesters, and other steam-pressure vessels, of air-receivers, hydraulic, electric, and other lifts, all types of power-driven cranes and power-driven machinery on land, also of machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled.

Boilers, pressure-vessels, air-receivers, lifts, and cranes are required to be of approved design and workmanship, and the moving parts of machinery to be adequately guarded.

The Act also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Working Railways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up by the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Inspector of Machinery.

Annual inspections of machinery during the year ended 31st March, 1935, numbered 27,686, and of boilers, 8,000. The following figures cover inspections during the last five years:—

 Year ended 31st March,
Number inspected.1931.1932.1933.1934.1935.
Boilers—     
  Stationary, portable, traction4,9894,7284,5014,5824,655
  Digesters, vulcanizers, &c.2,6132,5312,5222,6492,670
  Air-receivers543655635691675
Machinery—     
  Electric motors28,37223,42917,21718,31820,030
  Internal - combustion engines14,5109,1572,5232,6622,600
  Water-power engines597457270278268
  Lifts3,0962,51882,9403,0093,072
  Cranes287310303334364
  Hoists1,3231,3511,3061,4241,352
    Totals56,33045,60632,21733,94735,686

By the Inspection of Machinery Amendment Act, 1931, farm machinery of not more than 6 horse-power was exempted from annual inspection, and this is the reason for the marked decrease in the number of inspections.

In 1934–35 new boilers to the number of 375, representing an aggregate of 1,958 horse-power, were inspected and tested before being used. Of these, 201, of a total horse-power of 1,197, had been made in New Zealand, the others being imported.

During the year ended 31st March, 1935, 275 certificates were issued to land engineers, engine-drivers, and electric-tram drivers. At examinations during the year 345 candidates sat, 238 being successful.

Revenue and expenditure in connection with inspection of machinery have been as follows:—

——1930–31.1931–82.1932–33.1933–34.1934–35.
Revenue—£££££
  Inspection fees, &c.22,53622,80218,98119,53019,332
  Examination fees, &c.385384401313359
     Totals22,92123,18619,38219,84319,691
Expenditure28,31926,14117,14416,93317,565

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

Complete statistics covering all phases of production are not available; and, in compiling the following statistics of value of production, estimates of production have been made in several cases where direct data are not available. Since statistical information as to production in each of the major productive activities is collected by the Census and Statistics Office, the items for which estimates must be made are, with the exception of one group of commodities, relatively unimportant. Although the value of products made in the home—e.g., home-made clothing, jams, kitchen-garden products, &c.—must, in the aggregate, account for a considerable annual value, it is quite impossible to estimate with any reasonable degree of accuracy the value of such production; which is, on this account, omitted from the value of production statistics.

The general principle followed in assessing values has been to value products as near as possible to the actual point of production. For example, live-stock is valued at saleyard prices, while values at the factory are used in the case of factory products. In some cases, however, reliable data as to values at or near the point of production cannot be obtained; and in these cases export valuations or wholesale price quotations have been used in assessing values. Although absolute uniformity of treatment in the basis of valuation as between different commodities has not been possible, the method of valuation of each individual item has been the same for each year throughout the period covered. The statistics thus afford a fairly accurate measure of fluctuations in the value of production from year to year, although the absolute figures for any individual year must be regarded as approximate only.

Since the basis of valuation is (as far as possible) at the point of production, transport costs are only partly represented in the values shown, while the accretions to the value of commodities caused by the services of retailers and other distributors of finished products are not included in the statistics.

In classifying the value of production into the principal groups care has been taken to avoid duplication, products of one group which constitute the raw material of another group being excluded from the statistics. For example, the gross value of agricultural products in 1933–34 is estimated at £28.4 millions; but, as the major part of this was utilized for the purpose of adding value to live-stock, the net value only (£8.7 million) is classified under the heading ,Agricultural-; since live-stock and live-stock products are included in Groups II and III.

Products have been classified into the groups to which they most logically belong from a production point of view; butter and cheese, for example, being classified under Group HI—Dairying, Poultry, and Bees—and not as factory products. The figure shown under the heading ,Factory Production- is the aggregate value added to materials by the process of manufacture, excluding industries which are already included in other groups (e.g., butter and cheese-making, meat-freezing, fish-curing, and sawmilling). The total output of factory industries is included in cases where the materials are produced in New Zealand and are not already included as production in some other group.

The series of annual estimates of value of production have been revised back to the year 1900–01. It should be understood that all values are in terms of New Zealand currency, which since the latter portion of 1929–30 has depreciated in terms of sterling.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.Mining.Fisheries.Forestry.Factory.Building and Miscellaneous.Total.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
1900–014.112.23.72.90.12.05.43.533.9
1905–064.317.35.34.00.12.60.85.245.6
1910–114.020.57.44.00.22.88.15.852.8
1915–167.031.211.53.70.31.99.75.371.2
1916.176.331.412.73.30.22.410.65.272.1
1917–187.332.913.82.80.22.011.55.376.4
1918–198.037.614.83.80.32.612.65.985.0
1919–208.837.218.04.10.43.115.10.493.1
1920–218.830.226.23.00.44.618.67.699.4
1921–229.528.821.83.20.54.517.28.293.7
1922–238.131.425.23.10.44.518.09.7100.4
1923–247.133.224.03.40.54.719.211.4104.1
1924–258.144.120.23.50.54.820.811.9119.9
1925–268.432.925.23.60.64.722.313.1110.8
1926–278.832.724.73.90.54.023.013.9111.5
1927–280.639.327.24.10.53.522.813.1120.1
1928–299.943.120.34.00.53.424.012.4126.6
1929–309.136.128.44.10.63.625.613.4120.9
1930–318.824.622.24.00.52.923.311.397.6
1931–328.019.321.93.70.41.718.010.083.6
1932–338.920.421.23.50.41.717.710.083.8
1933–348.732.122.53.60.42.018.610.998.8

From the figures of total value of production it is possible, by taking into account the increase of population and the movement of prices, to compile a series of index numbers showing the relative volume of production. The index number of producers' prices used in this compilation is obtained by combining the index number of wholesale prices of locally produced commodities with the index number of export prices. The recent compilation of a series of export-prices index numbers for June years has made possible the construction of producers' prices index numbers on a more satisfactory basis than has hitherto been possible. The index numbers of the volume of production have accordingly been recomputed in the light of the improved data now available. The figures are given in detail in the next table.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION.

Year.Mean Population, Year ended 30th June.Value of Production.Index Numbers of Value of Production (1928–29 = 1000).Index Number of Producers' Prices (1928–29, = 1000).Index Numbers of Volume of Production (1928–29 = 1000).
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
  £m.£     
1900–01812,01033.941.72684824655761037
1905–06929,06645.649.1360568602598944
1910–111,050,01452.850.3417582601694968
1915–161,150,37271.261.9562716823683870
1916–171,148,57872.162.8570726909627799
1917–181,151,23576.466.4603768979616784
1913–191,174,62885.672.96768431027658821
1919–201,217,15093.176.57358841088676813
1920–211,259,86999.478.97859121105710825
1921–221,291,41393.772.6740839997742842
1922–231,317,154100.476.2793881948836929
1923–241,339,786104.177.78228981029799873
1924–251,367,978119.987.694710131111852912
1925–261,399,578110.879.28759161016861902
1926–271,427,455111.578.1881903951926950
1927–281,447,391120.183.0949960987961973
1928–291,464,164126.686.510001000100010001000
1929–301,482,235120.981.695594390710531040
1930–311,503,29997.664.97717507031010983
1931–321,520,35783.655.0660636690957922
1932–331,532,22983.854.76626326541012966
1933–341,544,45098.864.078074072610741019

The total value of production for 1933–34, while showing an increase of £15.0 m. (17.9 per cent.) over the figure for 1932–33, is £27.8 m. (22 per cent.) below that recorded for the peak year, 1928–29 (£126.6 m.). The volume of production for the year 1933–34 was, however, the highest yet recorded, the index number being 1074 (on the base 1928–29 = 1000), an increase of 6.1 per cent, over the 1932–33 figure.

The value of agricultural production for 1933–34 records a decrease of £0.2 m. as compared with the previous year. The decrease is occasioned principally by the wheat harvest for 1933–34 being approximately 9 million bushels, as against 11 million bushels in 1932–33. A further contributing factor is the drop of nearly 2 million bushels in the yield of oats.

Pastoral production during the 1933–34 season is valued at £32–1 mean increase of 57.4 per cent, over 1932–33. The recovery in wool prices in 1933–34, together with an upward movement in meat-prices, brought about this increase.

The value of dairy production advanced from £21.2 m. in 1932–33 to £22.5 m. in 1933–34, an increase of 6.1 per cent. The increased activity in production accounted for this advance.

Mining products rose by £0.1 m" but fisheries remained stationary. Forestry products rose by 17.6 per cent, as a result of brighter conditions in the sawmilling industry, itself a reflection of the upward movement in the building trade. Factory production registered an advance of £0.9 m., or 5.1 per cent., while building and miscellaneous advanced by 9 per cent.

PRODUCE CONSUMED LOCALLY.

Under the immediately preceding title estimates are given of the annual value, within defined limits, of the total production of New Zealand. From this basis it is possible to compute the ratio if local consumption to exports, a feature which is of peculiar significance to New Zealand in view of its high per caput overseas trade and debt.

It is first necessary to deduct from the production totals (miscellaneous group) the value represented by buildings and by road and railway construction, &c, for these items are not possible of export. In order to avoid such fluctuations as are caused by the unequal incidence of price-changes or by the holding of wool stocks, &c, the aggregate of five years has been adopted. For production, figures have been taken for the production years (terminating at varying dates for different commodities) 1929–30 to 1933–34; for exports, partly as naturally later in point of time, the calendar years 1930–34 are adopted.

Produce.Consumed locally.Exported.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Agricultural and pastoral3565
Forest8416
Mining7129
Factory and other991
Total5941

The term “Factory and other” includes fisheries, factory (added value), and other industrial production; but it should be noted that the output of butter and cheese factories and of meat-freezing works is treated herein under agricultural and pastoral, and not under factory production. Similarly, sawmill output is included with forestry.

An important qualification of the above figures lies in the fact that production values are computed as close to the point of production as possible, while export values are f.o.b. at the point of shipment, and consequently include transport and accessory charges. The effect is to understate slightly local consumption, which may be taken as approximately 60 per cent, of the total production of commodities.

References will be found in other parts of this volume to production and local consumption of specific commodities—e.g., wool (page 350), timber (page 372), coal (pages 393 and 407), and wheat (page 340). Foodstuffs are dealt with below.

CONSUMPTION OF FOODSTUFFS.

In the following table an attempt has been made, by taking the total production figures of a commodity and adding or subtracting the net imports or exports, to gauge the extent to which certain foodstuffs are consumed in New Zealand. In order to eliminate the fluctuations which would naturally occur if a single year were taken—this is especially noticeable in the case of imports and exports—the figures relate to an average of the three years 1932–34. In some instances the production year is used, in others the calendar year. It should be mentioned here that in the case of potatoes, onions, and fresh fruits no attempt has been made to estimate the total quantity raised in home gardens for local consumption, and the figures for these commodities are deficient to that extent. Figures for meat (which include considerable bone) are based on arbitrarily selected average weights of dressed carcasses, and are therefore approximate only. Further details will be found on pages 359–61. Figures for fruit production are approximations only.

The figures showing production, imports, exports, amount available for home consumption, and consumption per head for the principal items of foodstuffs are given in the table following. Regarding the figures for the amount available for local consumption, attention is drawn to the fact that in the case of the first six items listed hereunder adjustments have been made for stocks held at the beginning and end of the three-yearly period. Despite these adjustments, the figures for cheese and pork must be regarded as approximations only. In these instances the quantum of local consumption is only a small fraction of total production, so that a comparatively insignificant margin of error in the production estimates would cause a considerable error in the residuum remaining after exports have been deducted. Moreover, it is impossible to ensure exact comparability between the periods covered by the production statistics and the trade statistics.

AVERAGE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF FOODSTUFFS.

Amount available for Local Consumption.
Article.Production.Imports.Exports.Excess of Imports over Exports.Total.Per Head.
 000 lb.000 lb.000 lb.000 lb.000 lb.lb.
Butter330,325..269,317269,317*61,00840
Cheese223,573..216,541216,541*7,0325
Fresh meat—      
    Beef244,773..65,61965,619*179,154117
    Mutton259,592..125,824125,824*133,76887
    Lamb330,084..294,407294,467*35,61723
    Pork36,549..27,57127,571*8,9786
Bacon and ham..16,5361135134*16,40211
Potatoes281,3947844,9464,162*277,232181
Onions19,2286,4272,3434,08423,31215
Flour262,63123,98831123,077286,308187
Oatmeal, rolled oats, &c.16,30733521112416,43111
Maizena and cornflour..3,32623,3243,3242.0
Macaroni and vermicelli..643..6436430.4
Sago and tapioca..3,08433,0813,0812.0
Rice..7,834227,8127,8125
Salt..74,8933774,85674,85640
Sugar..162,7142,494160,220160,220104
Tea..10,72810310,02510,0257
Dried apricots..693..6936930.5
Currants..1,431..1,4311,4310.9
Dates..4,863..4,8634,8633.2
Figs..593..5935930.4
Prunes..1,082..1,6821,6821.1
Raisins and sultanas..9,096..9,0969,0966
Apples96,66635393154,578*42,08827
Pears12,83363,2043,198*9,0356
Lemons2,000952..9522,9521.9
Oranges36715,095..15,09515,40210
Bananas..25,869..25,86925,86917
Tobacco1,9633,350343,3165,2793.5
 000 Gallons.000 Gallons.000 Gallons.000 Gallons.000 Gallons.Gals.
Vinegar668191186860.5
Beer9,136231679,1436
Spirits..37343693690.2
Wine7511411131880.1

* Excess of exports over imports.

† Other than rock-salt.

‡ On refined basis.

The list of commodities shown above includes all the more important foodstuffs, excluding raw milk and bread.

Estimates of milk-consumption are inherently difficult; but from statistics of butterfat-production an approximate estimate may be arrived at. Over the five years ending at the close of the 1934 production season, the average annual production of whole milk was a little in excess of 800,000,000 gallons—ignoring whole milk fed to calves, skim milk, or milk used in the production of butter on farms. Of this amount, 70.0 per cent, was used in the factory production of butter, dried or condensed milk; while 24.5 per cent, was used in cheese-manufacture. The residual 5.5 per cent, represents the human consumption of whole milk used in its raw state or as cream. This quantity (approximately 44,000,000 gallons per annum) represents a daily consumption of about g pint per head of population.

While statistics of local consumption of flour are shown in the above table, data are not available from which to estimate the consumption of bread with any reasonable degree of accuracy. In the first place, production statistics are not collected from bakeries, while the quantity of flour used for baking in the home cannot be ascertained. From the data available from various sources—e.g., the household-budget inquiry conducted by the Census and Statistics Office in 1930— it would appear that the average daily consumption of bread is approximately ½lb. per head.

The four staple products of New Zealand are wool, meat, butter, and cheese. The relative local consumption of wool has been dealt with in Section XVIIc: percentages for the other staples are given below, covering the period of the preceding table.

APPROXIMATE PROPORTION PER CENT. OF TOTAL PRODUCTION.

 Consumed loyally.Exported.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
Butter18.581.5
Cheese3.196.9
Fresh meat—  
    Beef73.226.8
    Mutton51.548.5
    Lamb10.889.2
    Pork24.675.4

GENERAL ELECTIONS.

The 1931 general election of parliamentary representatives was held in December of that year—for Maori electorates on the 1st, and for European electorates on the 2nd. Dealing with the latter only, it is found that out of a total roll number of 838,344 (exclusive of the Bay of Plenty, Oroua, Pahiatua, and Waitomo districts, where no contests were held) some 698,027 (83*26 per cent.) exercised their votes. A summary for the general elections of 1925, 1928, and 1931, is as follows:—

 1925.1928.1931.
Number of votes recorded for candidates elected380,231365,116382,562
Number of votes recorded for candidates defeated291,740370,275310,510
Number of informal votes6,9068,3004,955
Total number of electors who voted at the election678,877743,691698,027
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total valid votes recorded57.1749.6555.20
Total number of electors on roll (where contest)754,113844,633838,344
Number of districts where no contest1..4
Percentage of electors on roll who voted90.9288.0583.26
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total number of electors on roll50.4243.2245.63
Number of seamen's rights exercised1,5731,771837
Number of electors voting as absent voters37,22338,88731,160
Number of electors exercising postal votes..7,9776,956
Total population of Dominion at last census (excluding Maoris)1,218,9131,344,4691,344,469

The relative interest in the poll evinced by men and women may be measured by the percentage of votes recorded to the number on the roll—viz., men 84.51 per cent, and women 81.99 per cent, in 1931, the 1928 figures being 8903 and 87.03 respectively.

A statement of the voting in individual electorates in 1931 is given in 1932 parliamentary papers H.–33 and H.–33A.

In the four Maori electorates 21,439 votes were recorded in 1931, viz.: Northern Maori, 5,630; Southern Maori, 917; Eastern Maori, 7,099; Western Maori, 7,793. Votes cast for elected candidates numbered 12,889, and for defeated candidates 8,550. There are no rolls in the case of Maori elections.

A general election was held on the 27th November, 1935 (Maori election on the 26th), but statistics of the voting are not available in time for inclusion in this issue.

BY-ELECTIONS.

Between the general elections of 1931 and 1935 five by-elections were necessary owing to the death of sitting members. Mr. E. T. Tirikatene was elected for Southern Maori on the 3rd August, 1932, Mr. K. J. Holyoake for Motueka on the 1st December, 1932; Mrs. E. R. Mccombs (the first woman member of a New Zealand Parliament) for Lyttelton on the 13th September, 1933; Mr. P. C. Webb for Buller on the 22nd November, 1933; and Mr. T. H. McCombs for Lyttelton on the 24th July, 1935.

LICENSING.

According to a return compiled by the Department of Justice, the following are the licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors:—

Publican's licenses1,032
Accommodation licenses192
Wholesale licenses145
Packet licenses19
New Zealand wine licenses4
Total1,392

The date of the return is nominally 1st September, 1929, but the above numbers cannot be increased, and the figures may be accepted as correct to the end of December, 1934. A further 412 conditional licenses (temporary licenses for race meetings, agricultural shows, &c.) were granted during 1929–30, the last year for which figures are available. In addition, there were (November, 1935) 46 club charters and (November, 1935) 103 wine-makers' licenses.

The proportion of licensed houses to population is steadily declining. The average number of persons to each licensed (i.e., publican's or accommodation license) house at the end of 1934 may be taken as 1,273, as compared with 1,146 in 1924, 895 in 1914, and 578 in 1904.

The annual foes payable for licenses are,—

  1. For a publican's license—        £

    1. Within the limits of a borough or town district        40

    2. Outside the aforesaid limits      25

  2. For a New Zealand wine license      1

  3. For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding      20

  4. For a packet license—

    1. For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register      10

    2. For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register        5

  5. For a wholesale license      20

  6. For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding        30

Fees form part of the revenue of the local body of the district in which the license was issued.

NATIONAL LICENSING POLLS.

The licensing poll of the 14th November, 1928. held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the fourth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. The votes recorded for the various issues at each of the four polls referred to are as follows:—

 1919.1922.1925.1928.
For national continuance241,251282,669299,590373,692
For State purchase and control32,26135,72756,03764,276
For national prohibition270,250300,791319,450294,453

In the no-license districts an additional issue is submitted—viz., local restoration— three-fifths of the valid votes cast being required for the carrying of the proposal. The voting figures for each of the twelve districts affected, and the votes recorded for the three national issues for each licensing district, in 1928, are given on pp. 985–986 of the 1930 Year-Book.

The Licensing Poll Postponement Act, 1931, relegated the date of the next licensing poll to that of the second general election after the passing of the Act. The postponement of the poll which in the ordinary course would have fallen in 1931 was enacted on grounds of economy. A poll was taken in conjunction with the general election on the 27th November, 1935, and resulted in a considerably increased majority for national continuance.

LOTTERIES.

Under section 42 of the Gaming Act, 1908, the Minister of Internal Affairs may giant permission (subject to such conditions as he thinks fit) for the disposing by raffle or chance of any painting, drawing, sculpture, or other work of art, or literature, or mineral specimens, or mechanical models. By the Stamp Duties Amendment Act, 1931, any such licenses granted for the raffling for mineral specimens in excess of £100 value are subject to a lottery duty of 10 per cent, of the nominal value of all tickets represented in the drawing of the lottery, whether such tickets have been disposed of by way of sale or otherwise. Information as to receipts from this source will be found in Section XXIIIB—Taxation.

The Gaming Act permits sweepstakes and art-unions (as defined) under certain specified conditions.

During the year ended 31st March, 1935, 654 licenses were issued under the authority of section 42 (above), of which ten were for large (two of £5,000, seven of £4,000, and one of £1,500) and 202 for small alluvial-gold lotteries, and 440 were for works of art. In addition to these, there were two further alluvial-gold lotteries (£100 and £300) to enable New Zealand to be represented in two overseas sporting events. The lottery of £1,500 was also to enable New Zealand representation in one of these events, but in this case was subject to lottery duty.

The following is a summary of large alluvial-gold lotteries subject 1o lottery duty during the last five years:—

1930.31.1931.32.1932.33.1933.34.1934.35.
Number of lotteries776710
Gross sales     £191,680*189,420*154,789149,365177,788
Commission on sales    £....23,21822,40526,362
Expenses       £60,64853,82918,46719,96428,763
Prizes       £28,00028,00024,00028,00039,500
Net proceeds       £103,032107,59189,10478,99683,163
Lottery duty       £..13,86815,47914,93717,779
Net profit       £103,03293,72373,62564,05965,384

* Proceeds, sale of tickets, less commission, which was approximately 20 per cent.

The profits are now mainly distributed to officially recognized central funds for the relief of distress or to organizations rendering social relief or performing some service of community value.

REVIEW OF LEGISLATION FOR 1934–35.

Acts passed: Public Acts, 53; Local Acts, 14; Private Acts, 5.

The following is a brief synopsis of the more important public and generaf Acts passed by the General Assembly during the Session ended on the 5th day ol April, 1935:—

The Finance Act, 1934.—Part I of the Act, besides making certain relatively unimportant amendments of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933, also repeals the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 1932–33, and makes provision as between the Reserve Bank and the Consolidated Fund for any adjustment that would require to be made in the event of a statutory fixation of the relationship between the currency of New Zealand and sterling. Part II makes several amendments to the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, the most important of which is that extending the period during which reductions effected in rate of interest and rent continue to operate for two years from the 1st day of April, 1935, to the 1st day of April, 1937.

The Arms Amendment Act, 1934, prohibits the import into New Zealand of any firearms, except under the authority of an “import license” issued to the importer at the discretion of a Superintendent or Inspector of Police. Subject to appeal to a Stipendiary Magistrate, it empowers a senior officer of police to prohibit the possession of firearms except by “fit and proper persons.”

The Stock-remedies Act, 1931.—The purpose of this Act is to maintain effective control over the sale of stock-remedies. A Stock-remedies Registration Board is established and provision made for the registration of stock-remedies, for the approval by the Board of labels and advertisements relating to stock-remedies, for the analysis of stock-remedies by authorized persons, and for penalties where the analysis discloses the fact that the ingredients of the stock-remedy are not as described in the application for registration.

The Companies (Special Investigations) Act, 1934.—This is the first of a series of three Acts relating to certain specified companies. The other Acts are the Companies (Temporary Receivership) Act, 1934, which provides that the Public Trustee shall be appointed receiver and manager of the companies concerned; and the Companies (Special Liquidations) Act, 1934–35, which provides for the winding-up of the companies concerned and the appointment of the Public Trustee as liquidator. Action was first taken by the Government as a result of a report of a Commission of Inquiry appointed to consider the methods of “bond-issuing “companies operating in New Zeeland. As the result of that report it was considered advisable to have the affairs of certain companies investigated.

The Act under review provides for the appointment of inspectors, with wide powers enabling the collection of information, to investigate the affairs of the companies concerned, and to report to the Supreme Court the result of such investigations.

Complementary legislation was passed practically simultaneously in New South Wales, where the principal assets of the companies concerned are situated.

The Mutual Fire Insurance Amendment Act,.1934.—This Act makes lawful the action of any trustee to enter into a contract of insurance with an association under the principal Act.

The Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act, 1934.—This Act repeals the Administration of Justice Act, 1922, which relates to the enforcement of judgments of superior Courts in other parts of His Majesty's dominions, and substitutes provisions under which judgments of any superior Court outside New Zealand (whether a Court within the Empire or in a foreign country) can be enforced in New Zealand. The procedure prescribed is in all material particulars the procedure prescribed by the Foreign Judgments (Reciprocal Enforcement) Act, 1933 (Imperial).

The Finance Act, 1934 (No. 2).—Part I of this Act effects (as from the 31st March, 11)34) an increase of 5 per centum in the rates of salary received by those classes of Civil servants whose salaries were reduced by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Part II also increases by 5 per cent. the. classes of pensions reduced by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934.—Part I of this Act deals with the Customs tariff, and a completely revised tariff is set out in the schedule. The revision was carried out in compliance with an undertaking given at the Ottawa Conference.

Other matters dealt with in the Act comprise tobacco duty, beer duty, gold duty, and sales tax. The matters so dealt with relate principally to matters of detail as to rates of duty or the collection of duty.

The Native Plants Protection Act, 1934, is intended to protect plants indigenous to New Zealand.

Provision is made for the Governor-General to declare specified native plants protected under the Act, whereupon it becomes an offence, with certain exceptions, to take those plants from Crown land, public reserves, roads or streets, or from private land without the consent of the owner or occupier.

The Electoral Amendment Act, 1934, provides for future parliamentary elections being held at intervals not exceeding four years. This does not in any way restrict the power of the Governor-General to dissolve Parliament pursuant to the Constitution Act before it has been in existence for four years.

The Local Authorities (Members' Contracts) Act, 1934.—This Act repeals a number of special provisions imposing disabilities upon members of local authorities and public bodies from entering into contracts with the bodies of which they are members. Though generally on the same lines, the repealed provisions were not uniform in their terms, and the Act now under review makes general provision for the matters hitherto dealt with in separate Acts.

The Poisons Act, 1934, makes more adequate provision (somewhat on the lines of recent Imperial legislation) for the sale, custody, importation, and carriage of poisons^

The Slaughtering and Inspection Amendment Act, 1934, empowers the Minister of Agriculture, acting on the recommendations of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board, to regulate the number of stock, or the number of any kind of stock, that may be slaughtered in any meat-export slaughterhouse during any period. Complementary provisions confer on the Minister power to control the erection or structural alteration of meat-export slaughterhouses.

The Second-hand Dealers Amendment Act, 1934, revises the provisions of the principal Act relating to the licensing of second-hand dealers. It also makes provision that certain specified articles coming into the possession of a second-hand dealer shall be kept for one month before being sold.

The Rent Restriction Act, 1934.—This extends until the 31st October, 1935, the provisions of the War Legislation Act, 1916, relating to the restriction of rent.

The Electrical Wiremen's Registration Amendment Act, 1934.—The most important provisions in this Act are the section effecting a reconstitution of the Electrical Wiremen's Registration Board and the section revising the provisions relating to inspection of electrical-wiring work.

The River Boards Amendment Act, 1934.—This Act provides that River Board elections shall be held on the second Wednesday in May, 1935, and thereafter on the same day in every third year. The intention is to make all local-body elections fall on the same day, a matter which is dealt with more fully in later legislation passed during the 1934–35 session.

The Transport Licensing (Commercial Aircraft Services) Act, 1934, provides for the licensing and control of aircraft services throughout New Zealand. The licensing authority is the. Transport Co-ordination Board established by the Transport Law Amendment Act, 1933.

The Mining Amendment. Act, 1934.—This Act revises and brings up to date the Mining Act, 1926.

The Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Amendment Act, 1934.—This Act deals with amendments of a technical nature to the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act, 1932–33. The time within which conversion schemes may be authorized under the principal Act is extended from the 31st March, 1935, to the 31st December, 1935.

The Unemployment Amendment Act, 1934.—This Act makes several amendments to the Unemployment Act, 1930, including exemption from tax of elderly persons and persons suffering from physical disability, and consolidates the enactments relating to the payment of unemployment-tax by women.

The Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, authorizes the borrowing of various amounts for public works, for electric-power works, and for the construction of main highways.

The Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act, 1934.—This Act arose out of the report of the Dairy Commission appointed to inquire into and report upon the conditions affecting the dairy industry of New Zealand. In the course of its report, the Commission expressed the view “that a policy of co-operation and coordination for the several Boards now functioning in respect of the export of the primary products of New Zealand has become urgently necessary” and also that “independent Boards, each concerned with the marketing of one group of commodities, are no longer able as isolated units to cope effectively with the problems confronting them.” The Act now under review was passed to give effect to the recommendations of the Commission.

Part I provides for the appointment of an administrative body of four members, to be called “the Executive Commission of Agriculture.” The Commission consists of the Minister of Agriculture (who is the Chairman), a Deputy Chairman, and two other members. The Governor-General in Council is given power to transfer to the Commission all or any of the powers of the several Boards that are now concerned with the marketing of primary products: on the transfer to the Commission of any such powers the Boards concerned can exercise their functions only with the authority and under the supervision of the Commission.

Part II reconstitutes the New Zealand Dairy Board and extends its powers; in particular, the reconstituted Board is given authority to regulate the production of dairy-produce, and the handling, marketing, transport, and distribution of dairy-produce intended for consumption in New Zealand. For the purpose of providing administrative charges, the imposition of levies on dairy-produce intended for local consumption is authorized for the first time.

Part III contemplates the expenditure of public moneys by way of grant or loan for the rehabilitation of the dairy industry. The specified purposes for which public moneys may be so applied include the reconstruction of dairy-factories, the eradication of disease from dairy herds, and the genera! improvement of conditions in and about dairy farms.

Part IV confers on the Governor-General in Council wide powers of making regulations for the purpose of giving effect to specific recommendations of the Dairy Commission, and generally for the purpose of giving effect to the Ac?. These extensive powers are considered necessary, having regard to the critical conditions that now affect the dairy industry. The dangers associated with unfettered power of delegated legislation are, however, recognized, and as far as possible are safeguarded against in the Act. Regulations made under the authority of the Act must be laid before Parliament; and, further, if such regulations are not expressly confirmed by statute they will lapse on the close of the last day of the session in which they are submitted to Parliament.

The Noxious Weeds Amendment Act, 1934,—Provision is mode for a County Council to assume the administration of the principal Act within the limits of the county, and, having assumed administration, to make and levy special rates for the purpose of providing funds for such administration.

The Cinematograph Films Amendment Act, 1934,—This Act revises existing legislation relating to the censorship of films and film posters and the provisions relating to film-renting contracts. Contracts between “film renters “and film exhibitors are to be subject to strict control.

The Native Purposes Act, 1934, amends the law relating to certain Native lands, adjusts certain claims and disputes in relation to Native land, confers certain jurisdiction upon the Native Land Court and the Native Appellate Court, and deals with certain other matters relating to Native affairs.

The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Amendment Act, 1934–33.—This Act does two tilings: In the first place, it bring; the New Zealand law into conformity with the law of the United Kingdom by the formal adoption of section 10 of the Imperial Act (as enacted by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1933); in the second place, it allows to a woman who has lost her British nationality by reason of her marriage to an alien the right, while she remains in New Zealand, to claim the same privileges as if she had remained a British subject. The legislation does does not seek to alter the fact that such a woman has in law ceased to be a British subject; it merely says that while she remains in New Zealand she is entitled to all the political and other rights, powers, and privileges, and is subject to all the obligations, duties, and liabilities to which a natural-born British subject is entitled or subject.

The Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 1934–35).—This Act relates specially to companies carrying on business in New Zealand the main purpose of which is to establish afforestation and other land-utilization schemes and which have issued bonds entitling the holders thereof to rights in the forests, &c, established by the bond-issuing companies.

The Act is intended to protect the bondholders, and for that purpose a bondholders' incorporation commission is established. The function of the commission is to devise or approve of schemes to provide for the incorporation of bondholders as a limited company under the Companies Act, 1933, and for the conversion of their rights as bondholders into the rights of shareholders. The incorporation of a bondholders' company having been effected, the commission is given power to make orders for its reconstruction, and, generally, for determining the rights of the shareholders as between themselves and as between the bondholders' company and the bond-issuing company.

The Broadcasting Amendment Act, 1934–35. effects a change in the control of broadcasting in New Zealand. The New Zealand Broadcasting Board is reconstituted and its functions are increased to include the supervision of all programmes broadcast, whether from privately-owned stations or from stations operated by the Board.

The Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand Act, 1031–35.—This Act provides for the establishment of a financial institution to take over from the Government (including the State Advances Superintendent) the business of lending money to farmers and others on the security of mortgages of land. It is referred to in detail earlier in this book.

The Local Elections and Polls Amendment Act, 1931—35.—This Act removes temporarily the disqualification of defaulting ratepayers from voting at elections and polls, and from nominating or being nominated as candidates for election to certain local authorities. Provision is also made for the holding of local-body elections on the same day throughout New Zealand, and for the Dunedin City Council to adopt if it wishes a special system of voting.

The Board of Native Affairs Act, 1931–35.—This Act provides for the abolition of the Native Land Settlement Board established under the Native Land Amendment Act, 1932, and the substitution of a Board to be known as the Board of Native Affairs. The constitution and functions of the Board of Native Affairs are practically the same as those of the Native Land. Settlement Board; but instead of an advisory committee (now abolished) provision is made for the setting-up of district Native committees whose duties are to exercise, subject to the control of the Board, such functions as may be delegated to them.

The Maori Purposes Fund Act, 1931–35. repeals, and re-enacts with modifications, certain provisions providing for the establishment, and administration of a Maori Purposes Fund. The fund is placed under the Control of a. Maori Purposes Fund Board, and a general direction is given to the Board that the fund shall be administered for the promotion of the health, education, and social and economic welfare of members of the Native race; for the encouragement of the teaching of Maori arts and crafts; for research into the arts, crafts, language, customs, traditions, and history of the Maori and cognate races of the Pacific Ocean; and for the preservation of the Maori language.

The Finance Act, 1931–35.—The only matters in this Act requiring mention are the provisions (1) authorizing the Fruit-export Control Board to establish a guarantee fund; and (2) authorizing for another year the remission of the 10-per-cent. penalty on unpaid rates.

The Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, 1931—35.—This Act is designed with the intention that capital liabilities will be so reduced that they will bear a proper relationship to the productive value of the lands on which they are secured.

The Act contemplates that farmer-mortgagors who come within its scope (either on their own application or on the. application of their mortgagee-creditors) will, for a period of five years, carry on their farming operations under a system of budgetary control. At the end of that period a special valuation of their farm lands is to be made, and any excess of mortgage liability over the ascertained value will then be written off. When this is done, an adjustment of unsecured liabilities is to be made, and if the assets of the mortgagor are insufficient to meet, them they, too, are written off. The farmer-mortgagor will then be in the position of being in possession of his farm, mortgaged up to 100 per cent, of its ascertained value, but without other financial obligations. A more detailed reference to this Act appears in the section of this volume relating to mortgages.

The Trustee Companies Protection Act, 1934—35, is intended to protect companies having statutory authority to administer deceased persons' estates and other trust estates. In order to protect any such company from being controlled by persons deemed undesirable, the Governor-General may by Order in Council, pursuant to a resolution of the directors of that company, declare the company subject to this Act. When the Act is applied to any company its directors may, at their discretion, refuse to register transfers of shares submitted to them for registration; also, where the Act applies to any company, all applications for shares and transfers of shares must be accompanied by a statutory declaration in the form in the Schedule to the Act, and before voting at any meeting shareholders and proxies for shareholders may be required to sign a declaration. No allotment of shares shall be made, no transfer registered, and no vote recorded without the appropriate declaration. The tenor of the declaration is to the effect that the declarant is acting for himself (or legitimately for a principal) and not as agent for an undisclosed principal.

Chapter 44. SECTION XLIV.—DEPENDENCIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

ON page 1 of this book the islands comprising the Dominion of New Zealand are divided into three groups, viz.:—

Islands forming the Dominion proper for statistical and general practical purposes.

Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847.

Annexed islands.

Only the first of these groups has been covered by the preceding sections of this book. The present section deals briefly with the second and third groups, and also with the mandated territories of Western Samoa and Nauru, the Ross Dependency, and the Tokelau or Union Group.

Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands, although coming within the first group for general purposes, are given brief mention.

STEWART ISLAND, which, with its small adjacent islands, has an area of some 670 square miles, is separated from the South Island by the waters of Foveaux Strait. Stewart Island has several good harbours, is well wooded, and mountainous, the highest peak being the extinct volcano, Mount Anglem (3,200 ft.). The principal industry is sea-fishing, and the island is also a noted holiday resort. Stewart Island is a county, and for broad comparisons is treated as part of the South Island. The estimated population in April, 1935, was 510, including 180 Maoris.

The CHATHAM ISLANDS consist of two inhabited islands and several unimportant islets of a total area of some 372 square miles. The islands contain no high country, and the larger has a central lagoon of about 72 square miles. The chief industries are sheep-farming and sea-fishing. Although about 480 miles eastward of Banks Peninsula, the group was constituted a county in 1901, and is not classed with the outlying islands. Before 1927 the islands were not included in any electoral district, and thus had no parliamentary representation, but from 1927 have been included in the Lyttelton Electoral District, and in the Western Maori Electoral District for the election of Maori representatives. In view of the special circumstances of the Chathams, certain laws are modified in their case—e.g., the Unemployment Act does not apply to the Chatham Islands, nor do the provisions of the petrol-tax imposed for road purposes. The Chatham Islands are for most purposes grouped with the South Island, and are also treated for statistical purposes as part of Canterbury Provincial District, although the latter is not strictly correct in point of law. The islands are included within the Wellington Deeds, Land Transfer, and Land Districts, but within the North Canterbury Hospital District and the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. The estimated population in April, 1935, was 650, including 410 Maoris.

OUTLYING ISLANDS.

The outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries as proclaimed in 1847 are—

  • Three Kings Islands.

  • Auckland Islands.

  • Campbell Island.

  • Antipodes Islands.

  • Bounty Islands.

  • Snares Islands.

  • Solander Island.

The THEEK KINGS ISLANDS (so named by Tasman on account of his having discovered them on the anniversary of the Feast of the Epiphany) are a group of uninhabited islets (area, about three square miles) extending about seven miles in an east-north-east direction, and situated about thirty-eight miles west-north-west of Cape Maria van Diemen, at the northern extremity of the North Island. It was here that the s.s. “Elingamite” was wrecked on the 9th November, 1902, with heavy loss of life.

The AUCKLAND ISLANDS were discovered on the 18th August, 1806, by Captain Abraham Bristow, in the ship “Ocean.” They lie about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their accepted position being given as latitude 50° 32' south and longitude 166° 13' east. They have several good harbours. The largest of the islands is about twenty-seven miles by about fifteen miles, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000 ft. above the sea. The total area is about 234 square miles.

CAMPBELL ISLAND, which lies about 150 miles south-east of the Auckland Islands, was discovered in 1810 by Frederick Hazelburgh, master of the brig “Porseverance,” owned by Mr. Robert Campbell, of Sydney. It is mountainous, and of a circumference of about thirty miles. There are several good harbours. The area is approximately forty-four square miles.

The ANTIPODES ISLANDS are an isolated group, consisting of several detached rocky islands (aggregating about twenty-four square miles) lying nearly north and south over a space of four to five miles; accepted position, 49° 41׳ 15״ south, and longitude 178° 43״ east.

The BOUNTY ISLANDS, a little cluster of islets, thirteen in number, and without verdure, were discovered in 1788 by Captain Bligh, R.N., of H.M.S. “Bounty” ; position verified by observation, 47° 43׳ south, longitude 179° 0½׳ east. The total area is probably less than one square mile.

The SNARES ISLANDS are situated about fifty-six miles to the south-west of Stewart Island, and comprise six islets of a total area of about 600 acres.

SOLANDEE ISLAND, which lies about forty miles to the north-west of Stewart Island, was discovered by Captain Cook in 1770. It is a bare rock, one mile in length and approximately half a square mile in area.

None of the outlying islands is at present inhabited.

KERMADEC ISLANDS.

The KERMADEC ISLANDS, four in number, with some outlying islets, rank as “annexed islands,” having been annexed to New Zealand by Proclamation dated the 2lst July, 1887. The islands are situated between the parallels of 29° 10׳ and 31° 30׳ south latitude, and between the meridians of 177° 45׳ and 179° west longitude. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland, and lies a little more than half-way to Tonga, but 100 miles to the eastward of the direct steam route to that place. It is 300 miles eastward of the steam route to Fiji, and 150 miles westward of that from Auckland to Rarotonga. Macaulay Island (named after the father of Lord Macaulay) and Curtis Islands were discovered in May, 1788, by Lieutenant Watts, in the “Penrhyn,” a transport ship. The remainder of the group was discovered in 1793 by Rear-Admiral do Bruni, Chevalier d' Entrecasteaux.

The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than that of the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Espèrance, 12 acres : total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723 ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but are so difficult of approach as to be practically useless.

Several attempts have been made to settle on the islands, which are normally uninhabited. It has been reported that a small party took up residence in the Group in 1935.

COOK AND OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS ANNEXED IN 1901.

The COOK ISLANDS, with others included within the extended boundaries of the Dominion as from the 11th June, 1901, are as under. The total area of the Cook Group is about 150 square miles, of Niue Island 100 square miles, and of the remaining islands 30 square miles.

RAROTONGA (1,638 miles from Auckland), the most fertile and valuable of the Cook Group, is a magnificent island, rising to a height of 2,100 ft. It is clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation, and has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The two harbours are poor.

MANGAIA, the south-easternmost of the Cook Group, is of volcanic origin, and about eighteen miles in circumference. It produces large quantities of coconuts, bananas, oranges, limes, citrons, and other fruits.

ATIU resembles Mangaia in appearance and extent. It is a raised mass of coral, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts, where the ascent is gradual. On the highest point of the central ridge coconuts, bananas, oranges, and coffee grow with the utmost luxuriance ; and the kumara, one of the most valuable of South Sea vegetables, yields large crops.

MAUKE is a low circular island about two miles across, lying to the north-east of Rarotonga. Like Mangaia and Atiu, it is surrounded by an unbroken fringing reef. Mauke is very fertile.

MITIARO is a low-lying island, from three to four miles long and one mile wide.

MANUAE and TE AU-O-TU (Hervey Islands) are surrounded by a reef which is about 10J miles in circumference.

TAKDTEA is a small coral island, about half a square mile in area, some 120 miles distant from Rarotonga.

AITUTAKI is probably the most fertile of all the islands forming the Lower Group. It is capable of exporting large quantities of tropical fruits and vegetables, but exports are restricted owing to irregular and infrequent shipping calls. The island is about eighteen miles in circuit.

NIUE was one of the islands annexed to New Zealand in 1901. By an Act of the New Zealand Legislature passed in 1932, its administration was transferred from the Minister for the Cook Islands to the Minister of External Affairs as from the 1st October, 1932. Separate reference to Niue appears later.

PALMERSTON is an atoll lying about 450 miles east of Niue and about 220 miles from the nearest island of the Cook Group (Aitutaki), and is remarkable as the “San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Sea. It has no harbour. The soil is fairly fertile.

SUWARROW lies about 500 miles cast of Apia, the capital of Western Samoa. It is a coral atoll, of a triangular form, fifty miles in circumference, the reef having an average width of half a mile across, enclosing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The island is at present uninhabited, although visited periodically.

PUKAPUKA (Danger): Next to the 10th parallel, but rather north of the latitude of the Samoan Group and east of it, are a number of small atolls. Of these, the nearest to the Samoan Group—about 500 miles—is Pukapuka, bearing north-west of Suwarrow about 250 miles.

NASSAU is a fine island of about 360 acres, and lies about 45 miles to the south-east of Pukapuka or Danger Island. The area under cultivation (well-planted coconuts) is about 300 acres.

RAKAHANGA is an atoll, three miles in length and of equal breadth.

MANIHIKI, lying about 400 miles eastward of Danger Island, is an atoll, about thirty miles in circumference, valuable from the extent of the coconut-groves.

PENRHYN (Tongareva) lies about 300 miles north-east of Manihiki. It is one of the most famous pearl-islands in the Pacific, and there is a lagoon (with two entrances)capable of being made into a harbour fit for a large number of vessels. The island grows large quantities of coconuts.

CONSTITUTION AND LAWS.

Government is by Island Councils consisting of ex officio, elected, or nominated members. Generally, European officials and Arikis or Native chiefs are Councillors ex officio, and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General or for a fixed period not exceeding five years. Women are eligible both as members and as electors of Island Councils. The Cook Islands Amendment Act, 1921, provided for the election of a European member of the Island Council of Rarotonga as a representative of the European population.

Each Council is empowered to make laws for the good government of the island, with the proviso that such laws must not be repugnant to Acts of the New Zealand Parliament or regulations made there under. The maximum penalties imposed by the Ordinance of an Island Council must not exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine of £50. The Council has no power to deal with Customs duties, to borrow money, to establish Courts of Justice, or to appropriate expenditure of revenue other than that raised under authority of their Ordinance. No Ordinance has effect until it has received the assent of the Resident Commissioner or the Governor-General. The Governor-General may, by notice in the Qazelte, disallow any Ordinance within one year after the Commissioner has given his assent.

Laws are enforced through the High Court, which has all jurisdiction, civil or criminal, necessary for the administration of justice. The Chief Judge resides at Rarotonga. A Commissioner may, with some exceptions, exercise the full powers and functions of a Judge. A judgment obtained in a civil proceeding in the High Court may be enforced in the Supreme Court of New Zealand. From any decision in the former Court an appeal lies to the Supreme Court in the Dominion.

The manufacture or importation of intoxicating liquor is prohibited absolutely, except for medicinal, sacramental, or industrial purposes.

POPULATION AND VITAL STATISTICS.

At the census of the 20th April, 1929, the islands had a population of 10,082 (males 5,266, females 4,810), all but 169 males and 112 females being Natives.

Island.Population 1926 Census.Estimated Population, April, 1935.
* Uninhabited at census.
Aitutaki1,4311,715
Atiu9331,110
Mangaia1,2491,520
Manihiki416485
Manuae and Te Au-o-Tu2325
Mauke511605
Mitiaro238295
Palmerston97100
Penrhyn395470
Pukapuka526630
Rakahanga327380
Rarotonga3,9364,873
Suwarrow*..
Takutea*..
Nassau*..
Totals10,08212,208

Each of the five censuses taken since 1906 has shown a small but consistent increase. In the nine years since the last census the estimated gain in population has been 2,126, equivalent to 2-3 per cent, per annum. A system of compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages is in force in the islands, but in view of the irregularity and infrequency of communication with some of the islands it is impossible to give precise figures for a given period. During the year ended 31st March, 1934, registered births for the island of Rarotonga numbered 197 (males 108, females 89); deaths, 73 (males 42, females 31); and marriages, 54. Equivalent rates per 1,000 of mean population are: Births, 36; deaths, 15; and marriages, 11.

Under the provisions of the Cook Islands Act, 1915, all Natives of the Cook Islands are provided gratuitously with such medicinal and surgical aid a? is reasonably required and practicable. As a result of this beneficent policy, the population is healthy and particularly free from the usual tropical diseases.

EDUCATION.

In 1916 education in the Cook Islands was placed under the control of the Minister for the Cook Islands, and Government schools in charge of certificated European teachers from New Zealand have since that date been established on all the principal islands of the Lower Cook Group.

Including seven subsidized mission schools (controlled by the London Missionary Society) in the northern islands, there are now eighteen schools under the jurisdiction of the Administration in the Cook Islands and the northern islands, with a total of 2,367 pupils on the rolls in 1934. In addition, 389 children attend Roman Catholic mission schools in various islands of the group.

A technical school has been established at Avarua (Rarotonga), with classes in agriculture, drawing, and woodwork, and an advanced class in carpentry. In most of the schools classes for simple cookery and for mat and basket weaving are held. Agriculture and wood-work are also taught in all schools.

Classes for Native teachers are conducted by the European headmasters of Government schools. In 1930 a special class was established at the Normal School, Avarua, to enable the most promising pupils from all Cook Islands schools to reach proficiency standard without the necessity of going to New Zealand.

A limited number of scholarships are granted, which enable pupils of outstanding ability to take up special courses of study in New Zealand in order to fit them for positions in the Cook Islands Public Service.

RADIO COMMUNICATION.

Radio communication with New Zealand is maintained by the station at Rarotonga. Subsidiary stations have been established at the islands of Atiu, Aitutaki, Mangaia, and Mauke. There are also a number of stations engaged exclusively in point-to-point communication.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Including grants totalling £11,343 from the New Zealand Government, the revenue of the Cook Islands Administration in 1934–35 was £37,811, other principal items being: Customs duties, £9,896; fruit-inspection fees, &c, £2,599; wireless telegraph, £1,210; and stamp-sales, £702. The total expenditure was £39,520. The copra export duty has been temporarily abolished.

TRADE.

The figures for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Exports to New Zealand.Total Exports.Imports from New Zealand.Total Imports.
 ££££
192595,362151,93991,506130,609
1926101,752138,58895,531134,473
192799,106138,35787,773116,606
192896,470133,05181,511117,639
192993,066124,48673,565106,835
193085,965109,43869,976103,468
193166,93279,94549,22369,260
193259,88073,40948,26363,585
193359,26273,98354,02276,716
193453,75659,30746,21461,449

From the above table it is apparent that the bulk of the trade is with New Zealand. In 1934 other countries of export were France, £2,170; the UnitedStates, £1,220; the United Kingdom, £1,094; Western Samoa, £694 ; and Tahiti, £373. Imports in 1934, exclusive of imports from New Zealand, came chiefly from the United Kingdom, £4,809; the United States. £3,477; and Australia, £4,458.

Exports of principal items during 1934 were—Quantity.Value.
  £
Copra963 tons4,899
Oranges78,099 cases25,918
Bananas52,314 cases16,771
Tomatoes34,545 boxes8,828
Orange-juice1,115 cases1,295
Coconuts1,527 packages429
Coffee beans5 tons352
Pearls..235

NIUE.

Niue (or Savage Island), lying about 300 miles to the east of Tonga, is a coral island, thirty-six miles in circumference and 64,028 acres in area, rising to a height of 200 ft. It is fertile and has the usual tropical productions. Niue is included within the boundaries of the Cook and other islands annexed in 1901, but has a separate Administration.

By the Cook Islands Amendment Act, 1932, the control of Niue Island was transferred from the Minister for the Cook Islands to the Minister of External Affairs. The constitution and laws (vide observations under “Cook Islands,” immediately preceding) otherwise remain unaltered. A Resident Commissioner, who is also Judge, is stationed on the island.

POPULATION.

Since the inclusion of Niue within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901 there have been six censuses, the population fluctuating between 4,079 in 1902 and 3,750 in 1921. At the census of 1926 the population consisted of 3,763 Natives and half-castes (1,763 males, 2,000 females), and 32 (18 males, 14 females) Europeans. The total estimated population at the 1st April, 1935, was 3,995, and the mean population for 1934 3,951.

EDUCATION.

There are two Government schools where agriculture, handicraft, domestic art, and woodwork form part of the curriculum. The average roll number of these two schools was 270 in 1934. In addition, there are ten schools under the control of the London Missionary Society, which are subsidized by the Administration. The average roll-number for these schools during 1934 was 200.

HEALTH AND VITAL STATISTICS.

A Government hospital is established in Niue, the staff consisting of a European matron and a number of Native nurses. The medical work of the island is under the control of a European medical officer, assisted by several Native trainees. Medical and surgical aid and attendance are given free of charge to all Natives.

During 1934 births registered in Niue numbered 146 (69 males, 77 females); deaths, 73 (34 males, 39 females); and marriages, 33. Equivalent rates per 1,000 of mean population were: Births, 37; deaths, 18 ; and marriages, 8.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Revenue of the Niue Island Administration for the year ended 31st March, 1935, was £14,633, one of the principal items in this case being grants from the New Zealand Government (£2,500). Customs duties brought in £1,653, copra export duty £207, sale of fruit-cases £2,703, and landing and shipping charges £1,062. Expenditure aggregated £14,048.

COMMUNICATIONS.

There is no intercommunication between the Cook Group and Niue, which lies 600 miles west of Rarotonga. Great difficulty was experienced in the past in providing a satisfactory subsidized service with New Zealand until the advent of the Government motor-vessel “Maui Pomare.” The “Maui Pomare” maintains a regular four-weekly service from Lyttelton, Wellington, and Apia to Niue, and this service adequately caters for the needs of the island.

Radio communication is maintained by regular services with New Zealand and Western Samoa.

TRADE.

Exports and imports for the last ten years are given below. The greater part of the trade is with New Zealand.

Year.Exports to New Zealand.Total Exports.Imports from New Zealand.Total Imports.
 ££££
192517,32017,42914,953 /18,747
192517,65517,65514,10517,563
192714,29014,35010,89614,006
192816,34720,93814,40318,637
192913,44922,20614,68819,107
193013,32315,87714,86318,630
19315,1867,1918,95811,507
193210,82013,98711,56814,756
193310,22511,54210,40013,123
193411,34212,34111,88813,372

The principal items of export are bananas and copra. Other items include fungus, fancy baskets, hats, and kumaras. With a view to improving the marketing of bananas in New Zealand, grading and packing for export are now done under the control and supervision of the Resident Commissioner and his inspectors. The export of fruit from Niue was hampered until 1925 by the difficulty and irregularity of communication with New Zealand, but the provision of a Government vessel has been reflected in increased exports of bananas.

Exports of principal items during 1934 were—Quantity.Value.
   £
Copra125 tons961
Bananas28,393 cases10,006
Fancy baskets308 dozen130
Hats920 dozen492
Kumaras13 tons273

WESTERN SAMOA.

The Native race inhabiting Samoa is of typical Polynesian character, with straight hair, brown colouring, good physique, and mild and hospitable disposition.

The first known visit of Europeans to the islands was that of a Dutch expedition, under Jacob Roggeveen, in its voyage around the world in 1721–22. In 1768 De Bougainville called at the islands, and in 1787 La Pdrouse, who named them “Navigators Islands,” a name which the French retain. The first British vessel to pay a visit was H.M.S. “Pandora,” in 1790. Missionaries, who were to play an important part in the development of the country, made their advent in the person of two members of the London Missionary Society, arriving at Savai'i in 1830.

The first formal recognition of “whites” took place some eight years later, when Captain Bethune, of the British Navy, concluded a commercial treaty with the Native chiefs, by which harbour dues were to be paid and security to European interests guaranteed in return. Next year (1839) Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, in command of a United States of America exploring expedition, completed a similar treaty.

Three great nations were to have control of the destinies of the Samoans. Great Britain appointed a Consular Agent in 1847, the United States a Commercial Agent in 1853, and Germany her first representative in 1861.

In 1869 one of the frequent internecine wars of the Natives broke out, a war that was to have far-reaching consequences, for the foreign authorities took for the first time direct measures to ensure peace. The trouble arose over rival claimants to the Native chieftainship, and continued, despite several patched-up truce3, for some years.

At a conference in Berlin in 1889, an Act was signed by the representatives of Great Britain, the United States, and Germany declaring the neutrality and independence of the islands, providing for equal rights therein of the nationals of the three signatory Powers and other matters affecting the government of the islands. This arrangement was never free from trouble, and when, on the death of King JIalietoa Laupepa in 1898, disturbances again arose over the succession, in accordance with the recommendation of a joint Commission the kingship was abolished. By the Anglo-German agreement of the 14th December, 1899, accepted by the United States in January, 1900, Great Britain renounced in favour of Germany all rights over Western Samoa, and similarly in favour of the United States all rights over Tutuila and the other islands of Eastern Samoa.

On the outbreak of war in 1914 between the United Kingdom and Germany a New Zealand Expeditionary Force took possession of Western Samoa, landing unopposed at Apia on the 29th August, and remained in occupation until the establishment of Civil Government under the ægis of the Dominion.

The islands are now administered under mandate of the League of Nations, the Administrator being appointed by the Governor-General of New Zealand and responsible to the Minister of External Affairs. There is a Legislative Council, consisting of not less than four nor more than six official members appointed by the Governor-General, and four unofficial members, two of whom are Europeans elected triennially by the European residents, the remaining two being Native Samoans, appointed by the Governor-General. The Administrator, acting with the advice and consent of this Council, is empowered to make Ordinances for the peace, order, and good government of the Territory, subject to disallowance by the Governor-General. A High Court is established, and the Supreme Court of New Zealand is given jurisdiction over Western Samoa.

Under the present system of administration the mandated territory has progressed steadily, particularly in the realms of health, public works, and education ; and, prior to the current depression, there was considerable expansion in production and commerce.

Normally, the Samoan Natives have to a large extent domestic self-government. the Fono of Faipule (Native Parliament, chief? elected by every district), meeting twice yearly to consider matters affecting the welfare of the Samoan people, and submitting recommendations thereon to the Administrator.

GEOGRAPHICAL.

Western Samoa includes the Islands of Upolu, Savai'i, Apolima, and Manono, together with several small islets, lying between the 13th and 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st and 173rd degrees of longitude west of Greenwich.

The principal islands are Savai'i and Upolu. Savai'i is the larger of the two, with a length of 48 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 703 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of over 6,000 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures about 430 square miles in area, and rises to a height of over 3,600 ft. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains the port and capital of Apia. Rainfall is plentiful throughout the Group.

POPULATION.

At the 1st April, 1935, the population of Western Samoa as estimated by the Administration was 53,427, made up as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
Native Samoan population25,43824,38949,827
European and half-caste population1,5711,4323,003
Chinese labourers (and dependants)503..503
Melanesian labourers (and dependants)93194
Totals27,60525,82253,427

The following figures of the recorded movement of the population relate to the twelve months ended the 31st December, 1934:—

 Births.Deaths.Marriages.Immigration.Emigration.
Native Samoans1,441442138479463
Europeans and half-castes751025328387
Chinese labourers (and dependants)......279408
Melanesian labourers (and dependants)..4......
Totals1,5164561631,0861,258

HEALTH AND HOSPITALS.

The Samoa Health Ordinance, 1921, is on the lines of the New Zealand Health Act, 1920, but remodelled to suit local conditions. A Government hospital is maintained at Apia, district hospitals have been established at Tuasivi (Savail) and Aleipata (Upolu), and there are three dispensaries in out-districts and at mission-stations.

Of the more important tropical diseases only three are prevalent in Western Samoa;—viz., ankylostomiasis (or hookworm), framboesia (yaws), and filariasis (elephantiasis).

Every effort has been made to stamp out these diseases, particularly hookworm and yaws, and systematic campaigns to this end have been in progress since 1923. Those have resulted in a marked improvement in the general health of the Natives.

The sanitation of Apia has been considerably improved in recent years.

The reticulation of Apia with a high-pressure water-supply system has been completed. Water has been piped into several villages from springs in the hills. In other villages where this is not possible large reinforced-concrete tanks are erected to receive the rain-water from church buildings.

EDUCATION.

Education in Samoa had until recent years been almost entirely in the hands of the missions. Formerly higher education was not attempted except for the training of pastors, whose duty included that of teaching in the village schools connected with their respective churches. But latterly higher education in the English language has been carried out by the Administration schools at Ifi Ifi, Malifa, Vaipouli, and Avele, by the London Missionary Society at Papauta, by the Methodist Mission at Faleula, and by the Marist Brothers and Sisters at Apia. These schools are frequently inspected by one of the Senior Inspectors of the New Zealand Education Department.

A count taken in 1935 showed that 15,914 children were attending the various Government and mission schools. The great bulk of the pupils are at village mission schools, where the instruction is in the hands of Native pastors. Second-grade or district schools, where the Government and the missions co-operate, the teachers being paid by the Government, number 39, with an aggregate roll number of 3,334 at 31st March, 1935. The Government schools had an average attendance of 1,110 during the year ended 31st March, 1935.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

The revenue for the financial year ended 31st March, 1935, was £78,808, of which Customs duties and taxation contributed £57,196, other principal items being —fees and charges (Court, hospital, &c), £8,415; and post-office and wireless-telegraph receipts, £5,246. Native taxes, which showed a total of £17,849 in 1926–27, yielded only £713 in 1934–35. No subsidy from the New Zealand Government has been paid since 1930–31. The expenditure for the year totalled £76,505. The figures of revenue and expenditure for each of the last five years are—

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.
 ££
1931151,385140,288
1932109,040128,936
1933105,92098,166
193490,61389,955
193578,80876,505

The public debt of the Territory at 31st March, 1935, was £131,710. The money has been provided by the New Zealand Government, a further £25,000 of that expended on public works having been donated as a gift. During 1934–35 the public debt was reduced by repayment of principal amounting to £4,335.

TRADE.

The exports and imports of Western Samoa for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Exports.Imports.
 ££
1925379,388345,989
1926320,783324,940
1927335,978304,369
1928422,175326,553
1929293,938288,849
1930284,515275,355
1931194,447164,950
1932183,028150,902
1933173,837150,856
1934128,11792,784

The principal item of export is copra, exports of which in 1934 totalled 8,948 tons, of a value of £60,654. Up to about 1923 the bulk of the copra went to the United States, but the whole export in 1934 went to the United Kingdom and the Continent of Europe, the exact destination not generally being declared at time of shipment. Cocoa-beans of a value of £29,498, representing 1,027 tons, and bananas £35,796 (96,225 cases), constituted the only other items of any importance.

Of the exports in 1934, £126,726 was the produce of Western Samoa, the remaining £1,391 being re-exports. Total exports in 1934 included £31,307 to the United Kingdom, £39,519 to New Zealand, £7,972 to the United States, and £42,800 to the Continent of Europe (exact destination unknown). The imports in 1934 came principally from New Zealand (£33,171), Australia (£20,562). the United Kingdom (£14,457), the United States (£8,949), Fiji (£3,980), Japan (£3,03S), Dutch East Indies (£3,092), and Hong Kong (£2,532).

The decline in trade during the last four years is due to the world-wide depression, and especially the low price of copra, although signs of improvement in the value of copra were noted during the last quarter of the financial year. Trade values are computed on similar lines to those of New Zealand trade statistics (vide Section IX).

In addition to a scale of import duties, there are export duties, of which the chief are: Copra (£1 10s. per ton), cocoa-beans (£2 per ton), and bananas (3d, per case net). In order to assist growers the tax on cacao was temporarily remitted from November, 1933. The net import duty collected in 1934 was £i!2,717, export duties collected totalling £27,516.

Vessels entered inwards at the Port of Apia during 1934 numbered 96 (all steam or oil-engined vessels), and represented an aggregate tonnage of 112,940. The tonnage of cargo brought by these vessels was 7,152, while cargo entered outwards totalled 18,902 tons.

NAURU.

Barely one-third of a degree south of the Equator, and lying 166° 56 east of Greenwich, is the little phosphate island known as Nauru or Pleasant Island. Prior to the world - wide war of 1914–19 this rich though little-known island was a German possession. It was surrendered to H.M.A.S. “Melbourne” on the 9th September, 1914, and was included with the German New Guinea possessions in the capitulation of Herbertshohe. The island was garrisoned with Australian troops on the 6th November, 1914, and a Civil administration was established on the 1st January, 1915. A mandate for the administration of the island was conferred by the Allied and Associated Powers upon the British Empire, to come into operation at the same date as the Treaty of Peace with Germany. The mandate 1B held jointly by the Imperial Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

An agreement between the three parties to the mandate was drawn up and completed on the 2nd July, 1919. The administrative control of the island is vested in an Administrator, whose term of appointment is five years.

Under the concession granted by the German Government to the Jaluit Gesellschaft, and transferred by that company to the Pacific Phosphate Company, the rights of which were purchased by the Governments of Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand for £3,500,000 (including the company's interests in the nearby Ocean Island), and vested by these Governments in the British Phosphate Commission, the Commission holds the exclusive right to work the phosphate-deposits on the island. The Natives are paid £40 per acre (prior to 1st July, 1927, this was £20) for all phosphate-bearing lands, with an annual rental of £3 per acre for all non-phosphate lands leased, and are compensated for trees destroyed. A royalty of 7Jd. (prior to 1st July, 1932, 7½d.) per ton of phosphate shipped is paid, 4|d. going to the Native landowner, l½d. being used by the Administrator solely for the benefit of the Nauruan people, and the remaining 2d. held in trust by the Administrator for the benefit of the landowner.

The Nauru agreement of 2nd July, 1919, provides for the allocation of the annual output of phosphate among the three Governments in the following proportions, which coincide with the proportion of capital supplied by each towards the undertaking: Great Britain, 42 per cent. ; Australia, 42 per cent.; and New Zealand, 16 per cent. Any portion of its share not required by any Government may be disposed of either to the other Governments pro rata, or if they do not require it to other countries. The partner countries receive interest at 6 per cent, on their capital invested, and redemption of capital within fifty years is provided for by a sinking fund.

The total shipments from Nauru and Ocean Islands, with deliveries to New Zealand, during each of the last five years have been as follows :—

Year ended 30th June,Total Shipments.Shipments to New Zealand.
Quantity.Per Cent, of Total.
 Tons.Tons. 
1931385,977122,93031–85
1932431,540146,27033–89
1933660,300177,77026–92
1934556,589148,95026–76
1935695,882214,62130–84
Totals to 30th June, 19357,260,3771,699,10623–40

At the present time the Commonwealth and Dominion take practically the whole output, leaving very little for export to other countries.

Nauru, which is encircled by a road ten miles long, has an area of only 5,396 acres. The island is surrounded by a wide reef. Near the coast is a belt of flat land, covered with coconut-trees, and behind this rises higher land covering about three-quarters of the total area, and enclosing a lagoon of almost fresh water. The phosphate deposits, which are of enormous extent and of very high quality, cover this higher country, overlying a bedrock of coralliferous limestone.

At the lst April, 1935, there were 1,603 Native inhabitants, who speak a language akin to that of the Gilbert-Islanders. In addition there were 4 Natives of other Pacific Islands, and 931 Chinese, who have been introduced for the working of the phosphate-deposits. Europeans numbered 158, the total population being thus 2,696.

Imports consist almost entirely of food-supplies, and of machinery for the working of the phosphate.

Nauru possesses wireless communication.

Revenue and expenditure and trade of the Nauru. Administration for each of the last five years available are—

Year.Revenue.Expenditure.Exports.Imports.
 ££££
193018,99215,532270,091143,416
193116,44016,903239,777108,729
193220,23515,435466,42395,739
193319,77918,748436,78797,684
193419,79819,758470,87298,085

The New Zealand Government has received from the British Phosphate Commission an annual contribution of £35,849 towards interest on and amortization of loan-money raised to meet the Dominion's share of the purchase-money of the Pacific Phosphate Company's rights. The indebtedness of the New Zealand Government on account of Nauru and Ocean Islands, originally £600,000, had been reduced to £431,475 at 31st March, 1935.

ROSS DEPENDENCY.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude, were proclaimed a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements. Act, 1887, under the name of the Ross Dependency. The dependency was placed under the jurisdiction of the Governor - General of New Zealand. There is no permanent population, and the only industry engaged in is whaling. The mainland area within the limits of the Ross Dependency is stated by Sir Douglas Mawson to be about 175,000 square miles. The land is permanently ice-covered.

WHALING.

Regulations dated the 24th October, 1929, which supersede those of 1st November, 1926, prohibit the carrying-on of whaling operations within the boundaries of the Ross Dependency without a license, the annual fee payable for which is £200, in addition to which the Government requires a royalty of 2s. 6d. per barrel (40 gallons). The owner or master of a vessel engaged in whaling or used as a floating whale-factory is liable to a fine not exceeding £1,000 for each day on which operations are carried on without a license. A penalty not exceeding £100 per day is provided for in cases of non-compliance with the terms of the license granted in respect of any vessel used for whaling or as a floating factory and a similar penalty for failure to equip a floating factory in accordance with the requirements of the regulations or to convert a whale into commercial products within 48 hours after delivery at the factory. Provision is made for the arrest on warrant of any vessel in respect of which an offence against the regulations is committed.

The regulations apply, of course, only to territorial waters, and operations are carried on outside territorial waters by unlicensed expeditions. The great majority of whales are taken outside territorial waters.

Receipts from whaling-industry license fees, &c, have been as follows:—

 £
1926–272,921
1927–287,177
1928–2913,962
1929–307,871
1930–31Dr. 70
 £
1931–32614
1932–33..
1933–341,000
1934–35600

The whale-oil taken by expeditions which have received New Zealand licenses in each of the last ten seasons is as follows :—

Season.Barrels.*

* Of 40 imperial gallons.

† Not available.

1925–2637,700
1926–2770,300
1927–28124,000
1928–29122,000
1929–30169,190
1930–31272,500
1931–32 to 1934–35

The Whaling Industry Act, 1935, gives legislative effect to the International Whaling Convention signed at Geneva in 1931. The general principles of the Convention are in the direction of conservation of the species and regulation of the industry. One of the first steps in the matter of conservation has been the restriction of the current season in the Antarctic waters to the period from 1st December, 1935, to 15th March, 1936.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING STATISTICS.

The sixth report on International Whaling Statistics—edited by the committee for whaling statistics appointed by the Norwegian Government—gives statistics of whaling in various geographical areas of the world.

The total catch of whales during the last five years was as follows:—

Year.Antarctic.Arctic.Africa.North Pacific.Japan.Total.
* Includes 250 from other localities.
1929–3030,1671,4723,4989751,31237,374*
1930–3140,201703823..1,14742,874
1931–329,5728271,0433191,03612,797
1932–3324,3271,2571,1685911,32528,668
1933–3426,0878942,3921,0191,77532,167

The next table shows the production of oil in the last five years.

Year.Antarctic.Arctic.Africa.Other Whaling Grounds.Total.
 Barrels.Barrels.Barrels.Barrels.Barrels.
1929–302,546,75953,694144,44654,1432,799,042
1930–313,608,34825,26837,08616,2743,686,976
1931–32808,56028,59044,11234,580915,842
1932–332,456,46234,83353,00052,4832,596,778
1933–342,395,54417,21882,35978,0342,573,155

NOTE.—Six barrels of oil are equivalent to 1 ton.

Of the 32,167 whales caught in 1933–34, 17,468 were of the blue species, 8,617 were fin, 2,225 were humpback, 541 were sei, 1,662 were sperm, and 1,654 were of other or unspecified species.

The whaling expeditions operating during the year consisted of eleven shore stations, twenty-three floating factories, and 199 catchers.

Norwegian and British whaling operations are by far the most important. Records from 1919 onwards show that Norway led until 1931–32. At present the whaling output from these countries is approximately upon a level. Oil production during 1933–34 was—Norwegian, 1,253,694 barrels; British, 1,190,924 barrels; other countries, 128,537 barrels.

TOKELAU OR UNION GROUP.

The latest addition to New Zealand's dependencies is the Tokelau or Union Group), which consists of three islands, or groups of islets (Atafu, Nukunono, and Fakaofo), of a total area of 2,550 acres. They are situated between 8° and 10° of south latitude and between 171° and 173° of west longitude, and are distant about 270 miles from Apia, Samoa, which has since 1923 been the port of entry for the group.

These islands were ceded to Great Britain in 1916, from which year up to 1926 they formed part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. They were transferred to the jurisdiction of New Zealand as from the 11th February, 1926, and are now administered by the Administrator of Western Samoa on behalf of the New Zealand Government. The Secretary of Native Affairs in Western Samoa is District Officer for the Tokelau Islands, the latter having no local European officials or residents.

The population of the islands at the census of 1926 was 1,033. A return by the local Native officials in August, 1935, gives a total of 1,198, the figures for the three islands being—Atafu, 419; Nukunono, 256 ; Fakaofo, 523.

Education is entirely in the hands of the missions, which maintain Native teachers in the islands.

The Natives are Polynesians, and the language is allied to that of Samoa. The islanders are ruled by their own chiefs with the assistance of Native Councils.

The only exportable product of the islands is copra. The total amount of copra available for export in a normal year is estimated to be 365 tons—viz., 65 from Atafu, 210 from Nukunono, and 90 from Fakaofo.

There is a wireless station on Fakaofo Island.

Chapter 45. SECTION XLV.—STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF NEW ZEALAND.

POPULATION AND MIGRATION (INCLUDING MAORIS).

year.Estimated Population.Estimated Mean Population.Overseas Passenger Arrivals.*Overseas Passenger Departures.*
At 31st December.At 31st March.Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March.
Excluding “through” passengers, and tourists on cruising liners.
1884608,401591,797596,688579,22620,02110,700
1885619,323613,200613,862602,49916,19911,695
1886631,355620,565624,275615,81916,10115,037
1887645,330635,347638,343627,95613,68912,712
1888649,349646,914647,340641,13113,60622,781
1889658,021652,128653,685649,52115,39215,178
1890667,477664,853662,749658,49115,02816,810
1891676,051668,594671,776666,72414,43117,629
1892692,426679,465684,239674,04218,12213,164
1893714,258698,182703,342688,82426,13515,723
1894728,121718,740721,190708,46125,23722,984
1895740,699731,468734,410725,10421,86220,967
1896754,016743,376746,288737,42217,23615,764
1897768,910757,503761,463749,37018,59215,840
1898783,317771,568776,114764,53618,85516,159
1899796,359786,530789,838779,04918,50616,619
1900808,132798,471802,246792,50118,07416,243
1901830,800815,862821,111808,81125,08618,564
1902851,072833,139840,936824,50130,29322,301
1903875,648857,993863,360845,56630,88319,608
1904900,682882,100888,165870,04732,63222,277
1905925,605908,116913,144895,10832,68523,383
1906956,457933,114943,325920,61539,23326,385
1907977,215961,598966,836949,65036,10830,378
19081,008,373985,320992,794973,45944,97030,709
19091,030,6571,016,0631,019,5151,000,69238,65033,931
19101,050,4101,035,2121,040,5341,025,63S35,76932,361
19111,075,2501,056,1991,063,8871,045,70641,38937,189
19121,102,4711,081,3441,088,8611,069,82844,66035,733
19131,134,5061,111,5891,118,4881,096,46744,58830,369
19141,145,8381,139,6681,140,1721,125,62837,64632,506
19151,152,6381,150,3861,149,2381,145,02725,55122,476
19161,150,3391,150,2501,149,2261,150,31821,79921,163
19171,147,4481,150,9381,148,8931,149,22515,64913,869
19181,158,1491,154,5591,152,7981,152,74811,90611,660
19191,227,1811,178,4061,192,6651,166 48220,93119,877
19201,257,6111,236,9151,242,3961,207,66044,06232,924
19211,292,7171,267,4981,276,6521,252,20641,88228,559
19221,318,8841,301,2511,305,1261,285,71135,23328,389
19231,343,0211,325,3011,328,1931,311,38136,48829,668
19241,370,4031,347,8531,352,6181,334,02939,81530,593
19251,401,2301,379,4871,384,4281,359,99541,84629,172
19261,429,5551,409,8121,413,7001,392,07345,68533,825
19271,450,0901,437,9801,438,8141,420,76238,67636,248
19281,466,9521,453,5171,455,7341,443,32335,47835,035
19291,485,5641,470,6541,472,9251,459,98334,43931,643
19301,506,0871,488,5951,492,3761,477,19432,55928,321
19311,521,8881,510,9401,513,4161,497,73220,22521,634
19321,533,7091,524,6331,526,1151,517,10317,87921,210
19331,545,9461,536,9641,538,4901,529,13318,82621,217
19341,557,0431,548,9091,550,2771,541,51123,24126,617
1935..1,559,624..1,553,005....

VITAL STATISTICS.

Year.Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population
Births.Marriages.Deaths.Deaths. under 1 Year.Births.Marriages.Deaths.Deaths. under 1 Year per 1000 Births.
188419,8463,8005,7401,57335.916.8710.3979.26
188519,6933,8136,0811,75634.356.6510.6189.17
188619,2993,4886,1351,8993,3155.9910.5498.40
188719,1353,5636,1371,79532.095.9710.2993.81
188818,9023,6175,7081,33631.225.979.4370.68
188918,4573,6325,7721,4563,0175.949.4478.89
189018,2783,7975,9941,43829.446.129.6678.67
189118,2733,8056,5181,66729.016.0410.3591.23
189217,8764,0026,4591,59427.836.2310.0689.17
189318,1874,1156,7671,60027.506.2210.2387.97
189418,5284,1786,9181,50727.286.1510.1981.34
189518,5464,1106,8631,63726.785.949.9188.27
189618,6124,8436,4321,43926.336.859.1077.32
189718,7374,9286,5951,35425.966.839.1472.26
189818,9555,0917,2441,51025.746.919.8479.66
189918,8355,4617,6801,80625.127.2810.2495.89
190019,5465,8607,2001,46925.607.679.4375.16
190120,4916,0957,6341,46326.347.839.8171.40
190220,6556,3948,3751,71225.898.0110.5082.89
190321,8296,7488,5281,77026.618.2310.4081.08
190422,7666,9838,0871,61626.948.269.5770.98
190523,6827,2008,0611,59927.228.289.2767.52
190624,2527,5928,3391,50627.088.489.3162.10
190725,0948,19210,0662,22827.308.9110.9588.79
190825,9403,3399,0431,76127.458.829.5767.89
190926,5248,0948,9591,63427.298.339.2261.60
191025,9848,2369,6391,76026.178.309.7167.73
191126,3548,8259,5341,48425.978.709.3956.31
191227,5089,1499,2141,40926.488.818.8751.22
191327,9358,81310,1191,65326.148.259.4759.17
191428,3389,28010,1481,45625.998.519.3151.38
191527,85010,0289,9651,39425.339.129.0650.05
191628,5098,21310,5961,44625.947.479.6450.72
191728,2396,41710,5281,36025.695.849.5848.16
191825,8606,22716,3041,25223.445.6514.8448.41
191924,4839,51910,8081,10821.428.339.4645.26
192029,92112,17512,1091,51325.0910.2110.1550.57
192128,56710,63510,6821,36623.348.698.7347.82
192229,0069,55610,9771,21523.177.638.7741.89
192327,96710,07011,5111,22521.947.909.0343.80
192428,01410,25910,7671,12721.577.908.2940.23
192528,15310,41911,0261,12521.177.848.2939.96
192628,47310,68011,8191,13221.057.908.7439.76
192727,88110,47811,6131,08020.297.628.4538.74
192827,20010,53711,81198419.567.588.4936.18
192926,74710,96712,31491219.017.788.7534.10
193026,79711,07512,19992418.807.778.5634.48
193126,6229,81712,04785618.426.798.3432.15
193224,8849,89611,68377717.096.808.0231.22
193324,33410,51011,70177016.597.167.9831.64
193424,32211,25612,52778116.477.628.4832.11

EDUCATION.

Year.Number of Scholars receivingUniversity Students (excluding affiliated Agricultural Collages).
Primary Education atSecondary Education at
Public Schools.Registered Private Schools.Native Village Schools.Secondary* (Including Endowed) Schools.District High Schools.Technical* Schools.Registered Private Schools.
* Combined secondary and technical high schools, instituted in 1931, included with secondary schools.
188497,23812,2032,2262,642......419
1885102,40711,9892,1612,659......442
1886106,32812,4972,3462,358......490
1887110,91913,4172,6312,242......588
1888112,68513,8932,5122,120......662
1889115,45613,5162,4622,147......588
1890117,91213,6912,2592,117......596
1891119,52314,1762,2312,205......705
1892122,62014,4672,1332,262......695
1893124,69014,9312,1342,251......680
1894127,30014,6492,4182,454......680
1895129,85614,7042,6752,525......742
1896131,03713,9792,8622,614......677
1897132,19714,5242,8642,709......653
1898131,62114,8572,9722,706......667
1899131,31515,3803,0652,723......766
1900130,72415,6023,1092,792......805
1901131,35115,3973,2732,899662....783
1902132,26215,6673,7423,0721,479....864
1903133,56815,6873,6933,7222,096....862
1904135,47516,4453,7544,0382,330....971
1905137,62316,7383,8634,0602,872....1,153
1906139,30217,2174,1744,2702,594....1,332.
1907141,21618,1744,1834,1962,452....1,325
1908147,57516,2444,2174,3272,142699..1,634
1909152,60517,9894,1214,8561,891846..1,846
1910156,59419,0524,2805,1761,9161,253..1,862
1911161,90419,9674,5575,4651,7771,3418311,900
1912166,55320,3504,6945,8311,8151,5268832,228
1913172,51921,2514,6476,1541,8371,6645452,318
1914178,87122,2475,0726,4181,8961,8398502,257
1915183,63122,4775,1916,4882,1021,9559922,039
1916186,35023,6355,1327,0522,1152,1051,0041,985
1917188,75425,6855,1737,5902,1802,3471,2061,977
1918193,34526,3715,0648,3842,2832,7471,3662,226
1919194,58620,9775,1989,0682,1592,9261,4973,060
1920198,46022,1936,5089,1962,1572,7661,4393,822
1921205,95523,9245,82210,0302,1763,3491,6344,123
1922211,08124,8616,10110,7362,6064,2021,9983,958
1923212,46026,0106,18611,6192,8185,0542,1344,202
1924213,76826,3026,31012,0102,9005,3692,4734,236
1925215,06325,9336,38612,5143,1365,1322,5114,442
1920219,01726,7786,59113,6513,2995,7002,7944,653
1927221,15727,3586,62014,1903,5815,7032,9324,878
1928219,95026,5966,67115,0383,8806,0613,4304,802
1929219,16626,9776,97915,4984,0008,1143,6984,623
1930219,23526,4517,07016,1494,2406,9533,8254,801
1931218,68926,7267,50316,3444,9447,3973,6734,869
1932207,48926,4107,31315,9484,4867,1063,5264,912
1933200,81926,4287,34015,7154,5117,1493,5864,806
1934199,91326,6367,58715,9014,3657,1833,6514,721

JUSTICE.

YearSummary Convictions in Magistrates' Courts.Total Convictions and Sentence in Superior Courts.Total Distinct Persons sentenced In Superior Courts.Prisoners in Gaol at End of Year (undergoing Sentence).
Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
188417,96830.112870.482410.405609.20
188517,80429.002660.432360.385318.57
188616,70526.763060.492860.465588.84
188715,55724.373860.603470.546339.81
188814,47222.363080.482650.416059.32
188914,08221.542760.422280.356119.29
189014,12821.322700.412270.345177.75
189113,34919.872830.422210.334947.31
189213,58319.852410.351950.294336.25
189313,71019.493040.432720.394636.48
189412,93417.933710.513240.454836.63
189513,38318.224070.553590.495317.17
189614,48119.403550.483110.424936.54
189715,32520.133660.483150.416238.10
189816,99121.893910.503860.505336.80
189917,58622.274050.513830.485086.38
130019,24223.994270.533910.495276.52
190120,72425.243610.443540.436618.39
190222,45526.703490.423390.406027.45
190325,18629.173980.463800.446888.26
190425,67228.905270.595190.587017.78
190525,37127.784490.494330.477608.21
190627,67029.334450.474330.468338.71
190730,90131.964900.514810.507918.09
190830,85231.085430.555320.548158.08
190931,15130.555520.545440.538778.51
191032,43531.174950.484940.478438.01
191133,02931.054530.434270.408027.46
191236,19133.244800.444280.398217.45
191339,08535.484460.404090.378347.35
191441,72336.595220.464830.429818.56
191539,67534.525090.444410.3S9418.16
191635,45930.854480.394010.358347.25
191734,18929.766230.543770.339548.31
191829,25225.376320.553550.311,0058.58
191932,69227.418O80.084610.398526.94
192035,51728.591,0110.814590.379967.92
192137,12429.081,4751.106160.481,0448.08
192234,51326.441,4171.096010.461,0528.32
192337,10427.941,6631.256250.471,1418.50
192439,59429.271,3881.035550.411,1978.73
192544,01731.791,4651.065110.371,284916
192646,20532.681,5621.105690.401,3889.71
192745,93031.921,7391.215690.401,48310.23
192845,13930.781,3680.944780.331,4359.78
192946,30931.441,3450.914730.321,3429.04
193047,24731.661,5241.025380.361,52310.11
193142,09227.811,6241.076000.401,61410.61
193242,36627.761,7101.126360.421,5229.92
193337,67124.491,5130.985310.351,4109.12
193437,70424.321,2130.784900.321,1947.67

AGRICULTURE.

Season.Wheat for Threshing.Oats for Threshing.
Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.
* Yield probably overstated for these four seasons, due to total being obtained by applying ascertained averages to areas returned by farmers as sown for threshing. Areas returned in those years as intended for threshing would appear, in many cases, to have been eventually utilized for other purposes.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1884–85270,0436,866,77725.43354,79412,360,44934.84
1885–86173,8914,242,28524.40329,4888,603,70226.11
1886–87253,0256,297,63824.89387,22811,973,29530.92
1887–88357,3599,424,05926.37336,47410,512,11931.24
1888–89362,1538,770,24624.22367,22510,977,06529.89
1889–90335,8618,448,50625.15426,07113,673,58432.10
1890–91301,4605,723,61018.99346,2249,947,03628.73
1891–92402,27310,257,73825.50323,50811,009,02034.03
1892–93381,2458,378,21721.98326,5319,893,98930.30
1893–94242,7374,891,69520.15376,64612,153,06832.27
1894–95148,5753,613,03724.32351,85210,221,39329.05
1895–96245,4416,843,76827.88364,78812,263,54033.62
1896–97258,6085,926,52322.92372,59711,232,80330.15
1897–98315,8015,670,01717.95354,8199,738,39127.44
1898–99399,03413,073,41632.76417,32016,511,38839.56
1899–1900269,7498,581,89831.81398,24316,325,83240.99
1900–1206,4656,527,15431.61449,53419,085,83742.45
1901–2163,4624,046,58924.76405,92415,045,23337.06
1902–3194,3557,457,91538.37483,65921,766,70845.00
1903–4230,3467,891,65434.26409,39015,107,23738.57
1904–5258,0159,123,67335.36342,18914,553,61142.53
1905–6222,1836,798,93430.60354,29112,707,98235.86
1906–7206,1855,605,25227.18351,92911,201,78931.83
1907–8193,0315,567,13928.84386,88515,021,86138.82
1908–9252,3918,772,79034.75406,90818,906,78846.46
1909–10311,0008,661,10028.00377,00013,804,00037.00
1910–11322,1678,290,22125.73302,82710,118,91733.41
1911–12215,5287,261,13833.69403,66819,662,668*48.71
1912–13189,8695,179,62627.28386,78613,583,924*35.12
1913–14166,7745,231,70031.37361,74114,740,946*40.75
1914–15229,6000,644,33628.94287,56111,436,301*39.77
1915–16329,2077,108,36021.59212,6887,653,20835.98
1916–17217,7435,051,22723.19177,5245,371,43030.29
1917–18280,9786,807,53624.23156,2024,942,75931.64
1918–19208,0306,567,62931.57172,6866,884,60939.87
1919–20139,6114,559,93432.66179,8006,967,86238.75
1920–21219,9856,872,20231.24147,5595,225,11535.41
1921–22352,91810,565,27529.94 1170,6556,752,66339.56
1922–23275,7758,395,02330.44143,0905,688,15739–75
1923–24173,8644,174,53724.0163,8421,964,51130.77
1924–25166,9645,447,75832.62147,3875,707,17438.72
1925.26151,6734,617,04130.44102,4854,115,60640.14
1926–27220,0837,952,44236.13117,3264,997,53542.58
1927–28260,9879,541,44436.5688,2233,852,68743.66
1928–29255,3128,832,86434.6073,1013,065,11341.93
1929–30235,9427,239,55630.6867,7223,002,28844.33
1930–31249,0147,579,15330.4487,1523,376,60938.74
1931–82268,7566,582,69824.4968,6902,818,15241.03
1932–33302,53111,054,97236.54116,2065,132,18344.16
1933–34286,2719,036,01731.5678,3433,242,50041.39
1934–35225,3895,933,24526.3252,5161,890,14535.99

LIVE-STOCK.

Year.Horses.Total Cattle.Dairy Cows.Sheep.Pigs.Goats.
* Not enumerated.
1885***14,540,801**
1886187,382853,358*15,174,203277,90110,220
1887***15,155,626**
1888***15,042,198**
1889***15,423,328**
1890***16,116,113**
1891211,040788,919*17,865,423222,5539,055
1892***18,570,752**
1893***19,380,369**
1894*885,305*20,230,829**
1895*964,034257,14019,826,604**
1896237,4181,047,901276,21719,138,493239,778*
1897249,8131,138,067300,21919,687,954209,834*
1898252,8341,209,165324,48519,673,725186,027*
1899258,1151,203,024333,53619,348,506193,512*
1900261,9311,222,139355,25619,355,195249,751*
1901266,2451,256,680372,41620,233,099250,975*
1902279,6721,361,784381,49220,342,727224,024*
1903286,9551,460,663428,773IS,954,553193,740*
1904298,7141,593,547468,12518,280,806226,591*
1905314,3221,736,850498,24119,130,875255,320*
1906326,5371,810,936517,72020,108,471249,727*
1907342,6081,851,750543,92720,983,772242,273*
1908352,8321,816,299541,36322,449,053241,128*
1909363,2591,773,326536,62923,480,707245,092*
1910***24,269,620**
1911404,2842,020,171633,73323,996,126348,754*
1912***23,750,153**
1913***24,191,810**
1914***24,798,763**
1915***24,901,421**
1916371,3312,417,491750,32324,788,150297,50117,001
1917373,6002,575,230777,43925,270,380283,77018,235
1918378,0502,869,465793,21226,538,302258,69417,730
1919363,1883,035,478826,13525,828,554235,34716,924
1920346,4073,101,945893,45423,919,970266,82914,534
1921337,2593,139,2231,004,66623,285,031349,89217,367
1922332,1053,323,2231,137,05522,222,259384,33317,480
1923330,8183,480,6941,248,64323,081,439400,88917,071
1924330,4303,563,4971,312,58823,775,776414,27118,196
1925326,8303,503,7441,323,43224,547,955440,11518,975
1920314,8673,452,4861,303,85624,904,993472,53421,761
1927303,7133,257,7291,303,22525,649,016520,14326,099
1928307,1603,273,7691,352,39827,133,810580,89824,251
1929298,9863,445,7901,371,06329,051,382556,73234,226
1930297,1953,770,2231,441,41030,841,287487,79339,127
1931295,7434,080,5251,601,63329,792,510476,194*
1932280,9944,072,3831,702,07028,691,788513,416*
1933276,8974,192,0231,845,97227,755,966591,582*
1934273,9064,301,1281,932,51128,649,038660,393*
1935272,9864,293,4991,952,09429,076,754762,755*

TRADE.

Year.Excluding Specie.*Specie.
Export.Imports.Exports.Imports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.

* Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency (gold) face value.

† Specie exports and imports represent.

 ££s.d.££s.d.££
18847,090,227111787,326,20812571,440337,680
18856,738,862101977,278,1011117281,077201,820
18866,534,51310946,319,2231025138,278439,790
18876,680,77210946,064,2819100185,397181,234
18887,403,20611895,430,050879364,119511,850
18899,183,95414105,980,583930157,910328,280
18909,569,31614895,928,89581811242,404331,630
18919,560,85914486,431,10191165,53872,748
18929,490,920131756,742,544917143,931200,512
18938,680,845126106,494,279948304,519417,236
18949,221,550121595,990,1778619,497797,843
18958,518,119111206,115,95386732,105284,176
18969,299,90712937,035,37998721,198101,941
18979,741,2221215107,994,20110100275,77161,022
189810,449,83813938,211,4091011768,11719,191
189911,923,422151118,613,6561018114,913125,977
190013,223,258169810,207,3261214622,903438,770
190112,869,8101513611,353,4161316611,614464,499
190213,635,459164410,958,03813079,518368,685
190314,971,9261761012,075,9591319938,452712,716
190414,738,75016111112,900,030141069,598391,664
190515,642,069172712,481,1781313413,878347,679
190617,992,480191614,303,1701533102,657908,233
190720,061,6412045016,539,70717227,316763,154
190816,075,2051631017,247,1621775242,289224,122
190919,636,151195214,817,4621410825,845857,257
191022,152,4732151016,748,2231611127,736303,360
191118,980,18517161018,782,60S1713148,305763,271
191221,511,6261915120,576,579181711258,955399,995
191322,810,3632071121,653,6321972176,359634,670
191426,253,925230621,144,2271810117,522711,869
191531,430,822277020,658,72017196318,0901,070,114
191633,281,0572819225,045,4032115105,8801,293,880
191731,517,072278820,742,130181170,475177,135
191828,480,5782414124,131,7922018835,610102,215
191953,907,925454030,309,167258362,150362,531
192046,405,366377061,553,85349101136,58041,975
192144,828,460352342,744,1223398367198,321
192242,725,9493214934,826,07426138300186,487
192345,939,7933411943,363,9833213027,37214,510
192452,509,2233816548,527,60335176103,488..
192555,243,0473918152,425,7573717419,22530,650
192645,268,924320649,811,76335486,65177,800
192748,496,3543314144,782,6663126..280
192855,570,3813812544,844,1023134618,10042,164
192954,930,0633751048,734,4723319649,00063,505
193044,940,517302344,339,65429140175363,087
193134,950,6982311126,498,15117102202,33056,155
193235,609,019236824,646,00616301,355,86155,310
193341,005,9192613125,581,36616127296,032424,704
193447,342,8473010931,339,55220442,283,9001,242,000

TRADEcontinued.

Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Wool.Frozen Meat.Tallow.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Ib.£Cwt.£Cwt.£
188481,139,0283,267,527254,069345,090150,770234,829
188586,507,4313,205,275290,473373,857138,600176,962
188690,853,7443,072,971346,055427,193129,700119,619
188788,824,3823,321,074402,107455,870154,720147,233
188883,225,7333,115,008552,298628,800136,460124,950
1889102,227,3543,976,375656,822783,374159,020159,460
1890102,817,0774,150,599898,8941,087,617173,300162,471
1891106,187,1144,129,6861,000,3071,194,724175,580173,257
1892118,180,9124,313,307809,6001,033,377165,220165,513
1893109,719,6843,774,73S903,8361,085,167170,060183,588
1894144,295,1544,827,0161,025,2431,194,545199,400204,499
1895116,015,1703,662,1311,134,0971,262,711203,560260,999
1896129,151,6244,391,8481,103,3021,251,993222,540208,821
1897135,835,1174,443,1441,407,9211,566,286310,200259,964
1898149,385,8154,645,8041,551,7731,698,750347,166302,141
1899147,169,4974,324,6271,865,8272,088,850338,620311,649
1900140,706,4864,749,1961,844,8312,123,881307,780368,473
1901146,820,0793,699,1031,857,5472,253,262335,360351,710
1902160,419,0233,354,5632,138,5572,718,763424,060550,131
1903155,128,3814,041,2742,378,6503,197,043390,940517,871
1904144,647,3764,673,8261,912,9792,793,599322,480357,974
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,690,6842,694,432318,942347,88S
1906154,384,5686,765,6552,025,5072,877,031378,400455,026
1907171,035,5957,657,2782,354,8083,420,664414,880550,965
1908162,518,4815,332,7812,120,3033,188,515372,520481,335
1909189,683,7036,305,8882,572,6043,601,093484,160648,452
1910204,368,9578,308,4102,654,1903,850,777520,180756,841
1911169,424,8116,491,7072,250,5653,503,400413,120607,257
1912188,361,7907,105,4832,573,2383,909,569470,900684,739
1913186,533,0368,057,6202,578,6934,449,933454,860663,088
1914220,472,8989,318,1143,229,9695,863,062490,300694,348
1915196,570,11410,387,8753,591,2607,794,395535,260780,828
1916185,500,85912,386,0743,326,0457,271,318449,440785,339
1917178,274,48612,175,3062,446,9455,982,404251,980553,016
1918108,724,5757,527,2662,036,9044,957,570328,420847,618
1919274,246,61319,559,5373,822,0839,628,292937,4802,680,006
1920162,327,17611,863,8274,629,28211,673,690540,8201,748,773
1921158,714,82S5,221,4794,322,75411,164,345554,240867,298
1922321,525,56211,882,4633,518,0048,387,461529,900750,574
1923217,566,09110,904,6583,043,9109,012,627504,860785,068
1924206,189,91115,267,5443,213,5749,499,877479,760799,230
1925205,726,85617,739,7363,414,20511,174,567500,760895,061
1926213,154,39911,830,1903,034,3568,656,213422,560741,045
1927220,500,72012,961,7443,364,9659,104,621477,500714,441
1928226,804,54416,679,0983,793,82810,309,662514,960804,271
1929234,955,97815,359,2063,336,2009,883,277416,640693,614
1930197,239,6147,664,3624,036,63910,937,382492,560683,571
1931211,718,8685,615,3764,138,8068,892,555465,280413,080
1932238,179,0625,742,8214,645,4808,436,306507,540462,081
1933286,307,4417,422,2665,203,1139,845,627560,400516,063
1934255,796,78312,516,4254,969,44711,886,955553,240480,354

TRADEcontinued.

Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Batter.Cheese.Gold.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Cwt.£Cwt.£Oz.£
188415,76666,59310,34225,074246,392988,953
188524,923102,38715,24535,742222,732890,056
188623,175105,53716,42945,657235,578939,648
188717,01854,92123,91354,562187,938747,878
188829,995118,25236,68278,918229,608914,309
188937,955146,84026,55867,105197,492785,490
189034,816122,70140,45184,986187,641751,360
189139,430150,25839,77086,675251,1611,007,172
189253,930227,16241,49391,042237,393951,963
189358,149254,64546,20199,626227,502915,921
189460,771251,28055,655115,203221,614887,865
189557,964227,60176,743150,909293,4931,162,181
189671,353281,71671,372130,166263,6941,041,428
189799,002402,60577,683150,517251,647980,204
189896,801403,69068,711135,776280,1751,080,691
1899136,086571,79969,440141,818389,5701,513,180
1900172,583740,620102,849229,111373,6141,439,602
1901201,591882,406104,294238,685455,5581,753,784
1902253,9981,205,80274,746163,539507,8521,951,426
1903285,1061,318,06774,780194,998533,3142,037,832
1904314,3601,380,46084,526185,486520,3231,987,501
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,171520,4852,093,936
1906320,2251,560,235131,206341,002563,8432,270,904
1907328,4411,615,345236,833662,355508,2102,027,490
1908229,9711,171,182280,798783,419506,3812,004,799
1909321,1081,639,380400,6071,105,390506,3712,006,900
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,373478,2861,896,318
1911302,3871,576,917439,1741,192,057454,8371,815,251
1912378,1172,088,809577,0701,680,393343,1631,345,131
1913372,2582,061,651611,6631,770,297376,1611,459,499
1914434,0672,338,576863,7762,564,125227,954895,367
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,211422,8251,694,553
1916358,6322,632,293949,4163,514,310292,6201,199,212
1917254,3972,031,551885,7433,949,251218,624903,888
1918431,0233,402,223883,4304,087,27811,98742,391
1919345,8183,080,1281,572,3117,790,990320,2071,334,405
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0506,160,840212,973883,748
1921898,47811,169,5301,368,7868,199,183149,595612,168
19221,120,2009,041,5541,161,1964,686,850131,848540,182
19231,250,14010,689,2001,441,4606,870,397169,512698,583
19241,269,45511,641,6681,594,4867,023,297133,631551,788
19251,245,32410,240,1321,376,7545,800,808114,696472,364
19261,168,0408,695,1881,461,5485,939,359125,777516,207
19271,455,53910,915,2331,492,7925,582,546130,171534,639
19281,449,57011,302,6671,567,2726,693,951118,722489,584
19291,653,80713,228,0271,779,0937,017,463119,379480,212
19301,884,23711,854,0561,812,9816,438,438133,749550,678
19311,988,56610,649,5271,636,3474,461,293140,970581,032
19322,185,54510,639,0531,790,4314,951,268200,6481,092,288
19332,635,24711,648,6991,982,9424,766,351177,2411,281,612
19342,614,51910,042,7761,984,4964,694,459162,4901,320,690

T RADEcontinued.

Year.Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Kauri-gum.Phormium Fibre.Timber (sawn and hewn).
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Tons.£Tons.£Sup. ft.£
18846,393342,1511,52523,47524,767,156128,924
18855,876299,7621,06316,31628,439,013141,355
18864,920257,6531,11215,92229,349,789127,905
18876,790362,4341,57825,09430,919,464127,108
18888,482380,9334,04275,26943,474,434177,877
18897,519329,59017,084361,18242,568,600176,608
18907,438378,56321,158381,78942,098,863181,689
18918,388437,05615,809281,51442,824,365182,431
18928,705517,67812,793214,54222,860,55187,581
18938,317510,77512,587219,37526,718,046101,082
18948,338404,5674,67766,25631,901,415116,116
18957,425418,7661,80621,04038,297,905141,892
18967,126431,3232,96832,98534,984,414133,511
18976,641398,0102,76930,67439,326,396154,169
18989,905586,7674,85074,55640,721,632164,723
189911,116607,91910,371184,41150,425,741196,749
190010,159622,29315,906332,18257,517,085232,174
19017,541446,11410,171195,72871,822,369294,699
19027,430450,22320,852534,03149,251,549208,005
19039,357631,10222,652595,68457,097,990240,713
19049,203501,81726,936710,28160,326,992254,021
190510,883561,44427,877696,46775,370,136318,895
19069,154522,48627,779776,10675,528,899304,941
19078,708579,88828,547832,06872,154,417311,862
19085,530372,79817,403396,28884,554,414375,235
19098,250552,69814,318306,97371,599,318337,740
19108,693465,04420,645448,41481,940,062407,658
19117,587395,70717,366300,20986,309,570439,353
19127,908401,30518,641376,26494,454,491490,508
19138,780549,10628,092721,92463,469,105319,055
19148,473497,44419,702455,21483,342,949422,864
19154,575279,13323,220571,62176,797,161383,883
19165,456339,88227,6741,001,72571,503,154381,488
19174,594291,91723,5161,197,39671,338,174408,121
19182,419157,31325,1671,387,76374,932,815556,309
19194,128255,81222,347866,93049,726,670439,935
19206,481556,75618,949647,54569,664,014697,608
19213,901367,1979,643293,77545,902,627503,785
19226,391563,2709,727265,08044,186,848479,447
19236,598596,22210,612284,89747,570,490473,752
19245,261443,57612,982388,88742,928,726472,120
19255,370414,90116,408616,46649,204,676573,882
19264,877332,76517,238526,31140,465,221475,627
19274,674278,63216,189473,22137,147,798425,453
19284,394240,13912,932352,15234,970,773376,967
19294,937267,61012,317340,58839,102,831439,342
19303,818189,6358,009198,21326,676,131300,582
19313,058128,0951,78430,93017,532,304172,633
19322,06862,1373,37542,48827,286,884253,883
19333,08977,9733,82842,77025,829,404237,528
19343,20986,9173,59147,50134,530,279320,527

INDEBTEDNESS OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.*

As at 31st March,Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Gross Indebtedness per Head of Population.Amount of Sinking Fund accrued.Net Indebtedness.Net Indebtedness per Head of Population.

* Vide p. 461 regarding currencies in which figures given.

† In 1925-26 the sinking funds accrued were, with certain exceptions, transferred to the Public Debt Redemption Fund.

‡ Increase due mainly to floating debt under Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 1932–33, which was paid off in 1934–35.

 ££s.d£££s.d.
188532,195,422521011,531,88430,663,5385001
188633,880,7225411111,617,16632,263,556511910
188735,741,65356511,427,19934,314,4545402
188836,758,437561651,344,42735,414,010541410
188938,375,0505816111,390,91536,984,13556143
189038,667,95058321,386,18637,281,7645616
189138,830,35058171,487,04237,343,30855171
189238,713,068561961,037,86237,675,2065590
189339,257,84056471,113,77038,144,07054128
189439,826,4155583951,92438,874,4915419
189540,386,9645543751,93239,635,0325439
189643,050,78057183778,89142,271,88956174
189744,366,61858115814,29443,552,3245791l
189844,903,4245856881,90344,081,5215728
189946,938,00659137857,27946,080,72758119
190047,874,45259192944,37546,930,07758156
190149,591,245601581,033,49448,557,75159104
190252,966,447631161,128,81651,837,6316245
190355,899,01965301,357,73954,541,28063114
190457,522,21565431,500,68756,021,52863100
190559,912,000651971,650,71858,261,2826433
190662,191,040661301,661,51960,529,52164174
190764,179,0406614102,042,06862,136,97264124
190866,453,897678111,268,36165,185,5366632
190970,938,534691641,479,22469,459,3106873
191074,890,645726101,503,22573,387,420701710
191181,078,122761531,754,48679,323,6367520
191284,353,91378032,160,60382,193,3107603
191390,060,76381052,603,64287,457,12178137
191499,730,427871023,003,99291,689,8358091
1915100,059,910861973,178,05596,614,4558403
1916109,037,39795643,679,964105,957,4339224
1917129,836,1051121694,263,590125,572,51510921
1918150,840,05513012114,971,605145,868,450126610
1919176,076,260149855,951,056170,125,20414475
1920201,170,7551621297,257,564193,913,191156155
1921206,324,3191021578,763,072197,561,222155174
1922219,054,38516861010,655,394208,241,12116008
1923218,953,3241654211,879,256207,024,04815642
1924221,616,3011648512,974,028208,595,743154153
1925227,814,64716521113,462,839214,287,12815569
1926238,855,478169862,274,262236,581,216167163
1927245,850,8891701952,443,540243,407,34916955
1928251,396,2521721922,635,766248,740,73617127
1929264,191,98317912102,156,561256,652,371174104
1930267,383,3431791252,331,423265,051,92017811
1931276,033,35818213102,313,673273,715,71018131
1932281,942,8001841862,435,117279,507,68318367
1933282,622,9581831782,509,545280,113,41318250
1934302,791,996195992,647,985300,144,011193157
1935280,581,217179182,657,8321277,923,38517840

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

Year ended 31st March,Consolidated Fund.Public Works Fund.
Receipts.Payments.Receipts.Payments.
From Taxation.From other Sources.Total.Total.
NOTE.—Commencing with 1925–26 railway revenue and expenditure, and with 1928–29 post and telegraph revenue and expenditure, were removed from the transactions of the Consolidated Fund. Revenue of the Consolidated Fund, however, now includes interest in respect of railway and post and telegraph capital liability, while the expenditure for the years 1925–26 to 1928–29 covers payment to the Working Railways Account in respect of losses on non-paying branch lines and isolated sections. From 1931–32, also, post and telegraph net profits are paid into the Consolidated Fund. Unemployment taxation receipts (commencing 1930–31) are not paid into the Consolidated Fund.
 ££££££
18851,815,6742,139,5143,955,1884,101,3182,504,1131,336,727
18862,016,7302,080,2664,096,9964,282,901198,8671,475,386
18871,882,0501,946,4123,828,4624,310,8751,499,5001,333,484
18881,876,2351,845,4443,721,6794,212,474500,000960,159
18892,031,6582,341,3574,373,0154,226,1121,503,000613,939
18902,090,4052,176,7144,267,1194,256,92183,142482,464
18912,173,9852,322,0434,496,0284,369,5664,262334,756
18922,179,7392,248,7914,428,5304,417,843216,533391,501
18932,339,5112,330,0404,669,5514,324,990215,765462,506
18942,353,2502,339,2134,692,4634,455,116418,323406,797
18952,300,3502,147,5494,447,8994,352,185353,000504,486
18962,335,7602,220,2554,556,0154,370,481162,272575,087
18972,521,9112,276,7974,798,7084,509,981540,275601,343
18982,678,5762,400,6545,079,2304,602,372759,673865,543
18992,707,0992,551,1295,258,2284,858,511935,691916,327
19002,891,1262,808,4925,699,6185,140,1271,062,116993,223
19013,042,8902,864,0265,906,9165,479,7041,401,7881,309,021
19023,113,0793,039,7606,152,8395,914,9152,364,7902,143,252
19033,277,9643,169,4716,447,4356,214,0191,398,9501,514,445
19043,649,6013,480,5167,130,1176,434,2811,875,6141,796,841
19053,754,3793,592,8187,347,1976,635,9021,908,6831,354,158
19063,841,5963,8O8,5027,650,0987,122,3401,555,7681,811,819
19074,264,5554,214,4018,478,9567,774,9261,918,0812,168,894
19084,645,7544,418,2359,063,9898,213,9651,846,0542,109,882
19094,377,7614,623,4249,001,1858,785,5133,628,2703,363,895
19104,180,5165,058,4019,238,9178,990,9222,093,6972,216,397
19114,837,3225,459,95110,297,2739,343,1063,390,6482,058,091
19125,296,5905,764,57111,061,16110,340,3681,256,4562,340,380
19135,606,8296,127,44211,734,27111,082,0383,300,7292,548,918
19145,918,0346,311,62712,229,66111,825,8643,478,7512,700,798
19155,880,8116,571,13412,451,94512,379,8032,224,4912,737,364
19167,266,9667,240,56414,507,53012,943,1073,187,1542,583,212
191710,549,6547,805,54018,355,19414,058,7701,105,8371,775,513
191812,340,8537,865,36920,206,22215,120,2881,091,1951,401,837
191913,801,6438,550,72922,352,37218,673,5991,240,6801,387,661
192016,251,7699,829,57126,081,34023,781,5242,243,3892,232,815
192122,184,41412,076,54734,260,96128,068,7305,012,1503,658,240
192216,370,51611,756,49128,127,00728,466,8389,792,9166,875,636
192315,594,28811,985,15527,579,44326,263,7003,908,5654,729,679
192416,416,87011,543,50027,960,37026,148,0054,275,9144,658,272
192516,172,30612,470,69428,643,00027,399,2004,833,2805,482,069
192616,978,4967,747,26624,725,76223,570,0835,956,8785,874,313
192716,899,5568,043,55124,943,10724,355,9655,931,1705,505,897
192816,848,7548,275,22625,123,98024,944,9055,464,2255,212,032
192917,832,0335,767,64323,599,67624,176,9289,028,9945,696,161
193019,471,1315,878,73025,349,86125,200,8822,339,3586,237,585
193118,597,4564,471,47523,068,93124,708,0427,356,0506,547,883
193216,188,1716,531,56222,719,73324,860,5525,179,8984,895,861
193315,604,0416,964,48022,568,52122,528,3791,958,3862,277,336
193417,057,6066,435,14323,492,74924,202,0272,363,7752,572,415
193520,176,3455,949,74926,126,09424,499,5953,000,3722,714,210

LOCAL BODIES.*

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.Total Gross Indebtedness.
Revenue.Other Receipts.Total.
From Rates.From other Sources.

* Exclusive of Hospital Boards.

Vide p. 504 regarding currencies in which figures given.

 ££££££
1884398,659744,527331,9941,475,1801,499,1174,039,769
1885401,393841,895430,5611,673,8491,653,7064,436,309
1886410,639882,618514,7281,807,9851,644,7065,086,044
1887434,237790,063992,6332,216,9331,885,0015,825,683
1888433,832795,067511,5941,740,4931,819,7876,015,354
1889445,929676,428316,1391,438,4961,560,6056,164,901
1890460,303707,725206,6881,374,7161,476,5406,316,716
1891463,581662,765236,9021,363,2481,381,3206,427,473
1892488,824693,296214,1241,396,2441,400,4676,550,183
1893508,157709,676340,5381,558,3711,482,5486,750,698
1894551,412681,831623,0381,856,2811,589,1247,253,072
1895581,868683,857328,7981,594,5231,584,5187,422,306
1896592,903738,146269,1451,600,1941,627,0797,547,511
1897598,526765,047246,9191,610,4921,636,7167,675,814
1898644,552790,602304,6451,739,7991,733,0167,783,445
1899685,769820,727385,3681,891,8641,778,5747,995,400
1900714,151848,032372,0281,934,2111,960,0738,149,272
1901734,023919,831825,0392,478,8932,250,5728,785,303
1902800,4711,019,024775,4322,594,9272,528,0929,245,364
1903846,7161,053,582966,0872,866,3852,867,5069,886,676
1904950,1501,206,0691,142,5953,298,8143,230,71210,756,062
19051,019,4311,255,2221,350,6313,625,2843,497,32112,056,736
19061,151,2191,392,1481,326,5973,869,9643,601,50612,873,165
19071,233,0491,579,3911,227,4734,039,9133,897,51513,903,153
19081,356,2571,750,6651,410,9944,517,9164,491,11314,931,351
19091,390,6981,934,1221,440,7464,765,5664,800,71115,920,757
19101,526,3171,934,0342,362,1715,822,5224,898,48217,809,917
19111,592,6012,171,7251,776,9585,541,2845,360,26119,104,571
19121,677,8772,298,9342,425,2586,402,0696,074,37220,763,486
19131,799,2992,531,6862,383,1236,714,1086,537,76922,183,427
19142,005,6382,719,1122,411,5757,136,3256,796,31423,773,429
19152,140,0862,861,2972,595,7067,597,0896,806,56724,538,721
19162,355,1552,967,6452,469,2757,792,0756,920,73626,045,312
19172,534,5393,243,9421,411,4227,189,9036,758,59326,799,586
19182,674,5413,283,7491,250,0477,208,3377,103,07327,653,681
19192,939,6063,452,071942,7807,334,4577,320,27728,074,950
19203,144,2134,486,5823,329,00310,959,79810,883,58630,187,942
19213,549,5905,336,3743,429,66212,315,62612,761,69032,104,957
19223,779,8956,074,7825,486,91215,341,58915,091,87536,745,089
19234,277,7816,243,9517,399,67417,921,40615,695,50743,191,184
19244,445,6276,704,1445,685,10716,834,87816,520,95046,537,833
19254,668,8847,512,0807,613,39919,794,36319,422,83353,353,466
19265,039,6458,333,9217,505,70220,879,26820,915,64559,419,754
19275,311,2608,954,6856,680,17620,946,12121,747,55764,012,247
19285,615,6729,786,2715,667,65121,069,59422,423,16766,404,172
19295,844,4959,583,5766,042,00721,470,07821,300,02469,294,619
19306,010,98710,746,7315,495,42722,253,14522,061,08871,207,539
19315,637,25410,627,3914,432,95620,697,60122,174,52472,686,036
19325,511,8189,682,2514,374,25119,568,32020,087,38172,402,282
19335,237,6888,913,2854,433,29418,584,26718,885,17372,476,056
19345,541,2558,688,4123,821,77918,051,44617,737,79271,969,387

LOCAL BODIES.*LOAN INDEBTEDNESS.

As at 31st March,Counties.Boroughs.Harbour Boards.Electric-power Districts.Other.Total.
* Exclusive of Hospital Boards. Vide p. 504 regarding currencies in which figures given.
 ££££££
18848,1102,107,3001,575,200..271,7203,962,330
18857,8002,156,4551,872,100..276,8684,313,223
18863,5102,257,7752,414,945..275,2804,951,510
18878,7002,452,5852,887,700..271 7625,620,747
188814,2822,527,3533,006,900..264,2685,812,803
188923,5232,534,5563,057,118..276,8535,892,050
18908,5052,541,4533,155,600..272,5015,978,059
18918,0102,540,3903,226,000..268,2936,042,693
18929,6602,539,4453,276,300..256,5296,081,934
189311,6602,567,0953,369,410..255,7046,203,869
189411,0102,738,1843,610,450..255,1806,614,824
189510,5102,757,3953,652,350..265,2556,685,510
189610,5102,777,4953,686,959..262,6146,737,578
189710,5102,817,3783,703,561..261,9496,793,398
189811,7102,834,3063,723,380..264,9656,834,361
189910,5002,881,5673,804,187..267,0006,963,254
19006,9002,939,0253,845,881..265,5447,057,350
19016,7143,251,8174,035,331..269,2077,563,069
19026,7143,435,8844,123,631..273,4667,839,695
19036,6143,655,4304,256,481..298,6658,217,196
19046,2144,226,8004,308,851..357,0458,898,910
19057,8004,863,9864,382,551..763,90510,018,242
190615,2285,314,1734 554 151..834,49910 718 051
190731,6785,920,3054,676,551..987,51411,616,048
190837,1386,540,0714,877,676..1,077,44912,532,334
190956,5347,016,9265,052,845..1,177,31713,303,622
191076,8777,687,2095,788,400..1,385,19914,937,685
191199,0388,159,9866,001,650..1,466,93915,727,613
1912122,4188,507,4806,235,978..1,724,99516,590,877
1913121,9119,084,2056,371,636..1,905,58017,483,332
1914183,93610,083,8106,608,700..2,047,03618,923,482
1915247,69410,206,3536,869,500..2,121,92819,445,475
1916265,09111,086,7197,014,390..2,387,96820,754,168
1917286,67911,606,4857,151,743..2,387,86021,432,767
1918421,21412,150,3847,268,993..2,419,94622,260,537
1919537,41612,365,9587,301,143..2,469,19622,673,712
1920752,17613,944,5077,377,142..2,534,46824,608,293
1921l,046,37814,575,8257,528,288147,7502,888,71926,186,960
19221,328,29716,282,9608,110,9111,480,0003,064,03630,266,204
19231,802,63319,501,9888,437,9873,052,3003,284,47436,079,382
19241,870,07819,819,4979,020,1884,740,8653,659,37239,110,000
19252,332,46123,483,0579,600,2036,514,7573,790,31645,720,794
19263,054,13125,607,4399,845,7668,745,7554,473,80651,726,897
19273,658,23827,662,02710,113,44110,113,4004,865,65356,412,759
19283,882,47129,277,77210,335,69910,175,3645,277,72258,949,028
19294,044,06629,973,85710,636,36811,986,7075,362,18862,003,786
19304,242,99229,307,00610,326,34612,636,3517,539,32664,052,021
19314,373,78629,966,12710,378,50913,011,5297,962,65565,692,606
19324,443,67429,505,95510,422,12113,121,9607,974,00865,467,718
19334,426,11329,621,49010,465,43013,031,9308,097,57865,642,541
19344,435,48129,266,52610,345,96913,213,0798,076,64865,337,703

NOTE.—Loans from Government—i.e., Inscribed Debt and Advances from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board—have not been included.

TRADING BANKS (AVERAGE OF FOUR QUARTERS).

 Assets.Liabilities.
Year.Advances.Coin and Bullion.Total (Including other Items).Notes in Circulation.Deposits.Total (including other Items).
 ££££££
188414,947,0912,023,08818,442,139971,9039,643,21410,691,599
188515,470,2752,101,78418,811,567968,48110,083,29611,130,244
188615,834,8772,177,54419,041,827943,07510,579,71111,603,194
188715,310,0502,342,05218,799,847896,51711,031,61411,995,495
188815,041,8972,319,32518,709,444873,04511,155,77812,108,363
188914,272,4812,217,83317,652,915879,44011,528,42412,486,717
189013,996,0862,536,52917,735,259903,01012,368,61013,356,598
189111,448,7452,405,09916,814,518937,30912,796,09813,820,458
189212,128,0652,450,71217,558,168959,94313,587,06214,623,335
189312,688,3032,627,36718,255,534973,89414,433,77715,489,633
189411,897,7402,896,56217,746,421901,52613,927,21714,930,791
189511,600,0803,310,94318,159,781897,91913,544,41514,491,627
189610,972,2263,308,39216,900,199946,36614,490,82715,520,431
189710,020,6403,093,29517,276,7711,009,03S14,290,51215,380,248
189810,564,2662,791,08117,013,4041,070,13314,143,22915,299,058
189910,954,4352,675,36117,190,4331,163,75914,591,22315,834,858
190011,343,4112,739,19717,314,5351,299,82515,570,61016,964,582
190112,148,3352,996,34518,422,2741,361,35516,034,84817,490,035
190212,747,7733,201,82418,999,1801,375,78817,231,76818,701,063
190313,435,9933,608,94119,913,5461,450,26719,011,11420,563,879
190414,651,1983,896,19520,893,0961,468,16119,074,96020,643,359
190515,496,3954,006,10821,770,5251,468,97720,545,60122,144,166
190616,649,3294,593,95423,829,9331,574,25422,422,24324,143,008
190718,514,0454,836,71826,584,2391,644,64523,517,11125,334,348
190821,172,8084,840,94229,098,5671,615,10921,821,75323,611,903
190919,078,0324,947,09626,937,2651,577,55S21,996,62123,728,326
191018,439,9995,035,76426,398,9271,626,09424,968,76126,742,081
191121,259,7275,195,33329,433,6141,677,84226,765,12228,625,803
191222,907,6565,338,29531,196,4001,714,66725,622,08327,508,348
191322,902,2986,204,26630,708,9321,674,33325,733,18727,591,099
191424,250,2465,712,75132,502,3121,998,38827,640,50729,808,349
191523,638,9706,781,00633,209,4832,846,27531,433,65334,448,270
191624,911,7067,393,91737,015,4864,049,52937,507,91741,977,019
191728,847,749S,072,27944,979,6155,410,95742,930,71348,541,961
191831,711,3508,085,96148,570,1266,266,76845,562,93952,048,732
191931,717,7208,017,15948,615,2097,087,54550,489,44457,861,393
192038,241,9327,728,94256,111,4337,890,41859,405,34167,818,469
192150,607,5417,660,53268,701,2827,569,31949,397,41158,808,439
192244,76S,1787,822,56261,779,5707,019,22045,913,39453,868,834
192343,322,2427,900,59459,641,2356,593,06849,039,48250,204,292
192444,537,1617,816,14561,325,8656,587,54649,502 49957,131,235
192545,298,9557,722,91762,128,8086,775,47052,207,20260,219,697
192649,149,2607,797,31965,765,2976,730,42150,135,11458,008,161
192750,032,2037,874,97166,626,6766,510,0184S,294,09556,321,397
192846,179,4637,511,83362,819,4856,374,04353,799,22161,850,595
192949,278,1947,051,39165,475,5296,433,91157,609,74665,232,866
193053,657,3976,798,55669,748,0716,255,71756,425,01463,984,419
193152,419,5276,917,89768,557,1205,782,35453,645,01861,463,034
193250,255,6745,957,94469,015,2095,958,26852,851,73660,649,208
193345,705,0445,115,84669,656,7006,205,42957,620,23365,281,375
193441,389,4573,477,24873,509,1774,844,82663,417,29969,259,271

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

Year.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest Credited to Depositors.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

*Fifteen months, 1st January, 1920, to 31st March, 1921.

†Year ended 31st March following.

‡Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

 ££££££
188465,7171,227,9101,195,9313l,97957,3821,499,112
188569,9571,341,0011,264,30576,69662,2281,638,036
188674,8711,248,4051,336,287−87,88265,8251,615,979
188779,7241,312,1511,182,409129,74267,3641,813,085
188884,4881,544,7471,387,471157,27078,0802,048,442
188990,7451,515,2821,457,08158,20184,8102,191,452
189097,2081,658,5431,500,437158,10092,3192,441,876
1891104,4671,842,9881,693,515149,473104,0992,695,448
1892112,5281,878,2701,821,34956,921111,3022,863,671
1893122,6842,386,0902,122,522203,508114,7603,241,998
1894129,4232,252,8622,268,624−15,7621‡114,6433,340,880
1895137,6832,794,5072,369,333425,174129,4903,895,543
1896147,7582,881,1532,591,559289,594126,4984,311,635
1897159,3313,187,2192,891,16296,050137,2404,744,925
1898169,9683,279,6113,194,89484,717128,1294,957,771
1899183,0463,644,9803,417,299227,681134,9185,320,371
1900197,4084,170,4293,827,416343,013146,1695,809,552
1901212,4364,611,4564,230,193381,263159,1986,350,013
1902227,4655,069,6194,708,772360,847172,9266,883,787
1903243,6755,661,5935,343,828317,765187,1307,388,682
1904259,164 16,836,5405,004,770171,770200,9307,761,382
1905276,0666,625,7445,984,185641,559259,0818,662,023
1906298,7467,907,1566,907,1041,000,051291,1929,953,266
1907319,7739,351,6048,125,1231,226,541343,42411,523,231
1908342,0779,674,075>9,417,820256,255379,80812,159,294
1909359,7149,611,1209,499,320111,800395,80412,666,898
1910380,58510,708,9399,095,5151,013,424424,66814,104,990
1911405,56611,627,36810,002,040905,322472,87515,543,187
1912432,19911,725,18311,449,711275,472511,59916,330,257
1913458,59411,286,70211,041,454245,248555,90817,131,414
1914483,26211,904,32310,003,0181,301,305615,31019,048,029
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1916538,07215,576,40812,957,4202,618,988817,85625,603,209
1917566,35117,106,52914,401,1092,645,360947,82129,190,390
1918590,20518,101,10514,938,8423,102,2631,059,47233,41S,125
1919630,783 S29,758,44725,902,3773,796,0701,178,93538,393,130
1920 *664,81944,302,85241,102,4863,140,3601,818,53543,352,031
1921678,93029,126,99730,236,231−1,110,2341,599,90743,841,704
1922690,79026,682,42727,769,263−1,086,83611,605,52644,300,393
1923710,15729,598,37229,510,32188,0511,649,97646,098,421
1924735,14829,582,89730,413,609− 830,7121,080,92046,948,628
1925758,15531,833,62232,602,506− 768 8841,731,57847,911,322
1926783,82729,456,38330,149,629− 693,2461,767,42048,985,502
1927804,72527,611,06630,584,997−2,973,93l1,747,15647,758,726
1928828,29627,252,38128,111,940−859,5591,745,05048,644,217
1929852,75728,561,85429,575,994−1,014,1401,806,41449,436,491
1930878,04324,531,56928,063,338−3,531,7691,763,82547,668,547
1931877,09019,463,98525,488,081−6,024,0961,611,04843,255,499
1932797,09716,933,17619,635,928−2,702,7521,475,87442,028,621
1933798,26219,428,85317,818,1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,391
1934817,01724,179,53720,946,5623,232,9751,320,34849,423,714

POSTAL.

Year.Letters posted and delivered.Newspapers posted and delivered.Money-order issued.Postal Notes issued.Postal Revenue.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.

* Received and despatched.

†Counted once only.

‡ Year ended 31st March following.

    £ ££
188435,257,846*14,093,742*186,052572,666....188,772
188535,829,855*14,233,878*188,622581,39516,4426,771197,456
188638,084,592*14,324,047*155,680547,75592,54637,019206,029
188739,377,774*15,381,323*159,579555,744122,25546,973213,355
188840,398,020*16,202,849*162,387555,996149,87955,785212,247
188942,301,233*16,721,016*172,076589,545175,02364,244222,978
189043,917,200*17,912,734*176,427602,077189,91568,395229,867
189147,612,864*18,501,912*195,239651,990220,68377,808245,395
189250,610,742*18,557,565*199,438694,847247,90286,176252,494
189352,085,449*19,556,030*210,957750,929285,38999,073253,457
189452,168,336*19,271,590*222,678776,783319,368110,142254,800
189529,586,94912,675,973243,497812,604349,627120,957242,615
189630,442,05313,216,521269,566902,160376,796126,448262,482
189733,030,09514,261,345293,659970,831409,866131,643272,163
189835,654,94715,095,487318,3701,029,241431,449137,085304,947
189938,484,37115,717,388344,6641,118,808461,447144,631325,301
190039,898,47917,045,715369,8341,214,853490,506151,180316,858
190152,567,56018,973,632405,9671,286,508556,316169,527281,097
190257,714,63118,517,276367,2071,277,059616,264187,709302,604
190361,687,45719,696,434396,3121,416,225707,044215,275343,207
190466,501,43421,500,744407,7831,476,887785,347244,719383,243
190571,116,26123,626,362417,4411,541,712875,324270,300410,967
190679,084,56623,716,431439,0201,686,231981,642307,323438,729
1907159,680,65438,862,863441,4871,773,5911,092,631340,436478,388
1908175,440,11141,3,58,913488,0842,050,6841,222,280383,472544,642
1909186,926,33742,561,641538,7402,307,5931,414,752441,099566,990
1910196,768,96842,305,554569,6572,457,5231,666,959517,315603,150
1911205,450,62743,801,719607,7642,759,3931,821,566566,650613,252
1912214,184,11943,460,016666,4253,231,3501,970,643627,443644,637
1913223,961,20043,572,759690,7453,357,7742,238,842711,518695,136
1914233,901,32043,779,983691,5183,427,5052,314,327714,683698,898
1915242,547,85941,311,535664,8603,471,8182,370,079712,753858,583
1916242,121,36141,807,999669,3553,607,0872,286,463685,708964,793
1917245,796,94540,366,792642,6833,476,6452,166,597628,920976,027
1918242,527,36935,476,212638,5003,649,3712,091,051610,591;983,585
1919247,143,18335,498,263690,2914,604,0592,197,520646,41111,068,489
1920259,743,23437,859,247699,6745,276,7762,280,219691,2011,352,677
1921253,767,13138,680,982669 3814,850,8202,377,622723,2541,490,304
1922239,997,08135,635,219659,9434,278,5292,434,506730,2321,378,421
1923252,021,95938,138,697684,9794,390,1592,652,777786,1461,146,588
1924272,311,92541,602,497731,5114,692,9292,846,333840,5591,257,942
1925294,630,76044,717,406766,6894,977,2303,040,722902,1191,320,277
1926298,617,08945,364,274793,1105,033,1273,329,638965,2701,400,886
1927297,478,29447,089,652803,5354,995,0903,614,2171,015,2131,439,587
1928298,543,36448,257,194807,8854,977,5223,575,9841,057,6241,441,794
1929309,162,10348,658,470835,3585,187,5533,816,6351,123,4461,498,684
1930313,148,05847,644,098833,5055,069,6293,907,2881,128,8071,582,550
1931263,633,95239,454,971714,4783,993,0352,884,654952,4441,744,553
1932246,395,13033,410,372648,9513,335,5522,686,648958,3731,393,655
1933261,979,31233,775,389635,6743,112,7292,883,0701,061,9461,294,757
1934275,063,94333,485,832654,6213,209,7133,325,5611,140,6951,384,264

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS.

Year ended 31st March,Miles Open for Traffic.Capital Coat of Open Lines.Train-mileage.Passengers carried, excluding Season-ticket Holders.Goods and Live-stock.*Revenue.Expenditure.

* Equivalent tonnage of live-stock.

†From 1925–20 figures relate to railway operation only.

‡Capital cost written down by £10,400,000.

  £  Tons.££
18851,47911,810,1942,882,4223,232,8861,778,1401,045,712690,026
18861,61312,472 8143 020 5503,362,2661,856,7331,047,418690 340
18871,72113,017,5673,008,9493,426,4031,783,524998,768699,072
18881,75313,352,9782,944,7863,451,8501,770,638994,843687,328
18891,77713,472,8372,796,0073,132,8031,954,126997,615647,045
18901,80913,899,9552,868,2033,376,4592,112,7341,095,569682,787
18911,84214,278,5862,894,7763,433,6292,134,0231,121,701700,703
18921,86914,656,6913,010,4893,555,7642,122,9871,115,432706,517
18931,88614,733,1203,002,1743,759,0442,258,2351,181,522732,142
18941,94815,137,0363,113,2313,972,7012,128,7091,172,792735,359
18951,99315,352,6133,221,6203,905,5782,123,3431,150,851732,160
18962,01415,425,5323,307,2264,162,4262,175,9431,183,041751,368
18972,01815,577,3923,409,2184,439,3872,461,1271,286,158789,054
189S2,05515,993,9033,666,4834,672,2642,628,7461,376,00S857,191
18992,09016,404,0763,968,7084,955,5532,744,4411,469,665929,737
19002,10416,703,8874,187,8935,46S,2843,251,7161,623,8911,052 358
19012,21217,207,3284,620,9716,243,5933,461,3311,727,2361,127,848
19022,23518,170,7225,066,3607,356,1363,667,0391,874,5861,252,237
19032,29119,081,7355,443,3337,575,3903,918,2611,974,0381,343,415
19042,32820,692,9115,685,3998,306,3834,259,2172,180,6411,438,724
19052,37421,701,5726,107,0798,514,1124,185,4672,209,2311,492,900
19062,40722,498,9726,413,5738,826,3824,415,1662,349,7041,621,239
19072,45823,504,2726,755,4549,600,7864,824,5632,624,6001,812,482
19082,47424,365,6477,051,2749,756,7165,070,1762,761,9381,949,759
19092,67427,762,5927,458,23610,457,1445,135,4082,929,5262,114,815
19102,71728,513,4767,889,16611,141,1425,490,01S3,249,7902,169,474
19112,75329,606,5468,141,075!11,200,6135,863,6743,494,1822,303,272
19122,79830,506,089S, 371,68711,891,1345,887,9083,676,5092,465,896
19132,85131,611,2209,016,22413,123,8796,246,1283,971,0022,705,609
19142,85432,355,0879,319,26813,355,8936,019,6334,043,3282,880,323
19152,94534,133,8259,383,42013,565,7726,453,4724,105,4572,920,455
19162,96034,857,8829,356,52214,201,5066,370,9454,548,3562,910,883
19172,96035,378,6649,146,33114,173,1156,239,1734,800,8102,926,864
19182,98336,001,4327,468,64611,408,1565,742,96S4,687,7003,042,907
19192,98336,167,6817,477,58311,374,5215,611,73S4,988,6323,308,575
19202,99636,390,1157,408,60812,760,8146,000,2795,752,4874,105,067
19213,00937,235,2549,303,39215,315,6406,487,2796,908,5315,636,601
19223,02139,309,0978,717,26514,262,4406,321,3516,643,5916,237,727
19233,02840,275,161S,346,73l14,256,6106,618,5886,727,8025,502,497
19243,05341,399,4279,024,50313,817,3786,918,3496,984,2115,403,766
19253,08544,570,7469,083,623112,397,0797,025,3167,112,5245,545,416
19263,13847,608,67610,319,40711,787,7237,246,6927,589,2746,164,570
19273,16449,183,91610,723,86410,274,8787,299,7527,423,4726,158,283
19283,18051,187,37610,838,5949,272,5477,358,3887,343,8456,302,119
19293,28756,568,59811,113,4829,046,2677,613,4457,524,8646,374,579
19303,28757,787,67112,022,0438,469,0387,788,9737,473,9936,848,026
19313,32260,545,15411,281,8987,265,9126,957,7096,781,3886,406,143
19323,31551,424,88310,168,7206,503,5665,824,8115,788,9655,301,653
19333,31551,480,9499,828,8536,870,5705,490,6865,339,0754,833,754
19343,32053,909,34710,163,4747,511,3465,642,1995,628,8354,877,146
19353,32054,089,1900,626,4007,809,0356,023,9605,908,0645,138,588

BANKRUPTCY.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amount realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amount paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
1884846801,150112,539481,22244,118
1885984297,306109,862332,88794,188
18861,089415,953128,370566,291102,966
18871,036311,745135,633503,759109,255
1888881252,32298,213571,74179,843
1889724441,874187,048755,16595,032
1890652262,733112,951381,124122,276
1891605141,97184,341302,71272,572
1892507122,05066,497238,95343,662
1893484111,48368,844464,27437,721
1894626187,78585,538310,07870,889
1895485133,60388,684239,56270,018
1896412115,45571,712256,87037,492
189741973,46640,942133,34545,015
189840790,06845,474285,15530,994
189938959,43534,269158,93230,084
190030477,68953,415141,80037,411
190122258,65849,78184,45230,358
190220561,60439,386110,99529,406
190320446,76723,76188,01917,618
190425786,09443,514125,39228,103
1905304100,81347,798146,33228,150
1906347106,37650,761192,92735,448
190735077,69859,849158,66342,459
1908406200,44767,018199,06947,800
1909471204,18771,351259,01744,110
1910393127,63479,100176,00147,796
191134488,59240,009133,51728,757
191231264,39839,965120,32526,825
1913343155,58242,735228,82925,813
1914391174,41064,153199,25133,910
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
1916304123,44156,416172,77429,223
1917265138,69663,645178,24427,405
191816450,35667,72988,60733,176
191914143,62754,66259,76724,980
192014544,02647,89777,75245,227
1921336362,60178,271558,50438,646
1922690344,861126,145834,35663,009
1923674368,673124,641668,92565,667
1924670279,602118,641703,99574,878
1925653235,37798,648471,02880,187
1926752236,915102,899585,68771,515
1927867331,363108,850679,47372,388
1928806236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,65591,180502,11254,759
1930780471,50283,303827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657624,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884
193432672,57244,533258,92033,788

Chapter 46. SECTION XLVI.—OFFICIAL.

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND.

His Excellency the Right Honourable Viscount Gal way, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E.

Military Secretary—Major A. F. Purvis, M.C.

Official Secretary—Sir Cecil Day, C.M.G., C.B.E.

Aides-de-Camp—Captain A. G. W. Heber-Percy ; Lieut. Sir Standish O'G. Roche, Bart,, R.N.

Honorary Aides-de-Camp—Naval: Captain C. M. Graham, R.N.; Captain L. V. Morgan, M.V.O., D.S.C, R.N. Military: Colonel I. T. Standish, C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel S. C. P. Nicholls, D.S.O.; Colonel A. S. Wilder, D.S.O., M.C, V.D.; Colonel L. M. Inglis, M.C, V.D.; Lieut.-Colonel N. L. Macky, M.C; Lieut.-Colonel S. G. Scoular. Air : Wing-Commander T. M. Wilkes, M.C.; Squadron Leader L. M. Isitt.

Honorary Physician—Colonel F. T. Bowerbank, O.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P., Edin.

Honorary Surgeon—Lieut.-Colonel C. T. H. Newton, D.S.O., M.D., F.R.C.S., Edin.

His Excellency assumed office on the 12th April, 1935.

A complete list of successive vice-regal representatives since 1840 will be found in the 1931 issue (pp. 59-60) of the Year-Book.

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS.

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856.

Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May, 18562 June, 1856.
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 July. 18616 Aug 1862.
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug., 186230 Oct., 1863.
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct., 186324 Nov., 1864.
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865.
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct., 186528 June, 1869.
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 June, 186910 Sept., 1872.
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sept., 187211 Oct., 1872.
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse.11 Oct., 18723 Mar., 1873.
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar., 18738 April, 1873.
13. VogelJulius Vogel. C.M.G.8 April, 18736 July, 1875.
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 July, 187515 Feb., 1876.
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb., 18761 Sept., 1876.
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sept., 187613 Sept., 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sept., 187613 Oct., 1877.
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct., 18778 Oct., 1879.
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct., 187921 April. 1882.
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 April, 188225 Sept., 1883.
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sept., 188316 Aug. 1884.
22. Stout-VoeelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884.
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug., 18843 Sept., 1884.
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sept., 18848 Oct., 1887.
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct., 188724 Jan., 1891.
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan., 18911 May. 1893.
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.1 May, 189321 June, 1906.
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 June, 19066 Aug., 1906.
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C., K.C.M.G.6 Aug., 190628 Mar., 1912.
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar., 191210 July, 1912.
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.10 July, 191212 Aug., 1915.
32. NationalRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.12 Aug., 191525 Aug., 1919.
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.25 Aug., 191914 May, 1925.
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May, 192530 May, 1925.
35. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, P.C, M.C.30 May, 192510 Dec.,1928.
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C, G.C.M.G.10 Dec., 192828 May, 1930.
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.28 May, 193022 Sept., 1931.
38. CoalitionRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.22 Sept., 19316 Dec., 1935.
39. LabourHon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec., 1935 

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1935.

(Sworn in, 6th December, 1935.)

His Excellency the GOVERNOR-GENERAL.

Hon. M. J. SAVAGE, Prime Minister, Minister of External Affairs, Native Minister, Minister for the Cook Islands, and Minister in Charge of Native Trust, Legislative, Electoral, Audit, and High Commissioner's Departments.

Hon. P. FRASER, Minister of Education, Minister of Health, Minister of Marine, and Minister in Charge of Mental Hospitals, Inspection of Machinery, and Police Departments.

Hon. W. NASH, Minister of Finance, Minister of Customs, Minister of Stamp Duties, and Minister in Charge of State Advances, Land and Income Tax, Public Service Superannuation, Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Fire Insurance, and Census and Statistics Departments.

Hon. D. G. SULLIVAN, Minister of Industries and Commerce, Minister of Railways, and Minister in Charge of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.

Hon. H. G. R. MASON, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice, and Minister in Charge of Prisons and Registrar-General's Departments.

Hon. H. T. ARMSTRONG, Minister of Labour, Minister of Immigration, and Minister of Employment.

Hon. R. SEMPLE, Minister of Public Works, Minister of Transport, and Minister in Charge of Roads and Public Buildings.

Hon. W. E. PARRY, Minister of Internal Affairs, and Minister in Charge of Museum, Advertising, and Pensions Departments.

Hon. P. C. WEBB, Minister of Mines, and Minister in Charge of Printing and Stationery Department.

Hon. F. JONES, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, and Minister of Defence.

Hon. W. LEE MARTIN, Minister of Agriculture, and Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies and National Provident Fund Departments.

Hon. F. LANGSTONE, Minister of Lands, Commissioner of State Forests, and Minister in Charge of Land for Settlements, Scenery Preservation, Discharged Soldiers' Settlement, Valuation, and Tourist and Publicity Departments.

Hon. M. FAGAN, M.L.C., Member of the Executive Council without portfolio Clerk of the Executive Council—C. A. Jeffery.

COALITION MINISTRY.

(Assumed Office, 22nd September, 1931; resigned 6th December, 1935.)

Name and Office.FromTo
* Resigned from Ministry 28th January, 1933. † Resigned from Ministry 1st November, 1934. ‡ Not returned at General Election of 2nd December, 1031; resigned from Ministry 8th January, 1932.
Right Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.—  
Prime Minister22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Railways22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Minister of External Affairs22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Attorney-General28 Jan., 19336 Dec, 1935.
Native Minister1 Nov., 19346 Dec, 1935.
Minister for the Cook Islands1 Nov., 19346 Dec, 1935.
Right Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, P.C., M.C.—  
Minister of Public Works22 Sept., 193110 April, 1933.
Minister of Transport22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Finance28 Jan., 19336 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Customs28 Jan., 19336 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Stamp Duties28 Jan., 19336 Dec, 1935.
Sir Ethelbert Alfred Ransom. K.C.M.G.—  
Minister of Lands22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Commissioner of State Forests22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
William Downie Stewart*  
Minister of Finance22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
Minister of Customs22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
Minister of Stamp Duties22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
Attorney-General22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
Sir Apirana Turupa Ngata, Kt.—  
Native Minister22 Sept., 19311 Nov., 1934.
Minister for the Cook Islands22 Sept., 19311 Nov., 1934.
Sir James Alexander Young, K.C.V.O.—  
Minister of Health22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Immigration22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Internal Affairs28 Jan., 19336 Dec, 1935.
Robert Masters, M.L.C.—  
Minister of Education22 Sept., 193122 Nov., 1934.
Minister of Industries and Commerce22 Sept., 19316 Dec., 1935.
David Jones—  
Minister of Agriculture22 Sept., 19318 Jan., 1932.
Minister of Mines22 Sept., 19318 Jan., 1932.
John George Cobbe—  
Minister of Defence22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Justice22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Marine22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Adam Hamilton—  
Minister of Labour22 Sept., 19316 Dec., 1935.
Minister or Internal Affairs22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
Postmaster-General22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Telegraphs22 Sept., 19316 Dec, 1935.
Charles Edward de la Barca Macmillan—  
Minister of Agriculture13 Feb., 19336 Dec, 1935.
Minister of Mines13 Feb., 19326 Dec, 1935.
John Bitchener—  
Minister of Public Works10 April, 19336 Dec, 1935.
Sydney George Smith—  
Minister of Education22 Nov, 19346 Dec, 1935.

SUPREME COURT.

Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal, November, 1935.—Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Michael Myers, P.C., K.C.M.G. Puisne Judges: Hon. J. R. Reed, C.B.E.; Hon. H. H. Ostler; Hon. A. W. Blair; Hon. D. S. Smith; Hon. Robert Kennedy; Hon. A. Fair; Hon. E. H. Northcroft.

Judge of Court of Review (Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act).—Hon. H. F. Johnston.

Judge of the Arbitration Court.—Hon. E. Page.

HONOURS.

Since the preceding issue of the Year-Book the following honours have been conferred by His Majesty the King for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:—

[(a) Signifies conferred in January, 1935; [(b) conferred in recognition of services rendered in connection with the visit to New Zealand of His Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester; (c) in June, 1935.]

Knight Grand Cross of St. Michael and St. George : Hon. Sir C. J. Parr (c). Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George : Hon. E. A. Ransom (c). Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order : Hon. J. A. Young (b). Knight Commander of the British Empire: Brigadier-General H. E. Hart (c), C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., V.D.; Major-General Sir W. L. H. Sinclair-Burgess (c), C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. Knight Bachelor: F. V. Frazer (c); H. Horton (c); C. N. Mackenzie (a); P. R. Sargood (a).Companion of the Bath : Colonel F. Symon (c), C.M.G., D.S.O. Companion of St. Michael and St. George : J. R. Elder (c); T. C. A. Hislop (c); G. A. Lewin (a); H. H. Sterling (a). Commander of the Royal Victorian Order : M. Fraser (b), O.B.E. Commander of the British Empire : Colonel W. H. Cunningham (c), D.S.O., V.D.; Colonel H. C. Hurst (c), D.S.O., V.D.; Dr. E. Marsden (c); Dr. M. H. Watt (c).Member of the Royal Victorian Order (4th Class) : W. G. Wohhnann (b), I.S.O. Officer of the British Empire : J. W. Collins (c); Paymastor-Commander R. F. Durman (a), R.N.; C. F. Goldie (c); Lieut.-Colonel W. R. Lang (c), M.C.; Lieut.-Colonel R. G. Milligan (c), D.S.O., V.D.; Mrs. L. H. Wilson (c).Honorary Officer of the British Empire : Mata'afa Salanoa Muliufi (c); Makea Karika Takau (c).Member of Royal Victorian Order (5th Class) : H. M. Patrick (b). Member of the British Empire: J. C. Andersen (c); A. K. Bell (c); W. Bromley (c); Flight-Lieut, W. M. Buckley (c); Rev. J. C. A. Calder (c); Mrs. M. H. Chatfield (c); Captain G. Dittmer (c); M.C; Mrs. A.I. Fraer(c); Dr. Doris C. Gordon (c); Miss E. A. Howes (c); W. A. James (c); Mrs. M. C. Preston (c); Captain P. W. G. Spiers (c), M.C, V.D.Imperial Service Order: A. E. Allison (c), M.C, V.D.(c); Dr. G. Craig (c) C.M.G. Royal Victorian Medal: P. Bolton (b); J. Cummings (b); J. A. Dempsey (b); E. W. Jenkins (b).

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS.

[For earlier Parliaments and sessions refer to pp. 59-60 of the 1930 edition of the Year-Book. On some occasions there have been long adjournments during sessions, without Parliament being prorogued.]

Parliament.Dates of Opening of Sessions.Dates of Prorogation.Dates of Dissolution.
Nineteenth24 June, 191515 Oct., 191527 Nov., 1919.
9 May, 19169 Aug., 1916
28 June, 19172 Nov., 1917
9 April, 191817 April, 1918
24 Oct., 191812 Dec., 1918
28 Aug., 19197 Nov., 1919
Twentieth24 June, 192012 Nov., 192015 Nov., 1922.
10 Mar., 192124 Mar., 1921
22 Sept., 192113 Feb., 1922
28 June, 19221 Nov., 1922
Twenty-first8 Feb., 192319 Feb., 192314 Oct., 1925.
14 June, 192330 Aug., 1923
26 June, 19247 Nov., 1924
25 June, 19253 Oct., 1925
Twenty-second16 June, 192614 Sept., 192618 Oct., 1928.
23 June, 19277 Dec, 1927
28 June, 192811 Oct., 1928
Twenty-third4 Dec., 192819 Dec, 192812 Nov., 1931.
27 June, 192911 Nov., 1929
26 June, 19305 Nov., 1930
11 Mar., 19317 May, 1931
25 June, 193111 Nov., 1931
Twenty-fourth23 Feb., 193211 May, 19321 Nov., 1935.
22 Sept., 193221 Mar., 1933
21 Sept., 193322 Dec, 1933
28 June, 193416 April, 1935
29 Aug., 193529 Oct., 1935

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND, DECEMBER,1935.

Speaker—Hon. Sir W. C. F. CARNCROSS, Kt. Chairman of Committees—Hon. J. A. HANAN. Clerk of the Legislative Council—C M.BOTHAMLEYT

Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.
Alexander, Hon. John, C.M.G.Auckland22 June,1934.
Allen, Colonel the Hon. Sir James, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.Otago1 June, 1934.
Anderson, Hon. George JamesWellington22 June, 1934.
Bell, Right Hon. Sir Henry Francis Dillon, P.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.Wellington20 May, 1933.
Bloodworth, Hon. ThomasAuckland22 June, 1934.
Buddo, Hon. DavidCanterbury11 June, 1930.
Burns, Hon. ArchibaldAuckland22 June, 1934.
Carncross, Hon. Sir Walter Charles Frederick, Kt.Taranaki17 March, 1931.
Carrington, Hon. Carey JohnAuckland17 June,1933.
Davis, Hon. Eliot RypinskiAuckland22 June,1934.
Fagan, Hon. MarkWellington11 June,1930.
Hall-Jones, Hon. Sir William, K.C.M.G.Wellington6 Oct., 1934.
Hanan, Hon. Josiah AlfredOtago17 June,1933.
Hayward, Hon. WilliamCanterbury22 June,1934.
Isitt, Hon. Leonard MonkCanterbury22 June, 1934.
McCallum, Hon. RichardMarlborough11 June,1930.
Mclntyre, Hon. William HendersonNelson3 Sept., 1935.
McLeod, Hon. JamesTaranaki22 June,1934.
Masters, Hon. RobertTaranaki11 June,1930.
O'Byrne, Hon. Thomas FrancisSouthland22 June,1934.
Perry, Hon. WilliamWellington22 June,1934.
Rhodes, Hon. Sir Robert Heaton, K.C.V.O., K.B.E.Canterbury22 June, 1934.
Russell, Hon. Harold ArthurHawke's Bay22 June,1934.
Snodgrass, Hon. William Wallace, M.B.E.Nelson3 Sept., 1935.
Trevethick, Hon. JonathanAuckland11 June,1930.
Waite, Hon. FredOtago22 June, 1934.
Ward, Hon. Vincent AubreyWellington22 June, 1934.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, DECEMBER,1935.

Speaker—Hon. Sir C. E. STATHAM, Kt. (did not seek re-election to House at 1935 general election).

Clerk of the House—T. D. H. HALL, LL.B.

Name.Electoral District.
* Member of outgoing Ministry. (NOTE.—The representation shown for a few electoral districts may possibly be amended when final results are available.)
For European Electorates. 
Anderton, William Theo-philusEden.
Armstrong, Hon. Hubert ThomasChristchurch East.
Atmore, HarryNelson.
Barclay, James GillispieMarsden.
Barnard. William EdwardNapier.
Barnes, DavidWaitaki.
Barrell, Charles AbrahamHamilton.
Bodkin, William AlexanderCentral Otago.
Broadfoot, Walter JamesWaitomo.
Burnett. Charles HarrisTauranga.
Burnett, Thomas DavidTemuka.
Campbell, ArchibaldChalmers.
Carr, Rev. Clyde LeonardTimaru.
Chapman, Charles HenryWellington North.
Christie. Hubert MaxwellWaipawa.
* Coates; Right Hon. Joseph Gordon, P.C., M.C.Kaipara.
* Cobbe. Hon. John GeorgeOroua.
Coleman. David William.Gisborne.
Cotterill. Joseph Bernard FrancisWanganui.
Coulter, RobertWaikato.
Cullen. Edward LutterellHawke's Bay.
Denham, William Mortimer ClarenceInvercargill.
Dickie, Harold GalePatca.
Endean, William PhillipsParnell.
* Forbes, Right Hon. George William. P.C.Hurunui.
Eraser, Hon. PeterWellington Central.
* Hamilton, Hon. AdamWallace.
Hargest. JamesAwarua.
Herring, Horace EdgarMid-Canterbury.
Hodgens, JosephPalmerston.
Holland, Sidney GeorgeChristchurch North.
Holyoake, Keith JackaMotueka.
Howard. Edwin JohnChristchurch South.
Hultcquist, Axel GordonBay of Plenty.
Hunter. Clifford LorrieManawatu.
Jones, Hon. FrederickDunedin South.
Jordan, William JosephManukau.
Kyle, Herbert Seton StewartRiccarton.
Langstone. Hon. FrankWaimarino
Lee, John AlexanderGrey Lynn.
Lowry. Leonard GeorgeOtaki.
Lyon, William JohnWaitemata.
McCombs, Terence HendersonLyttelton.
McDougall. DavidMataura.
For European Electorates— 
McKeen, RobertWellington South
McMillan, Dr. David GervanDunedin West
Martin, Hon. William LeeRaglan.
Mason, Hon. Henry Greathead RexAuckland Suburbs.
Meachen, Edwin PurccllWairau.
Moncur, Alexander FrancisRotorua.
Munro, James WrightDunedin North.
Nash, Hon. WalterHutt.
Neilson, PeterDunedin Central.
Nordmeyer. Rev. Arnold HenryOamaru.
0'Brien, JamesWestland.
Parry, Hon. William EdwardAuckland Central.
Petrie, Charles RobertHauraki.
Polson, William JohnStratford
* Ransom, Hon. Sir Ethel-bert Alfred, K.C.M.G.Pahiatua.
Richards, Arthur ShaptonRoskill.
Roberts, BenjaminWairarapa.
Robertson, JohnMasterton.
Roy, James Alexander McLeanClutha.
Rushworth, Harold MontagueBay of Islands.
Savage, Hon. Michael JosephAuckland West.
Schramm, Frederick WilliamAuckland East
Semple, Hon. RobertWellington East.
Sexton, Arthur Clifton AxfordFranklin.
* Smith, Hon. Sydney GeorgeNew Plymouth.
Sullivan, Hon. Daniel GilesAvon.
Thorn, JamesThames.
Webb, Hon. Patrick CharlesBuller.
Wilkinson. Charles AndersonEgmont.
Williams, Charles MorganKaiapoi.
Wilson, George Hamish OrmondRangitikei.
Wright, Robert AlexanderWellington Suburbs.
For Maori Electorates. 
Henare, TauNorthern maori.
Ngata, Hon. Sir Apirana Turupa, Kt.Eastern Maori.
Ratana, Haami TokouraWestern Maori.
Tirikatene, Eruera TihamaSouthern Maori.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND NAMES OF PERMANENT HEADS, DECEMBER,1935.

Department.Permanent Head.
Title.Name.
AgricultureDirector-GeneralC. J. Reakes, C.B.E., M.R.C.V.S., D.V.Sc. Melb.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralG. F. C. Campbell, C.M.G.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralH. H. Cornish, K.C., M.A., LL.M.
CustomsComptrollerE. D. Good.
DefenceCommandant, N.Z. Military ForcesMajor-General Sir W.L. H. Sinclair-Burgess, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., A.D.C.
 Under-SecretaryH. Turner.
EducationDirectorN. T. Lambourne. M.A.
Friendly Societies and National ProvidentRegistrar and SuperintendentR. Witheford.
Government InsuranceCommissionerW. E. Arnold.
HealthDirector-GeneralM.H Watt, C.B.E., M.D., D.P.H.
Industries and Commerce, Tourist and PublicitySecretary for Industries and Commerce, General Manager for Tourist and Health ResortsL.J.Schmitt.
Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. W. Butcher.
Internal AffairsUnder-SecretaryJ. W. A. Beenan, LL.B.
Dominion MuseumDirectorW. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc.
Government Actuary'sGovernment ActuaryC. Gostelow, F.I.A. Lond.
Justice and PrisonsUnder-Secretary of Justice, Controller-General of Prisons, and Registrar-General, Births, Deaths, and MarriacesB. L. Dallard.
ElectoralChief Electoral OfficerG. G. Hodckins.
LabourSecretary, and Commissioner of UnemploymentJ. S. Hunter.
Land and Deeds and Stamp DutiesSecretary for Land and Deeds and Commissioner of Stamp DutiesP. G. Pearce.
Land and Income TaxCommissioner of TaxesC. E. J. Dowland.
Lands and SurveyUnder-Secretary and Land Purchase ControllerW. Robertson.
Law DraftingLaw DraftsmanJ. Christie. C.M.G., LL.M.
MarineSecretaryL. B. Campbell, A.M.I.C.E.
Mental HospitalsDirector-GeneralT. G. Gray, M.B., Ch.B. Aberd.. M.P.C.
MinesUnder-SecretaryA. Tyndall, A.M.I.C.E.
NativeUnder-SecretaryO.N. Campbell.
Native TrustNative TrusteeO.N. Campbell.
NavalFirst Naval MemberCommodore the Hon. E. R. Drummond, M.V.O.
PensionsCommissionerJ.H. Boyes.
PoliceCommissionerW. G. Wohlmann, M.V.O., I.S.O.
Post and TelegraphDirector-GeneralG. McNamara, C.B.E.
Prime Minister's, Cook Is-lands, and External AffairsPermanent HeadC. A. Berendsen, LL.M.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterG. H. Loney.
Public Service SuperannuationSecretaryR. S. Wogan.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeE. O. Hales.
Public WorksUnder-Secretary and Engineer-in-ChiefC. J. McKenzie, A.M.I.C.E.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerG. H. Mackley.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchSecretaryE. Marsden, C.B.E., D.Sc.
Dominion LaboratoryDominion AnalystW. Donovan, M.Sc, F.I.C.
Dominion ObservatoryDominion Astronomer and SeismologistC. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S., A.I.A. (Lond.).
Geological SurveyDirectorJ. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc, B.E., A.O.S.M.
MeteorologicalDirectorE. Kidson, O.B.F., M.A., D.Sc.
State Fire and Accident InsuranceGeneral ManagerJ. H. Jeiram.
State Forest ServiceDirectorA. D. McGavock.
TransportCommissionerG. C. Godfrey.
TreasurySecretaryG. C. Rodda, M.B.E.
ValuationValuer-GeneralW. Stewart.

By an Act passed during the year 1912, and intituled the Public Service Act, 1912, the Public Service of New Zealand was placed under the direct and sole control of a Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners, who are appointed for a term of seven years, are responsible only to Parliament, and can be dismissed from office only for misbehaviour or incompetence.

The Act, which became operative on the 1st April, 1913, applies to all members of the Public Service with the exception of the Controller and Auditor-General, officers of the Railways Department, members of the Police and Defence Forces, Judges and Magistrates, officers of the House, certain officers of the Legislative Departments, and persons paid only by fees or commission, as well as any officer to whom the Governor-General in Council declares the Act shall not apply.

By the Post and Telegraph Department Act of 1918 the Post and Telegraph Department was exempted from the control of the Commissioner, with the exception that the Commissioner makes all appointments other than to positions carrying a salary of over £699 9s. per annum.

Public Service Commissioner (Acting): A. D. Thomson.

Assistant Public Service Commissioner (Acting): T. Mark.

PUBLIC SERVANTS.

In Departments under the control of the Public Service Commissioner the number of permanent officers (excluding administrative officers and Native-school teachers) at 1st April, 1935, was 7,597, and the aggregate of annual salaries as at 1st August, 1935, was £2,174,466, inclusive of the 7½ per cent, (i.e., 7½ per cent, of existing salary rates) restoration of salary deductions which was granted by the Finance Act, 1935. The number of temporary employees, other than workmen, &c, in these Departments at 1st April, 1935, was 2,185, of whom 804 were shorthand-typists or machinists.

Staffs of the Railways, Post and Telegraph, Police, and Defence (military personnel; civil personnel are included above) Departments will be found in appropriate sections elsewhere in this volume (as also the numbers of school-teachers). The number of workmen in the employ of the Public Works Department will be found in the section on Employment and Unemployment, and of miners, &c, in State coalmines in the Mining Section. While not exhaustive, the above covers substantially the whole of the employees of the State.

HIGH COMMISSIONER'S OFFICE, LONDON.

High Commissioner for New Zealand—Hon. Sir C. J. Parr, G.C.M.G.

Secretary, and Loan and Stock Agent—F. T. Sandford.

Economic Adviser—R. M. Campbell, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.

Publicity and Exhibition Officer—H. T. B. Drew.

Stores, Indent, and Trade Officer—S. C. Manhire.

Finance Officer, Accountant, and Loan and Stock Agent—A. R. F. Mackay, M.Com.

Audit Officer—J. P. Rutherford.

Customs Department Representative—F. W. Lawrence.

Dairy Produce Officer—F. H. Taylor.

Liaison Officer, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research—N. L. Wright, F.I.C., D.I.C.

Offices—New Zealand Government Offices, 415 Strand, London, W.C. 2. Code address—Deputy, Rand, London.

OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES IN DOMINIONS AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

New Zealand Tourist and Trade Commissioner in the Commonwealth of Australia— W. Taylor, 14 Martin Place (G.P.O. Box 365F), Sydney; code address, Zealandia, Sydney. District Manager—New Zealand Government Offices, Collins House, 360 Collins Street (P.O. Box 2136), Melbourne; code address— Aotearoa, Melbourne.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Brisbane—Messrs. Dewar and Jones, King's Building, 79 Queen Street, Brisbane.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Adelaide—South Australian Intelligence and Tourist Bureau (P.O. Box 664a), Adelaide.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Perth—Western Australian Government Tourist Bureau, 62 Barrack Street, Perth. Code address—Tourist.

New Zealand Trade and Tourist Commissioner in Europe—G. W. Clinkard, Brussels, Belgium. (Office to be established shortly.)

Honorary New Zealand Representative, Marseilles.—The Secretary, British Chamber of Commerce, 2 Rue Beauvau, Marseilles. Code address—Britcom.

New Zealand Trade and Tourist Commissioner, Toronto—J. W. Collins, O.B.E., Canada Permanent Building, 320 Bay Street, Toronto, 2. Code address—Maoriland.

New Zealand Trade and Tourist Commissioner, Los Angeles—R. M. Firth, Hollings-worth Buildings, 606 South Hill Street, Los Angeles, California. Code address— Newzeal.

New Zealand Government Agent, Vancouver, B.C.—E. E. Ackland, (P.O. Box 16), Vancouver, B.C.

Official Representative of Customs Department in Canada and United States— W. J. Stevenson, 44 Whitehall Street, New York. Code address—Depcustoms.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent in India—New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd.,26 Dalhousie Square West, Calcutta. Code address—Newzico.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Colombo—A. R. Hughes, Hong Kong Bank Buildings (P.O. Box 328), Colombo.

Acting Honorary New Zealand Government Agmt, North China—C. G. Davis, care of Messrs. Hatch, Carter, and Co., 131 Devcnport Road, Tientsin, North China.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Shanghai—S. Hutchison, 384 Embankment Building, North Soochow Road (P.O. Box 355), Shanghai.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Hong Kong—S. T. Williamson, P. and 0. Building (P.O. Box 615), Hong Kong. Code address—Williamson, Hong Kong.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent, Singapore—American Express Company, Singapore.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Johannesburg—H. J. Constable (P.O. Box 1909), Johannesburg.

Honoray New Zealand Government Agent Durban—H. Middlebrook, 3 Natal Bank Buildings, West Street (P.O. Box 1822), Durban. Code address—Midstream.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Honolulu—H. C. Tennent, First National Bank Building (P.O. Box 44), Honolulu.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agents, Fiji—Messrs. Brown and Joske, Suva. Code address—Joske, Suva.

TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF OVERSEAS COUNTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND.

United Kingdom.—H.M. Trade Commissioner: R. Boulter, C.M.G., T. and G. Buildings, Grey Street (P.O. Box 369), Wellington.

Australia.—Trade Commissioner: R. H. Nesbitt, D.I.C. Building, Wellington.

Canada.—Trade Commissioner: C. M. Croft, Yorkshire House, Shortland Street, Auckland.

FOREIGN CONSULS.

CONSULS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OR WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, DECEMBER,1935.

Argentine Republic.—Vice-Consuls : F. S. Battley, Auckland ; E. S. Baldwin, Wellington.

Belgium.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand) : Armand Nihotto, Wellington. Consuls: A. M. Ferguson, Auckland; Sir J. J. Kinsey, Christchurch. Vice-Consuls : Sir C. R. J. Ward, Bart., Christchurch ; A. H. Allen, Acting Hon. Consul, Dunedin; Sir R. A. Anderson, C.M.G., Invercargill.

Brazil.—Consul: George Robertson, Wellington. Vice-Consul: C. A. L. Treadwell, O.B.E., Wellington.

Chile.—Consul General for Australia and New Zealand: R. Dundas Smith, Sydney. Consuls : J. M. Wilson, Auckland; William Taylor, Dunedin.

China.—Consul: Feng Wang, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Yue H. Jackson, Wellington ; Cheng Fu Pan, Western Samoa.

Czechoslovakia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Dr. A. Solansky (Acting), Sydney. Honorary Consuls: Professor R. M. Algie, Auckland ; E. J. Hyams, Wellington. Honorary Vice-Consul: D. J. Shea, Christchurch.

Denmark.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand : Georg Lyngbye Host, Sydney. Consul for South Island: H. D. Acland, Christchurch. Honorary Consul: Stronach Paterson, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: S. P. Anderson, Auckland; W. Perry, Hokitika.

Ecuador.—Consul: William Birss, Auckland.

Finland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Paavo Simelius, Sydney. Vice-Consuls (honorary): C. E. Tudehope, Auckland ; Vaino Sarelius, Christchurch.

France.—Consul for New Zealand and Western Samoa : E. M. V. M. Joubert, Auckland. Consular Agents: G. E. F. Kingscote, Christchurch; 0. R. Bendall, Wellington; S. E. D. Neill, Dunedin.

Germany—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies other than Western Samoa): Dr. Rudolf Asmis, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, also Western and American Samoa): W. Penseler, Wellington.

Greece.—Honorary Consul for New Zealand : J. F. Dyer, Wellington. Honorary Deputy Consul: G. T. Dawson, Wellington.

Italy.—Consul-General for Anutralia, New Zealand, Fiji, and New Guinea: Commendatore Nob. A. Grossardi, Melbourne. Consul: Oscar Carrara (acting), Wellington. Consular Agents : P. P. J. Amodeo (acting), Christchurch; J. A. Roberts, Dunedin ; M. J. Sheahan, Auckland (temporarily in charge); Signor Adamo Vigna, Runanga (provisionally in charge).

Japan.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, excluding Western Samoa), Kuramatsu Murai, Sydney. Honorary Consul: N. S. Falla, C.M.G., D.S.O., Wellington.

Latvia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand—including Western Samoa—and its Dependencies): C. Zarine, London. Honorary Consul : N. E. Heath, Auckland.

Mexico.—Honorary Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Senor Carlos Zalapa, Sydney.

Netherlands.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand : T. Elink Schuurman, Sydney. Honorary Consul: C. H. Weston, K.C., Wellington; Honorary Vice-Consuls : George Ritchie, Dunedin ; H. H. F. Bauer, Auckland ; N. Francis, C.M.G., Christchurch.

Nicaragua.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction in New Zealand): Senor Don Rafael Medina, Sydney.

Norway.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand : H. H- T. Fay, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over Western Samoa also): A. W. Cuwton, Wellington. Vice-Consuls : Robert Millar, Auckland; V. E. Hamilton, Cliristchurch (honorary); M. E. Wiig. Invercargill; J. H. Enright, Westport; W. F. Edmond, Dunedin (honorary).

Panama.—Honorary Consul: Quiros y Quiros, Auckland.

Peru.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: J. M. Paxton, Sydney. Consul: G. H. Baker, Auckland.

Poland.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Dr. Karol Poznanski, London. Honorary Consul: W. Noskowski, Sydney.

Portugal.—Consul: David L. Nathan, Auckland. Honorary Vice-Consul: Alfred Nathan, Auckland. Vice-Consuls : A. D. S. Duncan, Wellington ; C. W. Rattray, Dunedin.

Spain.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, excluding Western Samoa) : Senor Don Mariano Amoedo y Galarmendi, Sydney. Honorary Vice-Consul: A. K. S. Mackenzie, Wellington.

Sweden.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: C. 0. D. von Dardel, Sydney. Consul: J. T. Martin, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: J. T. F. Mitchell, Auckland; W. Machin, Christchurch; J. S. Ross, C.M.G., Dunedin.

Switzerland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): M. Stahel, Sydney. Gerant of the Consulate: Dr. Albert Blau, Auckland.

United States of America.—Consul-General: Geo. A. Bucklin, Wellington. Consul: W. F. Boyle, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: L. A. Bachelder (honorary), Auckland; L. W. Johnson, Walter W. Orebaugh, G. B. Lane, Wellington; Q. F. Roberts, Apia (in charge). Consular Agents: H. P. Bridge, Christchurch ; H. Reeves, Dunedin.

Uruguay.—Honorary Consul: David Allan, Wellington.

Yugoslavia.—Honorary Consul: John Totich, Dargaville.

Appendix A. APPENDICES.

(a) PRINCIPAL EVENTS.

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SOME NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

1642. Discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769. Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1788. Discovery of Macaulay and Curtis Islands (Kormadec Group), and of Bounty Islands.

1791. Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792. First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1793. Discovery of Raoul or Sunday Island (Kormadec Group). Visit of Lieutenant-Governor King, of Norfolk Island, to Doubtless Bay.

1800. Discovery of Antipodes Islands.

1806. Discovery of Auckland Islands.

1807. Defeat of Hongi and the Ngapuhi Tribe.

1810. Discovery of Campbell Island.

1814. Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1818. Hongi's and Te Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.

1819-20. Raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson by Patuone, Neno, and Te Rauparaha.

1820. Hongi's visit to England. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.

1821. Hongi's capture of Mauinaina and Te Totara Pas. Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki.

1822. Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.

1823. Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, to Hongi.

1823-28. Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1824. Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa to Pomare.

1825. First attempt at colonization, by an expedition under Captain Herd. Great defeat of Ngati-Whatau by Hongi.

1827. Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1828. Death of Hongi.

1829. Brig “Hawes” captured by Maoris.

1830. Battles of Taumata-wiwi and Kororareka. Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury, to Te Rauparaha.

1831. Tory Channel whaling-station established. Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William IV. Capture of Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, by Waikato.

1832. Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa.

1833. Mr. Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834. Battle near Otaki. Waimate Pa shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which H.M. troops employed in New Zealand.

1835. Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand.” Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1836. Battles between Waikato and Te Arawa.

1838. Pelorus Sound discovered. Arrival of Roman Catholic mission under Bishop Pompallier.

1839. Governor of New South Wales authorized to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840. Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841. Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842. Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843. Affray with Natives at the Wairau, and massacre of persons who had surrendered.

1844. Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845. Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846. Arrival of first steam vessel (H.M.S. “Driver”) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Hc's war. Native hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847. Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848. Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Severe earthquake at Wellington. Otago founded.

1850. Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852. Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854. Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855. First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856. Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857. Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858. New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.

1859. Establishment of Marlborough Province.

1860. Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861. Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862. Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. “White Swan,” with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened —Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863. Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus” on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Native affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngarua-wahia. First railway in New Zealand opened.

1864. Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including Battles of Rangiuohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. Gold discovered on west coast of South Island.

1865. Seat of Government transferrers to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Natives defeated at Wairoa.

1866. Further defeats of rebel Natives. Commencement of Panama steam mail-service. Cook Strait submarine telegraph-cable laid.

1867. Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868. Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner “Rifleman” and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Natives.

1869. Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit after Te Kooti. Termination of Panama mail-service. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870. Further lighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail-service. Bounty Island taken possession of. Inauguration of Vogel public-works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.

1871. Commencement of railway-construction under public-works policy.

1872. Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873. Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Company.

1874. In pursuance of immigration and public-works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants introduced. Westland Province established.

1875. Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

1876. New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877. Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education.

1879. Trouble with Parihaka Natives, under Te Whiti, and imprisonment of 180 of these. Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata Coal-mine explosion, whereby thirty-four lives lost.

1880. Release of Parihaka prisoners.

1881. Wreck of s.s. “Tararua,” -with loss of 130 lives. Severe earthquakes in Wellington. Arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu.

1882. First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883. Amnesty to Maori political offenders proclaimed. Te Whiti and Tohu released. Direct steam communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885. New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886. Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887. Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris.

1888. British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889. South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890. Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891. Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr. Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.

1892. Introduction of lease-in-perpotuity system of land-tenure.

1893. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlors Act passed. Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa,” with loss of 135 lives.

1895. Government assumed management of Midland Railway.

1896. Brunner Mine explosion, causing sixty-seven deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898. Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899. Labour Day instituted. New Zealand Contingent (the first of ten) sent to South Africa.

1900. Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to seventy-six.

1901. T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Universal penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902. Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. “Elingamite” with loss of forty-three lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.

1903. Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905. Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner.”

1906. Death of Rt. Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

1907. New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908. Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu Railway purchased by Government. Second Ballot Act passed.

1909. S.s. “Penguin” wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of seventy-five lives. Battle-cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910. Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener reported and advised on New Zealand defences. Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911. Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912. Foundation-stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913. Visit of Dominions Royal Commission. Visit of gift ship H.M.S. “New Zealand” to Dominion. Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.

1914. Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal-mine disaster, whereby forty-three lives lost.

1915. New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled.

1916. New Zealand Division transferred to western front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918. S.s. “Wimmera” sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast. Otira Tunnel pierced. Great influenza epidemic, causing over five thousand deaths.

1919. Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister.

1920. Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921. Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington, by Hon. Sir John Salmond.

1922. Meat-export trade placed under control of a Board.

1923. Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Reintroduction of penny postage. Dairy-produce Export Control Act passed, and adopted by dairy producers.

1924. Railway Strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor-vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor-vehicles. Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act passed.

1925. Social Hygiene Regulations made, to provide means of coping with spread of venereal disease. Repayment of the Public Debt Act passed. New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin.

1926. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand. Absolute control adopted by Dairy-produce Control Board. Family Allowances Act passed.

1927. Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed. Limited control substituted for absolute control by Dairy-produce Control Board. Petrol-tax imposed.

1928. Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman. Compulsory insurance of motor-vehicles provided for by Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act.

1929. Severe earthquake in Murehison-Kurainea district caused seventeen deaths. Daylight-saving (half-hour) permanently adopted for summer months. Fatal clash between police and Mau at Apia.

1930. Unemployment Act passed and unemployment levy instituted.

1931. Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 per cent, in wages and salaries. Railways transferred to control of Board. Unemployment-tax imposed on wages, salary, and other income. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Penny postage discontinued. Graduated land-tax replaced by income-tax. Mortgagors relief legislation passed.

1932. Principal broadcasting stations taken over by New Zealand Broadcasting Board. System of export-licenses operates for first six months of year. National Expenditure Commission appointed. Special session of Parliament. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act makes important changes in industrial legislation. Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act extends principles of relief. National Expenditure Adjustment Act makes reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rent, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. Canadian Trade Agreement ratified. Penny postage reinstated. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference. Surtax abolished on goods of United Kingdom or British Crown colonies, &c. Severe earthquakes at Wairoa and Gisborne. Stratford - Main Trunk railway opened.

1933. Wheat-purchase Board created, 7th January, to regulate prices and control disposal of wheat, including the exportable surplus. Exchange raised, 20th January, at instance of Government to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers); and Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act passed, 1st March, providing for Government purchase of surplus exchange. Sales tax of 5 per cent, on wholesale sales instituted from 9th February. An export duty (additional) of 12s. 6d. per ounce placed on uncoined gold exported from 9th February. New Zealand Debt Conversion Act passed, 4th March, reducing interest on internal public debt; a complementary Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act passed 9th March. Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 9th March reduces maximum of general exemption from £260 to £210, but allows £50 exemption for a dependent wife. Finance Act of 10th March authorizes issue of distinctive silver and bronze coinage for New Zealand. Coinage Act passed, 27th November. Small Farms Board constituted, 10th March, to aid in relief of unemployment. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England. Dairy Produce Board takes over marketing of all whey and secondary butters graded on or after 1st May. Australian trade delegation arrives, 20th March; a tariff agreement, Australia. New Zealand, is signed 7th April, and becomes operative from 1st December. Customs Tariff Commission appointed, 9th May. New Zealand delegates leave, 12th May, for the World Monetary and Economic Conference convened at London by League of Nations. Serious outbreak of swine fever in May in Wellington District. Government purchases three “B” radio-stations, September-October. First woman (Mrs. E. R. McCombs) elected to Parliament, Lyttelton by-election, 13th September. Representative of National Farmers' Union of England and Wales arrives, 21st September, to discuss with New Zealand farmers the English quota proposals. A conversion loan of £5,000,000 underwritten on 5th October in London. Mr. H. E. Holland, Leader of Opposition, died, 8th October. Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, constituting a central reserve bank, passed 27th November. First New Zealand silver coins in circulation, November. Period of summer time (daylight-saving) extended.

1934. Commission appointed, 17th January, to inquire into company-promotion methods, &c. Wool-sales record best prices since 1929-30. Wooden-match industry established. Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire into monetary system. Festival at Waitangi to celebrate Treaty anniversary commences 5th February. First official trans-Tasman air-mail, 17th February. Commission appointed, 28th February, to inquire into Native affairs. Violent earthquake on 5th March does considerable damage in Wellington Provincial District, and causes two deaths from shock. Poultry Board appointed, 26th March. Transport Co-ordination Board appointed, 31st March. Reserve Bank incorporated from 1st April; commences business, 1st August. Partial restoration (5 per cent, of reduced rates) of “cuts” operates from 1st April; affects public servants and old-age and South-African-War pensioners. New telegraph rates on sliding scale according to distance, effective from 3rd April. Commission appointed, 27th April, to inquire into dairy industry. Meat-export Restriction Order restricts export of frozen beef or veal from 12th July. £3,989,100 of 5-per-cent. stock converted in London to 3½-per-cent. stock. Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act repealed as from 1st August. Dairy Board marketing regulations, effective from 1st August, place under control all butter and cheese exported to United Kingdom. Storm of cyclonic nature causes widespread damage in Wairarapa, 1st October. Consequent upon report of Dairy Industry Commission, the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act passed 13th November, providing drastic powers for control of dairy industry. Opening of Waitaki hydroelectric works, 27th October. H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester arrives on an official visit, 15th December. Imperial Government institutes quotas on certain meat imports. First licensed air-transport service commences operations, 31st December.

1935. Export of porker-pig carcasses to United Kingdom prohibited for short period, commencing 10th January. Bank-notes of trading banks ceased to be legal tender, 10th January. Members of Executive Commission of Agriculture appointed, 23rd January. H.R.H. the Duke of Gloucester departed, 29th January. British silver coins ceased to be legal tender, 1st February. Serious damage done in Cook Islands by hurricane in February; Government vessel “Matai” sent on relief visit. The Governor-General (Right Hon. Lord Bledisloe) departed on his return to England, 15th March. The Prime Minister (Right Hon. G. W. Forbes) left on 2nd April to represent New Zealand at His Majesty's Jubilee celebrations. Regulations under Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act became effective, 4th April, fixing maximum levy on dairy-produce intended for export. Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, 5th April, and Court of Review established. Lieut-Colonel the Right Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., assumed office as Governor-General, 12th April. The Minister of Finance (Right Hon. J. G. Coates) departed, 13th April, to attend meat negotiations with Imperial Government; agreement reached in July covering period up to end of 1936 ; meat levy to be confined to beef. Modification of Tariff Agreement with Australia became effective, 1st June. £2,135,800 of London loan paid off, and £8,000,000 converted from 5-per-cent. stock to 3 per cent. at 98½, June-July. Lyttelton by-election, 24th July. £30,500,000 State Advances securities transferred to Mortgage Corporation, 1st August. Partial restoration (7½ per cent, of existing rates) of salaries and wages of public servants, 1st August. Restoration of pensions reductions, 1 st August. Visit of Japanese Goodwill Mission under Mr. Katsuji Debuchi, Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 19th to 31st August. System of group marketing approved in September by New Zealand Dairy Conference. Sliding scale of telegraph charges discontinued, 19th September. Reduction of unemployment-tax to 8d. in the pound, 1st October. H.M.S. “Diomede” letves for duty overseas, 20th October. League of Nations (Enforcement of Sanctions) Act passed, 24th October. War Veterans' Allowances Act passed, 24th October. General election, 27th November. National Government defeated. Labour Government assumes office, 6th December.

(b) STATISTICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The current publications of the Census and Statistics Office are listed at the beginning of this volume (facing page 1). In addition, the following are issued in the New Zealand Gazette :

  • Population of New Zealand and of North and South Islands (Quarterly).

  • Estimated Yields of Wheat, Oats, and Barley (Annual).

  • Estimated Spring Areas under Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Potatoes (Annual).

  • Stocks of Wheat, Oats, and Flour (Annual).

There are also occasional publications of the Census and Statistics Office (none of which are of recent date), while certain other? formerly published regularly have now been discontinued.

Much statistical information, often of a detailed nature, is contained in the various departmental reports presented to Parliament. These are published separately, while collectively thou comprise the annual Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives. Those more important from a statistical point of view are listed below : —

Subject.Report.
Number.Title.
* In four parts.
Meteorology, seismology, geological survey, &c.H.-34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
Public health, hospitals, &c.H.-31Report on Public Health, Hospitals, and Charitable Aid.
 H.-7Report on Mental Hospitals.
EducationE.-1Report of Minister of Education.
 E.-2Report on Primary and Post-primary Education.
 E.-3Report on Education of Native Children.
 E.-4Report on Child Welfare, State Care of Children, Special Schools, and Infant-life Protection.
 E.-7Report on Higher Education.
JusticeH.-16Report on Police Force.
 H.-20Prisons Report.
 H.-20AReport of Prisons Board.
 H.-20BReport on Offenders' Probation.
DefenceH.-19Report of General Officer Commanding.
 H.-5Report on New Zealand Naval Forces.
External tradeH.-44Report of Department of Industries and Commerce.
ShippingH.-l5Report of Marine Department.
RailwaysD.-2Railways Statement.
 D.-lPublic Works Statement.
Roads and transportD.-lPublic Works Statement.
 H.-40Report of Transport Department.
 H.-40AReport of Transport Co-ordination Board.
Postal and telegraphicF.-lReport of Post and Telegraph Department.
 F.-3Report of Broadcasting Board.
LandsH.-3Report of Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Department.
 C.-LAReport on Surveys.
Crown landsC.-lReport on Settlement of Crown Lands.
 C.-5Report on Land for Settlements Act.
 C.-9Report on Discharged Soldiers' Settlement.
 C.-14Report on National Endowments.
Native landsG.-9Report on Native Land Courts, &c.
 G.-3. 4Accounts of East Coast Native Trust Lands.
 G.-10Report of Board of Native Affairs.
Agricultural and pastoralH.-29Report of Department of Agriculture.
productionH.-23Annual Sheep Returns.
 H.-34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
ForestryC.-3Report of State Forest Service.
FisheriesH.-15Report of Marine Department.
 H.-22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
MiningC.-2Mines Statement.
 C.-2AReport on State Coal-mines.
 C.-12Report on Kauri-gum Industry.
 H.-34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
Factory productionH.-44Report of Department of Industries and Commerce.
Public financeB.-l*Public Accounts.
 B.-2Report and Accounts of Public Debt Commission.
 B.-6Financial Statement (Budget).
 B.-7Appropriations chargeable on Consolidated Fund and other Accounts.
 B.-7AAppropriations chargeable on Public Works Fund.
 B.-10Public Securities held.
 D.—1Public Works Statement.
State advancesB.-13Report of State Advances Office.
 B.-14Report of Rural Intermediate Credit Board.
PensionsH.-18Report of Pensions Department.
SuperannuationH.-26Report of Public Service Superannuation Board.
 E.-8Report on Teachers' Superannuation Fund.
 D.-5Report on Government Railways Superannuation Fund.
National Provident FundH.-17Report of National Provident Fund Board.
Local bodiesH.-22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
BankingB.-15Balance-sheet of Bank of New Zealand.
 F.-lReport of Post and Telegraph Department.
 F.-4Report on Post-Office Savings-bank.
InsuranceH.-8Report of Government Insurance Commissioner.
 H.-6, 6aReport of State Fire Insurance Office.
 H.-12Report on Fire Brigades.
Roads and road transportH.-40Report of Transport Department
Friendly societiesH.-lReport of Registrar of Friendly Societies.
Trade-unionsH.-llReport of Labour Department.
UnemploymentH.-35Report of Unemployment Board.
Industrial disputesH.-llReport of Labour Department.
Industrial accidentsH.-llReport of Labour Department.
 D.-2Railways Statement.
 C.-2Mines Statement.
Electric-powerD.-lPublic Works Statement.
Public Trust OfficeB.-9, 9AReport and Accounts of the Public Trust Office.
Patents, designs, and trademarksH.-10Report of Commissioner of Patents, &c.
Inspection of machineryH.-15Report of Marine Department.
DependenciesA.-3Report on Cook Islands.
 A.-4Report on Western Samoa.
 A.-6Report on Niue Island.
Public ServiceH.-l4Report of Public Service Commissioner.

The foregoing list relates, as stated, to annual reports. Special reports on subjects of general interest which have been presented to Parliament during the last three years include the following : —

1933.

A.–6.. Statement on the (World) Monetary and Economic Conference, London,1933.

G.–10.. Statement on Native Land Development.

G.–ll.. Report of Committee on Rating of Native Land.

H.–34A.. Statement on Wool-improvement in the Dominion.

H.–34B.. Statement on Production of Oil in New Zealand.

1934.

B.–3.. Report of the Monetary Committee. (NOTE. —A separate appendix contains evidence heard by, and statements presented to, the Committee.)

G.–ll.. Report of Native Affairs Commission.

H.–25, 25A, and 25B..Interim and Final Reports of Commission of # Inquiry into Company Promotion Methods, &c.

H.–28.. Report of Tariff Commission.

H.–28A.. Statement on Customs Tariff.

H.–30.. Report of Dairy Industry Commission.

H.–44A.. Report of Committee of Inquiry into Motion-picture Industry.

1935.

H.–30.. Report of Departmental Committee en National Compulsory Superannuation and Health Insurance.

The above list of officially presented statistics is, of course, far from exhaustive, while much statistical data receives publication through non-official or semi-official channels. A complete annual statistical bibliography is not at present practicable.

(c) GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following list, by Mr. Johannes C. Andersen, F.R.S.N.Z. (Librarian of the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington), contains the names of some of the principal works dealing with New Zealand, Samoa, and the Cook Islands.

Considerations of space preclude the inclusion of a complete list and make it necessary in this issue to omit works which have not been published or republished since 1912. Earlier works are listed in the 1932 number of the Year-Book.

NEW ZEALAND.

1912. The Geology of New Zealand. By P. Marshall, D.Sc, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Wellington —Government Printer.

1913. New Zealand : its History, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. By S. Playne. London.

1913. Social Welfare in New Zealand. By H. H. Lusk. London.

1913. The Lore of the Whare Wananga. Third Volume of Memoirs of Polynesian Society. On Maori Religion, Myths, Cosmogony, &c. (Part 2, 1915.)

1914. The Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand. By J. Hight, Litt.D., and H. D. Bamford, LL.D. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1914. Oxford Survey of the British Empire. Vol. 5. Australasian Territories. London.

1914. Early Rangitikei. By Sir James G. Wilson, Kt. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1914. Mutton Birds and Other Birds. By H. Guthrie-Smith. Christchurch —Whiteombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1916. Jubilee History of South Canterbury. By Johannes C. Andersen. Christchurch — Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1916. The “Socialism” of New Zealand. By R. H. Hutchinson. New York —New Review Publishing Association.

1917. A National History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Adjacent Islands. By R. P. Thomson. London.

1917. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. By Herbert L. Williams. Wellington — Government Printer.

1921. Maori and Pakeba : a History of New Zealand. By A. W. Shrimpton, M.A., and A. E. Mulgan. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd. (second edition, 1930).

1921. Hawaiki: the Whence of the Maori. By S. Percy Smith. Christchurch — Whitcombe and Tombs. (Ed. 1, 1898; ed. 2, 1904; ed. 3, 1910.)

1921. The Hot Springs of New Zealand. By Arthur Stanley Herbert, M.D. London — H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd.

1921. Tutira : the Story of a New Zealand Sheep-station. By H. Guthrie-Smith. London —Blackwood and Sous.

1922. The Naturalization of Animals and Plants in New Zealand. By Hon. George M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst., M.L.C. Cambridge University Press.

1922. The Geomorphology of New Zealand. By C. A. Cotton, D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Wellington —Government Printer.

1922. Maori Myth and Religion. Spiritual and Mental Concepts of the Maori. Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori. Maori Di%ision of Time. By Elsdon Best, F.N.Z.Inst. Dominion Museum Monographs 1-4. Wellington —Government Printer.

1922. The New Zealand Wars : a History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol. 1, 1845-64. By James Cowan. Wellington —Government Printer. Vol. 2, 1864-72, issued 1923.

1922. Medical Practice in Otago and Southland in the Early Days. By Robert Valpy Fulton, M.D. Edin. Dunedin —Otago Daily Times.

1922. Phormium tenax. By E. H. Atkinson. Wellington —Government Printer.

1923. The Waikato War, together with some Account of Te Kooti Rikirangi. By John Featon (new edition revised by Captain Mair). Auckland —Brett Printing and Publishing Co.

1923. The Animals of New Zealand. Fourth edition. By Captain F. W. Hutton and James Drummond. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs. (Ed. 1, 1904; ed.2,1905; ed. 3, 1909.)

1923. Polynesian Voyagers. Maori Schools of Learning. (Dominion Museum Bulletins Nos. 5 and 6.) By Elsdon Best. Wellington —Government Printer.

1923. Cultivation of New Zealand Plants. By L. Cockayne. Auckland —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1924. Dominion Civics. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1924. The Maori. By Elsdon Best. Published by the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. 2 vols. Wellington —H. Tombs.

1924. Maori Religion and Mythology. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 10.) By Elsdon Best. Wellington —Government Printer.

1924. The Long White Cloud (Aotearoa). By W. P. Reeves. Third edition (to which is added a sketch of recent events in New Zealand by C. J. Wray). London — Allen and Unwin. (First edition in 1898.)

1924. White Wings (on early shipping). By H. Brett. (Vol. 2, 1928.) Auckland-Brett Co.

1925. The Maori as He Was. By Elsdon Best. Wellington —Government Printer.

1925. Bird Life on Island and Shore. By H. Guthrie - Smith. Edinburgh — Win. Blackwood and Sons.

1925. Bibliography of Australasian Poetry and Verse. By P. Sorle. Melbourne University Press.

1925. Fungous Diseases of Fruit-trees in New Zealand. By G. H. Cunningham. Auckland —New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation.

1925. The Maori Canoe. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 7.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington —Government Printer.

1925. Games and Pastimes of the Maori. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 8.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Maori Agriculture. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 9.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Land Legislation and Settlement in New. Zealand. By W. R. Jourdain. Wellington —Lands and Survey Department.

1925. Manual of New Zealand Flora. Second edition. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Edited by W. R. B. Oliver. Wellington —Government Printer. (First edition, 1906.)

1925. New Zealand Birds and how to Identify Them. By Mrs. P. Moncrieff. Auckland —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925. Short History of New Zealand. By J. B. Condliffe. Christchurch —L. M. Isitt.

1926. Geography of the Pacific. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington —New Zealand Book Depot.

1926. History of the Pacific. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington —New Zealand Book Depot.

1926. New Zealand: its Political Connection with Great Britain. Vol. 1. By J. I. Hetherington. Vol. 2, 1927. Dunedin —Coulls, Somerville, Wilkie, Ltd.

1926. Treasury of New Zealand Verse : New Edition of New Zealand Verse. By W. F. Alexander and A. E. Currie. Auckland —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. New Zealand's First War. By T. Lindsay Buick. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington —Government Printer.

1926. Bird-song and New Zealand Song-birds. By J. C. Andersen. Christchurch — Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. Travel in New Zealand. 2 vols. By James Cowan. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926. The Insects of Australia and New Zealand. By R. J. Tillyard. Sydney —Angus and Robertson.

1926. Tales of the Angler's Eldorado, New Zealand. By Zane Grey. London — Hodder and Stoughton.

1926. England and New Zealand. By A. J. Harrop. London —Methuen and Co., Ltd.

1927. The Pa Maori. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 6.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1927. Plants of New Zealand. By R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd. (First ed., 1906; second ed., 1907.)

1927. Colonization of New Zealand. By J. S. Marais. London —Oxford University Press.

1927. New Zealand. By W. P. Reeves. Illustrations by F. and W. Wright. Second edition, with thirty-two illustrations. London — A. and C. Black. (First edition, 1908.)

1927. Place Names of Banks Peninsula. By J. C. Andersen. Published by the Board of Science and Art. Wellington —Government Printer.

1927. Maori String Figures. By J. C. Andersen. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research, Vol. 2. Wellington —Ferguson and Osborn.

1927. The Evolution of Maori Clothing. By P. H. Buck. The Board of Maori Ethnological Research. New Plymouth —Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1927. Peoples and Problems of the Pacific. By J. Macmillan Brown. London — T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd., Bouverio House, Fleet Street, E.C.

1927. Earliest New Zealand. The Journals and Correspondence of the Rev. John Butler. Compiled by R. J. Barton. Masterton —Palamontain and Petherick.

1927. Rod-fishing in New Zealand Waters. By T. E. Donne, C.M.G. With illustrations and map. London —Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd.

1927. Natural History of Canterbury. Issued by the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury (R. Speight, Arnold Wall, and R. M. Laing, Honorary Editors). Christ-church —Simpson and Williams, Ltd.

1927. New Zealand Plants and their Story. Third edition. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S. Wellington —Government Printer. (First ed., 1910 ; seconded., 1913.)

1927. Trees from Other Lands for Shelter and Timber in New Zealand —Eucalypte. By J. H. Simmonds. Illustrated with seventy-six botanic plates and twenty-eight scenic plates. Auckland —The Brett Printing and Publishing Company.

1928. The Vegetation of New Zealand. Second edition. By Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Leipzig —W. Engelmann. (First ed., 1921.)

1928. Cheerful Yesterdays. By the Hon. 0. T. J. Alpers. With a Preface by the Earl of Birkenhead, P.C. London —John Murray.

1928. New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. By H. H. Allan, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Auckland —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1928. A Pioneer Missionary among the Maoris, 1850-1879. Being Letters and Journal? of Thomas Samuel Grace. Edited jointly by S. J. Brittan, G. F., C. W., and A. V. Grace. Palmerston North —G. H. Bennett and Co., Ltd.

1928. The Amazing Career of Edward.Gibbon Wakefield. By A. J. Harrop, M.A. (N.Z.), Ph.D. (Cambridge). With extracts from “A Letter from Sydney “(1829). London —George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.

1928. Maori Artistry. By W. Page Rowe. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 3. New Plymouth —Thomas Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1928. The Changing Maori. By Felix M. Keesiug, M.A. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 4. New Plymouth —Thomas Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1928. Captain Hobaon and the New Zealand Company: A Study in Colonial Administration. By J. C. Beaglehole, M.A. Vol. 13, N03. 1-3, October, 1927 - April, 1928, Smith College Studies in History, Northampton, Mass. —Department of History of Smith College.

1928. Myths and Legends of the Polynesians. By J. C. Andersen. London —Harrap and Co., Ltd.

1928. The Frenoh at Akaroa. By T. Lindsay Buiok, F.R.Hist.S. Wellington — Government Printer.

1928. Pioneering in Poverty Bay (N.Z.). By Philip T. Kenway. London —John Murray.

1928. The Butterflies and Moths of New Zealand. With fifty-two coloured plates. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Wellington —Ferguson and Osborn, Ltd.

1928. Pulping and Pa per-making Properties of Selected New Zealand Woods. By C. E. Curran and others. Wellington —Government Printer.

1929. Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori. By Raymond Firth, M.A. (New Zealand), Ph.D. (London). London —George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.

1929. Young New Zealand. By A. G. Butchors, M.A., M.Ed. (Melb.), LL.B. (N.Z.) — Part 2, Education in New Zealand, 1930.

1929. Early Wellington. Compiled by Louia E. Ward. Wellington —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1929. Te Hekenga. Early Days in Horowhenna. Being the Reminiscences of Mr. Rod McDonald. Compiled and written by E. O'Donnell. Palmerston North — G. H. Bennett and Co., Ltd.

1929. Edward Gibbon Wakefield. By Irma O'Connor. London —Selwyn and Blount.

1929. The New Zealand Nature Book. By W. Martin, B.Sc, F.R.G.S. Vol. 1, The Fauna; Vol. 2, The Flora. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1929. The Pioneer Explorers of New Zealand. By J. R. Elder, M.A., D.Litt. (Abdn.). London and Glasgow —Blackie and Son, Ltd.

1929. A Great Colonizer: the Rev. Dr. Thomas Burns. By E. N. Morrington. Dunedin —The Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Co., Ltd.

1929. Kohikohinga, Reminiscences and Reflections of “Ropata.“ By Vernon Roberts. Wellington- -Whitcombe and Tombs.

1930. New Zealand Birds. By W. R. B. Oliver, M.Sc, F.N.Z.Inst., C.F.A.O.U., R.A.C.U. Wellington —Fine Arts (N.Z.), Ltd.

1930. Pictures of Old New Zealand : the Partridge Collection of Maori Paintings by Gottfried Lindauer. Described by James Cowan. Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1930. New Zealand is the Making. By Professor J. B. Condliffo, D.Sc. London — Allen and Unwin.

1930. Yesterdays in Maoriland : New Zealand in the Eighties. By Andreas Reischok. Translated and edited by H. E. L. Priday. London —Jonathan Cape. (A German edition published in 1924.)

1930. Legends of the Maori. By Sir Maui Pomare, K.B.E., C.M.G., M.D., M.P., and James Cowan. Wellington —Fine Arts (N.Z.), Ltd. Vol. 2, London — H. H. Tombs, 1934.

1930. The Maori Yesterday and To-day. By James Cowan. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs.

1930. Old New Zealand. By F. Maning (Pakeha Maori). Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs. (Earlier editions : 1863, Auckland —Creighton and Scales; also London —Smith, Elder, and Co.; 1876, 1884, 1887, London —Bentley and Co.; 1900, London —Macmillan; 1906, 1912, 1922, Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs.)

1930. Early Days in Central Otago. By Robert Gilkison. Dunedin —Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Co., Ltd.

1930. Tales of the Maori Coast. By James Cowan. New Plymouth —Thos. Avery and Sons.

1931. The Mystery of the Moa. By T. Lindsay Buick. New Plymouth —Thos. Avery and Sons.

1931. Maori and Education. By Patriok M. Jackson. Wellington —Ferguson and Osborn. (A collection of essays by various New Zealand writers, including Elsdon Best, Bishop Williams, Professor Sutherland, and others).

1931. Industrial Situation in New Zealand. By Fortescuo W. Rowley, I.S.O. Wellington —H. H. Tombs.

1931. Songs from the Forests of Tane. By T. Chamberlin Chamberlin. Wellington-Fine Aits Co. (First ed., 1912.)

1931. Illustrated and Priced Catalogue of the Stamps of New Zealand. By Verne, Collins and Co. Christchurch —Simpson and Williams,

1931. Pictures of Old New Zealand. By James Cowan. Auckland —Whitcombe and Tombs.

1931. New Zealand Ferns. By H. B. Dobbie. Wellington —Third ed., Whitcombe and Tombs. (First ed., 1880; second ed. 1921.)

25—ybk

1931. Old Coaching Days in Otago and Southland. By E. M. Loveil-Smith. Christ-church —Lovell-Smith and Venner.

1931. Mining Laws of the British Empire, Vol. 10, New Zealand. London —Imperial Institute.

1931. The New Zealatidors in England. By 0. S. Hinz. London —Dent.

1932. Pasture Plants and Pastures of New Zealand. By F. W. Hilgendorf. Christchurch —Whitcombe and Tombs.

1932. Legends and Mysteries of the Maori. By Chas. A. Wilson. London —Harrap.

1932. Pioneering Days of Southern Maoriland. By M. A. Rugby Pratt. London — J. A. Sharp.

1932. Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden. By J. R. Elder, M.A., D. Litt. (Abdn.) Dunedin —Coulls, Somerville, and Co.

1932. Samuel Marsden. By S. M. Johnstone. Sydney —Angus and Robertson.

1932. Who's Who in New Zealand. By G. H. Scholofield. Ed. 3. (First ed., 190S; seoond ed., 1924.) Wellington —Rangatira Press.

1932. The Provincial System of Government in New Zealand. By W. P. Morrell. Loudon —Longmans.

1933. Cambridge History of the British Empire, Vol. 7, Part 2, New Zealand. Cambridge University Press.

1933. The Treaty of Waitaugi. By T. Lindsay Buick, C.M.G. Sooond ed. New Plymouth —Tho3. Avery and Sons. (First ed., 1914.)

1933. Report of the Hawke's Bay Earthquake. Published by the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Bulletin No. 43. Wellington — Government Printer.

1933 Pages from the Past. By C. A. MacDonald. Blenheim —H. Duckworth (E. N. Penny and Co.).

1933. Pioneer Medical Men of Taranaki, 1834-1880. By W. H. Skinner and H. B. Loatham. New Plymouth —Thos. Avery and Sons.

1933. The Now Zoal.ind Dairy Industry. By G. A. Duncan. Palmerston North -If. L. Young.

1933. New Zealand Holiday. By Rosemary Rees. London —Chapman and Hall.

1934. New Zealand from Tasman to Massey. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington —H. H Tombs.

1934. Samuel lUarsden and his Lieutenants. By J. R. Elder. Dunedin —A. H. Reed.

1934. Beetles of New Zoaland. By G. V. Hudson. Wellington —Ferguson and Osborn.

1934. Skyways of Maoriland. By Hugh Gardiner. Wellington —McKenzie, Thornton, and Cooper.

1934. Adventuring in Maoriland in the Seventies. By G. L. Meredith. Sydney — Angus and Robertson.

1934. Journalese. By Robin Hyde, Auckland —National Printing Co.

1934. Children of the Poor. Anonymous (J. A. Lee, M.P.). London —T. Werner Laurie.

1934. The Life of William Hobson. By G. H. Scholeficld. Oxford University Press.

1934. Adventures in Geyserland, with a preface by James Cowan. By Alfred Warbrick. Dunedin —A. H. Reed.

1934. Maori Music with its Polynesian Background. By Johannes C. Andersen. New Plymouth —Avery.

1934. The Elfin Dell. By Johannes C. Andersen, Wellington —A. H. Reed.

1934. Place Names in New Zealand. By Johannes C. Andersen. New Plymouth — Avery.

1934. Talcs of the Maori Bush. By James Cowan. Wellington—A. H. Reed.

1934. Tales of the New Zealand Coast. By James Cowan. New Plymouth—Avery.

1934. Waitangi Ninety Years after. By T. Lindsay Buick. New Plymouth—Avery.

1934. Early History of Wellington College. By F. M. Leckie. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1934. The Litany of Beauty. By C. Stuart Perry. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn.

1935. Early Maoriland Adventures of J. W. Stack. Edited by A. H. Reed. Dunedin— A. H. and A. W. Reed.

1935. Exploration of the Pacific. By J. C. Beaglehole. A. and C. Black. Oxford University Press.

1935. The Genus Coprosma. By W. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc. Honolulu—Bernice P. Bishop Museum.

1935. The silent Division. By O. E. Burton. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1935. The Little Country. By John Guthrie. London—Nelson and Sons.

1935. Touring in New Zealand. By A. J. Harrop. London—Allen and Unwin.

1935. New Zealand. By W. P. Morrcll. London—Benn.

1935. The Maori Situation. By I. L. G. Sutherland. Wellington—Harry H. Tombs.

1935. Vigil. By Jessie Mackay. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1935. The Confessions of a Journalist. By Pat Lawlor. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1935. Ideals of Nationhood. A selection of addresses delivered in New Zealand by the Right Hon. Lord Bledisloe. Arranged by T. Lindsay Buick. New Plymouth— Avery.

SAMOA.

1918. History of Samoa. By R. M. Watson. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1918. Grammar and Vooabulary of the Saraoan Language. By H. Neffgon. Londoa— Kegan, Paul, Trenoh, Trnbner, and Co.

1925. Handbook of Western Samoa. New Zealand External Affairs Department. Wellington—Government Printer.

1926. A Now Samoan Grammar. By Spencer Churchward, M.A. Melbourne— Spectator Publishing Company Proprietary, Ltd.

1930. Samoa under the Sailing Gods. By N. A. Ro^e. London—Putnam,

1931. Material Culture of Samoa. By Te Rangi HiToa (Dr. P. H. Buck). Honolulu— Bishop Museum.

COOK ISLANDS.

1916. Rarotongan Records. By Rev. W. W. Gill. (From the Journal of the Polynesian Society). New Plymouth.

1927. Material Culture of the Cook Islands. By Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr. P. H. Buck).

Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 2. New Plymouth—Avery and Sons.

ROSS DEPENDENCY.

No book has been written dealing exclusively with Ihe Ross Dependency, but a list of books dealing with this region incidentally may be found in the 1929 number of the Year-Book. A recent book containing a good deal of information regarding the area is “Antarctica — a Treatise on the Southern Continent,“ by J. Gordon Hayes: London—The Richards Press, 1928.

(d) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK.

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time In the Year-Book of
Year.Pane.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.)1912809
“Britomart,” Mission of, at Akaroa in August, 184019271012
Building-stones1892194
Cancer in New Zealand-a statistical study1926889
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot Estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Education system of New Zealand, the1925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1925835
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Forest-trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Gold-dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship “Amokura”1913942
Hanmer Thormal Springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. “New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Lakes of New Zealand193211
Land and income tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between189(5281
Live-stock production-A review based on standard values and units1929990
Local Government in New Zealand1925845
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &o.1907707
Maori, ancient, his clothing1908734
Maori, chant (tangi)1907711
Maori, colour-sense of the1905637
Maori, marriage customs1906638
Maori, mythology1900636
Maori, neolithic, the1902578
place-names1919936
Maori, religion1901530
sociology1903641
Maori, songs1908739
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland Railway, the1894386
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mortality rates, New Zealand1927995
Mount Cook, a night ou1900525
Mount Cook, district, the1899554
Mount Cook, its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898652
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand Contingents for South Africa..1900449
Mount Cook, International Exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress1894377
Rivera of New Zealand19326
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies-  
New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney Pageant, the1901527
Tvirman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1925823
Thevnial-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokastnu to Raetihi1899539
Topographical nomenclature of the Maori1919936
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zoaland1919860
Waihi Gold-mining Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington-Manawatu Railway, the1895381
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
White Island, a day on1906637

INDEX.

A.

Abattoirs, 312, 359–362.
Aborigines (see Maoris).
Accident Funds, 254, 261, 399.
Accident Insurance, 545–548.
State, 548.
Accidents—
Automobile, 112, 181, 278.
Deaths from, 112, 115, 124, 165, 278.
Industrial, 662–670.
Mining, 393, 399.
Railway, 112, 254, 662–670.
Time lost through, 667.
Tramway, 112, 278.
Treated in Hospitals, 124.
Acclimatization of Animal Life, 37.
Acclimatization of Fishes, 383, 384.
Accommodation Licenses, 692.
Accounts, Public, 431.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 337–347. 716.
Acreage of Holdings, 293.
Acts passed in 1934–35, 694.
Actuarial Valuation—
National Provident Fund, 490.
Superannuation Funds, 486–488.
Ad valorem Duties, 751.
Added Value in Manufacturing, 408.
Adjacent Islands, Population of, 67.
Administration, 39–44.
Adopted Children, 80.
Adult Population, 50.
Adult Suffrage, 43.
Adult Wage-rates, 627.
Adulteration of Food, 129.
Advances—
Bank, 518, 726.
Building Societies, 563.
By State (see State Advances and State Aid).
Aerated-water Factories, 420.'
Aero Clubs, 281.
Aerodromes, 186, 279, 281.
Afforestation, 374–378.
Bondholders, 681, 696.
After-lifetime, Average, 96.
Age, Mean—
At Death, 96.
At Marriage, 87.
Agents Overseas, 739.
Ages—
Of Cancer Decedents, 110.
Of Hospital Patients, 121.
Of Industries, 413.
Ages—continued.
Of Infants dying, 101–103.
Of Inmates of Charitable Institutions, 141.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 144.
Of Issue left, 98.
Of Maoris dying, 114.
Of Maoris in Prison, 174.
Of Migrants, 54.
Of Offenders probationed, 177.
Of Parents, 76–81.
Of Persons dying, 94, 114.
Of Persons married, 87.
Of Population, 50.
Of Prisoners, 174.
Of Public-school Pupils, 151.
Of Tubercular Decedents, 107.
Aggregate Private Income, 602.
Aggregate Wealth, 590.
Aggregation of Land, 299, 303.
Tax against, 446.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 310–364, 716.
Value of, 687.
Agricultural Bursaries, 161.
Agricultural Colleges, 149, 160, 313.
Agricultural Machinery, 314, 423.
Agricultural Policy, Recent Developments in, 321–336.
Agricultural Produce—
Consumed Locally, 320, 321, 689.
Exported, 199, 202, 689.
Price Index Numbers, 616.
Agriculture, 310–347, 716.
Department of, 312.
(Emergency Powers) Act, 332, 695.
Research in, 313.
Aides-de-Camp, 731.
Air Force, 186.
Air Transport and Aviation, 279–283, 695.
Aircraft Licensing and Control, 281–283, 695.
Aitutaki Island, 1, 700.
Alcoholic Liquors—
Consumption of, 181, 690.
Duty on, 745, 748.
Sale of, 692.
Ale brewed, 419.
Alienation of Land, 293, 299, 302, 306.
Aliens—
Migrants, 55, 58.
Naturalization, 58.
Race Aliens, 55.
Status of Wives of, 696.
All-groups Retail Prices Index, 612.
Allowances, Family, 470, 483.
Allowances, Sustenance, 442, 636, 652.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 389.
Alps, 3.
Amortization of Debt, 441, 460, 463, 499, 501, 505.
Amusements-tax, 452.
Anglers' Licenses, 386.
Angling, 386.
Angora Goats, 348.
Animal Life, 34–37.
Animals, Domestic, 348–364, 717.
Annexed Islands, 1, 699–704.
Annual Value Rating-system, 495.
Annuities, 484, 489.
Ante-natal Clinics, 40.
Anthracite, 393.
Anti-dumping Duty, 748.
Antipodes Islands, 1, 699.
Apia, 708.
Apiaries, Registration of, 364.
Apiculture, 364.
Apolima Island, 705.
Appeal Court (see Conrt3).
Apples, 345.
Exported, 200–217.
Apprentices Act, 636.
Appropriations, Expenditure under, 436.
Arapuni Power Scheme, 671.
Arbitration Act, 633, 635, 655.
Unions registered under, 637–640.
Arbitration Court, 622. 636.
Award Wage-rales, 622, 626.
Area—
Of Indigenous Forests, 295. 365.
Of Lakes, 8.
Of Land Holdings, 293, 591.
Of New Zealand, 1, 292.
Of Provincial Districts, 61.
Under Crops, 295, 337, 716.
Under Cultivation, 295, 337–347.
Army, 183–188.
Arrivals, 52–58, 712.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 772.
Artillery, Permanent, 184.
Art-unions, 451, 693.
Asiatics, 55.
Assembly, General, 39.
Asses and Mules, 348.
Assessable Income, 593–602.
Assessment Court, 508.
Assessment of Land and Income Tax, 446, 579, 591.
Assets—
Of Afforestation Companies, 376.
Of Bankrupts, 581, 584, 730.
Of Banks, 517, 524, 726.
Of Building Societies, 565.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 676.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 550.
Of Friendly Societies, 560.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 543.
Of Local Bodies, 500, 587.
Of Manufacturing Industries, 411.
State, 586.
Assigned Estates, 580–585.
Assisted Immigration, 56.
Associations, Industrial, 640.
Assurance, Life, 537–544.
Asylums, 143–146.
Benevolent and Orphan, 140.
Atafu Island, 2, 711.
Atiu Island, 1, 700.
Atlantic Salmon, 386.
Auckland Islands, 1, 699.
Audit of Expenditure, 431.
Auriferous Mining, 389.
Australia—
New Zealand Tourist and Trade Commissioner in, 739.
Railway Revenue of, 250.
Reciprocal Trade with New Zealand, 751, 754.
Trade Commissioner in New Zealand, 740.
Automatic Telephones, 287.
Automobiles (see Motor-vehicles).
Autonomy, local (see Local Bodies).
Aviation and Air Transport, 279–283.
New Zealand Air Force, 186.
Avifauna, 35.
Award Rates of Wages, 622–629, 635.

B.

“Bachelor-tax,” 448.
Backward Children, 159, 163.
Bacon produced, 418, 690.
Balance of Ovorscas Payments, 195.
Balance of Trade, 192.
Balances of Accounts, 432.
Balance-sheet, State, 586.
Banking and Currency, 514–536, 726.
Bank-notes, 525, 531.
In Circulation, 516, 525, 726.
Tax on, 451.
Bankruptcy, 580–585, 730.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 457, 535, 694.
Banks, Overseas Funds of, 525.
Banks, Savings—
Post Office, 526, 727.
Trustee, 527.
Barley, 338, 339, 342.
Barren Land, 293, 295.
Baths, Medicinal, 3.
Beans, 338.
Beds, Hospital, 138.
Beef consumed and exported, 360, 690.
Beer, Consumption of, 181, 690.
Beer Duty, 745, 748.
Beer produced, 419, 690.
Bees, 364.
Belgium, Trade Arrangement with, 756.
Benefit Societies, 559.
Benevolent Asylums, 140.
Bibliography—
General, 765.
New Zealand Flora, 34.
Statistical, 763.
Big-game Fishing, 383.
Bills, Treasury, 457, 520, 532, 536.
Birds, Native, 35.
Birthday Honours, 734.
Birthplaces of Persons naturalized, 59.
Births, 70–82, 713.
In Cook Islands, 701.
Biscuit-factories, 419.
Bitumen-surfaced Roads, 263.
Blind, Pensions for the, 483.
Blind, School for the, 160, 163.
Board of School-children, 152.
Boat-building-works, 424.
Boats, Fishing, 381.
Boer War Pensions, 476, 482.
Boilers, Inspection of, 685.
Bond-issuing Companies, 694.
Bookstalls, Railway, 249.
Boot and Shoe Factories, 421.
Boroughs, 44, 491–503.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 512.
Debt, 503, 725.
Mileage of Streets, 263.
Population of, 61, 65.
Borrowers from Building Societies, 564.
Borrowing-powers of Local Bodies, 493.
Borstal Institutions, 175.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1.
Bounty Islands, 1, 699.
Brass-foundries, 423.
Bread Consumption, 691.
Bread, Law re Sale of, 129.
Breeding-ewes, 349.
Breeds of Cattle, 354.
Breeds of Sheep, 350.
Breweries, 419.
Brickworks, 422.
Brides and Grooms, 83–90.
Bridges, 263.
Bridle-tracks, 263.
Brigades, Fire, 558.
British Nationality, 58.
British Preference, 742, 751–755.
British Sovereignty, 2, 39.
British I-nde Representatives, 740.
Broaden voing, 289, 697.
Time Signals, 24.
Weather Forecast, 15.
Budgets Household, 604, 612.
Building and Construction, 425–430.
Building Costs, 427.
Building Permits, 425, 428.
Building Societies, 562–565.
Building Subsidy, 651.
Buildings, 427–430.
Building-stones, 396.
Bullion, Exports of, 198–217, 389, 720.
Bullion Production, 389.
Bulls, 353.
Bursaries, 157, 161.
Bush, 295, 365 (see also Flora).
Business Failures, 580–585, 730.
Business Premises erected, 427–430.
Butter (see Dairy-produce).
Butterfat Yields, 356.
Butterflies, 37.
By-elections, 692.

C.

Cabinet, 41.
Members of, 732, 733.
Cabinetmaking, 424.
Cable Tramways, 262.
Cables, Ocean, 290.
Cadets, Senior, 183, 186.
Calf-skins exported, 210.
Call, Deposits at, 519, 526, 527, 565.
Campbell Island. 1,699.
Camps, Unemployment Rebel, 649.
Canada, Reciprocity with, 755.
Canadian Trade Commissioner, 740.
Cancer, 105–110, 115, 123.
Candle-factories, 420.
Capital—
Expenditure of Government, 438.
Invested in Electric - power Under-takings, 676.
Invested in Factories, 412.
Invested in Railways, 246, 729.
Invested in Tramways, 257, 260.
Of Banks, 515, 523.
Of Joint-stock Companies, 681, 682.
Capital Punishment, 165, 171.
Capital Value of Land, 508–513.
Rating on, 494.
Cargo handled at Ports, 232–236.
Car-miles run by Trams, 257.
Carrots, 342.
Carry-over of Wheat, 340.
Carry-over of Wool, 351.
Cassiterite, 392.
Casualties in the War, 187.
Casualties, Shipping, 244.
Cattle, 348, 353, 717.
Cement-concrete Roads, 263.
Cement-works, 422.
Cemeteries, 131.
Census, 45.
Income Statistics, 603.
Unemplovment Statistics, 641.
Central Reserve Bank, 522, 532.
Cereals, 338–342.
Certificated Teachers, 148, 153.
Certificates, Engine-drivers', 680.
Certificates, Land Titles, 297.
Certificates, Marine Officers', 242.
Chaff, 337–344.
Chaffcutters, 314.
Charges before Magistrates, 167.
Charitable Aid, 136.
Charitable Institutions, 133, 140.
Chatham Islands. 1, 698.
Flora, 27.
Cheese (see Dairy-produce).
Chemists, Registration of, 130.
Cheque-paying Banks, 514, 527.
Chewings Fescue, 343.
Chief Justice, 734.
Child Welfare, 158, 163, 177.
Childbirth, Deaths in, 110, 139.
Children adopted, 80.
Children born, Sexes of, 73.
Children left by Fathers dying, 98.
Children, Numbers of, 50.
Children, Offences by, 158, 177.
Children under One, Deaths of, 99, 116, 713.
Children's Courts, 158, 177.
Children's Homes, 140, 159, 178.
Chilled Beef Exports, 331, 333, 300.
Chinese, 55.
In Samoa, 706.
Chronological List of Events, 757.
Cinematograph Film-hire Tax, 453.
Cinnabar, 392.
Cities, Population of, 63, 65.
Citrus Fruits Industry, 334.
Civic Planning, 492.
Civil Aviation, 279, 283.
Civil Law Cases, 164.
Civil Marriages, 83, 89.
Civil Service (see Public Service).
Claims, Insurance, 537–558.
Clearings, Bank, 522.
Clergy of each Denomination, 89.
Marriages by, 89.
Climate, 15–23.
Clinics, Antenatal, 140.
Clinics, School Dental, 132.
Clothing-factories, 420.
Clothing-prices, 611.
Clover-seed (see Grass-seed).
Club Charters, 692.
Clubs, Aero, 281.
Clubs, Working-men's, 559.
Coachbuilding-works, 423.
Coal exported, 200–214, 235, 389.
Coal used in Factories, 407.
Coalition Ministry, 733.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 399.
Coal-mining, 393.
Coal-resources, 393.
Coastal Shipping, 240.
Coastal Trade, Tonnage, 233–236.
Coastal Vessels registered, 238.
Cocksfoot, 343.
Coin held by Banks, 517, 523, 726.
Coin imported and exported, 196, 529, 718.
Coinage, 528.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 287.
Cold-storage Advances, 475.
Coleridge, Lake, Water-power, 671.
Colleges, University, 149, 160, 162.
Collieries, 393.
Colonization, 39.
Combined Schools, 149, 155.
Commerce, Overseas, 190–236, 718, 742–756.
Commercial Afforestation, 376.
Commercial Aircraft, Licensing and Control, 281–283, 695.
Commercial Failures, 580–585, 730.
Commissions, Mortgagors' Liabilities Adjustment, 568.
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act, 681, 696..
Companies, Bond-issuing, 694.
Companies, Co-operative Dairy, 336, 355.
Companies, Joint-stock, 681.
In Manufacturing Industries, 412, 413.
Companies Protection, Trustee, 697.
Companies. Share Price Indexes, 619.
Companies (Special Investigations) Act, 681, 694.
Companies (Special Liquidations) Act, 681,694.
Companies, Taxation of, 448, 451, 594, 598, 601.
Compensation, Workers', 545, 546, 634, 635, 663.
Conciliation Councils, 635.
Concrete-surfaced Roads, 263.
Condensed-milk Factories, 418.
Conditional Licenses, 692.
Confectionery-factories, 419.
Conference at Ottawa, 329, 742.
Confinement—
Deaths in, 110.
Maternity Hospital Cases, 139.
Conjugal Condition of Persons marrying, 85.
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 91.
Consent to Marriage, 83.
Conservation of Forests, 365.
Consolidated Fund, 434, 723..
Constabulary, 165.
Constitution, 39.
Of Cook Islands, 701.
Of Western Samoa, 705.
Construction and Building, 425–430.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 246, 729.
Construction of Roads, 263–271.
Consuls, Foreign, 740.
Consumption of—
Alcoholic Liquors, 181, 690.
Bread, 691.
Coal, 388, 393, 407.
Electricity, 256, 422, 674.
Farm Produce, 319–321.
Foodstuffs, 690.
Meat, 359–362, 690.
Milk, 690.
Produce, 689.
Timber, 372.
Wheat and Flour, 340, 690.
Wool, 351, 424.
Contagious Diseases, 117, 125.
Conversion of Debt, 460, 506.
Conveyance of Children to School, 152.
Conveyancing, 296.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 170, 715.
Convictions, Summary, 168, 715.
For Drunkenness, 179.
For Traffic Offences, 181.
Of Juveniles, 177.
Of Maoris. 179.
Of Women, 178.
Cook and other Pacific Islands, 1, 700–704.
Bibliography, 771.
Exports to, 218.
Imports from, 230.
Population, 45, 701, 703.
Radio-stations, 288, 702, 704.
Trade, 702.
Cook's Visits to New Zealand, 38.
Co-operative Dairy Companies, 336, 355.
Co-operative Public Works, 633.
Copper, 392.
Cordial-factories, 420
Corn Crops, Acreage and Yield of, 338, 339, 342.
Coroners' Inquests, 165.
Correspondence Classes, 151.
Corriedale Sheep, 348–352.
Cost of Living, 604–612.
Cost of Railway-construction, 246, 729.
Council, Executive, 44.
Members of, 732.
Council, Legislative, 39, 41.
Members of, 735.
Counties, 44, 491–503.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 511.
Debt, 503, 725.
Mileage of Roads, 263.
Population of, 61, 63.
Country Lands, Mortgages on, 574, 577, 591.
Country Quota, 42.
Courts—
Appeal, 172.
Arbitration, 622, 636.
Assessment, 508.
Bankruptcy, 580.
Children's, 158, 177.
Divorce, 91.
Judges of, 734.
Magistrates', 164, 167, 568, 571, 715.
Native Appellate, 307.
Native Land, 307.
Supreme, 91, 164, 170, 571, 715.
Cow-testing, 312, 353.
Crayfish, 382.
Creameries, 355.
Cream-separators on Farms, 314.
Credit, Rural Intermediate, 472.
Creditors' Petitions, 581.
Credits-in-aid, 432–434.
Crematoria, 131.
Crime, Law and, 164–182, 715.
Criminals, Habitual, 175.
Crops, 295, 337–347, 716.
Crown Lands, 293, 299–305.
Crown Tenants, 302.
Advances to, 301–305.
Cultivation, Area in, 295, 337–347.
Currency and Banking, 514–536.
Curriculum, School, 147, 151, 152.
Curtis Islands, 699.
Customary Land, 306.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 742–756.
Customs Taxation, 444, 746.
Cycle-works, 423.

D.

Dairy Farms, 294.
Dairy Industry, 332, 355, 418, 696.
Dairying Machinery, 314, 423.
Dairy-produce, 355–359.
Export Control, 357, 696.
Export of, 200–217, 235, 357, 690, 696, 720.
Export Price Indexes, 616.
Grading of, 312,355.
Local Consumption of, 690.
Production of, 356, 418, 690.
Retail Price Indexes, 607.
Danger Island (Pukapuka), 1.
Dates of Principal Events, 757.
Daylight Saving, 24.
Dead-births, 80.
Deaf, School for the, 159, 160, 163.
Dealing in Coin, Restriction on, 530.
Death Duties, 449.
Estates certified for. 589.
Deaths, 71, 93–116, 713.
Accidental (sec Accidents).
Due to Earthquakes, 14.
From Puerperal Causes, 110, 139.
From Violence, 112, 165.
In Hospitals, 120–124, 139.
In Mental Hospitals, 145.
Of Friendly Society Members, 560.
Of Infants, 99, 116,713.
Debentures, General and Local Government, 456, 501, 722.
Debenture-tax, 448.
Debits, Bank, 522.
Debt, Conversion of, 460, 505.
Debt of Local Bodies, 137, 493, 501–506, 725.
Debt, Public, 456–467, 722.
Debtors’ Petitions, 581.
Deceased, Estates of, 589.
Decrees in Divorce, 91.
Deeds Registration, 296.
Defectives, Mental, 143–146.
Defence, 183–189.
Pensions, 483.
Deferred-payment Lands, 300, 301, 302.
Deficits, 435.
Degrees, University, 127, 160, 162.
Demography, 45–69.
Denominational Schools, 149, 154.
Density of Population, 67.
Dental Treatment of School-children, 132.
Dentists, Registration of, 127.
Departments, Government, 737.
Reports of, 763.
Departures, 52–57, 712.
Dependencies, 1, 698–711.
Dependent Children, Care of. 158, 163, 177.
Deposits, 518, 526, 527, 726, 727.
By Insurance Companies, 537, 549.
Interest-rates, Fixed Deposits, 528, 562.
With Building Societies, 520, 563, 565.
With Trading Companies, 520.
Depreciation Allowance, 448.
Depreciation of New Zealand Currency, 533.
Designs, Registration of, 684.
Destination—
Of Emigrants, 54.
Of Exports, 204–212.
Of Shipping, 239.
Detention, Reformative, 159, 175.
Development of Land, 301.
Diagrams (see Graphs).
Diamond Drills, 398.
Diphtheria, 106, 115, 117, 122, 126.
Diplomas, 127, 160, 162.
Disabilities from Industrial Accidents, 664, 665.
Discharged Mortgages, 572, 575.
Discharged Soldiers (see Soldiers).
Discount Rates, 527.
Discovery of New Zealand, 38.
Diseases, Notification of, 117, 125.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 106, 115.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 121.
Disputes, Industrial, 654–661.
Dissolution of Marriage, 90.
Dissolution of Parliament, Dates of, 734.
District High Schools, 149, 155, 714.
District Nurses, 140.
Diversification of Farm Production, 333.
Dividend (Totalizator) Duty, 452.
Dividends, Bank, 515.
Dividends, Bankrupts’, 581, 582, 584, 730.
Divorce, 90.
Divorced Persons re-marrying, 85.
Domains, Public, 295.
Domestic-science Bursaries, 161.
Domicile of Debt, 461, 503.
Dominion of New Zealand, 1, 40.
Drainage Districts, 491–500.
Dredging, Gold, 389.
Drilling for Oil, 395.
Drills, Prospecting, 398.
Drivers’ Licenses, 271.
Drought, 21.
Drowning Accidents, 112.
Drugs, Sale of, 129, 130.
Drunkenness, 180.
Ducks, 363.
Dumping Duty, 748.
Dutiable Imports, 744, 749.
Duties—
Customs and Excise, 444, 742–756.
Death, 449.
Export, 443, 708, 746.
On Interest Receipts, 454.
On Lottery Tickets, 451, 693.
On Overseas Passenger-tickets, 451.
Stamp, 451, 454.
Dwellings—
Advances for, 468–475, 563.
Erected. 427–430.
Rents, 569, 608, 634.
Soldiers’, 305.
Workers’, 474, 475, 633.

E.

Early History, 38.
Earned Income, 597.
Reduced Tax on, 446, 597.
Earthquakes, 11—14.
Compensation to Injured Workers, 662.
Rehabilitation Advances, 474.
Economic Pensions, 481.
Education, 147–163, 714.
Education Endowments, 300.
Education Gazette, 152.
Educational Association, Workers’, 162.
Effective Wage-rates, 624.
Eggs. 364.
Elections, General, 691, 695.
Electoral Districts, 42.
Electoral Qualifications, 43.
Electors, Compulsory Registration of, 43.
Electric—
Current, 422, 671–679.
Power Boards, 491–503, 672, 725.
Power in Factories, 405.
Power on Farms, 314.
Railways, 245.
Telegraph, 286.
Tramways, 256–262.
Emergency Unemployment Charge, 442, 453.
Emigration, 52–56, 712.
Employees—
Afforestation Companies, 377.
Building and Construction, 426.
Electric-supply, 675.
Factory, 401, 416.
Fishing Industry, 381.
Local Body, 654.
Mining, 389, 393, 397.
Postal, 291.
Public Service, 738.
Public Works, 653.
Railway, 253.
Tramway, 257, 262.
Unions of 633, 637–640.
Wage-rates of, 622–629.
Employers’ Liability, 632, 635, 663.
Insurance, 546.
Employers’ Unions, 637–640.
Employment and Unemployment, 641–654.
Employment Bureaux, 641.
Employment, Seasonal Fluctuations in, 653.
Enactments affecting Labour, 632–636.
Enactments of 1934–35, 694.
Endowments, Education, 300.
Endowments, National, 300, 365.
Engine-drivers’ Certificates, 686.
Engineering-works, 423.
Engines—
Employed in Factories, 405.
Employed on Farms, 314.
Inspection of, 685.
Railway, 247.
Ensilage, 310, 337, 342, 344.
Entertainments-tax, 452.
EntrepÔt Trade, 200, 214.
Entry, Ports of, 232.
Epicentres of Earthquakes, 12.
Epidemic Pensions, 483.
Estate Duty, 449.
Estates—
Acquired for Settlement, 303.
Administered by Public Trust Office, 680.
Assigned, 580–585.
Passed for Probate, 589.
Ewes, 349.
Examinations—
Education Department, 158, 162.
Engine-drivers, 686.
Marine Officers, 242.
Medical Practitioners, 127.
Mining, 398.
University, 127, 162.
Excess-profits Tax, 447.
Exchange, Currency, 326, 533.
Australia-London, 535.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 535, 694.
Effect on Trade Statistics, 190–192.
Exchange Pool, 535.
Expenditure on, 436, 536.
Exchanges, Telephone, 286.
Excise Duties, 745.
Taxation by Means of, 444, 748.
Executions, 165, 171.
Executive Council, 39, 41.
Members of, 732.
Exemptions from Taxation—
Income-tax, 446, 447, 448, 598.
Land-tax, 447, 579, 591.
Unemployment-tax, 453.
Ex-nuptial Births, 78.
Exotic Trees, Planting of, 365, 375.
Expectation of Life, 96.
Expeditionary Forces, 187.
Expenditure, Local Body, 134, 499, 724.
Expenditure, Public, 431–442, 723.
Explorers, 38.
Export Control—
Dairy-produce, 357.
Export Licenses, 361, 535.
Fruit, 335, 345.
Honey, 364.
Kauri-gum, 395.
Meat, 361.
Export Duties, 443, 708, 746.
Export Licenses, 535.
Export Prices, 215, 615.
Export Surplus, 191–197, 689.
Exports, 198–218, 718.
Minerals, 198–217, 389, 720.
Of Ports, 232–236.
Timber, 200–217, 373, 721.
Value in British Currency, 190–196.
Values, Gold Basis, Index Numbers, 192.
Volume, Index Numbers, 192, 215.
External Migration, 47, 52–58.
External Trade, 190–236, 718, 742–756.
Extra-marital Conceptions, 78.

F.

Factories, 400–424.
Accidents in, 662–670.
Act, 633.
Dairy, 332, 355, 418.
Employees, 401, 416.
Fakaofu Island, 2, 711.
Fallow Land, 295.
Family Allowances, 476, 483.
Family Budgets, 604, 612.
Farm Costs, Reduction of, 326.
Farm Economy, Some Aspects of, 314–321.
Farm Employees, Wages of, 623, 627.
Farm Expenditure Indexes, 319, 618.
Farm Holdings, 293, 579, 591.
Farm Implements, 314.
Manufacture of, 423.
Farm Liabilities, Adjustment of, 327.
Farm Produce, Marketing of, 328–332.
Farm Producers’ Prices Indexes, 317, 319.
Farmers—
Advice for, 312.
Financial Assistance to, 301, 304, 472.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 557.
Taxation of, 443, 446, 591.
Tree-planting by, 378.
Farming, 310–364.
Farming Income, Gross, 314–317.
Farming Industry, Subsidies to, 324.
Farming Lands, Mortgages on, 579, 591.
Fauna,34–37.
Feeble-minded, Schools for, 159.
Fellmongering-works, 423.
Female Suffrage, 43.
Fern Lands, 295.
Fertilizer used, 347.
Fibre, Phormium (see Phormium).
Fidelity-guarantee Insurance, 545.
Film-hire Tax, 453.
Finance, Public, 431–475, 722.
Finances of Local Bodies, 496–506.
Hospital Boards, 134.
Fire Brigades, 558.
Fire Districts, 368, 491–500.
Fire Inquests, 165.
Fire Insurance, 549–558.
State, 557.
Fire Losses, 553.
Fireblight, 346.
Fire-protection in Forests, 368.
Fires on Vessels, 244.
First Offenders’ Probation, 176.
Fish, 37, 379.
Exported, 202, 213, 381.
Fisheries, 379–387.
Fish-hatcheries, 383.
Fishing, Big-game, 383.
Fishing Industry Advances, 475.
Fishing-boats, 381.
Fixed Deposits, 519, 565.
Flax (see Phormium).
Floating Debt, 457.
Flocks—
Fowls, 363.
Sheep, 348.
Flora, 26–34.
Flotation of Loans, 456.
Flour—
Consumption of, 340, 690.
Customs Dutv on, 744.
Flour-mills, 419.
Flying, 186, 279.
Fodder Crops, 337, 341.
Fog, 20.
Signals, 243.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 129.
Food, Retail Prices of, 605–608, 612.
Foodstuffs, Consumption of, 690, 691.
Forecasts of Weather, 15.
Foreign Consuls, 740.
Foreign Immigrants, 55.
Foreign Vessels entered and cleared, 238.
Foreigners naturalized, 58.
Forest Trees, 369–372. (See also Flora.)
Forestation Companies, 376.
Forest-produce exported, 199–217, 373.
Forestry, 305–378.
Bondholders Incorporation, 696.
Value of Production, 687.
Forwarding Trade, 200, 214.
Foster-homes for Children, 158.
Foundries, 423.
Foveaux Strait Oysters, 381.
Fowls, 363.
Fowl-wheat, 340.
Fractions, Totalizator, 452.
Franchise, 43.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 743, 749.
Free Deposits, 519, 526, 527, 565.
Free Education, 147, 155, 156, 161.
Freehold, Crown Land made, 302.
Freehold Land, 294, 302.
Freezing-works, 417.
Freight—
Carried by Motor-transport, 277.
Carried by Shipping, 233–236.
Carried by Trains, 251–253, 729.
Train-mileage, 253.
Freshwater Fisheries, 383.
Friendly Societies, 559–561.
Frosts, 20.
Frozen Meat exported, 200–217, 359, 719.
Handled at Ports, 235.
Fruit Export Control, 335, 345.
Fruit Industry, The, 294, 345.
Fruit-preserving—
Advances, 475.
Factories, 419.
Fuel and Light, Retail Prices of, 611.
Funded Debt, 465.
Funds of Public Account, 431.
Funeral Funds, 560.
Furniture-making Works, 424.

G.

Gales, 21.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 172–175, 715.
Gardens, Acreage in, 344.
Gas-lighting District, 491–500.
Gasworks, 421.
Gauge, Railway, 246.
Geese, 363.
General Assembly, 39.
General Elections, 691, 695.
Generating Stations, 675.
Geological Survey, 8, 397.
Geology, 8.
Geysers, 3.
Gift Duty, 449, 450.
Glaciers, 3.
Goats, 348, 717.
Gold Coin, Export of, 196, 530, 718.
Gold exported, 200–217, 389, 720.
Duty on. 443, 746.
Gold Production, World’s, 391.
Goldfields, Subsidized Roads on, 398.
Gold-mining, 389, 397.
Gonorrhoea, 126.
Goods carried on Railways. 251, 729.
Goods-service Licenses, 277.
Government Agents abroad, 739.
Government Departments, 737.
Reports of, 763.
Government Insurance, 543, 548, 557.
Government Railways, 245–255, 729.
Superannuation Fund, 488.
Government Roads, 265.
Government, System of, 39.
Government Valuations, 507–513.
Governor-General, 731.
Powers, Duties, &c, 41.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 312, 355.
Of Fruit, 345.
Of Honey, 364.
Of Phormium-fibre, 312.
Of School-teachers, 148.
Graduated Land-tax 446.
Grain Crops, 338, 716.
Grain-mills, 419.
Granite, 396.
Grapes, 346.
Graphs—
Births, Deaths, Natural Increase, and Marriages, 71.
Exports as affected by Prices, 216.
Infant Death-rates, 102.
Tuberculosis and Cancer Death-rates, 108.
Grass Lands, 295, 343.
Grass-seed, 342.
Certification of, 312.
Exported, 202–214.
Green Fodder, 338.
Greenstone, 396.
Greenwich Mean Time, 24.
Groceries, Retail Prices of, 605.
Gross Farming Income, 314, 321.
Indexes, 317, 319.
Gross Indebtedness, 457, 722.
Mortgage Indebtedness, 577.
Of Local Bodies, 501, 724.
Grounds for Divorce, 90.
Growth of Population, 40, 71, 72, 712.
Gum, Kauri. 395.
Exported, 200–217, 389, 721.

H.

Habitual Criminals, 175.
Habitual Drunkards, 180.
Hail, 21.
Half-castes, 46, 68.
Ham and Bacon Curing, 418.
Harbour Boards, 491–503, 725.
Harbours (see Ports).
Hardwood Trees, 371.
Harvests, 337–343.
Hatcheries, Fish, 383.
Hawaiki,38.
Hay, 342, 344.
Heads of Government Departments, 737.
Health Camps, 131.
Health, Public, 125–132.
Heavy-traffic fees, 271, 274.
Hemp Industry, Subsidy to, 336.
Herd-book Societies, 353.
Herd-testing, 312, 353.
Hides exported, 200–217, 235.
High Commissioner’s Office, 739.
High Schools, 149, 155, 714.
Technical, 149, 155, 157.
Higher Education, 160, 714.
Highway Districts, 265.
Highways, 265–270.
Taxation, 271, 442, 444.
Hindus, 55.
History, 38, 757.
Hives of Bees, 364.
Hobson’s Proclamation, 39.
Hogs, 362, 717.
Holdings (see Land Holdings).
Homes, Benevolent, 140.
Homes, Children’s, 140, 159, 178.
Home-science Bursaries, 161.
Homicide, 112, 165, 170.
Honey, 364.
Export Control, 364.
Honours to New Zealanders, 734.
Hops, 338.
Horahora Electric Supply, 672.
Horse-racing Taxation, 451.
Horses, 348, 362, 717.
Horticultural Station, 312.
Horticulture, 345.
Hosiery-factories, 420.
Hospitals—
Maternity, 139.
Mental, 143–146.
Private, 138.
Private Mental, 146.
Public, 4, 118–124, 133–142.
St. Helens, 139.
Hot Springs, 3.
Hotels, Licensed, 692.
Hours of Labour, 629.
In Factories, 416.
House of Representatives, 39, 42.
Members of, 736.
Household Budgets, 604, 612.
Houses (see Dwellings).
Housing Survey, 493.
Husbands’ Petitions in Divorce, 91.
Hydraulic Sluicing, 389.
Hydro-electric Power, 671–679.
Used for Industrial Purposes, 679.
Hydrotherapeutical Treatment, 4.
Hygiene, 125.
Social, 126.

I.

Illegitimate Infants—
Births of, 78.
Deaths of, 100.
In Benevolent Institutions, 142.
Protection of, 159.
Immigration, 47, 52–58, 712.
Assisted, 56.
Farly, 39.
Restriction on, 57.
Implements, Farm, 314.
Manufacture of, 423.
Import Price Indexes, 617.
Imported Commodities, Price Indexes, 615.
Import, 219–230, 690, 718.
Exces of Exports over Imports, 191–196.
Free and Dutiable, 743, 749.
Of Ports, 232–236.
Value in British Currency, 190.
Value, Gold Basis, Index Numbers, 192.
Volume, Index Numbers, 192.
Improved-farm Settlements, 300, 303.
Improvements, Value of, 507–513.
Incapacity from Industrial Accidents, 662–670.
Income, Aggregate Private, 602.
Income, Gross Farming, 314–317.
Incomes, 593–603.
Income-tax, 443, 446, 448, 593–603.
Increase in Population, 46, 71, 72, 712.
Indebtedness, Mortgage, 577.
Indebtedness of Local Bodies, 137, 501–506, 724.
Indebtedness, Public, 456–467, 722.
Index Numbers—
Deaths, Sex-ratio, 94.
Export Prices, 615.
Farm Expenditure, 319, 618.
Farm Producers’ Prices, 317, 319.
Farm Production, Volume, 317.
Gross Farming Income, 317, 319.
Hours of Labour, 629.
House-rent, 608–612.
Population, 69.
Prices, Import, 617.
Prices, Imported Commodities, 615.
Prices, Locally produced Commodities, 615.
Producers’ Prices, 688.
Farm, 317, 319.
Production, 688.
Farm, Volume of, 317.
Ratio of Customs Revenue to Imports, 748.
Retail Prices, 319, 604–612.
Share Prices, 619.
Value of Production, 688.
Volume of Exports, 192, 215.
Volume of Imports, 192.
Volume of Production, 688.
Volume of Total Trade, 192.
Wage-rates, 622–628.
Wholesale Prices, 613.
Indians, 55.
Indigenous Forest, 26–34, 295, 365–372.
Individualization of Native Land, 306.
Industrial Accidents, 662–670.
Industrial Associations, 640.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 633, 635.
Industrial Disputes, 654–661.
Industrial Life Insurance, 541.
Industrial Unions, 637–640.
Industries, Manufacturing, 400–424.
Inebriates, 179.
Infancy, Diseases of, 103, 116.
Infant Mortality, 99–105, 713.
Maori, 116.
Infant-life Protection, 99, 140, 158.
Infectious Diseases—
Control of, in Schools, 132.
Hospital Cases, 121.
Notification of, 117, 125.
Injuries (see Accidents).
Inland Fisheries, 383.
Inmates—
Of Charitable Institutions, 141.
Of Gaols, 172, 715.
Of Hospitals, 118–124, 138.
Of Mental Hospitals, 143.
Inquests, 165.
Insanity, 143–146.
Insolvency, 580–585, 730.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools, 131.
Inspection of Dairies and Dairy Factories 355.
Inspection of Machinery, 685.
Instruments, Registration of, 296.
Insurance, 537–558.
State, 543, 548, 557.
Intercensal Population, 45, 51, 62, 712.
Interest—
Credited by Savings-bank, 526, 527, 727.
On Local Bodies’ Debt, 503, 504.
On Mortgages, 576.
On Public Debt, 462.
Payments Overseas, 195, 462, 505.
Rates (see Rates of Interest).
Recouped to Consolidated Fund, 435.
Reduction of, 454, 460, 505, 570, 695.
Tax on, 454.
Inter-Island Passengers, 60.
Intermediate Credit, 472.
Intermediate Schools, 149, 154.
International Payments, 195, 462, 505.
Intestate Estates, 680.
Intoxicating Liquor—
Consumption of, 181, 690.
Sale of, 692.
Investigations of Companies, 681, 694.
Investment Certificates, 456.
Investment Societies, Deposits with, 565.
Investments, State, 459, 586.
Investments, Totalizator, 451.
Invisible Imports and Exports, 195.
Iron-foundries, 423.
Iron-ores, 391.
Islands—
Adjacent, Population of, 67.
Administered on Mandate, 2, 704–709.
Annexed, 1, 699–704.
Outlying, 1, 698.
Issue of Bank-notes, 516, 525, 531.
Issue of Deceased Males, 98.
Issue, Previous, of Parents; 77.

J.

Jam-factories, 419.
Joint-stock Banks, 514.
Joint-stock Companies, 681.
In Manufacturing Industries, 412, 413.
Journal of Agriculture, 313.
Journal, School, 152.
Judicial Separation, 91.
Judiciary, Members of, 734.
Junior High Schools, 149, 154.
Justice, 164–182, 715.
Juvenile Offenders. 158, 177.

K.

Kaingaroa Plantation, 375.
Kauri-gum, 395.
Exported, 200–217, 389, 721.
Kermadec Islands, 1, 699.

L.

Labour Department Employment Bureaux, 641.
Labour Disputes, 654–661.
Labour, Hours of, 629.
In Factories, 416.
Labour Laws, 632–636.
Labour Ministry, 732.
Labour Shares, 634.
Lake Coleridge Works, 671.
Lake Wakatipu Steamer Service, 246–251.
Lakes, 8.
Lamb consumed and exported, 359, 690.
Lambs, 348, 349.
Land and Income Tax, 443, 446, 591, 593.
Land Boards, 299.
Maori, 307.
Land Development, 301.
Land Districts, 299.
Land Drainage Districts, 491–500.
Land for Discharged Soldiers, 304.
Land for Settlements, 303.
Land, Government Valuation of, 507–513.
Land Holdings, 293.
Mortgages on, 579, 591.
Value of, 579, 591.
Land, Occupation of, 292, 295.
Land Offices, 299.
Land, Purchase of, 303, 304, 308.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 292–309.
Land Titles, Registration of, 296.
Land Transfer System, 296.
Land, Valuation of, 507–513.
Landing-grounds, 279.
Lands open for Selection, 301
Land-settlement Accounts, 439.
Land-settlement Finance Associations, 304.
Land-tax, 326, 443, 447, 591.
Lapsed Insurance Policies, 539, 541.
Latest Statistical Information [see Forefront of Book].
Law and Crime, 164–182.
Laws affecting Labour, 632–636.
Laws enacted 1934–35, 694.
Lease, Renewable, 300, 302.
Leasehold-landholdings, 294.
Legacy Duty, 450.
Legal Education, 160.
Legal-tender, 531.
Legislation—
Affecting Labour, 632–636.
Passed in 1934–35, 694.
Legislative Council, 39, 41.
Members of, 735.
Legitimation Act, 79.
Legumes, 338.
Letters of Naturalization, 59.
Letters Patent, 684.
Letters posted, 284, 728.
Letter-telegrams, 286.
Levies by Hospital Boards, 133–137, 499.
Levy, Unemployment, 442, 453.
Liabilities—
Farm, Adjustment of, 327, 328.
Of Afforestation Companies, 376.
Of Bankrupts. 581, 584, 730.
Of Banks, 516. 524, 726.
Of building Societies, 564.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 676.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 550.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 543.
Of Local Bodies, 500.
State, 586.
Licensed Houses, 692.
Licenses—
Air Pilots, 280.
Anglers, 386.
By Local Bodies, 497, 692.
Commercial Aircraft, 281.
Export, 535.
Motor-vehicle, 272. 276.
Radio. 290.
Ross Sea Whaling, 710.
Sharebrokers, 451.
Transport, 274.
Licensing, 692.
Poll, 693.
Life, Expectation of, 96.
Life Insurance, 537–544.
State, 543.
Life Table, 96.
Lifts, Inspection of, 686.
Light and Fuel, Retail Prices of, 611.
Lighthouses, 243.
Lignite, 393.
Lime and Cement Works, 422.
Limestone, 396.
Limonite, 371.
Lincoln Agricultural College, 149, 161, 313.
Linseed, 338, 339.
Liquidations of Companies, 681, 694.
Live-stock, 348–364, 717.
Carried on Railways, 252, 729.
Slaughtering of, 359–362, 695.
Loans—
Allocation of, 459.
By Building Societies, 564.
Conversion of, 460, 505, 695.
Dates of Maturity of, 461, 506.
Domicile of, 460, 503.
Of Hospital Boards, 137.
Of Local Bodies, 137, 467, 493, 501–506, 695, 724.
Receipts from, 459.
Redemption of, 442, 460, 463, 501, 505.
Local Bodies, 491–506, 724.
Advances to, 474.
Assets of, 500, 587.
Debt of (see Loans of).
Employees of, 654.
History of, 43.
Levies on, by Hospital Boards, 133, 499.
Superannuation, 489.
Taxation by, 455, 496.
Local Consumption of Produce, 690, 691.
Local Government, 43. (See also Local Bodies.)
Local Option, 693.
Local Railway District, 491–500.
Local Taxation, 455, 496.
Location of Debt, 461, 503.
Location of New Zealand, 1.
Lockouts, 654–661.
Locomotives, 247.
Lodges, Friendly Societies, 559–561.
London, Exchange on (see Exchange).
London Prices of Gold, Average, 389.
London Prices of New Zealand Stock, 462.
Losses from Fires, 553.
In Forests, 368.
Lotteries, 693.
Duty on, 451, 693.
Lucerne, 338, 342.
Lunacy, 143–146.

M.

Macaulay Island, 699.
Machinery—
Accidents, 665.
Factory, 405, 412.
Farm, 314, 423.
Inspection of, 685.
Magistrates’ Courts (see Courts).
Magistrates, Superannuation of, 488.
Mails, 284.
Air, 283.
Main Highways, 265–270.
Account, 267, 442, 498.
Taxation, 271, 442, 445.
Maize, 338, 339, 342.
Makes of Motor-vehicles, 273.
Malnutrition of School-children, 131.
Malthouses, 419.
Mammalia, 34.
Mandated Territories, 2, 704–709.
Mangahao Hydro-electric Scheme, 671.
Mangaia Island, 1, 700.
Manganese-ore, 392.
Mangolds, 338, 342.
Manihiki Island, 1, 700.
Manono Island, 705.
Manuae Island, 1, 700.
Manual Education, 151.
Manufacturing Production, 400–424.
Manures used for Top-dressing, 347.
Maori Dog, 34.
Maori Land Boards, 307.
Maori War Pensions, 476, 479.
Maoris, 38. (See also Native.)
Births of, 70, 82.
Children attending Schools, 154, 156.
Deaths of, 70, 114.
Half-castes, 46, 68.
Housing, 493.
In Mental Hospitals, 146.
In Prisons, 174.
Infant Mortality of, 116.
Lands, 306–309.
Marriages of, 89.
Members of Parliament, 42, 736.
Offences by, 179.
Population, 68.
Schools for, 154.
Map of New Zealand [End of Volume].
Marble, New Zealand, 396.
Marine Fish-hatchery, 383.
Marine Officers’ Certificates, 242.
Market Gardens, 294, 344.
Marketing of Farm Produce, 328–332.
Marriages, 71, 83–92, 713.
Masculinity (see Sex Proportions).
Masseurs, Registration of, 128.
Massey Agricultural College, 149, 161.
Maternal Mortality, 110, 139.
Maternity Allowances, 489.
Maternity Hospitals, 139.
Maternity Nurses, District, 140.
Maternity Nurses, Registration of, 128.
Maturity of Loans, Dates of, 461, 506.
Mauke Island, 1, 700.
Mean Population, 51, 712.
Mean Time, 24.
Measures and Weights, 130, 292.
Meat—
Consumption of, 359–362, 690.
Export Control, 361.
Export of, 200–217, 235, 359–363, 719.
Export Quotas, 331.
Freezing-works, 417.
Imperial Import Quotas, 330.
Ottawa Agreement, 329.
Retail Prices, 607.
Medical Inspection of Schools, 131.
Medical Practitioners, 127.
Medical Services in Samoa, 706.
Medicinal Waters, 3.
Members of Parliament, 42, 736.
Mental Hospitals, 143–146.
Mentally Backward Children, 159, 163.
Mercantile Marine, 237.
Mercury-mines, 392.
Merino Sheep, 348–350.
Metal Reserves of Banks, 517, 523, 524, 726.
Meteorology, 15–23.
Midwives, District, 140.
Midwives, Registration of, 128.
Migration, External, 47, 52–58, 712.
Migration, Internal, 60.
Mileage of—
Main Highways, 266.
Railways, 246, 254, 729.
Roads, 263.
Telegraph Lines and Wire, 286.
Telephone Lines and Wire, 288.
Tramway Routes, 256, 262.
Mileage-tax, 271, 445.
Military Forces, 183–189.
Military Pensions, 476, 479.
Milk, Adulterated, 129.
Milk used in Dairy Factories, 418, 691.
Milk-consumption, 691.
Milking-machines, 314.
Milk-products (see Dairy-produce).
Milk-testing, 312, 355.
Milling-wheat, 340.
Mills, 400–424.
Mineral Waters, 3.
Minerals, 388–399.
Miners’ Pensions, 399, 476, 479.
Minimum Wage-rates, 622–629, 635.
Mining, 388–399.
Accidents, 393, 399.
Act, Examinations under, 398.
Advances, 397.
Produce exported, 199–217, 389.
Value of Production, 388, 688.
Ministers of each Denomination, 89.
Marriages by, 89.
Ministries, Successive, 731.
Ministry, Coalition, 733.
Ministry, Labour, 732.
Minors, Marriages of, 83, 88.
Minors, Numbers of, 50.
Mission Schools, 147, 702, 703, 706.
Missionaries, Arrival of, 39.
Mitiaro Island, 1, 700.
Money-orders issued and paid, 285, 728.
Morbidity, 117–124, 560.
Mortality (see Deaths).
Mortgage Corporation, 305, 469, 571.
Mortgage Exemption, 447, 579, 591.
Mortgage Indebtedness, 577.
Mortgagee, Rights of, 567.
Mortgagees’ Indemnity Insurance, 451, 547.
Mortgages, 469, 566–579, 591.
Mortgages, Companies’, 684.
Mortgage-tax, 446.
Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act, Rural, 569, 697.
Mortgagors Liabilities Adjustment Commissions, 568.
Mortgagors Relief, 567.
Mothers, Ages of, 76.
In Illegitimate Cases, 79.
In Still-bom Cases, 81.
Moths 37.
Motion-picture Film-tax, 453.
Motive-power in Factories, 405.
Motor Transport, 249, 251, 261, 274–278.
Motor-engineering Works, 423.
Motor-omnibus Traffic, 249, 251, 261, 274.
Motor-spirits Taxation, 267, 445, 745.
Motor-vehicles—
Accidents, 112, 181, 278.
Drivers’ Licenses, 271.
Duty on, 745, 750, 756.
Insurance, 547.
Licensed for Goods-services, 277.
Licensed for Passenger-services, 276.
Makes of, 273.
Registration of, 271.
Taxation, 271, 445.
Motor-vessels registered, 237.
Mo tor-works, 423.
Mountains, 2.
Mud Baths, 5.
Mules, 348.
Multiple Births, 75.
Municipal Tramways, 256–262.
Municipalities (see Boroughs).
Mutton consumed and exported, 359, 690 691.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 557, 694.

N.

Nassau Island, 1, 700.
National Endowments, 300, 365.
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 476, 505, 570, 635, 694.
National Income, 602.
National Parks, 295.
National Prohibition, 693.
National Provident Fund, 489.
National Scholarships, 162.
National Wealth, 590.
Nationality, 58.
Of Migrants, 55.
Of Naturalized Persons. 59.
Of Vessels, 238.
Native (see Maori).
Native Appellate Court, 307.
Native Bush, 295, 365. (See also Flora.)
Native Fresh-water Fishes, 383.
Native Grasses, 295, 344.
Native Housing, 493.
Native Land Court, 307.
Native Lands, 293, 306–309.
Purchase of, 308.
Native Plants Protection, 695.
Native Population, 68.
Native Schools, 154, 714.
Native Succession Duty, 450.
Native Trust Office, 308.
Native-land Purchase, 308.
Nativity Order, 74, 81.
Natural Increase of Population, 47, 71, 72.
Naturalization, 58.
Nauru Island, 2, 708.
Naval Defence, 188.
Naval Reserve, 188, 189.
Navigators Islands (see Western Samoa).
Navy, 188.
Neo-natal Deaths, 101, 116.
Nephrite, 396.
Net State Indebtedness, 466, 722.
New Year Honours, 734.
“New Zealand,” H.M.S., 188, 189.
New Zealand Mean Time, 24.
New Zealand Coinage and Currency, 528–536.
New Zealand Representatives Abroad, 739.
New Zealand University, 149, 160, 162.
Newspapers—
Posted, 284, 728.
Registered, 285.
Night Letter-telegrams, 286.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 91.
Niue Island, 1, 700, 703.
No-license Issue, 693.
Nominal Wage-rates, 623–629.
Nomination of Assisted Immigrants, 56.
Note-issue, 531.
Notes in Circulation, 516, 524, 726.
Tax on, 451.
Notification of Births, 70.
Notification of Diseases, 117, 125.
Nukunono Island, 2, 711.
Nullity of Marriage, 91.
Nurseries and Plantations, 294, 344, 374–378.
State. 374.
Nurses—
District, 140.
Registration of, 128.
Retiring-allowances to, 490.

O.

Oats, 338–342, 716.
Exported, 202, 213, 214.
Observatory, Time Signals from, 24.
Occupation of Land, 292, 295.
Occupation with Right of Purchase, 300, 302.
Occupations—
Of Bankrupts, 582, 585.
Of Taxpayers, 594.
Ocean Cables, 290.
Ocean Island, 708.
Offences, 168–182.
Offenders Probation Act, 176.
Official Assignees, 580.
Official Representatives Abroad, 739.
Officiating Ministers, 89.
Oil-wells, 395.
Old-age Pensions, 476, 477.
Old-peoples Homes, 140.
Omnibus Traffic, 249, 251, 261, 274.
Omnibuses licensed, 272.
Onakaka Iron-ore, 391.
Onions, 338, 690.
Opium, Prohibition of, 130.
Opossum-skins exported, 210.
Opticians, Registration of, 128.
Orchards, 345.
Orchard-tax, 346.
Origin of Immigrants, 54.
Origin of Imports, 221–230.
Ornamental Stones, 396.
Orphanages, 140.
Orphanhood, 98.
Otekaike Special School, 159.
Ottawa Conference, 329, 742.
Outlying Islands, 1, 698.
Out-patients, 119, 138.
Maternity Hospitals, 139.
Overdraft Rate B, 527.
Oversea Shipping, 238–242.
Oversea Trade, 190–236, 718, 742–756.
Overseas Funds of Banks, 525.
Overseas Representatives, 739.
Overseas-passenger Duty, 451.
Overtime in Factories, 416.
Oyster-beds, 381.

P.

Pacific Cable, 290.
Pacific Islands, Annexed, 1, 700–704.
Packet Licenses, 692.
Palmerston Island, 1, 700.
Parapara Iron-ore Deposit, 391.
Parcel-post, 285.
Parents, Ages of, 76–81.
Parks, National, 295.
Parliament, 39.
Members of, 736.
Parliamentary Elections, 42, 691, 695.
Parliaments, Successive, 734.
Party-line Telephones, 287.
Passenger Tickets, Duty on, 451.
Passengers—
Inter-island, 60.
Motor-vehicle, 251, 261, 276.
Overseas, 47, 52, 712.
Railway, 251, 729.
Tramway, 257, 258.
Passenger-service Licenses, 276.
Passports, 56.
Pastoral and Agricultural Production, 310–364.
Value of, 688.
Pastoral Produce exported, 199–217.
Price Indexes, 217, 616.
Pasture Grasses, 343.
Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks, 684.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 143.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 118, 138.
Payments by, 134, 137.
Payments Overseas, Balance of, 195.
Peaks, Altitude of, 3.
Pears, 345.
Peas, 338, 339.
Export of, 202–214.
“Pelorus Jack,” 35.
Pelts, Export of, 200–217, 235.
Penal Institutions, 172–176.
Penrhyn Island, 1, 700.
Pensions, 476–490, 694.
Permanent Building Societies, 562.
Permanent Heads of Departments, 737.
Permanent Military Forces, 183.
Permits and Passports, 56.
Permits, Building, 425, 428.
Petitions—
Bankruptcy, 580.
Divorce, 91.
Petroleum, 395.
Petrological Laboratory, 270.
Petrol-tax, 267, 445, 745.
Pharmacy, 130.
Phormium, 294, 295, 344.
Fibre exported, 200–217, 721.
Grading of Fibre, 312.
Mills, 421.
Phosphate Rock, 395.
From Nauru Island, 708.
Phthisis, 106, 107, 118, 122.
Maori Deaths from, 114.
Miner’s, 479, 480.
Physical Education, 152, 163.
Physicians, Registration of, 127.
Physiography, 1–8.
Pickle-factories, 420.
Pig-iron Production, 388, 391.
Pigs, 348, 362, 717.
Pilots, Air, 186, 280.
Pisciculture, 383, 384.
Plaints, 164.
Plant Research, 312, 313, 367.
Plantations, 344, 375.
State, 375.
Plants, New Zealand, 26–34.
Plate-glass Insurance, 545.
Platinum, 388, 392.
Pleasant Island (Nauru), 708.
Plumbers Registration, 129.
Plunket System, 100, 140.
Plural Births, 75.
Pneumoconiosis, Pensions for, 479, 480.
Police, 165.
Superannuation, 484.
Policies, Insurance, 537–558.
Polling—
At By-elections, 692.
At General Elections, 691.
At Licensing Polls, 693.
Population, 45–69, 712.
Of Cook Islands, 45, 701.
Of Nauru Island, 45, 709.
Of Niue Island, 703.
Of Tokelau Islands, 45, 711.
Of Various Countries, 69.
Of Western Samoa, 706.
Of World, 69.
Pork consumed and exported, 363, 690.
Portfolios of Ministers, 732, 733.
Portobello Marine Fish-hatchery, 383.
Ports—
Finances of, 497–506.
Of Entry, 232.
Of Registry, 237.
Shipping of, 240.
Trade of, 232–236.
Post Office Employees, 291.
Accidents to, 662–670.
Superannuation of, 484.
Post Office Investment Certificates, 456.
Post Office Savings-bank, 526, 727.
Postal and Telegraphic, 284–291, 728.
Postal Notes, 286, 728.
Post-primary Education, 149, 155, 163.
Potatoes, 338, 341, 690.
Pottery-works, 422.
Poultry, 294, 363.
Poultry-runs Registration, 364.
Pounamu, 396.
Power Boards, 491–503, 672, 725.
Power, Electric (see Electric).
Power used in Factories, 405.
Power used on Farms, 314.
Preferential Tariff, 742, 751–755.
Pregnane}-, Diseases, &c., of, 110, 124, 139.
Premiers, Successive, 731.
Premium Income, 537–558.
Prevention of Crime Act, 175.
Price Levels, the Spread in, 318.
Prices, 604–621.
Effect on Exports, 192, 215.
Effect on Imports, 192.
Effect on Farm Expenditure, 618.
Of Stock, 462.
Producers’, 688.
Primage Duty, 743, 748.
Primary Schools, 147–154, 163, 714.
Principal Events, 757.
Printing Establishments, 423.
Prisons and Prisoners, 172–175, 715.
Prisons Board, 176.
Private Assignments, 583.
Private Companies, 684.
Private Hospitals, 138.
Private Income, Aggregate, 602.
Private Mental Hospital, 146.
Private Radio-stations, 289.
Private Railways, 254.
Private Savings-banks, ~.’6, 527.
Private Schools, 149, 153, 714.
Private Wealth, 588.
Probate, Estates passed for, 589.
Probation, 176.
Probationer Teachers, 153.
Proclamation of British Sovereignty, 2, 39.
Production—
Agricultural and Pastoral, 310–364, 687.
Dairv, 355, 418.
Factory, 400–424.
Gold, World’s, 391.
Local Consumption of, 321, 689.
Mineral, 388–399.
Timber, 372.
Value of, 687.
Volume of, 688.
Wool, 350.
Production Districts, Exports of, 234.
Butter and Cheese, 356.
Profit-sharing, 634.
Prohibited Immigrants, 57.
Prohibition Issue, 693.
Prohibition Orders, 180.
Prorogation of Parliament, Dates of, 734.
Prospecting, State Aid to, 397.
Prospecting-drills, Government, 398.
Protection of Native Plants, 695.
Provident Fund, National, 489.
Provincial Districts, 43.
Area and Population of, 60.
Building and Construction in, 428.
Fire Losses in, 554.
Industries in, 401.
Provisional State Forests, 365.
Public Debt, 456–467, 722.
Repayment of, 442, 459, 463.
Public Domains, 295.
Public Finance, 431–475, 722.
Public Health, 125–132.
Public Hospitals (see Hospitals).
Public Reserves, 293, 295, 300.
Public Schools, 147–163, 714.
Public Service, 737.
Civil Service Act Pensions, 484.
Employees, 738.
Superannuation. 484.
Public Trust Office, 680.
Public Wealth, 588.
Public Works—
Accidents, 662–670.
Employees, 653.
Fund, 437, 723.
Road Construction, 263.
Publicans’ Licenses, 692.
Publications—
Census and Statistics Office [facing p. 1].
Education Department, 152.
General Bibliography, 765.
Statistical Bibliography, 763.
Publishing Works, 423.
Puerperal Accidents, &c., 110, 124, 139.
Puisne Judges, 734.
Pukapuka Island, 1, 700.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis (sec Phthisis).
Pulse Crops, 338.
Pumpkins, 342.
Punishments by Courts, 169–182.
Pupils, School, 149–160, 714.
Purchase of Land for Settlement, 303, 304.
Pure Food Laws, 129.

Q.

Quackery-prevention, 130.
Quadruplets born, 76.
Quarries, 396.
Quartz-mining, 389.
Quicksilver-mining, 388, 389, 392.
Quinnat Salmon, 387.
Quinquennial Census, 45.
Quorum—
Executive Council, 41.
House of Representatives, 43.
Quota, Country, 42.
Quotas, Meat Export, 331.
Quotations, New Zealand Stock, 462.

R.

Rabbit Districts, 491–500.
Rabbit-skins exported, 202–217.
Race Aliens, 55.
Racing, Tax on, 451.
Radio Time-signals, 24.
Radio-beacons, 243, 288.
Radio-broadcasting, 289.
Weather Forecasts, 15.
Radio-telegraph, 288.
Raffle-tickets, Duty on, 451, 693.
Railway Accidents, 112, 254, 062–670.
Railway District, 491–500.
Railway Fares, School-children, 152.
Railways, 245–255, 729.
Private, 254.
Revenue and Expenditure, 248, 433, 729.
Superannuation Fund, 488.
Rain Forests, 26, 368.
Rainfall, 15–23.
Rakahanga Island, 1, 700.
Rams, 349.
Rarotonga Island, 1, 700.
Rateable Value of Land, 510.
Rates collected by Local Bodies, 455, 497, 677, 724.
Rates of Exchange, 326, 533.
Rates of Interest—
On Building Societies’ Deposits, 562, 565.
On Fixed Deposits, 528, 562.
On Local Bodies’ Debt, 494, 503.
On Mortgages, 576.
On Public Debt, 460, 462.
Paid by Post Office Savings-bank, 526.
Reduction of, 454, 460, 505, 570.
Rating by Local Bodies, 494.
On Unimproved Value, 495.
On Urban Farm Lands, 327, 494, 507.
Reapers-and-binders, 314.
Rebate of Rates, 498.
Receiving-homes, 159.
Recent Developments La Agricultural Policy, 321–336.
Recidivism, 175.
Reciprocal Tariff and Trade, 751–755.
Redemption of Loans, 442, 460, 463, 501, 505.
Redemption of Mortgages, 566.
Reduction of Farm Costs, 326.
Reduction of Interest, 454, 400, 505, 570.
Reduction of Rent, 507, 569.
Reduction of Wages, 623, 635.
Re-exports, 200, 214.
From United Kingdom, 205.
Reformative Detention, 159, 175.
Refuge Homes, 140.
Regional Planning, 492.
Registered Companies, 681.
Registered Mortgages, 566.
Registered Vessels, 237.
Registrars, Marriages before, 83, 89.
Registration—
Of Adopted Children, 80.
Of Apiaries, 364.
Of Applicants for Employment, 641.
Of Births, 70.
Of Chemists, 130.
Of Companies, 681.
Of Dairies, 355.
Of Dairy Companies, 355.
Of Deaths, 93.
Of Deeds, 296.
Of Dentists, 127.
Of Designs, 684.
Of Electors, 43.
Of Friendly Societies, 559.
Of Industrial Unions, 637.
Of Marriages. 83.
Of Masseurs, 328.
Of Maternity Nurses, 128.
Of Medical Practitioners, 127.
Of Midwivcs, 128.
Of Mortgages, 566.
Of Motor-vehicles, 271.
Of Newspapers, 285.
Of Nurses and Midwives, 128.
Of Opticians, 128.
Of Orchards, 340.
Of Patents, 684.
Of Pharmaceutical Chemists, 130.
Of Physicians, 127.
Of Plumbers, 129.
Of Poultry-runs, 364.
Of Private Schools, 153.
Of Still-births, 80.
Of Titles, 296.
Of Trade-marks, 684.
Of Trade-unions, 637.
Of Vessels, 237.
Under Unemployment Act, 641–647.
Registry, Ports of, 237.
Relief, Charitable, 136.
Relief Fund, Coal-miners’, 399.
Relief of Mortgagors, 567.
Relief of Unemployed, 325, 442, 642–652, 653.
Religious Denominations—
Marriages by Ministers of, 88.
Ministers on Marriage List, 89.
Renewable Leases, 300, 302.
Rent Reduction, 567, 569.
Rent Restriction, 633, 695.
Renters, Film, Taxation of, 453.
Rents, House, 569, 608, 633.
Repatriation Advances, 304, 475.
Repayment of Public Debt, 442, 460, 463.
Reports, Departmental, 703.
Representatives Abroad, 739.
Representatives, House of, 39, 42.
Members of, 736.
Reptiles, 36.
Research, Agricultural, 313.
Research, Coal, 394.
Research Institute, Wheat, 313.
Research Scholarships, 161.
Research, Silvicultural, 307.
Reserve Bank, 522–525, 532.
Reserved Profits of Banks, 515.
Reserves, Public, 293, 295, 300.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights, 90.
Restorations, Salary, 694.
Restriction, Immigration, 57.
Retail Prices, 319, 604–612.
Retardate Children, 159, 163.
Revaluations, 508.
Of Soldier Properties, 305.
Revenue, Local Body, 134, 496, 724.
Revenue, Public, 431–142, 723.
Review of Legislation, 694.
Rhodes Scholarships, 161.
Richmond Special School, 159.
Rifle Clubs, 186.
River Districts, 491–500.
Rivers, 7.
Road Districts, 491–503.
Mileage of Roads, 263.
Road Transport, 251, 261, 271–278.
Roads, 263–271.
On Goldfields, Subsidized, 398.
Taxation, 271, 442, 444, 445.
Rock Oysters, 381.
Rocks, Geological Account of, 8.
Rolling-stock—
Railway, 247.
Tramway, 256, 261.
Roman Catholic Schools, 154.
Root Crops, 295, 338, 342.
Ross Dependency, 2, 709.
Bibliography, 771.
Whaling, 710.
Rotorua Nursery, 375.
Rotorua Thermal Springs, 3–7.
Rural Advances, 472.
Rural Intermediate Credit, 472.
Rural Mail Deliveries, 284.
Rural Mortgages, 574, 579, 591.
Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment ’Act 569, 697.
Rural Population, 61.
Country Quota, 42.
Rye-grass, 343.

S.

Sailing-vessels registered, 237.
St. Helens Hospitals, 139.
Salary Cuts, 635.
Salary Restoration, 694.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 129.
Sales of State Timber, 373.
Sales Tax, 454.
Salmon, Acclimatization of, 384.
Samoa (see Western Samoa).
San Pablo (Palmerston) Island, 700.
Sanatoria, 4, 118, 138.
Sanitary Plumbing, 129.
Sanitation, 125–132.
Sauce-factories, 420.
Sausage-casings, Export of, 200–217.
Savai’i Island, 705.
Savings-banks, 526, 727.
Sawmills, 372, 421.
Scaffolding Accidents, 662–670.
Scenic Reserves, 295.
Scheclite, 391.
Schemes, Unemployment Relief, 647–652.
Scholarships, 157, 161, 162, 398.
School Committees, 148.
School Journal, 152.
School-children, 149–160, 714.
Dental Treatment for, 132.
Medical Inspection of, 131.
Schools, 147–163.
Dental Clinics, 132.
Of Mines, 398.
School-teachers, 148, 153–157.
Superannuation, 487.
Scrub Lands, 295.
Sea-fisheries, 379.
Seals, 35, 382.
Season Tickets, Railway, 251.
Secondary Education, 149, 155, 163, 714.
Secondary Industries, 400–424.
Second-growth Land, 295.
Secular System of Education, 147.
Securities, Mortgage, 574.
Seed-gardens, 344.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 342.
Certification of, 312.
Exported, 202–213.
Seismology, 11–14.
Selections of Lands, 299, 301.
Senior Cadets, 183, 186.
Sentences on Criminals, 169–179, 715.
Separate Rates, 494.
Separation, Judicial, 91.
Separators, Cream, 314.
Service, Public (see Public Service).
Service-car Licenses, 272, 276.
Services, Army, Navy, and Air, 183–189.
Sessions, Parliamentary, Successive, 734.
Settlement Accounts, 439.
Settlement and Colonization, 39.
Settlement Conditions, Selections under, 301.
Settlement of Industrial Disputes, 659.
Settlement of Undeveloped Lands, 301.
Settlement, Small-farm, 652.
Settlement Surveys, 292.
Settlements, Land for, 303.
Settlers, Advances to, 468–474.
Share Prices, Index Numbers, 619.
Sharebrokers’ Licenses, 451.
Shares in Building Societies, 562.
Shares, Labour, 634.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 314.
Sheep, 348, 717.
Sheep-farms, 294.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 202–217.
Sheet-metal Works, 422.
Shipbuilding-works, 424.
Shipping, 237–244.,
Ships (see Vessels).
Shoe-factories, 421.
Short-time in Factories, 416.
Sick Funds, 254, 399, 560.
Sickness, 117–124, 560.
Signals, Time, 24.
Silver, 391.
Exported, 202–213, 389.
Silver Coins, New Zealand, 529.
Silviculture, 365, 366, 376.
Singapore Naval Base, 189.
Sinking Funds, State, 465, 722.
Skins, Export of, 200–217, 235.
Slaughter of Animals for Food, 359–362, 695.
Slaughterhouses, 312, 359–362.
Slot Telephones, 287.
Sluicing, 389.
Small Farms for Unemployment Relief, 652.
Snares Islands, 1, 699.
Snowfall, 21.
Soap-factories, 420.
Social Hygiene Regulations, 126.
Social Welfare, 136.
Softwood Trees, 369.
Solander Island, 1, 699.
Soldiers, 183–188.
Acquisition of Land by, 304.
Dwellings, 305.
Financial Assistance to, 304, 475.
Pensions, 476, 480, 482.
War Bursaries for Dependants, 157.
Source of Income, 594.
South Africa, Reciprocity with, 753.
South African War Pensions, 476, 482.
Southern Alps, 3.
Sown Grasses, Extent of, 295, 337–344.
Spas, 3.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 772.
Special Rates, 494.
Specie, Movement of, 196, 718.
Specific Duties, 751.
Spirits, Consumption of, 181, 690.
Spread in Price Levels, 318.
Springs, Hot, 3.
Staff Corps, 184.
Stakes, Tax on, 452.
Stamp Duties, 451, 454.
Estates certified for, 589.
Standardized Death-rates, 97.
Cancer, 108.
Standardized Marriage-rates, 84.
Standards, Administration of—
Length, 292.
Weights and Measures, 130.
State Accident Insurance, 548.
State Advances, 468–475.
Mortgagors in Arrears, 471.
Transfer to Mortgage Corporation, 327, 469.
State Afforestation, 374.
State Aid to—
Aero Clubs, 279, 281.
Afforestation, 378.
Cold Storage, 475.
Crown Tenants, 301.
Discharged Soldiers, 304, 475.
Farming Industry, 324.
Fishing Industry, 475.
Fruit-preserving Industry, 475.
Housing, 474, 475.
Immigrants, 56.
Kauri-gum Industry, 395.
Local Authorities, 474.
Mining, 397.
Prospecting, 397.
Purchasers of Private Land, 304.
Settlers, 468–474.
Unemployed, 642–653.
Water-power Development, 671.
Workers, 468–471, 474.
State Assets and Liabilities, 586.
State Coal-mines, 394.
State Finance, 431–475, 722.
State Fire Insurance, 557.
State Forests, 365.
State Indebtedness, 456–467, 722.
State Insurance—
Accident, 548.
Fire, 557.
Life, 543.
State Lands (see Crown Lands).
State Maternity Hospitals, 139.
State Railways, 2–16-255, 729.
State Schools, 147–163, 714.
State Water-power Supply, 671.
Statistical Information, Latest [sec Fore-front of Book].
Statistical Publications—
Bibliography, 763.
Census and Statistics Office [facing p. 1].
Statistical Summary. 712–730.
Status of Aliens, 58.
Statute of Westminster, 40.
Statutes of 1934–35, 694.
Steam-vessels registered, 237.
Sterling Values of New Zealand Currency, 533–536.
Sterling Values of Trade, 190–196.
Stewart Island, 1, 698.
Oysters, 381.
Population, 64.
Still-births, 80.
Stipendiary Magistrates’ Courts (see Courts).
Stock, Live (see Live-stock).
Stock, Quotations for, 462.
Stock Remedies Act, 694.
Stone-quarries, 396.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 396.
Strandings of Vessels, 244.
Street-cars, 256.
Street-lighting, 676, 677.
Streets and Roads. Length of, 263.
Strikes, 654–661.
Stud Sheep, 349.
Students, University, 149, 160, 714.
Subdivision of Land, 303, 446.
Submarine Cable, 290.
Subsidies for Building, 651.
Subsidies, Main Highways, 267.
Subsidies on Rates, 498.
Subsidies to Aero Clubs, 279, 281.
Subsidies to Farming Industry, 324.
Subsidies to Hospital Boards, 133–137.
Subsidized Prospecting, 397.
Subsidized Roads on Goldfields, 398.
Succession Duty, 449, 450.
Suffrage, 43.
Sugar, Duty on, 744, 748.
Sugar-prices, 606.
Suicide, 113, 165.
Sulphur, 393.
Baths, 5.
Summary Convictions, 168, 715.
Summer Time (Daylight Saving), 24.
Sumner School for Deaf, 159,160, 163.
Sunday Island, 699.
Sunshine, 20.
Superannuation, 484–489.
Supreme Court (sec Courts).
Surpluses, 435.
Surrenders, Life Insurance, 539–542.
Surtax, 743, 748.
Preferential, 743, 751.
Surveys, 292.
Geological, 397.
Of Ships, 243.
Sustenance Allowances, 442, 636, 652.
Suwarrow Island, 1, 700.
Sweepstakes, 693.
Swordfish, 383.
Sympathetic Strikes, 656–661.
Syphilis, 126.
Syrians, 55.

T.

Table Mortgages, 572, 577.
Takutea Island, 1, 700.
Tallow exported, 200–217, 235, 719.
Tanneries, 423.
Taranaki Scholarships, 161.
Tariff Commission, 742.
Tariff, Customs, 742–756.
Tasman’s Discovery of New Zealand, 38.
Tax, Land and Income, 443, 446, 591, 593
Taxation, 443–455, 723.
Customs, 444, 746.
Local, 455, 496.
Motor-spirits, 267, 445, 745.
Orchards, 346.
Sales, 454.
Unemployment, 442, 453.
Taxes, 272.
Taxpayers, Land and Income, 591, 593–603.
Te Au-o-Tu Island, 1, 700.
Tea, Duty on, 744, 748, 752.
Teachers, Public-school, 148, 153–157.
Superannuation Fund, 487.
Technical Education, 149, 157, 714.
Telegraph Services, 286.
Telephones, 287.
Temperature. Records, 17–23.
Tenants, Relief of, 567.
Tenure of Occupied Lands, 294.
Tenures, Selection Lands, 300–305.
Terminating Building Societies, 562.
Terraces, Pink and White, 3.
Territorial Forces, 183.
Thermal Regions, 3.
Third-party Risks, 547.
Three Kings Islands, 1, 698.
Threshing-machines, 314.
Thunder, 21.
Tile-making, 422.
Timber—
Carried on Railways, 252.
Export, 200–217, 235, 373, 721.
Export Duty, 746.
Import, 373.
Import Duty on, 745, 754.
Output, 372, 421.
Plantations, 365, 374–378.
Resources, 365.
Sales, 373.
Trees, 369.
Time lost—
In Factories, 416.
Through Industrial Accidents, 667.
Through Industrial Disputes, 655.
Time Signals and Mean Time, 24.
Tin, 392.
Tinware-works, 422.
Tire-tax, 271, 445, 745.
Title, Certificates of, issued, 297.
Titles, Compulsory Registration of, 296.
Tobacco, 338, 346, 690.
Duty on, 744, 748.
Excise Duty on, 746, 748.
Imports of, 220, 221, 225.
Tokelau Islands, 2,711.
Toll Communications, 286.
Tolls by Local Bodies, 497.
Ton-miles, Railway, 253.
Tonnage handled at Ports, 232–236.
Tonnage of Registered Vessels, 237.
Tonnage of Shipping, 238–242.
Top-dressing, 347.
Totalizator Taxation, 451.
Tourist Agents Abroad, 739.
Tourists, 52, 54.
Tourists Rail Tickets issued, 252.
Town Districts, 44, 491–503.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 513.
Debt, 503.
Mileage of Streets, 263.
Population, 66.
Town Land, Mortgages on, 574, 578.
Town-planning, 492.
Townships, Population of, 67.
Tractors on Farms, 314.
Trade, 190–236, 718, 742–756.
Balance of. 191–196.
Cook Islands, 702.
Niue Island, 704.
Representatives, 739.
Western Samoa, 707.
Trade-marks, 684.
Trade-unions, 633, 637–640.
Trading Accounts, 440.
Trading Banks, 514.
Trading Companies’ Deposits, 520.
Traffic—
Accidents, 112, 278.
Motor, 251, 261, 271–278.
Offences, 181.
Railway, 251.
Tramway, 257, 258.
Training of Defence Forces, 185.
Training of Police Recruits, 166.
Training of Teachers, 152, 162, 163.
Training-farm, Reformative, 159.
Train-miles run, 250–253, 729.
Tramway District, 491.
Tramways, 256–262.
Accidents, 112, 278.
Transfer, Land, 296.
Transfers between Accounts, 432.
Transhipments of Cargo, 233–236.
Transit Trade, 200, 214.
Transmission Losses, Electric Power, 677.
Transport, 237–284.
Co-ordination Board, 275, 695.
District, Urban, 491–500.
Licensing Act, 274.
Travelling Scholarships, 161.
Trawlers, 381.
Treasury Bills, 457, 520, 532, 536.
Treaty of Waitangi, 39, 306.
Tree-planting, 374–378.
Trees, Indigenous, 32, 366–372.
Triennial Parliaments, 42.
Triplets, 75.
Tropical Diseases in Samoa, 706.
Trout, Acclimatization of, 384.
Truck Act, 633.
Trustee Companies Protection, 697.
Trustee, Native, 308.
Trustee, Public, 680.
Trustee Savings-banks, 527.
Tuberculosis, 104–108, 118, 122.
Maori Deaths from, 115.
Tung Oil Industry, 334.
Tungsten-ore, 388, 389, 391.
Turkeys, 363.
Turnips, 338, 342.
Tussock Land, 295, 344.
Twins and Triplets born, 75.

U.

Unclaimed Moneys, 526, 537.
Undergraduates, 149, 160.
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion, 57.
Undeveloped Land, Settlement of, 301.
Undischarged Bankrupts, 580.
Unemployment, 641–654, 695.
Convictions under Act, 169.
Fund, 441.
Small Farms Scheme, 334, 652.
Taxation, 442, 453.
Unimproved Occupied Land, 295.
Unimproved Value of Land, 508–513.
Holdings, 579, 591.
Land-tax assessed on, 443, 446, 591.
Rating on, 495.
Union (Tokclau) Islands, 2, 711.
Unions, Trade, 633, 637–640.
University Education, 149, 160, 162, 714.
Unproductive Land, 293, 295.
Upolu Island, 705.
Urban Areas, 63.
Fire Losses, 554.
Population, 63.
Unemployed registered in, 644.
Urban Drainage Districts, 491–500.
Urban Drift, 62.
Urban Farm Lands, Rating on, 327, 494, 507.
Urban Population, 61.
Urban Security, Mortgages on, 574, 577.

V.

Valuation of Land, 507–513.
Value added in Manufacturing, 401–415.
Value, in Sterling, of Dominion Trade, 191.
Value of Exports affected by Prices, 215.
Value of Land Holdings, 579, 591.
Value of Production, 687.
Veal slaughtered and exported, 361.
Vegetation, 26–34, 368-372.
Vehicles—
Motor (see Motor-vehicles).
Railway, 247.
Tramway, 256, 261.
Venereal Diseases, Control of, 126.
Vessels—
Employed in Fishing Industry, 381.
Entered and cleared, 238.
Nationality of, 238.
Registered, 237.
Survey of, 243.
War, 188.
Wrecked, 244.
Veterans’ Allowances, War, 482.
Villages, Population of, 67.
Village-settlements, Tenures, 300.
Vinegar-factories, 420.
Vineyards, 295, 346.
Violent Deaths, 112, 165. (See also Accidents.)
Virgin Bush, Area of, 295, 365.
Visible Trade-balance, 192.
Visitors to New Zealand, 52.
Vital Statistics, 70–124, 713.
Cook Islands, 701.
Niue Island, 703.
Western Samoa, 706.
Viticulture, 346.
Volcanoes, 2, 10.
Volume of Farm Production and Producers’
Prices, 317–319.
Voluntary Contributions to Hospitals, 134.
Voluntary Mental Patients, 144.
Volunteer Territorial Force, 183.
Voting—
At General Elections, 691.
At Licensing Polls, 693.
Qualifications, 43.
Vouchers, Audit of, 431.

W.

Wage-rates, 622–631.
Wages—
Lost through Industrial Accidents, 669.
Lost through Industrial Disputes, 655.
Of Afforestation Employees, 377.
Of Building Employees, 426.
Of Electric-supply Employees, 675.
Of Factory Employees, 403.
Reduction of, 623, 635.
Waikaremoana Power-supply. 671.
Waikato Power-supply, 671.
Waipori Power-supply, 671.
Waitaki Power-supply, 671.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 39, 306.
Waitangi Treaty Site, Gift of, 296.
Wakari Private Mental Hospital, 146.
War, 183, 187.
Bursaries for Soldiers’ Dependants, 157.
Expenditure, 459.
Increases in Pood-prices, 608.
Indebtedness, 459.
Pensions, 476, 480, 482.
Taxation, 446.
Veterans’ Allowances, 482.
Warships, 188.
Water-power, 671–679.
On Farms, 314.
Waters, Mineral, 3.
Water-supply Districts, 491–500.
Wealth, 586–592.
Weather, 15–23.
Weights and Measures, 130, 292.
Weraroa Training-farm, 159.
Western.Samoa, 2, 704–708.
Bibliography of, 771.
Naturalization. 59.
Population of, 706.
Radio-communications, 288.
Westminster, Statute of, 40.
Wethers, 349.
Whale-oil, 710.
World Production, 711.
Whales, 35, 710.
Whaling, 35, 382, 710.
International Statistics, 710.
Wheat, 338–341, 716.
Consumption of, 340, 690.
Dutv on, 744.
Export of. 202,213.
Research Institute, 313.
Whey Butter, 356.
White Island Sulphur, 393.
Whitebait, 382.
Wholesale Licenses, 692.
Wholesale Prices, 613.
Widows—
Left by Married Men, 99.
Pensions for, 476, 478.
Re-marriages of, 85.
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 680.
Wind, 15, 21.
Wine, Consumption of, 181, 690.
Wine Licenses, 692.
Wine-makers’ Licenses, 692.
Wire (Telegraph), Miles of, 286.
Wireless (see Radio).
Withdrawals from Savings-banks, 526, 527, 727.
Wives’ Petition in Divorce, 91.
Women—
Deaths of, in Childbirth, 110, 139.
Offences by, 178.
Suffrage for, 43.
Wage-rates of, 626.
Working-hours of, 629.
Wool, 350–353.
Export Price Index, 616.
Exported, 200–217, 235, 351, 719.
Stocks of, 351.
Used at Local Mills, 351, 424.
Woollen-mills, 424.
Wool purchased by, 424.
Wool-presses on Farms, 314.
Wool-scouring Works, 423.
Workers, Advances to, 474.
Workers’ Compensation, 546, 634, 635, 663.
Insurance, 545, 546.
Workers’ Dwellings, 474, 475, 633.
Workers’Educational Association, 162.
Workers’ Unions, 633, 637–640.
Workers’ Weekly Railway Tickets, 252.
Working Railways Account, 248, 434.
Working-days lost through Industrial Disputes, 654–661.
Working-hours, 629.
Working-men’s Clubs, 559.
World’s Gold-production, 391.
World’s Population, 69.
World’s Whale-catch, 710.
Wrecks, 244.

Y

Yaws in Samoa, 706.
Yields of Crops, 339–343, 716.

Z.

Zoology, 34–37.

Appendix B.