THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1935


Table of Contents

List of Tables

PREFACE.

THE preparation of the 43rd issue of the “Official Year-Book” has been carried out under the same financial restrictions as operated for its immediate predecessors. It has not been practicable to incorporate special surveys or to accord the desired fullness of treatment to features of current importance and wide interest. Nevertheless, within available resources, pains have been taken to add comprehensive and up-to-date data on significant topics. In result it is hoped that this issue will maintain the usefulness of the Year-Book at a time of far-reaching changes when a considered examination of present conditions has, perhaps, never been more necessary.

Experience has demonstrated the necessity of a foreword regarding the expression of monetary values in current statistics. While the broad movements that have led to the distinction between New Zealand currency and other currencies are probably well known, the statistical incidence is less appreciated. In general all monetary values herein are in terms of New Zealand currency, except where the contrary is specifically staled. This will occasion care, in some instances, when chronological comparisons are drawn. In a few instances the monetary unit is a composite one—e.g.. Public Debt, where English, New Zealand, and Australian pounds are totalled without conversion to a common unit. The view accepted here is that existing conditions represent fluctuations only, and since the question of present redemption does not arise, adjustment to a New Zealand currency basis would not remove possibilities of misconception.

Errors have been frequently observed in respect of the use of statistics of balance of visible trade. For Customs (and consequently for statistical) purposes merchandise imported is given value in sterling, except that Australian merchandise is given value in Australian currency. (Incidentally, since payments of duty are accepted in New Zealand currency without addition of exchange, the rate of exchange upon dutiable goods is commonly overstated.) Merchandise exported, on the contrary, is valued in New Zealand currency. Specie is recorded at face value. The unadjusted difference between recorded import and export merchandise values therefore does not correctly represent the visible balance of trade. Trade totals, expressed in both sterling and New Zealand currency, with correct figures of visible trade balance, are given in the first pages of the section on External Trade. In consonance with general practice both imports and exports are valued at the same point—i.e., at New Zealand ports. Import values thus include freight and accessory charges, a point of some importance in connection with balance of trade.

I desire to express cordial acknowledgment of assistance rendered by other Government Departments and by members of my staff, particularly Mr. D. J. Cruickshank, LL.B., Acting Chief Compiler, who has again done the whole of the editorial work.

J. W. BUTCHER,

Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Office,

Wellington, New Zealand, 15th December, 1934.

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

POPULATION:—Males.Females.Total.
Estimated (inclusive of Maoris but exclusive of residents of Cook and other Pacific islands) at 30th September, 1934790,887760,8981,551,785
MIGRATION:—Males.Females.Total.
Passenger arrivals, 1st April to 31st October, 19345,2034,7849,987
Passenger departures, 1st April to 31st October, 19347,5567,27414,830
VITAL STATISTICS:—Males.Females.Total.
Births, 1st January to 30th September, 19349,3758,73018,105
Deaths, 1st January to 30th September, 19345,1824,1949,376
Corresponding yearly rates per 1,000Births, 16.37; Deaths, 8.48
TRADE SUMMARY (EXCLUDING SPECIE):—£ (Sterling).£ (New Zealand Currency).
Exports, 1st January to 31st October, 193433,569,00041,934,000
Imports, 1st January to 31st October, 193420,656,00025,783,000
  Excess of Exports12,940,00016,151,000
  Quantity.Value. £ (N.Z.)
Exports, 1st January to 31st October, 1934: Principal items (New Zealand produce):—   
  Buttercwt.2,109,6398,121,860
  Cheesecwt.1,610,3203,786,798
  Beef, frozencwt.711,902754,108
  Lamb, whole carcasses, frozencwt.2,387,0217,269,141
  Mutton, whole carcasses, frozencwt.858,7971,515,755
  Pork, frozencwt.327,815867,703
  Veal, frozencwt.61,44875,747
  Sausage-casingslb.4,309,842693,985
  Milk, driedlb.14,450,114275,501
  Appleslb.57,761,408716,768
  Hides, cattle and horsenumber422,016391,806
  Sheep-skins, with woolnumber2,642,157479,077
  Sheep-skins, without woolnumber8,720,179696,210
  Woolbales704,71612,134,920
  Phormium-fibretons2,93639,226
  Grass-seedcwt.38,057117,306
  Tallowtons25,194434,086
  Coaltons36,31647,006
  Kauri-gumtons2,77973,939
  Goldoz.135,8891,102,991
  Timbersup. ft.26,618,899245,772
 Value £(Stg.)*
* Sterling except in case of imports from Australia, which are recorded in terms of Australian currency.
Imports, 1st January to 31st October, 1934: Principal items:— 
  Raisins142,612
  Sugar445,664
  Tea500,749
  Whisky218,849
  Cigarettes149,560
  Tobacco225,968
  Hosiery184,693
  Apparel755,991
  Boots, shoes, and slippers311,542
  Drapery n.e.i.218,366
  Carpeting, matting, and linoleum278,110
  Cotton piece-goods1,106,092
  Silk and artificial silk piece-goods656,447
  Woollen piece-goods488,594
  Motor-spirits n.e.i.757,093
  Crude petroleum, fuel oil, &c.221,616
  Coal85,448
  Paints, colours, and varnishes190,674
  Iron and steel—Galvanized plate and sheet219,921
  Iron and steel—Tubes, pipes, and fittings188,616
  Hardware, cutlery, and metal manufactures n.e.i.319,216
  Electrical machinery and equipment605,895
  Wireless apparatus270,214
  Timber156,354
  Paper, printing.203,786
  Paper, other132,092
  Books, papers, and music, printed271,052
  Fancy goods112,244
  Medicinal preparations n.e.i.210,021
  Phosphates266,777
  Motor-vehicles1,340,468
  Rubber-tires, &c., for motor-vehicles490,899
SHIPPING, OVERSEAS:—Number.Tonnage.
Inwards, 1st January to 31st October, 19344822,142,662
Outwards, 1st January to 31st October, 19344792,143,123
RAILWAYS:—£
Operating revenue, 1st April to 13th October, 19342,879,220
Operating expenditure, 1st April to 13th October, 19342,747,928
LAND TRANSFERS: REGISTRATIONS, 1ST APRIL TO 31ST OCTOBER, 1934—Number.Consideration. £
Town and suburban properties7,8733,299,425
Country properties3,1494,173,573
    Total11,0227,472,998
AGRICULTURE: AREAS SOWN OR INTENDED TO BE SOWN, SEASON 1934–35 (ACRES)—
Wheat228,600
Oats312,800
Barley22,600
Potatoes20,300
BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER TOWNS:—Number.Value £.
New buildings, 1st January to 31st October, 19341,9222,261,250
Alterations, 1st January to 31st October, 19344,892663,170
CONSOLIDATED FUND:—£
Receipts, 1st April to 30th September, 19349,900,125
Expenditure, 1st April to 30th September, 193412,860,571
SALES TAX:—£
Net amount collected, 1st January to 31st October, 19341,708,934
PENSIONS, OCTOBER, 1934:—Number.Annual Value.£
Old-age38,7751,530,320
Widows'4,542296,366
Military (Maori War)743,626
Boer War531,902
War21,5311,241,083
Miners'75657,711
Epidemic451,741
Blind46821,795
Family allowances12,268153,299
MORTGAGES:—Number.Amount £.
Registered, 1st April to 31st October,. 19348,6146,582,537
Discharged, 1st April to 31st October, 19348,3947,481,738
BANKRUPTCIES, 1ST JANUARY TO 31ST OCTOBER, 1934:—North Island.South Island.Total.
Persons, &c, adjudged bankrupt19369262
Deeds of assignment582987
ESTATES CERTIFIED FOR STAMP DUTY:—Number.Amount £.
1st January to 31st October, 19344,29913,025,022
INDEX NUMBERS OF PRICES, OCTOBER. 1934:—
Export prices: General index number (base: 1909–13 = 1000)1,042
Wholesale prices: General index number (base: 1909–13 = 1000)1338
Retail prices, all groups: Dominion index number (base: 1926–30 = 1000)806
Share prices: All Groups (base: 1926 = 1000)1,006
NOMINAL WAGE-RATES (ADULT MALES):—
Dominion index number (base: Year, 1914 = 1000), September quarter, 19341,365
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1ST JANUARY TO 30TH SEPTEMBER, 1934:—
Number reported17
Number of workers affected3,161
Approximate loss in wages£5,578
UNEMPLOYMENT:—
Numbers on register, 17th November, 1934 46,638

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS OFFICE.

Title.Latest No.Month of Issue.Price per Copy.Postage (extra).

* £1 Is. per annum (post free).

† No Census taken In 1031.

‡ Out of print.

    s.d.d.
New Zealand Official Year-Book1935Jan.,19357610
Annual Statistical Reports—
  Population and Buildings (including External Migration)1933–34Aug.,1934262
  Vital Statistics1933Oct.,1934508
  Justice1933Oct.,1934362
  Trade and Shipping (Part I)1933June,193420010
  Trade and Shipping (Part II)1933Oct.1934362
  Agricultural and Pastoral Production1933–34Nov.,1934261
  Factory and Building Production1932–33April,1934364
  Insurance1932Feb.,1934201
  Miscellaneous (Prices, Wage-rates and Hours of Labour, Unemployment, Industrial Accidents, Tramways, Banking, Building Societies, Bankruptcy, Statistical Summary)1932Feb.,1934404
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand (published annually)1934June,1934768
Monthly Abstract of Statistics..  *261
Volumes of Census Results (published quinquennially)
  Geographical Distribution1926May,1927464
  Dependencies1926Feb.,1927161
  Ages1926Nov.,1928202
  Conjugal Condition1926Feb.,1926262
  Orphan Children and Dependent Children.1926Mar.,1929202
  Race Aliens1926Feb.,1929202
  Native-born and Foreign-born1926May,1929202
  Religious Professions1926Nov.,1928202
  Industrial and Occupational Distribution.1926Mar.,1930303
  Unemployment from Sickness and other Causes1926Sept.,1930202
  Incomes1926May,1930362
  Families and Households1926April,1931202
  Dwellings1926Feb.,1931302
  Maori and Half-caste Population1926Mar.,1929303
  Public Libraries and Places of Worship1926Mar.,1927161
  Poultry1926Mar.,1927161
  General Report1926April,1931503

NOTE.—This list is subject to revision from time to time. Publications are obtainable from the Government Printer, Wellington,

Chapter 1. SECTION I.—DESCRIPTIVE.

NEW ZEALAND.—AREA, LOCATION, AND BOUNDARIES.

THE Dominion of New Zealand consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. These may be classified as follows:—

(a) Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general practical purposes:—

 Square Miles.
North Island and adjacent islets44,281
South Island and adjacent islets58,092
Stewart Island and adjacent islets670
Chatham Islands372
     Total103,415

In all further references in this volume, unless the context indicates the contrary, Chatham Islands and Stewart Island are included with the South Island.

(b) Outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847:—

 Square Miles.
Three Kings Islands3
Auckland Islands234
Campbell Island44
Antipodes Islands24
Bounty Islands
Snares Islands1
Solander Island

(c) Islands (total area, 293 square miles) annexed to New Zealand:—

Kermadec Islands, annexed in 1887 (area, 13 square miles).

Cook and other Pacific Islands, annexed in 1001:—

Cook Islands (area, 150 square miles)—

  • Rarotonga.

  • Mangaia.

  • Atiu.

  • Mitiaro.

  • Aitutaki.

  • Mauke (or Parry).

  • Takutea.

  • Manuae and Te-Au-o-Tu (Hervey Islands).

Islands outside the Cook Group (area, 130 square miles)—

  • Niue (or Savage).

  • Palmerston (or Avarau).

  • Penrhyn (or Tongareva).

  • Manihiki (or Humphrey).

  • Rakahanga (or Reirson).

  • Pukapuka (or Danger).

  • Suwarrow (or Anchorage).

  • Nassau.

The total area of the above is 104,015 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue the aggregate area appears as 66,390,262 acres—i.e.,103,735 square miles. This covers not only the Dominion proper, but also the outlying islands and the Kermadecs. All areas given are necessarily approximations.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30' S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then Colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Group of islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned in the following schedule, were included as from the 11th June, 1901:—

A line commencing at a point at the intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and proceeding due north to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; (hence due west to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; and thence due east to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich.

By mandate of the League of Nations the New Zealand Government also new administers the former German possession of Western Samoa; and, jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, holds the League's mandate over the Island of Nauru.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea (in the Antarctic regions), with the adjacent islands and territories, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, and named the Ross Dependency. The Governor-General of New Zealand is Governor of the Ross Dependency and is vested with the administration of the dependency. The dependency is uninhabited.

By Imperial Orders in Council of the 4th November, 1925, the Union or Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofu, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them, a total area of only four square miles) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and power in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of the 8th March, 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

MOUNTAINS.

The mountainous character of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Other dormant volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, both of which have, in recent years, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island contains much more mountainous country than is to be found in the North. Along almost its entire length runs the mighty chain known as the Southern Alps, rising to its culmination in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.). No fewer than seventeen peaks of the Southern Alps attain a height of over 10,000 ft. Owing to the snow-line being low in New Zealand, many large and beautiful glaciers exist. The Tasman Glacier (Southern Alps), which has a total length of over eighteen miles and an average width of one mile and a quarter, is the largest. On the west coast the terminal faces of the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers are but a few hundred feet above sea-level.

The following list has been compiled from various sources, and does not purport to be free of omissions:—

Mountain or Peak.Height (Feet).
North Island 
  Ruapehu9,175
  Egmont8,260
  Ngauruhoe7,515
Kaikoura Ranges 
  Tapuaenuku9,465
  Alarm9,400
Southern Alps 
  Cook12,349
  Tasman11,475
  Dampier11.287
  Silberhorn10,757
  Lendenfeldt10,450
  David's Dome10,443
  Malte Brim10,421
  Torros10,376
  Teichelmann10,370
  Sefton10,354
  Haast10,294
  Elie de Beaumont10,200
  Douglas Peak10,107
  La Perouse10,101
  Haidinger10.059
  De la Beche10,05S
  The Minarets10.058
  Aspiring9,975
  Hamilton9,915
  Glacier Peak9,865
  Aiguilles Rouges9,731
  Nazomi9,716
  Darwin9,715
  Chudleigh9,686
  Annan9,667
  Lowe9,653
  Haeckel9,649
  Le Receveur9,562
  Goldsmith9,532
  Big Mac9,511
  Conway Peak9,510
  Bristol Top9,508
  Walter9,507
  Grey9,490
  Green9,307
  Hutton9,297
  D'Archiac9,279
  Bell9,276
  Hochstetter Dome9,258
  Earnslaw9,250
  Nathan9,200
  Barnicoat9,183
  Sibbald9,181
  Arrowsmith9,171
  Spencer9,167
  The Footstool9,073
  Rudolf9,039
  The Dwarf9,025
Darran Range 
  Tutoko9,691
  Madeline9.042

The 1931 issue of the Year-Book contained a list, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude. In this issue, the list of South Island mountains is restricted to a minimum of 9,000 ft. altitude.

MINERAL WATERS AND SPAS.

The hot springs of the North Island form one of the most remarkable features of New Zealand. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some three hundred miles; but the principal seat of hydrothermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces at Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood was deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints —are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognized by the Government, and it is dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

There are also several small hot springs in the South Island, the best known being these at Hanmer. In addition to the major spas of Rotorua and To Aroha, which are controlled by the Department of Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and Publicity, and of Hanmer, administered by the Department of Health, there are numerous smaller resorts which have been developed by private or municipal enterprise. In many other instances the springs are wholly or mainly undeveloped.

In his book “The Hot Springs of New Zealand,” Dr. A. S. Herbert, O.B.E., M.D., gives the following grouping of the better-known waters corresponding roughly to their mineral-water classification:—

  • Sulphur waters: Rotorua, Hanmer, Taupo, Wairakei, Waiotapu.

  • Alkaline waters: Te Aroha.

  • Saline waters: Helensville, Waiwera, Tarawera.

  • Iodine waters: Morere, To Puia.

  • Calcium carbonated waters: Kamo.

  • Simple thermal waters: Okoroire and the Waikato springs.

The following article is by the Government Balneologist, Dr. J. D. C. Duncan, MB., Ch.B. (Edin.), Member of the International Society of Medical Hydrology, Fellow of the Royal Society' of Medicine, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society:—

INTRODUCTORY.

It has been acknowledged by the leading hydrologists in Europe that New Zealand possesses the most valuable mineral waters in existence. Not only are these mineral waters interesting from a tourist's point of view, but they are, because of their medicinal value, of great therapeutic importance, and, as a Dominion asset, worthy of the deepest scientific consideration.

From the spectacular aspect only a brief mention need be made in this article, as a full description of springs, geysers, and mud-pools has been given in Dr. Herbert's book, “The Hot Springs of New Zealand”—a book that presents a comprehensive and vivid picture of the main manifestations of thermal activity in New Zealand.

Dealing with the medical-scientific aspect of the mineral waters, the space of this article will permit only the shortest account of the treatments; and, as the Rotorua Spa is of premier importance, the article will be confined almost entirely to its operations.

Since and as the result of experience gained during the war, the subject of hydrotherapy has been recreated on modern scientific lines, and the actions of thermal mineral waters have been investigated, both chemically and physiologically. in determining their therapeutic value in the treatment of disease.

TREATMENT ESTABLISHMENTS.

The principal treatment establishments are the Main Bathhouse and the Ward Baths.

In the Main Bathhouse are a series of private bathrooms, slipper and step-down, each with its dressing-room attached, and a couch for packing purposes. The baths are arranged for either “Priest” or “Rachel” waters, with undercurrent douches and showers. There are, also, deep “Priest” pools at suitable temperatures for the treatment of chronic cases.

Off the main hall are treatment-rooms where massage and every variety of physiotherapeutic treatment can be given, and, in either wing of the building, a complete establishment for Aix-Vichy douche massage.

The Ward Bathhouse is a handsome new block of buildings which has replaced the old Pavilion Bathhouse. This building, divided into convenient sections for service and control, consists of a large main hall, swimming-pools, hot “Rachel” pools, “Old Priest” and “Radium” baths, and a block of private “Rachel” baths.

At the back of these buildings is an attractive sunken courtyard, with fountain and formal garden, surrounded on three sides by verandas, and on the fourth by an open pergola facing the lake. In this courtyard garden patients and visitors can bask in the sunshine, protected from prevailing winds.

The swimming-pools, open to the air, are spacious baths lined with white tiles and having douches, showers, and convenient dressing-cubicles. These provide recreational facilities for patients and visitors.

The “Radium“and “Priest” baths, built on the pumice bed of the soil, contain some of the most important therapeutic waters in existence, and are invaluable in the treatment of heart conditions and cases of nervous debility. In connection with these baths are comfortable rest-rooms and convenient massage establishments.

The private baths are of the porcelain, slipper variety, and step-down tiled baths—the latter designed for helpless or crippled patients.

The swimming-pools of the new Blue Bath afford one of the most attractive playgrounds for visitors to Rotorua. The larger pool, 100 ft. by 40 ft., with a depth of 4 ft. 6 in. to 9 ft., has unique diving-platforms. This pool is lighted under the water by 20 are lamps, which give a beautiful luminous effect to the water. The smaller pool, 70 ft. by 36 ft., is a safe and enjoyable playground for children of any age. The Blue Bath, with all its comfortable and attractive appointments, is one of the finest swimming-baths in the Southern Hemisphere.

MINERAL WATERS.

The mineral waters which have been harnessed for therapeutic- use at the Rotorua Spa are of two main varieties—viz., the “Rachel,” which is an alkaline, sulphuretted water, emollient to the skin, and sedative in reaction; and the “Priest,” or free-acid water, which, due to the presence of free sulphuric acid, is mainly stimulating and tonic in reaction. There is, in addition to the foregoing, a valuable silicious mud similar to that found in Pistany, in Czechoslavakia, which, in its own sphere in hydrotherapy, exerts its influence as a curative agent.

However, it is in the “Priest” waters that one finds one's most valuable ally in the treatment of arthritis, fibrositis (the so-called rheumatic affections), and cases of nervous debility. The “Rachel” and mud baths are used mostly in these cases of fibrositis where the condition requires a softening effect; and in the types where pain is a manifest symptom these baths are invaluable as soothing and sedative agents.

REACTIONS IN THE BATH.

In these natural acid baths the reactions are mainly stimulating, with increased hyperemia in the parts submerged, and marked lessening of pain and swelling in the affected joints and tissues. These waters containing free carbonic-acid gas are used for the cases of fibrositis in which the circulation requires the stimulating action of gaseous baths.

The “New Priest” waters, containing approximately 16.80 grains per gallon of free sulphuric acid, are utilized in the form of open pools, deep stop-down baths, and slipper baths. They are prescribed at a suitable temperature for the individual case.

The “Old Priest” waters, containing a much lower degree of free acid (3.77 grains to the gallon), and of varying temperatures (from 84° F. to 102° F.), are used for treatment at their source. The waters, percolating through their pumice-bed, are confined in pools, and contain free carbonic-acid gas bubbling through the water.

The very strong ” Postmaster” waters are also confined within pools on the natural pumice-bed, and, by a primitive arrangement of wooden sluice-valves, are maintained at three ranges of temperature—viz., 104°, 106°, and 108° F. They contain 22.29 grains of free sulphuric acid to the gallon, and are strongly counter-irritant in their reactions.

INDICATIONS AND TECHNIQUE.

In such a brief account as this one can deal only in generalizations, and the forms of treatment mentioned must necessarily be subject to wide variations. In any form of hydro-therapeutic treatment the regime must be adapted to the individual manifestations of the disease, and no routine rules or regulations can be laid down in spa operations.

The “New Priest” waters are, for the most part, prescribed for patients suffering from subacute or chronic fibrositis, subacute or chronic gout, and the various forms of arthritis. Except in cases of marked debility, these patients are given graduated baths, at temperatures ranging from 102° to 104° F., from ten to fifteen minutes daily. Most of the baths are fitted with a subaqueous douche having a pressure of 25 lb. to the square inch, which is directed under water on the affected tissues. The bath is usually followed by a light or hot pack, according to the needs of the case.

The subthermal “Old Priest” waters (temperature 84° F.), containing a high degree of free carbonic-acid gas, are particularly valuable in the treatment of functional nervous disease, and the methods of administration are similar to these obtaining at Nauheim (Germany). The reactions are markedly stimulating through the sympathetic nervous system, and bring about, by reflex action, a tonic effect on the heart.

The “Postmaster” baths are used in the treatment of the more chronic forms of fibrositis, arthritis deformans, and gout, requiring a more or less heroic type of procedure. They are usually prescribed in combination—i.e., a certain time in each pool, commencing with the lowest temperature. The hyperaemic reaction is most marked,. and in many of the cases where pain is a predominant symptom there is a temporary paralysis of the surface nerves, as well as a strong reflex excitation of the heart. For this reason these baths are not given to patients suffering from cardiac weakness.

The mud baths being highly impregnated with silica, which has a bland, sedative effect on the tissues, are particularly indicated in cases of acute or subacute neuritis, gout, and certain skin conditions. The action of these baths is to induce an active hyperæmia in the patient with an actual absorption of free sulphur, which is present in considerable quantity. Also the radio-activity of this medium (0.185 per c.c.) is possibly an active factor in the therapeutic action of these baths. In some of the cases undergoing mud-bath treatment the effect has been almost miraculous—instant relief from pain; reduction of swelling caused by inflammatory exudates—and such patients have been able to discard crutches or other adventitious aids and to walk with more or less normal comfort.

Perhaps, of more recent date, the most efficacious effects of mud treatments have been manifested in cases of skin conditions—notably psoriasis: eases which have resisted all forms of drug treatment have cleared up in an almost magical manner; and so frequently have such cures been effected that one believes that the silicious mud of Rotorua has some markedly specific action as a therapeutic agent.

The treatment of gout depends entirely on the individual manifestations. In certain subacute and chronic types fairly high temperatures (104° to 1013° F., with hot packs) of “Priest ” water are employed, in order to hasten the absorption of exudates and the elimination of uric acid. In cases of acute gout more sedative measures are pursued, such as “Rachel ” baths at neutral temperatures, local mud packs, and rest. As soon as the conditions permit, these patients are changed over to acid water baths. Cases of chronic gout exhibiting metabolic stagnation sometimes receive considerable benefit from the counter-irritant effects of the strongly acid “Postmaster” waters.

ACCESSORY TREATMENTS.

Separate establishments, containing the most modern apparatus of sprays, douches, hot steam, &c, are available for wet massage and treatments of the Aix-Vichy type.

The massage-rooms are fitted with the latest installations of electrical equipment—Bristowe tables, diathermy, high frequency, Bergonie chair, X-ray, Schnée baths, Greville hot air, and other apparatus for carrying out the most up-to-date methods of electrical-therapeutic treatments.

The baths are administered by a trained staff of attendants, and the massage, electrical-therapy, and douches carried out by a qualified staff of operators.

In every respect the hydrotherapy treatments aim at a restoration of function, and the measures employed are, for the most part, re-educative.

SANATORIUM AND GENERAL STATISTICS.

In connection with the Rotorua Spa is a sanatorium of seventy beds, where patients whose finances are restricted can receive treatment at an exceedingly moderate cost. The institution consists of cubicles and open wards. Thermal baths and massage-rooms in the building provide for the more helpless type of invalid.

From sixty thousand to eighty thousand baths are given annually, and about thirty thousand special treatments—massage, electrical therapy, &c.—are administered each year at the Rotorua Spa. The usual course of treatment lasts from four to six weeks, and the high percentage of cures and improvements testifies to the value of the thermal, mineral waters and the hydro-therapeutic treatments obtaining in this Dominion.

RIVERS.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand by Professor R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum.

Space in this issue is, however, available only for a list of the more important rivers, with their approximate lengths, the latter being supplied by the Department of Lands and Survey. Figures in parentheses indicate the approximate discharge, in cubic feet, per minute.

NORTH ISLAND.

 Miles.
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean— 
  Piako60
  Waihou (or Thames)90
  Rangitaiki95
  Whakatane60
  Waiapu55
  Waipaoa50
  Wairoa50
  Mohaka80
  Ngaururoro85
  Tukituki65
  
Flowing into Cook Strait— 
  Ruamahanga70
  Hutt35
  Otaki30
  Manawatu (over 600,000)100
  Rangitikei115
  Turakina65
  Wangaehu85
  Wanganui (over 500,000)140
  Waitotara50
  Patea65
  
Flowing into the Tasman Sea— 
  Waitara65
  Mokau75
  Waikato (over 800,000)220
  Wairoa (over 250,000)95
  Hokianga40

SOUTH ISLAND.

 Miles.
Flowing into Cook Strait— 
  Aorere45
  Takaka45
  Motueka75
  Wai-iti30
  Pelorus40
  Wairau105
  Awatere70
  
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—- 
  Clarence125
  Conway30
  Waiau110
  Hurunui90
  Waipara40
  Ashley55
  Waimakariri (low water 80,000 normal flood 500,000)93
  Selwyn55
  Rakaia95
  Ashburton67
  Rangitata75
  Opihi50
  Pareora35
  Waihao45
  Waitaki135
  Kakanui40
  Shag45
  Taieri125
  Clutha (over 2,000,000)210
  
Flowing into Foveaux Strait— 
  Mataura120
  Oreti105
  Aparima65
  Waiau115
  
Flowing into the Tasman Sea— 
  Cleddau and Arthur20
  Hollyford50
  Cascade40
  Arawata45
  Haast60
  Karangarua30
  Cook25
  Waiho20
  Wataroa35
  Wanganui35
  Waitaha25
  Hokitika40
  Arahura35
  Taramakau45
  Grey75
  Buller (nearly 1,000,000)105
  Mokihinui30
  Karamea45
  Heaphy25

LAKES.

An article on the lakes of New Zealand, also by Professor R. Speight, will be found in the 1932 Year-Book. The more important lakes are stated below.

Lake.Length, in Miles.Greatest Breadth, in Miles.Area, in Square Miles.Drainage Area, in Square Miles.Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per Second.Height above Sea-level, in Feet.Greatest Depth, in Feet.
North Island. 
Taupo25172381,2505,0001,211534
Rotorua63215842091584
Rotoiti10¾1426500913230
Tarawera6 ½1575 1,032285
Waikaremoana12211287722,015846
Wairarapa104271,250.. 64
        
South Island. 
Rotoiti5286..1,997228
Rotoroa78146..1,470..
Brunner5416145..280357
Kanieri5811..422646
Coleridge1131870..1,667680
Tekapo124325805,0002,323620
Pukaki105315156,0001,588..
Ohau103234245,0001,720..
Hawea205485185,7001,062..
Wanaka30475960..922..
Wakatipu5231121,16213,0001,0161,242
Te Anau3361321,32012,660694906
Manapouri12656416..5961,458
Monowai1211251700600..
Hauroko203251951,800611..
Poteriteri17217162..96..
Waihola1 1/83⅓2,200..(Tidal)52
Ellesmere1610107½745..(Tidal)45

GEOLOGY.

The following article on the geology of New Zealand was prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.K.S.N.Z., Director of the Geological Survey:—

INTRODUCTION.

New Zealand is a small country, but its geological history is as complex and as ancient as that of a continent. Land, though from age to age it varied greatly in area, outline, and elevation, must have persisted in the New Zealand area from the oldest Palaeozoic or earlier. Long periods during which gentle regional oscillations and warpings, aided by the slow-acting forces of denudation, brought about gradual changes were interrupted by great revolutions, when earth-stresses ridged the crust into mountains and quickly altered the whole configuration of the land and sea-floor. For New Zealand the important geological periods are these that followed the two latest mountain-building movements—the Kaikoura deformation of late Tertiary time, and the Hokonui deformation of the early Cretaceous. The deposits laid down in the intervening period of relative crustal stability cover a large proportion of the land, and contain all the coal and most of the limestone of the Dominion. The soils on which grow the forests, pastures, and crops are of post-Tertiary age, and the great bulk of the gold has been won from deposits formed during the same period.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE STRATIGRAPHY.

The oldest known fossiliferous rocks in New Zealand are the Ordovician slates and greywackes of west Nelson and south-west Otago. Lower unfossiliferous beds of the same great system extend southward from the northern area and outcrop in the Westport, Reefton, Greymouth, Ross, and Okarito districts. Above the fossil-bearing beds, but probably also of Ordovician age, are the black phyllites, quartzites, and marbles which outcrop continuously from Takaka to Mount Owen, and are again exposed in the upper basins of the Matakitaki, Maruia, and Grey Rivers. The similar rocks of western Otago probably also belong to this group. The complex of gneisses and schists of the same region, intruded by acid and basic plutonics, and usually considered of Archæan age, resembles the part of the Ordovician strata of western Nelson that has been similarly invaded and metamorphosed and may well be of early Palaeozoic age. Different authorities assign the mica, chlorite, and quartz schists of Central Otago to ages that range from the Archuean to the Triassic. They are certainly Pahaeozoic or older, since they grade upward into greywackes that, at Clinton, contain Permian fossils.

Silurian rocks are certainly known only in the Baton and Wangapeka districts, and Devonian rocks at Wangapeka and Reefton. These beds, fossils from which have lately been examined in England, cover only small areas. But the old Geological Survey mapped wide tracts of country in Nelson and Otago, covered with beds of the Te Anau Series, as Devonian, and the correlation may well be correct, though the rocks are entirely unfossiliferous.

The Maitai Series, which forms the ranges on the south-east side of the Nelson lowlands, are probably of Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous age. Their position in the time scale and their correlation with rocks in other parts of New Zealand have provoked much discussion. Permian strata, as already stated, occur in Otago, where the area they cover may be considerable.

Richly fossiliferous late Triassic rocks are known in the Kawhia-Mokau district, near the City of Nelson, and at several localities in Canterbury and Otago. Except in Nelson and Canterbury, strata that contain fossils referable to several stages of the Jurassic succeed without observed unconformity. The broad belt of greywacke and argillite that forms the mountains of Canterbury and Marlborough, and continues as a narrower belt through Wellington to northern Hawke's Bay, is usually referred to the Trias-Jura. Similar rocks outcrop in the centre of the North Island and at many points in North Auckland. There are Upper Triassic molluscs in these beds at several localities, and the vertebra of a saurian with Triassic rather than Permian affinities was found near Wellington. Lithologically the greywackes and argillites of this vast series differ somewhat from the rocks of similar type belonging to the Jurassic and Maitai series; they are therefore thought to be of older Triassic age, but may well range into the Permian. The schists occurring with them in the Kaimanawa, Kaikoura, Moorhouse, and Kirkliston Ranges are probably older.

The thick conglomerates conformably overlying the younger Jurassic shales of the Port Waikato, Kawhia, and Coromandel regions belong to either the youngest Jurassic or the oldest Cretaceous. Strata of early and middle Cretaceous age occur east of the main axis of New Zealand at several points from Marlborough to East Cape. Late Cretaceous beds are much more widely distributed, being known in North Auckland and in many localities along the eastern side of both Islands. They contain thick layers of black shale that give many indications of oil, which, however, has not yet been found in commercial amount. The oldest known workable coal-seams in New Zealand, these at Broken River, Malvern Hills, Shag Point, and Kaitangata, and perhaps some near Greymouth, are in young Cretaceous beds.

Tertiary rocks form the greater part of the North Island and are widely distributed in the South. As a whole they are weaker and more readily weathered than the older strata, and hence have given rise to less rugged country, new mostly cleared and grassed and forming productive pastoral land.

Eocene rocks are present in North Auckland, and probably also in the Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, and east Wellington districts. In the South Island they occur on the West Coast and in Canterbury and Otago, in which regions they contain valuable coal-scams worked at Westport, Reefton, Greymouth, Mount Somers, and Milton. Of the same age are the auriferous “cements” of the Tuapeka district that greatly enriched the gravels of the neighbouring streams and are themselves worked for gold.

In Oligocene time the maximum subsidence during the Tertiary occurred, and but little of the New Zealand area remained above sea-level at its close. The thick limestones of the Oamaru district and the contemporaneous limestone prominent in many parts of New Zealand are the younger deposits of this age. The older beds contain the extensive coal-measures of the North Auckland, Waikato, Charleston, and other coalfields.

Miocene strata cover large areas in both islands, and also outcrop in the Wanganui, Gisborne, and Hawke's Bay regions, where Oligocene beds are altogether absent. In north Taranaki, the Murchison basin, and parts of the West Coast, thick coal-measures of this age contain workable seams of brown coal.

During the Pliocene the New Zealand area, which had been intermittently rising since the close of the Oligocene, was greatly elevated and deformed. The earth-blocks from which the present mountains have been carved were uplifted from, or from near, sea-level, and New Zealand as it new is was roughly shaped out. In the South Island the deposits of this period are chiefly gravels deposited in structural depressions; but in the North, and especially in its southern half, there are thick and extensive shoal-water marine sediments. These, and the underlying Miocene strata, are the source of the petroleum found at New Plymouth.

The Pleistocene was a period of regional oscillation. While the land was high the mountains of the South Island were intensely glaciated, and great ice-streams, carrying vast bodies of debris, descended into the low country; after the highlands had been reduced in height through both denudation and decided subsidence the glaciers rapidly retreated, and are to-day represented by comparatively small remnants far in the mountains. While the ice was melting, the rivers of the South Island were unusually active in transporting waste to the lowlands and the sea. At this time, too, as well as somewhat earlier, the volcanoes of the North Island ejected an abundant supply of fragmentary' material, much of which was borne away by the streams and used in building plains.

The deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age are in New Zealand of greater economic importance than these of all other ages. The plains, river-flats, and lowlands generally were formed or profoundly modified during this period, and the soils that cover them produced. During the same time practically all the gold won from the gravels of the South Island was liberated from a hard matrix and concentrated into workable deposits, and the rich bonanzas of the lodes of Hauraki were formed by secondary enrichment. The land-oscillations of the period are also of economic importance, for New Zealand's abundant water-power is derived from streams that have not yet, owing to the recency of land-uplift, cut their valleys to grade. On the other hand, land-depression has provided harbours and valuable artesian basins in many parts of the Dominion.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.

Plutonic rocks intrude many of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata, and some of the formations show evidence of contemporaneous volcanic action. Of the plutonic rocks granite is much the most prominent, and it outcrops at many points in west Nelson, Westland, Otago, and Stewart Island. In Nelson there were at least two periods of intrusion, probably corresponding with the great mountain-folding movements of the late Palaeozoic and early Cretaceous times. The auriferous lodes of Reefton and other localities on the West Coast probably originated from the cooling magmas that formed the younger granites. Basic and ultra-basic rocks, the latter new largely altered to serpentine, occur in Nelson, Westland, Otago, and, to a less extent, in North Auckland.

Though volcanoes are known to have existed in Mesozoic and Palaeozoic times, they seem to have been more active during the Tertiary than in any earlier age. The vast pile of flow and fragmental rocks that form the Hauraki Peninsula and the range that continues it southward to Tauranga belong to this period. The gold-silver veins extensively worked at Coromandel, Thames, and Waihi are in these rocks, which southward are smothered by the rhyolitic pumice that vents in the Taupo-Rotorua zone ejected during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Thick showers of pumice from this region cover a large part of the centre of the North Island and streams have carried the finer material to practically all the low-lying parts of the island. The volcanoes are still alive, as is evidenced by the steam-vents, hot springs, and geysers found in the depressed zone extending from Ruapehu to White Island. The volcanic rocks of Taranaki probably range from the Miocene to the Pleistocene in age. The basalts and scoria cones that occur so abundantly between Kawhia and the Bay of Islands belong for the most part to the late Pliocene and Pleistocene, though cones at Auckland City are probably Recent.

In the South Island the volcanoes appear to be quite dead, for the hot springs at Hanmer and near the alpine chain are due to other causes. In the middle Tertiary, however, there were outbursts at many points, the chief eruptions being at Banks Peninsula and about Dunedin.

CONCLUSION.

In a short article it is impossible to give an adequate idea of what geological workers have accomplished in New Zealand, or of what they have yet to do in order that the wisest use may be made of the country's mineral and agricultural resources. For good general accounts the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall should be consulted, and for more detailed information the bulletins of the Geological Survey and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions” of the New Zealand Institute (now the Royal Society of New Zealand).

SEISMOLOGY.

The following article dealing with earthquakes in New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. C. E. Adams, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer and Seismologist, with the assistance of Br; J. Henderson, Director of the Geological Survey.

Earthquake and volcanic activity are manifestations of the adjustments constantly occurring in the earth's crust. In the not far distant past, geologically speaking, a more or less continuous belt of mountains was raised up round the border of the great sunken area of the Pacific, and this belt as a whole is characterized by “chronic and acute seismicity.” At times the earthquakes occur within the belt itself, though a large proportion have their epicentres on its submerged frontal slope.

The South Island of New Zealand and the eastern part of the North are on the crest of the great mountain ridge or crustal fold which forms a portion of the real border of the Pacific. This ridge maintains a relatively straight course north-north-east for 1,600 miles across the floor of the Pacific, nearly to Samoa. The Auckland Peninsula, part of a decidedly weaker fold, meets the main fold nearly at right angles in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic region. The earthquakes of this seismically sensitive district, though they may be locally severe, are not usually felt far from their points of origin. On the other hand, the tectonic earthquakes that occur along the main earth-fold shake large areas, some of them being recorded on instruments throughout the world. These are caused by the slipping of earth-blocks against their neighbours along fractures.

Many great faults and fault-zones have been traced for long distances, but a few only have been active since European occupation. The Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 raised an area sixty miles long in a north-east direction and in parts ten miles wide. The uplift was greatest along the south-east edge of the area, for miles amounting to 6 ft. or more. Numerous levels on the Heretaunga Plain and along the railway north of Napier show that the uplift decreased northwestward, so that the area was slightly tilted in that direction. The ground east of the uplifted area sank, and parts of the Napier and Wairoa flats are over a foot lower than before the earthquake. In 1029 movement along a north-trending fault seven miles west of Murchison raised the ground east of the fault about 15 ft., and caused it to shift north-west about 9 ft. The uplift gradually decreases eastward and dies out sixteen miles from the fault, facts indicating a slight tilt of the earth-block toward the east. Recent levellings show that the block is sinking somewhat irregularly, a movement, no doubt, causing some of the innumerable local after-shocks felt in the area over many months. Other sensible earth-movements occurred in connection with the. Taupo earthquake series of 1922.* the Amuri earthquake of 1888,† the Wellington earthquake of 1885,‡ and probably the Awatere earthquake of 1848.* There is also definite evidence of geologically recent differential movement of earth-blocks at several widely separated points in both Islands.

* P. G. Morgan: N.Z. Geological Survey; Annual Report for the year 1923, p. 10. † Alexander Mckay: Reports of Geological Explorations during 1888–89. Wellington, 1890. ‡ New Zealand Government Gazette, Wellington, Vol. 2, No. 14, 17th October, 1855, p. 116. Sir Charles Lyell, “The Principles of Geology,” tenth edition, 1868, Vol. 2, p. 82. London: John Murray.

In previous numbers of the Year-Book the origins of earthquakes have been classified according to locality. In recent years, however, a great many more epicentres have been determined, and it is new found impossible to make a satisfactory classification according to locality.

New Zealand is traversed by an active seismic region, which, commencing in the East Cape Peninsula, runs in a general south-westerly direction, embracing the southern portion of the North Island, Cook Strait, and the northern and western portions of the South Island. Districts within this region are liable to frequent earthquakes, whilst these outside it experience occasional shocks only.

EARTHQUAKES IN 1933.

Seismic activity in New Zealand was considerably lower in 1033 than during the previous eight years. No major earthquakes occurred, and no earthquakes were reported above 7 on the Rossi-Forel scale.

The following is a list of all important New Zealand earthquakes during the year 1933. The summary includes (1) earthquakes of high intensity. (2) earthquakes felt over a wide area:—

New Zealand Mean Time.Position of Epicentre.Maximum R.-F. Intensity as felt.Station reporting Maximum Intensity.
South Lat.East Long.
1933. d. h. m.     
Feb. 22 0 2941.0172.36.7Takaka.
Mar. 30 18 4938.0179.55Tokomaru Bay.
April 11 12 4539.8176.55Wairoa.
May 15 19 5039.5177.56Hawke's Bay.
June 29 10 4940.7172.56Takaka.
July 26 11 340.5172.57Takaka, Nelson.
Aug. 27 10 2540.0175.04.5West Coast, North Island.
Nov. 3 4 4841.2174.06Cook Strait.
Dec. 13 20 1840.0175.56Southern part of North Island.

INSTRUMENTAL RECORDS.

During 1933 thirteen seismograph stations have been in continuous operation in New Zealand and the neighbouring islands. By the courtesy of the Government of Fiji the records from the Suva seismograph are forwarded to the Dominion Observatory, Wellington, for measurement. The New Zealand subsidiary stations are operated by officers of various Government Departments and by private individuals. Two of the stations are privately owned, the observers supplying records and reports, and thus assisting in the general seismological work. A set of Weichert seismographs with mechanical registration is installed at Apia Observatory, Western Samoa.

The Dominion Observatory, Wellington, and the Magnetic Observatory, Christ-church, publish preliminary earthquake reports each month, giving data regarding the principal earthquakes recorded. More complete reports are also published from time to time. These reports are sent to the General Secretary of the Seismological Committee of the British Association, to the Station Central Sismologique, Strasbourg, France, and to the principal observatories of the world.

* New Zealand. Government Gazette, Auckland, Vol. 1, No. 27, 13th November, 1848, and Vol. 1, No. 29, 20th November, 1848. H. S. Chapman in Westminster Review, Vol. 51, 1849.

NON-INSTRUMENTAL RECORDS.

Since 1888 there has been established in New Zealand a system of observing local earthquakes depending entirely on personal observations. At first this system was confined to selected telegraph-offices throughout the Dominion, but more recently a number of lighthouse-keepers have also taken up the work, as well as many private observers. Special forms are supplied for reporting earthquakes, in which information is required concerning the observed time of the shock, the direction and the duration of the movement, and also general effects which are likely to lead to a determination of the intensity of the earthquake.

The following summary includes all earthquakes reported felt in New Zealand in 1933:—

Month.Number of Earthquakes reported.Maximum Intensity R.-F. Scale.Locality of Maximum.
North Island.South Island.Both Islands.Total.
January5054 Widely distributed.
February04047Takaka.
March792146Hicks Bay, Hermitage.
April930125Waipawa.
May1251166Napier.
June571116Takaka.
July51067Takaka.
August50055Wanganui.
September42155Waiatu Valley, Owen River.
October952126Tokaanu.
November671126Cook Strait.
December42066Marton, Feilding, Kahurangi Point.
    Totals714581087Takaka.

The next table gives the number of earthquakes in the year 1933, in which the maximum intensity as reported reached the various degrees of the Rossi-Forel scale.

Month.Rossi-Forel Intensity.Totals.
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.
January....23............5
February....12....1......4
March..24422........14
April..2721..........12
May..16441........16
June....6221........11
July..2111..1......6
August..2111..........5
September..111..2..........5
October....6411........12
November114321........12
December1..1..31........6
    Totals21140271972......108

The total number of earthquakes felt and the maximum intensities reached in each of the years 1921 to 1933 (inclusive) are as follows:—

Year.Number of Shocks.Maximum Intensity R.-F. Scale.
1921918
19221,1878
1923766
1924707
1925768
19261738
19271078
1928808
192967810
19307488
193143210
19323139
19331087

DEATHS DUE TO EARTHQUAKES IN NEW ZEALAND.

During the years 1932 and 1933 no deaths resulted from earthquakes in New Zealand. The number of deaths due to' earthquakes at present totals 279, 255 of which were due to the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3rd February, 1931.

For details regarding deaths due to earthquakes in New Zealand the reader is referred to the Official Year-Book for 1933.

CLIMATE.

THE following article on the climate of New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. E. Kidson, O.B.E.. D.Sc, F.R.S.N.Z., Director of Meteorological Services:—

THE METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE.

The New Zealand Meteorological Office is located at Wellington. Weather forecasts, based on observations at 9 a.m. and 4 p.m., are issued at noon and 5 p.m. respectively. The midday forecast is telegraphed to approximately one hundred country centres, where it is displayed at the post-offices. The evening forecast is broadcasted from the New Zealand Broadcasting Board's stations at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin at 7 p.m. and 9 p.m. The 7 p.m. issue from Wellington includes weather reports from a series of stations as well distributed as possible over the Dominion and the surrounding area.

Rainfall data from approximately four hundred stations are printed monthly in the Government Gazette. Observations of temperature, pressure, sunshine, wind, &c., from about, forty-five stations are published annual- by the Meteorological Office. Papers on various aspects of the climate and weather of the Dominion are published from time to time as “Meteorological Office Notes.”

CLIMATE: GENERAL CONDITIONS.

New Zealand lies wholly within the Temperate Zone, and, though they are stronger and more persistent farther southward, it is also wholly and at all seasons within the zone of prevailing westerly winds. Owing to its isolation and its narrowness in the direction of the prevailing winds, its climate is predominantly marine in character. Nevertheless, the modifications due to the height and continuity of the main ranges and the general high relief of the country are quite considerable, especially in the South Island. There is, for example, a very great variation in the rainfall from the western to the eastern side of the Southern Alps, and for so narrow a country features of a continental type are rather strongly developed in the interior of the South Island. By breaking up the prevailing winds and causing the air at different levels to mix, mountains tend, also, to prevent the stratification of the air into layers of different density. Consequently very extensive and persistent cloud-sheets are seldom experienced. New Zealand therefore enjoys a high percentage of sunshine, a factor of great importance in the climate of a country with so high a rainfall.

The principal current in the surrounding ocean waters is from south-west to north-east. Off the west coast of the South Island, however, the current divides, one branch turning southwards to Foveaux Strait, while others pass through Cook Strait and round the northern extremity of the Dominion. The rather small range in climate from north to south is probably accounted for by this current.

According to the widely accepted classification of climates developed by W. Köppen, New Zealand has the climatic formula Of, denoting a cool-temperate moist climate without marked seasonal variations in temperature or precipitation. Under the same formula are classified southern Victoria and Tasmania and parts of southern Chile in the Southern Hemisphere, much of Europe, Japan and Korea, and a strip of the west coast of North America in the Northern Hemisphere. Generally, however, it is a climate characteristic of the ocean rather than the land areas of the Temperate Zone.

RAINFALL.

Of all the climatic elements, probably the one that exerts the greatest influence on our lives is rainfall. It causes us much personal discomfort, but the production of the food by which we live depends directly on the availability of moisture from this source.

Its control by topography in New Zealand is very conspicuous. Areas exposed to the westerly winds have heavier rains than these protected from them by mountain ranges. Next, the greater the altitude, the greater in general is the precipitation. There must be a limit beyond which precipitation begins to decrease again with altitude, but this has not yet been determined in this country. The indications are that precipitation is heaviest between 3,000 ft. and 4,000 ft. The annual total varies from about 13 in. at Galloway in Central Otago to over 200 in. in parts of the Southern Alps and on Mount Egmont.

The distribution of the precipitation throughout the year is little less important than its total amount, the effect of rainfall in winter, for example, being very different from that in summer. There are three principal factors controlling the annual variation of rainfall in New Zealand. The first of these is the proximity to the high-pressure belt in the subtropics. In this belt the rainfall year is divided into a dry summer and a wet winter season. We will call this distribution type A. As the distance from the high-pressure belt increases, the contrast between summer and winter decreases, so that by the time southern New Zealand is reached the variation due to this factor is small. The next most important factor is the influence of the prevailing westerly winds. These bring rains to the areas exposed to them, while these which are protected from them by mountain ranges have little rain when the westerlies are blowing. Now, the westerly winds are strongest in spring, the maximum flow being in October. There is a temporary drop in February, followed by a partial recovery in the autumn, but the flow is least in winter. The regime of the westerly winds, therefore, tends to produce a second type of annual variation, type C, in which the rainfall is heaviest in spring, falls somewhat in the late summer, increases again in the autumn, and falls to a minimum in winter.

The third factor is the convection which takes place during periods of light winds, clear skies, and intense sunshine, especially when the preceding winds have brought cold air over the land from the South. After conditions of the type mentioned have endured for several days, the convection is likely to be so intense as to produce local showers. These are often heavy, sometimes accompanied by thunder, and occasionally of the nature of local cloud-bursts. Rainfall of this type is most common in the interior of continents. Being caused by solar radiation, it is most frequent when solar radiation is strongest—namely, in summer. According to type B. therefore, we would have a relatively wet summer and a dry winter.

Table 1. MONTHLY RAINFALLS, IN INCHES.

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Cape Maria van Diemen1.712.882.033.864.834.623.993.732.842.561.611.6536.31
Auckland2.743.043.013.544.664.955.074.233.713.723.312.9144.89
Rotorua4.213.703.514.525.725.235.054.975.135.244.143.7655.18
Tolaga Bay3.214.424.735.497.716.386.706.063.603.202.903.0357.55
Riversdale, Inglewood7.506.077.128.099.7410.2910.218.809.6910.399.227.57104.75
Napier3.022.763.162.783.713.513.823.502.222.232.432.3135.45
Waitatapia, Bulls2.432.502.463.003.533.183.252.683.783.633.222.7135.37
Ditton, near Masterton3.142.963.583.075.454.985.504.783.714.363.563.0148.79
Wellington2.812.673.113.533.984.194.713.823.113.412.902.8441.08
Nelson2.802.592.962.993.063.543.523.033.693.492.992.9837.64
Marshlands, Blenheim2.192.202.252.272.943.193.582.662.712.502.351.9930.83
Hanmer3.933.193.283.304.393.564.443.414.653.873.613.9445.57
Hokitika9.897.149.749.299.719.308.879.279.2111.8310.7310.44115.42
Christchurch2.201.711.981.852.532.682.691.851.741.691.922.1524.99
Peel Forest4.844.054.383.542.5l2.753.422.573.773.854.014.8544.54
Oamaru2.041.741.801.701.592.011.741.751.661.731.912.2421.97
Clyde1.821.061.501 .121.000.080.920.801.051.621.351.7915.26
Dunedin3.422.712.942.743.113.163.013.092.753.123.253.5430.84
Invercargill3.963.113.894.144.343.633.283.253.274.504.414.0745.85

A rainfall regime of type A in a fairly pure form is experienced in the part of the Auckland Province north, roughly, of Kawhia and Tauranga, and on the eastern side of the main ranges from Cook Strait to East Cape. It is still dominant in the lower county about the Tasman and Golden Bays, and in Marlborough and North Canterbury. Type C is developed strongly in Westland and the south-west Fiord country. It is shown fairly well by Hokitika, but much more distinctly if the data for a number of West Coast stations be combined. It is dominant in the far South, in the mountains of Nelson, and in the portion of the North Island not yet referred to. In this latter area, however, types A and C combine in varying proportions. Most districts show the effect of the westerly winds in a relatively high rainfall in October, but this is least noticeable in the low country east of the main ranges. The areas where type C dominates are these with the heaviest rainfall. Type B is dominant in the interior and southern portions of Canterbury and the central and eastern portions of Otago, and is especially characteristic of the dry areas of the provinces mentioned. The summer rains of this type are of great importance to the farming communities in the interior of Canterbury and Otago. The regime of annual rainfall experienced had an important influence in determining the nature of the primitive vegetation in the various districts.

Table 2. DAYS WITH RAIN.

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Auckland10.39.811.114.118.719.520.919.417.616.615.911.8185.7
New Plymouth12.710.411.913.317.717.618.818.417.618.416.314.2188.6
Napier7.87.57.78.010.411.112.011.19.88.88.57.7111.2
Wellington10.78.911.212.816.417.018.117.115.114.112.812.0166.2
Marshlands, Blenheim7.15.86.87.58.58.49.99.08.59.58.27.897.0
Hokitika13.311.414.315.215.415.315.915.616.919.217.816.3186.6
Christchurch9.77.79.29.611.712.613.211.310.09.710.39.8124.8
Clyde7.75.16.16.05.75.65.15.86.17.97.07.975.5
Dunedin14.311.212.712.813.513.013.113.013.714.314.514.7160.8
Half-moon Bay18.516.217.818.020.419.919.719.018.820.220.818.2227.3

Next to the amount and the annual variation of precipitation, the frequency with which it falls is its most important characteristic. In Table 2 the average number of days with rain in each month is given for some representative stations. A day with rain is one on which 0.005 in. or more is measured. Generally speaking, there is a fairly close relationship in New Zealand between the amount of rain and the number of rain clays, but the latter is not directly proportional to the rainfall. There are considerable areas on the west coast of the South Island, for instance, which have ten or more times as much rain as the driest portions of the interior, but only about double the number of rain days.

Marlborough seems to have a small number of wet days compared with its rainfall. To the south of New Zealand there is a rapid increase in cloudiness, showers fall with great frequency, and the number of rain days becomes high. New Zealand is extremely fortunate in that, even where the rainfall is very heavy, intervals between rains are almost everywhere sufficiently frequent and prolonged to ensure adequate drainage, while there is enough sunshine to dry the soil surface. Otherwise, large areas in the west and south would be covered with peat.

TEMPERATURE.

Temperature is no less important than rainfall in determining the living conditions of a country and the yield from its soil. But it is much less variable, and in the Southern Hemisphere especially is largely determined by latitude. Its influence is therefore taken much more for granted. The specification of the temperature of a place is, however, not so simple a matter as might appear. Many different factors are involved in the determination of the precise temperatures experienced in any locality. The sea, for instance, responds very slowly to both daily and yearly changes in the amount of heat received from the sun, while on the land the response is rapid. Consequently, the nearer a station is to the sea the smaller are its daily and yearly fluctuations of temperature. It is to this effect that the principal difference between a continental and a marine climate is due. Although New Zealand is narrow, the high ranges shield the country to the east of them to a considerable extent, so that there is a nearer approach to continental conditions than would otherwise be expected, particularly in the interior of Canterbury and Otago. Again, on plain country the air tends to stagnate, especially at night. At night-time the surface layer cools rapidly through radiation from the ground, while during the day it becomes heated by the sun, There is less stagnation in the warm layer of the daytime than in the cold layer of the night. Consequently, stations on level plains or plateaux tend to be subject to frost and to have a relatively low mean temperature. The effect is accentuated near the slopes of hills because the cold air flows away down the slopes to lower levels. The hills, therefore, gain freedom from frost at the expense of the plains. In windy situations, also, the susceptibility to frost is lowered owing to the prevention of stagnation. Apart from the effects due to air-drainage and windiness, the temperature decreases with altitude. In temperate latitudes the fall is about 9° F. per kilometre. It is unsound, therefore, to compare, for example, temperatures recorded at Thorndon, Wellington, which was only 12 ft. above sea-level, with these at the present meteorological station at Kelburn, which is at an altitude of 415 ft., without making allowance for this difference in altitude. Such a procedure would lead to the erroneous conclusion that the climate had become colder. If charts of mean temperature are to be prepared it is clear that they will be very complicated, especially in a mountainous country like New Zealand, owing to this effect of altitude. It is usual, therefore, to simplify matters by applying a correction at the rate of 9° F. per kilometre or approximately 2°.7 F. per 1,000 ft. This has been done in Table 3. The Rotorua values, for example, have been increased by' 2°.5 F., the station being 925 ft. above sea-level. If the actual temperature is required, it can be found by reversing 1 his process.

In New Zealand publications it has been the general practice to derive monthly mean temperatures from the means of the daily maximum and minimum. But, even on the average, the mean of the maximum and minimum differs slightly from the true mean for the day. The correction to the mean for the day has been determined from the records of thermographs with fair accuracy at Wellington and more roughly at several other places.

In Table 3, therefore, the temperatures are reduced to sea-level and mean of day. For the remainder of the temperature tables the observed readings have been used without correction. All are in Fahrenheit degrees.

Table 3. MEAN TEMPERATURE REDUCED TO SEA-LEVEL.

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Waipoua61.762.260.757.454.151.549.249.751.453.255.858.655.4
Auckland64.965.263.359.656.153.451.551.953.855.958.862.358.0
Rotorua64.734.461.456.752.449.347.848.951.955.358.062.056.1
New Plymouth62.962.961.257.854.451.449.750.152.254.256.860.456.2
Napier64.763.360.957.752.648.847.448.451.555.658.661.355.9
Taihape63.763.260.957.051.948.747.448.251.054.556.060.355.3
Masterton63.162.259.655.150.447.046.047.050.453.856.560.554.3
Wellington61.761.059.756.252.549.447.748.451.253.656.159.554.8
Nelson61.861.458.955.150.146.345.340.349.752.956.059.053.6
Hanmer62.562.359.654.748.344.243.145.150.154.156.560.153.4
Hokitika58.858.857.053.448.945.744.545.648.951.553.456.751.9
Christchurch60.459.957.052.747.743.142.343.948.452.455.759.051.9
Ophir62.061.557.351.442.436.637.541.440.852.154.759.450.3
Dunedin58.657.855.952.448.145.143.845.048.951.453.355.851.4
Invercargill56.656.454.050.345.742.341.343.547.050.451.854.449.5

The stations given in the above table were chosen with a view to illustrating the effect of changing latitude, the difference between east and west coasts, especially in the South Island, and the contrast between coastal and inland conditions. Waipoua is in the Auckland Peninsula, north of Dargaville, and Ophir in Central Otago.

Table 4. AUCKLAND (ALBERT PARK, 160 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum72.672.970.966.962.158.657.057.860.163.266.069.364.8
Mean highest maximum78.678.676.472.267.364.062.562.865.468.672.075.779.7
Absolute highest max.81.585.079.077.471.067.065.067.070.072.075.579.085.0
Mean daily minimum59.760.458.555.351.348.146.246.248.951.754.153.853.1
Mean lowest minimum51.853.051.546.442.739.538.139.141.744.347.149.437.3
Absolute lowest min.48.048.046.041.038.036.535.036.437.841.941.043.535.0
Days of frost in screen........................0.0
Days of ground frost..........0.10.70.1........1.0

Table 5. TAIHAPE (2,157 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum68.067.364.659.952.848.547.448.852.857.459.864.357.6
Mean highest maximum78.077.374.469.062.258.257.157.462.066.669.974.979.5
Absolute highest max.87.381.078.075.569.863.261.061.867.073.474.282.087.3
Mean daily minimum50.049.848.244.940.737.636.436.639.142.144.047.043.0
Mean lowest minimum39.539.538.234.631.929.228.028.730.032.034.437.026.4
Absolute lowest min.31.932.035.030.027.020.424.025.425.525.031.430.220.4
Days of frost in screen......0.21.43.06.04.22.50.50.2..18.6
Days of ground frost0.20.50.62.45.38.512.011.26.02.61.00.651.1

Table 6. WELLINGTON (ALTITUDES VARIOUS).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum69.366.962.958.354.853.154'357.560.463.266.761.3 
Mean highest maximum78.177.774.970.265.361.359.661.564.568.071.075.079.8
Absolute highest max.85.088.080.574.071.069.066.066.O69.075.580.583.088.0
Mean daily minimum55.755.854.251.347.244.142.442.845.748.450.353.849.1
Mean lowest minimum46.446.744.141.237.434.533.333.436.238.440.944.732.3
Absolute lowest min.39.540.530.135.731.929.928.629.231.034.035.838.428.6
Days of frost in screen........0.00.20.40.40.0......1.4
Days of ground frost0.00.10.21.02.65.47.80.73.11.30.50.128.6

Table 7. HOKITIKA (12 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum66.466.564.761.256.853.352.653.656.458.760.663.859.5
Mean highest maximum73.572.571.367.763.759.558.659.552.364.767.070.975.9
Absolute highest max.79.082.484.574.071.563.565.067.167.669.074.178.084.5
Mean daily minimum53.253.151.047.141.938.536.838.042.345.747.951.545.6
Mean lowest minimum43.243.540.636.532.129.929.029.832.235.238.441.928.1
Absolute lowest min.35.037.035.031.028.526.025.526.527.030.032.033.025.5
Days of frost in screen......0.00.94.06.94.50.70.1....17.2
Days of ground frost0.20.10.52.46.912.416.113.85.92.40.70.261.9

Table 8. CHRISTCHURCH (22 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum70.469.266.462.155.851.150.352.357.662.465.869.261.0
Mean highest maximum86.683.781.475.768.762.561.564.970.676.179.884.088.4
Absolute highest max.95.794.189.882.377.869.370.070.081.187.886.892.395.7
Mean dally minimum52.852.549.745.039.936.035.136.340.544.047.150.844.3
Mean lowest minimum41.240.937.232.328.626.126.026.729.432.135.439.024.7
Absolute lowest min.34.034.230.425.621.321.522.723.025.526.030.833.021.3
Days of frost in screen....0.00.74.09.210.18.22.60.50.0..35.4
Days of ground frost0.30.21.45.412.316.917.717.310.46.53.60.992.9

Table 9. DUNEDIN (240 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum66.565.963.158.953.349.347.950.355.159.161.664.558.0
Mean highest maximum81.580.577.371.864.459.357.461.566.873.075.378.084.3
Absolute highest max94.090.085.085.072.068.066.070.077.083.084.088.094.0
Mean daily minimum49.749.547.844.841.038.637.438.240.642.944.948.043.0
Mean lowest minimum41.341.539.136.733.831.230.531.233.034.837.040.029.4
Absolute lowest min.36.037.034.031.029.024.023.027.029.031.032.035.023.0
Days of frost in screen........0.11.41.71.10.2......4.5
Days of ground frost..0.10.00.75.9ll.012.49.54.71.00.30.145.7

Table 10. GORE (245 FT.).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Mean daily maximum69.068.966.160.153.747.747.151.756.860.963.166.459.3
Mean highest maximum84.984.380.273.864.958.457.162.068.673.077.680.987.9
Absolute highest max.93.091.589.082.070.067.062.068.076.079.084.095.095.0
Mean daily minimum46.746.044.040.435.732.431.633.237.540.842.244.939.0
Mean lowest minimum35.134.932.929.225.923.522.924.628.230.832.035.021.4
Absolute lowest min.30.030.029.025.021.018.020.018.025.027.030.031.018.0
Days of frost in screen0.10.30.51.96.713.115.411.13.71.50.30.154.7
Days of ground frost0.81.43.26.013.022.021.419.911.16.13.21.1109.2

The accompanying tables (Nos. 4 to 10) relate to temperature extremes. The first line gives the average of the maximum temperatures its observed each day, the second the average of the highest temperatures observed in each month and the year, and the third the highest yet recorded. Corresponding information regarding minimum temperatures follows. Next comes the average number of days on which the minimum temperature in the thermometer screen falls below 32° F. This gives some idea of the susceptibility to severe frosts, such as would affect fruit-trees. The last line gives the number of ground frosts. According to the British Convention, a ground frost is recorded when the grass minimum thermometer falls below 30°.4 F., damage being unlikely at higher temperatures. In the preparation of these tables some of the older records have, for various reasons, been discarded.

SUNSHINE.

In Table 11 are listed for each month and the year the average number of hours of sunshine at all places from which a sufficiently long record is available. The greatest amounts are recorded at places protected from the prevailing winds by high mountain ranges. The excellence of New Zealand's climate, particularly for the growth of pasture, is undoubtedly due to the abundance of sunshine combined with a high rainfall and an absence of extreme temperatures.

Table 11. BRIGHT SUNSHINE (HOURS).

 Jan.Feb.Mar.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.Year.
Auckland219.4191.9179.5143.9131.8114.1120.9l50.4149.7169.2191.9209.81,972.5
Waihi244.5204.4192.6152.6137.7114.8124.0l53.5166.3186.5215.2241.22,134.2
Rotorua238.3201.7187.1149.2137.3118.5127.3144.4155.1180.7211.7222.52,073.8
New Plymouth256.0230.7221.6164.9159.8132.0143.6178.2166.0174.3209.2238.72,275.0
Napier261.2212.0211.6189.0l56.7l49.4l44.9180.6212.3228.8242.4262.52,451.4
Masterton226.7210.7180.1157.9120.6104.9110.1144.4170.3187.0215.8224.22,052.7
Wellington227.4211.8188.5154.4l30.8106.9107.8140.4163.0177.4203.2225.22,036.3
Blenheim237.0212.3191.7157.8160.5136.8143.1174.1185.2199.9174.0197.72,171.1
Nelson267.6237.1212.4187.7172.3151.7l56.5193.7203.3218.3250.8252.72,504.1
Hanmer207.6194.8191.2157.7128.5106.0107.4143.1166.9178.8200.4209.11,991.5
Hokitika213.5189.7183.1138.9136.4114.0127.5152.5146.9163.9175.0200.81,942.2
Lincoln College213.0197.0176.9149.ll36.9114.8115.3l48.9174.6197.1211.8205.32,040.7
Ashburton191.8173.0158.6122.8124.7106.1109.5127.1153.8158.2182.8186.31,794.7
Timaru203.2181.3173.9132.7148.9130.3129.3147.4169.1174.5197.7169.71,958.0
Lake Tekapo267.3235.2238.0191.5174.7122.7140.7154.2180.3220.0227.6265.52,418.3
Oamaru202.1182.5167.9133.7134.3119.1121.8131.9142.7183.0168.7159.51,847.2
Waimate177.2179.9186.6155.l151.4135.5139.5154.0181.3189.0208.4183.82,041.7
Alexandra230.8223.9217.9172.0130.7108.2118.0149.0174.3219.0198.8223.82,166.4
Dunedin187.9157.3144.6120.6104.488.998.4121.7144.2157.3164.7170.11,660.1
Gore225.7182.8168.4127.7117.2100.6115.8142.6160.3177.6206.0211.41,936.1
Invercargill193.1107.5122.095.784.179.681.9113.0126.7138.2102.4165.71,530.5

OTHER CLIMATOLOGICAL FACTORS.

Tables giving monthly averages for a number of stations under each of the heads distinguished below will be found in the 1933 edition (at page 25) of the Year-Book.

Fog.—Fog does not play an important part in New Zealand weather. Most of the fogs recorded are shallow radiation fogs occurring only in the early morning. During the approach of cyclonic depressions, however, widespread and persistent fog is a frequent occurrence. Occasionally, parts of the coast are affected by fog in calm weather. The landlocked harbours and estuaries of North Auckland appear to be unusually susceptible.

Snow.—Snow is rare at sea-level, especially in the North Island. In the interior and at high altitudes it occurs more frequently. On the summits of the ranges in the whole length of the South Island and on the highest peaks in the North Island snow falls, on the average, on over thirty days per annum. In the interior of the South Island there is a considerable area of settled country which is subject to half that number. Towards the coast, however, the number falls off rapidly. Data regarding snow lying are scanty. In the North Island any snow falling on the low levels almost invariably melts as it falls, but on the high plateaux it may lie, especially in the hollows, for from one to three weeks during the year. In the South Island it practically never lies at low levels on the north or west coasts, but on the east coast does so on a few days in some years. At altitudes between ft. and 1,000 ft. in the interior of the South Island the average number of days appears to be between seven and fourteen. Railway traffic is interfered with by snow to an almost negligible extent.

Hail.—Hail is experienced more frequently as the latitude increases and on the west coast than on the east, the rise in frequency in the extreme south-west and about Foveaux Strait being very marked. It occurs more often in spring than at other times of the year. The majority of the hailstorms recorded, however, are harmless, the stones being quite small. Occasionally severe hailstorms are experienced in New Zealand, the stones reaching a diameter of from ½ in. upwards. These are usually associated with thunderstorms, and are probably little less numerous on the east coast than the west or in the North Island than in the South.

Thunder.—Thunderstorms are more numerous in the North than in the South and on the west than on the east side of the main ranges. They are very rare in eastern districts in winter.

Strong Winds.—Averages give the number of days of strong winds experienced per year as: Auckland, 31.5; New Plymouth, 25.7: Wellington, 57.7; Hokitika, 38.3; and Dunedin, 16.3 days. These figures include a proportion of high winds (force 7 on the Beaufort scale) as 'well as gales (force 8 and over). The figures for Wellington show the effect of the concentration of the winds through Cook Strait.

SUMMARY OF THE WEATHER FOR 1933.

January was a warm and sunny month with little wind. There were several days on which numbers of places in the South Island recorded temperatures over 90° F. Rainfall conditions were rather variable, but, on the whole, the totals were below average. There was, however, a good deal of humid weather. Thunderstorms were unusually frequent.

February was very windy. Temperatures were high, but without any very extreme values. Except in the low-lying portions of eastern districts the rainfall was very heavy. The wet weather interfered with haymaking and harvesting, and the strong north-westerly winds did some damage to crops. Sunshine was below normal. Thunderstorms were again numerous and severe. On the night of the 14th and the morning of the 15th lightning caused almost unprecedented damage to telephone, telegraph, and power-lines from North Canterbury to southern Wellington.

March.—In March the weather was very dry, warm, and sunny. Scorching north-westerly winds accentuated the dry conditions in eastern parts of the South Island. Root crops and pastures suffered considerably from the activities of insect pests or their larva. Extremely heavy rainfall in the central portion of the North Island caused sudden and very severe flooding in the National Park and the upper tributaries of the Wanganui River. Serious damage occurred in Taumarunui.

April.—The first part of April was fine and mild, but in the latter half there were frequent boisterous winds from a westerly or south-westerly quarter. Unusually cold weather was experienced on the 23rd and 24th. Heavy snow reached to low levels on the mountains, and frosts were widespread and rather severe. The continued dry weather was causing considerable anxiety regarding winter feed in many parts of the eastern districts. Stock continued to maintain good condition. though milk-yields fell rapidly after the 23rd.

May was a dull and -wet month. The first part was cold and rather stormy. but the remainder was relatively mild. This, fortunately, permitted a certain amount of growth in pastures, thus easing the situation as regards winter feed, especially in Canterbury. Severe floods occurred in the Hawke's Bay and Poverty Bay districts on the 25th, and the Manawatu River also overflowed.

June.—Southerly or south-easterly winds and very cold weather prevailed in June. Though rainfall was far less than the average, there was much dull, damp, and showery weather. Root crops and pastures were holding out better than anticipated.

July.—In this month also there was much dull weather and a persistence of southerly winds. Sunshine was below normal, especially in eastern districts. Nevertheless, temperatures were mild for the time of year. A certain amount of growth still continued in pastures, and the feed-shortage in the eastern districts of the South Island, which had experienced a prolonged spell of dry weather, never became very serious.

August was an excellent winter month. There was an unusual absence of days of severe cold. snow, hail, &c. Crops and pastures were looking well and stock had kept good condition. Canterbury and Marlborough continued to experience very low rainfalls.

September was similar to August. In most districts precipitation was far below the average, but fortunately the country can safely dispense with much of its winter rain. An excellent lambing-season was experienced. The amount of bright sunshine was above the normal.

October proved to be another very dry month. The first twenty days were mild, but very cold weather followed. Between the night of the 20th and the morning of the 23rd there were unusually heavy and widespread snowfalls. Severe frosts followed the snowfalls in the various districts, and much damage was done. The orchards in Central Otago and at Stoke, near Nelson, suffered badly. In Marl-borough and Nelson the continued dearth of rain and the cold weather combined to make the position very difficult for the agriculturist.

November was relatively quiet. Southerly winds again predominated, and mean temperatures were generally below normal. Hard frosts occurred on the 22nd and 23rd, and orchards in eastern districts from Hawke's Bay southward again suffered severely. The rainfall was better distributed than in previous months, and good falls in Canterbury saved the situation there as regards crops. Stock continued to do very well. Nelson and Marlborough experienced no relief from the dry conditions which had reigned for so long.

December.—The first half of December was very dry and warm. Though good rains fell thereafter, pastures had at the end of the month the dry and browned appearance characteristic of midsummer. The drought conditions were somewhat relieved in Nelson and Marlborough, but the rains were too late to save large areas of crops and sales of fat stock had been much reduced. For the first time for several months, sunshine considerably exceeded the average. The stormy conditions in the latter part of the month were responsible for a cold Christmas, with rain, thunder, and hailstorms, and a heavy fall of snow on the mountains. Similar weather was experienced from the 28th to the 30th. On this occasion the southerly gale was one of the worst experienced for main- years, and, in the north-eastern portion of the North Island, probably the worst known. The frequent hailstorms caused much damage to crops in Canterbury.

Year.—The year as a whole, though the average departure was rather less than half a degree, was rather warmer than normal. This effect was shown fairly uniformly throughout the country, but at coastal stations the differences from normal were generally very small, and on the east coast of the South Island chiefly negative. The relatively high temperatures were a welcome change after the preceding four years, each of which had been cold.

The distribution of rainfall was very irregular. On the average the year was a dry one, especially in the more densely settled areas. Most of the Thames, Waikato, southern Hawke's Bay, Wellington, Nelson, Marlborough, and Canterbury districts had considerably loss than normal. It was a particularly dry year in southern and eastern Marlborough. In places the totals were the lowest ever recorded, and in some cases amounted to less than half the average. The majority of the Auckland Peninsula, the northern Hawke's Bay. and the Poverty Bay districts, parts of the South Taranaki Bight, and most of Otago and Southland had falls rather above the average. On the west coast of the South Island conditions varied greatly. In most places more than usual was recorded, but in Southern Westland the reverse was the case. At Lake Kanieri there was an excess of almost 100 in., while Milford Sound had a total of nearly 314 in. Though the year was not so dry as its three predecessors, the only really wet months were February and May.

Once more the year, meteorologically speaking, was a good one for the primary producer. The winter was exceptionally mild, with an absence of severe conditions of all kinds.

SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR 1933.

The observations were taken at 9 a.m.

Station.Temperatures in Shade.Hours of Sunshine.Rainfall.
Mean Daily Maximum.Mean Daily Minimum.Approx. Mean Temperature.Extremes for 1933.Absolute Maximum.Absolute Minimum.Total Fall.Number of Days.
Maximum and Month.Minimum and Month.
* Some data missing.
 ° F.° F.° F.° F. ° F. ° F.° F. Inches 
Waipoua65.348.056.781.0Feb.28.8Aug.....1,596.965.52199
Riverhead65.448.055.880.5Feb.26.2June......49.38147
Auckland65.553.559.579.5Jan.36.0June85.033.22,062.842.49176
Waihi64.848.156.482.8Feb.20.1Aug.89.021.01,933.678.72159
Te Aroha68.249.458.887.0Jan.24.0June95.021.0..44.40161
Tauranga65.848.150.083.0Mar.29.0June87.022.52,366.949.85138
Ruakura66.645.656.183.4Mar.22.2June92.022.0..42.72153
Cambridge67.246.056.283.7Feb.24.0June....1,932.545.47136
Rotorua64.046.855.482.0Jan.28.8July98.021.01,983.550.83133
Whakarewarewa65.544.655.086.0Jan.23.7June......51.72136
New Plymouth63.650.457.080.1Mar.32.2Aug.89.027.02,305.751.64188
Chateau*52.036.444.270.5Jan.18.5Apl.......108.1999
Karioi58.938.448.078.8Jan.17.5July......41.38171
Napier64.349.056.689.0Feb.30.5July....2,276.329.34118
Hastings66.344.555.490.0Feb.22.0May......27.36126
Taihape58.343.550.979.8Jan.29.0June87.820.4..35.63170
Tangimoana62.846.954.082.9Jan.25.5June85.020.5..32.78135
Palmerston North63.447.655.587.5Jan.27.0July92.023.0..34.53170
Massey Agricultural College, Palmerston North62.647.354.985.8Jan.23.7June....1,981.936.03164
Pahiatua62.245.553.984.8Jan.24.8June.

Aug.

......45.21176
Kapiti Island60.950.555.782.0Jan.36.5Aug.......38.27127
Masterton64.544.354.488.0Jan.26.0Aug.95.422.42,209.031.07160
Wellington60.048.654.382.0Jan.34.1Aug.88.028.02,125.038.62150
Nelson63.440.454.980.2Mar.30.7June92.025.02,077.932.3898
Research Orchard, Appleby, Nelson62.845.954.479.9Mar.27.8June.. ..28.6297
Waihopai63.143.653.388.4Jan.24.2June......25.82107
Blenheim65.944.755.390.2Jan.24.9June....2,628.310.9791
Golden Downs61.940.050.084.2Jan.20.0June......40.5187
Hanmer Springs62.138.850.592.2Jan.16.3June97.09.22,027.432.21123
Balmoral63.041.952.492.2Jan.19.1June......18.65101
Hokitika59.845.152.575.0Feb.29.0July84.525.52,059.9124.42192
Lake Coleridge61.141.151.188.8Jan.18.5June93.012.5..31.07123
Rudstone, Methven59.443.151.386.0Jan.20.9June......34.02125
Christchurch61.144.052.587.2Mar.24.5June95721.32,088.518.85120
Lincoln62.243.152.790.5Mar.23.1June98.420.42,153.417.25100
The Hermitage, Mt. Cook55.338.046.682.0Jan.17.0July....1,642.6186.37172
Ashburton61.741.451.690.2Jan.20.5June94.01.981,926.123.05118
Lake Tekapo*56.938.747.884.0Jan.18.0July....2,589.023.5182
Fairlie........ .. ....1,829.7....
Timaru60.542.688.8Jan.20.8July99.023.01,811.220.0095..
Waimate61.040.850.990.1Jan.23.7July94.022.51,985.222.06119
Queenstown58.811.350.084.0Jan.24.6June....1,986.331.50119
Ophir50.638.440.089.1Jan.18.1June89.38.7..16.7798
Waipiata50.038.348.687.0Jan.15.0June90.612.02,326.717.72119
Alexandra60.340.850.589.1Jan.21.0June....2,208.S12.7682
Manorburn Dam53.434.644.080.0Jan.11.0June......20.16119
Dunedin50.243.351.385.5Jan.29.0June94.023.01,724.734.85159
Gore60.039.249.690.0Jan.23.0June95.018.01,890.930.72103
Invercargill57.742.550.285.5Jan.26.0June90.019.01,721.447.16225

For 1933 the mean pressure at 9 a.m., in inches, reduced to sea-level and standard gravity, was: Waipoua, 29.952; Auckland, 30.054; Rotorua, 29.966; Wellington, 29.959; Nelson, 29.967; Hokitika, 29.976; Christchurch, 29.916; Dunedin, 29.909.

MEAN TIME AND TIME-SERVICE.

The following article on New Zealand mean time and the time-service arrangements was prepared by Dr. C. E. Adams, F.R.A.S. Hon., P.N.Z.I.A., Dominion Astronomer and Seismologist.

One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand, called New Zealand mean time (N.Z.M.T.).

The following extract from the New Zealand Gazette of 31st October, 1868, contains the Government announcement regarding the standardizing of mean time for New Zealand:—

“Colonial Secretary's Office,”

“Wellington, 30th October, 1868.”

In accordance with a resolution of the House of Representatives to the effect that New Zealand mean time be adopted throughout the colony, it is hereby notified for public information that the time corresponding to the longitude 172° 30' cast of Greenwich—which is exactly 11½ hours in advance of Greenwich time—has been adopted as the mean time for the colony; and that from and after the second day of November the public offices of the General Government will be opened and closed in accordance therewith.

“E. W. STAFFORD.

The meridian 172° 30' east is the approximate mean longitude of the Islands of New Zealand, and corresponds to a time 11 hours 30 minutes fast on Greenwich mean time (G.M.T.).

The use of Summer Time in New Zealand is governed by the Summer Time Act, 1929, and its amendment of 1933. For general purposes in New Zealand the clock is advanced thirty minutes during the period beginning at 2 a.m., New Zealand mean time, on the last Sunday in September in any year, and ending at 2 a.m., New Zealand mean time, on the last Sunday in April in the following year. Nothing in the Summer Time Act shall affect the use of New Zealand mean time for purposes of astronomy, meteorology, or navigation, or affect the construction of any document mentioning or referring to a point of time in connection with any of these purposes.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the Dominion Observatory, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as accurate as possible by means of astronomical observations, and by comparison with wireless time signals from Bordeaux, Nauen, Honolulu, Malabar, and Annapolis. The error in outgoing time signals seldom amounts to a quarter of a second of time.

The following time signals are sent from the Dominion Observatory:—

(1) WIRELESS TIME SIGNALS, TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE GOVERNMENT RADIO STATION ZLW, ON A WAVE-LENGTH OF 600 METRES I.C.W.

These signals are transmitted daily at 10.30 a.m. N.Z.M.T., and on Tuesdays and Fridays at 8.30 p.m. N.Z.M.T.

The signals are transmitted in the following manner:—

At 10h. 28m. 0s. a dash of two seconds duration is sent, followed by “ZLY”* (the call sign of the Observatory). This signal is repeated three times at 15 second intervals. At 10h. 29m. 10s. a series of G's (__ __ .) is sent, ending at 10h. 29m. 50s.

At 10h. 30m. 0s. the time signal (a dash of three seconds duration) is sent automatically from the Observatory clock—the beginning of the dash representing the exact minute. The automatic time signal is repeated at 10h. 31m., 10h. 32m., 10h. 34m., and 10h. 35m. There is no time signal at 10h. 33m. Between the automatic time signals, series of one-second dashes are sent in groups of one, two, four, or five, according as they precede the time signals at 10h. 31m., 10h. 32m., 10h. 34m., or 10h. 35m. respectively. Each set of dashes ends exactly at the 50th second. The intermediate dashes are for tuning purposes only, and must not be used as time signals. The signals sent on Tuesdays and Fridays at 8.30 p.m. are similar in form to these just described.

* On 1st July, 1934, the call sign of the Observatory was changed from ZLY to ZMO.

Special care is taken to ensure the accuracy of all the signals transmitted through station ZLW, and corrections to these signals are published monthly.

(2) WIRELESS TIME SIGNALS TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE NEW ZEALAND RADIO BROADCASTING BOARD'S RADIO STATION 2YA.

Time signals are supplied to 2YA from the Observatory three, times daily (at 10.30 a.m., 3.30 p.m., and 7.30 p.m., N.Z.M.T.). The 10.30 a.m. signal consists of a dash of three seconds duration, transmitted at 10.30, 10.31, and 10.32. Intervening signals are also transmitted as described for ZLW in the preceding section. The 3.30 p.m. and 7.30 p.m. signals consist merely of three-second dashes at 3.30, 3.31, 3.32, and at 7.30, 7.31, and 7.32 respectively. The beginning of the dash represents the exact minute in each case. These signals are regularly supplied to 2YA from the. Observatory, but their actual broadcast is controlled by station 2YA.

(3) TIME SIGNAL BY LIGHTS AT WELLINGTON AND AUCKLAND.

At the Dominion Observatory (Wellington) these time signals are given daily, the lights being exhibited on a flagstaff, 6 ft. apart, white uppermost, 42 ft. above the ground, red in the centre, and green below. The green light is switched on at 8h. 10m. p.m., N.Z.M.T., the red at 8h. 20m. p.m., and the white at 8h. 25m. p.m. Simultaneous extinction of all the lights at Sh. 30m. 0s. p.m. is the time signal. The green light is used only on Tuesdays and Fridays, when an officer is on duty supervising the time signals. On other evenings only the red and white lights are used.

Time-signal lights are also exhibited on the Ferry Buildings at Auckland on Tuesday and Friday evenings as follows: The green light is switched on at 7h. 40m. p.m., N.Z.M.T., the red at 8h. 20m. p.m., and the white at 8h. 25m. p.m. Simultaneous extinction of all the lights at 8h. 30m. 0s. p.m. is the time signal. The lights are extinguished by direct signal from the Dominion Observatory, Wellington. If the signal fails, the red light continues burning until 8h. 35m. p.m.

(4) TIME SIGNAL BY TIME-BALL AT LYTTELTON.

This time signal is given by dropping the time-ball at 3h. 30m. 0s. p.m., N.Z.M.T., on Tuesdays and Fridays. The ball is dropped by direct signal from the Observatory.

(5) GENERAL.

In addition to the above time signals, the Dominion Observatory also supplies time signals to the Telegraph Office and the Railways Department, by telegraph, daily at 9 a.m. and 3.30 p.m., N.Z.M.T. The telegraph office transmits the Observatory time signals by telegraph-lines to some 2,300 telegraph-offices in both Islands, to Stewart Island, and to the Railways Department. Telegraphic signals are also sent at 9 a.m. to all railway offices in New Zealand, including 221 offices by telegraph, and 257 stations by telephone.

The Dominion Observatory controls the Government Buildings (Wellington) clock, which is checked at 9 a.m. each day by means of a special circuit between the clock and the Observatory.

The chimes of the Wellington General Post Office clock are broadcast several times every day by station 2YA. At 3 p.m., N.Z.M.T., the clock is checked by comparison with the Dominion Observatory signal clock, and the correction is published monthly. This clock may therefore be used as a time signal where very high accuracy is not required, experience having shown that it is always within a few seconds of the correct time. In using the General Post Office clock as a time signal, the first stroke of the hour should be read as the exact time.

THE FLORA AND VEGETATION.

The following article on the flora and vegetation of New Zealand is by the late Dr. L. Cockayne, C.M.G., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Honorary Botanist, State Forest Service):—

For various reasons the plant-life of New Zealand is of peculiar interest, especially its extreme isolation from other land-masses, its flora of diverse origin but with an astonishing number of endemic species and group after group of wild hybrids, the numerous and often peculiar life-forms of its members, its having developed unmolested by grazing and browsing mammals, and its vegetation, so diversified that only a continent extending into the tropics can claim an equality.

The Flora, considering in the first place the Ferns, Fern-allies(lycopods, &c.) and Seed-plants(trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, grasses, &c.) consists of about 1,848 species—including under this term a good many well-marked varieties—of which 148 are ferns, 19 fern-allies, 20 conifers (only 1 with a cone in the usual sense), 426 monocotyledons (grasses, sedges, liliaceous plants, orchids, &c), and 1,235 dicotyledons (mostly trees, shrubs, herbaceous and semi-woody plants), and they belong to 109 families (groups of related genera) and 382 genera (groups of related species). Nearly 79 per cent, of this flora is found wild in no other land (endemic), and the remaining 392 species are chiefly Australian (236), and the balance subantarctic South American (58), Cosmopolitan in a narrow sense (most also Australian), Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island, and Polynesian; while a good many of the families and genera are Malayan, which tropical element found its way to New Zealand during a great extension of its area northwards in the early Tertiary period. The high endemism of the flora is not confined to the species, for there are 39 purely New Zealand genera, some of which are only very distantly related to genera elsewhere—e.g., Tupeia, Dactylanthus, Pachycladon, Ixerba, Carpodeius, Myosotidium, Teucridium, and Alseuosmia. The specially large families and genera, together with the number of species each contains, are as follows: Families—Compositae(daisy family), 258; Filices(ferns), 148; Cyperaceae(sedge family), 133; Gramineae(grass family), 131; Onibelliferae(carrot family), 89; Orchidaceae(orchids), 71; Ranunculaceae(buttercup family), 61; Rubiacpac(coprosma family), 55; Onagraceae(willowherb family), 45; Epacridaeeae(Australian - heath family), 44; Leguminosae(pea family), 38; Boraginaceae(forget-me-not family), 33. Genera—Hebe (koromikos),66 at a low estimate; Carex(sedges), 59; Celmisia. (mountain-daisies), 56 at least; Coprosma(karamtis), 48; Ranunculus(buttercups), 47 at least; Epilobium(willowherbs), 41; Olearia(daisy-trees), 35; Senecio(groundsels, mostly ligneous), 35; Poa(poa grasses), 33; Myosotis(forget-me-nots), 32; and there are 10 other gonera with 20 to 30 species, and 11 with from 13 to 19 species. It is not of necessity the large genera which dominate the landscape, for some of the smallest are of particular moment in this regard— e.p., Arundo(toetoe grass), 2 species; Desmosclioemis(pingao), 1 species, which clothes unstable sandhills in the three main islands and extends to the Chathams; Rhopalostylis(nikau-palm), 2 species; Cordyline(cabbage-trees), 4 species; Phormium(New Zealand flax), 2 species; Nothofagus(southern-beeches), 5 species; Corynocarpus(karaka), 1 species; and Leptospermum(manuka), 4 species.

Besides the species and their varieties, the flora contains, according to recent research, no less than 353 groups of hybrids (some with hundreds of distinct forms) between the species, together with many within the species themselves between their varieties; nor is this all, for there are a few well-marked hybrids between certain genera—e.g., Helichrysum by Ewartia and by Gnaphalium, Hebe by Veronica, Leucogense by Raoulia(edelweiss Χ vegetable-sheep), and Nothepavax by psevdojjanax. How widespread in New Zealand is wild hybridism appears from the fact that hybrids are new known to occur in 44 families and 101 genera; and were it not that many species never come into contact there would be still more hybrids, for certain species which never meet in nature have spontaneously given rise to hybrid progenies when planted side by side in gardens. This new knowledge concerning natural hybridism is already making radical changes in the classification of New Zealand plants, and it may also have a profound bearing on plant- classification in general and on theories of evolution.

The ferns, fern-allies, and seed-plants by no means make up the whole New Zealand flora, but in addition hundreds of species have been described of the less highly organized plants (the mosses, liverworts, algae, fungi, &c), but they certainly do not nearly represent the total number of such.

Coming next to the primary biological groups of which the flora is composed, the following gives the name of each class and the number of species it contains: Trees(including 12 tree-ferns), 182: shrubs,310; semi-wood; plants(including 10 ferns with short trunks), 241; herbaceous plant (including 93 ferns which grow on the ground), 664; grasslike plants,255; rushlike plants,49; climbing-plants(mostly ligneous, and including 7 ferns), 51; perching-plants(both ligneous and herbaceous, and including 26 ferns), 45; parasites(mostly ligneous), 17; water-plants(all herbaceous), 28. These biological classes are made up of many life-forms—i.e., the outward forms of plants, and the shape, structure, &c, of their organs—which enable them to occupy definite habitats. In no few instances a plant can modify its form as its habitat changes or if it moves to a different habitat from that to which it is accustomed. The New Zealand flora is particularly rich in such “plastic species,” as they are called. Further, the flora contains quite a number of life-forms rare or wanting in many other floras. Thus there are climbing-plants with extremely long, woody, ropelike stems; shrubs with stiff, wiry, interlaced twigs forming dense masses number about 51, and belong to 16 families and 20 genera; cushion-plants number at least 05, and belong to 21 families and 34 genera, some of them of immense proportions and quite hard, as in the vegetable-sheep (species of liaoulia and Haastia); leafless shrubs, tall or dwarf, with flattened or “round” stems (mostly species of Carmichaclia); the cypress form, the leaves reduced to scales, as seen in various species of Hebe and Helichrysvm, but a form to be expected in the podocarps; trees with leaves bunched together on long trunks, as in the liliaceous cabbage-trees (Cordylive) and certain species of the Australian-heath family (Dracopliyllum); the tussock form, with some 40 species, belonging to 5 families and 19 genera.

Not the least interesting feature in this matter of life-forms is the presence in the flora of 200 or more seed-plants which for a longer or shorter period have a juvenile form quite distinct from that of the adult; while in about 165 species the plant remains for many years—it may exceed fifty—a juvenile, and in these cases such may blossom and produce seed, the tree juvenile below and adult above—two species, as it were, on the one plant. In some instances so different are juvenile and adult that accomplished botanists have described them as different species. How widespread is the phenomenon stands out clearly from the fact that these 165 species belong to 30 families and 50 genera, and that 51 are trees, 82 shrubs, 19 woody climbing-plants, 10 herbaceous plants, and 3 water-plants; a few ferns exhibit the same peculiarity. Some of the commonest trees come into the above category—e.g., the kahikatea (Podocarpus dacrydioides), the matai (P. spicatus), the kaikomako (Pennantia corymbosa), the pokaka (Klaeocarpus Hookerianus), the lance-wood (Pseudopanax crass ifoliuni), and others.

Taking the flora as a whole, a large proportion of the species are evergreen; conspicuous flowers are far from common; annuals and plants which die yearly to the ground are rare; water-plants are few in number; turf-making grasses are not abundant; and bulbous plants are almost negligible.

Altitude, on the one hand, and proximity to the coast, on the other, have a profound bearing on the distribution of the species. Thus about 140 species are confined to the coast-line or its immediate vicinity, and 9 families and 35 genera containing 41 species are virtually coastal. Then there are about 560 species which are confined to the lowlands and lower hills, and there are no less than 24 families and 103 genera which are purely lowland. Finally, there is a plentiful high-mountain flora, with about 510 species belonging to 38 families and 87 genera, which never descend to the lowlands, but as compared with the lowland flora the number of genera (only 16) confined to the high-mountain belt is trifling.

Latitude has also a strong bearing on plant-distribution, and, apart from a gradual change, there are three critical parallels of latitude—36° S., 38° S., and 42° S. —near which (it may be somewhat to the north or south of the line) many species attain their southern limit. On the other hand, Cook Strait and Foveaux Strait are of but little moment as barriers to advance or retreat. Far greater is the influence of wet and dry local climates, which is most striking when two such areas impinge on one another as in the case of the wet area which extends from the Tasman Sea to near the eastern base of the Main Divide, which is forest-clad to the timber-line, and the dry area extending thence to the east coast, which is clothed with tussock-grassland. In the dry area of Marlborough and the contiguous wet western area of north-western Nelson, there are 36 species confined to the dry area (locally endemic) and 39 to the wet area. So, too, dry Central Otago possesses 15 locally endemic species. Speaking of the distribution of the species in a wide sense, there is every transition, from these which extend continuously from the north of the North Island to Stewart Island to these found in only one limited area (e.g., Gassinia amoena, near the North Cape; Xeronema Callistemon, on the Poor Knights; Drucophyllum Townsoni, on the Paparoa Range), or these occurring only in two or three distant localities (e.g., Metrosideros Parkinsonii, in north-western Nelson and Great Barrier Island; Pittosporum patulum, near Lake Hawea and in north-western Nelson; Adiantum formosum, near Dargaville and in the Manawatu Gorge and its immediate neighbourhood).

The physical features of New Zealand; its many types of climate, especially with regard to the annual rainfall and the number of rainy days; its varied altitude, ranging from sea-level to the snowfields of the Southern Alps; its many kinds of soils, particularly their water-holding capacity; the diverse frost-tolerating ability of the species; their aggressive powers—largely a matter of their life-forms and inherent plasticity—all these and other factors have led to a most varied vegetation made up of a host of plant communities, some of which appear out of place in the Temperate Zone. Thus between tide-marks in the northern rivers and estuaries there is a true mangrove community—an unexpected occurrence outside of the tropics; and even so far south as north-western Nelson groves of tall palm-trees are a striking feature. But, more than all else of an unexpected character— though familiar enough to all Now-Zealanders—is the lowland forest, which resembles in no whit the forests of temperate Europe, Asia, or America, but is a true tropical rain-forest. This tropical character is shown in its groups of tall tree-ferns, which may exceed 40 ft. in height; in its wealth of ferns of all kinds; in the abundance of woody, ropelike climbing-plants and huge perching-plants far up in the forest canopy; in the several tiers of undergrowth, consisting of low trees and tall shrubs with smaller shrubs and ferns beneath, and the ground clothed with a deep carpet of filmy ferns, liverworts, and mosses, while the tree-trunks are similarly clad: in short, the forest exhibits prodigal luxuriance of growth, and Nature, as it were, runs riot. Rarely does one tall canopy tree dominate, but the uppermost story of the forest is constructed out of the crowns of various kinds of trees growing side by side, just as the undergrowth is composed of many species. But no forest is homogeneous in its structure, for differences in the topography of the area, in the water content of the soil, and in the relative amount of light in the interior of the forest, lead to various combinations of species. All the same, especially so far as the tall trees are concerned, there is an advance towards stability and uniformity, so that all the forests if not interfered with are progressing towards a “climax association,” as it is named, with (as a rule) the tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) dominant to the north of latitude 42, and the kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa) dominant southwards.

Taking the New Zealand forests of all kinds for the whole of the region, their species number 498 (ferns and their allies 121, conifers 19, monocotyledons 70, dicotyledons 288), and they belong to 70 families and 167 genera, the largest of which are: Families—Ferns, 114; Itubiaceae, 34; Gompositae, 32 (but most are confined to subalpine scrub-forest); Cyperaceae, 25; Orchidaceae, 23; Pittosporaceae, 21; Myrtaceae, 18; Araliaceae, 14. Genera—Coprosma, 32; Pittosporum, 21; Hymenophyllum, 19; Biechnum, Uncinia, and Olearia, each 12; Metrosideros, 11. As for the biological groups of forest, they are as follows: Trees, 151 (but a good many are frequently shrubs also); shrubs, 84; herbaceous and semi-woody plants, 56; grasslike and rushlike plants, 29; climbing-plants, 33; perching-plants, 17; parasites, 14; and ferns, 114.

The considerable number of species for the whole New Zealand community may easily lead to an exaggerated estimate of the number of species to be found in any ordinary piece of forest, even though of considerable extent. Thus extensive pieces of lowland forest to the north of latitude 42° may possess from 150 to 180 species, and to the south of this parallel from 140 to 160 species, while 125 species is a fairly high estimate for Stewart Island.

Another class of forest, though usually possessing many rain-forest characteristics, is that where one or more species of southern-beech (Nothefagus—there are 5 species and very many hybrids) dominate. Such forests extend—but not continuously— from somewhat south of latitude 37° almost to the shore of Foveaux Strait. Generally they are restricted to the mountains, but in places they descend to sea-level in southern Wellington, northern Marlborough and Nelson, and to the west of the coastal mountains of western Nelson and of the Southern Alps. Throughout the high mountains the southern-beech forests generally form the uppermost forest belt.

Nothefagus forest differs from lowland rain-forest in possessing about one-half the number of species and in lacking the exuberant richness of the forest interior, due largely to its comparative poverty in small trees, diversity of shrubs, climbing-plants, perching-plants, and ferns, as also to the forest-floor and tree-trunks being but scantily covered, or draped, with filmy ferns, mosses, and the like. A fundamental difference, and one of great economic importance, is that southern-beech forest regenerates into forest of the same class, while rain-forest proper slowly changes into forest dominated by trees of small commercial value, such replacing the valuable timber-trees (kauri, podocarps) when these die; also, all the southern-beeches, as compared with other tall New Zealand trees, are of far more rapid growth.

Where water lies here and there in shallow pools and the soil is always saturated with moisture there is semi-swamp forest which is of a true rain-forest character, though not directly dependent on a heavy rainfall, its composition depending upon the ability of many rain-forest species to tolerate a constantly wet substratum. Its most marked characteristic is the overwhelming dominance of one tall tree, the kahikatea (Podocarpus dacrydioides), the tall mast-like trunks of which, standing closely side by side, and their absurdly small crowns, stamp the community as absolutely distinct in appearance from any other Type of forest; while in the North Island its physiognomy is made still mere remarkable by the astonishing number of asteliads perched on its branches, and resembling gigantic birds' nests. To the north of latitude 42° the pukatea {Laurelia novae-zelandiae) is a common lofty tree. The florula for semi-swamp forest, as a whole, consists of about 138 species, but of these only 4 species are confined almost exclusively to the community. The forest under consideration bids fair in a few years to become almost a thing of the past, since the dominant tree is being rapidly converted into timber for butter-boxes, and the ground occupied by the forest is usually of a high class for dairy-farms.

Proximity to the sea leads to a class of forest distinct from the usual lowland type in its composition, in the much lower stature of its members, and in the extreme density of its roof, the last two characters induced by the frequent more or less salt-laden winds. The maritime climate favours the presence of trees which will not tolerate frost, so that a number of well-known trees and shrubs are confined, or nearly so, to coastal forest—e.g., the kawakawa (Macropiper excelsum), the large-leaved milk-tree {Paratrophis opaca), the karo (Pittosporum crassifoliitm), the haekaro (P. umbellatum), the karaka (Corynocarpus laevigata), the akeake {Dodovaea viscosa), the pohutukawa (Metrosideros tomentosa—but the name has recently been altered to excelsa, which by the “Rules of Botanical Nomenclature” is correct for the time being, notwithstanding that tomentosa has been the sole name for nearly a hundred years !), and the ngaio (Myoporum laetum). Several of the above do not extend beyond latitude 38°, and the ngaio alone reaches Southland, so that coastal forest in the southern part of the South Island is made up of these ordinary lowland trees, &c, which can tolerate coastal conditions.

In addition to forest, the other great New Zealand plant-community dependent on climate is tussock-grassland. This community is of but little moment in the North Island except on the volcanic plateau and the highest mountains, but in the South Island it was the original plant-covering of most of the country to the east of the Divide of the Southern Alps, excepting northern Marlborough, northern Nelson, and parts of Southland. It extends from sea-level to the upper subalpine belt of the mountains, but is less continuous at high than at low levels. It also occupies some of the lowland and montane river-valleys of north-western Nelson and Westland, and ascends to the subalpine western slopes of the mountains.

There are two distinct types of tussock-grassland—“low” and “tall”—the former distinguished by the dominance of the medium-sized tussocks of Poa caespitosa and Festuca novae-zelandiae(one or both), and the latter by the dominance of one or both of the much taller and more massive tussocks of red-tussock (Danthonian Raoulii var. rubra), or snow-grass (D. Raoulii var. flavescens), and the numerous hybrids between them. Taking lowland and montane low tussock-grassland together, and excluding tall tussock-grassland, since they occupy a far more extensive area, and leaving out of the estimate the 74 or so exotic species new firmly established, the number of species they contain for the whole area is 216 (ferns and fern allies 10, monocotyledons 66, dicotyledons 140), which belong to 38 families and 104 genera, the largest being: Families—Gramineae,36; Compositae,35; and Cyperaceae, Leguminosae, and Onagraceae, each 11. Genera—Poa and Epilobium, each 11; Carmichaelia,9; and Carex, Acaena, and Raoulia, each 7. As for the biological groups, they and the number of species to each are as follows: Trees, 2; shrubs, 31 j tussocks, 13; other plants of the grass form, 43; herbaceous plants, 90; semi-woody plants, 30; and ferns, 7. About 85 of the species are drought-tolerating.

Where water can accumulate and remain fairly permanent, yet not too deep to hinder land-plants rooting in the mud, there is swamp. Except forest, no class of vegetation has been so greatly altered by man, or even destroyed, so that really primitive swamps are almost unknown. The florula consists of about 74 species, which belong to 18 families and 37 genera. The following are specially common species: Raupo (Typha angustifolia), frequently dominant; New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax), dominant in drained swamp; niggerheads (Carex secta, C. virgata); toetoe grass (Arundo conspicua); cabbage-tree (Cordyline australis); common koromiko (Hebe salicifolia); karamu (Coprosma robusta); common coprosma (C. propinqua); and many hybrids between the last two. When, as frequently happens, the swamp gradually dries up, the number of shrubs increases and an early stage of semi-swamp forest is produced.

At the present time, especially in the North Island and the north of the South Island, wide areas are occupied by bracken-fern (Pteridium esculentum) or by manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), for the most part caused by fire; yet as fire was a natural agency in primitive New Zealand in the vicinity of active volcanoes, there would be natural communities of the above character. Both communities if left alone would in time change into forest. Manuka shrubland is a common feature of the Auckland gumlands, where also, in hollows, bogs are abundant, which, as for lowland New Zealand in general, are distinguished by pale hummocks of bog-moss (Sphagnum), a small umbrella-fern (Gleichenia circinata), and a wiry rushlike plant, the wire-rush (Hypolaena lateriflora). On these bogs grow several kinds of sundew (Drosera) and bladderwort (Utricularia).

The vegetation of the high mountains is both of great scientific interest and full of rare beauty. It is composed of no less than 966 species, and it is certain that a good many more species will be discovered. How strongly of New Zealand origin is the flora is revealed by the fact that of the 514 purely high-mountain species all except 16 are endemic, and probably 5 of these are endemic also. The headquarters of the true high-mountain species is in the South Island, their total being 473, as compared with 105 for the North Island, a matter which should cause no surprise since the area for plants above the forest-line is far and away less than in the South Island, where also the average height of the mountains is much greater.

Though the high mountains contain only 16 genera which do not descend to the lowlands, S of them are endemic. But there are 40 genera which, possessing but few truly lowland species, are well represented by purely high-mountain species, e.g.(to cite some of particular importance): Danthonia, Colobanthus, Ranunculus, Nasturtium, Geum, Acaena, Pimelea, Drapetes, Schizeilema, Aciphylla, Anisotome, Dracophyllum, Gentiana, Myosotis, Hebe, Veronica, Ourisia, Euphrasia, Plantago, Lobelia, Forstera, Olearia, Celmisia, Raoulia, Helichrysum, Abrotanella, and Senecio.

With but few exceptions the most beautiful flowers of New Zealand belong to the high-mountain flora, so that in due season many plant-communities are natural flower-gardens of extreme loveliness. There are the giant buttercups, white and yellow—but nearly all the flowers are of these colours—which may be seen by the acre; the lovely ourisias, with the flowers in whorls round the stem, tier above tier, as in some of the Asiatic primulas, or the glistening green leaves, as in 0. caespitosa, may form mats on stony ground bearing multitudes of delicate blossoms; the eyebrights—true alpine gems—their flowers white with a yellow eye or purple throat, or yellow altogether; forget-me-nots, yellow, bronze, purplish, or white; the snow-groundsel, its large marguerite-like flowers produced in such profusion that the mountain-meadow glistens like a snowfield; the two kinds of edelweiss, far surpassing their Swiss elder sister in beauty, the flowers of the “everlasting” kind, their outer leaves flannelly and snow-white. But above all other plants of the mountains, not only for their beauty of flower, leaf, and form, but for their abundance in all situations, come the various species of Celmisia.“Go where you will”—to quote from “The Vegetation of New Zealand ” (ed. 2, p. 238)—“on sub-alpine and alpine herb-field and their silvery foliage strikes the eye, it may be in stately rosettes of dagger-like leaves, in circular mats trailing over the ground, or in dense cushions. Their aromatic fragrance fills the air; from early till late summer some of their white heads of blossom may be seen, while in due season, gregarious species clothe both wet herb-field and dry, stony slopes with sheets of white.”

The life-forms of the high-mountain plants are in great variety and frequently of striking appearance. Cushion-plants, rosette-plants, mat-forming plants, and stiff-stemmed shrubs are greatly in evidence. Hairiness, leathery texture, and surprising rigidity, perhaps accompanied by needle-like points, as in the giant Spaniards (Aciphylla Colensoi, A. maxima, &c), are common characteristics of leaves.

There are many plant-communities composed of combinations of tussock-grasses, herbaceous plants, semi-woody plants, dwarf or creeping shrubs, and cushion-plants which are sometimes dense enough, and sometimes so open that there is more stony ground than vegetation. The most surprising community is that of unstable stony debris—the “shingle-slips” of the shepherds—which covers the slopes of certain dry mountains for some thousands of feet, particularly in Marlborough and Canterbury. No less than 33 species occupy this inhospitable station, 25 of which are confined thereto. So far apart do the species grow—frequently many yards— that they bear no relation to each other. Their life-forms are clearly in harmony with the peculiar environment. All have thick fleshy or leathery leaves, frequently of the grey colour of the stones. In 16 species the part above the ground is annual; the shoots nearly always lie close to the stones, but if buried they have the faculty of growing upwards again. One species, Copula strata, has a jet-black flower-head, with stamens like tiny golden pin-heads.

Shrubland is common in the mountains, the most characteristic being the sub-alpine scrub, which on many mountains forms a dense belt above the timber-line. That typical of a wet climate consists of rigid or wiry-stemmed shrubs which grow into one another, and the main branches of many are parallel to the slope and project downwards. The scrub may be so dense that one must either crawl beneath it or walk on its treacherous roof. For the whole of the region the community consists of about 122 species, belonging to 28 families and 49 genera. The chief groups of plants which compose the scrub are shrubby composites and epacrids, wiry shrubs with densely entangled twigs (mainly species of Coprosma), species of Hebe, Phormium Colensoi, various podocarps, and giant Spaniards, On river-terraces scrubs with species of Hebe dominant are frequent, and fringing stony river-beds there is often an open scrub of wild-irishman (Discaria toumatou)—one of the few spinous plants in the flora.

Rock-vegetation is always of interest, and this is particularly so in the high mountains. The number of species occurring on rocks is about 190 (families, 36; genera, 74). About 44 species are virtually confined to rocks, and such include a dwarf fern (Polypodium pumilum), certain rosette plants at present referred to the genus Nasturtium, one or two dwarf Spaniards, and a few forget-me-nots, hebes, celmisias, and raoulias.

The floras of the following groups of islands, far distant from the mainland, are distinctly part of that of New Zealand. The Kermadecs contain 117 species of ferns, fern-allies, and seed-plants, 16 of which are endemic, while 89 belong also to New Zealand proper. The largest island (Sunday Island) is covered with forest in which a variety of Metrosideros collina, a near relative of the pohutukawa, is the principal tree. The Chatham Islands possess at least 257 species, of which 36 are endemic, though several of the latter are trivial varieties merely, while the remainder of the flora is, with one exception, found on the mainland. Forest, moor, and heath are the principal plant communities. The leading tree is the karaka, but by the Moriori called kopi. On the moors are great thickets of a lovely purple-flowered shrub, Olearia semideutata. There are two remarkable endemic genera, Coxella and Myocardium, the former belonging to the carrot family, and the latter a huge forget-me-not, new nearly extinct. The subantarctic islands (Snares, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Macquarie) have a dense vegetation made up of 193 species, no fewer than 60 of which are endemic, the remainder being found in New Zealand, but chiefly in the mountains. Forest is found only on the Snares and the Aucklands, with a species of Olearia and the southern-rata as the dominant trees respectively. Extremely dense scrubs occur on the Auckland and Campbell Islands, and moor, sometimes with huge tussocks, is a characteristic feature of all the islands, thanks to the enormous peat, deposits and the frequent rain. Several herbaceous plants of stately form (species of Pleurophyllum, Anisotome, Stilbocarpa, and Celmisia) and with flowers of extreme beauty—some of them purple in colour—occur in great profusion.

The Cook Islands, though a part of the Dominion, possess a Polynesian flora quite distinct from that of New Zealand, and are excluded from this notice, while, on the contrary, the flora of the Macquarie Islands (belonging to Tasmania) is a portion of that of New Zealand,

Besides the indigenous, an important introduced element, consisting of about 520 species, mostly European, has followed in the wake of settlement. These aliens are in more or less active competition with the true natives. There is a widespread but quite erroneous opinion that the latter are being eradicated in the struggle. This is not the case. Where the vegetation has never been disturbed by man there are no foreign plants; but where man, with his farming operations, stock, and burning, has brought about European conditions, then certainly the indigenous plants have frequently given way before artificial meadows and arable land, with their economic plants and accompanying weeds. But in many places associations not present in primitive New Zealand have appeared, owing to man's influence, composed principally, or altogether, of indigenous species. On the tussock-grassland invader and aboriginal have met, and though the original vegetation is changed there is no reason to consider the one class or the other as the conqueror. Finally, in course of time, a state of stability will be reached, and a new flora, composed partly of exotic plants and partly of these indigenous to the soil, will occupy the land, and, save in the national parks and scenic reserves, but only if these are kept strictly in their natural condition as to both plants and animals, this new flora will build up a vegetation different from that of primeval New Zealand.

The above brief sketch of the flora and vegetation is obviously most incomplete. These wishing to dive deeper into the fascinating subject can consult the following books: “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora,” ed. 2, by T. F. Cheeseman, 1920; “New Zealand Plants and Their Story,” ed. 3, by L. Cockayne, 1927; “Plants of New Zealand,” by R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell, ed. 3, 1927; “Now Zealand Trees and Shrubs and how to Identify Them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips Turner, 1928; “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” ed. 2, by L. Cockayne, 1928; “The New Zealand Nature Book,” Vol. 2, by W. Martin, 1929; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbie, ed. 3, 1931. Also (but new out of print) “The Forest Flora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889, must not be overlooked.

THE FAUNA.

The fauna of New Zealand is briefly described in the following article by Mr. James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S.:—

New Zealand's native fauna has attracted the attention of investigators in nearly all parts of the world. Its special interest lies in its manifold peculiarities, in the incongruous characters possessed by some of its members, and in the ancient types found in different classes of its animals.

Beginning with the mammalia, the Dominion is surprisingly inadequately represented. Its only land-mammals, except seals, are two bats. One of these, the long-tailed bat, belongs to a genus (Chalinolobus) which is found in the Australian and Ethiopian zoological regions, and to a species (morio) found in the south-east of Australia as well as in New Zealand; but the other, the short-tailed bat (Mystacops tuberculatus), belongs to a genus peculiar to this Dominion. At one time it was believed that the Maori dog (Canis familiaris, variety maorium, the “kuri” of the Maoris) and the Maori rat {Mus exulans, the Maoris' “kiore”) wore indigenous to New Zealand, but it is new generally believed that these two animals were introduced by the Maoris when they made their notable migrations from their legendary Hawaiki. The dog was highly prized as a domestic pet, and the rat as an article of diet. Both could easily be taken across the sea in the large canoes used in these day 3. The dog, without doubt, is extinct. Statements by Captain Cook, J. R. and G. Forster, Sydney Parkinson (the artist), the Rev. W. Colenso, and early visitors to New Zealand show that the Maori dog was a very ordinary animal. It was small, with a pointed nose, pricked ears, and very small eyes. In colour it was white, black, brown, or parti-coloured, and it had long hair, short legs, a short bushy tail, and no loud bark, but only a whine. The Maoris lavished upon it an abundance of affection. When dead its flesh was used for food, its skin for clothing, and its hair for ornaments. Opinions differ in regard to the approximate date of its extinction, and investigations in this respect are made somewhat difficult by the fact that for some years “wild dogs,” as they were called—probably a cross between the Maori dog and dogs brought by Europeans—infested several districts in both the North Island and the South Island, and were confused with the Maori dog. It is probable that the pure Maori dog became extinct about 1885. The Maori rat, a forest-dweller, is not as plentiful as it was when Europeans first came to New Zealand, but it still lives in the forests.

The long-tailed species of bat was once fairly plentiful, especially in the forests, whore it makes its home in hollow trees. Large numbers also at one time were found under old bridges across streams, notably at the River Avon, in Christchurch. It is not very rare now, and specimens sometimes are found in the forests and in caves. The short-tailed species is not extinct, but rare. Most bats are exceptionally well adapted for life in the air, feeding on (lying insects, and even drinking on the wing. But the short-tailed species of New Zealand possesses peculiarities of structure which enable it to creep and crawl with ease on the branches and leaves of trees, and probably it seeks its food there as well as in the air. Few naturalists, however, have had opportunities to observe it, and little is known of its habits.

2—Ybk.

The sea-lion, the sea-elephant, the sea-leopard, and the fur-seal are found on islands within the Dominion's boundaries. In the early days of colonization sealing was a great industry, and yielded large profits to some of the adventurous men who took part in it.

Amongst the sea-mammals whales are the most important. At one time extensive whaling was carried on in New Zealand waters, three hundred vessels, chiefly from America, sometimes visiting the country in one year. The industry began about 1795, reached the height of its prosperity between 1830 and 1840, and then began to dwindle. In recent years there has been an effort to revive the industry, but it will never attain the position it held in former years. Porpoises are plentiful, and the dolphin (Delphinus delphis) also is found in these waters. Mention should be made here of “Pelorus Jack,” a solitary whale which for some-years met vessels near Pelorus Sound, and which was protected by an Order in Council under the name of Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus). He was the only member of the species reported from New Zealand waters.

In contrast with the species of land-mammals, the members of the next class, Aves, were remarkably plentiful when settlement began. Bush and grass fires, cats, stoats, and weasels, and the ruthless use of the gun have reduced their numbers, but they still stand as probably the most interesting avifauna in the world. They include a comparatively large number of absolutely flightless birds. No living birds in New Zealand are wingless, but the kiwi (Apteryx), the weka (Gallirallus), the kakapo parrot (Strigops), and the takahe (Notornis hochsletteri)* cannot use their wings for flight, while a duck belonging to the Auckland Islands (Nesonetta) is practically in the same plight. There are also several species of birds whose wings are so weak that they can make only short flights. Other notable birds are the kea (Nestor nolabilis), which is accused of killing sheep on stations in the South Island; the to (Prosthemadera novae-zealandiae), winch affords one of the most beautiful sights in the New Zealand forests, and charms visitors with its silvery notes; the huia (Heteralocha acutirostris), the only species known in which there is a wide divergence in the shape of the bills in the two sexes, the male's being short and straight, while the female's is curved, pliant, and long; and the wry-billed plover (Anarhynchus frontalis), the only bird known to possess a bill turned to one side. Cormorants or shags (Phalacrocorax) and penguins (Impennes) are exceptionally well represented in the avifauna. New Zealand, indeed, may be regarded as the headquarters of the penguins, as all the genera except one are found within the boundaries of this Dominion. The oldest fossil penguin known is from the Eocene and Oligocene rocks of New Zealand. New Zealand probably was the centre from which penguins were dispersed to other countries.

Several species of birds make notable migrations to New Zealand. The godwit (Vetola canonical baueri) breeds in the tundras of Eastern Siberia and in Kamchatka and Western Alaska, and spends the summer months in New Zealand, arriving about October, and leaving in March or April. The knot (Canutus canning) breeds in circum-polar regions and migrates to New Zealand; and two cuckoos—the shining cuckoo (Lamprococcyx lucidus) and the long-tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis taitensis)—come from Pacific islands in the spring, and leave for their northern homes about April. Both, like most members of the Cuculidae family, are parasitical, and impose upon small native birds the duty of hatching and rearing young cuckoos. The kiwi, already mentioned, belongs to the same subclass as the ostrich, the emu, and the cassowary, all struthious birds, and has several peculiarities besides its flightlessness. One of these is the position of its nostrils at the tip of its bill, instead of at the base as in all other birds. Its plumage is peculiarly hair-like in appearance. It possesses a very generalized structure; as Sir Richard Owen once suggested, it seems to have borrowed its head from one group of birds, its legs from another, and its wings from a third. It was once believed to be almost extinct, but in recent years has been shown to be fairly plentiful in some districts where there is little settlement.

The takahe (Notornis) is one of the world's very rare birds. Only four specimens have been found. Two of the skins are in the British Museum, one is in the Dresden Museum, and one in the Otago Museum, in Dunedin. The fourth specimen was caught by two guides (Messrs. D. and J. Ross) at Notornis Bay, Lake Te Anau, in 1898. There is reason to believe that the takahe still exists in the wild districts of the southern sounds.

* This bird is better known as Notornis manteilli.

The interest of the living avifauna is surpassed by the interest of the extinct birds. These include the great flightless moa (Dinornis), a goose (Cnemiornis minor), a gigantic rail (Aptornis otidiformis), and an eagle (Harpagornis moorei).

Reptilian life is restricted to about fifteen species of lizards, and to the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). This is a lizard-like creature, the only surviving representative of the order Rhynchocephalia, otherwise extinct. The tuatara is found in no other country. Its nearest ally is Homceosaurus, whose remains have been found in Jurassic rocks in Germany. The tuatara has been destroyed to a large extent by wild pigs. cats, and dogs, and is new seldom found except on a few islands off the coast of the mainland.

The amphibians are represented by two species of frogs. One, Liopelma hochstetteri, has been recorded from only a few districts in the Auckland Province. The other, Liopelma hamiltoni, has been recorded from only Stephen Island, a small island in Cook Strait, notable as one of the refuges of the tuatara.

About 250 species of fish have been found in New Zealand waters. Many of these are used for food. Several species, notably the mudfish (Neochanna apoda), which is sometimes discovered buried 4 ft. deep in clay in places where rivers have overflowed in flood, and in swampy places, are interesting. Some of the genera are peculiar to New Zealand, but some also occur in Australian and South American waters.

Amongst the invertebrates one of the peculiarities is the fact that the Dominion has few butterflies, although it is well supplied with moths. It has a red admiral butterfly (Vanessa), named after the European species, which it resembles, and a copper butterfly (Chrysophanus), which is very plentiful. In the forests there is that strange growth the “vegetable caterpillar.” The Dominion has native bees and ants, dragon-flies, sober-coloured beetles, and representatives of other orders of insects. The katipo spider (Latrodectes katipo), which lives mostly on or near the sea-beach, is well known locally. Amongst the mollusca there is a large and handsome land-snail (Paryphanta), and Amphibola, an air-breathing snail, peculiar to the Dominion, which lives in brackish water, mainly in estuaries. There are about twenty species of univalves and twelve of bivalves in the fresh-water shells, and about four hundred species in the marine shells, including the paper nautilus (Argonauta). Perhaps the most interesting of all the invertebrates is the Peripatus, an ancient type of creature which survives in New Zealand and in parts of Australia, Africa, South America, the West Indies, New Britain, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. Zoologically, it belongs to the air-breathing division of the phylum Arthropoda, and has been placed in a special class, Prototracheata or Onychophora. It is about 3 in. long, has many feet, loves moisture, shuns light, and moves slowly. Two genera have been found in New Zealand. One genus, Peripatoides, contains two species, novae-zealandiae and suteri, and the other, Ooperipatoides, contains only one species, viridimaculatus. The Peripatus is viviparous. It is claimed that one New Zealand genus, Ooperipatus, is oviparous, but that has not been fully proved.* Professor A. Dendy, F.R.S., has made special investigations in regard to the'New Zealand species.

With the arrival of Europeans the whole face of the fauna was changed. The first European animal introduced was the pig, liberated by Captain Cook in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773. With settlement, sheep, cattle, horses, and other domestic animals were brought, some for utility, some for pleasure, such as song-birds, and some for sport, such as doer, trout, pheasants, and quail. In the work of acclimatization several great and irretrievable blunders were made. The worst of these was the introduction of rabbits, stoats, and weasels.

* Professor Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S., late Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, in the Encyclopoedia Britannica.

Chapter 2. SECTION II.—HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND ADMINISTRATION.

EARLY HISTORY.

THE history of New Zealand prior to the seventeenth century is shrouded in mythology and tradition. When the country was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had discovered these islands many centuries previously. At what time the discovery of New Zealand was made by the Maoris, and from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, much having been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can new be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they found inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, many generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less variation, in all the eastern Pacific islands.

DISCOVERY BY EUROPEANS.

It was on the 13th December. 1642, that Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, discovered New Zealand. Tasman left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskercq,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea-hen ”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius and discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country.” Tasman finally departed without having set foot in the country.

There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who sighted land on the 6th October, 1769. at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the South and Stewart Islands”which last he mistook for part of the South Island” he took his departure from Capo Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned M. de Surville (December, 1769), M. Marion du Fresne (1772), Captains Vancouver and Broughton (1791), Captain Raven (1792–93), Alejandro Malaspina and Jose de Bustamente y Guerra (1793), Lieutenant Hanson (1793).

SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION.

So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand lo their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven, of the “Britannia,” landed a sealing-party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over twelve months before being called for.

The next few years saw the establishment of whaling-stations at several points on the coast, and in 1814 the first missionaries—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—arrived in New Zealand. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government. Marsden returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall, Kendall, and King, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands.

In 1825 three separate attempts were made to found colonies in various parts of New Zealand, but none of these was successful, and for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling-stations. A number of Europeans gradually settled in different parts of the country, and many of these married Native women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonization arrived in Port Nicholson on the 22nd January, 1840, and founded the town of Wellington. During the few succeeding years the settlements of Nelson, Taranaki, Otago, and Canterbury were formed by immigrants sent out by associations in the United Kingdom.

Auckland, where the seat of Government was established in 1840, was not specially colonized from the United Kingdom, but attracted population mainly from Australia and from other parts of New Zealand.

BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY.

As early as 1833 a British Resident (Mr. Busby) was appointed, with head quarters at Kororareka (now called Russell), on the Bay of Islands. Seven years later—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30th January, 1840, and on 6th February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi* was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. Originally signed by forty-six chiefs, the treaty (or copies of it) was taken to various parts of the country and signed by other chiefs, so that in a period of less than six months 512 signatures were affixed.

On 21st May, 1840, Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. On the treaty being signed in the South Island, formal proclamation of British sovereignty over that island in accordance with the consent of the Maoris was made at Cloudy Bay on 17th June, 1840, by Major Bun bury.

New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until the 3rd May, 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated the l6th November, 1840.

CONSTITUTION.

The government of the colony was first vested in a Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; there was an Executive Council, with advisory powers only, as well as a Legislative Council.

*The historic site of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, together with 3,000 acres (with an additional 1,400 acres subsequently) of the adjoining estate, was purchased and presented to the nation as a national monument by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe in May, 1932.

An Act granting representative institutions to the colony was passed by the Imperial Parliament on the 30th June, 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on the 17th January, 1853. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives.

The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the House of Representatives, who, however. held no portfolios. The first Ministers under a system of responsible government were appointed in the year 1856.

By Order in Council dated 9th September, 1907, and by Proclamation issued 10th September, 1907, the style and designation of the Colony of New Zealand was altered to “The Dominion of New Zealand,” the change taking effect from Thursday, the 26th September, 1907.

By Letters Patent dated 11th May, 1917, the designation of Governor and Commander-in-Chief which had hitherto been hold by the Royal representative in New Zealand was altered to “Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.”

Definition was given to the status of New Zealand (and other Dominions) by the Imperial Statute of Westminster, of 11th December, 1931, the draft of which had received the antecedent approval of all Dominion legislatures, that of New Zealand being given by resolution passed by both Houses on 23rd July, 1931.

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.

The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor - General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of the 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of the 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council, but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to His Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded upon the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The present Executive Council consists of ten members in addition to the Governor - General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Since the 10 - per - cent, reduction in 1931, and the 15 - per - cent, reduction in 1932 (National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932), the Prime Minister receives £1,377 per annum, other Ministers with portfolios receiving £895 1s. per annum. House allowance of £180 per annum is paid in addition in cases where a Government residence is not provided.

The Civil List Act, 1920, provides for His Excellency the Governor-General to receive £5,000 per annum, and £2,500 per annum allowance. His Excellency has elected voluntarily to subject these amounts to an annual deduction of £2,250.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

The Imperial Act under which the earliest appointments were made to the Legislative Council under a system of responsible government provided that the first appointees should be not less than ten in number. The number actually summoned for the first session (held at Auckland from 24th May, 1854), was sixteen, of whom only fourteen attended. The number increased irregularly for thirty years. In 1885 and 1886 it stood at fifty-three, but has not since reached that limit. The number on the roll at present (August, 1934) is thirty.

An Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1868 provided that future appointments of Councillors should be made by the Governor (not by the Sovereign). Until 1891 members were appointed for life, but since that year appointments have been made for seven years only, members, however, being eligible for reappointment. Prior to 1891 the Speaker was appointed by the Governor, but the Council new elects its own Speaker, who holds office for five years. The Chairman of Committees was formerly elected every session, but in 1928 the standing orders were amended to provide for a three years' term of office. Speaker and Chairman are both eligible for re-election.

Provision for an elective Legislative Council is contained in the Legislative Council Act, 1914, which may be brought into operation at a date to be specified by Proclamation.

The qualifications for membership of the Legislative Council are the same as for the House of Representatives, with the proviso that a person may not at the same time be a member of both Houses.

Before the year 1892 the honorarium of Councillors was understood to be for the session, not for the year, and formed the subject of a special vote every session, the amount varying in different sessions. By the Payment of Members Act, 1892, the honorarium was made annual, not sessional, and was fixed at £150 a year. The amount was raised in 1904 to £200, and in 1920 to £350, but was reduced in 1922 to £315, in 1931 to £283 10s., and in 1932 to £255 3s. The Speaker new receives £583 4s. per annum, and the Chairman of Committees £364 10s. Besides the honorarium, members are allowed travelling-expenses actually incurred in going to and from Parliament at the opening and closing of each session.

Subject to certain exemptions, members not attending the Council are liable to be fined.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are new designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty - three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act, 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

After each population Census the Dominion is divided anew into seventy-six European electorates, according to population distribution, with an allowance for rural population. The “country quota” is computed on the basis that 28 per cent-is added to the rural population, which for electoral purposes means population other than that contained in a city or borough of over 2,000 inhabitants or in any area within five miles of the chief post-offices at Auckland, Wellington, Christ-church, or Dunedin. The “country quota” first appeared in 1881, to the equivalent of an addition of 33£ per cent, to the country population. It was reduced in 1887 to 18 per cent., but was increased in 1889 to the present 28 per cent.

Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with the exception that the term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the Great War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth Parliament to four years. A Government Bill at present before the Legislature provides for a permanent extension to four years.

Every registered elector of either sex who is free from the disqualifications mentioned in the Electoral Act, 1927, is eligible for membership. All contractors to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly, in any one financial year, as well as the public servants of the Dominion, are incapable of being elected as, or of sitting or voting as, members.

The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £364 10s. per annum, subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. Travelling-expenses to and from Wellington at the opening and closing of each session are also allowed. The rate of payment for several years prior to 1920 was £300 per annum, but was increased in that year to £500, 10-per-cont. reductions, however, being made in 1922, 1931, and 1932.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon after as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £708 15s. per annum, plus sessional allowance of £7S 15s. and free sessional quarters, and that of the Chairman of Committees £540 15s. per annum.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

THE FRANCHISE.

The three cardinal principles of the franchise in New Zealand are (1) one man one vote, (2) female suffrage, and (3) adult suffrage.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the last - mentioned, the following classes of persons not being entitled to register as electors or to vote:—

An alien:

A mentally defective person:

A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of His Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1927, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924.

The system of “one man one vote” has been in operation since 1889, and women's suffrage since 1893. The qualifications for registration are the same for both sexes.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.

Side by side with the general government of the country, but subordinate to it, there has existed a system of local government since the early years of New Zealand's annexation as a British colony. The history of local government divides naturally into two periods representing two distinct systems—viz., the provincial, which was in operation up to 1876, and the county, which superseded the provincial in that year.

THE PROVINCES.

On the 23rd December, 1847, a Charter was signed dividing the colony into two provinces—New Ulster and New Munster—and this was proclaimed in New Zealand on the 10th March, 1848.

Under the constitution of 1853 the Provinces of New Ulster and New Munster were abolished and the colony was divided into six provinces—Auckland, New Plymouth (later altered to Taranaki), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. Each province was to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine by the formation of Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Southland, later reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with Otago, and again increased to nine by the formation of Westland, remained as integral parts of the constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, and re-created as provincial districts.

EARLY BOROUGHS AND TOWN DISTRICTS.

Even before the division of New Zealand into the two provinces of New Ulster and New Minister, local government had its inception, Wellington having been created a borough in 1842 under the authority of the Municipal Corporations Ordinance of that year. The Ordinance was disallowed by the Imperial Government, but was re-enacted, with necessary alterations, in 1844. Wellington, which lost its status on the original Ordinance being disallowed, did not become a borough again until 1870, Auckland (constituted in 1851) remaining the only borough in New Zealand for several years.

Wellington, which had been the first borough in the country, also became the first town district, with a form of government not differing greatly from that of a municipality. Gradually the more important towns adopted the status of boroughs, while the less important remained town districts. In Otago, however, between 1875 and 1875, several small towns wore created boroughs under the authority of an Ordinance of the Otago Provincial Council.

THE ROAD AND HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

Another form of local government which came into existence in the provincial days was that of the road districts, or, as they were called in certain parts of the country, highway districts. As the names imply, the road and highway districts were formed for the purpose of extending and maintaining roads. Each district was controlled by an elected Board, which had power to levy rates. The first Road Boards were formed in 1863, and by 1875 their number had risen to 314.

THE COUNTIES.

Among the instructions given Captain Hobson on his appointment as the first Governor of New Zealand was one directing that the colony was to be divided into counties, hundreds, and parishes. In accordance with this instruction, the boundaries of the County of Eden, in which Auckland—then the capital—is situated, were proclaimed in 1842, and some years later the county was divided into hundreds. Very little further was done towards giving effect to the instructions, and the first administrative county was Westland, separated from Canterbury Province in 1867, and granted a system of local government in the following year.

It was not until the abolition of the provinces in 1876 that a scheme of division of the whole country into counties was introduced. The Counties Act, 1876, which, in conjunction with the Municipal Corporations Act of the same year, provided a comprehensive scheme of local government in lieu of the provincial governments, divided New Zealand into sixty-three counties. With the exception of six, which were exempted from the operations of the Act, each county was placed under the control of an elected Chairman and Council, possessed of fairly full powers of local government—considerably loss, however, than those formerly enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. The Counties Act specially excluded boroughs from the counties within which they geographically lie, and a similar enabling provision has since been made in the case of town districts having a population of over 500.

EXTENSION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

Since the abolition of the provinces and the passing of the Counties and Municipal Corporations Acts of 1876 there has been considerable extension of local government. Many of the road districts have merged with the counties within which they lie, while others have become boroughs or town districts. On the other hand, counties, boroughs, and town districts have increased in numbers, while several entirely new classes of local districts, formed for definite purposes—as, for instance, land drainage or electric-power supply—have come into existence. In most cases the Boards of these districts have borrowing and rating powers.

Information concerning the origin, development, constitution, functions, &c, of local governing bodies will be found in the 1932 edition of the Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand. The reader is also referred to the section of this book dealing with local government.

Chapter 3. SECTION III.—POPULATION.

METHOD OF COMPILATION.

IN common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country is taken quinquennially. The minutiae of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics, compiled from census data will be found in the census publications listed at the front of this volume. Owing to the high standard of education of the population, and to the political, geographical, and social conditions prevailing in the Dominion, the data compiled as a result of the census arc-both complete and reliable.

The financial stringency resulting from the severe decline in the prices of primary products caused by the world-wide economic depression led to the first interruption in the sequence of New Zealand censuses. By the Census Postponement Act, 1930, the census due to be taken in 1931 and proclaimed for 21st April of that year was postponed until 1936.

The basis adopted for the census—and indeed, practically universally throughout population statistics in New Zealand—is that of the population de fail, all persons being counted as at the place of enumeration, irrespective of habitual residence, legal domicile, and so forth.

Intercensal figures of total population are based on the customary equation:—

Population = Population (census) + Births and immigration—Deaths and emigration.

The comparative shortness of the interval between the census enumerations, combined with New Zealand's insular position and the high standard of her registration system, has hitherto prevented serious intercensal errors in statements of population of New Zealand as a whole. This remark applies to Europeans only, as the same standard of accuracy cannot be claimed for Maori registrations. A point of minor importance which may be noted is that births and deaths registered during a year are considered as actually occurring during that year.

The fact that all migration to and from the Dominion must be waterborne over lengthy distances, and that it centres in a few ports, facilitates the compilation of accurate statistics of external migration. Records of passenger traffic between the North and South Islands are also maintained. Population statistics of lesser internal divisions and of towns are based upon a variety of data collected annually.

Residents of the Cook Islands, Niue, Western Samoa, and the Tokelau Group are not included in the population statistics quoted throughout this section, except in the first table on the next page. Further information will he found in the section relating to dependencies. Figures are new given inclusive of Maoris where possible, in accordance with a decision of Cabinet.

For the 1920 census all half-caste European-Maoris were included with the Native population in lieu of the previous practice of treating as Europeans such half-castes as were living in European fashion. Numbers so treated were as follows: 1921, 4,236; 1916, 3,221; 1911, 2,879: 1906, 2.578; 1901, 2,407.

Separate statistics of the Maori population are given towards the end of the section.

GENERAL POPULATION.

The population of the Dominion of New Zealand and its dependencies and the mandated territory of Western Samoa at the 1st April, 1934, was 1,615,087. The Ross Dependency is uninhabited.

 Males.Females.Total.
Population (exclusive of Maoris) of New Zealand proper751,454724,5721,476,026
Maori population of New Zealand proper37,91934,96472,883
Population (inclusive of Maoris) of New Zealand proper789,373759,5361,548,909
    
Population of Cook Islands and Niue8,1037,74915,852
Population of Tokelau Islands (June, 1934)5935861,179
Population of the mandated territory of Western Samoa25,65823,48949,147
    Totals 1st April, 1934823,727791,3601,615,087

INCREASE OF POPULATION.

The outstanding note of the history of population movement in New Zealand is that of unbroken growth. That it has not been invariably regular is well attested by the accompanying table, and by the fifty years' record shown in Section XLIV.

Date of Census.Population (excluding Maoris).Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.Average Annual Percentage Increase.
* Based on population excluding half-castes living as Europeans, who are included in population totals in 1921, but not in 1926.
December, 185126,707......
December, 185859,41332,706122.4612.44
December,186199,02139,60866.6718.70
December,1864172,15873,13773.8620.54
December,1867218,66846,51027.028.15
February, 1871256,39337,72517.255.11
March, 1874299,51443,12116.825.32
March, 1878414,412114,89838.368.43
April, 1881489,93375,52118.225.58
March, 1886578,48288,54918.073.39
April, 1891626,65848,1768.331.61
April, 1896703,36076,70212.242.33
March, 1901772,71969,3599.861.91
April,1906888,578115,85914.992.79
April, 19111,008,468119,89013.492.60
October, 19161,099,44990,9819.021.57
April, 19211,218,913119,46410.872.32
April, 19261,344,469129,792*10.692.05

The “European” population now looks in retrospect down a vista of well over one hundred years. At the opening of the nineteenth century there existed a more or less fluctuating population of perhaps one hundred; by 1839 it had swelled to a total of about a thousand whalers, sealers, traders, missionaries, adventurers, and settlers. Activities of the colonizing companies and societies in the “forties” brought rapid changes and swiftly rising numbers, to be enhanced in the “sixties” by the gold rushes of the period.

The most significant period is possibly that of the “seventies,” marked by a vigorous developmental policy of public works and assisted immigration. The record year 1874, which saw a rise in population of 46,000 (including 32,000 assisted immigrants), was, and still is, the high-water mark of population gains. Both 1874 and 1875 showed a ratio of growth far in advance of any level subsequently attained.

In the late “eighties” and early “nineties” came economic depression and, consequently, comparative stagnation in population. In 1888, 1890, and 1891 emigrants exceeded immigrants, these being the only such occasions in the history of the country until the present depression, when departures exceeded arrival in 1931 and subsequent years.

From the middle “nineties” rising world prices and the new frozen-meat trade brought a return of prosperity and moderate, but steady, increase of population Development of secondary industries and the remarkable expansion of dairying provided a substantial foundation for increasing numbers.

The average annual population increment during the ten post-war years, 1919–28, exceeded 30,000. The population gain fell to 16,071 in 1928, showed slight rises to 17,442 in 1929 and 19,325 in 1930, and fell to 14,508 in 1931 and 10,283 in 1932, with a slight increase to 10,450 in 1933. Apart from war years, which were affected by movements of troops, 1933 shows with the exception of 1932 the lowest absolute increase since 1891, and the lowest relative increase (except 1888 and 1932) ever recorded.

Up to the “seventies” New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since then natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—has been the principal factor.

Over the whole period 1861–1933 migration accounted for 35 per cent, of the total increase, excess of births over deaths accounting for 65 per cent. Form 1901 to 1933 the former is responsible for 28 per cent, and the latter for 7 per cent, of the increase of population.

The still considerable natural increase of population tends to obscure realization of the actual position of population increase. The true rate of natural increase is much lower than the apparent. The equilibrium birth-rate—i.e., the birth-rate necessary to hold the population stationary, apart from migration, may be assumed to be the reciprocal of the mean length of life—at present, upon this basis, a rate of about 15.6 per 1,000. The declining birth-rate has reached an observed level of 16.6 per 1,000, and although this figure has not been corrected to the same life-table population it is clear that the margin has shrunk to a very low level

A table is appended showing for each five-yearly period from 1861 the e of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration. Maoris are not included nor, prior to 1921, are crews of vessels.

Period.Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
* Decrease. Departure and return of troops of Expeditionary Force not included in migration figures.
1861–657,6258,98516,61063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1860–7015,66317,77933,44211,1679,36920,53620,83027,14853,978
1871–7519,40921,12940,53846,50135,44581,94665,91056,574122,484
1876–8030,14332,80862,95131,87022,91754,78762,01355,725117,738
1881–8532,36235,04667,40815,95813,00128,95948,32048,04796,367
1886–9030,78133,54464,325-4,911*-3,791*-8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891–9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40315,32037,17236,03373,205
1806–190028,09731,43759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901–0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,44663,73850,446114,184
1900–1038,08143,06781,74825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
l911–1542,32346,68289,00517,65617,90535,56159,97964,587124,566
1916–2035,24841,35970,6076,9797,87514,85442,22749,23491,161
1921–2541,87644,86886,74126,73223,25649,98868,60868,124136,732
1926–3036,88640,45677,34214,7589,86924,62751,64450,325101,969
19317,0957,48014,575165-232*-67*7,2607,24814,508
19326,4776,72413,201-1,770*-1,148*-2,918*4,7075,57610,283
19335,9216,71212,633-1,227*-956*-2,183*4,6945,75610,450
Totals, 1861–1933438,357484,929923,286301,077201,850502,927739,434686,7791,426,213

The table shows clearly the irregularity of the migration increase and the comparative steadiness of the natural increase. With a stable birth-rate the natural increase would show mounting numbers, whereas actually the peak occurred in 1911–15 and the shrinking birth-rate has reduced numbers accruing from this source.

SEX PROPORTIONS.

The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand. The figures quoted are exclusive of Maoris.

Census Year.Males.Females.Females to 1,000 Males.
186161,06237,959622
1871150,350106,037705
1881269,605220,328817
1891332,877293,781883
1901405,992366,727903
1906471,008417,570887
1911531,910476,558896
1916551,775547,674993
1921623,243595,070956
1920686,384658,085959

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless due to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe were such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries. Gold-mining and coal-mining, for instance, would attract large numbers of men, but few women. The effect of this early preponderance of males no doubt still exists, but. in an ever-diminishing degree, its gradual elimination being effected by the passing of the earlier settlers. In recent years there has been a considerable approach towards equality in the increase of males and females by migration, and in some years the female increase from this source has exceeded the male.

Of the two sources from which the Dominion's population has been recruited— viz., migration and natural increase—the effect of the. former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, arid of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females. In the period 1861–1933 the gain of males by migration (excluding movements of troops between 1914 and 1919, and also excluding crews prior to 1921) totalled 99,227 more than that of females. This excess was only partly offset numerically by a female surplus of 40,572 in the figures of natural increase, but the net excess of 52,655 males is not sufficient to maintain the former high ratio of males to females in the population. The surplus of males at present, exclusive of the Native population, is some 27,000. The effect of the natural increase of population is in the direction of eliminating this surplus at the rate of some 600 to 700 per annum.

INTERCENSAL RECORDS.

As already noted, the intercensal statements of Dominion population prepared from the records of vital statistics and of migration have been by virtue of the favourable position of the Dominion in this respect, remarkably accurate. The post-census revision of intercensal Dominion figures has hitherto been unnecessary in New Zealand, apart from the later war years, 1916–19, when exact records of military movements were not always available.

Calendar Year.Population (excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year. Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per cent.
*Vide references to half-castes on first page of this Section.
1924671,452644,7221,316,17426,9532.091,298,635
1925687,287658,7891,346,07629,9022.27l,329,759
1926697,113668,3041,365,41729,054*2.171,352,927
1927707,008678,3931,385,40119,9811.461,374,439
1928714,928686,5441,401,47216,0711.161,390,684
1929723,691695,2231,418,91417,4421.241,406,942
1930733,389704,8501,438,23919,3251.361,425,084
1931740,649712,0981,452,74714,5081.011,444,901
1932745,356717,6741,463,03010,2830.711,456,237
1933750,050723,4301,473,48010,4500.711,466,930

The “European” population gain for the (March) year 1933–34 was abnormally low. Although a favourable death-rate was experienced, the further decline in the birth-rate was sufficient to cause a diminished natural increase ratio; while the small migration exodus of the preceding year was continued. The Maori natural increase recorded is new much higher than the “European,” but less confidence can he placed in the accuracy of the data in the ease of the former.

As the year ended 31st March is for most of the administrative functions of the Government the period most in use, figures are given for March years.

Year ended 31st March,Population (excluding Maoris) at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent.
* Vide references to half-castes on first pace of this section.
19251676,477648,5601,325,03731,1342.411,305,896
1926691,910662,3821,354,29229,255,2.211,337,155
1927701,774671,9721,373,74629,382*2.181,357,777
1928708,568680,1321,388,70014,9541.091,378,806
1929716,678688,2831,404,96116,2611.171,394,726
1930724,978696,0001,421,57816,6171.181,411,198
1931735,965706,7811,442,74621,1681.491,430,143
1932742,258712,9091,455,16712,4210.861,448,267
1933746,834718,9991,465,83310,6660.731,458,855
1934751,454724,5721,476,02610,1930.701,469,509

The figures given in the two preceding tables show the population exclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population inclusive of Maoris:—

 Population (including Maoris) at End of Year).Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.
Years ended 31st December.
1924 700,033670,3701,370,4031,352,618
1925716,371684,8591,401,2301,384,428
1926730,603698,9521,429,5551,413,700
1927740,782709,3081,450,0901,438,814
1928749,125717,8271,466,9521,455,734
1929758,490727,0741,485,5641,472,925
1930768,746737,3411,506,0871,492,376
1931776,660745,2281,521,8881,513,416
1932782,122751,5871,533,7091,526,115
1933787,738758,2081,545,9461,538,490
Years ended 31st March.
1925705,161674,3261,379,4871,359,995
1926721,173688,6391,409,8121,392,073
1927735,338702,6421,437,9801,420,762
1928742,396711,1211,453,5171,443,323
1929750,974719,6801,470,6541,459,983
1930759,963728,6321,488,5951,477,494
1931771,491739,4491,510,9401,497,732
1932778,425746,2081,524,6331,517,103
1933783,854753,1101,536,9641,529,133
1934789,373759,5361,548,9091,541,511

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.

Statistics of external migration have been recorded in New Zealand since 1860. Since 1st April, 1921, they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving the Dominion.

Commencing with the year 1933–34, the year ending 31st March has been adopted as a standard for the statistical expression of external migration in place of the calendar year formerly in use. The principal reason for the change is the avoidance of the partition of a season's migration movement into two statistical years as was inevitable with the calendar year ending in the middle of the summer flow of tourists and immigrants.

Including crews of vessels, 69,591 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31st March, 1934, which, compared with 1932–33, shows an increase of 1,380. During the same period 71,(52”) persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1932–33, shows an increase of 821.

Migration in 1933–34, therefore, continued to show the unusual feature of an excess of departures, amounting to 2,034 compared with 2,593 in 1932–33.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last ten years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels have not been taken into account.

Year ended 31st March,Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
* Excess of departures.
192523,29418,91742,21116,19513,71829,91312,298
192623,61518,83442,44916,89713,81730,71411,735
192725,39620,28645,68218,68415,33434,01811,664
192819,45316,38435,83720,71816,35437;072-1,235*
192918,78416,01534,79918,33515,75334,088711
193018,51515,32433,83916,80314,65131,4542,385
193116,71814,02330,74113,98011,65225,6325,109
19329,6968,19517,89111,8009,26321,063-3,172*
19339,7608,95318,71311,6639,64521,308-2,595*
193410,0459,64219,68711,40110,62122,022-2,335*

The monthly figures for 1932–33 and 1933–34 are as follows, the excess passenger arrivals or of passenger departures for each month being also shown:—

 Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals.Excess of Departures.
Month.1932-–33.1933-–341932-–331933-–341932-–331933-–341932-–331933-–34
April11,7471,1342,6092,243.. 8621,109
May1,2581,4382,2032,170....945732
June8718371,6291,724....758887
July8591,0981,4001,434....541336
August1,1761,1791,2931,473....117294
September9811,2101,3321,096..114351..
October2,1081,9141,1361,339972575....
November1,7761,8021,1951,173581629....
December2,4142,6911,7381,791676900....
January2,4382,8161,9521,913486903....
February1,6941,9651,9142,234....220269
March1,3911,6032,9083,432....1,5171,829
    Totals18,71319,68721,30922,022....2,5962,335

In general, arrivals exceed departures in the spring and summer months, while the contrary holds for the autumn and winter periods.

CLASSES of ARRIVALS and DEPARTURES.

The following table gives an analysis of the various classes of passenger arrivals during the last five years. It is, therefore, exclusive of crews of vessels, a source from which comes a steady increment of population. The average annual excess of crew arrivals over departures in the five years 1929–30 to 1933–34 was 630, and in the preceding five years, 730.

 1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Immigrants intending permanent residence6,2916,6772,2881,4941,428
New Zealand residents returning from abroad14,83613,8568,6309,1398,420
Tourists9,3277,5014,7325,9837,441
Persons on commercial business1,9011,5721,0789481,034
Persons visiting the Dominion in connection with entertainments, sports, &c.640335295353297
Others (officials, &c, of other countries)314258435258316
Persons in transit487483422488711
No information available3759115040
    Totals33,83930,74117,89118,713l9,687

The New Zealand Government temporarily suspended from early in 1927 the major portion of its scheme of granting assisted passages to migrants from the British Isles, and this is largely responsible for the decreases shown in regard to immigrants. The number of assisted immigrants for 1933–34 is 4 as against 56 in 1932–33 and 11,239 in 1926–27: while the numbers of those who migrated to New Zealand without State assistance amounted to 1,424, 1,438, and 6,898 for the years 1933–34, 1932–33, and 1926–27 respectively.

The succeeding table gives an analysis of passenger departures, and thus furnishes the reverse of its predecessor:—

 1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
New Zealand residents departing permanently3,1592,2842,8442,9503,160
New Zealand residents departing temporarily14,41011,2168,8228,7179,293
Visitors to the Dominion departing13,83012,0779,3099,5409,531
No information available55558810138
    Totals31,45425,63221,06321,30822,022

AGES.

The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the fifteen months ended 31st March, 1934:—

Age in Years.Permanent Arrivals.Permanent Departures.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
* Excess of departures.
0–14186177363356366722- 359*
15–24151136287372300672- 385*
25–341922444365595121,071- 635*
35–44132153285327331658- 373*
45–59133163296266306572- 276*
60 or over4676122132133265- 143*
  Total including unspecified8429501,7922,0141,9483,962- 2,170*

ORIGIN and DESTINATION.

Of the 1,428 new immigrants during the year 1933–34 intending to settle in the Dominion, the vast majority, 1,308, or 91.6 per cent., came from British countries, mainly from the British Isles, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Fiji, and India. The majority of immigrants from foreign countries came from Yugoslavia and the United States of America.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the principal countries whence arrived new immigrants who intended permanent residence in the Dominion:—

Country of Last Permanent Residence.1920–30.1030–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
British Isles3,3692,610856449468
India7793656280
Union of South Africa2931112114
Canada183135635137
Australia2,0943,2351,001627598
Other British countries193222120131111
Denmark85121
Italy5242968
Switzerland99..32
Yugoslavia6956292112
China312619717
United States of America10568624244
Other foreign countries and unspecified72145527236
    Totals6,2916,6772,2881,4941,428

Of the New Zealand residents who left the Dominion permanently, the great majority (95.8 per cent.) went to British countries. The only foreign countries of any importance were China and the United States of America.

NATIONALITIES.

During the fifteen months ended 31st March, 1934, 106 persons (males 43, females 63) of foreign nationality, out of the total of 1,792, arrived as new immigrants intending permanent residence in the Dominion. The chief nationalities represented among the alien immigrants for the last fifteen months were as follows (figures for the five years preceding being given in parentheses): United States, 23 (131); Yugoslavia, 16 (266); Italy, 10 (184); Denmark, 6 (68); China 6 (18); Switzerland, 5 (42); and Russia, 2 (45).

The number of foreign nationals among New Zealand residents departing permanently during the fifteen months ended March, 1934, was 109 (90 males and 19 females), or 2.8 per cent, of the total.

A noticeable feature in regard to foreign nationals is the relative disparity of the sexes as between arrivals and departures. Of the arrivals 41 per cent, were males and 59 per cent, females, whereas of the departures 83 per cent, were males and 17 per cent, females.

RACE ALIENS.

Although race aliens comprise comparatively small proportions of the total arrivals and departures, they are by no means unimportant. The principal race aliens with whom New Zealand is concerned are Chinese, Indians, and Syrians, and the first two are shown separately from other race aliens. The definition of the term “race alien,” as used in connection with these statistics, is “a person of other than European race.”

Permanent arrivals of race aliens in 1933.34 comprised 23 Indians, 7 Chinese, and 7 of other races. Departures were 2 Indians, 30 Chinese, and 13 of other races. In the last ten years permanent arrivals have aggregated 219 Chinese, 409 Indians, and 284 others; and the permanent departures 302 Chinese, 33 Indians, and 131 others.

It should be noted that the figures quoted above include persons of mixed blood.

The total arrivals and departures of race aliens during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

 Arrivals.Departures.
Year ending 31st March,Chinese.Indians.Others.Totals.Chinese.Indians.Others.Totals.
1925531147321999473138330941
19266002184221,240560167215942
19275272462981,071532159297988
19285451522319286561312311,018
1929427188306921602146247995
1930458191265914521167219907
1931375162247784542157255954
1932327117133577461140142743
193324081148469340112150602
193422210715248134992132573

At the census of 1881, the year in which taxation was first imposed on Chinese landing in New Zealand, the Chinese population numbered 5,004 persons, which fell to 4,542 in 1886, and further to 3,711 in 1896. During the period 1881–96 the poll-tax was £10 per head, and this seemed sufficient for the purpose of preventing a large influx of Chinese. During the years 1894 and 1895, however, the arrivals were found to be somewhat greater than the departures, and in 1896 an Act was passed raising the poll-tax on Chinese immigrants to £10 per head, and limiting the number of Chinese passengers that may be carried by vessels to New Zealand to one for every 200 tons burthen. According to the census of 1901, the Chinese population was 2,857; in 1906 it was 2,570; in 1911, 2,630; in 1916, 2,147; in 1921, 3,266; and in 1926, 3,374. At the 31st March, 1934, the approximate numbers of the principal alien races present in New Zealand were: Chinese, 2,549; Indians, 1,128; and Syrians, 1,000.

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.

The general scheme of Governmental assistance to immigrants, which has been restricted in varying degrees since May, 1927, is based on nomination by a person who is already domiciled in New Zealand, and who undertakes to find employment for his nominee and guarantees that such nominee will reside at least five years in New Zealand. Further details will be found in the 1931 or preceding issues of the Year-Book.

Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). The numbers of assisted immigrants during each of the last ten calendar years are as follows:—

Year.Number.
19248,091
19258,277
192610,766
19275,899
19282,220
19291,878
19301,405
1931489
193277
19339

The total to 31st December. 1933, is 226,228, of which number all have come from the United Kingdom with the exception of 3,909 from the Continent of Europe. spread over the five years 1874 to 1878 (inclusive).

In the following analysis of migration increase the figures given are annual averages for the periods quoted:—

Period.Governmentally assisted ImmigrantsImmigrants not Governmentally assisted.Total Net Migration Increase.
1909–13..3,479..7,095
1920–247,5496,2009,680
1925-–295,8085,7086,571
1930–334952,778140

PASSPORTS.

PERMISSION to enter NEW ZEALAND.

With certain specified exceptions, no person over the age of fifteen years may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a passport or some other document satisfactorily establishing his or her nationality and identity. Exemption from this requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

In the case of a person coming from a foreign country the passport must, with certain exceptions, have been issued or visit by the British Ambassador or a British Consul in that country, and in the case of a person coming from any part of the British dominions the issue or vise must have been by some public official duly authorized in that behalf.

Certain exceptions are made with respect to persons coming to New Zealand from the Cook Islands and Western Samoa. In their case the only requirement is the possession of a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or the Administrator of Samoa, as the case may be. The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject arriving in New Zealand as the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives, or to a British subject arriving from the Commonwealth of Australia.

DEPARTURE from NEW ZEALAND.

With the exception of British subjects travelling to the Commonwealth of Australia, the Cook Islands, or Western Samoa, all persons travelling to places beyond the seas are required to be in possession of a passport or similar document to facilitate landing thereat. British passports are issued, under the direction of His Excellency the Governor-General, by the Department of Internal Affairs. They are valid for five years and may be renewed for any number of years not exceeding five. Subject to the Immigration Regulations in force in the various countries of the Empire, they are valid for travelling anywhere within the British Empire, including territories under British protection or mandate, but not Palestine unless specially endorsed for that country.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.

The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908, and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919. It is administered by the Customs Department.

Subject to certain exemptions, the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

  1. Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Customs Department. (Note.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage by reason that he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject, or by reason that he is an aboriginal Native or the descendant of an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of His Majesty.)

  2. Idiots or insane persons.

  3. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  4. Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.

  5. Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the Dominion.

  6. Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath (or make an affirmation) of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons covered by clause (1) above to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to a period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit of £10 is required in respect of such temporary permits, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit are complied with. The Collector of Customs may also require, if he so decides, a deed to be entered into by some person or persons resident in New Zealand approved by him guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Chinese entering New Zealand to become permanent residents are required, in addition to being in possession of the permit indicated in clause (1) above, to pay £100 poll-tax.

Under the provisions of the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act, 1931, restrictions upon the landing in New Zealand of persons of British birth and parentage may he imposed, on account of any economic or financial conditions affecting trade and industry in New Zealand, or any other conditions which render it expedient to impose such restrictions. Under present legislation the Act ceases to be in force after the 31st December, 1935.

RESTRICTED IMMIGRANTS.

When persons arrive in New Zealand who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm, and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons come to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond for £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for his support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

DECLARATION by PERSONS arriving in NEW ZEALAND.

Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Customs, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name, age, nationality, race or people to which he belongs, residence, particulars of children under fifteen years of age arriving with him, and (if not domiciled in New Zealand) occupation, and places of birth of himself and father.

Where, after the end of the year nineteen hundred and thirty-three, a certificate of naturalization is granted to an alien, his wife, if not already a British subject, shall not be deemed to be a British subject, unless, within the period of twelve months from the date of the certificate, or within such longer period as the Minister of Internal Affairs may in special circumstances allow, she makes a declaration that she desires to acquire British nationality.

Where an alien is a subject of a State at war with His Majesty, it shall be lawful for his wife, if she was at birth a British subject, to make a declaration that she desires to resume British nationality, and thereupon the Minister, if he is satisfied that it is desirable that she be permitted to do so, may grant her a certificate of naturalization.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.

NORTH AND SOUTH ISLANDS.

In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, this position being reversed at the succeeding enumerations until 1901, in which year the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total, a position which it has since considerably improved upon. The Maori War which broke out in 1860 retarded settlement in the North, while a large area, of land reserved for the Maoris was for many years a serious hindrance to the development of this portion of the Dominion. The South Island was practically free from Maori troubles, and settlement was more rapid, though much of the land was disposed of in large areas. The discovery of gold in Otago in 1861 and on the West Coast in 1864 attracted to these localities considerable numbflrs of miners.

Census Year.Population (including Maoris).Proportions per Cent.
North Island.South Island.*Total.North Island.South Island.*
Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
1881193,047296,880489,93339.4060.60
1886250,482328,000578,48243.3056.70
1891281,474345,184026,658 144.9255.08
1896340,638302,722703,30048.4351.57
1901390,579382,140772,71950.5549.45
1906476,737411,841888,57853.6546.35
1911563,733444,7351,008,46855.9044.10
191651.072448,3771,099,44959.2240.78
1921741,255477,6581,218,913 i60.8139.19
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961.8738.13

The natural increase of population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the South Island in 1933 was 4,302, but the total net increase was only 3,868. For the North Island the natural increase was 8,331, and the total net increase only 0,582.

INTERNAL MIGRATION.

Statistics of passenger migration between the North and South Islands are compiled from returns supplied by Collectors of Customs and are of use in the compilation of population estimates. The following table shows inter-island migration for ten years ending 31st March :ߞ

Year.Arrivals in North Island.Arrivals in South Island.Excess in favour of North Island.
1924-25126,563126,101402
1925-26148,393152,527-4,134
1920-27142,930141,0971,233
1927-28140,120137,9612,105
1928-29145,140145,179-33
1929-30147,490143,8573,033
1930-31135,730135,318412
1931-32110,295108,9211.374
1932-33100,57399,823750
1933-34101,544105,754790

Of the 109,544 passengers from the South Island in 1933-34, 109,504 landed at Wellington, including 79,932 from Lyttelton, 16,005 from Nelson, and 13,504 from Picton.

The 108,754 passengers who landed in the South Island for the same period included 79,031 at Lyttelton, 16,272 at Nelson, and 13,410 at Picton, the passengers in these instances all arriving from Wellington. One-day inter-island excursion (return) trips are not included in the above figures.

PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS.

The approximate areas and the populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are as follows:ߞ

Provincial District.Area (Square Miles).Census Population.Estimated Population as at 1st April, 1934.
1901.1911.1921.1926.
* Includes certain Maori wives of Europeans, provincial district not specified.
Auckland25,400204,8991,298,782408,3511,469,458525,928
Hawke's Bay4,26039,60453,09863,62870,35376,950
Taranaki3,75040,46554,16065,24471,84878,200
Wellington10,870146,326204,325254,695281,020318,250
Marlborough4,22013,74616,47418,28918,79319,450
Nelson10,87038,06748,63547,73450,87854,700
Westland4,88014,56615,79614,25315.26016,850
Canterbury13,940144,195174,513199,969215.079232,431
Otagoߞ
Otago portion14,050125,782132,881137,062149,921156,400
Southland portion11,17048,01659,34962.43965,52969.750
Totals103,410815,S62*1,058,312*1,271,6641,408,1391,548,909

URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION.

On 20th April, 1926, somewhat over one-third (38-5 per cent.) of the population of the Dominion (excluding Maoris) was included in the four principal urban areasߞ Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedinߞand over one-half (51-6 per cent.) in these and in the ten secondary urban areas.

For population purposes dependent town districts have their figures included in the totals of the counties within which they lie, while independent town districts are excluded, as is also the case with boroughs. Under the old method of computing urban and rural population, however, both classes of town districts are included in the county totals, as in the following table showing the urban and rural population at each census since 1881 :ߞ

PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS.

The approximate areas and the populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are as follows:ߞ

Census year.Counties.Boroughs.Percentage.
Counties.Boroughs.Shipboard, &c
1881291,238194,98159.4439.80.76
1886327,328245,61256.5842.460.96
1891352,097270,34356.1843.140.68
1896391,735307,29455.6943.690.62
1901417,596350.20254.0445.320.64
1906458.797424.61451.6347.790.58
1911490,779505,59849.2650.140.6
1916501,259585,30645.5953.241.17
1921530,852681,98843.5555.950.5
1926551,457785,04041.0258.390.59

URBAN DRIFT.

It is not altogether correct to regard the county population as rural and the borough population as urban. It is perhaps preferable to consider the question in the light of the following figures, in tho computation of which the urban population is considered as that living in cities, boroughs, or town districts of over 1,000 inhabitants in 1881, 1,200 in 1886, 1,300 in 1891, 1,450 in 1896, 1,600 in 1901, 1,800 in 1906, 2,050 in 1911, 2,250 in 1916, and 2,500 in 1921 and 1926. Here the basic town has been given a rate of increase approximately equivalent to that of the country as a whole, it being assumed that a town of 2,500 bears much the same relationship at the present day as one of 1,000 inhabitants did in 1881. The results are as under :ߞ

Census.Rural Population: Per Cent.Urban Population: Per Cent.Census.Rural Population : Per Cent.Urban Population : Per Cent.
18812.3437.66190657.9642.04
188660.4739.53191157.0742.93
189161.1638.84191654.1845.82
189661.9538.05192151.2348.77
190160.8739.13192648.3851.62

The increasing proportion of urban population in recent years is plainly manifest. It is noteworthy that the "urban drift," either non-existent or quiescent up to 1906, in that year commenced a swift rise, which is gaining in momentum. An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of tho population as in the case of the Australian States ߞ e.g., Victoria, whose capital city, Melbourne, contains over 50 per cent, of the total population of the Stateߞthe more highly urbanized portion of the community is localizod in four widely separated centres. These four centres have always existed more or less on tho same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island. Of the Northern provincial districts Taranaki is the only one in which rural population predominates.

New Zealand is not alone in experiencing tho modern tendency towards urban aggregation : it is, in fact, occurring in almost all countries.

Care has been taken with the resources available, and it is believed the results are sufficiently near the truth to serve usefully the many administrative, commercial, and statistical purposes to which they are put; but, nevertheless, the possibility of occasional serious variations from fact must not be overlooked.

URBAN AREAS.

The population of each of the fourteen urban areas (cities or boroughs, plus their suburbs) as estimated annually is as follows:ߞ

Urban Areas.ߞEstimated Population (including Maoris), 1929-34.
Urban Area.1st April, 19291st April, 193030th April, 1931.1st April, 1932.1st April, 1933.1st April, 1934.
Auckland209,800 213. 330217.000218,400219,800221,300
Wellington133.770138,51014,.000144,800145,900146,800
Christchurch125,410120,010127,300128,900130,100131.100
Dunedin85,08085,42086,50087,40087,90088,500
Wanganui27,63027,80027,85027,80027,05027,050
Invercargill23,31023,59024,00024,35024,50024,800
Palmerston North21,28021,92022,80023,20023,50023,850
Napier19,060 19,22019.30019,30019,45019,550
New Plymouth17,21017,03018,20018,65018,75018,950
Timaru17,89018,03018,35018,65018,75018,950
Hamilton17,40017,74018,10018,250IS,30018.550
Hastings15,50015,93016,75016,75017,00017,200
Gisborne15,07015,86010.25016,40016,50016,650
Nelson12,25012,32012,50012,70012.S5013,000

The population of each county, borough, and town district as at 1st April, 1934, is given in the schedules which follow.

Counties. ESTIMATED POPULATION (INCLUDING MAORIS), 1ST APRIL, 1934.

(Note.ߞThe column headed "Administrative" does not include boroughs or town districis independent of county control, but includes dependent town districts. The heading "Geographic" includes all cities, boroughs, or town districts geographically situated in a county.

County.Population (including Maoris).County.Population (including Maoris).
Administrative.Geographic,Administrative.Geographic.
North IslandߞNorth Islandߞcontd.
Mongonui7,8308,430 Franklin12,15010,280
Whangaroa2,2102,210 Raglan8,4208,420
Hokianga7,6707,670 Waikato10,29030,200
Bay of Islands8,1108,710 Waipa10,90014,710
Whangarei11,06021,300 Otorohanga4,6505,360
Hobson0,3008,310 Kawhia2,0902,090
Otamatea4,5404,540 Waitomo7,2909,860
Rodney4,3104,810 Taumarunui3,2405.790
Waitemata10,61040,S20 Matamata8,06010,200
Eden9,260184,020 Piako8,40012,730
Great Barrier420420Total377,490993,850
Ohinemuri3,0908,260South Island-ߞ
Hauraki Plains4,4504,450 Sounds940940
Thames2,7707,470 Marlborough7,89014,590
Coromandel2,1402,140 Awatere1,7301,730
Tauranga9,21013,440 Kaikoura2,2202,220
Rotorua4,0609,310 Amuri2,2202,220
Taupo2,6302,030 Cheviot1,4901,490
Whakatane6,4607.990 Wainiea. .9,72024,540
Opotiki4.3005,090 Takaka2,2102,210
Matakaoa1,7001,700 Collingwood1,1401,140
Waiapu5,0305,030 Buller6,31010,380
Wava1,8201,820 Murchison1,7001,700
Waikohu3,0803.0S0 Inangahua3,0003,000
Cook7,28021,830 Grey5,02015,850
Wuiroa5,3007,780 Westland4,4407,880
Hawke's Bay15,01040,740 Waipara2,5702,570
Waipawa3,6004,810 Kowai2,0302,030
Waipukurau1,0703,100 Ashley690690
Patangata2,8602,860 Ratigiora2,8705,070
Dannevirke5,1009,740 Eyre1,9003,710
Woodville1,8703,000 Oxford1,0201.020
Weber490490 Tawera750750
Ohura2,5103,010 Malvern..2,9502,950
Whangamomona1,3301,330 Paparua5,5005,500
Clifton2,7002,700 Waimairi13,45018,800
Taranaki0,91025,380 Heathcote5,740109,940
Inglewood3.2104,480 Halswell1,9601,960
Egmont4,2205,270 Mount Herbert520520
Stratford5,4709,110 Akaroa1,8902,490
Eltham3,4905,510 Chatham Islands640640
Waimate West3,0003,830 Wairewa1,1101,110
Hawera5,03010,390 Springs1,9701,970
Patea: 3,0005,500 Ellesmere3,3904,000
Kaitiake3,1804,000 Sehvyn1,7301.730
Waimnrino4,0006,820 Ash burton12,89019,170
W'aitotara3,55028,400 Geraldine5,8008,820
Wanganui4,0504,050 Levels5,09023,120
Rangitikei110,10017,030 Mackenzie3,0703,070
Kiwitea2,3502,350 Waimate7,3509,080
Pohangina1,3401,340 Waitaki. .9,75017,070
Oroua3,8808,400 Waihcmo1,5102,320
Manawatu5,2106,950 Waikouaiti4,4209,700
Kairanga5,43027,380 Peninsula3,0203,020
Horowhenua7.30012,920 Taieri6,21089,050
Pahiatua2,9104,470 Bruce4,0107,560
Akitio1,1001,100 Clutha7,2108,860
Eketahuna2,0002,800 Tuapeka5,1200,500
Mauriceville840840 Muniototo3,2103,410
Masterton3.89012,720 Vincent3,8705,180
Castlepoint630630 Lake1,7902,960
Wairarapa South3,3305,290 Southland25,76057,550
Featherston4,0407,300 Wallace9,32011,460
Hutt8,87040,580 Fiord4040
Makara4,490120,220 Stewart Island530530
Manukau8,86020,130Total225,200548,270
   Grand total602,6901,542,120
Boroughs.ߞEstimated Population (including Maoris), 1st April, 1934.
Borough.Population (including Maoris).Borough.Population (including Maoris).
North Islandߞ 1North Islandߞcontinued.  
Whangarei Martinborough1,050 
Dargaville Upper Hutt3,760 
Birkenhead Lower Hutt14,650 
Northcote Petone11,190 
Takapuna Eastbourne2,110 
Devonport Wellington (City)114,100 
New Lynn Total584,710 
Auckland (City)South Islandߞ  
Newmarket Picton1,330 
Mount Eden Blenheim5,370 
Mount Albert Nelson (City)11,200 
One Tree Hill Richmond1,210 
Onehunga Motueka1,630 
Otahuhu Westport4,070 
Pukekohe Brunner1,100 
Huntly Runanga1,450 
Ngaurawahia Greymouth6,400 
Hamilton Kumara420 
Cambridge Hokitika2,590 
Te Awamutu Ross430 
Te Kuiti Rangiora2,200 
Taumarunui Kaiapoi1,750 
Morrinsville Riccarton5,350 
Te Aroha Christchurch (City)92,150 
Paeroa New Brighton4,990 
Waihi Sumner3,290 
Thames Lyttelton3,770 
Tauranga Akaroa600 
Rotorua Ashburton5,560 
Whakatane Geraldine1,020 
Opotiki Teniuka1940 
Gisborne Timaru17,450 
Wairoa Waimate2,330 
Napier Oamaru7,680 
Hastings Hampden240 
Waipawa Palmerston810 
Waipukurau Waikouaiti610 
Dannevirke Port Chalmers2,570 
Woodville West Harbour2,100 
Waitara Dunedin (City)69,900 
New Plymouth St. Kilda8,370 
Inglewood Green Island2,450 
Stratford Mosgiel2,120 
Eltham Milton1,600 
Hawera Kaitangata1,350 
Patea Balclutha1,650 
Ohakune Tapanui300 
Raetihi Lawrence650 
Taihape Roxburgh430 
Wanganui (City) Naseby200 
Mrton Alexandra690 
Feilding Cromwell620 
Palmerston North (City) Arrowtown280 
Foxton Bluff1,720 
Shannon Riverton940 
Levin Queens town890 
Otaki Gore4,340 
Pahiatua Mataura1,300 
Ekatahuna Winton920 
Masterton Invercargill (City)21,200 
Carterton South Invercargill1,000 
GreytownTotal310,050 
FeatherstonGrand total901.360 
Town Districts.ߞEstimated Population (including Maoris), 1st April, 1934.
Town District.Population (including Maoris).Borough.Population (including Maoris).
* Parent county shown in parentheses.
(a) Town Districts not forming Parts of Counties.
North Islandߞ North Islandߞcontinued. 
Kaitaia600 Ohura500
Kaikohe600 Opunako1,050
Hikurangi1,250 Manaia770
Kamo510 Rangataua300
Warkworth500 Mangaweka350
Heleusville1,000 Hunterville660
Henderson1,120 Waverley90
Glen Eden1,330 Bulls550
Ellerslie2.S30 Johnsonville1,030
Howick670 Total31,050
Papatoetoe2,170  
Manurewa1,500South Islandߞ 
Papakura1810 Tahunanui780
Waiuku880 Cobden1280
Tuakau690 Leeston670
Leamington590 Tinwald720
Otorohanga710 Pleasant Point580
Manunui820 Wyndham670
Putaruni900 Lumsden520
Matamata1,240 Otautau650
Te Puke1,040 Nightcaps550
Taradale1190 Total6,420
Havelock North1,140 Grand total38,070
(b) Town Districts forming Parts of Counties.*
North Islandߞ North Islandߞcontinued 
Kohukohu (Hokianga)520 Ormondville (Dannevirke)320
Ravens (Hokianga)420 Kaponga (Eltham)430
Russell (Lay of Islands)430 Normanby (Hawera)320
Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)390 Rongotea (Manawatu)280
Onerahi (Whangarei)550 Total7,250
Mercer (Franklin)350  
Raglan (Raglan)350South Islandߞ 
Te Kauwhata (Waikato)4S0 Havelock (Marlborough)240
Ohaupo (Waipa)250 Takaka (Takaka)450
Kihikihi (Waipa)330 Southbridge (Ellesmere)440
Kawhia (Kawhia)230 Outram (Taieri)340
Turua (Hauraki Plains)270 Clinton (Clutha) Edendale (Southland)370 4S0
Mt. Maunganui (Tauranga)470  
Te Karaka (Waikohu)400Total2,320
Patutahi (Cook)280  
Norsewood (Dannevirke)180Grand total9,570

TOWNSHIPS.

New Zealand has many townships with considerable population, but without local self-government as boroughs or town districts. Details will be found in Volume I of the 1926 Census Results.

Adjacent Islands.

Adjacent to the main Islands are many smaller islands, some of which are of considerable area and are under cultivation ; others are but islets used as sites for lighthouses, while others again are barren and unfitted for human habitation. Some of these islands are included within the boundaries of counties, and their populations are included in the county figures. The following adjacent islands not attached to any county were inhabited at the census of 1920 :ߞ

Island.Population (including Maoris).Island.Population (including Maoris).
M.F.Total.M.F.Total.
Kokutango516Cuvier448
Pakatoa12526Great Mercury3..3
Rotoroa63669Motiti513889
Littlo Barrier123White22224
Tiritiri5712East4610
Rakino325Kapiti9514
Brown's213Somes294
Pahiki4..4Arapawa404181
Mokohinau325Forsyth4711
Ponui111728Blumine123
Waihoko204217421Brothers3..3
Rangitoto24327D'Urville593493
Motutapu639Stephen51015
Motuihi437Rangitoto448
Kawau161632Quarantine204
Motuhora617Dog336
Motukoteketo2..2Centre426
Slipper2..2    
Wanganui112Totals5834691,052

DENSITY OF POPULATION.

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand is approximately 104,015 square miles. Omitting the annexed islands and certain uninhabited outlying islands, the area of the land-mass remaining is 103,415 square miles. This calculation, it should be explained, includes all inland waters.

Using the latter figure as a base, the density of population in 1934 may be quoted as 14.27 persons to the square mile, or, if Maoris be included, 1498 persons to the square mile.

A truer statement of average density can be ascertained by subtracting from the total area that occupied by rivers, lakes, roads, State forests, higher portions of mountain-ranges, &c. The remaining area, amounting to about 84,500 square miles, which may be considered as the utmost total inhabitable or usable land, carries a population of 17.47 (or, including Maoris. 1833) persons to the square mile.

The various cities, boroughs, and town districts in New Zealand occupy a total of approximately 509 square miles. Considering their population as " urban," the urban population (1934) had a density of 1,864 persons per square mile, and the rural population a density of 6 persons per square mile.

Attention must bo drawn to the necessity for the exercise of discretion in the use of data concerning density of population, particularly in comparing one country with another. Areas may be calculated in many ways, while area itself may have little relationship to potentiality of use. In the case of urban population, it is impossible to obtain the aggregate area of sites actually in occupation by business premises, residences. Many boroughs contain within their boundaries large reserves which, with farming and other unbuilt-on iand, tend to disguise the actual relation of population to area.

AGES OF THE POPULATION.

The following are estimates of the ages of the population (other than Maori) as at 1st April, 1934. They have been compiled from the results of the 1926 census (revised as required by the passage of time), the birth registrations, and the ages recorded in the case of deaths and of external migration.

Town Districts.ߞEstimated Population (including Maoris), 1st April, 1934.
Age (Just Birthday) in Years.Numbers (excluding Maoris) at the Age specified, 1st April, 1934.
Males.Females.Total.
Under 563,81761,147124,964
5-966.4S163,786130,267
10-1469,17366,203135,376
15-1967,38164,973132,354
20-2467,78663,615131,401
25-2962,70459,128121.832
30-3456,47752,920109.397
35-3947,60450,33997,943
40-4445,07848,34193,419
45-4947,83947,22095,059
50-5446,70043,50590,205
55-5937,76134,59972,360
60-6428,21025,70253,912
65-6918,95818,03036,988
70-7412,62012,85325,473
75-797,3876,93514,322
80-844,0203,6907,710
85 or over145815863,044
Totals, under 14186,099178,209364,308
'' under 16212,226203,436415,662
'' minors (under 21)280,917269,275550,192
'' adults (21 and over)470,537455,297925,834
'' all ages751,454724,5721,476,026

The effect of the declining birth-rate has become clearly manifest. For instance, the numbers at ages below ten years are actually 12,000 below the 1920 census level, despite a total increase of population of 132,000 in the eight years which have elapsed. The comparatively rapid changes in the age-constitution of the population have important reactions in many administrative, commercial, industrial, social, and other fields.

MAORI AND HALF-CASTE POPULATION.

A record of early statistics of Maoris is given in Vol. XIV of the 1926 Census Results. The first official general census was taken in 1857-58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy, and even some later enumerations hardhy claim to be more than approximations which approach the truth as nearly as possible.

Available statistical evidence points to a decline in the numbers of the Native race since the advent of Europeans, but this decline was commonly exaggerated by early writers. Of later years an unmistakable increase has been noted. This gain, however, has been accompanied by a very considerable dilution of blood. The census record is as follows :ߞ

Year.No.Year.No.
x* Includes half-castes, vide introduction to section.
1857-5856,049190143,143
187445,470190647,731
187843,595191149,844
188144,097191649,776
188641,969192152,751
189141.993192663,670*
189639,$541934 (estimate, 1st April)72,8S3*

The estimated number of Maoris at 1st April, 1934, was 72,883, of which 09,734 were in the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk (52,384), particularly in the Auckland Peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. Hawke"s Bay contains some 5,500; Taranaki, 4,200; and Wellington, 7,650. In the South Island Maoris do not attain any numerical significance. During 1933-34 the Maori population increased by 1,752.

During the last few years the natural increase ratio of the Maori population has exceeded that, of the European. Heavy fluctuations, however, occur in the Native data, and the completeness of registration is not yet entirely beyond suspicion.

The (arithmetic) mean age of Maoris in 1926 wasߞmales, 23-88 ; females, 22-95 years. The Maori population is a younger one than the European, and possesses higher ratios at all ages up to twenty-five years.

The 1926 Census Results, of which Volume XIV is devoted to a more comprehensive statistical survey of the characteristics of the Maori population than has hitherto been possible, show that a total of 69,780 persons possessed some degree of Maori blood. Of these, 45,429 were classed as of full Maori blood, this term including all persons ranging from over seven-eighths Maori blood to unmixed Native descent. As noted in the Census Results, the degree of miscegenation is probably understated, and the number of Maoris of pure Maori descent is unlikely .to exceed 50 per cent, of the total. The 1926 census analysis is as follows :ߞ

Counted in the Maori populationߞCounted in the non-Maori populationߞ
Full Maori45,429 IQuarter-caste6,053
Three-quarter-caste6,632Maori-Polynesian39
Half-caste11,306Maori-Japanese9
Maori-European, n.o.d.303Maori-Chinese9
Total63,670Total6,110

WORLD POPULATION.

The sources of the data quoted heroin comprise official publications, bulletins issued by the League of Nations, publications of the International Tnstituto of Statistics, and the Statesman's Year-Book. So far as eun be ascertained with some pretension to comparative accuracyߞthe various estimates of the population of the Chinese Empire, for instance, vary to the extent of considerably over 100 millionsߞthe world population is now over 2,000 millions. The inhabitants of the Dominion therefore comprise about one thirteen-hundredth part of the population of the world. Details for continents as given in the Statistical Year-Book of the League of Nations are :ߞ

 1913.1932.
Europe498,000.000510,000,000
Asia978,000,0001,105,000,000
Africa134,000,000143,000,000
North America..134,000,000171,000,000
South America..56,000,00085,000,000
OceaniaS, 000,00010,000,000
Totals1,808,000,0002,024,000,000

As a useful indication of the comparative size of various countries, the following index of population has been prepared :ߞ

Country.Population (000 omitted).Year.Index of Population (New Zealand = 1).Country.Population (000 omitted).Year.Index of Population (New Zealand - 1).
ߞ According to the Chinese Ministry of the Interior. Some authorities consider the population is probably not in excess of 850,000,000, and is stationary.
England and Wales40,350193326France41,950193227
Scotland4,91019333Germany65,913193343
Northern Ireland1,27219330.8Greece6,56719334
Irish Free State2,97319322Hungary8,78419336
India (including Native States)355,8001932230Italy42,217193427
Ceylon5,4271933 Latvia1,92019321
Union of South Africa8,36919334Lithuania2,42219332
Canada10,506119325Netherlands8,30119345
Newfoundland2821932 Norway2,845'19322
Australia6,66819347Poland32.638193321
New South Wales2,02019340.2Portugal6,45719324
Victoria1,82819344Rumania18,300193212
Queensland95219342Russia (Soviet Union)105,7681933107
South Australia58319341Sweden6,19019334
Western Australia44219340.6Switzerland4,09519323
Tasmania23019340.4Spain24,012193310
New Zealand1,54919340.3Turkey14,70019329
Austria6.74019330.1Yugoslavia14,08019329
BelgiumS.21319331China*474,7871932307
Bulgaria5,95019334Japan67,238193343
Czechoslovakia14,82319325Mexico16,800193211
Denmark3,02319334United States125,093193381
Estonia1,124193310Argentina11,84719338
Finland3,72119332Brazil44,002193328
    Chile4,40319333

NATURALIZATION.

The British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Act, 1928, which was reserved for Royal assent, came into force on the 1st July, 1920. This Act made important alterations in the naturalization law of New Zealand, and made provision for the adoption of Part II of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1914 (Imperial). A fairly detailed account of its effects will be found on pp. 92–95 of the 1931 Year-Book.

During the year 1933 letters of naturalization in New Zealand were granted to 64 persons of the undermentioned birthplaces, as compared with 70 in the previous year. In addition, 13 children were included in the certificates of their parents.

Country of Birth.Males.Females.Total.Children.*
* Children included in certificate of parent; additional to preceding figures.
Norway2..2..
Sweden7. .7..
Denmark7..7..
Finland314..
Russia2..2..
Lithuania1..1..
Poland4155
Germany4..4..
France1..1..
Belgium1..1..
Greece1..1..
Rumania1..1..
Hungary1..1..
Yugoslavia9..9..
Italy7..72
Austria112..
United States3..3..
Irelandl..14
England. .11. .
Australia. .22. .
Tokelau Islands1. .1. .
At sea1. .1. .
    Totals5866413

In the ten years 1924–33, 1,579 subjects or citizens of other nations obtained letters of naturalization in New Zealand. The following table exhibits the principal countries involved. For the last nine years concerned the basis is the country of birth, for the remaining year the previous nationality.

Country.No.
Yugoslavia441
Germany184
Denmark143
Italy123
Sweden106
Switzerland69
Norway53
Russia53
United States50
Poland48
Syria46
Finland39
Western Samoa30
Greece25
France24
Austria21
Holland17
Belgium15
Latvia9
Hungary6
Other countries63
    Total1,579

NATIONALITY.

A Government Bill at present (August, 1934) before the Legislature make provision for the adoption, as part of the law of New Zealand, of section 1 of the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1933 (Imperial), which is a re-enactment of legislation of 1914.

While declaring the general principle that the wife of a British subject is deemed herself a British subject, and the wife of an alien is deemed herself an alien, certain exceptions are made:—

Where a woman has (whether before or after the commencement of this Act) married an alien, and was at the time of her marriage a British subject, she shall not, by reason only of her marriage, be deemed to have ceased to be a British subject unless, by reason of her marriage, she acquired the nationality of her husband.

Where a man has. during the continuance of his marriage, ceased (whether before or after the commencement of this Act) to be a British subject, his wife shall not, by reason only of that fact, be deemed to have ceased to be a British subject unless, by reason of the acquisition by her husband of a new nationality, she also acquired that nationality.

Where a man ceases, during the continuance of his marriage, to be a British subject and, by reason of his acquisition of a new nationality, his wife also acquires that nationality, she may, whether her marriage is still continuing or not, at any time within the period of twelve months from the date on which she so acquired that nationality, or at such later time as the Minister of Internal Affairs may in special circumstances allow, make a declaration that she desires to retain British nationality, and thereupon she shall be deemed to have remained a British subject.

Where, after the end of the year nineteen hundred and thirty-three, a certificate of naturalization is granted to an alien, his wife, if not already a British subject, shall not be deemed to be a British subject, unless, within the period of twelve months from the date of the certificate, or within such longer period as the Minister of Internal Affairs may in special circumstances allow, she makes a declaration that she desires to acquire British nationality.

Where an alien is a subject of a State at war with His Majesty, it shall be lawful for his wife, if she was at birth a British subject, to make a declaration that she desires to resume British nationality, and thereupon the Minister, if he is satisfied that it is desirable that she be permitted to do so, may grant her a certificate of naturalization.

Chapter 4. SECTION IV.—VITAL STATISTICS.

SUBSECTION A.—BIRTHS. REGISTRATION.

REGISTRATION

REGISTRATION of births in New Zealand dates from 1848, consequent upon the passing, in 1847, of a Registration Ordinance which made provision for a record of births and deaths being kept by the State. Under this Ordinance many registrations were effected, some of births as far back as 1840. Compulsory registration did not, however, come into force until 1855.

The law as to registration of births is new embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within sixty -two days without fee. After sixty-two days and within six months a birth is registrable only after solemn declaration made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of a late fee of 5s., which may, however, be remitted at the discretion of the Registrar-General. When six months have elapsed a birth may be registered with a Registrar of Births within one month after conviction of one of the responsible parties for neglect, but an information for such neglect must be laid within two years of date of birth. Power is given by the Act of 1924 for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed, a fee of 5s. being payable and satisfactory evidence on oath and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary being required.

Registration of still-births, previously not provided for, was made compulsory from the 1st March, 1913.

Although sixty-two days are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval-viz., forty-eight hours if in a city or borough, and twenty-one days in every other case.

Particulars new required to be registered are: Date and place of birth: name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage: and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The father of an illegitimate child is not required to give information or to be registered. A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of eighteen months may be registered within six months of arrival.

REGISTRATION OF MAORI BIRTHS.

In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912 (now section GO of the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1924), empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in the Dominion is over 200, most of these being in the North Island, whore the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Native settlement of any size is within easy reach of One of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the figures of births given in the following pages do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with at the end of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The number of births registered in 1933 (24,334) is 550 less than the total for 1932 and 3,001 less than the figure for 1913, in spite of an increase of over 398,000 in population during the twenty years. The rate per 1,000 of mean population (16.59) is the lowest ever recorded in the Dominion, being 0.50 per 1,000 lower than in 1932, which represented the previous lowest level. The acceleration in the rate of decline observed in the last three years is probably a reflection of the sudden loss of prosperity. It would be incorrect, however, to ascribe similar reasons to the general decline, long manifested, for which complex social and economic changes appear largely responsible.

The numbers and rates of births in each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
191428,33825.99 192428,01421.57
191527,85025.33192528,15321.17
191628,50925.94192628,47321.05
191728,23925.69192727,88120.29
191825,86023.44192827,20019.56
191924,48321.42192926,74719.01
192029,92125.09193026,79718.80
192128,56723.34193126,62218.42
192229,00623.17193224,88417.09
192327,96721.94193324,33416.59

There is a noticeable fall in the rate in the later years of the period covered by the table, as compared with the earlier. The fall of 940 per 1,000 of population between 1914 and 1933 is equivalent to a decline of 36 per cent, in the birth-rate. The following diagram shows, inter alia, the huge decline in the birth-rate since about 1880:—

Comparisons of birth-rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the crude rates—i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The crude rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of interest to supplement the table of crude rates with a computation of the legitimate birth-rate per 1,000 married women between 15 and 45 years of age, or the total birth-rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand in each census year from 1878 to 1926.

Year.Number of Women 15 and under 45.Number of Births.Birth-rate per 1,000 Women 15 and under 45.
Married.Total.Legitimate.Total.Legitimate.Total.
187850,99980,31317,34117,770340.0221.3
188157,46196,14418,19818,732315.0194.8
188662,709117,89518,69719,299298.2163.7
189163,172131,27117,63518,273279.2139.2
189669,816158,21417,77818,612254.6117.6
190179,420183,38719,55420,491246.2111.7
190698,249212,59823,12024,252235.3114.1
1911119,390240,71425,27626,354211.7109.5
1916141,322267,30027,36328,509193.6106.7
1921150,400288,47727,30928,567181.699.0
1926161,739313,36326,49427,881163.889.0

The legitimate rate per 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 is seen to have fallen by over 50 per cent, between 1878 and 1926, while an even greater fall is shown for the total rate on the basis of all women of the ages mentioned. The greater fall in the latter rate than in the former is due to the fact that among women of the child-bearing ages the proportion of married women is considerably lower nowadays than in the earlier years covered.

Women formerly married at younger ages in general than they do at present, and a study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age-constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth-rate varies with age, the change in age-constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account. This was done in the computation of index-numbers of birth-rates published in the 1933 (page 80) and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

NATURAL INCREASE.

The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been partially compensated for by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the nominal rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31.19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 8.61 in 1933. It has been noted in the previous section that acceptance of this figure without consideration of the effect of the changing age-constitution may give an exaggerated view of the probable trend of population growth in the future.

Period.Annual Rates per 1,000 living.
Births.Deaths.Natural Increase.
1871-187539.8812.6727.21
1876-188041.2111.8029.41
1881-188536.3610.9525.41
1886-189031.159.8521.30
1891-189527.6810.1517.53
1896-190025.759.5516.20
1901-190526.609.9116.69
1906-191027.069.7517.31
1911-191525.989.2216.76
1916-192024.3210.7313.59
1921-192522.228.6213.60
1926-193019.748.6011.14
193118.428.3410.08
193217.098.029.07
193316.597.988.61

In spite of the fact that the birth-rate in New Zealand is new low compared with most other countries, yet so low is the Dominion's death-rate that New Zealand still ranks midway among the nations as regards the rate of natural increase.

BIRTH AND NATURAL-INCREASE RATES.

Country.Quinquennium.Annual Rates per 1,000.
Births.Natural Increase.
* Registration area.
Egypt1927.3244.118.1
South Africa1928.3225.716.0
Argentina1927.3127.715.4
Poland1928.3231.015.2
Ceylon1928.3238.714.7
Chile1928.3238.414.6
Iceland1926.3025.413.9
Japan1927.3133.113.7
Portugal1927.3132.513.6
Rumania1927.3134.013.5
Bulgaria1927.3130.813.4
Uruguay1927.3124.213.3
Canada1927.3124.213.2
Greece1927.3130.012.9
Netherlands1929.3322.212.8
Lithuania1928.3227.311.5
Spain1927.3128.510.7
Italy1928.3225.310.3
New Zealand1929.3318.09.7
Australia1929.3318.49.5
Hungary1928.3224.67.7
Czechoslovakia1928.3222.27.6
United States*1920.3019.47.6
Denmark1928.3218.07.5
Finland1927.3120.16.8
Norway1927.3117.36.4
Northern Ireland1928.3220.56.0
Germany1927.3117.66.0
Scotland1928.3219.35.7
Latvia1927.3120.25.6
Irish Free State1928.3219.65.2
Switzerland1927.3117.25.1
Belgium1927.3118.44.7
England & Wales1928.3216.13.9
Sweden1928.3215.23.2
Austria1927.3110.91.9
Estonia1929.3317.21.5
France1927.3117.91.3

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.

With the exception of one year, there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860).

But little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibits violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which tend to disappear as the total of births grows larger. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923.

Year.Number of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births.
Males.Females.
191414,53513,8031,053
192414,29513,7191,042
191514,41513,4351,073
192514,51813,6351,064
191614,66913,8401,060
192614,64913,8241,060
191714,32913,9101,030
192714,29113,5001,052
191813,12412,7361,030
192814,08213,1181,073
191912,58711,8961,058
192913,64513,1021,041
192015,43414,4871,065
193013,71313,0841,048
192114,57613,9911,042
193113,76612,8561,071
192214,89714,1091,056
193212,82412,0601,063
192314,53113,4361,081
193312,41911,9151,042

The gradual increase in the proportion of males born is illustrated by taking the average ratios of successive decennial periods. The apparent cessation in the increase, as shown by the figures for the period 1916–25 as compared with the preceding decennium, is due to the low masculinity recorded in the last two war years, when (it may be remarked in passing) the proportion of first births to total births was abnormally low.

Period.Male Births to 1,000 Female Births.
1856–18651,062
1866–18751,043
1876–18851,045
1886–18951,045
1896–19051,054
1906–19151,055
1916–19251,053
1926–19331,056

It would appear that the proportion of males is somewhat higher for first births than for the general average of all children. Of 81.292 legitimate first births registered during the ten years 1924–33 (excluding plural births), 41,770 were of males and 39,522 of females, the proportion of males per 1,000 females being 1,057.

The sexes of first-born for various age-groups of the mother for the aggregate of the ten years 1924–33 are as follows:—

Age of Mother, in Years.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
Under 203,6043,4531,044
20 and under 2516,77115,7761,063
25 and under 3013,32412,7361,046
30 and under 355,5395,1521,075
35 and under 401,9881,8731,061
40 and over5445321,023
    Totals41,77039,5221,057

In the ten years covered there were 685 plural first births, and in 217 cases the children were both males, in 242 both females, and in the remaining 226 of opposite sex. Three cases of triplets (in two cases two females and one male, and in the other two males and one female) were recorded as first births during the period.

Further light on the question of sexes of children may be thrown by some figures extracted from the records of births registered in the ten years 1924–33 in cases where the child was shown to be the fourth-born of a family in which the three previously born children were still living. In the following statement showing the sex-nativity order up to the fourth child families in which plural births occurred among the first four children have been excluded.

First-born.Second-born.Third-born.Fourth-born.Number of Cases
MaleMaleMaleMale1,511
MaleMaleMaleFemale1,381
MaleMaleFemaleMale1,222
MaleMaleFemaleFemale1,266
MaleFemaleMaleMale1,256
MaleFemaleMaleFemale1,159
MaleFemaleFemaleMale1,257
MaleFemaleFemaleFemale1,197
FemaleFemaleFemaleFemale1,150
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,226
FemaleFemaleMaleFemale1,214
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale1,246
FemaleMaleFemaleFemale1,146
FemaleMaleFemaleMale1,248
FemaleMaleMaleFemale1,209
FemaleMaleMaleMale1,163

Of the 19,851 families covered, in 10,249 the first child was a male and in 9,602 a female, the number of males per 1,000 females being thus 1,067. The proportion is reduced for subsequent births. The figures are as follows:—

Child.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
First10,2499,6021,067
Second10,1469,7051,045
Third10,1399,7121,044
Fourth10,1299,7221,042

The fact that there is a higher masculinity rate among first-born children than among later issue serves to explain the increasing masculinity of births in successive decennia referred to previously, when it is remembered that the average number of children to a family has fallen heavily during the period, and the proportion of firstborn children correspondingly increased.

The sex-proportions of illegitimate births are generally supposed to be more nearly equal than those of legitimate births. However, although little reliance can be placed on the figures for New Zealand by reason of the small numbers represented, it may be stated that the average for the period 1924–33 was 1,068 males per 1,000 females— a rate considerably above that for all births (1,057) for the same period.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.

The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total cases of births, in cases of living births only, during the last ten years were—

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Multiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases.
192428,01427,712296310.79
192528,15327,848301210.88
192628,47328,111358212.81
192727,88127,548331112.05
192827,20026,919273410.29
192926,74726,470275110.43
193026,79726,488305211.59
193126,62226,332288110.98
193224,88424,618260310.68
193324,33424,079251210.51

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 251 cases of twin births (502 children) registered in 1933. There were also two cases of triplets.

The number of accouchements resulting in living births was 24,079, and on the average one mother in every 95 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

When still-births are taken into account, however, the total number of accouchements for the year 1933 is increased to 24,760, and the number of cases of multiple births to 293. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 85.

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of twin births for the same decade:—

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
192429677108111
19253018386132
1926358114111133
1927331112104115
19282739571107
1929275959288
193030510197107
19312881018998
1932260878093
19332517073108

During the ten years 1924–33 there were twenty-one cases of triplets. In two cases all three children were males, in five cases all were females, in six cases there were two males and one female, and in eight cases two of the three children were females.

AGES OF PARENTS.

Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1933 is shown in the following table:—

Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father, in Years.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 5555 and under 65.65 and under.Total.
* Including thirty cases where plural births would have been registered had not one child been still-born.
Single Births.
Under 2114167447312435831....1,459
21 and under 25621,2382,364898197682893..4,867
25 and under 3093033,1692,633751277106321527,297
30 and under 35..254892,0671,403621230823824,957
35 and under 40..1553561,0648334011715952,945
40 and under 45......241074163011495871,062
45 and over........319533615..126
    Totals2122,2416,5506,1023,5602,2421,1224801881622,713*
Multiple Births.
Under 21..311............5
21 and under 25..15198............42
25 and under 30..319261361......68
30 and under 35....113913852....78
35 and under 40......78187..1..41
40 and under 45........17422..16
    Totals..21508135391743..250
    Grand totals2122,2626,6006,1833,5952,2811,1394841911622,963

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.

Information as to the previous issue of the existing marriage, required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the annual “ Report on Vital Statistics ” containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in connection with (1) age of mother, and (2) duration of marriage. The former table is here summarized.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1933.—NUMBER OF PREVIOUS ISSUE.

Number of Previous Issue.
Age of Mother.0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.Total.
* This number represents 22,713 single cases and 250 multiple cases.
Under 211,113307422..........1,464
21 and under 252,7031,39359016744111....4,909
25 and under 302,5982,2981,28262335214963....7,365
30 and under 359301,2691,07870644524534319..5,035
35 and under 403374575024653672965055522,986
40 and under 4576101127151134933058831,078
45 and over9671091445251126
    Totals7,7665,8313,6282,1241,3518081,262187622,963*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue but also for children covered by the 1933 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

LIVING LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1933.—ISSUE ACCORDING TO AGE OR MOTHER.

Age of Mother, in Years.Total Mothers.Total Issue.Average Issue.
15.198219851.20
20.245,5529,1431.65
25.297,36516,7212.27
30.345,03516,1903.22
35.392,98613,0064.36
40.441,0786,1275.68
45 and over1269257.34
    Totals22,96363,0972.75

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be— viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1933) born to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they represent issue born to the existing marriage only. The averages for the last five years were as follows: 1929,2.84; 1930; 2.78; 1931, 2.77; 1932, .2 75; and 1933, 2.75. This falling trend in the average issue of mothers giving birth to children in each successive year is a measure of the tendency towards smaller families.

FIRST BIRTHS.

Of a total of 121,636 legitimate births registered during the five years 1929–33, no fewer than 41,018, or 34 per cent., were of first-born children, and of these 19,486, or 4S per cent., were born within twelve months, and 30,435, or 74 per cent., within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 26 per cent, of cases where there was any issue to the marriage, two years or more elapsed before the birth of the first child.

The percentage of first births to total births and the proportions occurring within the first and second years after marriage have shown little variation in recent years. The figures for each of the last five years are:—

Year.Total Legitimate Cases.Total Legitimate First Cases.Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases. First Cases within One Year after Marriage. First Cases within Two Year after Marriage.
Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.
   Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
192925,1558,20532.624,03749.206,24876.15
193025,1258,66034.474,11847.556,50375.09
193125,0278,43733.714,02847.746,34475.19
193223,3667,95034.023,66446.095,74472.25
193322,9637,76633.813,63946.865,59672.06
Totals for five years121,63641,01833.7219,48647.5130,43574.20

During the five years there were 9,248 cases of legitimate births within seven months after marriage. Also 6,351 cases of illegitimate births were registered, and if these latter are all regarded as first births (which is not entirely the case) a total of 15,599 extra-maritally conceived cases is recorded, which represents 33 per cent, of the total of legitimate first births, plus illegitimate births. The figures for each of the last five years are—

Year.Total Legitimate First Cases.Illegitimate Cases.Legitimate Cases within Seven Months after Marriage.Proportion of (c) to (a).Proportion of (b) + (c) to Total of (a) + (b).
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
19298,2051,3151,87322.8333.49
19308,6001,3631,91222.0832.67
19318,4371,3051,87122.1832.60
19327,9501,2521,83023.0233.49
19337,7661,1161,76222.6932.40
Totals for five years41,0186,3519,24822.5532.93

ILLEGITIMACY.

The births of 1,119 children (562 males, 557 females) registered in 1933 were illegitimate. The numbers for each of the last ten years, with the percentages they bear to the total births registered, are as follows:—

Year.Number.Percentage to Total Births.
19241,3384.77
19251,3324.73
19261,4735.17
19271,3874.97
19281,3835.08
19291,3274.96
19301,3715.12
19311,3154.94
19321,2625.07
19331,1194.60

It is only natural to expect that, as the birth-rate falls, the proportion of illegitimate to total births will tend to increase. Probably a better criterion is afforded by the following table, which shows the proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages in each census year from 1891.

Year.Unmarried Women aged 15–45 Years.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,9906389.25
189689,7228349.30
1901105,4209378.89
1906116,5061,1329.72
1911116,7261,0789.24
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926151,6241,4739.71

Included in the total of 1,119 illegitimate births in 1933 were 3 cases of twins, the number of accouchements being thus 1,116, including 2 cases registered with the Registrar-General. From the following table it will be seen that of the 1,116 mothers 370, or 33 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age.

ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1933.—AGES OF MOTHERS.

Age.Cases.
Years. 
142
1512
1621
1757
1888
1997
2093
2185
2292
2360
2455
2550
2643
2727
2837
2941
3034
3129
3229
3329
3424
3512
3625
3712
3814
3919
4011
415
426
434
441
452
     Total1,116

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1930, directs the omission of the word “ illegitimate ” from the register when the birth of an illegitimate child is registered. The word “ illegitimate ” appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

THE LEGITIMATION ACT.

An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock whose parents afterwards intermarry is deemed to be legitimized by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes a Registrar must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and must also produce evidence of marriage between himself and the mother of the child.

Prior to the passing, on the 6th February, 1922, of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921–22, legitimation could be effected only if at the time of the birth of the child there existed no legal impediment to the intermarriage of the father and mother, but the legal-impediment proviso was repealed by that amendment.

The amendment of 1921–22 also provides for legitimation by the mother in the event of the death of the father after the intermarriage of the parents. In such a case the application for legitimation is heard by a Magistrate, and upon his certifying that it has been proved to his satisfaction that the husband of the applicant was the father of the child, the child is registered as the lawful issue of the applicant and her husband.

The number of legitimations in each of the last ten years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are:—

Year.Number of Children legitimized.
Previously registered.Not previously registered.Total.
192419481275
192517297269
1926230115345
1927204108312
1928247102349
192926166327
1930234111345
193129292384
193223695331
193330995404
Totals to 19334,8702,4877,357

ADOPTIONS.

The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. If the child's birth has been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on it, and a new entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being substituted for those of the natural parents.

During the year 1933 the registration of 332 adopted children (1G5 males and 167 females) was effected, as compared with 337 in 1932, 329 in 1931, 385 in 1930, and 402 in 1929.

STILL-BIRTHS.

The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. A still-born child is defined as one “ which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Male.Female.Not stated.Total.Male Still-births per 1,000 Female Still-births.Percentage of Still-births to
Living Births.All Births.
1924495348128551,4223.052.96
192548137828611,2723.062.97
1926470416..8861,1303.113.02
1927506372..8781,3603.153.05
1928424415..8391,0223.082.99
1929501369..8701,3583253.15
1930470395..8651,1903.233.13
1931430379..8091,1353.042.95
1932430316..7461,3613.002.91
1933417305..7221,3672.972.88

Masculinity is in general much higher among still-births than among living births, though an exception to the rule occurred in 1928. The figures for the ten years covered by the above table show the rate- for still-births to have been 1,262 males per 1,000 females. The rate for individual years has ranged between 1,726 (in 1914) and 1,022 (in 1928).

Tabulation of the relative ages of the parents of the still-born children in 1933 does not appear to disclose any significant features. The median age of the mothers was 30, as compared with 28 in the case of living births. The percentage of illegitimates among still-born infants (5.54) was higher than among infants born alive (4.60).

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1933, 34 per cent, were first births, while of legitimate still-births no less than 41 per cent, were first births. It would thus appear that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring to mothers having their first accouchement than to the average of those having subsequent accouchements.

The following table, based on the figures for the five years 1929–33, indicates that this is so, and further demonstrates the effect of the increasing age of the mother in the causation of still-births. While for women between 20 and 25 the proportion of still-births to living births was under 2½ per cent, for all births and little higher for first births, for women over forty it was over 6 per cent, for all births and over 13 per cent, for first births.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS, 1929–33.—PERCENTAGE OF STILL TO LIVING.

Age of Mother, in Years.All Births.First Births.Percentage of Still to Living.
Living.Still.Living.Still.All Births.First Births.
Under 204,3391073,6511022.472.79
20 and under 2529,01064416,6664402.222.68
25 and under 3037,64899413,2255392.644.08
30 and under 3527,3678425,1202893.085.64
35 and under 4016,5267081,8431434.287.76
40 and over6,746435507666.4513.02
    Totals121,6363,73041,0181,5853.073.86

The next table shows the percentage of still-births to living births according to nativity order of legitimate births registered in the five years 1929–33. The column for mothers of all ages shows a fairly definite gradation, the second child having the best chance of being born alive, and the probability of a still-birth increasing thereafter.

Nativity Order.Living Births.Still-births.Percentage of Still to Living.
Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.Mothers of All Ages.Mothers aged 35–40.
First41,0181,8431,5851433.867.76
Second29,7872,6455718O1.923.02
Third19,2682,9094541072.363.68
Fourth11,7822,566339982.883.82
Fifth8,3612,103243802.913.8O
Sixth4,6141,597169653.664.07
Seventh2,8791,123129464.484.10
Eighth1,91477786354.494.50
Ninth1,23752452244.204.58
Tenth7122873374.632.44

The column for mothers aged 35 to 40 indicates that continued child-bearing after the first two or three accouchements has some small effect on the still-birth probability. There can lie no doubt, however; that age of the mother is the principal factor in the case of accouchements subsequent to the first. This being so, it is of some significance that even when no allowance is made for the younger age-constitution in general of mothers of first-born, the still-birth rate for first accouchements is relatively high.

MAORI BIRTHS.

The number of births of Maoris registered with Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths during 1933 was 2,831 (1,482 males, 1,349 females). The births of fifty-four males and sixty-three females were registered under the main Act, and the total of 2,948 represents a rate of 41 per 1,000 of Maori population, a rate more than twice as high as the general (i.e., non-Maori) birth-rate for the year. Registrations in each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Number of Births.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.
19291,1831,0332,21633.58
19301,0461,0782,12431.56
19311,1811,1312,31233.74
19321,3831,3622,74539.28
19331,5361,4122,94841.20

SUBSECTION B.—MARRIAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

MARRIAGE may be solemnized in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnized only between 8 o'clock in the forenoon and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, the limits in all cases were 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be solemnized. In the case of a person under twenty-one, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of infants Act, 1926, sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section 8 provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If a declaration is made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in the Dominion, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has obtained in New Zealand since 1855. By this system it is ensured not only that marriages are in order, but that no legally solemnized marriage escapes registration. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnized, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether solemnization has been effected.

The marriage of a man with his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased husband's brother in 1901. Marriage with a deceased wife's niece or a deceased husband's nephew was rendered valid in 1929.

An important provision is contained in section 7 of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, which reads as follows:—

  1. Every person commits an offence against this Act, and is liable on summary conviction to a fine of one hundred pounds, who—

    1. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that any persons lawfully married are not truly and sufficiently married; or

    2. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that the issue of any lawful marriage is illegitimate or born out of true wedlock.

  2. “Alleges” in this section means making any verbal statement, or publishing or issuing any printed or written statement, or in any manner authorizing the making of any verbal statement, or in any manner authorizing or being party to the publication or issue of any printed or written statement.

  3. A person shall not be deemed to make an allegation contrary to the provisions of this section by reason only of using in the solemnization of a marriage a form of marriage service which at the commencement of this Act was in use by the religious denomination to which such person belongs, or by reason only of the printing or issue of any book containing a copy of a form of marriage service in use at the commencement of this Act by any religious denomination.

An amendment to the Marriage Act in 1933 prohibited the marriage of persons under the age of sixteen years, and also made provision enabling women to become officiating ministers for the purposes of the Marriage Act.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found in Section VII.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The movement of the marriage-rate since 1855 is shown by the diagram on p. 66. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
19149,2808.51
191510,0289.12
19168,2137.47
19176,4175.84
19186,2275.65
19199,5198.33
192012,17510.21
192110,6358.69
19229,5567.33
192310,0707.90
192410,2597.90
192510,4197.84
192610,6807.90
192710,4787.62
192810,5377.58
192910,9677.7
193011,0757.77
19319,8176.79
19329,8966.80
193310,5107.16

The number of marriages celebrated in 1920 still easily holds the record, while the rate for that year is the highest experienced since 1864. The low rates for 1931 and 1932 are indicative of the effect of the period of financial stringency and depression. The recovery of 1933 is noticeable. Possibly many couples who had been postponing marriage in the hope of improved conditions in the near future have adjusted themselves to a new standard of living and found it possible to marry. The building-subsidy scheme, promulgated by the Unemployment Board, no doubt assisted towards overcoming one barrier to marriage in times of economic depression.

STANDARDIZED MARRIAGE-RATE.

In New Zealand, where the age-constitution of the population has altered considerably, the crude marriage-rate based on the total population does not disclose the true position over a period of years. A better plan is to ascertain the rate among unmarried females in each age-group and to standardize the results on the basis of the distribution of the unmarried female population in a basic year.

Year.Marriage-rate per 1,000.Index Numbers of Marriage-rates taking 1911 as base = 100.
Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.
Crude.Standardized.Crude.Standardized.
18816.673.980.776125137
18866.055.160.46993102
18916.048.350.3698285
18966.847.348.0788081
19017.850.249.0908583
19068.555.653.7989491
19118.759.159.1100100100
19167.550.754.3868692
19218.759.763.9100101108
19267.953.162.69190106

RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A comparison of the latest available rates in various countries is given in the next table. The highest marriage-rate is that of the United States of America, which has also a high ratio of divorces (in 1932, 16.3 per 100 marriages, compared with 6.4 in New Zealand).

Country.Quinquennium.Average Yearly Rate.
United States1928–329.68
Yugoslavia1927–319.40
Bulgaria1927–319.39
Union of S. Africa1927–319.22
Rumania1927–319.14
Czechoslovakia1928–329.13
Poland1928–329.13
Hungary1928–328.82
Belgium1927–318.78
Chile1928–328.73
Germany1927–318.69
Latvia1927–318.47
France1927–318.13
Denmark1928–327.97
Estonia1928–327.89
Japan1927–317.87
Lithuania1928–327.83
England and Wales1928–327.79
Switzerland1927–317.67
Netherlands1928–327.58
Austria1927–317.49
Spain1927–317.37
Canada1927–317.31
New Zealand1929–337.26
Portugal1927–317.12
Greece1927–316.97
Italy1928–326.88
Sweden1928–326.87
Argentina1927–316.83
Scotland1928–326.80
Finland1927–316.78
Australia1929–336.75
Norway1927–316.12
Uruguay1927–316.10
Northern Ireland1928–325.85
Irish Free State1928–324.54

DISTRIBUTION OF MARRIAGES OVER THE YEAR.

Annual averages for the decade 1924–33 give marriages as follows: March quarter, 2,449; June quarter, 2,955; September quarter, 2,299; December quarter, 2,751.

The Easter and Christmas seasons are apparently regarded as the most suitable times of the year for entering the matrimonial state, and, judging by the quarterly figures for an average year, Easter would appear to predominate slightly.

The marriages contracted in each month of the last, five years were as follows:—

Month.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
January906874747697709
February762842779719765
March1,0298197381,136783
April1,1621,5381,2657881,371
May708722628637695
June1,0451,0669591,031993
July812807751744804
August792807716805813
September765766732694706
October912836726722824
November813755664783798
December1,2611,2431,1121,1401,249
     Totals10,96711,0759,8179,89610,510

The 1933 proportions per cent. of the total marriages for the various days of the week were: Sunday, 0.3; Monday, 11.1; Tuesday, 13.1; Wednesday, 34.3; Thursday, 13.5; Friday, 5.4; Saturday, 22.3.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.

The total number of persons married during the year 1933 was 21,020, of whom 19,229 were single, 1,056 widowed, and 735 divorced. The figures for each of the last ten years, but showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following:—

Year.Single.Widowed.Divorced.Total Persons married.
Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.Bridegroom.Bride.
19249,2629,38073257526530420,518
19259,3839,48973360130332920,838
19269,6869,80468952130535521,360
19279,4889,64769649429433720,956
19289,5709,74265847130932421,074
19299,94410,17972145830233021,934
193010,03810,23070947632836922,150
19318,8569,02664441931737219,634
19328,9309,16264237632435819,792
19339,5199,71065640033540021,020

The figures reveal an increasing tendency in the number of divorced persons remarrying, while, on the other hand, those for widowed persons have declined over the period. The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Single.Widowed.Divorced.Single.Widowed.Divorced.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
192490.287.142.5891.435.612.96
192590.067.032.9191.075.773.16
192690.696.452.8691.804.883.32
192790.556.642.8192.074.713.22
192890.826.252.9392.464.473.07
192990.676.582.7592.814.183.01
193090.646.402.9692.374.303.33
193190.216.563.2391.944.273.79
193290.246.493.2792.583.803.62
193390.576.243.1992.383.813.81

During the period 1924–33 the number of divorced persons remarrying increased from 28 per 1,000 persons married to 35, a considerable advance, and one probably in sympathy with the more liberal trend of divorce legislation. The fall in the number of widowed persons remarrying—from 64 per 1,000 persons married in 1924 to 50 per 1,000 in 1933—is due probably to the high figure in the earlier year having been an indirect outcome of the war and, to a certain extent, of the influenza epidemic.

The relative conjugal condition of bridegrooms and brides for each of the last ten years is next given:—

Year.Marriages between Bachelors andMarriages between Widowers andMarriages between Divorced Men and
Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.Spinsters.Widows.Divorced Women.
19248,708337217473199601993927
19258,813336234471205572056038
19269,104280242428193682124845
19279,025244219419199782035140
19289,112249209409183662213949
19299,478234232477192522243246
19309,540245253446191722444044
19318,379217260415159702324342
19328,496195239419147762473443
19339,068187264411168772314559

Taking the whole period covered by the foregoing table, it is found that, while 3,082 divorced men remarried, the corresponding number for women was 3,478. In the case of widowed persons, however, in spite of the fact that widows greatly exceed widowers, only 4,791 widows remarried, as compared with 6,880 widowers. It would appear that in the case of divorced persons women are more likely to remarry than men, while in the case of widowers and widows the converse holds.

Included amongst widows in 1933 were twenty women, and amongst the widowers fourteen men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 224, subsection (5), of the Crimes Act, which reads: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

During the last ten years the numbers of persons married under the protection of the above subsection was 231, comprising 75 men and 156 women.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.

Of the 21,020 persons married in 1933 2,317, or 11 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age; 6,755, or 32 per cent., were returned as twenty-one and under twenty-five; 6,677, or 32 per cent., as twenty-five and under thirty; 3,528, or 17 per cent., as thirty and under forty; and 1,743 or 8 per cent., as forty years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1933:—

Age of Bridegroom, In Years.Age of Bride, in Years.Total Bridegrooms.
Under 2121 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.
Under 212468572......340
21 and under 259631,419383356232,811
25 and under 305951,7871,37720730654,007
30 and under 35133481588318721671,615
35 and under 40211081911521003711620
40 and under 4510416174766025347
45 and over92363114107129325770
    Total brides1,9773,9442,67090239125037610,510

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of men and women marrying at the various age-periods. To illustrate the extent to which these figures have varied during the last three decades, a table is given showing the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in quinquennia from 1900 to 1929, and for the years 1930, 1931, 1932, and 1933:—

Period.Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.Total.
Males.
1900–041.6724.7538.4218.638.053.584.90100.00
1905–091.7923.4239.2518.788.473.384.91100.00
1910–141.9422.0438.0420.758.543.904.79100.00
1915–193.2621.4033.0419.6710.475.027.14100.00
1920–243.1324.6632.2117.7310.245.436.60100.00
1925–293.4928.0434.4914.337.704.487.47100.00
19303.5028.3036.1714.236.833.707.27100.00
19313.5528.2736.0214.475.783.937.98100.00
19323.9127.7536.2615.255.913.477.45100.00
19333.2326.7438.1315.375.903.307.33100.00
         
Females.
1900–0416.9239.7527.339.263.401.531.81100.00
1905–0916.1537.1028.5310.184.211.802.03100.00
1910–1415.6034.9028.5211.575.042.052.32100.00
1915–1915.2135.0126.1711.396.062.983.18100.00
1920–2415.9935.4726.2110.665.532.983.16100.00
1925–2918.6137.8823.678.934.652.823.44100.00
193017.9539.5624.218.164.082.373.67100.00
193120.0638.5123.108.023.932.753.63100.00
193219.1939.0123.978.033.972.353.48100.00
193318.8137.5325.408.583.722.383.58100.00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are new being celebrated at both the younger and the older age-groups.

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, after reaching its maximum in the three years 1917. 1918, and 1919, the average age has since decreased considerably. The figures for each of the last ten years are given.

MEAN AGE AT MARRIAGE.

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
192430.2426.56
192530.3926.56
192629.8926.18
192729.9226.25
192829.8726.17
192929.8026.10
193028.4726.13
193129.8326.02
193229.7126.04
193329.7225.83

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which cover all parties and are naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides of the various conditions in each of the last five years were:—

Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.
Bachelors.Divorced.Widowers.Spinsters.Divorced.Widows.
192928.1140.8348.4525.0135.7043.33
193026.6239.6449.4024.9236.2044.33
193128.0542.1548.2824.7835.5144.39
193227.9541.0048.3824.8536.4047.28
193327.9841.5048.8524.6536.1444.17

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age 26 held pride of place for bridegrooms and age 21 for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1933 without alteration, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age is new 25.

MARRIAGES OF MINORS.

Of every 1,000 men married in 1933, 32 were under twenty-one years of age, while 188 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 246 marriages in 1933 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 1,731 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 94 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

Year.Age in Years.Total.
14.15.16.17.18.19.20.Number.Rate per 100 Marriages.
Bridegrooms.
1929......542991973433.13
1930....29381142253883.50
1931....1641922093493.50
1932....28441152183873.91
1933......438892093403.24
 
Brides.
1929311852434115797592,09119.07
1930216881984165517171,98817.95
1931215982084035456981,96920.06
1932..9672064035416731,89919.19
193337731914295866881,97718.81

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

Of the 10,510 marriages registered in 1933, Church of England clergymen officiated at 2,077, Presbyterians at 2,809, Methodists at 1,106, and Roman Catholics at 1,162, while 2,096 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the last ten years:—

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.
1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Church of England27.6827.2627.5327.6827.0327.1826.9325.8225.5425.47
Presbyterian25.8126.1926.3126.7726.9127.1326.4725.7126.6326.73
Methodist11.039.909.689.739.7710.199.899.5910.2710.52
Roman Catholic10.7911.3311.6811.1911.4511.3411.0610.7310.8111.06
Other denominations4.964.635.075.575.264.845.165.535.846.28
Before Registrars19.7320.6919.7319.0619.5819.3220.4922.6220.9119.94
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that one or both of the parties are members of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the denominations.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.

The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (July, 1934) 1,958, and the denominations to which they belong are shown hereunder:—

Denomination.Number.
Church of England472
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand404
Roman Catholic Church343
Methodist Church of New Zealand291
Salvation Army87
Baptists69
Associated Churches of Christ43
Congregational Independents31
Brethren14
Seventh-day Adventists11
Latter-day Saints14
Lutheran Church3
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference5
Churches of Christ3
Hebrew Congregations5
Catholic Apostolic Church3
Liberal Catholic Church7
Unitarians6
Assemblies of God12
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand5
Ratana Church of New Zealand94
Ringatu Church20
Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah2
Others14
     Total1,958

The Ringatu Church, the Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah, and the Ratana Church of New Zealand are Maori denominations.

MAORI MARRIAGES.

In cases where both parties to a marriage are of the Native race there is no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the provisions of that Act, though the parties are at liberty to take advantage thereof. Considerable inconvenience, however, was found to exist on account of the non-registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Native Land Act, 1909, and re-enacted in 1931, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Marriage Act. Ministers solemnizing the latter class of marriages must send returns to the Registrar-General.

Returns of 557 marriages in which both parties were of the Native race were received during the year 1933. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Under Native Land Act.Under Marriage Act.Total.
192419548243
192535642398
192626153314
192723187318
192828597382
1929315121436
193034574419
193135879437
193251482596
193347879557

Maori marriages are not included in the numbers shown elsewhere in this subsection, nor are they taken into account in the computation of marriage-rates.

SUBSECTION C—DEATHS.

COMPULSORY registration of deaths was instituted in New Zealand in 1855. As in the ease of births, a system of non-compulsory registration had obtained since 1848.

Until the year 1876 the only information provided for in the death-registration entry was the date, place, and cause of death, and the name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1875, required information to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars as to burial had also to be entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act have made it requisite to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the death if in a city or borough, or seven days in any other case. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the undertaker in charge of the funeral being solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the undertaker was primarily looked to for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at the death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. It is not necessary to effect a death-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, though an entry must be made in the register of births.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of, the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, a Coroner's order to bury the body, or a Registrar‗s certificate of registration of the death, renders himself liable to a fine of £10.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
191410,1489.31
19159,9059.06
191610,5909.64
191710,5289.58
191816,36414.84
191910,8089.46
192012,10910.15
192110,6828.73
192210,9778.77
192311,5119.03
192410,7678.29
192511,0268.29
192611,8198.74
192711,6138.45
192811,8118.49
192912,3148.75
193012,1998.56
193112,0478.34
193211,6838.02
193311,7017.98

A long-range review of the death-rate is afforded by the graph at p. 66.

The death rate has been maintained at an exceedingly low level for the last decade. It gradually climbed higher during the three years 1927 to 1929. reaching its maximum since 1923 in the latter year. The years following have witnessed a distinct reversal of that trend, until in 1933 the lowest death-rate in the history (if the Dominion was recorded. It should be noted as a probable contributing factor that epidemics of the principal infectious diseases have been conspicuously absent, during the last few years.

The fall in the birth-rate (resulting in fewer infants at risk relatively to total population) combined with the fall in the rate of infant mortality, is also partly responsible for the position disclosed by the crude death-rate figures. As will be seen farther on, however, there has been an actual fall in the already low standardized rate, which is not affected by the fall in the birth-rate, though it is very materially affected by the decline in the rate of infant mortality.

The death-rates of males and females for the last ten years are shown separately in the next table.

Year.Deaths per 1,000 of Population.Male Deaths to every 100 Female Deaths.Male Rate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100).
Males.Females.Total.
19249.227.328.-29131126
19259.097.468.29127122
19269.667.778.74130124
19279.287.588.45128123
19289.247.728.49125120
19299.657.828.75128123
19309.407.698.56127122
19319.057.598.34124119
19328.557.478.02119114
19338.707.237.98123120

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR.

An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the decade 1924–33 gives the following annual averages: March quarter, 2,576; June quarter, 2,785; September quarter, 3,411; and December quarter, 2,925.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1933 the most deaths occurred during July, August, September, and October, with totals of 1,109, 1,092, 1,078, and 1,073 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January), February had the least number of deaths (810), followed by March and January, with 845 and 851 respectively.

The least number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 17, this number occurring on the 6th February. The greatest number (51) occurred on the 25th September.

AGES AT DEATH.

The deaths occurring during 1933 are tabulated below:—

Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month334221555
1–3 months463682
3–6 months333568
6–12 months422365
1–2 years564298
2–3 years363167
3–4 years271946
4–5 years192039
5–10 years8565150
10–15 years6353116
15–20 years12283205
20–25 years128128256
25–30 years146145291
30–35 years126135261
35–40 years161173334
40–45 years196189385
45–50 years325233558
50–55 years435315750
55–60 years481377858
60–65 years6254591,084
65–70 years6944871,181
70–75 years6945521,246
75–80 years6945351,229
80–85 years518443961
85–90 years281266547
90–95 years108114222
95–100 years202141
100 years..11
101 years112
102 years112
103 years1..1
     Totals6,4985,20311,701

Some remarkable changes in the age-distribution of persons dying have occurred during the last fifty years. The total deaths in 1933 were nearly twice as numerous as in 1883, but the number of deaths under one year in 1933 was less than half of the corresponding number recorded in 1883. This is an eloquent tribute to the efficacy of the steps taken to preserve infant life (a subject which is dealt with later on in this subsection), as during the fifty years the annual number of births increased by 27 per cent.

Turning now to deaths at ages 80 and over, a remarkable difference between the earlier and later years covered by the figures is apparent. In 1883, deaths in this group numbered only 135 or approximately 2 per cent, of the total of 6,061, while in 1933, 1,777 deaths of persons over 80 years of age were recorded, this number representing just over 15 per cent, of the total deaths in that year. In 1913 the corresponding percentage was only 10. The figures are a reflex of the changes in the age-constitution of the population, combined with the great improvement in the death-rate at the earlier ages.

Furthermore, in 1933 the number of deaths in individual age-groups shows a gradual increase for almost every consecutive group from “10 and under 15” to “80 and over,” where the maximum is recorded. The experience of 1883, on the other hand, is very different, the number showing a falling trend after the “40–45” age-group till the minimum is attained at the penultimate age-group.

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred over a period of fifty years:—

 Number of Deaths.Percentage to Total.
Ages, in Years.1883.1893.1903.1913.1933.1883.1893.1903.1913.1933.
Under 11,9951,6001,7701,65377032.9523.6620.7516.346.58
1 and under 570077157644625011.5611.406.754.412.14
5 and under 102292832191861503.774.172.571.841.28
10 and under 151261911511341162.072.811.771.320.99
15 and under 202012492412052053.313.672.832.021.75
20 and under 252333023712882563.844.464.352.852.19
25 and under 302402803503622913.954.134.103.582.49
30 and under 352662233144472614.383.293.684.422.23
35 and under 402842563344533344.683.783.924.482.86
40 and under 453692313254203855.093.413.814.153.29
45 and under 502692833004345584.444.183.524.294.77
50 and under 552703673764527504.455.424.414.476.41
55 and under 601753284005158582.894.854.695.097.33
60 and under 652213995515781,0843.655.906.465.719.26
65 and under 701652616797251,1812.723.877.967.1610.09
70 and under 751372796008881,2462.264.147.048.7710.65
75 and under 801002094369041,2291.653.095.118.9310.50
80 and over1352484961,0291,7772.243.675.8210.1715.19
Unspecified6739....0.100.100.46....
     Totals6,0616,7678,52810,11911,701100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The next table shows that the fall in the death-rate during recent years has been common to all ages, and to both sexes.

The table is further of interest as showing that the female rate for the various age-groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The rapid increase in the death-rate at successive age-groups is well exemplified.

DEATH-RATES PER 1,000, BY AGE-GROUPS.

Year.Under 1.1 and under 5.5 and under 15.15 and under 25.25 and under 35.35 and under 45.45 and under 55.55 and under 6565 and under 75.75 and under 85.85 and over.
Males.
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59126.26280.00
191163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22116.21281.21
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17102.84257.70
192643.553.601.302.323.334.989.3019.1549.43128.13330.54
193336.642.651.101.852.313.878.0817.1344.90107.71270.87
            
Females.
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32107.02285.30
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44104.84221.90
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.8194.42230.05
192635.734.001.301.953.143.987.3415.0239.26109.48284.72
193326.442.260.911.642.533.686.0914.2234.5193.37253.45
            
Both Sexes.
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87117.97282.52
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74111.73251.81
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.9099.00245.21
192639.763.801.302.143.234.488.3717.2244.64119.19308.76
193331.642.461.00l.752.413.777.1115.7439.77100.80261.96

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex in each of the last ten years was as follows:—

Year.Males.Females.
192451.0549.87
192551.4450.15
192652.9451.14
192752.5952.35
192852.3352.68
192953.1554.27
193054.2354.47
193154.1455.48
193255.7956.05
193356.1756.45

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

For reference to. or records of, the various series of life-tables constructed on New Zealandșs mortality experience, ranging from 1880 to 1922. recourse may be had to Official Year-Books for 1915, 1926, and 1927, and to the General Report on the Census of 1921. The following data on (complete) expectation of life or average after-lifetime, which are quoted by courtesy of the compilers, are from a life-table constructed by L. I. Dublin, Ph.D., and A. J. Lotka, D.Sc. of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. of New York. U.S.A., and published in the Statistical Bulletin of that company. The table is based upon New Zealand experience of the year 1931, data regarding deaths and age-constitution of the population having been supplied by the Census and Statistics Office. As the 1931 census was not taken, details of age-distribution were derived from the annual inter-censal age-estimates with a consequent potentiality of error.

Age.Males.Females.
065.0467.88
563.3565.30
1058.7560.67
1554.1155.88
2049.6151.28
2545.2146.80
3040.7842.45
3536.3738.14
4032.0733.80
4527.8329.45
5023.7325.24
5519.8721.13
6016.2217.30
6512.8613.82
709.8710.63
757.387.88
805.455.63
853.523.60
901.892.00
950.840.97

Expectation of life at age 0 is steadily increasing in New Zealand, and is, so far as is known, higher than that of any other country. Brief figures are quoted:—

Period.Males.Females
YearsYears
1891–189555.2958.09
1896–190057.3759.95
1901–190558.0960.55
1906–191059.1761.76
1911–191560.9663.48
1921–192262.7665.43
193165.0467.88

DEATH-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

Examination of data of universal character shows that New Zealand has the lowest death-rate in the world, Australia ranking second in this respect. Rates for certain of the principal countries are quoted below.

Country.Quinquennium.Average Rate per 1,000.
* Registration area.
New Zealand1929–338.3
Australia1929–338.9
Netherlands1929–339.4
Union of South Africa1928–329.7
Canada1928–3210.8
Uruguay1927–3110.9
Norway1927–3110.9
Denmark1928–3211.1
Germany1927–3111.6
United States*1926–3011.8
Sweden1928–3212.0
Switzerland1927–3112.1
England and Wales1928–3212.2
Argentina1927–3112.3
Scotland1928–3213.6
Belgium1927–3113.7
Finland1927–3113.9
Irish Free State1928–3214.4
Northern Ireland1928–3214.5
Latvia1927–3114.6
Czechoslovakia1928–3214.6
Austria1927–3115.0
Italy1928–3215.0
Estonia1929–3315.7
Lithuania1928–3215.8
Poland1928–3215.8
France1927–3116.6
Hungary1928–3216.9
Greece1927–3117.1
Bulgaria1927–3117.4
Spain1927–3117.8
Portugal1927–3118.9
Japan1927–3119.4
Rumania1927–3120.5
Chile1928–3223.8
Ceylon1928–3224.0
Egypt1927–3126.0

STANDARDIZED DEATH-RATES.

For the purpose of ascertaining the true movement of the death-rate in New Zealand, a system of standardization was introduced some years ago, the age- and sex-constitution of the population as disclosed at the census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The population and deaths of each year are divided, each sex separately, into five-yearly groups of ages (with one group only for ages 80 and over), and the rates for the various age-groups ascertained and weighted according to the proportion which the respective groups bore to the total population at the census of 1911. The following table gives both crude and standardized rates.

Year.Crude Rates.Standardized Rates.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
187516.5615.0715.9219.0315.3617.30
188012.0510.7311.4613.8111.4712.70
188511.519.6710.6713.3810.0612.36
189010.518.689.6612.2610.1111.25
189510.818.899.9112.2610.0711.22
190010.338.439.4311.049.2910.21
190510.188.249.2710.498.619.60
191010.678.639.7110.678.469.62
191510.197.879.0610.197.879.09
192011.119.1510.1510.838.849.89
19259.097.468.298.686.777.78
19309.407.698.568.646.487.62
19338.707.237.987.665.776.77

For purposes of international comparisons, a standard population, based on the age-distribution of the population of 19 European countries at their censuses nearest to the year 1900, has been compiled by the International Institute of Statistics, and is used in the following table of New Zealand rates.

Year.Crude Rates.International Standardized Rates.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Without Distinction between Sexes.With Distinction between Sexes.
190110.808.719.8111.8111.2111.6411.51
191110.468.219.-3910.799.7410.4010.26
19219.757.668.739.658.639.239.14
19269.667.778.749.518.669.179.09
19299.657.828.759.288.398.868.78
19309.407.698.568.948.118.588.52
19319.057.598.348.557.858.248.20
19328.557.478.027.987.687.877.83
19338.707.237.988.057.297.737.67

An interesting point brought out by the use of the new standard in New Zealand is that the male standardized rate is actually lower than the corresponding crude rate, thus indicating that the age-constitution of the male population of the Dominion is new less favourable to low death-rates.

ORPHANHOOD.

The table following shows the number of living issue left by married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1924–33, the information being given according to age of father and of issue.

Age of Issue, in Years.Number of Issue left by Fathers, aged—
Under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and over.Totals.
Under 55561,6641,4865231181114,359
5 and under 101021,6142,7151,47339669106,379
10 and under 1557883,2242,9241,025241318,238
15 and under 2141313,1555,5163,29798816013,251
21 and over121,1399,97626,50842,62434,575114,825
Unspecified..419129....44
     Totals6684,20311,73820,42431,35343,93334,777147,096
Married men who died—        
  Leaving issue4031,7363,6235,5377,5868,8946,66034,439
  Without leaving issue1794167771,1221,3291,3519206,094
     Totals5822,1524,4006,6598,91510,2457,58040,533

Taking all deaths of married men or widowers, whether leaving issue or not, it is found that the average living issue is 3.63, as compared with 3.93 for the period 1914–23.

Average numbers of issue left by married men or widowers during the decade 1924–33 were: Fathers aged under 30, 1.15; aged 30–39, 1.95; 40–49, 2.67; 50–59, 3.07; 60–69, 3.52; 70–79, 4.21); SO or over, 4.59. Averages are universally lower than in the preceding decade.

In 1933, among men who left any issue under age 16, the average number of such issue was 2.06. The average for all married men or widowers who died during the year was, however, only 0.42.

Of 882 cases where issue under 16 years of age was left by married men or widowers during 1933, a widow was also left in 828 cases, the aggregate children under 16 in these 828 cases being 1,733 and the average per widow 2.09. By the deaths of their fathers, children under 16 to the number of 51 were left without either parent, and for 3 children there was no information as to whether the mother was alive or dead.

WIDOWS LEFT BY MARRIED MEN.

Of the 40,533 married men or widowers whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1924–33, 10,358 were shown to have been widowers, and 29,038 to have left widows; while in the remaining 537 cases there was no information on the point. Of the married men leaving widows, 25,421 had living issue also at time of death, and 4,217 had no living issue. In 8,730 cases widowers left issue, and in 1,628 cases no issue. In 289 of the 537 cases where no information was given as to whether a widow was left there was living issue, in 224 cases there was no living issue, and in 24 cases no information as to issue was given.

INFANT MORTALITY.

New Zealand has the lowest rate of infant mortality in the world, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of large industrial undertakings, &c, and partly to legislative and educative measures. the latter both by the State and by various organizations.

The following table, giving infant mortality rates in various countries for the latest available quinquennial period, clearly shows the favourable position occupied by New Zealand:—

Country.Quinquennium.Deaths under One Year per 1,000 Births.
* Registration area.
New Zealand1929–3333
Australia1929–3344
Norway1926–3048
Netherlands1929–3350
Switzerland1927–3153
Sweden1928–3256
England and Wales1928–3266
South Africa1927–3167
United States*1926–3068
Irish Free State1928–3269
Northern Ireland1927–3176
Denmark1925–2982
France1928–3284
Scotland1928–3285
Finland1927–3186
Canada1928–3286
Germany1926–3094
Belgium1926–3095
Greece1926–3096
Latvia1923–2796
Uruguay1927–31101
Estonia1926–30108
Austria1926–30117
Italy1927–31117
Spain1926–30124
Japan1927–31135
Bulgaria1926–30147
Czechoslovakia1926–30148
Egypt1925–29152
Lithuania1926–30155
Hungary1928–32171
Ceylon1928–32172
British India1926–30177
Chile1926–30229

Not only has New Zealand had for many years the lowest rate of infant, mortality in the world, but the rate for the Dominion has shown steady and rapid improvement, more particularly during the last twenty years. Much of the success achieved has been due to the activities of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children. Founded at Dunedin in 1907, this society has since extended its Plunket system throughout New Zealand, and its methods are being adopted to an ever-increasing extent in other countries.

The deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 Births.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19246444831,12745.0535.2140.23
19256394861,12544.0135.6439.96
19266384941,13243.5535.7339.76
19276104701,08042.6834.5838.74
192860937598443.2528.5936.18
192954836491240.1627.7834.10
193052539992438.2830.5034.48
193152633085638.2125.6732.15
193242635177733.2229.1031.22
193345531577036.6426.4431.64

The infant mortality rate in New Zealand has exhibited a rapid decline (as is illustrated by the graph shown post) and the extremely low level of 31.64 per 1,000 live births was recorded for 1933. The male rate has maintained an almost uninterrupted improvement throughout the period, but the female rate has fluctuated considerably from time to time.

The pronounced fall in New Zealand's infant mortality rate during the last two decades has not been accompanied by an increase in the death-rate of children between the ages of one and ten years. There has, on the contrary, been a substantial fall, as is shown by the following figures. The numbers and rates given refer to annual averages for the quinquennia mentioned.

Quinquennium.1 and under 5.5 and under 10.
Number of DeathsRate.*Number of Deaths.Rate.*
* Per 10,000 children at ages shown.
1894–18984406818622
1899–19035047619423
1904–19084443717219
1909–19134474919318
1914–19185475326622
1919–19234654424519
1924–192S4033820315
1929–19333052917513

The increase in 1914–18 as compared with 1909–13 is due to the fact that during the latter period New Zealand experienced several minor epidemics, principally of diphtheria. The influenza epidemic in 1918 also somewhat affected the rate.

Since 1921 a distinction has been made between legitimate and illegitimate children in the New Zealand statistics of infant mortality. The proportion of illegitimate infants among those dying within the first year of life has been found to be greater (in some years substantially so) than the proportion of illegitimate births to total births, in spite of the fact that legitimations and adoptions would tend to reduce the number which would be termed illegitimate in the death entries. The year 1930 constitutes an exception.

Year.Total Deaths under One Year.Deaths of Illegitimate Infants under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Deaths under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Births.
   Per Cent.Per Cent.
19241,127968.524.78
19251,125585.164.73
19261,132615.395.17
19271,080777.134.97
1928984565.695.08
1929912727.894.96
1930924475.095.12
1931856607.014.94
1932777546.955.07
1933770425.454.60

Except for the years 1930 and 1933, the excess of the male over the female rate of infant mortality holds for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table. The discrepancy is, however, somewhat greater in the first half of the year than in the second.

 Male Deaths per 1,000 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
Year.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
192426.376.725.116.8521.433.864.235.69
192529.895.993.724.4122.735.062.575.28
192628.744.783.686.3521.994.413.545.79
192727.925.394.135.2423.624.272.434.26
192830.464.623.984.1920.052.672.523.35
192927.484.842.864.9818.853.512.063.36
193026.765.832.193.5021.173.222.293.82
193126.954.502.334.4318.121.872.103.58
193221.993.983.353.9020.562.572.163.81
193326.893.02.663.-3918.553.022.941.93

Even when the effect of the male excess among infants born is eliminated, the number of male deaths per 100 female deaths in the first month of life during the ten years 1924–33 is found to be 132; between one and three months, 146; between three and six months, 127; between six and twelve months, 116; and for the whole of the first year, 130.

The rates for the two sexes in conjunction are new given for each of the last five years.

Year.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Total under 1 Year.
192923.264.192.464.1934.10
193024.034.552.243.6634.48
193122.693.232.214.0232.15
193221.303.292.773.8631.22
193322.813.372.792.6731.64

If the deaths under one year of age are divided into two groups—viz., those occurring during the first month of life and those during the remainder of the twelve mouths—it will be found that the decrease disclosed for recent years when compared with earlier is very much heavier for the latter class; the explanation being that, with premature birth, congenital debility, and other causes of death due to pre-natal influences (which are responsible for the great majority of deaths during the first month), it has not been found possible to effect even an approach to the great improvements which have been brought about in regard to complaints arising from post-natal causes.

The next table shows that, whereas in 1933 the death-rate under one month of age was 23 per cent, lower than in the quinquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who have survived the first month of life was only one-seventh as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, where the Dominion formerly lost between the ages of one month and one year more than sixty children out of every thousand it lost in 1933 only nine.

Period.Deaths per 1,000 Births.Deaths between 1 and 12 Months per 1,000 Children who survive 1 Month.
Under 1 Year.Under 1 Month.Between 1 and 12 Months.
1881–188590.6029.7760.8302.70
1886–189084.0927.5756.5258.13
1891–189587.6030.3457.2658.93
1896–190080.0630.3849.6851.24
1901–190574.7730.6444.1345.54
1906–191069.6230.2839.3440.57
1911–191553.6329.2824.3525.05
1916–192048.6228.1620.4621.05
1921–192542.7527.4815.2715.70
1926–193036.7024.8211.8812.18
193331.6422.818.839.04

The decrease by two-thirds in the general rate, and by nearly six-sevenths in the rate between one and twelve months, and the relatively lower movement of the rate under one month, are well indicated in the accompanying diagram.

As stated above, the death-rate for infants under the age of one month has shown little improvement in recent years, while a heavy reduction has taken place in the mortality-rate after the first month of life. It would appear, therefore, that on the one hand the diseases that can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases, and diseases due to faulty nourishment, &c. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them; while, on the other hand, many infants are evidently non-viable at birth. This point is accentuated by the following table, which shows the rates for further divisions of the first month of life.

DEATHS UNDER 1 MONTH PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS.

Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.Total under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.Total under 1 Month.
19247.893.357.5018.742.251.681.2823.95
19258.353.518.4220.283.021.741.3926.43
19268.573.548.3620.472.111.651.2325.46
19278.033.627.7119.363.271.721.4825.83
19288.463.718.2420.412.941.100.9925.44
19297.373.377.6618.401.831.531.5023.26
19308.303.287.4619.102.761.310.8624.03
19317.143.796.7617.692.741.470.7922.69
19326.593.506.3516.442.611.251.0021.30
19338.012.886.9917.882.631.271.0322.81

Over one-third (195) of the 555 deaths under one month in 1933 occurred within twenty-four hours of birth, and four-fifths (435) within one week. The following table gives, for each of the last five years, detailed information as to the number of deaths at various periods of the first year of life:—

INFANT MORTALITY.—DETAILED AGES.

Year.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Day and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Week and under 3 Weeks.3 weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Total.
Males.
1929113561193130264422394226548
193012143129421814503024525  
1931116641114224143824323130526
193289478630153417432921426 
1933128381024014122521331527455
Females.
19298434861811142818271925364
19301034571321791923303119399
193174376931157159272224330
19327540723516101813262521351
19336732682417132511351013315
Both Sexes.
1929197902054941407240666151912
1930224882007435236953605543924
19311901011807339215333595354856
1932164871586531255230695442777
1933195701706431255032682540770

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial groups over a period of sixty years. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last quinquennia given—1872–76 and 1927–31—it is found that the general infant mortality rate shows a decline of 68 per cent., while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (95 per cent.), convulsions (95 per cent.), gastric and intestinal diseases (93 per cent.), epidemic diseases (89 per cent.), and respiratory diseases (71 per cent.). The rate for diseases of early infancy shows a decrease of only 22 per cent, in 1927–31 as compared with 1872–76. but of 26 per cent, as compared with 1917–21, and the figures indicate that some measure of success has already attended the steps taken in recent years to cope with ante-natal conditions.

The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The most striking features of the figures for the years 1927–31 in the table are the continuation of the upward trend in the death-rate for malformations, and a further drop in the rate from diseases peculiar to early infancy.

INFANT MORTALITY RATES FOR PRINCIPAL CAUSES.

Period.Epidemic Diseases.Tuberculosis.Infantile Convulsions.Respiratory Diseases.Gastric and Intestinal Diseases.Malformations.Early Infancy.Other Causes.Totals.
1872–187613.55.59.712.924.21.225.017.3109.3
1877–188110.25.27.512.319.81.421.915.393.6
1882–18869.34.77.911.819.11.225.512.391.8
1887–18918.93.76.310.518.51.324.78.882.7
1892–18969.83.36.611.016.61.424.911.284.8
1897–19016.12.65.610.017.21.526.29.778.9
1902–19065.51.54.19.715.31.327.67.972.9
1907–19115.91.33.37.615.51.926.76.368.5
1912–19163.60.62.25.l7.43.926.23.552.5
1917–19213.20.51.94.74.54.326.12.948.1
1922.19261.80.41.34.32.84.822.43.341.1
1927–19311.50.30.53.71.75.019.43.135.2
19330.90.20.43.11.35.018.32.431.6

Two out of every three deaths of infants under one year of age are due to causes coming within the groups “Early Infancy” and “Malformations,” and premature birth alone is responsible for approximately one-third of the total infant mortality.

In accordance with international practice, New Zealand's infant mortality rate represents the number of deaths of infants actually born alive expressed as a proportion per 1,000 live births. This method, however, takes no account of still-births. Reference has been made in an earlier paragraph to the effect on the infant mortality rate of efforts made towards the reduction of those ante-natal influences which generally cause death to ensue during the early weeks of the first year of life. The fact that still-births are also the result of such ante-natal influences should not be lost sight of, and for this and other reasons it is of interest to compute rates for infant mortality and still-births in conjunction, as in the following table. In the computation of the rates for numbers inclusive of still-births, the latter are taken into account in both births and deaths.

DEATHS OF INFANTS UNDER ONE YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS.

Year.Exclusive of Still-births.Inclusive of Still-births.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192445.0535.2140.2377.3959.4868.65
192544.0135.6439.9674.7361.7268.45
192643.5535.7339.7673.2963.9068.74
192742.6834.5838.7475.4260.3168.08
192843.2528.5936.1871.2158.3865.01
192940.1627.7834.1074.1654.4164.53
193038.2830.5034.4870.1558.9164.67
193138.2125.6732.1567.3453.5760.80
193233.2229.1031.2264.5853.8959.42
193336.6429.4031.6467.9350.7459.55

The still-birth rate in New Zealand has shown a falling tendency in recent years, and this, combined with the falling infant mortality rate, has resulted in a steady improvement in the rate for all infant deaths, including still-births-Although the number of both infant deaths and still-births showed a slight decrease for 1933 compared with 1932, this was not sufficient to maintain the falling tendency of the total rate, which for 1933 indicates a very small increase. Whereas, however, the rate computed on the usual method indicates a decrease of 21 per cent. during the period covered by the table, the inclusion of still-births reduces the improvement to 13 per cent.

CAUSES OF DEATH.

Since 1908, the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon and used by the principal European and American countries and the Commonwealth of Australia.

A comparison of the causes of deaths in 1933, arranged according to an abridged classification, and the proportion per 10,000 of population of each sex, are given in the following table. The classification adopted is in accordance with the Fourth Revision (1929) of the International List of Causes of Death.

Class.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
I. Infectious and parasitic diseases5024119136.725.716.22
II. Cancer and other tumours8748401,71411.7011.6711.68
III. Rheumatic diseases, diseases of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases1412433841.893.382.62
IV. Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs54531070.720.740.73
V. Chronic poisonings and intoxications91100.120.010.07
VI. Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense4854709556.496.536.51
VII. Diseases of the circulatory system1,9481,5903,53826.0822.0924.12
VIII. Diseases of the respiratory system4753147896.364.365.38
IX. Diseases of the digestive system3102475574.153.433.80
X. Diseases of the genito-urinary system4663077736.244.275.27
XI. Pregnancy, labour, and the puerperal state..108....1.500.74
XII. Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue1616320.210.220.22
XIII. Diseases of the bones and of organs of locomotion2211330.290.150.22
XIV. Congenital malformations92641561.230.891.06
XV. Early infancy2681774453.592.463.03
XVI. Senility2031343372.721.862.30
XVII. Violence or accident6142098238.222.905.61
XVIII. Causes not determined198270.250.110.19
      Totals6,4985,20311,70186.9872.2879.77

Class VII, diseases of the circulatory system, the principal of which—diseases of the heart—rank easily first among individual causes of death in New Zealand, is the most important as regards numerical strength. Next in order comes Class II (cancer and other tumours).

The next table shows the number of deaths from certain principal causes.

Cause.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Typhoid fever22781160.160.050.060.080.04
Measles12....170.010.01....0.12
Scarlet fever271611640.190.110.080.040.03
Whooping-cough17333644180.120.230.250.300.12
Diphtheria92585540270.650.410.380.270.18
Influenza297131221671032.110.921.530.460.70
Infantile paralysis7551980.050.040.030.130.05
Tuberculosis of respiratory system5245295014884763.723.713.473.353.24
Other forms of tuberculosis1181201161271350.840.840.800.870.92
Cancer1,4671,4521,4931,4721,62410.4310.1910.3310.1111.07
Diabetes2012232272292291.431.571.571.571.56
Anaemia, chlorosis49385051490.350.270.350.350.33
Exophthalmic goitre55515452620.390.360.370.360.42
Meningitis (all forms)59704139270.420.490.280.270.18
Apoplexy, cerebral haemorrhage6346596346116774.514.624.394.204.62
Epilepsy46565541330.330.390.380.280.28
Convulsions of children under 5 years of age1313143100.090.090.100.020.02
Diseases of the heart2,5332,8972,8172,9353,09818.0020.3319.5020.1521.12
Diseases of the arteries4284324204444113.043.032.913.072.80
Bronchitis3142682032071772.231.881.401.421.21
Broncho-pneumonia2512181802261801.781.531.251.551.23
Pneumonia4644293262782423.303.012.261.911.65
Diarrhoea and enteritis82777467600.580.540.510.460.41
Appendicitis100991051011080.720.700.730.690.74
Hernia, intestinal obstruction1079584941110.760.670.580.640.76
Cirrhosis of liver36444337330.260.310.300.260.22
Simple peritonitis45352619180.320.250.180.130.12
Nephritis, Bright's disease5375675795805613.823.984.013.983.82
Diseases and accidents of puerperal state1291361271011080.920.960.880.690.74
Malformations1771701441881561.261.191.001.291.06
Congenital debility59533224280.420.370.220.160.19
Premature birth2783072912252561.982.152.011.551.75
Injury at birth82627864750.580.440.540.440.51
Other diseases of early infancy81907794860.580.630.530.650.59
Senility5184184264393373.682.932.953.022.30
Violence (1) suicide2211932262402001.571.351.561.651.36
Violence (2) accident7257739266636095.155.426.414.554.15
Violence (3) homicide9111325140.060.080.090.170.10
Other causes1,5091,3621,3291,3321,32810.719.559.199.149.06
     Totals12,31412,19912,04711,68311,70187.5285.6083.3880.2379.77

Detailed information concerning the various causes of death is given in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.” The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violence—causes which are of special interest and significance—are discussed in the following pages.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Tuberculosis of the respiratory system takes sixth place in point of the number of deaths resulting therefrom during 1933, ranking after heart-disease, cancer, cerebral haemorrhage and apoplexy, accidents, and nephritis, in that order. The remarkably low level of 3.24 per 10,000 was reached in 1933, the lowest ratio yet attained in this country.

A graph on the succeeding page illustrates the decline in the tuberculosis death-rate since 1875.

Of the 476 persons who died from tuberculosis of the respiratory system in 1933, 346, or 73 per cent., were known to have been born in the Dominion. In 4 cases the country of birth was not known or not stated, and in the remaining 126 cases the deceased person had been born outside New Zealand. Four of the last-mentioned had been in New Zealand less than two years, and 8 less than five years.

In addition to the 476 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1933, there were 135 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, including—

Tuberculosis of meninges and central nervous system43
Tuberculosis of intestines and peritoneum12
Tuberculosis of vertebral column19
Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system20
Disseminated tuberculosis36

Tuberculosis claims its victims at a comparatively early age. Of those dying from this cause in 1933. persons under the age of twenty years formed 14 per cent., and those under forty-five years 64 per cent.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM TUBERCULAR DISEASES, 1933.

Ages, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5101222
5 and under 106410
10 and under 1531013
15 and under 20132942
20 and under 25254166
25 and under 30345286
30 and under 352754 
35 and under 40272451
40 and under 45252348
45 and under 50382462
50 and under 55391150
55 and under 60321140
60 and under 6516824
65 and under 7015621
70 and under 7510515
75 and under 80235
80 and over12 
     Totals323288611

The average annual death-rate from tubercular diseases in certain of the principal countries of the world during the latest available period of five years is next shown.

Country.Period.Death-rates (per 10,000).
* Registration area.
New Zealand1929–334.4
Union of South Africa1927–314.8
Australia1928–325.1
Ceylon1928–326.7
Netherlands1929–337.1
Denmark1927–317.3
Canada1928–327.7
United States*1926–307.9
England and Wales1928–329.0
Scotland1928–329.0
Belgium1925–299.7
Germany1924–2810.0
Italy1926–3012.0
Sweden1928–3212.5
Northern Ireland1928–3212.6
Switzerland1927–3113.1
Irish Free State1928–3213.1
Spain1926–3013.9
Uruguay1925–2914.3
Lithuania1925–2914.5
Greece1923–2715.4
France1927–3116.3
Austria1925–2916.4
Czechoslovakia.1928–3216.8
Norway1924–2817.4
Japan1927–3119.1
Hungary1928–3220.6
Estonia1925–2923.2
Finland1924–2824.4
Chile1925–2924.5

CANCER.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. The increasing prevalence of cancer is causing no little concern in the Dominion, as indeed it is throughout the civilized world.

The following diagram illustrates, on the one hand, the increase in the cancer death-rate, and, on the other, the decrease in the rate of deaths from tuberculosis:—

In 1933 there were 1,624 deaths from cancer in the Dominion, a proportion at 11.07 per 10,000 of population. The standardized cancer death-rate for 1933 shows an increase of 0.57, while the crude death-rate shows an increase of 0.96 per 10,000.

Year.Number of Deaths from Cancer.Crude Death-rate.Standardized Death-rate.*
* On basis of age distribution in 1911.
19241,2459.598.49
19251,2079.087.88
19261,3419.918.62
19271,3249.638.16
19281,3749.888.18
19291,46710.438.53
19301,45210.198.16
19311,49310.338.14
19321,47210.117.77
19331,62411.078.34

The following table shows the proportion of deaths from cancer to the 10,000 of mean population in some of the principal countries of the world. The rates are an annual average of the latest available period of five years.

CANCER DEATH-RATES IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES.

Country.Period.Death-rate per 10,000 of Country. Population.
* Registration area.
Ceylon1928–320.9
Greece1923–272.4
Lithuania1925–293.0
Chile1925–294.8
Italy1926–306.3
Spain1920–306.9
Japan1927–317.0
Uruguay1925–297.7
Estonia1925–297.8
Union of S. Africa1927–317.9
Belgium1925–298.8
Canada1928–329.2
France1927–319.5
United States*1920–309.6
Australia1928–329.9
Hungary1928–3210.1
New Zealand1929–3310.4
Irish Free State1928–3211.0
Czechoslovakia1928–3211.4
Germany1924–2811.6
Norway1924–2811.8
Sweden1926–3011.9
Northern Ireland1,928,33212.0
Netherlands1929–3312.3
Switzerland1927–3114.0
Denmark1927–3114.2
England and Wales1928–3214.0
Scotland1928–3214.7
Austria1925–2914.8

The following summary shows the types of cancer returned in the death entries for the year 1933:—

Type.Deaths.
Males.Females.Total.
Carcinoma7246651,389
Adeno-carcinoma122133
Sarcoma222648
Lympho-sarcoma325
Melanotic sarcoma448
Angio-sarcoma..11
Fibro-sarcoma123
Osteo-sarcoma112
Epithelioma292554
Hypernephroma246
Scirrhus cancer11112
Chloroma1..1
Rodent ulcer369
Endothelioma314
Cancer12820
Malignant ulcer224
Malignant tumour3811
Malignant papilloma1..1
Malignant disease8412
Malignant growth..1 
     Totals8327921,624

The parts of the body most commonly attacked in New Zealand are the stomach and liver. Among females the genital and mammary organs rank high as the seat of the disease. Full details of location are published in the “Annual Report on Vital Statistics.” A summary for 1933 gives results as under:—

Seat of Disease.Males.Females.Total.
Buccal cavity and pharynx641680
Digestive tract and peritoneum514345859
Respiratory organs602080
Uterus..109109
Other female genital organs..6060
Breast..168168
Urinary organs and male genital organs12521146
Skin181836
Other or unspecified organs513586
     Totals8327921,624

Ninety-one per cent, of the deaths from cancer during 1933 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 63 per cent, at ages 60 years and upwards. Females predominate generally at the younger, and males at the older, ages.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, 1933.

Ages, In Years.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5l..1
5 and under 10..23
10 and under 15l23
15 and under 20l12
20 and under 255510
25 and under 307512
30 and under 3541721
35 and under 4072936
40 and under 45243357
45 and under 503768105
50 and under 558786173
55 and under 608394177
60 and under 65130102232
65 and under 70150116266
70 and under 7512298220
75 and under 809467161
80 and over7967146
     Totals8327921,624

Exhaustive statistical inquiry covering the period from 1872 to date tends to show that in New Zealand death from cancer is, on the average, new occurring later in life than formerly. It would seem that this is the case even if allowance be made for the fact that the age-constitution of the Dominion is increasing—i.e., that the average citizen of New Zealand is new older than the average citizen of ten, twenty, or fifty years ago.

PUERPERAL CAUSES.

In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance.

During the 44-year period from 1872 to 1915 the death-rate from puerperal causes exceeded 5 per 1,000 live births on only 14 occasions, but after 1915 did not fall below this figure until 1925. The rate for 1920 (when the proportion of first births was high) was the third highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885, but the highest rate since 1920 has been 5.14 per 1,000 recorded in 1922. The rate for each of the last twenty years is as follows:—

Year.Proportion per 1,000 Live Births.
19144.16
19154.70
19165.86
19175.98
19185.18
19195.06
19206.48
19215.08
19225.14
19235.11
19245.00
19254.65
19264.25
19274.91
19284.93
19294.82
19305.08
19314.77
19324.06
19334.44

Commencing with 1916, special inquiry has been made in all cases where a woman of child-bearing age has been returned as having died of such causes as septicaemia, peritonitis, nephritis, &c. (without qualification), with the result that in each year several of such cases are found to be puerperal, and are new so classed. During 1928 the system of investigating possible puerperal cases was still further extended, and this would tend to maintain the death-rate from these causes on the high level recorded in 1927. The rate of 4.06 in 1932 was the lowest since 1913, and the somewhat higher rate of 4.44 in 1933 still compares very favourably with those for most of the years covered by the table.

The rate of deaths from puerperal causes is frequently, though not quite accurately, referred to as “the maternal death-rate.” It should be noted, however, that the class provided for puerperal causes in the international classification covers all deaths from accidents and diseases of pregnancy and parturition, and is not limited to deaths resulting from accouchements of normal women after more or less normal pregnancies. If it were possible to exclude certain types of puerperal cases a true maternal death-rate would result—considerably lower than that shown for all puerperal accidents and diseases. Full distinction cannot, however, be made, but it may be mentioned that the 108 deaths from puerperal causes during 1933 included 33 from abortion, of which 26 became septic cases. Including these 26 deaths from septic abortion there were 40 deaths from puerperal septicaemia in 1933.

The next table shows the deaths from puerperal causes during each of the last five years, classified in the divisions into which such causes are divided in the international classification. In recent years there has occurred a marked increase in the number of deaths from septic abortion, whereas deaths from puerperal septicaemia, exclusive of septic abortion, show a definite fall. The death-rate for all puerperal septicaemia cases (including septic abortion) was 1.64 per 1,000 live births in 1933 as against 1.56 per 1,000 in 1932. Over the last five years puerperal septicaemia, including septic abortion, was responsible for 39 per cent. of the total deaths from puerperal causes.

Group.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 Live Births.
1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Abortion with septic conditions193029260.711.121.091.041.07 
Abortion without septic conditions specified767870.260.220.260.320.29
Ectopic gestation446350.150.150.220.120.21
Other accidents of pregnancy5....610.19....0.240.04
Puerperal haemorrhage6116890.230.410.230.320.37
Puerperal septicaemia30271813141.121.010.680.520.57
Puerperal albuminuria and eclampsia27283217201.011.051.200.680.82
Other toxaemias of pregnancy786690.260.300.230.240.37
Puerperal phlegmasia alba dolens, embolus, sudden death141511660.520.560.410.240.25
Other accidents of childbirth3447110.110.150.150.290.45
Other conditions of the puerperal state7381..0.260.110.300.05..
     Totals1291361271011084.825.084.774.064.44

A table showing the rate per 1,000 births of deaths from puerperal septicaemia (including septic abortion) and other puerperal causes separately in some of the principal countries of the world is given in the following table. New Zealand new occupies a more favourable position in international comparison than was the case a few years ago.

DEATHS FROM PUERPERAL CAUSES IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

Country.Period.Death-rate per 1,000 Births from
Puerperal Septicemia.Other All PuerperalAll Puerperal Causes.
* Registration area.
Uruguay1925–291.660.842.50
Japan1927–310.841.842.68
Italy1926–301.021.702.72
Denmark1925–291.041.742.78
France1927–311.061.742.80
Norway1921–281.011.862.87
Sweden1927–311.581.583.16
Netherlands1929–331.072.143.21
Hungary1928–321.921.643.56
Spain1926.302.151.623.77
Czechoslovakia1928.322.381.824.20
Switzerland1925–291.852.434.28
England and Wales1928–321.762.544.30
Estonia1925–290.693.634.32
New Zealand1929–331.792.844.63
Irish Free State1928–321.413.274.08
South Africa1927–312.522.485.00
Germany1924–282.712.475.18
Northern Ireland1928–321.543.655.19
Lithuania1925–290.365.005.36
Canada1928–321.883.555.43
Australia1928–321.993.495.48
Belgium1925–293.142.705.84
Chile1925–292.094.046.13
Scotland1928–322.414.206.61
United States*1920–302.674.547.21

DEATHS FROM VIOLENCE.

Deaths from violence, apart from suicide, claim approximately 5 per cent, of the total deaths. Violent deaths in each of four years at quinquennial intervals are given in the next table.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000,000 of Mean Population.
1918.1923.1928.1933.1918.1923.1928.1933.
Homicide411101449710
Accidental causes— 
  Poisoning911191189147
  Conflagration11161911013141
  Burns and scalds4225332238202415
  Died under anaesthetic, asphyxia, &c1025247920175
  Drowning13016714412711813110387
  Firearms1815232216121615
  Falls48369612244286983
  In mines and quarries8141614711129
  Crushing158176283214143138203146
  Injuries915898126 
  Fractures (causes not specified)393215123524118
  Other6256644857434633
     Totals548599754623497470542425

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1933 was 609, corresponding to a rate of 4.15 per 10,000 of population. Although this represents, by comparison with 1918. an increase of 65 in the number of deaths, the death-rate has declined by 0.78 per 10,000 of population. Noticeable decreases are shown for drowning, deaths under anaesthetic, asphyxia, &c, and fractures (causes not specified). Part of the large increase between 1918 and 1933 in the death-rate from accidental falls is due to fuller information being obtained in a proportion of cases formerly classified under the heading of “fractures (causes not specified).”

In view of the steady rise in the number of deaths attributable to transport accidents, it is advisable to reduce the figures and rates to their respective headings. In classifying deaths under these various subheadings the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway-trains and electric tram-cars with motor-vehicles the death is assigned to the railway-train or electric tram-car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor-vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles the death is assigned to the motor-vehicle.

In the following table the number and rate of deaths from traumatism by railways, tramways, and motor-vehicles during each of the last ten years are given.

Year.Deaths from Traumatism byRate per Million of Population.
Railways.Tramways.Motor-vehicles.Hallways.Tramways.Motor-vehicles.
192440109431872
192543810832681
192653171493913110
1927428138316100
19284410176327127
1929495178354127
1930638220446154
1931409159286110
1932279159196109
193331712021582

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents record an appreciable increase up to 1930, but this trend has been reversed in subsequent years. The figures are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor-vehicles and trains or trams. For 1933 there were 10 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor-vehicle was an agent up to 130. The corresponding figure for 1932 was 168. Probably the diminished use of vehicles as a result of the economic depression has been an important factor in reducing the fatality rate from motor-vehicles in the last three years.

SUICIDES.

The suicidal deaths in 1933 numbered 200—males 156, females 44—the death-rate per 10,000 of mean population being 1.36.

Year.Number of Suicidal Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
1929173482212.410.701.57
1930156371932.150.531.35
1931196302262.650.421.50
1932194462402.610.641.65
1933156442002.090.611.36

The rate for 1933 is appreciably lower than that for 1932, and also that for the average of the last five years—1.50 per 10,000.

A comparison of the average annual rates for the latest quinquennial periods available for the undermentioned countries is as follows:—

Country.Quinquennium.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
* Registration area.
Chile1925–290.32
Irish Free State1928–320.35
Spain1926–300.53
Northern Ireland1928–320.53
Ceylon1928–320.57
Norway1920–300.64
Lithuania1925–290.67
Netherlands1929–330.80
Canada1928–320.92
Italy1926–300.96
Scotland1928–321.00
Uruguay1925–291.13
South Africa1927–311.15
Australia1928–321.27
England and Wales1928–321.30
United States*1926–301.39
New Zealand1929–331.50
Belgium1925–291.52
Sweden1928–321.55
Finland1925–291.65
Denmark1927–311.70
France1927–311.89
Japan1927–312.11
Germany1924–282.45
Estonia1925–292.48
Switzerland1927–312.51
Greece1923–272.72
Czechoslovakia1928–322.89
Hungary1928–323.19
Austria1925–293.45

MAORI DEATHS.

Deaths of Maoris are not included in the statistics quoted in preceding pages of this subsection. Their omission is due principally to the fact that a considerably lower standard of accuracy and completeness of data exists in the case of Maori registrations than in the general death records. Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last five years have been as follows:—

 Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Maori Population.
Year.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192950440290614.6312.7513.73
193049345394614.0514.0714.06
19315284871,01514.8014.8314.81
19326195731,19217.0217.1017.06
19336135481,16116.4615.9716.22

The average annual rate over the last five years was 15 per 1,000 as compared with 8 per 1,000 in the case of the non-Maori population.

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in three of the five years shown above.

Until recently, the only statistics available concerning Maori deaths were merely numbers of deaths according to sex. A tabulation was, however, made in 1925 for the five years 1920–24 on the basis of age and cause of death, and summarized statistics were prepared and published in the 1926 and 1927 numbers of the Year-Book. Annual tabulations are new made, and the summarized statistics for the years 1925–33 are given below. The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the nine years are as follows:—

Age, in Years.Males.FemalesTotal.
Under 11,0468911,937
1 and under 55865721,158
5 and under 10222222444
10 and under 15194234428
15 and under 20297310607
20 and under 25209245454
25 and under 30209190399
30 and under 35132137269
35 and under 40143164307
40 and under 45155131286
45 and under 50145130275
50 and under 55167130297
55 and under 60190110300
60 and under 65186138324
65 and under 70208137345
70 and under 75202142344
75 and under 80154108262
80 and under 85143118261
85 and under 907151122
90 and under 956460124
95 and under 100223254
100 and over364177
Unspecified385290
     Totals4,8194,3459,164

With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever (only 4 deaths of Maoris from this disease being recorded during the last ten years), epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the general population, the most noteworthy example being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhoeal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the European population. Principal among these are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis, the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral haemorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many infants may be partly responsible. The figures of deaths from malformations and the group “early infancy” taken in conjunction (the pre-natal causes) indicate a much higher rate for Maoris from these diseases as a whole than for Europeans.

A summary is here given showing deaths from the principal causes and groups of causes.

Causes of Death.Number of Deaths.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Typhoid fever20121410113.031.782.041.431.54
Measles..1....14..0.15....1.96
Whooping-cough85962171.210.741.318.872.38
Diphtheria114320.150.150.580.430.28
Influenza41244129196.213.575.984.152.66
Dysentery331286105.001.781.170.861.40
Pulmonary tuberculosis19319122224020429.2528.3832.4034.3528.51
Other forms of tuberculosis39382951555.915.654.237.307.69
Cancer23192125273.492.823.073.583.77
Cerebral haemorrhage1061415161.520.891.902.152.23
Convulsions (under five years)8152312181.212.233.301.722.51
Heart-diseases45696173806.8210.258.9010.4512.02
Bronchitis19311537302.884.012.195.294.19
Broncho-pneumonia42463951676.376.845.697.309.36
Pneumonia97838911412014.7012.3312.9916.3116.77
Diarrhoea and enteritis26372533223.945.503.054.723.07
Nephritis58613140.761.190.881.861.96
Senility727978928310.9111.7411.3813.1711.59
Violence— 
 Suicide27127100.301.041.751.001.40
 Accident32595878564.858.778.4711.167.82
 Homicide........2........0.28
Cold, cough, chest trouble, &c.5314820.760.451.461.140.28
Stomach trouble, internal trouble, &c.2....150.30....0.140.70
Ill-defined or not specified37155738295.612.238.325.444.05
Other causes14618517619424222.1327.4926.4227.7633.82
     Totals9069461,0151,1921,161137.31140.58148.14170.58162.24

As stated earlier, the records of Maori births and deaths are not nearly so accurate and complete as those covering the non-Maori population. This is particularly the case as regards causes of deaths, in spite of the fact that considerable improvement has been effected in the last few years.

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or Coroner's inquest. As a further indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925, out of a total of 867 deaths, 446 or 51 per cent, were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1933 the proportion so certified was 701 out of 1,161 registrations, equivalent to 60 per cent.

As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher than the European, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhoeal diseases. The infant mortality rate for the first year of life was, for the nine years 1925–33, 106 per 1,000 births in the case of Maoris, as compared with 35 per 1,000 among European infants, and this in spite of the fact that for the first month of life the Maori rate (23) was lower than the European rate (21). Among Maori infants who survived the first month, the death-rate during the succeeding eleven months was 81 per 1,000, as compared with only 10 per 1,000 in the case of Europeans.

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last nine years are given in the next table, together with a comparison with the European figures.

Year.Maoris.Europeans.
Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Births.Number of Deaths under One Year.Rate per 1,000 Births.
1925184107.231,12539.96
1926180117.191,13239.76
1927236157.861,08038.74
1928218118.1698436.18
192917478.5291234.10
193018888.5192434.48
193122195.5985632.15
193226295.4577731.22
193327392.6177031.64

The next table shows for the last decade principal causes of deaths of Maori infants under 1 year, classified according to age.

CAUSES OF DEATHS OF MAORI INFANTS, BY AGES, 1925–33.

Cause of Death.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 2 Days.2 Days and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 months.9 Months and under 12 MonthsTotal.
Typhoid fever........l......11..3
Measles............2..261121
Whooping-cough......1421910332522116
Diphtheria..............1....34
Influenza......1237527262192
Dysentery..........12359626
Tuberculosis........212616223483
Venereal disease..11..........2116
Infantile convulsions..13124661132874
Bronchitis..1..23377312028102
Broncho-pneumonia....11122013445153186
Pneumonia....27531522889189322
Other respiratory diseases....18312479944
Diseases of the stomach..........113691131
Diarrhoea and enteritis..112251112382939140
Hernia, intestinal obstruction......1....3243..13
Congenital malformations..534414152130
Congenital debility, &c1417121416102512292315187
Injury at birth6..42..12......217
Premature birth633436181778252..192
Other causes peculiar to early infancy1010107334111151
Accident1....3....3710101044
Other defined causes2....221109203920105
Unspecified or ill-defined13..32241179547
     Totals9773747769511571274024203891936

SUBSECTION D.—MORBIDITY.

Introductory.

DEATH-RATES are of great value as indicating the relative healthiness of different countries or for different years. The statistics of causes of registered deaths are of further use as showing the incidence of fatal diseases or accidents, and as indicating in a general way the relative rise or fall of diseases over a series of years. For instance, the fall in the incidence of tuberculosis and the increase in cancer (discussed in Subsection C of this section) can be readily traced from the records of deaths attributed to these causes in different years.

In comparisons of healthiness based on death-rates, however, the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years is not taken into account. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now give a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally.

Of recent years much attention has been devoted in different countries to the possibility or otherwise of obtaining reliable statistics of sickness. In New Zealand certain diseases are notifiable, but beyond this practically the only record other than that of fatality is the information ascertainable from the returns of discharges from public hospitals. The sickness experience of friendly societies' members is mentioned briefly in Section XXVIII. In the absence of full statistics of sickness, however, information from the sources mentioned is of considerable value, and gives a fair indication of the prevalence of the more important diseases.

Notifications Of Diseases.

Notifications of notifiable diseases during 1933 are shown for each month of the year in the following table:—

Disease.January.February.March.April.May.June.July.August.September.October.November.December.Total.
Scarlet fever525849869076727569416550783
Diphtheria3842961341371471217360434131963
Enteric fever11221986134261410106
Pulmonary tuberculosis858478676561578665867977890
Cerebro-spinal meningitis12........3213....12
Acute poliomyelitis1041592..1..1....143
Pneumonic Influenza1..242..444103741
Erysipelas211413232318192822171711226
Puerperal fever— 
  Ordinary311105710761511137105
  Following abortion141113196117108853115
Eclampsia8636611468881084
Tetanus22122l11..21..15
Hydatids55332743541446
Trachoma..11111......3....8
Ophthalmia neonatorum..4212132422225
Lethargic encephalitis14174..1431....26
Food poisoning..262........20....1242
Dysentery211622752215..164
Undulant fever12..31212121218
Actinomycosis....1..1......2......4
Leprosy............1..........1
Lead poisoning....................1..1
Phosphorus poisoning..1....................1
     Totals2552763294023643523113082912522512283,619

A quinquennial summary of notifications of certain principal diseases is now given. With the exception of diphtheria, all the diseases covered by the table show appreciable decreases in incidence during the year 1933.

Disease.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
Scarlet fever4,8482,2441,304829783
Diphtheria1,6871,4401,327802963
Enteric fever278149161195106
Pulmonary tuberculosis1,3741,2441,109904890
Cerebro-spinal meningitis2830221612
Acute poliomyelitis55122514843
Erysipelas341322233233226
Puerperal fever and septic abortion290319293252220

Information as to case-fatality in regard to the three first-mentioned diseases above is given in the next table for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Diphtheria.Scarlet Fever.Enteric Fever.
Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality.
   Per Cent.  Per Cent.  Per Cent.
19242,717802.941,176131.11354195.37
19251,518523.431,02570.68278165.76
19261,975663.341,58380.50302196.29
19271,446584.102,185160.73270114.07
19281,600724.500,127550.90290165.52
19291,687925.454,848270.56278227.91
19301,440584.032,244160.7114974.70
19311,327554.141,304110.84161106.21
1932802404.9982960.72195115.64
1933968272.7978340.5110665.66

Although diphtheria was more prevalent in 1933 than in 1932, its virulence was reduced by approximately 50 per cent, according to the case-fatality rate.

Public Hospitals: Patients Treated.

The public hospitals to which the following statistics relate include all those hospitals under the control of the various Hospital Boards; two hospitals which are also old people's homes (Greytown and Reefton); five special infectious diseases hospitals; the various tuberculosis institutions and special sanatoria (including Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer, and King George V Hospital, Rotorua); and such public maternity hospitals as have also provision for emergency general cases. All St. Helens Hospitals, private hospitals, and solely maternity hospitals, are excluded.

During the year 1933 the total admissions to public hospitals in New Zealand numbered 79,336. There were 4,481 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year being thus 83,817, equal to 545 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris; or, in other words, an equivalent to one person out of every eighteen in the Dominion receiving some degree of treatment in public hospitals in 1933.

A table is appended showing for each of the last five years the total number of patients treated, and the proportion of population:—

Year.Total Patients treated.Rate per 10,000 of Mean Population.
192983,812569
193081,065543
193179,176523
193279,143519
193383,817545

The figures of patients treated in public hospitals disclose the extent to which the public generally are taking advantage of the facilities for medical treatment which are placed at their disposal by the various public hospitals.

The above figures relate only to indoor patients treated in public hospitals, and if there be added the number of out-patients (vide Section VB) treated by the public hospitals (97,639 during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1933), the number of patients treated in private hospitals, and those persons receiving medical treatment in their own homes, &c, it will probably he found that at least one out of every ten persons in the population was under medical treatment during the year. These figures do not cover the whole field of sickness, as there is also to be considered the large number of minor complaints the condition of which did not warrant the calling-in of a medical practitioner.

Up to the close of 1929 patients (i.e., in-patients) treated in public hospitals had shown marked increases annually, not alone in numerical totals but also in ratio to population. The three years subsequent to 1929 reversed this position by recording successive declines in both number and ratio to population.

Some part of this decline may be attributed to a diminution in the incidence of the principal epidemic diseases, in particular scarlet fever, and, though in lesser extent, diphtheria. The special fever hospitals in the large centres have been virtually empty during the last three years, and in one case actually closed. Another partial explanation may be in changes of administration policy by some controlling authorities.

The significance of the coincidence of the downward movement with the progress of the depression commencing in 1930 suggests that the major cause is inherent in the direct and indirect phenomena of the depression. The latter may include the possibility that some of the enforced changes in living conditions (e.g., change to outdoor work) may have resulted in improved health.

Comparative impoverishment may in some instances have acted as a deterrent where normally such persons would have entered hospitals for treatment. For similar reasons others might become out-patients instead of in-patients.

Whatever the validity of the explanations suggested, there have occurred the remarkable increase of 11,000 in the out-patients treated at public hospitals in 1932 and a further similar increase in 1933. Many hospitals, especially in large centres, have assisted in examinations connected with unemployment relief, &c, and this may have had considerable effect in increasing the number of out-patients. The decline between 1929 and 1932 in the number of in-patients, it will be observed, is due chiefly to males, their numbers in 1932 being exceeded by females for the first time. The fall was checked in 1933, which recorded a rise of over 4,000 in the number of in-patients treated, the increase being spread over the majority of the most important diseases treated.

From figures given in the Appendix to the Annual Report of the Department of Health, it would appear that the average duration in hospital in respect of each admission was approximately 24 days. On this basis, sickness as represented by treatment in the public hospitals alone aggregated approximately 287,000 weeks for the year 1933. This aggregate, however, represents only a little more than one day for each person in the Dominion.

Condition On Discharge.

Of the 83,817 persons treated as in-patients in public hospitals in 1933, 50,737 were discharged as recovered, 20,907 as relieved, and 3,525 as unrelieved. Deaths in hospital numbered 4,036, and 4,612 patients were still in hospital at the end of the year.

The numbers of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the last five years are—

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
192978,66751,93919,3473,3604,12578,771
193076,02449,94818,7753,5423,97976,244
193174,47749,43817,9313,4313,82274,622
193274,58948,81218,5243,4383,88274,656
193379,33650,73720,9073,5254,03679,205

The following table gives the percentages of recovered, relieved, unrelieved, and deaths to total cases dealt with during each of the five years:—

Year.Discharged asDied.Remaining at End of Year.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
192961.9723.084.014.926.02
193061.6123.164.374.915.95
193162.4422.654.334.835.75
193261.6723.454.334.905.65
193360.5324.944.214.825.50

Generally speaking, the percentage of patients recovered shows a downward trend in recent years, while the proportions discharged as relieved and unrelieved record an upward tendency. The proportion of deaths among patients remains fairly constant.

Sexes Of Patients.

From the following table it will be seen that, while for the earlier years males considerably outnumber females among hospital patients, the proportion has been gradually reduced until in 1932, for the first time, and again in 1933, females were in the majority. The death-rate is invariably higher among male than among female patients.

Year.Discharges and Deaths.Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000 Cases.
Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.
192430,01524,7721212,0391,2211676849
192531,36526,0221212,1681,3151656851
192634,44329,5941162,3831,4521646949
192736,29031,6771152,3521,4301646545
192838,82436,4381072,3331,5991466044
192940,98537,7861082,5691,5561606341
193039,55736,6871082,4711,5081646241
193137,86736,7551032,3131,5091536141
193237,09337,563992,3451,5371536341
193339,31739,888992,4321,6041526241

AGES OF PATIENTS.

The ages of patients who were discharged from or who died in public hospitals during 1932 and 1933 are as shown in the following summary:—

Ages of Patients, in Years.1932.1933.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 53,7752,8556,6303,7652,7416,506
5 and under 103,9643,2587,2223,8553,1997,054
10 and under 152,7622,2755,0372,8932,4425,335
15 and under 256,8038,57015,3737,1619,08616,247
25 and under 355,3058,44213,7475,7249,25214,976
35 and under 454,0365,2039,2394,3075,5369,843
45 and under 554,2183,3077,5254,5463,6398,185
55 and under 652,9711,9174,8883,3692,1265,495
65 and over3,1901,6154,8053,6021,7575,359
Unspecified6912119095110205
     Totals37,09337,56374,65639,31739,88879,205

SUMMARY OF DISEASES, ETC.

As explained in the preceding subsection, the international classification of diseases and causes of death is used in New Zealand. The following table covers all patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals in the year 1933:—

Class.DischargesDeaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
RecoveredRelieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I.Infectious and parasitic diseases4,0532,0964103032503,8953,217
II.Cancer and other tumours1,0691,1705103852481,5691,813
III.Rheumatic diseases, diseases of nutrition and of endocrine glands, and other general diseases1,1521,26015060949811,741
IV.Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs61184342523160167
V.Chronic poisonings and intoxications1357354218831
VI.Diseases of the nervous system and of organs of special sense1,7272,0836672351712,6272,256
VII.Diseases of the circulatory system1,0741,4121244052241,9391,300
VIII.Diseases of the respiratory system2,9831,470972431363,0271,902
IX.Diseases of the digestive system16,5672,90537124012510,3999,815
X.Diseases of the genito-urinary system4,3362,2833362041042,3684,895
XI.Pregnancy, labour, and puerperal state6,702477126..66..7,371
XII.Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue2,349746229111,9681,169
XIII.Diseases of the bones and of the organs of locomotion1,2031,0039520101,632699
XIV.Congenital malformations120171451726191188
XV.Early infancy1343442725117107
XVI.Senility219067462516188
XVII.Violence or accident5,9042,742163196647,1032,026
XVIII.Ill-defined diseases Totals1,0877082991..9921,103
      Totals50,73720,9073,5252,4321,60439,31739,888

In the succeeding table the data contained above are reproduced in percentage form, and, in addition, the ratio of deaths to total cases is given.

Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.Percentage of Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I7.9910.0311.6312.4615.599.918.077.78
II2.115.6014.4715.8315.463.994.5518.72
III2.276.034.262.715.862.504.365.88
IV0.120.880.971.031.430.410.4214.68
V0.270.350.140.170.120.480.082.74
VI3.409.9618.929.6610.666.685.658.31
VII2.126.753.5216.6513.974.933.2619.42
VIII5.887.032.759.998.487.704.777.69
IX32.6513.8910.5310.127.7926.4524.611.84
X8.5510.929.538.396.486.0212.274.24
XI13.212.283.57..4.12..18.480.90
XII4.633.570.620.370.695.012.930.64
XIII2.374.802.700.820.624.151.751.29
XIV0.240.821.280.701.620.480.4711.35
XV0.260.160.111.111.56O.300.2723.21
XVI0.040.431.901.891.560.410.2228.51
XVII11.7513.114.628.063.9918.065.082.85
XVIII2.143.398.480.04..2.522.760.05
     Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.005.10

PRINCIPAL DISEASES.

A summary is now given of the principal diseases treated in public hospitals during the year 1933. All figures given are inclusive of Maoris.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for the treatment of which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in the death statistics. Cystitis, for instance, ranks comparatively high in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some more important disease, which would take precedence of cystitis in the statistics of causes of death. Generally speaking, the hospital returns show only the disease or condition for which the patient is treated.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL DISEASES TREATED IN HOSPITALS DURING 1933.

Diseases.Total Deaths registered in the Dominion.Total Cases in Public Hospitals.Deaths in Public Hospitals.
Number.Proportion of Total Deaths in Dominion.Proportion of Total Cases In Public Hospitals.
* See letterpress ante
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever171521588.249.87
Measles34249720.592.81
Scarlet fever4588250.000.34
Whooping-cough35130617.144.62
Diphtheria299292482.762.58
Influenza686322739.714.27
Erysipelas5172480.002.33
Infantile paralysis8113450.003.54
Pulmonary tuberculosis6801,51827740.7418.25
Tuberculous meningitis57514273.6882.35
Other forms of tuberculosis1336916246.628.97
Venereal diseases536172343.403.73
Septicaemia (non-puerperal)2978629100.003.69
Hydatids141191071.438.40
Other infectious or paraffin diseases993652121.215.75
Cancer1,6512,19157534.8326.24
Non-malignant tumours911,1915863.744.87
Rheumatism and gout729443143.063.28
Diabetes2366389439.8314.73
Exophthalmic goitre625902337.103.90
Other goitres11433654.551.39
Other general diseases20117630.005.13
Anaemias502091836.008.61
Leukaemia (Hodgkin's disease)48722552.0834.72
Other diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs1146545.4510.87
Alcoholism9193555.562.59
Chronic poisonings1261100.003.85
Diseases of the spinal cord621291422.5810.85
Cerebral haemorrhage, apoplexy69142826237.9261.21
Diseases of the eyes..972......
Diseases of the ears and mastoid process247021875.002.56
Other nervous diseases2362,65211247.464.22
Diseases of the heart3,1841,60056317.6835.19
Diseases of the arteries4161714611.0626.90
Diseases of the veins15689640.000.87
Other diseases of the circulatory system167791487.501.80
Bronchitis2071,1484421.263.83
Broncho-pneumonia24756012450.2022.14
Pneumonia30280914640.3318.05
Pleurisy234571982.614.16
Asthma30487930.001.85
Other diseases of the respiratory system1591,4683723.272.52
Diseases of the mouth71,506228.570.13
Diseases of pharynx and tonsils137,204861.540.11
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1029846260.786.30
Other diseases of the stomach22741731.820.94
Diarrhoea and enteritis828162530.493.06
Appendicitis1144,7068574.561.81
Hernia, intestinal obstruction1171,8289984.625.42
Other diseases of the intestines238401043.481.19
Diseases of the liver (excluding hydatids)33891648.4817.98
Diseases of the gall-bladder and biliary passages641,1903656.253.03
Peritonitis212321571.436.47
Other diseases of the digestive system2078630.007.69
Nephritis57547917129.7435.70
Other diseases of the kidneys739982635.622.61
Urinary calculi12350758.332.00
Diseases of the bladder45098*1.57
Diseases of the are there42315*2.16
Diseases of the prostate1124206860.7116.19
Diseases of other male genital organs2745150.000.13
Diseases of the female genital organs193,27222*0.67
Diseases of the breast..259......
Normal labour..3,707......
Septic abortion281561967.8612.18
Puerperal septicaemia211241676.1912.90
Other puerperal diseases and accidents833,3843137.440.92
Diseases of the skin403,1372050.000.64
Osteomyelitis275182488.894.63
Other diseases of the bones, &c.91,813666.670.33
Malformations1633794326.3811.35
Early infancy5062245210.2823.21
Senile debility, &c.4202497116.9028.51
Burns and scalds314942167.744.25
Fractures, dislocations, &c.123,601157*4.36
Other external causes8485,034829.071.63
Unspecified or ill-defined562,09511.790.05
     Totals12,86279,2054,03631.775.16

Chapter 5. SECTION V.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—PUBLIC HEALTH.

PUBLIC HEALTH ADMINISTRATION.

THE law relating to public health in New Zealand is contained in the Health Act, 1920, which repealed the consolidated Public Health Act, 190S, and its amendments. A full account of the Act was given in the 1927 issue of the Year-Book.

For the administration of the Act there is established a Department of Health, with a Director-General of Health as chief administrative officer. The Department comprises Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, School Hygiene, Child Welfare, and Maori Hygiene, each of which is under the supervision of a Director.

For purposes of local administration the country is divided into health districts, each of which is under the charge of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health. These officers are entrusted with wide powers, and act as advisers of the local governing bodies in matters affecting the public health.

In addition to being charged with the administration of the Health Act, the Department controls The registration of medical practitioners, nurses, midwives and maternity nurses, opticians, masseurs, and plumbers. It supervises the sale of food and drugs, and protects the public against exploitation by fraud in connection with alleged remedies. The Department also administers The law covering the control of cemeteries and crematoria

The medical and dental inspection and treatment of school-children are carried out by special divisions of the Department.

NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

The system of notification of certain diseases has been in force in New Zealand for many years, and the list of notifiable diseases has undergone several alterations. The list at present is as follows:—

  • A. Notifiable infectious diseases mentioned in Part I of First Schedule of Health Act, 1920:—

    • Anthrax.

    • Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis).

    • Cholera.

    • Dengue.

    • Diphtheria.

    • Erysipelas.

    • Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever).

    • Leprosy.

    • Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).

    • Puerperal fever (puerperal septicaemia and puerperal sapraemia).

    • Scarlet fever (scarlatina).

    • Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch, and Philippine itch).

    • Typhus.

    • Yellow fever.

  • B. Notifiable infectious diseases declared by Gazette notice:—

    • Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary).

    • Encephalitis lethargica.

    • Fulminant influenza.

    • Pneumonic influenza.

    • Septicaemic influenza.

    • Ophthalmia neonatorum.

    • Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis).

    • Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids).

    • Tuberculosis (pulmonary).

    • Septicaemia consequent on abortion or miscarriage.

    • Syphilis.*

    • Gonorrhoea.*

    • Soft chancre.*

    • Undulant fever.

    • Puerperal fever, involving any form of puerperal sepsis other than or in addition to puerperal septicaemia and puerperal sapraemia.

* In certain circumstances. (See letterpress post.)

  • C. Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, mentioned in Second Schedule:—

    • Actinomycosis.

    • Ankylostomiasis (hookworm disease).

    • Bilharziosis (endemic haematuria, Egyptian haematuria).

    • Beriberi.

    • Hydatids.

    • Food poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).

    • Chronic lead poisoning.

    • Phosphorus poisoning.

    • Tetanus.

  • D. Notifiable disease, other than infectious, declared by Gazette notice:—

    • Eclampsia.

SOCIAL HYGIENE REGULATIONS.

By Gazette notice dated the 29th November, 1924, syphilis, gonorrhoea, and soft chancre were declared to be infectious diseases within the meaning of the Health Act, 1920. On the 9th July, 1925, regulations were made under the Health Act, 1920, and the Social Hygiene Act, 1917, providing for the compulsory notification of these diseases in certain circumstances, and for the treatment of These affected by venereal disease in a communicable form.

Under these regulations it is incumbent upon a medical practitioner, or a medical officer of a hospital, who has been treating any person suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form to notify the Director-General of Health if such person fails for more than two weeks (after the date fixed in that behalf by the medical practitioner or medical officer) to attend for treatment, unless he is known in the meantime to have placed himself under treatment by some other qualified person.

If the Director-General of Health has reason to believe (either from a notification, as provided for above, or otherwise) that any person is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, he may require such person to submit himself for examination to some medical practitioner, and to supply a medical certificate as to the state of his health in relation to venereal disease. If a medical certificate is not supplied within the time specified, or if the certificate does not definitely disclose whether or not the person to whom it relates is suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Director-General of Health may authorize two medical practitioners to examine such person.

In cases where a medical certificate is not obtainable, or where the certificate shows the person to be suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Director-General of Health may, if he thinks such a course necessary or expedient in the public interest, authorize a Medical Officer of Health to make an order, under section 84 of the Health Act, 1920, for the removal of such person to a hospital or other place where he may be effectively isolated. On the other hand, on application being made to a Magistrate, an order for examination by two medical practitioners (to he named in the order) is made, and if their report shows that the person is free from venereal disease in a communicable form, the Magistrate then makes an order for his release.

Where treatment is not conveniently obtainable at a public hospital or public clinic, the Director-General of Health may authorize a registered medical practitioner to administer free treatment if the patient is unable to pay. In such cases fees for service are paid by the State according to a scale laid down.

It is an offence for any person, while suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to engage in any employment, or to act in any capacity, in or about any factory, shop, hotel, restaurant, house, or other place, if by reason there of any food intended for consumption by any other person is exposed to infection from venereal disease or is likely to be so affected. If any person suffering from the disease knowingly infects, or does or suffers any act likely to infect, any other person, he is liable to imprisonment for twelve months, together with a fine of £100.

It is the duty of every medical practitioner who is consulted by any person, sixteen years of age or over, suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form, to give such person a notice setting forth the requirements for treatment and for not infecting others, and expressly warning him or her against marrying until medically certified as cured.

Every precaution is taken for the maintenance of secrecy and the avoidance of publicity in the carrying-out of the regulations. Every person concerned in the administration of the regulations is liable to a penalty of £50 if he divulges any information which comes to his knowledge in respect of any person suffering, or suspected to be suffering, from venereal disease.

DIPLOMAS IN PUBLIC HEALTH.

In addition to the powers of conferring degrees of Bachelor and Master of Surgery and Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine, the Senate of the New Zealand University has power to grant diplomas in public health, and to make regulations for the examination of candidates for such diplomas. The examination for the diploma in public health is held in two parts, which may be taken separately or at the same time. Diplomas granted 1914–2S numbered 17; none has since been awarded.

REGISTRATION OF MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS.

Under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1914, as amended by the Medical Practitioners Amendment Act, 1924, is constituted the Medical Council of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health and six other registered medical practitioners. One of the six members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which enacts that every person shall be entitled to registration who satisfies the Council that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom, or eligible for registration on such last-mentioned register; or the holder, after a course of not less than five years' study, of a foreign diploma approved by the Council. The Council may, however, refuse to approve any diploma (even in the case of persons registered or eligible for registration in the United Kingdom) unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, with out further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma. It may also require the holder of a foreign diploma to pass an examination in medicine and surgery to be prescribed and conducted by the Senate of the New Zealand University.

Applicants who are refused registration have the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. The fee for registration is £2, payable on deposit of evidence of qualification. Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 5s.) is required.

The Medical Council is vested with disciplinary powers, including the suspension of a medical practitioner from practice. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided. The Supreme Court, on the motion of the Medical Council, may order the removal of a name from the register in cases where a medical practitioner is guilty of grave misconduct or is convicted of an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a farm of two years or upwards. The number of medical practitioners on the register on 31st March, 1934, was 1,410. During 1933, 118 names were removed and 46 added, of whom 34 had New Zealand qualifications.

REGISTRATION OF DENTISTS.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist in New Zealand who is the holder of a degree in dental surgery of the University of New Zealand, or a certificate of proficiency in dentistry obtained from the Senate of the University, or is The holder of a degree or diploma in dental surgery approved by the Senate and conferred by a University or dental college in the United Kingdom, or is the holder of a degree in dentistry granted in a British possession or a foreign country and recognized by the Senate. Evidence of good character is required in every case.

Application for registration is made to the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, Wellington, the fee for registration being £1.

The number on the register at the end of 193S was 929, 12 names having been added and 6 removed during the year.

REGISTRATION OF NURSES, MIDWIVES, AND MATERNITY NURSES.

The Nurses and Midwives Registration Act, 1925, as amended in 1930, provides for a Nurses and Midwives Registration Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health or his deputy; the Director of the Division of Nursing (who is Registrar of the Board); a registered medical practitioner; a registered nurse and a registered midwife, and one other person recommended by the New Zealand Trained Nurses' Association or a similar body; and one person nominated by the Hospital Boards' Association.

Every person who has attained the age of twenty-two years and is certified as having undergone not less than three years' training in a general hospital “ approved ” by the Board as a training-school under the Act, and who has passed the prescribed hospital and State examination, is entitled to registration. The number of registered nurses on the register at 31st March, 1934, was 6,708.

The Act also provides for the registration of midwives and maternity nurses.

The requirements for training are as follows:—

Maternity Nurses.—In the case of a person who is a registered nurse the period of training is six months, and in the case of any other person is a period of eighteen months. At the end of this time the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Maternity Examination.

Midwives.—No person shall be accepted for training as a midwife until such person has been registered as a maternity nurse; the duration of the course of training will be then a period of six months, at the end of which the candidate is eligible to sit for the State Midwifery Examination.

The number of registered midwives on the 31st March, 1934, was 3,083, and the number of registered maternity nurses 1,593.

REGISTRATION OF OPTICIANS.

The Opticians Act, 1928, provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), two persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eye.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act. On payment of the prescribed foe (£5), every person is entitled to registration as an optician who satisfies The Board that—

  1. He has received satisfactory training qualifying him to practise as an optician, and is the holder of a certificate of qualification recognized by the Board; or

  2. He has passed an examination under the Act, both theoretical and practical, after a course of not less than three years' training in New Zealand as prescribed by regulations.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 10s.) is required.

Regulations pursuant to the Opticians Act, 1928, have been prepared, prescribing the conditions and period of training and the syllabus for The examination conducted by the Opticians Board.

Two hundred and seventy-nine names have been entered upon the Register of Opticians to 31st March, 1934.

REGISTRATION OF MASSEURS.

Under the Masseurs Registration Act, 1920, and the Masseurs Registration Amendment Act, 1924, there is constituted the Masseurs Registration Board of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health, a registered medical practitioner, and two persons engaged in the practice of massage in New Zealand.

The Board deals with all applications for registration (fee, £2) under the Act. It is necessary for applicants to be in possession of approved certificates for the three branches of massage: (1) Massage; (2) Medical electricity; (3) Remedial exercises and other branches of physiotherapy.

Under the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), an annual practising certificate (fee 10s.) is required.

The number of masseurs on the Register at 31st March, 1934, was 533.

REGISTRATION OF PLUMBERS.

The Plumbers Board of New Zealand, constituted under the Plumbers Registration Act, 1912, consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman); the Director of Education; a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand; a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The functions of the Board are to decide what persons may be registered under the Act, and in what districts sanitary plumbing may be performed only by registered plumbers. It also decides the scope of the examinations to be held as a part of the process of securing registration.

The main principles underlying the Act are that of securing trained and certificated sanitary plumbers, and that such registered plumbers shall not be required to pay any license fee or pass any examination under any local authorities controlling sanitary-plumbing works.

Under the Finance Act, 1932—33 (No. 2), an annual license fee of 5s. is payable by registered plumbers if doing any sanitary plumbing.

The total of names on the register at 31st March, 1934, was 2,367.

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS.

In order to make better provision for the sale of food and drugs in a pure state, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was passed by the Legislature, and came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The Act is administered by the Health Department, and provides for the analysis, by public analysts, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption, or likely to cause injury to health if consumed, heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such things are manufactured or packed. The selling of light-weight bread is an offence under the Act, as is also the taking back of bread after it has been in the possession of the purchaser for more than an hour.

Considerable progress has been made in following out the purposes of the Act, all the commonly used foodstuffs being standardized, and the labelling of packages being controlled by regulations, which are revised and added to as the necessity arises.

An amendment of the Act in 1924 marks a noteworthy advance in legislation of this kind, and has been used to good effect in controlling all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser is likely to be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether it is dealt with by a regulation or not.

The definition of “ drug ” includes medicines used externally or internally by man, anesthetics, soaps, ointments, disinfectants, and tobacco.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food or drug and to submit it for analysis.

Statistics compiled by the Department of Health show that, during the year 1933, 7,693 samples of milk were examined, resulting in 300 warnings and 88 prosecutions. The figures for the previous year were 7,616, 321, and 90 respectively. Other foodstuffs sampled—1932 figures in brackets—numbered 1,258 (1,813), warnings being 101 (110) and prosecutions 22 (46). Convictions during the year were as follows: Adulterated milk 79, fines totalling £285 3s. 3d.; butter, 1, fine £1 Is. 7d.; whisky 3, fines £70 4s. 8d.; other offences 24, fines £65 5s. 7d.

The weighing of bread, butter, and other foodstuffs is attended to by the Department of Labour in conjunction with its duties under the Weights and Measures Act.

QUACKERY PREVENTION.

Section 2 of the Quackery Prevention Act, 1908, enacts that every person commits an offence who publishes or causes to be published any statement which is intended by the defendant or any other person to promote the sale of any article as a medicine, preparation, or appliance for the prevention, alleviation, or cure of any human ailment or physical defect, and which is false in any material particular relating to the ingredients, composition, structure, nature, or operation of that article, or to the effects which have followed or may follow the use thereof.

The penalty inflicted is a fine not exceeding £100 in the case of a first conviction, and not exceeding £200 for every subsequent conviction. The object of the Act is to prevent the exploitation of the public by means of medicines or treatment alleged to cure all and sundry complaints and ailments.

DANGEROUS DRUGS.

In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under the Geneva Convention (League of Nations), the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1927, was enacted. The dealing in and use of prepared opium is prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are subject to a license granted by the Director-General of Health or some other lawful authority. Provisions are made to prevent illicit traffic in drugs of a habit-forming nature. Suitable regulations are new in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and follow lines similar to the regulations in England and Australis.

PHARMACY.

The Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, constituted by the Pharmacy Act, 1908, consists of about 700 members. These are known as “ registered chemists, ” and no chemist shop may be opened in the Dominion except under the charge of one of these.

The society is governed by the Pharmacy Board, Wellington, set up by Act, consisting of ten members elected by members of the society. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and its amendments in the interests of the public and of the members of the society; also to watch such other legal provisions generally as may have a bearing upon pharmacy.

The society has reciprocity agreements with the societies of Great Britain and all the Australian States: that is to say, a member registered after passing the full examination of a reciprocating country can be registered in any other on payment of the fees, and on complying with prescribed formalities.

The Pharmacy Board holds examinations annually for These who wish to obtain the necessary qualifications entitling them to registration. Candidates must also serve four years' apprenticeship. The first Official College of Pharmacy was opened in Wellington in 1933. A complete course, embracing all the subjects set for the professional examinations, is available for students.

The Society has a Benevolent Fund, which is used for the relief of members who may be in needy circumstances, or of their relatives who may be unprovided for.

In addition to the statutory organization set up by the Pharmacy Act, members of the Pharmaceutical Society have another organization known as the Chemists' Defence Association, Limited, which provides an indemnity guarantee for its members, deals with matters of general interest not covered by the Act, and governs ethical questions as between pharmacists and medical men and the public generally. There is also a Chemists' Service Guild governing the purely business side of pharmacy.

CEMETERIES.

By the Cemeteries Amendment Act of 1926 the administration of cemeteries is placed under the control of the Minister of Health. The Department of Health, with its Inspectors always in The field, is able to give the various matters closer attention than had been possible previously. Steps are being taken to ensure proper methods of plotting and keeping records, The importance of which has not been sufficiently recognized in The more sparsely populated areas, but the necessity for which will become more apparent as time goes on.

Regulations are in force to facilitate The procedure in cremations, providing also for special methods as carried out according to the rites of any religious denomination elsewhere than in a crematorium. Due precautions are provided for in all cases to ensure against any untoward development in connection with The cremation of any body.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

The School Helical Service in New Zealand was placed on a definite basis in 1912, when three full-time School Medical Officers were appointed. Prior to that date regular examinations were restricted to some of the larger secondary and private schools. There is new a permanent stall ” consisting of a Director, ten School Medical Officers, and twenty-six school nurses. In addition three Medical Officers of Health act as part-time School Medical Officers.

The Health Act, 1920, section 139, gives the necessary authority for the medical examination of children attending the primary schools, but the duties and powers of the School Medical Officers are defined in the Education Act, 1914, section 134.

The School Medical Service aims at securing for each child three complete physical examinations during his school-life, but special examinations are carried out when parents, teachers, or the School Medical Officers consider them necessary. It is recognized that medical treatment must be available for every child in need of it,

If defects are found, the practice of the School Medical Officer is to notify the parents of their existence, the choice of medical attendant being left entirely to the parents. If the parents are unable for financial reasons, or are too apathetic, to obtain the necessary advice and treatment, it is the duty of the School Medical Service to see that it is carried out. This is done through the medium of the school nurse, who acts as a link between the school and the home, the treatment being given at the nearest hospital. The work of the service, however, is essentially educational and preventive.

As preventive measures in dealing with malnutrition in school-children, special attention has been given to the extension of. two activities—firstly, the supply of a milk ration to children at school, and, secondly, health camps.

An effort is made to keep under “supervision children who are tuberculosis contacts. In nearly all centres throughout the Dominion School Medical Officers conduct regular medical examinations of kindergarten schools.

The examination of Native schools since The establishment of the East Cape and North Auckland Health Districts has been greatly extended. An arrangement by which the district nurse acts as school nurse in these areas has resulted in a more intensive attack on many minor health problems.

A considerable amount of work is done in co-operation with the Education Department and also with the Mental Hospitals Department in regard to children suspected of mental backwardness or defect in order to determine whether special provision for their welfare, either educational or institutional, is indicated.

A great amount of work has been done with the object of ascertaining the incidence and distribution of goitre throughout the Dominion, and this problem continues to receive attention.

The School Medical Officers work in association with the Medical Officers of Health in regard to the control of infectious disease. Preventive treatment for diphtheria by means of inoculation with toxin anti-toxin, and more recently with anatoxin, has been carried out to a considerable extent during the last few years.

The School Medical Service also works in close co-operation with the Child Welfare Branch of the Education Department, under the supervision of which are all measures for the protection of destitute and neglected children, also the regulations governing juvenile employment. It also co-operates with the officers of the Education Department in the supervision of school-buildings and sanitation.

SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.

The School Medical Officers in the course of their duties have made special studies of various aspects of child-welfare. Since the year 192C the following special investigations were carried out among others:—

  • An inquiry into the condition of rural school-children.

  • An inquiry into the incidence of tuberculosis among children of New Zealand.

  • An investigation into the physical growth and mental attainment of New Zealand school-children was carried out in co-operation with the Education Department.

  • Maori and Pakeha: A study in comparative health.

  • The posture of New Zealand school-children.

  • Observations on physical condition and postural deformities of New Zealand school-children.

  • Nutritional value of milk.

  • Maori susceptibility to certain diseases.

DENTAL TREATMENT OF SCHOOL-CHILDREN.

The New Zealand School Dental Service, instituted in 1921, is conducted by the Dental Division of the Department of Health. By the end of 1932 school dental clinics had been established at 213 centres in the Dominion. Each clinic deals with the children of certain schools in its vicinity, and these are organized into a “ dental group, ” the local administration of which is in the hands of a dental clinic committee composed of local residents. Besides undertaking various duties in connection with local administration, these committees have to undertake the important task of raising funds to in 'et a certain proportion of the cost of operating the clinics. Treatment of the children in the clinics is carried out by dental nurses specially trained for the work by the Department.

At the end of December, 1933, there were 17G trained dental nurses in the service, and in addition there were 22 probationer dental nurses in training. Some 78,000 children, belonging to 1,430 schools, are under systematic treatment at the various clinics. These children are kept under constant observation, and are being maintained dentally fit from the time they enter school until they pass out of the Fourth Standard. For this purpose they are re-examined at frequent and regular intervals (approximately twice a year), and necessary treatment is carried out.

Particular attention is given to instructing the children in the principles of dental hygiene, and the Department aims at securing the co-operation of both the children and their parents in the endeavour to reduce the prevalence of dental disease.

The following is a summary of the treatment performed in the service during the year 1933: Fillings, 397,437; extractions, 69,20S; other operations, 156,980; total operations, 623,625.

SUBSECTION B.—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

INTRODUCTORY.

PRIOR to the abolition of the' provinces in 1876 hospital maintenance was left to the care of the several Provincial Councils, each of which had a system of its own. On the change-over to the county form of government in the following year all of these diverse systems came under the charge of the Central Government, and many difficulties and incongruities occurred. Gradually there grew up as 3'stem of excessive demands upon the Government, and in 1885 an attempt to reduce a somewhat chaotic state of affairs to some semblance of order and uniformity took shape in the Hospitals Act of that year, which provided for the constitution of special hospital districts and Boards. Several amendments based on the result of experience were passed in later years, and the present law relating to the subject is embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, as amended in 1928, 1929, and 1932.

HOSPITAL BOARDS.

The management of affairs in each hospital district is entrusted to a Hospital Board, consisting of one or more representatives of each of the local-governing districts comprising the hospital area, the total membership of the Board being not less than eight nor more than twenty. Members are elected at the ordinary general election of the contributory authorities.

Subject to the consent of the Minister of Health a Hospital Board has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: Hospitals, charitable institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, habitual inebriates' homes, reformatory institutions for the reception of women and girls, and any other institutions for any purpose which the Governor-General by Order in Council may declare to be a public charitable purpose. It may grant charitable aid to indigent, sick, or infirm persons; may provide medical, surgical, and nursing attention for persons not inmates of an institution; and may grant financial assistance to medical and nursing associations and private philanthropic institutions approved by the Minister

It is the duty of every Hospital Board to provide and maintain such hospitals as the Director-General of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for (a) the reception, relief, &.c, of any persons suffering from infectious diseases; (6) the reception, &c., of persons suffering from other than infectious diseases.

PROVISION OF FINANCE.

No rating-powers are given to Hospital Boards, but under the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act the estimated net expenditure (excluding Government subsidy) of a Board is apportioned by the Board among the contributory local authorities within its district in proportion to the capital value of the rateable property in each contributory district.

At the beginning of each financial year the Hospital Board prepares an estimate of its payments for the year, deducting therefrom all estimated receipts by way of patients' fees, voluntary contributions, bequests, income from endowments, and, general!}', deducting all other estimated receipts except the amount to be raised by levy on the contributory local authorities and Government subsidy on such levy. The levies on contributory local authorities are apportioned in relation to the rateable capital value of each local district. On levies for maintenance purposes a scale is in operation ranging from 14s. to 26s. per £1, and averaging throughout the Dominion £1 for £1. The principle of the scale is to give relatively greater assistance where the requirements are high in proportion to the rateable capital value of the hospital district. To this end the levy of each Board for maintenance purposes is determined as sixteen-fortieths of its estimated maintenance requirements plus the amount bearing to four-fortieths of the net estimated requirements of all Boards the same proportion as the rateable capital value of the hospital district bears to the aggregate rateable capital value of all hospital districts. After the levy of each Board is thus determined, the remainder of the Board's requirements is met by Government subsidy, with the limitation of fourteen thirty-fourths as the minimum subsidy and twenty-six forty-sixths as the maximum subsidy.

Levies on contributory local authorities and Government subsidy each form about one-third of the total maintenance receipts of Hospital Boards, the remainder being chief!}' patients' fees and other recoveries on account of relief.

The above remarks apply to levies for maintenance purposes. As regards capital works, the net requirements are met by levy and by subsidy in equal amounts; the subsidy, in other words, being at the rate of £1 for £1. Where the expenditure is very heavy, Boards may have recourse to loans.

A Government subsidy was formerly payable on voluntary contributions and bequests, but this has been discontinued since March, 1932.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The following is a summary of the receipts and payment.* of Hospital Boards for the years ended 31st March. 1932 and 1933.

1931–32.1932–33.
Receipts.££
Voluntary contributions and bequests14,51420,178
Levies563,461575,629
Subsidies574,404603,399
Patients' payments and charitable-aid recoveries405,840354,637
Rent, interest, and dividends25,58425,742
Loans127,336156,096
Sale of capital assets5,0517,456
Miscellaneous receipts26,14725,729
     Totals1,742,3431,768,866
Expenditure.  
Hospital maintenance973,590898,735
Charitable aid377,397304,061
Medical associations or medical men in outlying districts12,0189,255
District nursing9,4259,201
Administration68,46364,839
Amounts paid to other Boards or separate institutions66,27559,237
Rents, rates, and taxes1,7031,842
Interest90,33086,042
Contributions to National Provident Fund for superannuation of employees16,28715,455
Capital works140,400141,590
Loan-repayments or payments to sinking fund69,10978,461
Miscellaneous payments17,3009,447
Amounts invested on account of funds for special purposes8295,930
     Totals1,843,1261,684,095

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Al Though the figures in the last preceding statement relate to receipts and payments, the official returns of Hospital Boards have since 1910—17 been supplied on the basis of an Income and Expenditure Account and Balance-sheet.

REVENUE.

The following, showing the sources of revenue for the years 1931–32 and 1932–33 relate not only to Hospital Boards, but also to Government institutions and the Mercury Bay Hospital Trustees.

1931–32.1932–33.
Amount.Percentage of Total.Amount.Percentage of Total.
 £ £ 
Contributable by Government619,76637.6656,96539.15
Levies on local authorities564,13434.2578,90134.9
Voluntary contributions15,6111.021,1631.3
Recoveries from These assisted392,90523.8344,89820.8
Rents, interest, and dividends28,3421.727,8481.7
Miscellaneous revenue27,2811.728,3481.7
 1,648,939100.01,658,123100.0
Cash in bank (other than loan-money)102,203..64,373..
     Totals1,750,242..1,722,496..

With the exception of “ Recoveries from These assisted, ” which is a purely cash figure, the above particulars and These below relating to expenditure are taken from the Income and Expenditure Accounts and Balance-sheets.

To ascertain the total receipts for the year 1932.33 the sum of £167,460 (receipts from loans for capital purposes) should be added, making the aggregate £1,889,956.

The amount contributable by the Government consists of subsidies en maintenance levies, £556,541; subsidies on capital levies, £43,623; cost of maintaining Government institutions, £24,195; patients' fees paid to Boards or remitted in respect of Government institutions, £26,938; and special payments to Boards, £5,668, making a total of £656,965.

EXPENDITURE.

The maintenance expenditure for the years 1931–32 and 1932–33 was £1,036,031 and £1,475,785 respectively, made up as follows:—

1931–32.1932–33.
Amount.Percentage.Amount.Percentage.
 £ £ 
Hospital maintenance1,046,79264.0974,40265.9
Charitable relief— 
  Indoor99,6886.198,7886.7
  Outdoor269,63216.5195,88313.3
Medical associations11,4650.78,2880.6
District nursing8,7400.59,1300.6
Ambulances7,9440.57,6040.5
Miscellaneous maintenance expenditure9,1330.67,2940.5
Administration77,1364.773,5315.0
Interest on loans90,4025.586,6735.9
National Provident Fund15,6990.914,1921.0
     Totals1,636,631100.01,475,785100.0

Capital expenditure for the year 1932.33 totalled £247,237, this amount including £130,075 in respect of amortization of loan-money. The total expenditure for the year, excluding amounts paid from one Board or departmental institution to another, was thus £1,723,022.

HOSPITAL MAINTENANCE EXPENDITURE.

The average annual cost of maintenance of general hospitals per occupied bed was as follows in the years shown:—

Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Miscellaneous.Total Maintenance.
 ££££££
1910–1122.78.726.738.82.799.6
1914–1525.010.727.043.51.9108.1
1919–2040.415.443.252.40.3151.7
1924–2540.914.950.477.08.4191.6
1928–2941.717.949.285.41.1195.3
1929–3042.318.452.790.21.4205.0
1930–3140.718.052.6.91.41.8204.5
1931–3234.515.143.585.72.8181.6
1932–3331.315.441.982.12.7173.4

CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE.

Charitable-aid expenditure has been as follows during the last five years:—

Year.Indoor Relief.Outdoor Relief.Total.
 £££
1928–29110,874134,864245,738
1929–30114,532140,065254,597
1930–31119,774102,073311,847
1931–3299,688269,632369,320
1932–3398,788195,883294,671

The sharp rise in outdoor relief which took place during 1930.31 and the succeeding year is attributable mainly to relief occasioned by unemployment, whilst the decrease for the year 1932.33 as compared with the previous year's expenditure is principally accounted for by the Unemployment Board's having relieved Hospital Boards of the bulk of unemployment relief during 1932.33.

COST TO GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The following shows for triennial periods the average annual net maintenance requirements of Hospital Boards—i.e., the average estimated deficit which is provided for by levies on the local authorities and Government subsidy thereon:—

Triennium.Amount.
 £
1922–25758,518
1923–26803,245
1924–27875,485
1925–28979,333
1926–291,074,138
1927–301,156,254
1028–311,193,380
1929–321,156,699
1030–331,116,503
1031–341,075,146

The following shows the total cost to the public funds of hospitals and charitable aid for the past decade, as represented by levies and subsidies for both capital and maintenance purposes; including also subsidies on voluntary contributions (while in force) and expenditure out of the Health Department's own vote:—

Year.Levies made.Subsidies payable.Expenditure out of Department's Vote.Total.Cost per Head of Mean Population (including Maoris).
 ££££s. d.
1923–24503,113423,066100,3211,026,50015 4
1924–25497,272546,106138,5461,181,92417 5
1925–26547,570582,282174,5251,304,37718 9
1926–27562,718588,573132,5681,283,85918 1
1927–28626,127654,902158,1651,439,19419 11
1928–29675,238698,105158,0401,531,38321 0
1929–30688,279718,025177,4651,583,76921 5
1930–31695,264707,581188,6701,591,51521 3
1931–32564,135559,077152,7241,275,93616 10
1932–33578,901604,043128,5241,311,46817 2

The increase which has taken place during the ten years is due, inter alia, to the following causes: Increased number of hospital beds; increase in staff required owing to the more complex methods of hospital treatment, including the employment of a greater proportion of trained nurses; interest on loans; the institution of Hospital Board employees' superannuation; and increased expenditure on charitable aid.

The institution of economies necessitated by the Dominion's financial position is reflected in the decreased costs during the last two years.

PATIENTS' PAYMENTS.

The amount of patients' fees received per occupied bed in Hospital Boards' Hospitals in 1913–14 was £23.4; in 1932–33, exclusive of fees received from other Boards, it was £56'6. Receipts during the past five years have been as follows:—

 Total.Amount per Occupied Bed.
 ££
1928–29323,97458.5
1929–30347,50263.7
1930–31331,87262.0
1931–32308,16460.5
1932–33280,25156.6

Included in these fees are amounts paid by the Government, which in 1932–33 amounted to £18,775.

LOANS.

The only Hospital Board loan approved during the year 1932–33 was one of £43,200, for a term of twenty years.

The amount of loans outstanding at the 31st March, 1933, was £1,436,066. This amount, however, is reduced by a sum of £320,112 standing to the credit of sinking funds, making the net amount of loan-money £1,115,954. Actual repayments of principal during 1932–33 totalled £92,677, whilst payments to sinking funds amounted to £46,398.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.

Subsection D of the preceding section contains statistics of inpatients treated at public hospitals other than maternity hospitals. In the following table the figures are inclusive of maternity hospitals, sanatoria, &c, and relate to the financial year instead of to the calendar year:—

Year.Inpatients treated.Average Number of Occupied Beds.Beds available.
Total Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.Number.Proportion per 1,000 of Population.
1910–1125,19124.12,0251.93,2223.1
1923–2459,25644.44,5643.46,8535.1
1924–2563,06846.44,8863.67,2205.3
1925–2668,46149.25,1113.77,5015.4
1926–2775,70853.35,3183.77,8475.5
1927–2879,84255.15,6083.98,0075.6
1928–2987,88860.26,1344.28,4575.8
1929–3089,76160.86,0574.18,5775.8
1930–3189,14759.55,9123.98,8035.9
1931–3285,56256.45,5643.78,6465.7
1932–3385,64656.05,3953.58,4165.5

The number of institutions coming under the head of public hospitals at 31st March, 1933, was 133, comprising 69 general hospitals (2 of which were also old people's homes, and 2 special hospitals), 1 chronic hospital, 2 convalescent hospitals, 48 maternity hospitals, 5 tuberculosis sanatoria, 1 tuberculosis prevention institution, 2 chronic-tubercular hospitals, and 5 infectious-diseases hospitals. A comparison of beds and patients between the last five years is given:—

 1928–20.1929–30.1930–31.1031–32.1932–33.
Number of institutions139140142140133
Number of beds— 
  General4,4994,5474,6744,6334,605
  Children's cots1,0431,0911,045999986
  Maternity569588636612610
  Tuberculosis1,0961,1261,2141,1331,044
  Infectious disease1,2501,2151,2341,2691,171
     Totals8,4578,5778,8038,6468,416
Average number of occupied beds per diem6,1346,0575,9125,5645,395
Inpatients treated during year87,88889,76189,14785,56285,646
Deaths during year3,9894,0273,9763,8503,818
Outpatients— 
  Number73,95277,60175,91886,87383,285
  Attendances387,228425,225403,673442,041387,087

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.

The Private Hospitals Act, which came into force on the 1st January, 1907, is new embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, Part III of which provides for the licensing, management, and inspection of private hospitals. All such institutions must be licensed, and every application for a license must be accompanied by a full description and plan of the house proposed to be used, together with a statement showing the number and class of cases proposed to be received. The license shall state whether it is in respect of a lying-in private hospital or a surgical and medical private hospital, or if for both classes of cases; and no private hospital may be used for any purpose other than that in respect of which the license is granted and purposes reasonably incidental thereto.

For every private hospital there must be a resident manager, either the licensee or some person appointed by the licensee, and in every case the manager must be a legally qualified medical practitioner or a registered nurse in the case of a surgical and medical hospital, or a registered midwife in the case of a lying-in hospital, or a registered nurse and midwife, or a registered nurse having as resident assistant a registered midwife, in the case of a hospital licensed for both purposes. No license may be granted in respect of a house not previously licensed until such house and annexed buildings have been approved by the Director-General of Health, and no addition may be made to any private hospital until it has been so approved. No license may be granted until the character and fitness of the applicant have been proved satisfactory. The license must be renewed on the 1st January of each year.

In every private hospital there must be kept a register of patients she-win ” particulars as to name, age, abode, and date of reception of each patient, date when such patient left, or, in the event of death, the date thereof, name of medical practitioner attending, and such other details as may be prescribed. Inquiry may be made at any time as to the management, conduct, and equipment of any private hospital, and if such inquiry prove unsatisfactory the license may be revoked. Provision is made for the inspection of private hospitals in the same manner as for public institutions of the like nature.

The total number of private hospitals licensed in the Dominion is 291, of which 101 are medical and surgical hospitals, 35 medical, surgical, and maternity institutions, and 155 maternity hospitals. These hospitals provide 1,434 beds for medical and surgical cases, and 915 beds for maternity cases.

MATERNITY SERVICES.

STATE MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There were at the commencement of the year 1933 seven State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals open for the use of women in cases where the husband's income does not exceed £5 per week, and in cases of large families £6* per week. The charge for this service is 6s. per day, plus confinement-fee of £1 1s.

Two hospitals—St. Helens Hospitals, Wanganui and Gisborne—were during the year handed over to the control of the Wanganui and Cook Hospital Boards respectively.

This service is given under the supervision of the Medical Superintendent, who is also responsible for the conduct of all abnormal cases and for the supervision of the ante-natal and post-natal care of all patients attending. There is also an outpatient department attached to each hospital, which provides (at a charge of £2) nursing services for patients not entering the institution. If the patient is confined by the District Midwife the charge is £2 10s.

The statistics given below for the year 1933 cover the whole seven St. Helens Hospitals.

Hospital, and Year of Opening.Number of Beds.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended Outside.
Total Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
Auckland (1900)30638113135
Gisborne (1915)15131..2..
Wanganui (1921)1119012..
Wellington (1905)2653011343
Christchurch (1907)123222781
Dunedin (1905)15149..1..
Invercargill (1918)12278161
     Totals1212,238644260

During the decade ended December, 1933, total births in St. Helens Hospitals numbered 22,394: deaths of mothers. 55; deaths of infants, 650; and confinements attended outside, 5,129.

PUBLIC MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There are seventy public maternity hospitals or maternity wards attached to public hospitals under control of Hospital Boards or Hospital Trustees. These maternity hospitals and wards provide 502 beds. They are open to any district residents irrespective of income, the charges varying from £2 2s. to £5 5s. per week for These who are able to pay. At most of these institutions patients may be attended by the midwives in charge of the institution, under the supervision of the medical superintendent of the hospital, or in some instances may engage their own medical attendants.

For the reception of single girls there are special charitable institutions at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Invercargill, in addition to These established by the Salvation Army at the four chief centres and at Napier and Gisborne.

DISTRICT MIDWIVES AND MATERNITY NURSES.

Twenty-three Hospital Boards have midwives doing district work, in most cases in conjunction with other health work.

In addition, there are twenty-one District nurses appointed for the purpose of attending the Maori population, part of whose work is the attendance of Maori women in confinements.

ANTE-NATAL SERVICES.

Twenty-eight free public ante-natal clinics have been established in various parts of New Zealand in connection with State or public maternity hospitals or maternal welfare societies, such as the Plunket Society. These clinics are conducted by registered midwives and registered nurses who have been specially trained for this purpose, and they work in conjunction with the medical attendants or midwives engaged to attend the patients during labour. The training of midwives in New Zealand includes training in ante-natal work. The total attendances at the various free clinics in New Zealand during 1033 were 23,794. Several Thousand copies of the pamphlet “ Suggestions to Expectant Mothers ” have been distributed free, mainly through these clinics. This pamphlet gives simple instructions for the maintenance of health during pregnancy and information regarding the necessary preparation for confinements to be conducted in private houses.

Every effort is being made to impress the public with the importance of parental hygiene and the systematic ante-natal care throughout pregnancy. Addresses and lectures are delivered by Medical Officers of the Department of Health to nurses and societies interested in this subject. So that there will be definite co-operation between the midwife and the ante-natal clinic, and in order that the midwife may be informed of the clinical methods adopted by the Health Department, refresher courses of lectures, given particularly on ante-natal work, are available to all registered midwives and maternity nurses.

BENEVOLENT AND ORPHAN ASYLUMS.

One hundred and seventeen institutions classed under the heading of benevolent and orphan asylums furnished returns to the Census and Statistics Office for the year 1933. These institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide free accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons to whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and refuge homes for unfortunate women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “ prison gate ” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of The orphanages deal with cases similar to These dealt with by the special schools under the control of the Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Court. The following table relates to the year 1933.

Controlling Authorities.Number of Institutions.Inmates at 1st January.Admissions during Year.Births in Institutions during Year.Discharges during Year.Deaths in Institutions during Year.Inmates at 31st December.Total Inmates during Year.
Hospital Boards271,6242,4223012,4084001,5394,347
Church of England177872113932127141,037
Roman Catholic Church161,655592608711,5682,247..
Presbyterian Church16462108..1136451570
Methodist Church519451..471197245
Baptist Church1678..11..6475
Salvation Army207841,5332531,83057352,570
Undenominational associations, &c.15562567327899145431,456
     Totals1176,1355,4929206,2374995,81112,547

At the end of the year 1933, 20'49 per cent, of the total number of inmates in benevolent and orphan asylums came under the supervision of the various Hospital Boards, and 26.98 per cent, under that of the Roman Catholic Church. The Church of England cared for a further 12.29 per cent., the Salvation Army for 12.65 per cent., and undenominational associations for 9.34 per cent. Of the remaining authorities, the Presbyterian Church cared for 7.76 per cent, of the total inmates, the Methodist Church for 3.39 per cent., and the Baptist Church for 1.10 per cent. When examining the above, cognizance must be taken of the fact that in many cases there is a variation in the class of inmate provided for by the different controlling bodies. For instance, none of the homes under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Church, the Presbyterian Church, the Methodist Church, or the Baptist Church are maternity homes of any description. The three last-mentioned churches control children's homes and orphanages only, while the Church of England caters chiefly for children, although some maternity cases are dealt with. Again, the Hospital Boards concentrate chiefly upon old people's homes, while the Salvation Army deals with all types, and is the only body that conducts extensively the “ prison-gate ” or industrial type of institution. Factors such as these affect the demands made upon the different institutions for accommodation or relief.

The ages and sexes of all inmates in the institutions at 31st December, 1933, were as follows:—

Age-group.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5210207417
5 and under 10525445970
10 and under 156566311,287
15 and under 1768199267
17 and under 2563342405
25 and under 3551141192
35 and under 4585105186
45 and under 55144106250
55 and under 65314145459
65 and over1,0153431,358
Unspecified18220
     Totals3,1452,6665,811

Some remarkable differences in the sex proportions at the various age-groups are apparent in the foregoing table. The first three groups, which relate to infants and young children, naturally show little disparity. The next two groups, covering ages 15 and under 25 years, shows a large excess of females. The female figures for this group, of course, are greatly swollen by the inclusion of girls and young women seeking refuge in maternity homes. The figures are also affected by the fact that the majority of boys who have spent most of their lives in -orphanages obtain outside employment at these ages. The former influence continues to be in evidence in the following age-group also. From 45 onwards a distinct male excess is observed.

The overwhelming majority of males dependent upon charitable aid at these later ages is indeed remarkable, although the “prison-gate ” and industrial type of home no doubt swells the numbers at this stage.

The next table contains information concerning inmates of orphanages and of a few other institutions which provide for both children and older people. The figures relate to inmates under the age of twenty-one who where remaining in the institutions at 31st December, 1933.

Age, in Years.Legitimate.No Information as to Legitimacy.Illegitimate.Total.
Father and Mother both Alive.Father Dead, Mother Alive.Father Alive, Mother Dead.Father and Mother both Dead.No Information as to Orphanhood.
02..........3335
110..2......2941
21426......1335
3312101....2165
438323..111884
54962741..20107
66313352..218133
791185273..34205
875286471..26201
9872772121132232
10993269162126245
11942972193326246
12883575203229252
13933377225..20250
14633269222219209
15241526183..19105
1614112712....1276
1710412921543
1842461..522
193..25..1516
20211......26
Not known1............1
     Totals95529372518228144122,609

Contrary to what might generally be expected, the above figures reveal that the largest group is that covering children both of whose parents were shown to have been alive. Cases where both parents were dead were in the minority as regards the four legitimate classes where full information as to orphanhood is

SUBSECTION C.—MENTAL HOSPITALS.

THERE are eight public mental hospitals in the Dominion maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The patients on the register at the end of 1933 were distributed as shown below. Numbers given throughout this subsection are inclusive of Maoris. Figures for Maoris are also given separately toward the end of the subsection.

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland7226241,346
Kingseat (Papakura)19250242
Tokanui318276594
Porirua8696791,548
Nelson380171551
Hokitika235146381
Christchurch6686711,339
Seacliff and Waitati6675781,245
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)142236
     Totals4,0653,2177,282

The number of patients remaining at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Year.Patients remaining at 31st December.Proportion per 10,000 of Total Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19293,3992,6946,09344.8137.0541.01
19303,5722,8116,38346.4638.1242.38
19313,7532,9086,66148.3239.0243.76
19323,9032,9806,88349.9039.6544.88
19334,0653,2177,28251.6042.4347.10
Means of five years3,7382,9226,66048.2239.2543.83

The total number of patients under oversight, care, or control during 1933 was 8,250 (males 4,640, females 3,610), as against 8,022 in 1932. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 6,419 in 1932 and 6,741 in 1933.

ADMISSIONS.

The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1933 were 1,117 (563 males and 554 females), this number not including 250 transfers from one institution to another. The causes of insanity as assigned on admission are given.

CAUSES OF INSANITY.

Of the 1,117 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1933, These admitted for the' first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 944 (males 486, females 45S), and These readmitted 173 (males 77, females 06).

The figures for 1933 represent one first admission for every 1,630 persons in the mean population of the Dominion. The number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of mean population for each of the last five years were as follows:—

Heredity95
Congenital276
Previous attack144
Puberty and adolescence86
Climacteric39
Puerperal state9
Senility105
Involution4
Mental stress, prolonged196
Toxic5
Heart-disease4
Syphilis31
Alcohol25
Encephalitis1
Epilepsy36
Organic brain-disease5
Arterio-sclerosis29
Traumatic2
Postoperative2
Ill health20
Unknown3
Totals, excluding transfers (250).1,117

Of the 1,117 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1933, These admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 944 (males 486, females 458), and These readmitted 173 (males 77, females 96).

The figures for 1933 represent one first admission for every 1,630 persons in the mean population of the Dominion. The number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of mean population for each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Number of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19294803308106.384'575.50
19305393949337.085.396.25
19315083989066.575.375.99
19324893958846.285.285.79
19334864589446.206.076.14
Means of five years5003958956.505.345.93

VOLUNTARY INMATES.

Persons labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as voluntary boarders. At the beginning of 1933 there were 311 patients on the books (170 males, 141 females), and during the year 306 (165 males, 141 females) were admitted. If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1933, 25 (11 males, 14 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 5 males and 4 females died, while 228 (121 males, 107 females) were discharged, leaving 355 on the records at the end of the year (198 males, 157 females).

AGES OF INMATES.

A summary is attached showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the end of 1933.

Age, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
1 to 5111021
5 to 107332105
10 to 1512288210
15 to 20255169424
20 to 30549358907
30 to 406734831,156
40 to 507947021,496
50 to 6O7666671,433
60 to 70493426919
70 to 80238205443
8O to 905248100
90 and over347
Unknown362561
     Totals4,0653,2177,282

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.

The next table gives the average number resident, These who were discharged as recovered, and These who died, during the period 1929–33.

Year.Average Number Resident.Discharged as recovered.Died.
Number.Per Cent, of Number admitted.Number.Per Cent. of Average Number Resident
19295,71028930.233806.65
19305,93226624.294237.13
19316,19924723.374206.76
19326,41930128.103886.04
19336,74126123.373455.12
Means of five years6,20027325.873916.31

Of These who died in mental hospitals during 1933, 110, or 34 per cent., had been inmates for less than one year Of These discharged recovered, 171, or 60 per cent., had been inmates for less than one year. A table is given showing length of residence of patients who died and of patients who were discharged recovered during 1933.

Length of Residence.Patients who died.Patients discharged recovered.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month221537336
1 month and under 3 months19123115823
3 months and under 6 months14418233558
6 months and under 9 months14..14223153
9 months and under l year10616141731
1 year and under 2 years181634192847
2 years and under 3 years151025111526
3 years and under 5 years1611277411
5 years and under 7 years8513123
7 years and under 10 years9817112
10 years and under 12 years10..10......
12 years and under 15 years437......
15 years and over5130811..1
Died during absence11415......
     Totals221124345117144261

Old age is the principal cause of death among mental-hospital patients, and among individual causes, general paralysis of the insane usually ranks second. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the year 1933 are as follows:—

DEATHS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS, 1933.

Tuberculosis23
Cancer14
Other general diseases6
General paralysis of the insane23
Epilepsy15
Other diseases of the nervous system37
Diseases of the circulatory system68
Diseases of the respiratory system27
Diseases of the digestive system1
Diseases of the genito-urinary system9
Old age102
External causes4
Died while on leave16
     Total345

A table is added showing for all admissions since 1876 the percentages of patients discharged (as recovered, relieved, and not improved, separately), died, and remaining.

Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Discharged— 
Recovered36.2241.7238.56
Relieved7.508.767.76
Not improved2.472.6O2.55
Died37.0628.2633.33
Remaining at end of 193310.7518.6617.80
..100.00100.00100.00

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.

A license may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such licenses, which may be revoked at any time. The Director-General has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private institution in the Dominion, that at Wakari, near Dunedin, established in 1882. Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the last five years, are as follows. These figures are included in preceding tables.

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Patients remaining at End of Year.
19291611545
1930107345
1931129543
1932610336
1933129336

MAORIS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS.

The number of Maoris admitted as patients to mental hospitals is small. The figures for the last five years are—

Year.Admitted during Year.Remaining at End of Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
192981018494493
19307916464389
1931141125514798
19321511265349102
19331413276447111

EXPENDITURE, ETC.

The total expenditure on maintenance of mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions), and receipts from patients and for sale of produce, &c., during the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Total Expenditure.Receipts from Patients, Sale of Produce, Ac.Net Expenditure.
Total.Per Head of. Mean Population.
 £££s. d.
1929–30471,208164,168307,0404 1¾
1930–31475,654172,195303,4594 0¾
1931–32429,258163,352265,9063 6
1932–33404,010163,963240,0473 2
1933–34401,220167,720233,5003 0½

Chapter 6. SECTION VI.—EDUCATION.

NATIONAL SYSTEM OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

THE provision of educational facilities in New Zealand dates back into the first years of British settlement in the country. Immediately after the advent of the first missionaries schools for the instruction of the Native youth were established. Later, as a European population settled in the country, The need for a means of educating the white children arose, and finally the necessity for some coordinated scheme for the whole colony asserted itself. This latter was consummated in the Education Act of 1877, which Act is the basis of the system of education obtaining in the Dominion at the present day.

A very full and informative historical account of educational legislation and progress in New Zealand is given in Parliamentary Paper I.-8A of the 1930 session.

The passing of the Education Act of 1877 marked the foundation of the present system of free, compulsory,* and secular education. The outstanding feature of the Act was the establishment of (1) a central Department of Education controlled by a Minister of the Crown; (2) twelve education districts governed by Boards; and (3) school districts, which came under the jurisdiction of School Committees. On the Department was the onus of administering the annual appropriations by distributing to the Boards funds for the erection and maintenance of schools and the establishment of training or normal schools, and also the payment of capitation to the Boards at the rate of £3 15s. for each scholar in average daily attendance.

Education Boards were to be elected by School Committees, and to consist of nine members, three of whom were to retire annually. In the Boards were vested all property and endowments, and rents from these became part of the Board funds. The Boards were required to administer funds in carrying out the building arrangements for which grants were provided by the Department; in paying the salaries of teachers; and in granting to School Committees money for general educational purposes. The appointment and removal of teachers were in their hands, and the Act also gave the Boards power to establish scholarships, and to provide for secondary education in district high schools. Fees were, however, payable to Education Boards by pupils receiving secondary instruction. School Committees of seven members were to be elected annually. Generally the Committee had the management of educational matters within its own district, and out of the money received from the Board made payments incidental to the administration of the Committee' s functions. In addition to these provisions the Act of 1877 specified the course of instruction to be given in the schools throughout the whole country. Inspectors, who were officers of the Education Boards, were appointed to examine and report on the school-work.

In the main the principles of the Act of 1877 are operative to-day. Several amendments made in succeeding years necessitated a consolidating measure in 1904. Among the principal alterations and additions that had been made up to that date were: The provision in 1900 for a comprehensive scheme of manual and technical instruction; the introduction of physical drill into the curriculum in 1901; and, in 1903, the institution of National Scholarships to be awarded by the Department, and the introduction of a system of free places in secondary schools and district high schools for scholars completing the primary course. Up to the year 1901 also each Board had its own scale of staffs and salaries, but an Act of 1901 fixed the relation of the number and the remuneration of teachers in a school to the number of pupils in attendance. In 1905 each education district was divided into three wards, each returning three members, one of whom in each ward retired annually.

* Every child between the ages of seven and fourteen is required to be enrolled as u pupil of either a public or a registered school. The parents of a child of school age are liable to a penalty of £2 if such child is improperly enrolled at other than in public or registered school. There are statutory exemptions from attendance in certain circumstances.

No outstanding changes beyond the consolidation of education legislation in 1008 were made until 1914. By the Education Act of that year the whole of the law relating not only to public but also to secondary, technical, and special schools was recast. The principal changes involved the reorganization of the Department? of Education, and the Inspector-General of Schools became Director of Education. Inspectors of Schools, who had hitherto been officers of the several Education Boards, became officers of the central Department, a provision, it may be noted, that had been deleted from the Bill of 1877. Provision was made for the constitution of fewer education districts in lieu of the thirteen then existing, and by an Act of 1915 nine were created. Every education district is divided into urban areas and a rural area. An urban area consists of a borough or a group of boroughs having more than eight thousand inhabitants; and the rural area, which comprises the rest of the district, is divided into three wards. The members for each ward of the rural area and for all urban areas are, as previously, elected by the members of the several School Committees. The number of members for the rural area of an Education Board is six—two for each ward. The number of members for each urban area is two for each sixty thousand or part of sixty thousand inhabitants. School Committees are elected by the householders, and hold office for one year.

Under the Act, a graded list of certified teachers is compiled annually. Except in special cases, all teaching appointments are governed by the position of the applicants on the list, and it is also to some extent the basis for the determination of the rate of salary payable.

Amending legislation, mainly of an administrative character, has been enacted at various times since 1914. By the Education Amendment Act, 1921–22, the registration of all private schools is compulsory, and teachers in both public and private schools are required to take the oath of allegiance.

The Education Amendment Act, 1924, provided for the amalgamation of the governing bodies of secondary and technical schools, and the creation of a Teachers' Register. The Education Amendment Act, 1926, discontinued the system of issuing licenses to teach.

Part II (Education Amendment) of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 2), abolished the Council of Education, District Advisory Committees, and also Junior and Senior National Scholarships, at the same time authorizing the establishment of bursaries for secondary or higher education.

By Part V (Education Amendment) of the Finance Act, 1932, no child under the age of six years can be enrolled in a public school. By the same Act minor changes were made in the sections of the Education Act, 1914, dealing with teachers' salaries.

The Education Amendment Act. 1932–33, provided for consolidation and amendment of the law in respect to the appointment and transfer of teachers in public schools, the establishment of intermediate schools and departments (previously junior high schools and departments), the amendment of the existing provisions governing the dismissal of teachers, the establishment of training colleges and authorization of advances to training-college students with conditions as to their repayment, the enrolment of a child in a public school in the first four weeks of the term in which he reaches the age of six years, the compulsory attendance of a child at special classes if deemed to require special tuition, authority to regulate admissions to schools other than public schools, and the making of regulations for fixing terms and holidays and defining the public holidays in schools and training colleges.

In addition to minor amendments the Education Law Amendment Act, 1933, substituted biennial for annual elections of school committees.

The programme of primary instruction at present provided by the Act includes English, arithmetic, geography, history and civics, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical instruction, moral instruction and health, and singing.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.

The number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of the Dominion is shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year in nil cases except Technical Classes which are as at 1st July.

Class of Institution.1930.1931.1932.1933.

* A change in nomenclature was made In 1933, the term “junior high school" being replaced by” intermediate school.”

† Endowed schools, previously in “secondary schools,” new included in “private secondary schools.”

Primary Education.
Public (State) schools216,698218,442207,280200,641
Intermediate schools* and departments (excluding secondary pupils)1,781218,442207,280200,641
Native village schools7,0707,5037,3137,340
Native mission schools546523537552
Registered private primary schools26,45126,72626,41026,428
Lower departments of secondary schools325247209178
Correspondence classes (primary)8609731,1861,319
Total primary253,731254,414242,935236,458
Secondary Education.
Secondary schools16,14915,42813,44613,309
Combined schools..4481,9751,929
Secondary departments of district high schools4,1154,6724,3454,389
Secondary scholars at intermediate schools*125272141122
Technical high and technical day schools6,9537,3977,1067,149
Maori secondary (boarding) schools535448346302
Registered private secondary schools3,8254,1414,0534,063
Correspondence classes (secondary)166286325355
Total secondary31,86833,09231,73731,618
Technical Classes (excluding Technical High Schools and Technical Lay Schools).
Conducted by Education, Secondary, or High School Boards2,2282,0972,1302,213
Conducted by Technical School Boards9,2328,0076,9686,524
Conducted by University colleges369432361341
Total technical11,82910,5369,4599,078
University Education.
University colleges4,1634,2094,1493,960
University students exempt from lectures638660763846
Lincoln Agricultural College68906844
Massey Agricultural College208152191235
Total University5,0775,1115,1715,085
Total scholars and students302,505303,153289,302282,239

Public primary schools, including district high schools, numbered 2,517 in 1933, the same number as in 1932. The number of registered private primary schools from which returns were received by the Education Department was 309. Aided or endowed colleges, grammar schools, and high schools in operation numbered 40, combined secondary and technical high schools 6, technical high schools and technical day

schools 21, intermediate schools or departments 14, registered private secondary schools 53, and University colleges 4. The number of primary and secondary schools established for the education of the Native race was 158.

PUBLIC (STATE) PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The figures tabulated below concern pupils in public schools, and from 1027 to 1929 also include pupils of three junior high schools (now termed intermediate schools) which are administered by the Auckland Education Board. From 1930 Form I and II pupils of all intermediate schools and departments have been included. Thus all pupils receiving primary instruction are accounted for in the figures from 1930 onwards.

Year.Population at 31st December (excluding Maoris).Number of Schools.Pupils at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Poll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.
19241,316,1742,574213,290209,867190,23390.6
19251,346,0762,580214,724211,896193,58891.4
19261,365,4172,601216,807212,334190,89589.9
19271,385,4012,601219,945214,242191,09089.2
19281,401,4722,59S218,794214,394193,42090.2
19291,418,9142,597217,961213,210193,97890.9
19301,438,2392,601218,479212,702196,08292.2
19311,452,7472,534218,442213,059197,32492.6
19321,463,0302,528207,280210,078193,70192.2
19331,473,4302,531200,641195,935182,01792.9

Of the 2,531 schools shown above for 1933, 2,01G had average attendances of not more than eighty, and of these 970 had averages ranging from one to twenty.

RELATIVE ACTIVITIES OF EDUCATION DISTRICTS.

The following figures show the number of schools and intermediate schools or departments as at 31st December, 1933, and the number of pupils at the end of each of the last five years. The latter figures are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

District.Schools at End of 1933.Pupils at End of—
1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Auckland76367,389*67,26867,67864,82262,700
Taranaki17611,89511,63012,12911,52411,212
Wanganui21416,88117,21816,75315,78215,277
Hawke' s Bay19516,33516,49216,19115,44214,870
Wellington24428,33027,45228,86927,34726,360
Nelson1366,8727,1186,9566,5296,328
Canterbury37937,15537,38436,94434,81333,858
Otago24320,98121,51520,83719,60818,957
Southland18112,12312,40212,08511,41311,079
     Totals2,531217,961218,479218,442207,280200,641

* Including pupils at the intermediate schools and departments administered by Board.

† Pupils In Forms I and II of all intermediate schools and departments Included.

In each of the education districts are located Inspectors of Schools, who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school Inspectors on the 31st December, 1933, was 36, allocated as follows: Auckland, 10; Taranaki, 2; Wanganui, 3; Hawke' s Bay, 3; Wellington, 4; Nelson, 1; Canterbury, 6; Otago, 4; Southland, 3.

AGE AND SEX OF PUPILS.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public schools and Forms 1 and II of intermediate schools and departments of the Dominion at the 1st July, 1933:—

Age.1933.Percentage of Total Pupils.
Boys.Girls.Total.1929.1930.1931.*1932.*1933.*
5 and under 6 years1,0059031,9089.09.48.87.61.0
6 and under 7 years11,80111,06822,86911.311.211.211.211.7
7 and under 8 years12,40111,73124,19212.311.711.311.812.4
8 and under 9 years12,87012,05824,93412.012.311.711.512.8
9 and under 10 years12,49011,00824,09811.812.012.211.712.3
10 and under 11 years12,74911,90324,05210.711.911.812.412.6
11 and under 12 years13,24512,39325,03810.810.412.211.913.1
12 and under 13 years12,12411.11123,23510.610.09.811.111.9
13 and under 14 years8,7297,50016,2297.57.57.27.08.3
14 and under 15 years3,5842,4105,9943.22.93.13.03.1
15 and under 16 years9184351,3530.80.70.60.70.7
16 years and over11838156....0.10.10.1
     Totals102,10093,158195,258100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

* These Include intermediate schools and departments.

PUPILS LEAVING PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

In 1933, 21,935 pupils (11,337 boys and 10,598 girls) left public primary schools as against 21,466 (11,197 boys and 10,20!) girls) in 1932. Of those leaving in 1933 17,134 or 79 per cent., had passed Form II, and 4,501, or 21 per cent., had not passed that standard. The corresponding percentages in 1932 were the same.

MANUAL INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Elementary handwork in such subjects as modelling, paper and cardboard work, and brushwork is taught by the ordinary staff in practically every school of any size in the Dominion. The boys of Forms I and II receive instruction from special teachers in woodwork or ironwork. The girls of similar standards also receive instruction from special instructors in domestic subjects, including a comprehensive course in cookery and domestic hygiene. Subjects relating to agriculture or dairy-work and general elementary science are taught by the regular staff under the supervision of itinerant instructors specially qualified in the work.

CLASS-BOOKS AND SCHOOL AND CLASS LIBRARIES.

Owing to the need for curtailing expenditure, no grants for capitation or by way of subsidy for libraries have been made since 1930.

CORRESPONDENCE CLASSES.

Since 1922, correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in particularly isolated areas who would otherwise not be able to obtain any schooling. In 1928 preliminary arrangements were made for the establishment of a secondary department, and in February, 1929, post-primary courses in English, mathematics, geography, history, agriculture, Latin, and book-keeping were made available. The children taking these courses comprise ex-primary pupils living in remote districts, whose only opportunity of obtaining a secondary education is by mean 3 of correspondence. It is intended to make a special feature of practical agriculture, and a special assistant has been appointed for this purpose.

At the end of 1933 there were 1,(57.4: pupils on the roll of the correspondence classes, 1,319 being in the primary department and 355 in the secondary. The staff of the school consists of a headmaster, 11 secondary and 22 primary assistant teachers, 4 of whom are engaged in the infant department, and 1. a specialist, engaged exclusively in teaching needlework. There are also 12 office assistants.

PUBLICATIONS.

An illustrated paper, called the School Journal, is published by the Education Department monthly for use as the chief reader in primary schools, and is supplied free to all schools and other institutions more or less under the Department' s control or supervision. To a large number of private schools it is supplied at cost price. Of the last issue of the School Journal for the year 1933 the number of copies printed was—Part I, .72,500; Part II, 70,500; Part III, 67,000: total, 210,000.

A monthly Gazette is published by the Department. In addition to containing articles by leading educationists, it is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to every adult teacher in the public schools of the Dominion.

CONVEYANCE AND BOARD OF SCHOLARS.

Free passes o I the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway-line but out of reach of a primary' school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary' schools, combined schools, district high schools, and technical high schools, and also by free-place holders travelling to attend technical schools or classes other than at technical high schools.

Education Boards are authorized also to make provision when necessary for the conveyance of pupils to primary schools by road or water. The expenditure on these services for the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Year.Railway Fares.Other Conveyance and Boarding Allowances.*Total
Primary.Combined.Secondary.Technical.Primary.Secondary.
 £££££££
192913,186..10,7037,97S62,6221,08095,569
193010,265..8,0826,07974,65486399,943
1931111,165597,6196,14072,1371,15197,271
19329,2676846,4955,94070,5081,01593,909
19338.7185136,6715,83366,11177788,623

* Boarding allowance was not paid in 1032 and 1033.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

Physical education, including swimming and life-saving, is recognized as part of the primary and post-primary school curriculum. In the public schools a period of not less than fifteen minutes a day is devoted to the subject, and in post-primary schools at least one hour a week. Corrective classes are held in the larger schools for the purpose of remedying physical defects of the children.

The medical and dental inspection of school-children and the scheme of school dentistry are dealt with in Section VA of this publication.

PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHERS.

Of the 6,202 adult teachers at the end of 1933, 99.2 per cent, held teachers' certificates. No probationers have been appointed since 1931. The average number of pupils for each adult teacher was 30. The table following relates to adult teachers as at 31st December, 1933.

Education District.Sole Teachers.Heads of Schools.Assistant Teachers.Total Number of Adult Teachers.*Percentage of Male to Female Adult Teachers.
M.F.M.F.M.F.
Auckland252134291512368621,82674.4
Taranaki573658232916737063.3
Wanganui595976154622147661.4
Hawke' s Bay60566674920744564.8
Wellington357987269942475041.8
Nelson4842337159323867.6
Canterbury691401352415547299556.4
Otago607784139927260567.2
Southland59699476584114781.7
     Totals6996708951747692,8656,07263.7

* Excludes 180 teachers in intermediate schools and departments.

Omitting schools with fewer than twenty-one pupils, the ratio of adult men teachers to adult women teachers in 1933 was 100 to 167. The proportion of men to women in charge of schools with not more than twenty scholars was 100 to 103. If the adult teachers of all public schools are taken it is found that the ratio of men teachers to women teachers was 100 to 155 in 1933.

Information as to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund will be found in the section of this book dealing with Pensions, Superannuation, &c.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

Training colleges for teachers are situated at Auckland and Christchurch. Those at Wellington and Dunedin were closed at the end of 1932. The management of the training colleges is entrusted to the local Education Boards, subject to general regulations.

The number of students attending the training colleges for the last three years has been as follows:—

Training College.1931.1932.1933.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland14026940913320033391123214
Wellington5919024956176232......
Christchurch881942827015222276149225
Dunedin6915222168130198......
     Totals3568051,161327658985167272439

The number of students leaving training colleges in 1933 was 439. The training of teachers was carried on at two centres only in 1933—viz Auckland and Christchurch. All the training colleges will be closed during 1934 (Auckland and Christchurch reopening in 1935, however), as the number of trained teachers available exceeded the number of positions falling vacant in the schools.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

By the Education Amendment Act, 1921–22, every private school was required to apply for registration before the 13th July, 1922, and no private school can new be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration, and certain precedent conditions of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum are required to be fulfilled.

At the end of the year 1933 the number of registered private primary schools was 309, with a total roll number of 20,428 and an average attendance of 23,526 for the year.

Year.Number of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
192930212,49814,47926,97723,935110867977
193030612,28114,17026,45123,916848962..
193130512,50014,22626,72624,069107852959
193230912,51013,90026,41023,837107850957
193330912,57513,85326,42823,526106868974

The bulk of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic, the figures for Roman Catholic schools for 1933 being—Schools, 220; scholars on roll at end of year, 22,747 (males 10,907, females 11,780); average yearly attendance, 20,299; teachers, 744 (males 51, females 693].

In addition to the 309 registered primary private schools there were 53 private secondary schools on the register at the end of 1933, with a total roll number of 3,586.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR NATIVES.

The number of Native village schools in operation at the end of 1933 was 137. In addition there are twenty-one private schools at which education for Maori boys and girls is provided. Included in the twenty-one are ten boarding-schools which provide courses for primary and secondary education. Instruction is imparted by means of the English language only.

On the rolls of the 137 village schools at the end of 1933, there were 7,340 children (including 894 Europeans). The average attendance for the year was 6,581, the percentage of regularity being 89.6, and the average weekly roll number 7,346. The total number of pupils on the rolls of the Native mission schools was 552, and on those of the secondary schools 302. The total roll number of all the Native schools inspected by officers of the Education Department was 8,194.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Native village schools during the last ten years.

Year.Number of Schools at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roil.Average Attendance Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.Number of Teachers.
Males.Females.
19241256,3465,61088.491181
192512S6,3665,62888.492188
19261306,6175,94789.894188
19271346,6555,81787.4104193
19281346,7705,96488.1102194
19291376,9556,25289.9104203
19301387,0796,43790.9111211
19311397,4996,80490.5111212
19321357,5246,84891.0108219
19331377,3466,58189.6114218

Besides the children of the Maori race who are receiving instruction in the Native schools there are 8,700 attending public schools, so that the total number of primary pupils of Maori race (including those in the mission schools) is 15,698.

INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS.

Since 1923 the Education Department has established fourteen intermediate schools (formerly termed junior high schools) or departments. Two are attached to district high schools, two to district high school departments, one to a technical school, six to secondary schools, and three separate establishments. Pupils on the roll of intermediate schools or departments at the end of 1933 numbered .' 3,8011. as against 2,759 in 1932. The average attendance during the year was 3,694. The ages of the pupils on the roll at the 1st July, 1933, were—

Age in Years.Boys.Girls.Total.
Under 117365138
11 and under 12451405856
12 and under 137045921,296
13 and under 145755151,090
14 and under 15270180450
15 and under 166940109
16 and under 1718725
17 and under 182..2
     Totals2,1021,8043,966

SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Until 1904 secondary schools were established by special (local) Acts of the General Assembly, and the bulk of schools giving secondary education have been so constituted. At the present time the provisions of the Education Act, 1914, allow of the Minister of Education establishing such schools, and in general the minimum number of prospective pupils must be sixty in the case of secondary schools, twenty in the case of the secondary department of a district high school, and forty in the case of a technical high school or a day technical school. The Education Amendment Act, 1924, provided that secondary or technical schools could be combined and be placed under a single governing body. In 1927 New Plymouth, and in 1931 Nelson and Napier, technical and secondary schools were combined under single controlling authorities. In 1931 Napier, and in 1932 New Plymouth and Nelson, combined schools were operating under regulations for these schools. Secondary schools and combined schools are controlled by a Board of Governors, district high schools by the Education Board of the district, and technical high schools and day technical schools either by a Board of Managers or by the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity. Free places are granted to suitably qualified pupils. A junior free place at a secondary school, a combined school, a district high school, or a technical high school is tenable for two years, with a possible extension to three years. A junior free place may not be held after the 31st December of the year in which the holder reaches seventeen j-ears of ago. Senior free places are tenable up to the age of nineteen.

In addition to the five classes of institutions referred to there are also fifty-three registered private secondary schools, two endowed secondary schools, and ten Maori secondary schools which provide for post-primary education. One intermediate school also provides a three-year course, the last year of which is devoted to secondary instruction. The number of schools providing secondary education during the last five years is set out in the Accompanying table.

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined Schools.Secondary Departments of District High Schools.Intermediate Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Total.
*Endowed schools previously in “secondary schools” new included in “endowed and private secondary schools.
192940..792211247207
193046..812221248211
1931422822221151*212
1932386801211054*210
1933386811211055*212

The number of pupils at the end of each year of the last decade is shown in the following table: no account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the ease of district high schools only the secondary department is included.

Year.Secondary Schools.Combined High Schools.District high Schools.Intermediate Schools.Technical Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Endowed and Private Secondary Schools.Correspondence Classes.Total
192412,010..2,9005,3692,473524..23,276..
192512,514..3,136..5,1325362,511..23,829
192613,651..3,1621375,7005702,794..26,014
192714,190..3,4431385,7035242,932..26,930
192815,038..3,6732076,0615333,430..28,942
192915,498..3,8691316,1145333,6989829,941
193016,149..4,1151256,9535353,82516631,808
193115,4284484,6722727,3974484,14128633,092
193213,4461,9754,3451417,1063464,05332531,737
193313,3091,9294,3891227,1493024,06335531,618

The figures for years prior to 1926 are not available in the case of intermediate schools and technical day schools.

At the end of 1933, of the total scholars attending secondary schools 7,156' were boys and 6,153 girls; combined schools, 1,112 and 817; secondary department? of district high schools, 2,398 and 1,991; junior high schools, 52 and 70; technical schools, 3,955 and 3,194; endowed and registered private schools, 2,077 and 1,980: and Maori secondary schools, 105 and 197.

FREE SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Of the scholars attending Government schools no less than 98 per cent, were receiving free tuition in 1933. The following table gives, as at 1st July, a summary of the various secondary free places for which payment was made by Government:—

Class of Free Place.1931.1932.1933.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Secondary schools—         
Junior free pupils5,6365,11510,7514,5704,3398,9094,2584,2948,552
Senior free pupils3,2132,2625,4753,2862,3145,0003,4422,2695,711
Combined schools—         
Junior free pupils..1691453147816101,3917455741,319
Senior free pupils9156147453297750451290741
District high schools—         
Junior free pupils2,0791,8643,9431,9271,61S3,5451,9341,5803,514
Senior free pupils6756051,2808116371,4488116221,433
Technical high and technical day schools—         
Junior free pupils3,7162,9786,6943,82S2,8896,7173,8372,9686,805
Senior free pupils9967281,7241,1448271,9711,0217681,789
Intermediate schools—         
Junior free pupils1591553141131032167995174
Senior free pupils............2..2
Correspondence school—         
Junior free pupils......139214353149188337
Senior free pupils........171734152944
     Totals16,73413,90830,64217,06913,86530,93416,74413,67730,421

NATIONAL SCHOLARSHIPS.

The figures below indicate the number of national scholarships current in December in each of the last three years. The number of scholarship-holders is, of course, included in the number of free-place holders already shown under the heading of “ Free Secondary Education.” No scholarships were awarded in 1932 or 1933, these having been abolished by the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 2).

Number of scholarship-holders—1931.1932.1033.
Boys382246105
Girls24517482
     Totals627420187
Number receiving boarding-allowance (included in the above total)1268233
Number receiving travelling-allowance (similarly included)392314
Number held at secondary schools511283120
Number held at district high schools745229
Number held at technical high schools423311
Number held at combined schools..5227

WAR BURSARIES FOR SOLDIERS' DEPENDANTS.

Regulations which came into force in January, 1918, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of killed or disabled members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces. To qualify for a war bursary a child must be eligible for—

  1. Free education at technical classes; or

  2. A free place at a secondary school, district high school, or technical high school; or

  3. A University or educational bursary at a University college.

One hundred and eleven bursaries were current in 1933.

STAFFS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Complete details of the staffs and salaries of the eight classes of schools providing secondary education are not available. The following figures are therefore confined to full-time teachers of secondary schools proper, of secondary departments of district high schools, and of technical high and technical day schools:—

Years.Secondary Schools.District High Schools, and Form III, Intermediate Schools.Technical High and Technical Day Schools.Combined Schools.Grand Totals.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
192936029710289221127....1,196
193037230910778234133....1,233
19313682871249123813813111,270
19323362651199624014560381,299
19333362611239224614159371,295

LOWER DEPARTMENTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Somewhat analogous to private schools, but on a different basis, are the lower departments of secondary schools. These departments may be held in connection with secondary schools for pupils who have not passed Standard VI, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met out of the income from the endowments of the school or from Government grants. Nine secondary schools have lower departments attached to them. Some of the pupils board at the school hostels, indicating that these departments are used by the children of country residents able to afford to send their children away from home to attend school.

At the end of 1933 the number of schools was 8; of pupils, 17S (76 boys, 102 girls); and of teachers, 10.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

The Education Act provides for public Instruction in such subjects of art, science, and technology as are set forth in regulations. Up to the end of 1919 the greater part of the revenue of technical schools and classes was derived from capitation payments made by the Government on the attendances of pupils, and each Board of Managers or controlling authority was responsible for the fixing of the salaries of its instructors, and the conditions of employment. In 1920, however, capitation payments were to a great extent abolished, and there was substituted a Dominion system of classification of technical-school teachers and manual-training instructors, and a corresponding system of payment of salaries. The abolition of capitation payments also involved making direct provision for the incidental expenses incurred by Technical School Boards and controlling authorities in connection with the schools, and the allowance for these for any school or class was made proportional to the total salaries paid by the Department for that school or class.

Technical classes, other than those at technical high schools or technical day schools, were held at thirty-seven centres during 1933. The number of individual students was as follows:—

Classes conducted by Education or High School Boards2,213
Classes conducted by Technical School Boards or by Managers.6,524
Classes conducted by University colleges341
     Total9,078

Students receiving free education during 1933 at technical classes other than at technical high schools or technical day schools numbered 5,104 (3,118 males and 1,986 females).

Technical high schools numbered twenty-one in 1933. These schools are of secondary grade, and provide industrial, domestic, agricultural, commercial, and art courses. The courses of instruction being taken by pupils at technical high schools at 1st July in each of the last live years were as follows:—

Course.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Industrial2,0972,2782,5182,6632,378
Commercial and general3,5903,7363,7863,7593,862
Domestic1,0701,1421,2561,4001,474
Agricultural408445485502524
Art371401496462468
     Totals7,5368,0028,5418,7868,706

Technological examinations were conducted by the Department in 1933 on behalf of the City and Guilds of London Institute at eight centres. The total number of entries was 151, and the number of passes was 81. The Education Department also held its own examinations in technological subjects in 1933. The examinations were conducted on account of 83 candidates who sat for examination, 6 of whom were successful in securing passes in the preliminary, 26 in the intermediate examination. and 17 in the final examination.

Information in regard to free places in technical schools is given under the heading of “Secondary Education.”

CHILD WELFARE AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS.

The Child Welfare Act of 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Education Department, known as the Child Welfare Branch. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, or delinquent, children.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children' s Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorized to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was also made for the appointment of honorary associates of either sex, whose function it is to consider all the facts concerning children brought before the Courts and to advise the presiding Magistrate or Justice as to what action should be taken. The appointment of Child Welfare Officers for the investigation of all cases coming before the Courts was also provided for. The functions of such officers are carried out mainly by the regular officers already employed by the Department, but in outlying districts it is hoped to utilize the services of voluntary social service agents for this important work.

The principle of dealing with children in the privacy of the Magistrate' s room had been followed for many 3' ears throughout the Dominion, and the Child Welfare Act was designed to give legality to such a practice. Very wide discretionary powers are given to the Magistrates of these special Courts in dealing with children. The ordinary procedure of requiring the child to plead, of taking evidence on oath, and, in fact, of hearing the particular charge may be dispensed with altogether. Wherever practicable the Children' s Court is held in premises apart from the ordinary Police Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child was originally defined for purposes of the Act as one under sixteen years of age. This age was raised to seventeen in 1927.

In order to provide for the greater protection of infants of unmarried mothers and for the assistance and guidance of the mothers themselves, there is provision for Child Welfare Officers, on being notified of such births, to investigate, each case and to render such assistance as is required, either In placing the child in a suitable foster-home or in advising the mother in the matter of affiliation proceedings, or in assisting her in obtaining employment, &c. By an amending Act in 1927 provision was made for the inspection and registration of all private institutions for children.

In addition to the work in connection with the maintenance and education of destitute, neglected, and delinquent children committed by the Courts, the Child Welfare Branch (1) supervises all infants and young children under the age of six years who are living apart from their parents; (2) makes inquiry through its field officers, for the information of Magistrates, of all applications for the adoption of children and for widows' pensions; (3) supervises all children and young persons placed under the field officers by order of the Court; and (4) provides for the maintenance, education, and training of all afflicted children who are deaf, blind, or feeble-minded, or have speech-defects.

The following figures (which are exclusive of children dealt with as preventive cases, 1,081 in 1933) indicate the numbers under control during each of the last five years. In addition there were (1933) 19 children at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind, for whom the Education Department made payment.

 1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Boarded out, institutions, receiving-homes, and in hospitals, or convalescent homes, &c.4,5514,6334,6084,1044,031
Under supervision870952911864850
Infant-life protection1,2041,2801,131996923
Deaf children114121120120116
Feeble-minded children267269267264239
     Totals7,0067,2557,0376,34S6,159

The Child Welfare Act authorizes Children' s Courts to place children under the supervision of Child Welfare Officers in cases where it appears undesirable or unnecessary to remove them from their own homes, and generally in all cases where friendly contact with the parents as well as the children is sufficient to bring about a readjustment of the home conditions or the correction of incipient anti-social traits in the children. In this important work the Department receives valuable assistance from certain of the private social service organizations.

The number of cases dealt with by the Courts last year -was 2,125, and of these 572 wore placed under supervision and dealt with as indicated in the foregoing paragraph. The number actually admitted to institutions, such as receiving-homes, special schools, training-farms, &C., was 476; but all these, with the exception of 53 who required long periods of training or were regarded as unfit for placing out, ' were suitably provided for in the community before the close of the year. The remainder of the children were dealt with in a summary manner not calling for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer.

At the end of the year 1933 the number of children boarded out in foster-homes was 2,136, as compared with 2,172 at the end of the preceding year. The boarding-out rate is 10s. per week for infants under twelve months, and 14s. for children over that age still attending school. The department provides free medical and dental treatment and medicines, also school books and stationery.

The Boys' Training Farm at Weraroa provides for boys of all ages—usually from twelve years upwards—who require a period of reformative detention in an institution.

An institution at Otekaike is available for the education of feeble-minded boys. Older lads, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, and in the bootmaking, basketmaking, matmaking, and carpentering shops. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and employed in housework and laundry-work, sowing, knitting, &c., and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing.

In order to meet the requirements of children who are retarded in their development owing to physical or other defects special classes have been established. These classes provide for children in certain public hospitals, for hard-of-hearing children and speech defectives, for under-nourished and physically defective children, and for children who are unable to benefit from ordinary class instruction.

Infant-life protection is carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. Very man}' infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate.

A residential school at Sumner exists for the teaching of deaf children, and special classes are established in the main centres for the education of hard-of-hearing children and for the correction of defective speech among children. Classes are also conducted for adults.

Provision is made for blind children and also for blind adults at the New Zealand Institute for the Blind at Auckland.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY.

Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the New Zealand University, founded by the New Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875.

The University was formerly an examining, not a teaching body, with four teaching institutions affiliated to it—the Auckland University College, founded in 1882; Victoria University College, founded in 1897 at Wellington; Canterbury University College, founded in 1873 at Christchurch; and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. By the New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1926, the constitution of the University has been altered so that it new actually consists of the four University colleges. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions: Otago University has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, and a school of home science; Canterbury University College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil); Auckland University College has a. school of architecture, a school of commerce, and a school of engineering up to and including the second professional examination; and Victoria University College specializes in law and science. Canterbury University College has a School of Forestry. There are also two Agricultural Colleges—viz., Massey and Lincoln, attached to the University.

In 1930 a New Zealand University Amendment Act. was passed to enable the New Zealand University to discharge its functions under the Law Practitioners Amendment Act, 1930.

For this purpose a Council of Legal Education was established to make recommendations to the Academic Board of the University with respect to any matter relating to legal education. Further, the Senate of the University in making or altering statutes concerning legal education must first consider any recommendations made by the Academic Board or the Council of Legal Education.

The growth of University education is seen from the annexed table. In 1933 there were 3,960 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges. Of these, 367 were graduates, 3,226 undergraduates, and 367 unmatriculated students. In addition there were 816 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures.'

Year.Students attending Lectures.Exempt Students.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
19242,7231,085348804,236
19252,8441,1053861074,442
19262,8751,2124431234,653
19273,0141,3483971194,878
19282,9751,2804351124,802
19292,9081,2203861094,623
19302,8791,2845081304,801
19312,9731,2364881724,869
19322,9451,2045891744,912
19332,8921,0686312154,806

Professors attached to the various University colleges in 1933 numbered 65, of whom Auckland had 13; Victoria, 14; Canterbury, 14; and Otago, 24. In addition there was a considerably larger number of full-time lecturers, part-time lecturers, and assistants.

FREE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.

University Junior Scholarships are of the value of £25 per annum plus tuition fees, and are tenable for three years. In the case of holders living away from homo a further sum of £35 per annum is allowed. The number of University junior and national scholarships awarded in 1933 was thirty-one. Taranaki Scholarships are of the annual value of £60, and the Senate may, at its discretion, extend the tenure from three to four years. There are also some thirty or forty local and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same entrance examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the Senior University (£70 per annum), Sir George Grey, and John Tinline Scholarships (£70 per annum). The various colleges have also private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, the Medical Travelling Scholarship, the Engineering Travelling Scholarship, the Post-graduate Travelling Scholarships in Arts and in Science, the French Travelling Scholarship, the Law Travelling Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All except the last-named are tenable abroad. The Research Scholarships are each of the value of £110 per annum.

So far forty-two Rhodes Scholarships have been granted, of which eleven have been gained by students of Auckland University College, nine by students of Victoria University College, eight by students of Canterbury University College, thirteen by students of Otago University, and one by a student of Massey College.

The Science Research Scholarship offered annually by the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of .1851 has been awarded to thirty-two graduates, nine from Auckland University College, seven from Victoria University College, eight from Canterbury University College, and eight from the University of Otago.

In 1932 University bursaries entitled the holders to the payment of tuition and examination fees (not exceeding £10 per annum). A bursary is tenable for a three (or possibly four) years' course at a University college or at a school of agriculture recognized by the University. The number of University bursaries (excluding agricultural) hold in 1933 was 749. Domestic-science bursaries, tenable at the Otago University, may be awarded under the regulations for technical instruction. Bursaries of this kind were held by twelve students in 1933. During 1933 there were two holders of engineering bursaries and oho holder of ail architectural bursary. Training-college studentships also carry tuition at University classes.

Agricultural bursaries may be awarded to qualified candidates in order to enable them to obtain the necessary practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1933 five bursars were in attendance at Canterbury Agricultural College (Lincoln), nine at Massey Agricultural College (Palmerston North), two at Victoria University College (Wellington), and one at Canterbury University College (Christchurch).

From the table given below will be seen the number of students who received free University education during each of the last ten years:—

Year.Junior University, University National, and Taranaki Scholarships.Senior University Scholarships.University and Educational Bursaries.Training-college Studentships.Other.Total.
19249113828564811,577
192590138855741061,668
192687149405711321,750
192783181,0767491492,075
192881201,127567981,893
192984211,1617081092,083
193084191,162645992,009
193192191,186*558841,939
1932102171,184*493611,857
19339919749*248761,191

* University bursaries only.

WORKERS' EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.

The Workers' Educational Association, which works in conjunction with the four University colleges, conducts tutorial and preliminary classes for working men and women in such subjects as economics, sociology, psychology, industrial history, English literature, English composition, modern history, electricity, hygiene, &c. Members of the staffs of the University colleges and other educationists act as tutors of the classes. The classes are held for the most part in the large cities, although to an increasing extent classes are being arranged in the smaller towns.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.

The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department during the last five years is given below.

Examination.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Junior National Scholarships and junior free places1,4091,118***
Public Service Entrance, Senior National Scholarships, and Intermediate4,5204,1812,5728,4221,308
Teachers' D and C1,994953534294135
Training College Entrance Examination..743961483314
Kindergarten Certificate Examination644....
London University Examinations34322
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate2125322827
Technological Examinations16117714312983
Naval Cadetships21..21
Aircraft Apprenticeships..21174
     Totals8,1167,2084,2609,3671,874

* Discontinued in 1931.

† Senior National Scholarship examinations discontinued from 1931. Public Service Entrance examination not held in 1932 or 1933.

The University conducted examinations in 1933 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, public health, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, forestry, and music, and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 8.784 entrants for the degree, examinations in 1933, compared with 8,230 in 1932. The number of candidates for matriculation in the last five years has been: 1929,4,580; 1930, 4,567; 1931, 4,779; 1932,4,725; 1933, 4,738.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.

Out of public funds £2,740,545 was spent on education for the financial year ended 31st March, 1934. This sum includes amounts paid from reserves revenue, but not revenues received by certain secondary schools and university colleges from endowments, fees, &c, which are available for educational purposes. Direct income of post-primary schools and university colleges in 1933–34 from reserves vested, in them amounted to £54,625. The following shows the expenditure from public funds for each branch or service of education for each of the last live years:—

Service.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
General administration40,89742,28432,43529,52029,647
Elementary education2,592,8622,537,4192,145,0031,822,4821,833,591
Secondary education472,539527,822693,220548,796529,802
Technical instruction254,487303,962693,220548,796529,802
Training colleges, &c.180,642172,815146,712108,82734,823
Higher education179,598191,93593,11454,51956,729
Native schools87,04399,10193,74573,33079,700
Physical instruction9,1508,8756,8622,2761,155
School for the deaf6,0076,3125,8834,5204,812
Education of the blind1,3771,1082,870Cr. 20168
Schools for the mentally backward15,45618,04811,25410,31011,434
Child welfare131,731133,660126,587113,076111,631
Material and storesCr. 708Cr. 783Cr. 701Cr. 873Cr. 495
Miscellaneous services87,14159,37552,89348,76948,055
     Totals4,058,2224,101,9333,409,8772,815,5322,740,545

There is new given a series of comparative figures which show the cost of education during the last ten years.

year ended 31st March,Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 (£1,000)s.d.
19253,643537
19263,8145410
19273,910551
19283,770524
19293,886533
 
 (£1,000)s.d.
19304,0585411
19314,102550
19323,410451
19332,8163610
1,0342,741357

Chapter 7. SECTION VII.—JUSTICE.

CIVIL CASES.

THE law relating to the jurisdiction of Magistrates and Justices of the Peace in civil matters was consolidated by the Magistrates' Courts Act, 1928. Under this statute the ordinary civil jurisdiction of a Magistrate is limited to claims not exceeding £300; or, where the parties agree in writing that the Court shall have jurisdiction, to claims not exceeding £500. Justices of the Peace may hear and decide certain civil cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed £20. The numbers of plaints entered and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in the lower Courts during the last ten years are shown in the following table:–

 Plaints entered.Cases tried.
Year.Number.Total Amount used for.Number.Total Amount claimed.Total Amount for which Judgment entered.
  £ ££
192474,4351,255,75450,778879,945737,045
192573,1921,172,16748,436821,093666,721
192681,0611,333,94154,010933,269762,172
192783,3691,400,12955,676960,549786,299
192885,2431,463,76955,751951,916774,912
192987,1831,431,25656,668911,667772,247
193096,7701,542,43463,1201,010,026879,839
193191,5951,544,60162,9451,047,511889,978
193275,2611,244,23652,886861,088762,171
193364,6811,065,49944,669766,503687,009

In terms of money the 1931 level for plaints, for cases tried, and for judgments entered is the highest on record. The numbers of plaints and of cases tried were highest in 1930. The figures for 1932 and 1933 show substantial all-round decreases.

The numbers of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments were recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand in its civil jurisdiction during the last decade were as follows:–

YearNumber of actions commencedCases tried.Judgments recorded.
With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
19241,78093429853358,880
19251,72460407776303,319
19261,82643496882344,198
19271,82652506935316,936
19281,43341370683270,632
19291,44644410643207,399
19301,45464392659260,870
19311,48174453706311,400
19321,26370422562215,697
19331,14754418493148,119

DIVORCE.

The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation will be found in the Year-Book for 1931; the present position is outlined in the following resume.

Any married person, domiciled in New Zealand for two or more years at the time of filing the petition, may obtain, a. divorce on one or more of the following grounds:–

  1. Adultery,

  2. Wilful desertion for three years.

  3. Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, or self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.

  4. Sentence of seven years' imprisonment for attempting to murder, or for wounding or doing actual bodily harm to petitioner or child.

  5. Murder of child of petitioner or respondent.

  6. Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.

  7. Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years preceding the petition.

  8. Failure to comply with a decree of Court for restitution of conjugal rights.

  9. Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in force for three years.

  10. Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years. (An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act (which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders) and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.)

  11. Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, 1928, as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds (i) and (j) above, her New Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in the Dominion at the date of the agreement, decree, or order.

The amending Act of 1930 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband for three years, has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition, and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during each of the last ten years are as follows:–

Year.Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Petitions filed.Decrees Nisi.Decrees Absolute.Petitions filed.Decrees for Separation.Petitions filed.Decrees for Restitution.
19247686515261149465
19257236056121247359
1926739624614828662
1927722629540419172
19287856535725310979
19298437186352..130107
19308397246201..9679
19317666835915110894
1932785653612518875
19338046836481..11877

In 717 of the cases covered by petitions filed during 1933 the parties had been married in New Zealand.

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petition, not only in respect of petitions filed during 1933, but also for petitions (whether filed in 1933 or earlier) where decrees were granted during the year:–

Grounds.Petitions filed.Decrees Nisi granted.Decrees Absolute granted.
Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
Adultery1145771465942
Bigamy111111
Desertion659371757285
Drunkenness, with cruelty, failure to maintain, &c.171415
Insanity545242
Malformation111111
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights432742264322
Separation for not less than three years154230126209101207
Unnatural offence......1..1
     Totals384420318365282366

The figures shown for decrees nisi include cases where both nisi and absolute decrees were granted during the year, and those for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in 1933 or in a previous year.

In 261 of the 804 cases where petitions for dissolution were filed during 1933 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 206 cases, 2 in 159 cases, 3 in 97 cases, and 4 or more in 81 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all eases for which petitions for dissolution were filed in the Inst five years:–

Duration of Marriage, in Years.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Under 571664158495842394053
5 and under 10115111104103106143154135128126
10 and under 1575879080951009685124102
15 and under 2068465837565465685463
20 and under 3054595854647874617365
30 and over9211617141817111711
     Totals392390367349384451448399436420

The ratio of divorces to marriages in divers countries is illustrated by the following table comprising latest years available.

Divorces per 100 Marriages.
United States.16.3
Austria13.9
Japan10.0
Switzerland9.5
Denmark8.9
Germany8.3
France6.9
South Africa6.3
New Zealand6.2
Australia5.0
Latvia4.7
Belgium4.1
Czechoslovakia3.9
Portugal1.8
Scotland1.5
Canada1.4
England and Wales1.3

INQUESTS.

The number of bodies on which inquests were hold in 1933 was 1,397, including 74 Maoris. In 1,023 cases the bodies were of males, and in 374 of females.

Nature of Verdict.Males.Females.Total.
Diseases and natural causes396207603
Accident458114572
Homicide4913
Suicide16244206
Legal execution3..3
 Totals1,0233741,397

Of the accidental deaths the most common forms are injuries by motor-vehicles, railways and other forms of land transport, and drowning. The verdicts show that in 1933 183 deaths, or 32 per cent. of the total accidental deaths, were due to injuries by vehicles, while 142 deaths, or 25 per cent., were due to drowning.

The inquests on suicidal deaths for each of the last ten years are–

 Inquests on Suicides.
Year.Males.Females.Total.
192413333166
192514033173
192612030150
192716922191
192815952211
192918048228
193016335198
193119929228
193220050250
193316244206

FIRE INQUESTS.

In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner may hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into cause of death.

During 1933 7 inquests were held on fires. In 4 cases the verdict was arson, and in the remaining 3 cases there was no evidence to show how the fire was caused.

During the five years 1928–32, 42 fire inquests were held. In 29 cases the verdict was arson, in 2 cases accident, and in 11 cases there was insufficient evidence to determine the cause.

POLICE.

On the 31st March, 1934, the number of permanent members of the Police Force in New Zealand was 1,143 of all ranks, being an increase of 36 during the year. The total is made up as follows: 1 commissioner, 4 superintendents, 15 inspectors, 4 sub-inspectors, 29 senior sergeants, 95 sergeants, 923 constables, 5 senior detectives, 13 detective-sergeants, and 54 detectives. There were also 69 temporary constables, 12 police surgeons, 8 matrons, 3 district constables, and 1 Native constable.

The following table shows the number of stations and of police in each police district. Temporary constables are included, but not district or Native constables.

Police District.No. of Stations.No. of Police.
Whangarei1529
Auckland47267
Hamilton2261
Gisborne1533
Napier1858
New Plymouth1539
Wanganui1945
Palmerston North1747
Wellington30202
Nelson1230
Grey mouth2144
Christchurch38147
Timaru1442
Dunedin35106
Invercargill2248

There were also 9 officers attached to headquarters, 1 was on loan to the Cook Islands Administration, 1 to the Samoan Administration, and 2 on leave prior to retirement.

The proportion of police to population is 1 to every l,279 persons, and the expenditure (exclusive of the cost of buildings) on the whole Police Force for the year ended the 31st March, 1934, was 5s. 6¼d. per head of population.

The following table shows the growth of the Police Force during the last ten years:–

Year ended 31st March,Officers.Non-commissioned Officers.Detectives.Constables.Total.Police to Population (Including Maoris).Cost per Head of Population.
       s. d.
192523121518311,0261 to 1,3445 9½
192624121528881,0851 to 1,2995 9½
192722123568951,0961 to 1,3125 94¼
192823127549131,1171 to 1,3015 9¾
192923128569481,1551 to 1,2736 1¾
193022127549431,1461 to 1,2986 1
193125120659591,1691 to 1,2926 0½
193225123659441,1571 to 1,3175 5
193324121679831,1951 to 1,2865 6½
193423124729921,2111 to 1,2795 6½

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS.

Figures under this head include charges against Maoris. Maoris are also included in the statistics relating to Magistrates' Courts in the following pages, as well as in those for the Supreme Court and for Prisons. Separate figures relating to offences by Maoris are given towards the end of this section.

Persons charged in Magistrates' Courts may be brought before the Court either on summons or after arrest according to the nature of the offence and to other circumstances. Of the total of 47,431 cases in 1933, 11,660 (males 11,010, females 650) were, “arrest”and 35,771 (males 33,801, females 1,970) were“summons”cases.

The following table shows the number of criminal cases in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last ten years.

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
192446,1002,45648,55666.773.7135.90
192551,1352,48453,61972.273.6735.07
192653,2842,83856,12273.744.1139.70
192753,2562,98356,23972.444.2339.09
192852,6043,11055,71470.764.3738.00
192953,1213,00556,12670.654.1738.11
193054,7233,06757,79071.834.2038.72
193149,8292,65052,47964.493.5834.68
193250,2242,80153,02564.513.7534.73
193344,8112,62047,43157.143.4730.83

The next table shows the results in all cases heard during each of the last three years and similar information concerning distinct cases–i.e., counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

Result of Hearing.Total Cases.Distinct Cases.
1931.1932.1933.1931.1932.1933.
Dismissed or withdrawn for want of prosecution or of evidence4,9884,7754,4033,4133,4312,813
Dismissed on the merits2,3972,9242,5001,7962,2121,915
Admonished and discharged1,2191,2941,317769916890
Committed for trial666572541316310288
Committed for sentence1,1171,094999375357345
Summarily convicted42,00242,36637,67134,90833,73130,855
     Totals52,47953,02547,43141,57740,95737,106

The summary convictions for the year 1933 represent a rate of 24.49 per 1,000 of mean population. The figures for the last ten years are–

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
192439,59429.27
192544,01731.79
192646,20532.68
192745,93031.92
192845,13930.78
192946,30931.44
193047,24731.66
193142,09227.82
193242,36627.75
193337,67124.49

An increase followed 1924, mainly due to the passing of the Motor-vehicles Act of that year.

The great bulk of the cases dealt with in New Zealand are in respect of comparatively insignificant offences-drunkenness and offences against traffic regulations accounting for about half of the total convictions. An analysis of traffic offences is given later in this section.

A classification of convictions during the last five years according to principal offences and groups of offences is next Given.

1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Offences against the person699630631541578
Offences against property (including forgery)4,8365,5746,1296,7665,688
Drunkenness (including issue of prohibition orders)8,2937,7826,1135,2364,584
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, &c., of police, and vagrancy2,2862,3592,2201,8631,506
Breaches of traffic regulations, &c.16,02117,28414,36414,88713,490
Other offences against good order1,3061,5291,2011,2051,259
Breaches of Licensing Act3,5573,5692,9342,6862,561
Breaches of Destitute Persons Act3,6063,5323,3652,8872,483
Breaches of Impounding Act774688678604489
Breaches of Child Welfare Act547541446352338
Breaches of Defence Act803235422414
Breaches of Arms Act392295424440422
Breaches of Unemployment Act....1,0712,2981,408
Other offences3,1893,2292,4742,5772,851
     Totals46,30947,24742,09242,36637,671

In the preceding table offences are necessarily grouped, but in the case of convictions in 1933 certain individual offences are distinguished below.

I.—Person.
Common assault482
Attempted suicide45
Indecent assault on female15
Indecent assault on male10
Unlawful carnal knowledge9
Aggravated assault6
II.—Property.
Theft (not further defined)3,829
Fraud and false pretences676
Wilful damage, &c.422
Unlawful conversion of vehicle344
Breaking and entering and attempts209
Receiving stolen property121
Unlawful conversion of property37
Embezzlement24
III.–Forgery, etc.
Forgery4
Uttering3
IV.–Good Order.
Breaches of by-laws574
Vagrancy482
Gambling458
Sunday trading144
Cruelty to animals79

The 338 convictions under the Child Welfare Act in 1933 included 280 in respects of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances.

The drop in the number of convictions under the Defence Act is due to the suspension of the compulsory provisions of the Act, the only convictions recorded since 1930 being failure to return uniform, equipment, &c.

The Unemployment Act came into force late in 1930, and no convictions were recorded in that year. In 1931, however, there were 1,071 convictions, the principal breach being failing to pay the levy, which was responsible for 993 convictions. In 1932 the number of convictions under the Act rose to 2,298, of which 2,067 w for failing to pay levies. In 1933 convictions numbered 1,408, including 1,122 for failure to pay levies; the remainder being for false declaration (106), failing register (20), employing person in arrears with levy (22). employer failing to deduct emergency charge (54), failing to pay emergency charge on“other income”(35), and other breaches of the Act (49).

PUNISHMENT ON SUMMARY CONVICTION.

A summary of punishments following summary convictions for the year 1933 given.

Punishment.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.*Offences against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
* Including forgery and offences against the currency.
Released under Offenders Probation Act157414520821
Convicted and discharged629632,0311,1024,158
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence80532259123994
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent71786225416
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer398462839952
Committed to institution under Child Welfare Act12622655
Committed to Borstal institution. Salvation Army Home, &c.41493410197
Fined28381416,6596,36224,118
Imprisonment in lieu of fine1159279141490
Peremptory imprisonment541,3614241,0772,916
Whipping..64212
Bound over18..15134
Order made4131,0531,4382,508
     Totals5785,68820,83910,56637,671

* Including forgery and offences against the currency.

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURT.

Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes-viz., those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years. Maoris are included in this and following tables.

Year.Tried in Supreme Court.
Indictments and Informations.Convictions.Sentences in Case of Committal for Sentence.Total Sentences.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
(a) Total Cases.
1929938275116812161,323221,345
19308471239291,112111,504201,524
193195140495101,078411,573511,624
19321,0231657771,084421,661491,710
19339123349311997121,490231,513
(b) Distinct Persons
19293021517862781145617473
19303101119183291052018538
19312911718363971458020600
19323211120564151062016636
1933302151838332751515530

Of the 317 distinct persons indicted during 1933, 192 were convicted and 111 acquitted. In the case of 10 persons no bill was returned or the prosecution otherwise not proceeded with, 1 person was found insane, and 3 were awaiting trial at the end of the year.

The next table summarizes the offences of persons convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during the last five years:–

 Total Convictions or Sentences.Distinct Persons convicted or sentenced.
Year.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other OffencesTotals.
1929176985131531,3451252705325473
19302031,111154561,5241333274830538
19311681,172221631,6241283736930600
19322031,1402551021,7101383955251636
19332331,024185711,5131213275428530

The following were the offences for which persons were convicted or sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1933:–

I.–PERSON.

Indecent assault19
Indecent assault on male13
Attempted rape2
Carnal knowledge and attempts26
Incest5
Unnatural offences and attempts5
Murder2
Manslaughter (including 7 cases in connection with motor-vehicles)9
Negligent driving causing bodily injury1
Wounding with intent6
Aggravated assault12
Common assault4
Assault with intent to rob5
Administering poison with intent to injure1
Procuring abortion and attempts2
Concealment of birth3
Bigamy6

II.–PROPERTY.

Breaking and entering151
Theft48
Robbery6
Burglary54
Horse, cattle, or sheep stealing.5
Receiving stolen property18
Fraud and false pretences13
Embezzlement23
Arson and attempts3
Other6

III.– FORGERY, ETC.

Forgery35
Uttering2
Forgery and uttering11
Counterfeiting coin6

IV AND V.–OTHER OFFENCES.

Vagrancy5
Gambling, &c.4
Breach of probation2
Perjury3
Escaping from lawful custody4
Other10

Thirty-three Maoris were included in the 531 distinct offenders sentenced in the Supreme Court in 1933, and 351 others (including 10 women) were born in New Zealand. In 65 cases the birthplace was England or Wales, in 10 Scotland, in 11 Ireland, and in 29 Australia.

SUPREME COURT.–OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS OF DISTINCT PERSONS, 1933.

Sentence.Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other Offences.Totals.
Ordered to come up for sentence1253222
Discharged..12..3
Released under Offenders Probation Act106114994
Fined21216
Declared habitual criminal only......11
Death2......2
Imprisonment or detention-Imprisonment541211913207
 Imprisonment and reformative detention3101..13
 Imprisonment and declared habitual criminal2101..13
 Reformative detention only2695111133
 Detention in Borstal institution10222135
 Reformative detention, and declared habitual criminal..1....1
Imprisonment and flogging..........
Total persons sentenced1213275428530
Length of sentence of imprisonment or detention–     
7 and under 10 years5......5
5 and under 7 years165....21
3 and under 5 years27487..82
2 and under 3 years2190135129
1 and under 2 years10669388
6 months and under 1 year8311242
Under 6 months682521
Indefinite2111..14
 Totals, imprisonment or detention952593315402

Of the offenders, 57 were under twenty years of age, 117 between twenty and twenty-five, 96 between twenty-five and thirty, 136 between thirty and forty, 73 between forty and fifty, 37 between fifty and sixty, and 13 sixty or over, while in 1 case the age was not known.

COURT OF APPEAL.

Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, each division consisting of five Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exercises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty the Chief Justice and one other Judge may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions may be held. The Chief Justice or, in his absence, the senior Judge presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present, but if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion the judgment, &c., appealed from is deemed to be affirmed.

Under an amendment of 1933, special sittings of the Court of Appeal may be held at times and places appointed by Order in Council. This authority may be exercised only on a certificate of not less than three Judges (of whom the Chief Justice shall be one) that it is not expedient to delay hearing the appeal or other proceeding. For a special sitting any three or more Judges may exercise the jurisdiction of the Court.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to His Majesty in Council.

In criminal cases questions of law may be reserved by the Supreme Court for the Court of Appeal, and upon a refusal by the Court to reserve any question the person aggrieved may move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. Any person aggrieved may also (after conviction) apply to the Court of Appeal for a new trial upon leave being granted by the Supreme Court. Any person has new the right to apply to the Court of Appeal against a sentence passed in the Supreme Court where such person has been convicted upon an indictment or sentenced for any crime on a plea of“ Guilty.”

During the last five years 20 Crown criminal cases were brought before the Appeal Court, and in 10 instances convictions were affirmed. There were 103 civil appeals, of which 53 were allowed, and also 82 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in 62 judgments for plaintiff and 20 for defendants.

Particulars concerning applications during the last five years for leave to appeal against sentences under the provisions of the Crimes Amendment Act, 1920, are: Applications filed, 110; granted, 17; refused, 93. In 14 cases the sentence was varied as a result of the appeal.

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.

There are fourteen prisons and State reformatories and three Borstal institutions in New Zealand, as well as 24 minor prisons and police-gaols. In addition to these there are the police-stations which, under section 17 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917, may be deemed to be prisons for any period (which must not exceed seven days) during which prisoners are detained there undergoing sentence.

On the 1st January, 1933, the various institutions had 1,583 persons under detention (males 1,492, females 91). During the year 5,087 were received (males 4,844, females 243) and 5,228 discharged or transferred (males 4,971, females 257).

At the end of the year 1,442 (males 1,365, females 77) remained in confinement. The daily average number of persons in confinement during the year was 1,543 (males 1,445, females 98).

 Persons in Gaol.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
At 31st December,Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
19241,197501,247.739.10
19251,284491,3339.169.51
19261,388471,4359.7110.04
19271,483661,54910.2310.68
19281,435491,4849.7810.12
19291,342531,3959.049.39
19301,523461,56910.1110.42
19311,614431,65710.6110.89
19321,522611,5839.9210.32
19331,410321,4429.129.33

The 5,228 discharges during the year includes 1,424 transfers of inmates to other prisons or to the police. Of the balance, 4 died during the year, 3 were executed, and 1 absconded and was not retaken. Prisoners discharged on expiration of sentence numbered 2,634, 72 were released on hail, 601 were set free on the recommendation of the Prisons Board, and 130 released on special remission. Debtors discharged during the year numbered 146. and 29 lunatics were transferred to mental hospitals. The remaining 184 discharges represented persons who had been in prison on remand or awaiting trial, and who were known to have been acquitted.

In the following table persons in confinement at the end of each of the last five years are classified according to nature of sentence:–

Year.Hard Labour or Simple Imprisonment.
Under Three Months.Three Months and under One Year.One Year and over.Habitual Criminals.Detained for Reformative Purposes.Detained in Borstal Institution.On Remand, awaiting Trial, &c.Totals.
* Including 1 awaiting execution.
19297919341970246335531,395
19309926947254303326461,569
193112927649763301348431,657
19328021348355347343611,583*
19335724044845287333321,442

The total number of new receptions-counting each person once every time received-in the various institutions during the year 1933 was 5,087 (males 4,844, females 243), as compared with 6,179 (males 5,897, female 3282) in 1932. Taking into account the 60 cases where persons were in prison awaiting trial or sentence at the beginning of the year brings this figure up to 5,147, the gross total of receptions. Included here, however, are debtors and lunatics (157), and deducting these gives 4,990, the gross total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for, or persons charged, with criminal offences. Of these, 932 were received on transfer from other institutions or in transitu between institutions, so that the net total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for or persons charged with criminal offences is 4,058. In 752 cases persons charged with criminal offences were handed to the police for trial or sentence and not returned to prison, and 23 persons remained in prison at the end of the year awaiting trial or sentence, so that the number of receptions of prisoners actually undergoing sentence for criminal offences-still counting each prisoner once every time received-was 3,283. Deducting from this figure multiple receptions of the same person (552) there remains, as the total number of distinct prisoners received under sentence for criminal offences, 2,731 (males 2,585 females 146), a decrease of 670 on the preceding year. Of the total of 2,731 253 (males 245, females 8) were Maoris.

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the last ten years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population is given in the next table. Debtors and lunatics received into gaol are omitted.

Year.Number.Per 10,000 of Population.
19242,40517.78
19252,89020.88
19262,75519.49
19272,71118.84
19282,54817.37
19292,59617.62
19302,86419.19
19313,20321.17
19323,40122.29
19332,73117.75

The following table shows the sexes and ages of distinct prisoners received into prison under sentence during the year 1933, and distinguishes between Maoris and others:–

Age, in Years.Excluding Maoris.Maoris.Including Maoris.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total..Males.Females.Total.
Under 20100141146016116015175
20 and under 25364253896917043326459
25 and under 303591137033..3339211403
30 and under 353648372361374009409
35 and under 40299173161932231820338
40 and under 452291424310..1023914253
45 and under 50203272309..921227239
50 and under 55168111792..217011181
55 and under 6010781151121089117
60 and under 659519611296298
65 and under 7031132......31132
70 and under 75819......819
75 and under 806..6......6..6
80 and over1..11..12..2
Not stated6..64..410..10
     Totals2,3401382,47824582532,5851462,731

Ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1933 are summarized in the next table.

Age, in Years.Offences against the Person.Theft and other Offences against Property.Drunkenness.Vagrancy.Other Offences.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assaults.Other.
Under 21144215222450248
21 and under 2541632121023118386
25 and under 3081531942312148403
30 and under 3562041483227172409
35 and under 4082541233423121338
40 and under 45372635216110253
45 and under 5056367483179239
50 and under 5555137452167181
55 and under 6046221241743117
60 and under 6544..1832103098
65 and over12..715131149
Not stated......61..310
     Totals62110241,0483182179522,731

The final table of this category supplies statistics of ages and previous convictions of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1933.

Age, in Years.Number of Previous Convictions.Total previously convicted.Not previously convicted.Total Distinct Prisoners.
One.Two.Three.Four.Over Four.Number not stated.
Under 21572097111105143248
21 and under 2568403620546224162386
25 and under 3070473020886261142403
30 and under 35554917191134257152409
35 and under 404030241810316231107338
40 and under 4530231712801417677253
45 and under 502522812851216475239
50 and under 55251442761413546181
55 and under 601411234267839117
60 and under 65149452911722698
65 and over451..195341549
Not stated211..1..5510
     Totals404271153118701951,7429892,731

BORSTAL INSTITUTIONS.

Included among the 1,442 prisoners undergoing sentence at the 31st December, 1933, were 333 persons (298 males, 35 females) detained in Borstal institutions under the provisions of the Prevention of Crime (Borstal Institutions Establishment) Act, 1924. This Act, which is an adaptation of Part I of the Prevention of Crime Act, 1908 (Imperial), as amended by the Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1914, is designed to prevent crime, and provides for the detention of young offenders in a special class of reformative institution. An offender between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one (twenty-three in certain cases), who would otherwise be liable to sentence of imprisonment by the Supreme Court or sentence of imprisonment of not less than one month by a Magistrate, may be made the subject of an order of detention of from two to five years by a Judge of the Supreme Court, and from one to three years by a Magistrate, without a conviction being recorded in the latter case. Inmates may be transferred from prisons, reformatory homes, State reformatory institutions, and institutions under the Child Welfare Act, 1925, to Borstal institutions, and from Borstal institutions to prisons. The Minister of Justice has power to release an offender undergoing detention on condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of a probation officer, or of a society or person (to be specified) who may be willing to take charge of the case.

HABITUAL CRIMINALS AND REFORMATIVE DETENTION.

The following table shows the distinct prisoners received in prison during 1933 after being sentenced to detention for reformative purposes or having been declared habitual criminals, classified according to sentences:–

Original Sentence.Sentenced to Reformative Detention for a Period ofDeclared Habitual Criminals.Totals.
Under Two Years.Two and under Five Years.Five Years and over.
Reformative detention only5210171161
Declared habitual criminals only..........
Hard labour–     
 Under 1 year1610..127
 1 year and under 25..111 
 2 years and under 314..510
 3 years and under 4..1..45
 4 years and under 5..........
 5 years and under 7......22
 7 years and under 10......11
 Totals74121715217

PRISONS BOARD.

For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court, as President, and six other members.

It is the duty of the Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention is sufficiently reformed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or other person under sentence of imprisonment or reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration, at least once a year, the case of every habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention. Other classes of prisoners may not apply for and are not entitled to consideration until they have served at least half the sentence (or five years in the case of those sentenced to terms exceeding ten years), and no case is to be considered until six months after the date of reception into prison.

The following table shows the number of cases considered by the Board during each of the last five years:–

Year.Borstal Detention.Reformative Detention.Hard Labour.Habitual Criminals and Offenders.Habitual Criminals for Remission of Hard Labour.Probationers for Discharge from Probation or Variation of Terms.Totals.
Crimes Amendment Act.Offender Probationers.
19294664463468846161,372
19304793703137575111,260
19314954804318028181,514
193255348938471..9181,524
193358156239263..8331,639

Of the cases considered in 1933, recommendations were made for release on probation in 580 cases, and for discharge from prison or from probation in 21 cases. Twenty-nine probationers under the Offenders Probation Act were ordered discharge. In 64 cases petitions were declined, and in the remaining 945 cases they were deferred.

PROBATION.

Legislation on this subject dates from 1886. Under the Offenders Probation Act of 1920 probation may be granted for “any offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise.” Formerly there were numerous important exceptions. The maximum period of probation was fixed in 1920 at five years.

The conditions of release on probation include the necessity for a person on probation to report to the Probation Officer on specified days not more than one month apart, and to notify his address and any change of address. The nature and place of his employment must be made known to and be approved of by the Probation Officer, and he must not commit any offence against the law. The Probation Officer may warn him not to associate with any particular person or class of persons.

A breach of the conditions of the probationary license renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

The following figures are taken from successive returns prepared by the Chief Probation Officer:–

Year.Number admitted to Probation.
1924586
1925658
1926656
1927586
1928615
1929557
1930650
1931750
1932726
1933620

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1933:–

Age, in Years.6 Months or under.1 Year.18 Months.2 Years.3 Years.4 Years.5 Years.Totals.
Under 20562..6914....150
20 and under 25874..8324....189
25 and under 306442393....94
30 and under 407571396....110
40 and under 50324..176....50
50 and under 60111143....20
60 and under 70..5..2......7
70 and over................
     Totals30277425356....620

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.

Offences committed by juvenile offenders constitute a class worthy of special consideration. The Child Welfare Amendment Act, 1927, altered the definition of “child” to cover persons under seventeen years of age, instead of sixteen as formerly. Figures of juvenile cases in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last five years are as follows:–

Year.Total Cases.Dismissed or withdrawn for want of Prosecution or of Evidence.Dismissed on the Merits.Admonished and discharged.Committed for Trial or Sentence.Summarily convicted.
19293,405971191,176151,998
19303,217106821,32511,703
19312,90870361,071131,718
19323,07188451,15941,775
19332,95682481,19441,628

The principal of the offences against the person in 1933 were common assault, which was responsible for 18 cases (5 convictions), and indecent assault 25 cases (16 convictions).

Theft was the principal offence against property, 1,157 charges being dealt with in 1933, resulting in 681 convictions. These figures do not include housebreaking and stealing, which was the offence in 250 cases (187 convictions).

Wilful damage, trespass, &c., is also an important class of offence in juvenile cases, being responsible for 539 charges (115 convictions) in 1933. In 99 cases (71 convictions) the charge was unlawfully converting vehicle to own use.

In the “Other” offences the effect of the introduction of the Child Welfare Act, 1925, is very noticeable, the number of cases for 1933 (366) being over four times that recorded for 1925 (88). Nearly 80 per cent, of the cases in this class were brought under the Child Welfare Act, the number of cases of children not under proper control or in indigent circumstances being 290, and the resulting convictions 276. In connection with these convictions orders were made for committal to the care of the Superintendent, Child Welfare Branch, or for supervision by a Child Welfare Officer in 250 cases, while in 23 cases the children concerned were committed to an institution under the Child Welfare Act.

Offences by juveniles are seldom of a very serious nature, and even when a conviction is recorded Magistrates frequently adopt the course of discharging the offender or of ordering him to come up for sentence when called upon. It is found that in very few case's does the future conduct of the convicted person render it necessary for him to be brought before the Magistrate again for sentence.

MAGISTRATES: COURTS.–PUNISHMENTS OF JUVENILE OFFENDERS, 1933.

Punishment.Against the Person.Against Property.*Against Good OrderOther.Totals.
* Including forgery and offences against the currency.
Released on probation..51..6
Convicted and discharged13818158
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence..12....12
Committed to care of Child Welfare Superintendent71756223411
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officer347792649888
Committed to institution under Child Welfare Act12812353
Committed to Borstal institution..251..26
Fined..211304155
Peremptory imprisonment..........
Whipped..54211
Order made..1348
Total summary convictions431,0891903061,628
Total charges brought762,1064083662,956

Very few juvenile cases find their way to the Supreme Court, and, beyond the information disclosed by the Magistrates' Courts returns as to committals for sentence or trial, no statistics of such cases in the higher Court are available. Statistics of ages of persons sentenced show, however, that no persons under seventeen years of age were sentenced in the Supreme Court during 1933.

Fifteen distinct persons under seventeen years of age were received into Borstal institutions during 1933.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.

Of the 37,671 summary convictions in Magistrates' Courts in 1933 only 2,620, or 6.96 per cent., were of females, the following being the principal offences:–

Common assault10
Attempted suicide3
Theft379
Fraud and false pretences45
Receiving stolen property12
Wilful damage, &c.21
Drunkenness151
Negligently driving motor-vehicle133
Vagrancy91
Breaches of regulations for lighting vehicles164
Non-registration, &c, of motor-vehicles135
Breaches of parking regulations60
Speeding, &c.56
Other minor traffic offences17
Application for prohibition order49
Offensive conduct or language45
Sunday trading34
Breaches of by-laws, &c.44
Indigent, &c., child119
Other charges under Child Welfare Act29
Unlicensed wireless172
Breaches of prohibition orders38
Other breaches of Licensing Act76
Allowing horses, cattle, &c, to wander47
Owner of unregistered dog18

In addition to the 2,620 summary convictions of women in Magistrates' Courts during 1933 there were 40 committals to the Supreme Court–24 for trial and 16 for sentence. The Supreme Court statistics show that 33 charges against females were dealt with during the year, resulting in 11 convictions, representing 8 different, persons. In addition, 7 women were sentenced after committal for sentence in respect of 12 offences.

The number of distinct female prisoners received into prison during 1933 was 146, the principal offences of these being-vagrancy, 59; drunkenness, 16; and theft, 37. The actual number of receptions of female prisoners during the year was 243, this number including 19 Maoris, and the daily average number of women prisoners in gaol was 98. Two reformatories (at Addington and Point Halswell) house women prisoners only. There is also a Borstal institution at Point Halswell (Wellington) for women only.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.

The number of summary convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates' Courts for the last five years is shown in the following table:–

Year.Class of Offence.
Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
Drunkenness.*Other.
* Excluding prohibition-order cases.
1929914902955364531,865
1930775022424914771,849
1931515231383953711,478
1932565691413562871,409
1933613961203812721,230

The number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court, which exhibits the extent of serious crime amongst the Native race, is not very great, the total number convicted and sentenced during the last five years being only 180. The 33 convictions or sentences during 1933 were made up as follows: 10 for offences against the person, 20 for property offences, 2 for forgery, and 1 for perjury. Twenty-nine of these were sent up from the Magistrates' Courts for sentence, the remaining 4 being tried and convicted in the Supreme Court.

The number of distinct Maori prisoners received into gaol under sentence during 1933 was 253 (including 8 women), as compared with 316 in 1932.

DRUNKENNESS.

The extent to which convictions for drunkenness swell the total of convictions is obvious from the information given earlier in this section. The number of convictions for drunkenness, including drunkenness with disorderly conduct, drunk in charge of vehicle or of horse, and habitual drunkenness, during 1933 totalled 3,581 (males 3,430, females 151). The convictions in 1932 and 1933 are the lowest recorded since 1895, when they numbered 4,792. In 1895, however, the proportion of convictions for drunkenness per 1,000 of the mean population was 6.52, while in 1933 the proportion was only 2.33.

The convictions for drunkenness in 1933 represent 9.3 per cent. of the total convictions during the year. In addition, there were 1,003 technical convictions in cases of applications for the issue of prohibition orders. Prohibition-order cases are not included in the following table, which shows the number of convictions for drunkenness recorded, and the proportion per 1,000 of the mean population of each sex, during the last five years:–

Year.Convictions for Drunkenness.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Year.Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
19296,4783386,8168.620.474.63
19306,0722586,3307.970.354.24
19314,6452194,8046.010.303.21
19323,8881854,0734.990.252.67
19333,4301513,5814.370.202.33

Of the total convictions for drunkenness during 1933, 3,490 (3,346 males and 144 females) were arrest cases, while 91 (84 males and 7 females) were cases brought before the Magistrate by summons.

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the preceding table.

The total convictions for all offences in arrest cases in 1933 were 9,174, but the distinct convictions amounted to only 6,345, the former total including 2,829 convictions for multiple charges against the same person at the same time. Of the latter 621 were in respect of charges dealt with at the same time as the offender was convicted of drunkenness, the principal associated offences being–

Offence.A Number of Convictions.
Common assault29
Theft36
Wilful damage54
Indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct31
Obscene, threatening, or abusive language130
Assaulting, resisting, or obstructing police39
Vagrancy28
Driving motor-vehicle without a license30
Casting offensive matter48
Breach of prohibition order122
Unlawfully on licensed premises after hours20

In addition, there were 78 cases where a prohibition order was issued against a person convicted at the same time of drunkenness.

Any person who has been three times convicted for drunkenness within the nine months immediately preceding any conviction for drunkenness may be declared an habitual drunkard, the number of convictions for habitual drunkenness during 1933 being 15 (males 12, females 3). A Magistrate may in addition to or in lieu of a penalty, commit an habitual drunkard to any institution authorized by the Governor General to receive and detain such persons for any period not being less than twelve months.

The sentences in the 3,581 convictions for drunkenness during the year were Fined, 2,155; imprisonment in lieu of fine, 208; peremptory imprisonment, 88 committed to Salvation Army Home or other such institution, 8; convicted am discharged, 1,057; released under Offenders Probation Act, 11; other sentences, 54.

The quantity of alcoholic liquor entered' at the Customs for consumption (including beer on which excise duty was paid) was as follows during the last five years. The figures are exclusive of wine and cider manufactured in New Zealand (estimated by the Department of Agriculture as 138,150 and 30,000 gallon: respectively in 1933–34).

 Beer. Gal.Imported Wine. Gal.Potable Spirits. Gal.
192913,010,990207,703597,000
193012,312,823198,377569,656
193110,124,849134,160378,874
19328,868,316105,725323,308
19338,622,690116,390316,755

Based on the foregoing figures the consumption per head of mean population works out as follows:&

 Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.
19298.830.140.419.250.150.42
19308.250.130.388.640.140.40
19316.690.090.257.010.090.26
19325.810.070.216.090.070.22
19335.610.080.215.880.080.22

TRAFFIC OFFENCES.

In keeping with the enormous growth of motor traffic during recent years, there has been a huge increase in minor traffic offences, which constitute a high proportion of the cases dealt with in Magistrates' Courts. However, the number of cases and convictions during the years 1931–1933 show a substantial decrease on the figures for the previous three years, although this is probably due in part to the diminishe used of motor-vehicles for economic reasons.

The number of cases and convictions, and the number of convictions per 1,000 of mean population, for this class of offence are shown below:–

 1930.1931.1932.1933.
Cases19,98016,85117,48215.582
Convictions18,14515,13515,60414,136
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population12.1610.0010.229.19

The convictions for traffic offences in 1933 represent 29.80 per cent. of the total convictions during the year.

The following table shows convictions for traffic offences during the last five years:–

Offence.1929.1930.1031.1932.1933.
Negligent driving causing death..........
Negligent driving causing bodily injury..........
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use268395333391344
Drunk in charge of motor-vehicle418435403308287
Drunk in charge of other vehicle6031281815
Excessive speed in motor-vehicle1,6092,1202,0842,0521,428
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle3,2913,9233,1092,6932,314
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle6795455833
Riding bicycle on footpath777532425354362
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles4,1643,9652,5573,4063,661
Offences relating to the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles3,2323,6784,1844,5214,337
Breaches of parking regulations1,7341,8361,049949694
Other traffic offences1,1471,135918854661
 Total16,76718,14515,13515,60414,136

The following table shows the number of cases and the results of hearing for the various traffic offences or groups of offences heard in Magistrates' Courts during 1933:–

Offence.Total Cases.Dismissed, or Admonished and Discharged.Committed to Supreme Court.Convictions.Results of Convictions.
Fined.Convicted and Discharged.Other.
Negligent driving causing death21120........
Negligent driving causing bodily injury615........
Un1awfu11y converting vehicle to own use39854..3443987218
Drunk in charge of motor-vehicle31326..287256427
Drunk in charge of other vehicle15....1514..1
Excessive speed in motor-vehicle1,52294..1,4281,410144
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor-vehicle2,776462..2,3142,19011212
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle374..33285..
Riding bicycle on footpath40139..362342191
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles3, 860199..3,6613,44120317
Offences relating to the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles4,769432..4,3374,06724426
Breaches of parking regulations73945..69466232..
Other traffic offences72564..661559966
.Total15,5821,4212514,13613,008816312

By far the greater proportion of the cases are for comparatively trivial offences such as breaches of lighting regulations and breaches of regulations for the registration, &c, of motor-vehicles (including driving unregistered car, and driving without driver's license). These cases result in a far greater proportion of convictions in Magistrates' Courts than the more serious class of traffic offences-viz., negligent driving causing death or endangering human life-which are usually committed to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence.

Dealing only with motor-vehicles, it is found that the total number of convictions for traffic offences during 1933 was 9,060 (which total excludes motor-vehicles without lights, &c.–separate figures not available), and of these 6,275 were in the North Island and 2,785 in the South. The number of motor-vehicles actually licensed on 31st December, 1933, were;–North Island, 121,119; South Island, 67,865. The convictions were therefore: North Island 5.18 per cent., South Island 4.10 per cent., of the registrations.

Chapter 8. SECTION VIII.—DEFENCE.

NEW ZEALAND MILITARY FORCES.

THE New Zealand Military Forces are raised, maintained, and organized under the Defence Act, 1909, and its amendments, and regulations made thereunder. They are divided into the Permanent Forces, the Territorial Force, the New Zealand Air Force, and the Cadets.

The Permanent Forces correspond to the Regular Army of Great Britain, and provide Commanders and staffs, at General Headquarters and in commands, adjutants and instructional staff for the Territorial Force and the Air Force, nucleus garrisons for the fixed defences and aerodromes, and maintenance and administrative staffs at ordnance depots.

LIABILITIES FOR AND TERMS OF SERVICE.

In Peace Time.—The Defence Act, 1909, provides for compulsory service in peace time in the Cadets from fourteen years (or from date of leaving school if later) to eighteen years, and from eighteen years to twenty-five years in the Territorial Force.

Since the 1st October, 1930, however, the compulsory provisions of the Defence Act have not been enforced; but if the Government so directed they could, without legislation, again be brought into operation.

In July, 1931, the Forces were reorganized, and service in the Territorial Force and Cadets has since been voluntary. The only Cadets new trained are those at secondary schools, and, with few exceptions, all the larger secondary schools in the Dominion have a Cadet unit. Recruits for the Territorial Force are enrolled under a voluntary agreement to serve for three years. They may extend their service up to the age of thirty-two years. A further extension up to thirty-five years may be granted to warrant and non-commissioned officers.

In the Permanent Forces enlistment for ranks other than commissioned officers is for a term of five years, after which re-engagement may be effected up to fifty-five years of age, which is the normal retiring-age. Extensions may be granted in certain cases up to sixty years.

Normally officers for the Permanent Forces are first trained at one of the Service colleges in England or Australia. Their retiring-age is the same as for other ranks.

During a National Emergency.—The Territorial Force is liable to service in any part of New Zealand, and cannot be compelled to serve outside the Dominion. Individuals could, however, volunteer to do so, and their services might then be accepted on the approval of the Governor-General, as was done on the outbreak of the Great War.

The Defence Act, 1909, establishes a liability for all male inhabitants between the ages of seventeen and fifty-five years (with certain specified exceptions), who have resided in New Zealand for six months, to serve and be trained in the Militia, but as the Militia is not embodied in peace time no training therein is carried out.

The personnel of the Permanent Forces are subject at all times to the (Imperial) Army Act, save in so far as that Act may be inconsistent with the New Zealand Defence Act, and are liable for service in New Zealand or overseas if called upon.

ESTABLISHMENTS AND STRENGTH.

On the 31st March, 1931, the total establishment of all units of the Permanent Forces was 110 officers and 452 other ranks, but on that date retrenchment was effected, and the strength at present (13th June, 1934) stands at 83 officers, 4 Staff cadets, and 339 other ranks.

The establishment of the Territorial Force was also reduced in 1931, and new totals 779 officers and 11,494 other ranks (in respect of both officers and other ranks, this establishment is exclusive of Air Force, Medical Corps officers not serving with Field Ambulances, Dental Corps, Veterinary Corps, Army Legal Department, Chaplains Department, Nursing Service, and bands). On the 30th June, 1934, the strength—i.e., the actual effective numbers—of the Territorial Force units on which the above establishment is based was 635 officers, 7,756 other ranks, and 878 bandsmen. As far as is practicable, both peace and war establishments are based on those of the British Army.

COMMAND AND ADMINISTRATION.

The Governor-General is the Commander-in-Chief of the New Zealand Forces, and the Minister of Defence controls and administers the fighting services through the medium of the Department of Defence.

The command of the Military Forces is vested in the General Officer Commanding, who is responsible to the Minister of Defence. He is assisted by the following branches of General Headquarters, under the control of the officers indicated, which in New Zealand are the counterpart of the War Office organization, but necessarily on a very much reduced scale:—

  • The Branch of the General Staff. (The Chief of the General Staff.)

  • The Branch of the Adjutant-General. (The Adjutant-General.)

  • The Branch of the Quartermaster-General. (The Quartermaster-General.)

  • The Air Services. (The Director of Air Services.)

  • Artillery Services. (The Director of Artillery.)

  • Financial Services. (The Under-Secretary of Defence, who is responsible direct to the Minister.)

  • The Civil Staff, distributed among the various branches, is under the control of the Under-Secretary.

New Zealand is divided into three Commands, viz.:—

  1. Northern Command, with headquarters at Auckland. It is equivalent to Auckland Provincial District, together with Ohura County, but less that part of Auckland from Wairoa to East Cape lying east of the main divide.

  2. Central Command, with headquarters at Wellington. This comprises the remainder of the North Island.

  3. Southern Command, with headquarters at Christchurch. It comprises the whole of the South Island.

Each command is controlled by an officer of the Permanent Forces holding the rank of Colonel, who is responsible to the General Officer Commanding. At Command Headquarters there is a staff organized in like manner to the branches at General Headquarters, also a civil staff.

The commands are subdivided into four regimental districts, each under a staff officer who is responsible to the O.C. Command. The regimental districts are subdivided into areas (not exceeding three in any one case), each of which is controlled by an area officer, who is responsible to the Staff Officer in Charge of the Regimental District.

COMPOSITION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE FORCES.

The following units comprise the Permanent Forces:—

New Zealand Staff Corps55 officers and 4 Staff cadets at the Royal Military College of Australia.
New Zealand Permanent Staff125 warrant officers, N.C.O's, and men.
Royal New Zealand Artillery 14 officers and 99 other ranks.
New Zealand Permanent Air Force  9 officers and 82 other ranks.
New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps  7 other ranks.
New Zealand Army Medical Corps  1 other rank.
New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps  5 officers, 21 other ranks.
General Duty Section  4 other ranks.

The stores staff at the ordnance depots are members of the civil staff.

The Territorial Force is organized on the basis of 1 Division, 3 Mounted Rifles brigades, 1 Medium Artillery brigade, 2 Coast Artillery batteries, and ancillary troops, though on a reduced strength.

These are distributed as follows:—

Northern Command

3 Mounted Rifles regiments1st Mounted Rifles Brigade.
4 Field batteries1st Field Brigade.
1 Coast battery..
1 Medium batteryNorthern Coast Artillery Group.
1 Pack battery..
1 Field company, Engineers...
1 Depot, Corps of Signals...
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion1st Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C...
1 Field Ambulance...

Central Command

3 Mounted Rifles regiments2nd Mounted Rifles Brigade.
3 Field batteries2nd Field Brigade.
1 Coast battery..
2 Medium batteriesCentral Coast Artillery Group.
1 Field company, Engineers...
1 Depot, Corps of Signals...
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion2nd Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C...
1 Field Ambulance...

Southern Command

3 Mounted Rifles regiments3rd Mounted Rifles Brigade.
3 Field batteries3rd Field Brigade.
1 Medium batteryWith 3rd Field Brigade comprises
1 Pack battery Southern Artillery Group.
1 Field company. Engineers...
1 Depot, Corps of Signals...
4 Infantry regiments, each of 1 battalion3rd Infantry Brigade.
1 Composite company, A.S.C...
1 Field Ambulance...
Otago University Company, New Zealand Medical Corps...

In addition, there are the following corps and departments:—

New Zealand Medical Corps, of which field ambulances form part. One medical officer is attached to each other unit of the Territorial Force, including the Air Force.

  • New Zealand Dental Corps.

  • New Zealand Veterinary Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Legal Department.

  • New Zealand Chaplains Department.

  • New Zealand Army Nursing Service.

TRAINING.

The Permanent Forces throughout the year undergo courses of instruction, and, in addition, assist in the training of the Territorial Force and Cadets. In certain instances they provide a permanent nucleus to Territorial units. The officers of the Permanent Forces take the same examinations for promotion and entrance to the staff colleges as officers of the British Regular Forces.

The Territorial Force carry out during the year, and prior to their annual camp, thirty-six hours' training in drills and parades (Coast Artillery units, sixty hours), inclusive of the prescribed small-arms course. Each unit goes into camp each year for six full days' continuous training (Coast Artillery units, ten days). Special courses of instruction for officers and N.C.O.'s are prescribed and are held preliminary to examinations for promotion. Normally, officers of the Territorial Force Reserve attend a camp of instruction with their unit once in every three years, but other ranks of the Reserve do not train in any way.

There is no military college in the Dominion, but cadets intended for ultimate appointment to commissions in the Permanent Forces are sent either to the Royal Military College of Australia, the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, or the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and on graduating are attached for twelve months' training to the British Regular Army before returning to New Zealand. In normal times from two to four cadets are sent annually. In March, 1934, four cadets were sent to the Royal Military College of Australia; these were the first appointed since 1930.

Officers of the Permanent Forces are also sent to the Staff College, Camberley, and normally one New Zealand officer is undergoing instruction there. At varying intervals other officers are sent to England for courses in gunnery, &c.

At Trentham there is a School of Instruction which provides refresher courses for officers and other ranks of the Permanent Forces, besides courses in weapon training, drill, signalling, physical and recreational training, etc., for officers and other ranks of the Territorial Force, and appropriate instruction for twelve months for recruits for the Permanent Forces.

At the Otago University there is a medical company, consisting of approximately 150 medical and dental students.

CADETS.

The Cadet Force is organized in battalions, but except on ceremonial occasions seldom works as such. All Cadet training is carried out at the schools or colleges during school-hours. Approximately thirty drills of one and a half hours duration are held throughout the year, as well as a “barracks” lasting five days. All cadets carry out a course in musketry during the year.

In the main centres the Cadet units have Artillery, Engineer, Signal and/or Medical sections.

After leaving college, a Cadet under eighteen years of age may join the regimental Cadet detachment of one of the local Territorial units, and carry out drills until such time as he reaches the age of eighteen years, when he may enrol in the Territorial Force.

The strength of the Cadet Force on 31st March, 1934, was 357 officers and 15,811 other ranks.

RIFLE CLUBS.

Defence rifle clubs are formed with a minimum membership of twenty members between the ages of eighteen and fifty-five years. The members must be bonafide residents in the locality in which the rifle club is situated. Officers and other ranks of the Military Forces are not eligible for enrolment, but may become honorary members if so elected by the members of a club.

Application for the formation of a Defence rifle club must be made to the local area officer, who affords all necessary advice as to procedure and facilities extended by the Department in the way of free issues of ammunition, rail warrants, and the supply of rifles and ammunition at reduced rates.

Rifle clubs are not included as units in the organization of the Military Forces, and in a national emergency members would be mobilized as individuals in the same way as other private citizens.

On the 31st March, 1934, there were 152 clubs, with a total membership of 5,148.

NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE.

The New Zealand Air Force consists of a small Permanent Force (9 officers and 82 other ranks) for instructional, administrative, and maintenance duties, and a Territorial Air Force consisting of approximately 80 officers organized as a Wing of four squadrons. Other personnel on a Territorial basis have not yet been enlisted.

The Permanent Force is distributed between the two Air Force Stations—the New Zealand Air Force Base, Hobsonville, Auckland, which is a combined land and seaplane station, and Wigram Aerodrome, Christchurch—with a small administrative staff at General Headquarters, Defence, Wellington.

The service aircraft consists of two Fairey IITF float-planes, three D.H. Moth machines, and a small flying-boat at Hobsonville; and at Wigram Aerodrome five Bristol Fighters, two Grebe S.S. Fighters, four Hawker Tomtit training-machines, and three D.H. Moths.

The training of the Territorial Air Force is carried out on the equipment at Wigram Aerodrome, and consists of annual squadron courses of ten days' duration, together with a limited amount of week-end flying training and instruction during the year.

The service duties of the Royal New Zealand Air Force comprise the administration and training of the Territorial Air Force, co-operation with the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, Army co-operation with other Territorial units of the New Zealand. Military Forces, and certain miscellaneous duties, the chief of which is air survey for other Government Departments. In addition, this unit is responsible for the administration of the Air Navigation Act and Regulations, which involves periodical inspections of civil aircraft, aerodromes, &c, and the examination and instruction of civil pilots and engineers.

This branch also administers the scheme of Government subsidies to approved Aero Clubs.

Government expenditure on the Air Force in the last five years has been:—

 £
1929–3045,651
1930–3140,051
1931–3224,570
1932–3323,472
1933–3446,960

CIVIL AVIATION.

Civil aviation is subject to the Air Navigation Regulations, 1933, which are based on the authority of the Air Navigation Act, 1931. Their administration is in the hands of the Minister of Defence, the executive officer being the Controller of Civil Aviation, Defence Department. These regulations conform to the International Air Convention for the regulation of aerial navigation, signed at Paris on behalf of New Zealand in 1919.

As yet, apart from the activities of aero clubs, there have been practically no developments in commercial aviation in New Zealand, although in 1929 two major companies were formed with the object of commencing scheduled air services throughout, the Dominion. Commercial aviation is at present restricted to intermittent air-taxi work with light aircraft. The chief companies engaged in this type of work comprise two at Auckland and one at Timaru.

On the other hand, the aero club movement has made consistent progress since its inception in 1929, when the Government initiated a scheme of subsidizing a limited number of light-aeroplane clubs. This subsidy takes the form of the loan of light aircraft and payments to clubs on account of pupils who qualify for their A flying licences. Since the inception of the scheme ten aero clubs have been assisted in this manner, and these clubs have had the use of twenty light aircraft loaned by the Government and have received, in the form of subsidies to pilots, the sum of £9,410. They have trained over 400 pilots to the A license standard. During the year 1933–34 100 pilots were trained, and the sum of £1,755 was expended in subsidies.

The following are the clubs in receipt of the Government subsidy:—

Aero Club.Aerodromes at
AucklandMangere (Auckland).
Western Federated (North Island)New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui.
Hawke's Bay and East CoastHastings, Napier, Gisborne.
WairarapaMasterton, Martinborough.
WellingtonRongotai (Wellington).
MarlboroughBlenheim.
CanterburyNew Zealand Air Force Aerodrome, Wigram (Christchurch); Ashburton.
OtagoMosgiel (Dunedin).
SouthlandInvercargill.
West Coast (South Island) FederatedGreymouth.

A proportion of these aerodromes are owned by the cities or boroughs and leased to the aero clubs.

In addition, there are a few aero clubs carrying on without Government assistance.

The following figures relate to civil aviation for the year ended 31st May, 1934:—

Pilot's A licence (private)279
Pilot's B licence (commercial)44
Ground engineers44
Aerodrome (licensed)26
Aircraft69

Government expenditure on civil aviation in the last five years has been:—

 £
1929–307,530
1930–318,698
1931–322,093
1932–334,243
1933–341,813

Reference to air-mail services will be found in Section XIV.

EXPENDITURE.

The net expenditure on land defence during the last seven years has been as follows:—

Year.Military Forces.Aviation.Total.
 £££
1927–28453,58028,179481,759
1928–29425,81338,782464,595
1929–30401,64553,183454,828
1930–31229,05048,749277,799
1931–32156,31126,663182,974
1932–33180,11227,715207,827
1933–34215,95048,773264,723
PUBLIC WORKS FUND: VOTE, CONTINGENT DEFENCE.
1927–2839,70628039,986
1928–2923,02944,62367,652
1929–307,89638,87046,766
1930–3136313,44913,812
1931–32 to 1933–34NilNilNil

Figures shown under aviation include expenditure on both the New Zealand Air Force and civil aviation, separate particulars for which are quoted above.

EXPEDITIONARY FORCES.

New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War. These comprised a total of 6,500 officers and men.

Immediately the Great European War broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then wont to the western front, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate against the Turks in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 98,950 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, and, of these, 16,697 lost their lives on active service. In addition to the 98,950 of all ranks of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, 944 British Army Reservists, British Naval Reservists, and others left the Dominion to rejoin their units in the United Kingdom or in a theatre of war. It is also known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand during the period of the war and joined units of the British Forces or the Expeditionary Forces of other Dominions.

On the Armistice being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or were under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent. of the total population of the Dominion in 1914, and over 40 per cent. of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five years, while it is known that a very large number of other New Zealanders served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

NAVAL DEFENCE.

By the Australasian Defence Act, 1887, provision was made for the payment by New Zealand of a proportional part of the cost of the establishment and maintenance of a naval force for the protection of trade in Australian and New Zealand waters. Under this Act a sum of approximately £20,000 per annum was paid by the New Zealand Government to the Imperial Government.

In 1903 New Zealand raised her contribution to “a sum not exceeding £40,000,” and in 1908 to a sum of £100,000, payable annually for ten years from the 12th May, 1909.

In 1909 New Zealand presented the battle-cruiser “New Zealand” to the Imperial Government.

The Naval Defence Act, 1913, provided for the establishment of a New Zealand Naval Force by voluntary enlistment. The period of first engagement is twelve years, or until the age of thirty is reached (if under eighteen years of age on entering), after which ratings are usually permitted to re-engage for two further periods of five years. On discharge from the Permanent Naval Forces the men are required to serve in the Reserve for ten years or until they attain the age of forty. The ships and personnel forming the Force pass under the control and disposal of the Government of Great Britain in time of war.

A New Zealand Division was inaugurated in 1914, immediately prior to the war. After the war H.M.S. “Philomel” was refitted as a training-ship, and received her first batch of recruits in May, 1921.

In 1920 H.M.N. “Chatham” was loaned to New Zealand by the British Government, until 1924, when she was replaced by H.M.S. “Dunedin.” In 1925 H.M.S. “Diomede” was commissioned for service as a second cruiser in the New Zealand Division. The New Zealand Government is responsible for all payments for the ships and their personnel during the period of loan. Rear-Admiral F. Burges Watson, D.S.O., assumed command of the New Zealand Station in April, 1932.

A trawler (H.M.S. “Wakakura”) was purchased in 1926 for mine-sweeping and instructional duties, and a tanker (R.F.A. “Nucula”) is maintained for fuelling H.M. ships and replenishing the naval tanks at Devonport.

A Naval Board, constituted by Order in Council of the 14th March, 1921, is charged with the control of all matters, upon the policy directed by the Minister, and vested with the executive command of the Naval Forces. The Board is composed of the Minister of Defence (President) the Commodore Commanding New Zealand Station (First Naval Member), and a Captain, R.N. (Second Naval Member).

By Order in Council of the 20th June, 1921, it was provided that “The New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy,” should be the official designation of the Force.

Legislation passed in 1922 extended the New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve to include Reservists entered direct from civil life, as well as those transferred from the Permanent Naval Forces. The formation of a Reserve of Officers was approved in 1924, and ninety-one commissions have been granted. Three companies of R.N.V.R. have been formed at Auckland and Wellington, and two companies at Christchurch and Dunedin.

There is a small Naval Base at Devonport, Auckland, where H.M. ships are refitted. H.M.S. “Philomel” is new stationed at Devonport, acting as a depot ship and instructional establishment.

Up to 31st March, 1934, 791 New Zealand boys and youths bad entered the Permanent Naval Forces. Those showing special aptitude are sent overseas to undergo courses in gunnery, torpedo, mechanical training, and other schools, and the results attained at the examinations have been most satisfactory.

The majority of officers, and a proportion of ratings, are loaned from the Imperial Service.

By the Finance Act (No. 2), 1927, the sum of £1,000,000, to be paid as arranged, was authorized as a contribution towards the construction of the Naval Base at Singapore, and, up to 31st March, 1934, payments on this account have totalled £800,000.

The expenditure on naval defence during the year 1933–34 was—

 £
New Zealand Division of Royal Navy397,384
Debt charges (interest and repayments) on loan-money raised for building battle-cruiser “New Zealand”30,614
Singapore Naval Base100,000
 £527,998

Expenditure on naval defence during the last decade has been:—

 £
1924–25572,599
1925–26498,991
1926–27616,410
1927–28701,217
1928–29677,883
1929–30651,468
1930–31632,240
1931–32504,182
1932–33521,602
1933–34527,998

H.M.S. “Laburnum” has served on the New Zealand Station since 1922, and was recommissioned at Auckland in April, 1934.

H.M.S. “Veronica” sailed for England in February, 1934, and will be relieved later in the year by H.M.S. “Leith.”

These sloops are maintained by the British Government, their duties consisting mainly of policing the South Pacific islands within the limits of the New Zealand Naval Station.

Chapter 9. SECTION IX.—EXTERNAL TRADE.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

TOTAL EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.

DATA regarding the overseas trade of Now Zealand are invested with a special significance in view of the Dominion's relatively high degree of dependence upon its external trade. According to figures compiled by the Secretariat of the League of Nations, New Zealand's total trade per caput is the highest in the world. Parenthetically, it may be observed, as a factor highly relevant in this connection. that New Zealand's overseas debt commitments are also upon a high scale.

In the official annual statistics of the trade of New Zealand the twelve-monthly period adopted is the calendar year. Monthly figures covering the principal items of export and import are, however, published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, so that summarized figures are readily available for any twelve-monthly period. As the production year ends about June and the financial year at 31st March, it is desirable to record the trade for years ended 30th June and 31st March as well as for that ended 31st December.

It is to be noted that the figures in the succeeding table are expressed in“recorded” values. Consequently, for years ending later than December, 1929, comparability is seriously disturbed. The explanation, together with adjusted figures to preserve comparisons, will be found on the next page.

 Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March.Year ended 30th June.
Year.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
Including Specie.
 ££££££
192452,612,71148,527,60351,652,60644,401,75648,445,82644,832,164
192555,262,27252,456,40754,771,15849,821,09557,449,97650,898,485
192645,275,57549,889,56348,697,58753,025,85646,336,84752,157,702
192745,490,35444,782,94645,682,33848,192,67046,395,08247,373,687
192856,188,48144,886,26654,962,03144,419,35755,619,28543,497,942
192955,579,06348,797,97757,154,34345,105,86556,244,75046,508,009
193044,940,69243,025,91449,045,81749,167,91447,588,21348,828,077
193135,153,02824,812,95839,527,78438,300,80736,944,97733,373,676
193236,965,78023,045,10634,496,21123,165,52235,546,57323,063,476
193341,301,95121,451,38238,810,16122,770,46038,445,65422,336,476
1934. ...46,415,60222,124,74749,629,94622,927,959
Excluding Specie.
192452,509,22348,527,60351,616,46844,399,22648,413,65844,829,634
192555,243,04752,425,75754,668,77649,821,09557,347,26150,898,485
192645,268,92449,811,76348,680,37152,993,70646,324,99452,125,552
192748,496,35444,782,66645,681,33818,116,37046,394,58247,297,387
192855,570,38144,844,10254,957,03144,405,91355,105,28543,484,498
192954,930,06348,734,47250,526,24345,076,86556,110,65046,479,009
193044,940,51742,662,82748,411,81749,100,40946,969,21348,510,560
193134,950,69824,756,80339,527,00937,937,50636,943,77433,260,447
193235,609,91922,989,79633,942,61723,108,55534,668,40723,006,509
193341,005,91921,026,67837,510,16422,648,80637,470,65722,190,928
1934. ...46,042,57021,477,55349,141,91421,969,459

As indicated m the foregoing table, specie is included in the export and import statistics. Its inclusion is, however, apt to confuse the position, both when comparison is made between exports and imports of an individual year and when the movements of exports or imports over a period of years are studied. A further complication occurs in dealing with the figures from 1930 onwards, given below, and in these and succeeding tables throughout this subsection specie is excluded unless the contrary is specifically stated. It should be added that, in the case of New Zealand, exports of uncoined gold and silver rank as merchandise.

In the valuation of New Zealand's trade, exports of merchandise are taken at their declared f.o.b. value, while imports of merchandise are shown at their current domestic value in the country of export at the time of exportation plus 10 per cent. to cover freight, insurance, and handling charges. Conversions from foreign currencies to sterling, previously made at the mint rate of exchange, have been made at the banking rate of exchange since Great Britain went out the gold standard in September,1931.

The Now-Zealand-sterling exchange has been unfavourable to New Zealand since January,1930 (vide section on Banking and Currency). Exports of merchandise since that date have been expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, while merchandise imports from Australia have been recorded in terms of Australian currency and from other countries in sterling. Specie exports and imports are counted at their (gold) face value.

In dealing with export and import figures in conjunction, it is desirable to adjust the figures to a common basis, and this has been done in the following table, which covers merchandise trade only(i.e., excludes specie). In addition to the variation of New Zealand currency values from sterling, it is to be noted that from war years to date, except during the period May, 1925-September, 1931, Britain has not been on the gold standard. The result is an impairment of certain aspects of comparability of external trade figures. Inter alia, in view of the fact that the great bulk of New Zealand's external trade is carried on with countries on or linked to sterling, it has not been considered necessary to add a further column, giving figures adjusted to a gold basis.

Year.Exports.Imports.Excess of Exports.
As recorded (New Zealand Currency).Sterling Equivalent.As recorded.Full Sterling Equivalent.New Zealand Currency Equivalent.On New Zealand Currency Basis.On Sterling Basis.
* Excess of imports.
Years ended 31st December,
 £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
193044,94143,15S42,66342,48144,340601677
193134,95131,85224,75724,15726,4988,4537,695
193235,61032,37322,99022,40624,64610,9649,967
193341,60632,80521,02720,46525,58115,42512,349
Years ended' 31st March,
193048,41247,93349,10049,08549,430—1,018*—1,152*
193139,52737,19837,93837,65639,833—306*—458*
193233,94330,85723,10922,51024,7619,1828,347
193337,51032,67722,64922,04925,05912,45110,628
193446,04336,83421,47820,90826,13619,90715,926
Years ended, 30th June,
193046,96945,90848,51148,44849,295—2,326*—2,540*
193136,94434,32133,26032,87335,0741,8701,448
193234,66831,51723,00722,41424,65510,0139,103
193337,47031,51622,19121,61325,29012,1809,903
193449,14239,31421,96921,36326,70322,43917,951

It will be noticed that the favourable balance for the twelve months ended December,1930, and the adverse balances for the twelve-monthly periods ended March, 1930, March, 1931, and June, 1930, are greater on a sterling basis than on a New Zealand currency basis. These apparent anomalies are clue to a combination of (1) successive movements in the exchange rate, and (2) the unequal distribution of exports over the year. This combination of factors affects the relationship between the sterling and New Zealand currency figures for other periods also.

Information on the same lines as the foregoing is next given for each month from July,1933, to June, 1934, and for the twelve-monthly period ending with each such month. By reason of the seasonal nature of the production of the principal commodities exported from the Dominion, approximately two-thirds of the exports are made during the latter half of the production year—i.e., the first six months of the calendar year. Imports are normally spread fairly evenly over the year.

 Exports.Imports.Excess of Exports.
Month.As recorded (New Zealand Currency).Sterling Equivalent.As recorded.Full Sterling Equivalent.New Zealand Currency Equivalent.On New Zealand Currency Basis.On Sterling Basis.
* Excess of imports.
Monthly Totals.
1933.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
July3,3772,7011,4031,3561,6951,0821,345
August2,0312,1051,7581,7112,139492394
September2,1731,7382,0022,0202,525—352*—282*
October2,3791,9031,8541,7962,245134107
November2,9092,3751,7641,7062,132837669
December4,1153,2921,8231,7692,2111,9041,523
1934       
January5,0804,0642,3312,2872,8592,2211,777
February0,2494,9991,5931,5561,9454,3043,443
March0,7555,4042,0301,9732,4664,2893,431
April5,4084,3271,9791,9322,4142,9942,395
May4,7103,7681,9421,8742,3432,3671,894
June3,2952,6301,4291,3831,7281,5671,253
1933Twelve-monthly Totals.
July38,81532,36921,76321,19225,03113,78411,177
August39,10732,34821,61221,05425,13513,97211,294
September39,70732,71121,51820,96825,34414,42311,743
October39,74532,43121,52520,96625,61114,13411,465
November40,10732,43621,24420,68O25,55214,55511,750
December41,00032,80521,02720,40525,58115,42512,340
1934.       
January42,08033,60821,29720,73425,91816,16812,934
February44,67935,74321,28920,72925,91118,76815,014
March46,04336,83421,47820,90826,13619,90715,926
April47,95738,36621,98021,39826,74721,21016,968
May49,54839,03822,23021,61427,01822,53018,024
June49,14239,31421,96921,30326,70322,43917,951

TRADE PER HEAD.

Imports of merchandise per head were highest in the boom year of 1920 with a rate of£49 10s. lid., the export record of £45 4s. having occurred in the previous year. High per caput rates were experienced in the“ sixties,”when, however, the population was comparatively small, while important gold-mining operations resulted in huge exports of gold and correspondingly high imports—factors which combined to give the earlier years of New Zealand's external trade a somewhat artificially high rate per head. Owing to a lower price level, trade per head has fallen considerably since 1929.

EXTERNAL TRADE.

The next table shows the total merchandise trade, exports, and imports per head of the population. From 1030 onwards imports are as officially recorded(i.e., sterling, except from Australia), and exports and total trade are in terms of New Zealand currency.

Year.Exports.imports.Total Trade.Year.Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
In terms of New Zealand currency.
 £s.d.£sd.£s.d. £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
191423061810114111519243816535176741311
191527701719645661925391813717477155
191628192211510501501926320635486752
19172788181145991927331413126641617
1918241412018845129192838125313469159
1919454025837012319293751033197077
19203770491011861711193030232811959166*
1921352333986811 193123111167240121*
1922321492613859851932236815143998*
192334119321316749193313134261314357*

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF TRADE.

The table following facilitates appreciation of the movement of external trade in recent years, both in value and in actual physical volume. For notes regarding its construction reference may be made to the Monthly Abut met of Statistics for December, 1933. Volume of exports and effect of price changes upon exports are dealt with at greater length in the subsection succeeding this.

YearValue.Volume.
On Gold Basis.On Sterling Basis.On New-Zealand-currency Basis.Exports.Imports.Total External Trade.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
1926100100100100100100100100100
192710790107901079010896102
1928123901239012390112100106
1929122981229812298116114115
19309685968510089119106112
19316444704877531206993
19325232724579491326697
193349287241915115766109

BALANCE OF TRADE.

As a debtor country New Zealand has normally a substantial excess of experts over imports, imports having exceeded exports in only three (calendar) years since 1885—viz., in 1908, 1920, and 1926. The figures for the last twenty years-merchandise only—are as follows:—

Year.Excess of Exports.Year.Excess of Exports.

* Excess of imports.

† On New-Zealand-currency basis.

 £ £
19145,109,69819243,981,620
191510,772,10219252,817,290
19168,235,6541926—4,542,839*
191710,774,94219273,713,689.
19184,348,786192810,726,279
191923,598,75819296,195,591
1920—15,148,487*1930601,000
19212,084,33819318,453,000
19227,899,875193210,964,000
19232,575,810193315,425,000

The high figure of excess of imports in 1920 is a natural sequence of the much higher excess of exports in the previous year, combined with the filling of delayed orders which in many cases had been duplicated in the meantime. A substantial recovery from the low excess of exports recorded in 1930 is evident from the figures for subsequent years.

The following table shows for the year 1933 the amount of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion, the balance of trade in each case also being given:—

Country.Export (New Zealand Currency).Imports, Country of Shipment (Sterling).Balance. (+ = excess of exports; — = excess of imports.)
New Zealand Currency.Sterling.
* Australian currency.
 ££££
United Kingdom35,275,90910,798,996+21,777,000+ 17,422,000
Canada560,8751,006,649−697,000−558,000
India34,320451,214−530,000−424,000
Ceylon2,670434,838−541,000−433,000
South African Union14,42739,033− 34,000−27,000
Australia1,393,3112,807,921*−1,414,000−1,132,000
Fiji87,03594,949−32,000−25,000
Other British countries153,596417,795−369,000−295,000
Totals, British countries37,522,14916,051,395+ 18,160,000+ 14,528,000
Germany370,886280,795+ 26,000+ 21,000
France738,176147,858+553,000+443,000
Belgium330,284121,895+ 178,000+ 142,000
Japan354,462535,090− 314,000− 251,000
Dutch East Indies5,496790,131−982,000−786,000
United States of America1,188,9722,226,026−1,594,000−1,275,000
Other foreign countries489,494873,488−002,000−482,000
Totals, foreign countries3,483,7704,975,283−2,735,000−2,18S,000
Totals, all countries41,005,91921,026,678+ 15,425,000+ 12,340,000

A considerable excess of exports over imports is evident in the Dominion's trade with the United Kingdom, a position due in a large measure to the fact that about£8,000,000 (sterling) would be required to pay interest on the national and local-body debt domiciled in London, plus a considerable amount in respect of funds invested privately in the Dominion. After making allowance for interest-charges, there was still a substantial surplus of exports to the United Kingdom, which, however, was largely offset by an excess of imports in New Zealand's trade with most other countries, particularly in the case of the United States, Australia, and the Dutch East Indies. The majority of other countries also take less than the Dominion receives from them, the deficit being made good from the surplus of exports to the United Kingdom.

As pointed out in the next subsection, considerable quantities of imports into the United Kingdom from New Zealand are re-exported to other countries, so that the official trade statistics of the Dominion overstate the excess of exports in New Zealand's trade with the United Kingdom and of imports in the case of trade with certain European countries.

BALANCE OF OVERSEAS PAYMENTS.

Bound up with the matter of the visible trade balance is the question of the balance of overseas payments. Sufficient data are not available for the presentation of an accurate statement on the subject, but an estimate has been attempted, and the summarized results for the twenty financial years ending with 1932–33 are here given, all figures being expressed in terms of sterling:—

Inward Balance on Account of
Year ended 31st March,Visible Trade (Merchandise only).Visible Trade (Merchandise and Specie).Visible Trade, plus Interest on Public and Local Bodies' Debt.Visible Trade, Public and Local Bodies' Interest and Debt Movement.All Items other than Public and Local Bodies' Debt Movement.All Items including Public and Local Bodies' Debt Movement.
 £m.£m£m£m£m£m
1914+ 1.7+ 1.2− 2.1+ 4.1− 2.2+ 4.1
1915+ 7.6+ 7.1+ 3.6+ 5.7− 0.6+ 1.5
1916+ 12.2+ 10.9+ 7.2+ 11.3+ 3.0+ 1.1
1917+ 5.1+ 4.4+ 0.5+ 3.0− 8.7− 6.2
1918+ 10.4+ 10.3+ 6.2+ 10.9− 2.8+ 2.0
1919+ 6.3+ 6.2+ 1.7+ 8.4− 8.8− 2.1
1920+ 19.2+ 18.9+ 14.3+ 14.1+ 10.9+ 10.7
1921− 19.2− 19.3− 24.1− 21.0− 29.6− 26.5
1922+ 8.0+ 7.7+ 2.5+ 11.9+ 0.2+ 9.6
1923+ 8.7+ 8.6+ 3.0+ 8.5+ 0.8+ 6.2
1924+ 7.2+ 7.3+ 1.4+ 8.3− 1.3+ 5.6
1925+ 4.8+ 4.9− 1.3+ 9.5− 4.2+ 6.7
1926− 4.34.3− 11.1− 2.2− 13.2− 4.4
1927− 2.4− 2.5− 9.6− 2.2− 10.5− 3.1
1928+ 10.6+ 10.5+ 3.0+ 10.6+ 1.7+ 9.3
1929+ 11.4+ 12.0+ 4.0+ 15.0+ 1.9+ 12.9
1930− 1.1− 0.6− 8.9− 11.3− 10.6− 13.1
1931− 0.5− 0.8− 9.2− 1.2− 10.6− 2.5
1932+ 8.3+ 9.0+ 1.1+ 4.5+ 1.0+ 4.3
1933+ 10.6+ 12.3+ 5.2+ 4.0+ 3.5+ 2.3
Aggregate of twenty years+ 104.6+ 103.8− 12.6+ 91.9− 86.1+ 18.4

So far as the first four columns are concerned, the balances shown may be accepted as reliable, being based wholly on ascertained figures, which, by the way, relate to 90per cent, of the total inward and outward payments. The balances shown in the fifth and sixth columns, however, are given out only as the best which the Census and Statistics Office is capable of with the data at present available. The small net balance (£l8.4m.) for all items over the twenty years, taken in conjunction with the probability that London balances on New Zealand account were at 31st March,1933, substantially higher than at the corresponding date twenty years earlier, indicates that the balance for the period as a whole is not seriously in error, having regard to the magnitude of total inward and outward payments. This close coincidence, however, may be largely fortuitous, and may well be duo to counter balancing in accuracies as between individual items or years.

As indicating the relative importance of trade, of debt increase, and interest payments of the Government and local authorities, and of other items, the following aggregates for the twenty years are given:—.

Trade—Inward or Credit Payments. £m.Outward or Debit Payments. £m.
  Merchandise828.0723.4
 Specie4.55.3
Government and local.body debt—  
Increase104.5. .
 Interest. .116.4
 Other items (largely estimated)72.3145.8
 Totals...1,009.3990.9

The figures for the last five years available are given in more detail in the following table. As indicated above, arbitrary assessment has had to be resorted to in the case of certain items, notably interest, &c, on private debt and investments.

Year ended 31st March,
1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Inward or credit items -£(000) £(000) £(000) £(000) £(000)
 Merchandise exports56,52647,93337,19830,85732,657
  specie exports62863417201,796
  Additions to Government and local11,013. .8,0583,371. .
  bodies debts     
  Interest on inter-Governmental debts88887
  Other interest and dividend receipts325497234239162
  Freights350300220150170
  Passage-money600560450250200
  Port receipts784819823620610
  Funds of immigrants37036039017080
  Expenditure by tourists1,1701,140940590550
  Consular, &c, expenditure3030303030
  Reparation receipts299371508167. .
  Governmental sales of overseas long term securities. ..,..1,5007
  Governmental receipts, n.e.i.138163134143276
  Total credit items72,24152,81548,99438,81536,545
Outward or debit items—     
  Merchandise imports45,07749,08537,65022,51022,049
  Additional allowance for freight, &c.1,0251,117342204500
  Specie imports296836758123
  Decreases in Government and local bodies#x0027; debts. .2,445. ...1,199
  Interest on Governmental debt6,7206,9257,0656,6705,935
  Interest on local bodies#x0027; debt1,3001,3551,3051,2351,165
  Interest, &c., on private debt and investments1,0001,0001,000800800
  Funds of emigrants450360270280290
  Tourist expenditure2,8202,8302,6201,7401,440
  Consular, &c., expenditure6060606060
  Governmental purchases of oversea13. .......
  Governmental expenditure, n.e.i.802663849922711
  Total debit items59,29665,90851,53434,47934,272

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE.

There is no Mint in New Zealand, while there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion. Uncoined gold, therefore, ranks as an ordinary export of the Dominion, along with wool, frozen meat, and dairy-produce. In earlier days this export of gold was much more important than now, amounting in 1863 to 70 per cent, of the total exports, from which figure it shrank steadily to 6 per cent, in 1913. The proportion in recent years has bean only about 1 per cent, but, as a combined effect of the falling-off in commodity values and of the consequential fillip given to the gold-mining industry and to the export of gold contained in old jewellery, gold represented nearly 3 per cent, of exports in 1933.

A table is given showing imports and exports of specie during the last ten years. Unusually high exports were recorded in 1928, 1929, and 1932, the figure for the last-mentioned year being a record.

Year.Specie imported.Specie exported.Excess of Specie Imports (+) or Exports (-).
1924. .103,488−103,488
192530,65019,225+ 11,425
192677,8006,651+ 71,149
1927280. .+ 280
192842,164618,100− 575,936
192963,505649,000− 585,495
1930363,087175+ 362,912
193156,155202,330− 146,175
193255,3101,355,861− 1,300,551
1933424,704296,032+ 128,672

SUBSECTION B.—EXPORTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN New Zealand the Department of H.M. Customs requires for every package] exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination.

In all cases exports are valued “free on board at the port of shipment.” In many cases, however, the goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, and in each cases values must be assessed in New Zealand with reference to current price 3. Exports of merchandise are valued in terms of New Zealand currency, which has been at a discount on sterling since the beginning of 1930(vide section on Banking and Currency).The value of total exports, 1930–33, in sterling will be found in the preceding subsection.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. The exports of New Zealand produce are shown separately from re-exports of imported goods.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXTORTS

The total exports (including specie and other re-exports) during the last ten years are given in the following table, classified according to live broad divisions:#x2014;

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufacturedMiscellaneous.Bullion and Specie.Total.
 ££££££
192430,071,96020,007,3751,455,214359,179718,98352,612,711
192529,207,17023,525,3001,625,806355,771548,22555,262,272
192625,691,32016,801,8541,716,162494,405571,83445,275,575
192727,921,06217,762,1941,749,231492,194571,67348,496,364
192831,022,18321,785,6831,851,874381,2241,147,51756,188,481
192932,609,83619,766,7051,547,947485,8631,168,71255,579,063
193031,676,69310,835,1461,494,255345,618588,98044,940,692
193125,724,1997,255,7491,107,610254,031811,43935,153,028
193225,794,1127,269,9461,093,495239,7732,568,45436,965,780
193328,437,1909,784,9251,141,632261,8231,676,38141,301,951

The most important class is that of food, drink, and tobacco, which, in the case of exports from New Zealand, is composed almost wholly of foodstuffs, the principal items being butter, cheese, and frozen meat. Of the total exports during the five years 1929–33 this class accounted for 67.4 per cent. Next in order of magnitude is the raw-materials class (mainly woo), hides, skins, and tallow), which during the last fire years constituted 25.7 per cent, of the total exports for that period. The remaining classes do not figure prominently in the table, and during the five years under review accounted for but 6.9 per cent, of the total.

In the following table exports of New Zealand produce—i.e., exclusive of specie and other re-exports—are classified under the main industries, according to a broad division, to illustrate the relative importance of the pastoral, agricultural, forestry, mining, and other industries as far as the export trade is concerned. It must be remembered that in a particular industry the home trade may be relatively more important than the external trade.

PROPORTIONS OF EXPORTS SUPPLIED BY THE MAIN INDUSTRIES.

Year.Exports (New Zealand Produce).Percentage of Tot-al Exports.
Pasterol.Agricultral.Forest.Mining.Other.Pastoral.Agricultural.Forest.Mining.Other.
 £££££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191422,529,149448,404927,4821,203,5531,092,85985.81.73.54.84.2
191526,534,608074,273074,5332,149,2171,716,28183.62.12.16.85.4
191628,894,422183,797734,0341,001,6501,502,00487.60.62'25.04.6
191727,329,599179,002711,1881,274,2221,593,04687.90.62.34.15.1
191824,038,531196,291719,538479,0171,903,03388.20.72.01.70.8
191948,611,240788,187698,8491,008,3141,537,79491.21.51.33.12.9
192041,500,170530,05(11,262,8941,103,3441,135,82491.11.22.82.42.5
192140,698,867490,094884,279787,591754,02793.31.12.01.91.7
192238,182,793968,9441,066,054850,469630,88891.62.32.62.01.5
192342,128,295568,3501,080,320937,238057,09892.91.32.42.11.3
192448,944,828431,325937,178787,064819,83394.20'91.81.51.6
192551,370,479467,8971,000,453770,439911,70394.20.91.81.41.7
192640,763,348902,164820,947854,995997,72991.92.01.91.92.3
192744,207,037887,893725,047£04,834946,42292.91.91.51.72.0
192851,509,520964,950026,090710,450848,74394.21.81.11.31.6
192950,780,1131,036,700717,088809,676832,43693.81.91.31.51.5
193041,368,145971,259503,170784,125582,70793.62.21.11.81.3
193132,112,634910,937311,050707,120276,89193.62.60.92.10.8
193232,102,2181,043,277321,9231,190,306318,60391.83.00.93.40.9
193337,102,5101,221,979318,8911,374,211391,10091.83&00.83.41.0

The table demonstrates the tendency of the Dominion to rely mainly upon the pastoral industry for her exports. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,”but in the early years of the present century fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining produce. After 1901, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1924 and 1925 it amounted to 94.2per cent, of the total, the highest percentage then recorded, this figure being reached in 1928 also

New Zealand is restricting her agriculture to a level barely sufficient to provide for her own needs in the matter of cereals, and only in exceptional years is there a surplus available for export. Agricultural exports showed an abnormal increase from 1899 to 1903, the period which covers the South African War, but their importance then steadily declined. Their lowest level (0.6 per cent, of total exports) was reached in 1916 and 1917. The higher level of recent years is attributable mainly to a considerable development in the export of apples; pears, peas, and grass- and clover-seeds also contributing. Forest products, though steady, show a relative downward tendency. Mining products which have declined considerably of late years recorded a marked increase since 1931 due to the enhanced price of gold, which led to greater activity in gold-production and to the export of a large quantity of gold recovered from old jewellery,&c.

Included in the Statistical Summary near the end of this' volume are figures showing the main exports from New Zealand during the last fifty years. A more detailed list of commodities is covered by the five-years tables on pp. 198–200. A comparison between 1932 and 1933 gives the following results for fourteen. principal commodities.

INCREASES OR DECREASES IN THE MAIN EXPORTS IN 1933.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).Value.Amount ofPercentage
1932.1933.Increase.Decrease.Increase.Decrease.
 ££££  
Wool5,742,8217,422,2661,679,445. .29.2. .
Frozen meat8,436,3069,845,6271,409,321. .16.7. .
Butter10,630,05311,648,6991,009,646. .9.5. .
Cheese4,951,2684,766,351. .184,917. .3.7
Dried and preserved milk269,121315,96446,843. .17.4. .
Sausage-casings266,273394,461128,188. .48.1. .
Apples755,158655,746. .99,412. .13.2
Tallow462,081516,06353,982. .11.7. .
Skins, hides, and1,074,0391,868,450794,411. .74.0. .
pelts      
Gold1,092,2881,281,612189,324. .17.3. .
Coal56,32153,690. .2,631. .4.7
Kauri.gum62,13777,97315,836. .25.5. .
Phormium47,31247,632320. .0.7. .
Timber253,883237,643. .16,240. .6.4

In the following table exports during 1933 are grouped in classes in accordance with the statistical classification adopted for both exports and imports in 1914:—

No.Class.New Zealand Produce.Reexports.
  ££
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)7,312,3413,299
11Foodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt1,089,8644,768
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic), and substances used in making up the same7905,574
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors3,4407,029
VTobacco and preparations thereof3,0703,484
VILive animals52,4631,271
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs9,296,782310
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres.213,2412,577
IXAApparel1,3966,160
IXBTextiles3,39941,220
IXCManufactured fibres1,57310,362
XOils, fats, and waxes533,578210,594
XIPaints and varnishes4773,554
XIIStones and minerals used industrially140,43121
XIIISpecie. .296,032
XIVAMetal (unmanufactured and partly manufactured) and ores1,374,98762,492
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines3,00739,507
XVMachinery and machines8,81157,060
XVIAIndia rubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires). .282
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes9,298938
XVIIATimber237,528115
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures1,031936
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials1,9771,982
XIXAPaper1812,178
XIXBStationery9,13311,466
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods12017,142
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments70122,054
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares19,7115,102
XXIIBManures36,298113
XXIIIAVehicles1221,491
XXIIIBMiscellaneous12,71454,087
 Parcels-post40,397..
      Totals40,408,751893,200

Exports for 1933 (including specie and re-exports) are now grouped according to a classification adopted by the British Board of Trade for the compilation of Empire trade statistics. Exports to British and foreign countries are distinguished.

Commodity (including Re-exports and Specie).United Kingdom.Other British Countries.United States of America.Other Foreign Countries.Totals.

* Not including bunker coal, £52,947.

† Not including bunker fuel oil, £204,002.

 £££££
Grain and milled products200,46028,2392,29041,571272,560
Meat (including poultry and game)9,888,16551,4421,24417,1369,957,987
Butter, cheese, and eggs16,248,38783,8222,90496,09916,431,212
Fruits (fresh and dried)623,80314,938483,138721,883
Sugar26412,82910653313,732
Tea154,9843272155,541
Alcoholic beverages2,2135,1292,03597410,351
Tobacco3065,3857101536,554
Coal*237. .704743
Ores, concentrates, and scrap16,5332,039. .37,89556,467
Iron and steel—     
 Pigs, ingots, &c.. .  55
 Bars, rod, plate, sheet, &c..,454. .147601
Other manufactures of Iron and steel2,42928,63669562232,382
Agricultural implements and machinery1,5813,524. .455,150
Electrical machinery and equipment2,61710,28914,14895928,013
Other machinery7,959. 21,7742,60137432,708
Motor-cars and parts thereof9,7479,66968238520,483
Other metals and metal manufactures7,5374,04328877012,638
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)17,61228,95775632247,647
Wool, raw5,481,182324,63688,9231,527,5257,422,266
Yarns and threads9331,258. .342,225
Cotton piece-goods56915,314131,12017,016
Woollen piece-goods410693. ...1,103
Other piece-goods2,2884,661. .4,69011,639
Other textiles (including apparel)4,14624,0255142,71831,403
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, &c.)111,5422451951,993
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)978238,203116151239,448
Newsprint43325. ...368
Seeds and nuts for expressing oil therefrom1651,294. ...1,459
Oil—Petroleum, crude and refined234,1721948215,210
Hides, skins, and furs, undressed515,958327,289725,231300,2781,868,756
Leather and manufactures thereof (including boots and shoes)7,3442,3742521,12911,099
Other merchandise1,184,406707,568289,542173,4122,354,928
Total merchandise34,228,0861,969,5441,133,8202,294,12039,625,570
Gold and silver (coin and bullion)1,343,423277,12855,1526781,676,381
Total exports35,571,50?2,246,6721,188,9722,294,79841,301,951

The principal items of export may again be regrouped under six definite heads, as in the table below, which shows in more detail the commodities exported from the Dominion. Only New Zealand produce is included.

Practically all the main commodities are homogeneous articles, and it is therefore possible to give the quantities exported. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price-variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
* Ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.
The mine— 
 Coal .. .. (tons)205,403126,11848,33435,86634,131
 Gold* .. .. (oz.)116,848133,749140,970200,648177,241
 Silver .. .. (oz.)410,282506,083551,441520,047410,091
 Other minerals .. (tons)3510138827
The fisheries— 
 Fish .. .. (cwt.)24,63221,80016,18020,47932,399
 Oysters .. .. (doz.)26,236139,03745,55729,377106,241
 Whalebone .. (lb.)448. .......
 Whale-oil .. .. (gal.)71,31947,64940,78830,'86128,895
 The forest— 
 Fungus .. .. (cwt.)1,5191,8041,8401,3301,028
 Kauri-gum .. (tons)4,0373,3183,0582,0683,089
 Timber, sawn and hewn (sup. ft.)39,102,83126,070,13117,532,30427,286,88425,829,404
Pastoral products— 
 Bacon and hams .. (cwt.)3,8242,212828874003
 Beef and pork, salted1,3012,8951,3731,4091,202
 Butter1,653,8071,884,2371,988,5662,185,5452,635,247
 Casein57,20657,30962,91742,77048,874
 Cheese1,779,0931,812,9811,636,3471,790,4311,082,042
 Hides and skins ..(number)1,133,2981,101,5361,025,1301,183,2291,456,241
 Honey .. .. (lb.)2,385,887171,530584,739226,243757,106
 Live-stock— 
 Cattle .. .. (number)58147239729
 Horses .. (number)25821695198250
 Sheep .. (number)4,4344,4032,2423,5782,333
 Pigs .. (number)1,01562340420775
 Preserved meats .. (cwt.)38,18337,25726,75035,38739,453
 Frozen meats .. (cwt)3,336,2024,036,6394,138,8084,645,4805,203,113
 Milk, dried and preserved (lb.)13,736,09815,200,83512,845,39416,033,17517,040,072
 Sausage-casings .. (cwt.)32,83940,02732,68933,67940,404
 Rabbit-skins .. (number)9,122,9177,206,9926,174,0926,660,14010,378,388
 Sheep skins and pelts,,'9,631,75611,019,58612,085,69313,040,41215,193,700
 Tallow .. .. (cwt.)416,040492,500405,280507,540560,400
 Wool .. .. (lb,)234,955,97811,7,239,614l,718,868238,179,062286,307,441
Agricultural products— 
 Bran and sharps . ... (tons)5125051,005..
 Chaff .. (tons)23101622. .
 Flour .. (tons)224"82
 Grain and pulse— .. (tons) 
 Barley .. .. (centals)241385515670
 Peas .. .. (centals)173,792125,65569,441106,282200,411
 Oats .. .. .. (centals)6,8181,9371,2801,8167,205
 Wheat .... (centals)131,47930023545603,431
 Hops .. .. (cwt.)2,3731,8218021,7885,282
 Oatmeal .. .. (tons)16023212910054
 Onions .. .. (tons)2,622438652,079880
 Potatoes .. (tons)1,6681,1948641,1404,007
 Seeds (grass and clover) (cwt.)57,86936,50040,95334,33780,308
 Miscellaneous— 
 Beer .. .. (gal.)13,53114,98712,00213,86514,582
 Cement .. .. (cwt.)2,3291,8201,4324,0767,216
 Leather .. .. (cwt.)7013371,6151,979631
 Phormium fibre and (tons)14,7209,4932,3983,8504,402
tow 
  Sugar .. .. (cwt.)19,08622,05818,05020,94918,359
 Binder-twine .. (cwt.)1,586110727368

EXPORTS.

The values of these principal exports are tabulated in the following table, and the statement is rendered complete by the addition of miscellaneous groups and the provision of totals for each group and for all combined:—

Commodity (New Zealand Produce).1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
The mine—£££££
 Coal284,521186,21083,30356,32153,690
 Gold480,212550,678581,0321,092,2881,281,012
 Silver41,47544,53434,43640,73736,060
 Other minerals3,5472,7038,2659602,243
     Totals809,755784,125707,1261,190,3003,374,211
The fisheries— 
 Fish83,00070,72144,58851,30775,019
 Oysters4301,4805313821,048
 Whalebone50. .......
 Whale-oil7,6254,9853,7012,7002,274
 Ambergris*7,200. ...62222
 Other185014105124
     Totals98,32077,23648,89454,55678,087
The forest— 
 Fungus9,10511,4469,9885,9033,209
 Kauri-gum267,610189,035128,09562,13777,973
 Timber439,342300,582172,033253,883237,528
 Other9411,507940. .121
     Totals717,088503,170311,050321,923318,891
Pastoral products— 
 Bacon and hams23,42211,7074,4544,3684,074
 Beef and pork, salted3,5407,8473,1363,0962,414
 Butter13,228,02711,854,05610,649,52710,639,05311,648,099.
 Casein167,972155,57588,72059,02993,742
 Cheese7,017,4636,438,4334,461,2934,951,2084,706,351
 Hides and skins783,490543,723349,047309,800601,043
 Honey82,7436,21619,4017,05421,823
 Live-stock— 
  Cattle2,6792,3491,1542,1701,777
  Horses87,02342,38729,73643,57741,815
  Sheep52,35731,1817,28017,3378,053
  Pigs3,7472,4751,223497201
  Other2,6765,3811,572528617
 Milk, dried and preserved352,587351,339246,483209,121315,904
 Preserved meats152,015149,81492,05496,123105,272
 Frozen meats9,883,31310,937,3828,892,5558,436,3009,845,627
 Sausage-casings653,033780,073399,418266,273394,461
 Rabbit-skins861,949142,249108,84170,016224,399
 Sheep skins and pelts1,812,0931,516,738805,838694,2171,043,208
 Tallow693,614683,571413,080462,081516,003
 Wool15,359,2067,664,3625,515,3765,742,8217,422,206
 Other57,16441,28222,44027,47744,241
     Totals50,780,11341,368,14532,112,03432,102,21837,102,510
Agricultural products— 
 Bran and sharps81701131,4943,368
 Chaff28511012818311
 Flour58579017139
 Fruits683,066669,397069,300799,962730,451
 Grain and pulse— 
  Barley174129510329
  Peas120,52285,91558,09181,507123,876
  Oats3,8811,2577891,0432,237
  Wheat63,07822615827138,825
  Other2256215966135
 Hops14,1798,4093,5787,89723,660
 Oatmeal7,04111,4726,1024,5222,195
 Onions21,542,40266620,2024,702
 Potatoes13,9508,4515,5306,14023,629
 Seeds (grass and clover)182,537100,221155,410109,032152,458
 Seeds (various)15,31810,3136,4587,8777,354
 Other10,7516,7023,0882,5448,710
     Totals1,036,700971,259910,9371,043,2771,221,979

As recorded. Certain exports by parcels-post are not available, but are Included in “Miscellaneous—Other #x201D;at the end of the table.

Commodity (N.Z. Produce).1029.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Miscellaneous (including manufactures)—£££££
Beer5,0494,2072,4052,0263,364
Apparel (including hats, caps, hosiery, and millinery)2,5166,1751,4151,0841,325
Cement5094052708091,272
Cordage3,2011,8021,7291,4721,387
Foods, Infants' and invalids'.981,2582,26610,2468,104
Leather14,2895,3329,0059,7779,101
Phormium fibre and tow379,942221,92338,40747,31247,032
Soap8,1808,2825,4797,6917,66
Sugar19,31020,59514,68015,77913,844
Binder-twine4,690369202189177
Woollen manufactures5,9905,4051,5697841,884
Other290,182229,718150,610166,338216,629
     Totals734,028505,471227,097264,107312,473
Totals, New Zealand produce54,176,01344,209,40034,319,24434,976,38740,408,751
Re-exports of merchandise754,050731,111631,454633,532597,168
Total exports of merchandise54,930,06344,040,51734,950,60835,609,91941,005,919
Specie exports649,000175202,3301,355,861290,032

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865, 70per cent., and even in 1871, 44 per cent., of the total exports went to, Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines with the United Kingdom the Motherland has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875–1914,£365,880,997 (78 per cent.) of a grand total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the war, did not vary greatly from year to year, but naturally there have been considerable variations since 1914.

The principal destinations of New Zealand 's exports (including specie and re-exports) during the last twenty years are given in the table below. The principal “other countries ”in 1933, in order of magnitude, were France, Japan, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands, Panama Canal Zone, and China.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.Pacific Islands (other than Australia).United States.Germany.Other Countries.Total.
 ££££££££
191421,388,8911,028,410505,611326,0251,028,054456,163543,29326,261,447
191525,389,0302,548,605025,813499,0632,006,6074379,89031,748,912
191626,869,9882,191,545601,086368,0692,493,9875671,35733,286,937
191726,023,3961,460,080061,653540,3801,894,3176706,81531,587,547
191818,244,2501,803,7301,703,576511,8424,045,648. .2,117,13328,516,188
191044,312,0482,240,827080,100548,1124,200,861. .1,670,03753,970,076
192034,354,3002,351,7091,357,774718,2837,466,04123203,72646,441,946
1,02133,716,6032,070,013454,607617,3632,702,10446,162321,00544,828,827
192236,164,1742,208,280446,457399,3782,672,775218,338626,84742,726,249
192337,324,0052,642,266665,606466,1643,631,272190,6001,146,56245,967,165
192442,038,3862,509,322716,543575,8803,278,1351,166,3022,328,14852,612,711
192544,073,3232,502,113423,068548,5914,349,7681,614,0901,751,32065,262,272
192635,102,0873,054,433861,717516,2683,818,232364,6291,650,22446,276,676
192786,877,8873,665,0621,666,608495,4022,681,0911,130,6541,060,76048,406,354
192840,510,0753,402,6552,460,160592,9664,260,3151,290,0713,663,24056,188,481
192940,057,0432,338,4103,853,075626,9683,653,4271,220,6523,528,60855,679,063
193036,015,3031,562,2812,630,212471,9742,116,752401,0841,834,08644,940,692
193130,940,6541,169,055256,890302,634920,931309,8471,253,01735,153,028
193232,449,2311,444,860244,160266,725940,015289,0171,330,87236,965,780
193335,571,5091,303,311500,875232,4321,188,972370,8861,977,96641,301,951

Included in the exports to the United Kingdom are considerable quantities of produce which are shipped to London merely as a convenient depot for subsequent reshipment to the Continent or to America. The total re-exports in normal pre-war years amounted to about £4,000,000 annually, and although the amount fell, under war conditions, to as low as £565,529 in 1918, it showed a substantial increase during subsequent years, with, however, a sharp decline since 1929, mainly owing to low wool prices. The following table shows the principal items of New Zealand produce re-exported from the United Kingdom.

RE-EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FROM UNITED KINGDOM.

Commodity.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
 £ (stg.)£ (stg.)£ (stg.)£ (stg.)£ (stg.)
Butter370,031457,843317,728217,645365,320
Cheese34,21343,94242,86134,20832,183
Casein57,39658,89780,09749,72920,384
Milk-powder, not sweetened43,08775,88179,13156,41932,125
Milk, preserved, other kinds,61,55911,726878. ...
not sweetened..........
Oleo-margarine, oleo-oil, and5,90212,21111,2301,1901,059
refined tallow..........
Peas, not fresh5,9492,3758911,6942,517
Apples55,37533.84050,97955,328108,980
Grass and clover seeds36,85017,37717,31214,2952,736
Beef, frozen27,4016,86711,02112,5755,363
Beef, tinned, canned, &c. (including tongues) and extracts and essences3,3602,1782,0161,7822,306
Mutton and lamb, frozen45,11050,91750,41546,61543,550
Meat, other kinds8,40710,2487,4549,4298,240
Sausage-casings46,60343,04733,58482,74951,973
Hides249,955224,462250,334174,93189,604
Sheep and Iamb skins476,515215,208290,880186,377177,009
Rabbit-skins104,91055,64370,92411,2838,115
Kauri-gum51,42671,90144,54639,54811,719
Tallow304,566204,564242,698103,10502,720
Phormium-fibre133,77279,83142,7701,755549
Wool, raw; sheep and lambs wool5,811,9315,247,0132,886,2242,970,0952,741,560
All other commodities98,133126,84478.89247,95030,296
     Totals8,035,4517,053,4354,612,7654,118,7023,798,311

The table which follows shows for each of ten years the percentage of total exports(excluding specie) taken by each of the principal countries trading with the Dominion.

Country.1924.1925.1920.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
United Kingdom79.9379.7677.5376.0472.9073.588O.1487.9688.0286.03
Canada1.370.771.903.444.456.115.650.740.691.37
1ndia0.940.350.180.300.680.700.0l0.170.150.08
Ceylon0.000.000.000.010.010.020.010.010.010.01
South African Union0.050.030.070.060.120.090.040.020.030.03
Australia4.724.536.757.565.224.263.483.344.063.40
Fiji0.260.240.340.250.230.230.240.250.250.21
Other British countries0.420.440.530.520.500.420.480.430.440.37
Totals, British countries87.6986.1287.3088.1784.1185.4090.9692.9293.6591.50
Germany2.222.920.802.352.322.220.890.890.820.92
France1.071.071.512.083.243.221.151.201.431.80
Belgium0.200.350.380.340.550.450.440.420.470.81
Japan0.630.420.360.521.180.780.340.760.670.86
United States of America6.247.878.435.537.5l6.514.712.661.942.91
Other foreign countries1.951.251.221.011.091.421.511.151.021.20
Totals, foreign countries12.3113.8812.7011.8315.8914.609.047.086.358.50

Since 1930 about seven-eighths of New Zealand's exports have gone to the United Kingdom. A certain amount of this produce, as indicated previously, is subsequently reshipped, principally to European countries. The principal commodities, in order of magnitude, taken by the United Kingdom from New Zealand in 1933 were butter, frozen meat, wool, cheese, gold, apples, hides and skins, tallow, and dried milk.

Since 1930 Australia has ranked second among the Dominion 's export customers, and in 1933 took 3.40 per cent, of New Zealand 's total exports. Comparative figures of the principal items in 1933 and 1932 are as follows: Gold, £274,950(£380,847); timber (chiefly kahikatea), £227,681 (£239,525);wool, £170,045 (£88,340); cattle-hides, £100,768(£89,701); fish, £58,107 (£44,278).

The decline in exports to the United States which set m after 1929 was arrested in 1933, when 2-91 per cent, of New Zealand 's exports went to the United States, the corresponding percentage in 1932 being 1.94. Principal items in 1933 were as follows(1932 figures in parentheses): Sheep-skins, £444,232 (£206,600);sausage-casings, £170,019 (£99,674); rabbit-skins, £155,852(£41,497); wool, £88,923 (£32,044); calf-skins, £82,537(£31,227).

Mainly owing to the operation of the Canadian tariff on New Zealand butter, Canada 's share of New Zealand 's exports fell progressively from the high level of 6.11 percent, in 1929 to 0.69 per cent, in 1932, with, however, a substantial recovery to 1.37 per cent, in 1933, due to increases in the following principal items (1933 figures shown first, with those for 1932 in parentheses): Wool, £149,245(£81,295); sausage-casings, £129,129 (£40,523); cattle-hides,£99,512 (£1,695); calfskins, £69,945 (£32,519).

France, Germany, Belgium, and Japan took, in 1933, a greater share of the Dominion 's exports, mainly owing to increases in wool.

Following are the principal exports to the countries indicated, 1933 figures being shown first, with those for 1932 in parentheses:—Irish Free State: Hops,£6,538 (£6,422). Netherlands: Wool, £23,770 (£52,381);apples, £16,033 (£309): hides, &c, £12,938 (£3,332).Italy: Wool, £77,271 (£74,684); hides, &c, £18,502(£10,109). Denmark: Wool, £8,866 (£7,937). Sweden: Wool,£31,791 (£16,127). Poland: Wool, £24,754 (nil). Spain: Wool,£3,937 (£7,229). China: Wheat, £35,280 (nil); butter,£S,036 (£7,586); dried and preserved milk, £4,642(£3,176). India: Tallow, £18,126 (£35,549); butter, £6,232(£5,494). Ceylon: Butter, £1,300 (£2,375). Malaya: Dried and preserved milk, £14,966 (£23,256); butter, £4,536(£2,051). Egypt: Beef, £5,451 (nil). British West Indies: Butter,£20,571 (nil). South African Union: Wool, £3,435 (£5,122); peas,£3,984 (£1,782); tinned meats, £2,509 (£2,273). Argentina: Sheep, £1,560 (£450). Panama Canal Zone: Butter, £59,054(£43,754). Brazil: Apples, £15,285 (nil). Uruguay: Apples,£21,809 (£13,791); potatoes, £18,285 (nil). Hawaii: Butter,£17,147 (£27,120); frozen meat, £2,109 (£3,302). Fiji: Films, £9,877 (£10,150); bags and sacks, £8,358 (£15,942);tinned meat, £6,610 (£5,300); tea, £4,017 (£3,388).Western Samoa: Tinned meat, £12,474 (£9,557); timber, £6,644(£4,020); sugar, £6,021 (£6,240). Tutuila: Tinned meat,£1,431 (£1,795). Gilbert and Ellice Islands: Tinned meat, £2,974(£3,279). Society Islands: Butter, £7,516 (£6,456); dried and preserved milk, £7,357 (£5,102) tinned meat, £4,892(£3,128).

EXPORTS TO EACH COUNTRY, 1929–33.

The table following shows the exports (including specie and re-exports) for five years according to the countries of destination.

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM New Zealand.

Country.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 £££££
United Kingdom40,957,04;5 36,015,30330,940,65432,449,23135,571,509
British Possession,. Protectorates, &c     
Europe—     
 Irish Free State4071842276,5696,649
 Malta and Gibraltar91316941
 4161972436,5786,690
Asia—     
 Ceylon7,0559,0665,0933,4982,670
 Hong Kong12,74514,08514,16514,15315,143
 India386,421406,87859,18553,37834,326
 Malaya26,78120,61114,92226,86822,929
 Other1,2911,408858958872
 434,293452,04894,22398,85575,940
 Africa—     
 South African Union51,70715,5898,05212,12014,427
 Other3423921,001488926
 52,04915,9819,05312,60815,353
 America—     
 Canada3,353,9752,539,212256,890244,160560,875
 British West Indies1211,0432,3611520,970
 Other... .45913672
 3,354,0962,540,259259,310244,311581,917
 Pacific islands—     
 Australia2,338,4101,562,2811,169,0551,444,8601,393,311
 Fiji135,652110,03389,24588,69387,435
 Gilbert and Ellice Islands14,1259,1747,1307,7875,227
 Nauru Island10,17620,0005,9549,0954,181
 Norfolk Island18,56111,28111,7738,93lj1,899
 Papua11,8787,2541,7571,504!2,297
 Solomon Islands7,8215,8947,7894,42o!660
 Tonga58,59947,95829,92627,266;19,407
 Western Samoa65,91979,99551,10649,43851,348
 Other3342154957481,007
 2,661,4751,854,0851,374,2301,642,7421,566,772

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM New Zealand —continued.

Country.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Foreign Countries and Possessions.£££££
Europe—     
 Belgium248,705199,048146,335167,629330,284
 Denmark17,75121,10012,9698,9899,404
 Finland7514,4731,019164515
 France1,768,399519,727419,016508,960738,176
 Germany1,220,552401,084309,847289,917376,886
 Italy148,65897,38764,90985,35397,330
 Netherlands155,490132,000125,56564,48464,827
 Sweden6,5466,63413,99620,92533,984
 Switzerland1,6401,3405,6761,8651,219
 Other4,8334,5225,44821,42141,757
 3,573,3251,387,3151,104,7801,169,7071,694,382
 Asia—     
 China36,34836,49317,62515,41354,564
 Dutch East Indies19,19113,02910,2055,2555,496
 Japan428,577154,741267,899236,799354,462
 Philippine Islands19,34212,4915,4141,081413
 Other..3103795751843
 503,768217,133301,200258,599415,778
 Africa—     
 Egypt2641,2132448405,567
 Other3116383283
America—2951,2292828725,650
 Argentina73,60810,6341,1172,9791,638
 Brazil25,01914,3245,068. .15,904
 Chile19,8817051,3918,59725
 Mexico138,149824. ...
 Panama Canal Zone41,87659,14633,63247,02561,346
 Peru529556411
 United States of America3,653,4272,116,752920,931940,0151,18S,972
 Uruguay18,81266,2278,33914,78441,084
 Other..1,499579127309
 3,834,6642,276,571971,4351,013,4341,308,989
 Pacific Islands—     
Hawaii123,374110,58661,95033,90319,720
 New Caledonia..12,0674,02882627256
 Society Islands54,25552,90024,81726,16733,110
 Tuamotu Archipelago10,0119,3554,8791,6741,005
 Tutuila4,0413,0084,5424,6934,215
 Other1450946042,379665
 203,893180,57197,61868,84358,971

Ninety-one per cent, of the total exports from New Zealand wont to British countries in 1933. The United States took one-third of the remainder.

Full details of quantities an a values of commodities exported to various countries are given in Part I of the Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping, while in Part II of the same report values of exports of principal commodities to various countries are summarized. The table which follows shows quantities of principal export commodities sent to various destinations during the last five years. Both New Zealand produce and re-exports are covered.

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS.

Country to which exported.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 Wool
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom162,325,211158,505,801105,351,019184,587,304213,545,236
Canada2,906,4381,977,2422,115,2952,867,5675,105,835
Australia4,816,8543,929,4144,801,1893,002,5340,087,710
Belgium2,960,9102,886,3053,730,6536,632,10913,061,751
Denmark226,532343,700428,631323,373225,842
France27,978,92613,102,43015,692,19218,256,81119,773,423
Germany14,902,9395,717,8950,952,2728,217,87210,070,755
Italy1,983,9621,107,4071,000,8012,823,9232,738,015
Netherlands1,589,0281,570,677500,1511,509,870064,540
Sweden81,296113,075230,412575,0111,042,908
Japan6,344,3202,495,0276,162,8037,534,3480,430,178
United States of America8,190,8985,273,2501,423,2731,017,7752,209,902
Other countries648,664155,879252,057769,9591,744,500
     Totals234,055,978107,239,014211,718,808238,179,062280,307,441
Frozen Meal.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom3,097,1353,907,0404,108,2834,037,7115,189,834
Canada21,08619,1401,6483,5252,704
Australia13,9621,71420432901
Italy10,62919,39610,060. ...
Egypt. .......6,230
United States of America176,8638,424893226996
Hawaii10,87418,2849,4111,884961
Pacific islands (other than Hawaii)1,7382,0181,4531,3171,507
Other countries3,015623183488700
     Totals3,336,2024,030,0304,138,8004,(145,4805,203,113
 Butter.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,276,8411,553,7251,962,3202,150,1272,597,008
Hong Kong2712054531,0791,032
India3257597809081,120
Malaya2,1802,3741,050363931
South African Union1,90956......
British West Indies11150400. .4,550
Canada335,127200,0713,6126,0396,908
Australia145291,8801,481
China3,8964,3860481,4491,732
Dutch East Indies1,074075555368134
Japan2,2061,005712003375
Philippine Islands2,3131,70385518850
Panama Canal Zone4,7179,2706,1018,98013,400
United States of America9,512171633050
Hawaii10,9449,9127,4215,2343,403
Pacific islands (other than Hawaii)1,6221,0911,4921,7071,877
Other countries8581,145809557404
     Totals1,053,8071,884,2371,988,5062,185,5452,035,247
 Cheese.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,770,1501,809,3481,035,2331,788,9891,980,872
Canada3,2542,099733811
Australia78317315212901
Pacific islands348282300357207
United States of America3,81011....
Other countries7481,078582953001
     Totals1,779,0931,812,9811,036,3471,700,4311,082,012
 Dried and Preserved Milk.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom11,386,37412,737,73411,198,83013,455,05415,078,200
Malaya257,504110,78593,6481,362,574882,200
Australia1,621,0861,823,5701,108,949513,319158,204
Fiji87,79767,19248,01328,42338,000
Tonga13,88315,7406,9574,2574,155
Western Samoa24,00031,52715,45121,06525,248
China24,21828,9071,248197,728276,683
Dutch East Indies41,03438,92058,88016,57026,812
Panama Canal Zone .12,60040,70031,732168,431134,601
Society Islands90,733158,638140,286101,537246,208
Other countries176,738132,00281,400103,459168,003
     Totals13,736,09815,200,83512,845,39416,033,31717,640,072
Country to which exported.1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 Tallow.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom17,38519,15516,05820,03623,548
India7699571,1691,626918
South African Union191857. ...
Australia0542,0842,9558931,116
Fiji4320140511141
Belgium160410173951
Germany332300196377520
Netherlands127208135356222
Japan432181,4924731,088
United States of America73730515513170
Other countries01058890335340
     Totals20,83224,02823,26425,37728,020
 Hides (Cattle and Horse).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom20,47554,21098,98084,03670,066
India. ...4,322900550
Canada29,33028,41215,2072,852105,744
Australia95,49374,87060,178117,87488,585
Belgium6,20221,07325,3855,1236,623
Finland5004,2531,142250600
France4,4444,81013,9099,2360,655
Germany55,80758,12130,93751,93041,158
Greece. ...4,4754,500745
Italy5,12410,99726,30413,96822,371
Netherlands753,4022,196504484
United States of America62,00017,44110,5006,05037,352
Other countries2,7778,0819,9557,2985,991
     Totals291,440202,084309,556304,527401,924
 Calfskins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom5,42967,95453,1412,09417,971
Canada45,00071,93485,740277,935315,406
Australia171,33659,708120,418310,200101,028
Belgium30,44389,20442,3456,25142,520
Germany6,5188,0001,3505,48610,485
Greece. ...6,999. .5,455
Netherlands1,15328,0515,000. .18,024
United States of America401,136328,083330,891234,151370,368
Other countries. .3,2088573,584370
     Totals607,015056,802652,747845,707890,087
 Opossum skins.
 Number.Number.Number. Number.
United Kingdom127,03873,26543,1402,323121,287
Australia. .10,960. ...2,201
Austria2,0001,0001,000. .2,000
Germany25,8509,750. ...600
United States of America. .70,31974230,484
     Totals155,49794,93250,4653,005156,572
 Rabbit-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom5,935,9204,345,5122,774,7172,915,0083,578,009
Canada61,230. .......
Australia95,37137,74823,05241,81530,178
Belgium18,848. .19,200. .158,840
France38,95368,12867,477357,674375,453
Germany102,280. .....10,214
United States of America2,870,3032,755,6043,285,2983,331,0246,197,878
Other countries. ...4,34813,71920,910
     Totals9,122,0177,206,9026,174,0926,660,14010,378,388
Country to which exported.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 Sheep-skin (with Wool).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom515,204713,2751,183,748 1773,7341,210,930
India. .....104,470
Canada. ...9,18160,933 1155,573
Australia300. .3,47312,06610,145
Belgium12,60282,4513,0906,40070,000
France123,433224,854231,538628,4671,505,320
Germany5,1214,73715,89120,55664,228
Netherlands4,43046,80835,42357,838..
Italy. .....2501,700
Spain. ...2 190. .11,955
Japan180. .5,84016,50930,074
United States of America415,117512,278103,39282,852239,101
     Totals1,072,0171,542,025 11,605,8111,641,2023,380,114
 Sheep-skins
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom1,070,0002,718,1335,054,8906,306,3834,044,682
Canada17,3462,8958,24375,83444,178
Australia452,921221,066244,682305,015257,403
Belgium111,445202,291246,97054,384156,400
France91,081191,052242,885256,051152,559
Germany61138,40013,2822,7702,205
Japan21,158. .39,50465,739123,578
United State of America0,794,2116,102,5184,569,4204,818,5107,032,278
Other countries. .....3,024312
     Totals8,559,7399,477,50110,419,88211,999,21011,813,085
 Sausage-casings.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom378,902012,0071,500,0401,074,2481,023,100
Canada1,073,7211,497,355707,208035,6271,270,517
Australia331,002344,317190,109270,302281,721
Germany509,780200,085100,29180,000441,207
United States of America1,312,1371,708,3801,090,5201,105,2351,513,010
Other countries81,8482459575607,120
     Totals3,687,3904,483,0193,001,2513,772,0684,543,200
 Peas.
 Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.
United Kingdom128,74291,01037,09571,004157,083
Australia31,10523,30524,11325,77417,482
South African Union3,9941,5832,7131,8535,425
France. .721,0447011,000
Netherlands. .......10,032
United States of America7,9385,2042,0534,7425,098
Other countries2,0138158027801,800
     Totals173,792125,05508,780105,814199,810
 Apples (Fresh).
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom26,617,25837,958,13242,781,57055,607,27044,008,440
Canada476,000522,47040,070006,6801,008,081)
Fiji87,00493,783140,956131,05678,018
Tonga2,7420,00012,2239,0416,103
Western Samoa6,67410,8307,2283,80015,810
France. .....1,129,060864,480
Germany1,878,5808,198,120. .1,572,6401,434,400
Netherlands2,209,3208,402,0808,054,51823,0401,282,000
Sweden........25,040
Argentina4,144,740. ...180,800..
Brazil1,737,5211,045,000405,440. .1,222,080
Uruguay619,2805,152,900400,2801,103,2801,744,720
Hawaii72; 8002,000. .....
Other countries2,83113,3001,6609,0797,021
     Totals37,875,41051,406,04951,916,55100,443,23052,418,952
Country to which exported.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 Seeds (Grass and Clover).
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom8,3708,94312,0028,01745 047
Canada2,5983,1772,4471,3811,603
Australia29,9399,09412,83615,94419,475
France2502341230260
Germany1,4602,0531,128108467
Netherlands930920155322445 12,824
United States of America14,59012,03011,8898,69112,824
Other countries345401578185526
     Totals58,48230,91841,15834,71080,447
 Gold.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom India4575,01782,130118,770136,895
India.60,89177,022. .....
Australia38,50240,32448,68773,54841,529
United States of America10,93810,82010,15525,0278,445
Other countries. .....205108
     Totals110,848133,783140,072217,550186,977
 Silver.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom1,196175163,284503,298388,604
India408,797;495,012382,760. ...
Australia6,26960,8273,77217,92922,658
United States of America..3,4491,625. ...
     Totals416,262566,003551,441521,227411,202
 Kauri-gum.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom2,1922,3801,8571,2521,537
Canada22412717210071
Australia80575391123
Belgium9021525411
France146806668146
Germany122037236248
Italy. .....1049
Sweden. ...322110
Japan2011202628
United States of America2,0011,075734344866
Other countries24. .....
     Totals4,9373,81S3,0582,008 I3,089
 Phormium-fibre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom3,7171,8384059151,840
Canada320108732011,857
Australia3,0242,376,1,0382,0851,857
Belgium10593. ...10
France106127:. .....
Germany12487. .1020
Netherlands5013525. ...
United States of America4,8003,18523814950
Other countries5. .515. .
     Totals12,317 |8,0091,7843,3753,828
 Timber (Sawn and Hewn).
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
United Kingdom120,35177,251208,749288,814104,887
Australia38,420,43725,901,15810,842,83920,204,90524,967,356
Fiji131,44873,45533,23028,39732,857
Pacific islands (other than Fiji)475,505645,300460,850699,687720,010
other countries. .....9,9029,537
     Totals39,153,74120,697,16417,551,07427,291,70525,840,053

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30th JUNE.

New Zealand 's exports consist almost wholly of seasonal products, and the calendar year splits the season in the case of most of the principal commodities. The largest item of export, wool, is sheared from the sheep in the early summer, and the wool-sales are held in December and January. Exports of any season 's wool-clip are therefore divided between one year and the next in varying proportion. A favourable season or a sudden demand may cause a great increase of exports in the December quarter, with the result that the March quarter of the next year shows low figures. The wool trade invariably bases its calculations on each season 's clip, not on calendar years.

The same argument holds good in the case of butter and cheese, which are almost wholly exported in December and March quarters. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, since this division is more suited to the seasonal production of main commodities.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE(VALUES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.

Commodity.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
Butter13,022,9579,918,26010,127,50710,897,89411,830,070
Casein192,55899,00564,74767,158141,408
Cheese6,361,3295,226,6004,570,1324,808,1484,732,089
Fish79,97456,52541,38156,272113,357
Honey20,77211,85214,80813,07921,666
Beef, frozen577,120384,419364,307630,781962,145
Lamb, frozen6,884,7176,523,5436,275,3836,222,5617,358,435
Mutton, frozen2,042,3011,810,7661,575,4771,266,3781,398,709
Pork, frozen467,475382,844246,045393,726..
Meats, tinned143,277134,91990,29686,518109,646
Sausage-casings779,651500,535302,433304,418544,620
Milk, preserved56,86423,06117,19239,77239,349
Milk, dried285,837290,116205,173316,703296,303
Apples, fresh724,595649,799758,016649,553723,264
Peas101,70061,06187,288117,359108,513
Oats2,3231,1111,1022,065730
Wheat62,5462296488,71450,145
Hops16,2358,2071,74627,98317,066
Potatoes13,0076,4406,0609,88718,112
Live-stock121,26761,06150,95265,61367,564
Calf-skins201,298163,567100,20096,178235,259
Hides, horse and cattle374,646298,166195,640240,981463,982
Rabbit-skins315,198130,25196,72568,887254,745
Opossum-skins102,46129,4299,02730966,457
Sheep-skins, with wool333,515234,818169,204268,481652,895
Sheep-skins, without wool1,336,524647,898604,742515,133760,310
Wool8,156,3096,195,1275,552,8856,703,35913,287,45S
Phormium-fibro273,77865,72431,32047,71445,448
Seeds, grass and clover167,781186,494137,52787,332151,045
Tallow686,261505,979450,936466,474487,819
Coal215,56S131,29070,87253,49550,661
Kauri-gum257,964124,168107,23959,42286,811
Gold544,999519,795797,4761,199,0021,332,049
Silver46,11033,84042,39335,11939,763
Leather8,7227,60711,3888,3098,095
Timber, sawn426,505188,684229,172252,721239,547
Other New Zealand produce818,913662,493653,138701,012870,452
     Totals46,223,05736,275,58334,059,99336,868,51048,516,179

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE(QUANTITIES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30TH JUNE.

 1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Butter cwt.1,817,7991,808,2321,968,6862,430,2342,825,889
Casein cwt.65,92861,56834,44745,33254,739
Cheese cwt.1,075,9061,789,8711,623,4021,919,1551,992,244
Fish22,76619,22716,46523,28546,915
Honey607,581356,476447,526469,336742,543
Beef, frozen cwt328,474280,929377,659674,386933,835
Lamb, frozen cwt.2,014,7022,300,8172,502,6962,733,6142,548,898
Mutton, frozen cwt.1,021,1461,188,1001,274,8101,081,611906,623
Pork, frozen cwt.132,730136,005115,015200,288397,031
Meats, tinned cwt.31,75837,48129,58932,94838,912
Sausage-casings lb.4,200,7073,846,8803,734,8704,289,7934,069,635
Milk, preserved lb.2,621,9901,053,265844,6422,221,5292,152,833
Milk, dried lb.10,746,15213,653,46711,405,77019,906,57515,036,239
Apples, fresh lb.56,211,77052,599,51460,649,82351,925,10058,270,834
Peas centals153,31187,734112,475170,282182,680
Oats4,5691,7561,9516,5311,900
Wheat bushels217,331541153705,580300,240
Hops lb.314,681197,71249,411697,349306,073
Potatoes Tons1,5969061,2022,0343,256
Calf-skins No.649,783676,683725,799735,0681,059,450
Hides, cattle and horse No.273,914306,583305,087327,529469,330
Rabbit-skins No.8,257,8696,736,7616,062,2706,599,24712,237,720
Opossum-skins No.156,67596,19548,5111,747189,943
Sheep-skins, with wool No.1,207,6041,603,5471,693,9122,783,1173,608,152
Sheep-skins, without No.9,762,0328,397,07511,494,83412,769,4299,352,344
wool     
Wool bales553,298648,630661,991801,633822,396
Phormium-fibre Tons10,2453,2632,1024,3003,560
Seeds, grass and clover cwt.43,95544,58540,28234,91077,535
Tallow Tons.22,11823,86125,25326,51026,507
Coal Tons.157,43081,09543,36733,25038,773
Kauri-gum Tons.4,8912,6222,9541,1573,416
Gold oz.132,313126,816167,518193,977172,197
Silver Oz.512,148512,949584,705436,436406,655
Timber, sawn sup. ft.38,255,65416,827,13624,220,93027,499,94626,173,261

RE-EXPORTS.

The forwarding trade of New Zealand has never at any time been of great significance. Re-exports consist partly of goods returned from New Zealand either as unsuitable or as finished with, though the bulk of the total amount is made up by various classes of machinery, hardware, metal manufactures, motor-vehicles, and also items such as apparel, books, tobacco, and spirits.

There is, however, a genuine entrepot trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is still comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands, which are treated as part of the Dominion, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

RE-EXPORTS (EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND.

1913232,473
1914269,208
1915387,960
1916305,150
1917429,115
1918543,568
1919603,541
1920813,072
19211,213,002
19221,026,801
1923567,885
1924588,395
1925722,016
1926929,741
1927925,121
1928910,016
1929754,050
1930731,111
1931631,554
1932633,532
1933597,168

Re-exports of merchandise in 1933 were equal to 146 per cent, of total exports of merchandise for the year and to 182 per cent, of imports.

The destination of this re-export trade is shown in the following table:—

Country.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 £££££
United Kingdom210,516238,636194,153172,217157,610
Canada9,37010,39711,65415,01418,549
Australia334,482234,134228,493298,446278,684
Fiji34,65941,09529,01337,01839,061
Tonga11,92011,1467,5466,7374,725
Western Samoa14,92521,66615,01215,74313,652
United States of America96,459134,687108,68755,03154,688
Society Islands1,4551,3501,9543,0094,321
Other countries40,26438,00035,04230,31725,878
Totals (excluding specie).754,050731,111631,554633,532597,168

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The incidence of fluctuating prices over a number of years operates to render the currency aggregate of a country 's trade of little value as an indicator of movement in the volume of trade—i.e., from a quantity point of view. Owing to the homogeneous nature of the bulk of the Dominion 's exports it is, fortunately, possible in nearly of cry case to obtain the quantity exported as well as the value. By taking the prices of a selected base year or other period it is then possible to find what the value of the exports of each subsequent year would have been on the basis of prices ruling in the base period. This method is used by the British Board of Trade, and also by the Australian Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics, and is especially suitable for application to New Zealand. In point of fact, 99 per cent, of the Dominion 's exports can be treated quantitatively, leaving only 1 per cent, to be calculated pro rata.

In the following table the actually recorded exports (exclusive of specie and other re-exports) are shown for 1900 and for each of the last ten years. Values are also shown on the basis of prices ruling in 1900, and index numbers have been computed to show movement in the physical volume of exports of New-Zealand produce, both for the total and on a per caput basis.

Year.Recorded ValueValue at Hates ruling in 1900.Index Numbers of Volume of Exports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 ££££££
190013,055,24916.2713,055,24916.271,0001,000
192451,920,82838.3823,960,92217.7118351089
192554,521,03139.3923,879,28817.2618301,061
192641,339,18331.3723,772,83116.8218221,034
192747,571,23333.0725,695,95517.8619681098
192854,660,36538.0026,689,74618.332,0441,127
192954,176,01336.7827,490,07918.672,1061,147
19301 44,209,40629.6328,220,74818.912,1611,162
193134,319,24422.6728,549,65118.872,1871,160
193234,976,38722.9231,463,09220.622,4101,267
193340,408,75126.2637,425,92824.332,8671495

The effect of prices on the total value of exports is seen at a glance from the accompanying diagram showing the yearly movement since 1900. The curve representing values on the basis of prices ruling in 1900 may also be taken as representing the course of the volume of trade on a quantity basis.

The total volume in 1933 was higher than in any other year, being 187 per cent, greater than in 1900. The per caput rate in 1933, representing an increase of 49.5 per cent, over 1900, was also a record.

It is necessary to observe that the foregoing table is expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and consequently, for certain uses, allowance must be made for changes in the external value of New Zealand currency, particularly the depreciation in relation to sterling. This applies also to the graph following. The index numbers quoted above are not affected in any way by exchange movements.

In order to show the effect of changes in price from year to year, and particularly in the latter years, the table following has been compiled by recomputing the values of each year 's exports according to the prices of the previous year. In this way it is possible to compare succeeding years directly, instead of comparing each year with a given base. The method used is the same, except that the base is changed.

Year.Total Exports (New Zealand Produce).Effect of Price-changes.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.
 ££££
192451,920,82846,063,7865,857,042. .
192554,521,03151,384,8773,136,154. .
192644,339,18354,696,306. .10,357,123
192747,571,23348,094,196. .522,963
192854,660,36549,091,4665,568,899..
192954,176,01356,465,248.,2,289,235
193044,209,40655,655,835. .11,446,429
193134,319,24444,630,116. .10,310,872
19321 34,970,38738,128,569. .3,152,182
193340 408,75140,999,141590,390..

The comparison of each year with the preceding year brings out the advantage or loss resulting from a rise or fall in prices. The gain shown represents the surplus value added by rising prices to the exports of any year, and, similarly, the loss shows how falling prices penalize New Zealand. Figures are in New Zealand currency, and, interula, reflect during the last four years the depreciation in relation to sterling and other currencies.

A study of the figures given in the Statistical Summary at the end of this book, and showing quantities and values of the principal commodities exported over a period of fifty years, will give a good idea of the relative effects of increased volume and of price-movements in the huge growth of external trade during the half-century as measured by the total value of exports.

The following comparison between the year ended 30th June, 1914, and the corresponding period—1933–34—is of interest as showing the influence of price variation on the most recent year as contrasted with the year preceding the war.

As mentioned earner, June years are in many respects preferable to calendar years, as affording a comparison between one season and another.

Commodity.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1914.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1034.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of 1913–14.
In New Zealand Currency.Converted to Sterling.In New Zealand Currency.Converted to Sterling.
 ££(N.Z.)£(Stg.)£(N.Z.)£(Stg.)
Butter2,1117,77111,830,0709,404,05615,272,58212,218,000
Cheese2,317,9704,732,08113,785,0715,907,4084,725,927
Beef, frozen561,817962,145769,7101,336,6291,609,303
Lamb, frozen (whole carcasses)2,545,1757,358,4355,880,7485,507,4434,453,955
Mutton, frozen (whole carcasses)1,880,5831,398,7091,118,9071,390,1001,112,085
Pork, frozen5,843950,183700,148021,084737,347
Meat, preserved122,078109,04087,717138,211110,509
Sausage-casings132,039544,020435,090123,40198,709
Apples12,160723,204578,611470,712370,570
Hides319,905403,982371,185750,101)604,887
Rabbit-skins254,745203,790101,391129,113..
Sheep-skins (without wool)545,037700,310608,248702,352561,832
Wool8,202,15313,287,45810,029,90011,902,5089,522,054
Phormium-fibre570,09545,44830,35885,42768,342
Tallow711,858487,819390,255701,219008,973
Kauri-gum790,33886,81109,449278,129222,503
Gold1,485,9371,332,0491,605,039667,845534,270
Timber, sawn372,092239,547191,038131,900105,573
     Totals22,929,29045,507,33030,453,80440,575,24237,200,194
Other N.Z. produce1,383,4542,948,8492,359,079. ...
Grand totals24,312,74448,510,17938,812,943. ...

In 1929–30, when the decline in prices had not attained such serious dimensions as regards New Zealand products, the recorded value of the commodities dealt with exceeded the value at 1913–14 levels by £9,985,967. Three years later the recorded value of these commodities exported was actually £8,880,425 below the figure it would have attained at 1913–14 prices; in 1933–34, principally owing to better wool prices and the effect of a full year as compared with a half-year at the higher exchange rate ruling from January, 1933, the recorded value was only£1,007,912 less than the total based on 1913–14 prices. The adjusted values afford a reliable comparison of the volume of exports, which has shown a progressive increase during the last four years, the volume in 1933–34 being 7 per cent, greater than in 1932–33, and 103 per cent, greater than in 1913–14. The eighteen items utilized in arriving at the foregoing percentage comprise 94 per cent, of the total exports of domestic produce, and therefore may be taken as thoroughly representative of the whole. This growth in volume has been achieved in spite of an increase of over 400,000 in the consuming population of the Dominion, with little increase in the number of those engaged in producing the principal export commodities.

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS.

Trade with the Cook Islands and other islands annexed in 1901 is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the Dominion, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. Separate returns are made of the transactions between the Dominion and the annexed islands, and exports to the islands are summarized below:—

Year.Exports.Year.Exports.
 £ £
192496,757192979,962
192580,977193078,512
192684,573193159,202
192784,652193256,599
192892,184193356,254

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with Dependencies.

SUBSECTION C.— IMPORTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The value shown for all merchandise imported is the current domestic value in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus an allowance of 10 per cent, to cover freight, insurance, &c. With the exceptions mentioned in Subsection A of this section, import values are expressed in terms of sterling, conversion from other currencies being, since October, 1931, made at the ruling banking rate of exchange between such currencies and sterling. In Subsection A will also be found (in conjunction with export figures) a summary of import totals for recent years, expressed in values as recorded, in New Zealand currency, and in sterling, together with a series of index numbers of the volume of import trade and of the value, expressed in terms of gold, sterling, and New Zealand currency.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.

A classification of imports under five broad divisions is given in the following table for the last ten years. Taken in conjunction with a table based on the same classification which is given in the Exports subsection of this section, the figures show plainly how New Zealand's export trade is derived predominantly from the products of her primary industries, and her import trade consists very largely of manufactured goods.

Year.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Bullion and Specie.Total.
 ££££££
19248,845,1592,981,21836,271,395429,37445748,527,603
19258,555,8173,069,49040,413,659373,31944,12262,456,407
19268,471,7752,767,19338,190,328379,15481,11349,889,663
19277,541,3382,512,61334,462,816263,1583,02144,782,946
19287,152,7742,385,87635,001,157299,84746,61244,886,266
19296,635,6892,289,48339,496,050306,10770,64848,797,977
19305,863,8751,850,49134,694,397251,166365,98543,025,914
19314,271,8831,389,27918,955,713137,63058,45324,812,958
19324,015,2901,161,34317,664,288147,25456,93123,045,106
19333,327,288973,69816,601,032122,890426,47421,451,382

The principal groups of commodities imported are clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, motor-vehicles and accessories, chemicals and drugs, manures, and timber. The proportions of these imports have changed little for many years, except that motor-vehicles and oils (including motor-spirits), although showing a marked decline since 1929, have increased very rapidly in post-war years.

The table which follows gives a classification adopted by the British Board of Trade. The grouping by countries is on the basis of country of origin.

IMPORTS, 1933.

United Kingdom.Other British Countries.United States.Other Foreign Countries.Totals.
 £££££
Grain and milled products42,325265,78655,9809,362373,453
Meat (including poultry and game)26559..75399
Butter, cheese, and eggs29404..452885
Fruit (fresh and dried)..298,03095,50037,550431,080
Sugar19620,952..482,304509,452
Tea..493,700..4,896498,596
Alcoholic beverages254,43543,13750855,613353,693
Tobacco183,20472,023175,1501,492432,529
Coal..103,909....103,909
Ores, concentrates, and scrap95025..6091,584
Iron and steel—     
Pigs, ingots, &c.2,3208,844..2,81813,982
Bars, rods, plate, sheet, &c.497,19997,2101,158888596,455
Other manufactures of iron and steel793,330228,54452,53865,7131,140,131
Agricultural implements and machinery36,85934,95028,91412,311113,034
Electrical machinery and apparatus491,013184,473161,40538,394875,285
Other machinery355,74191,560117,585128,462693,348
Motor-cars and parts thereof827,890239,58376,67427,5491,171,696
Other metals and metal manufactures233,82183,5777,39439,393364,185
Cotton, raw     
Flax, hemp, and raw jute (including tow)199328..7,3047,831
Wool, raw..265....265
Yarns and threads299,27018,5051,05913,340332,180
Cotton piece-goods1,199,4938,23512,48893,3511,313,567
Woollen piece-goods415,4041,52535811,695428,982
Other piece-goods312,742122,6998,591304,259748,291
Other textiles (including apparel)1,461,881457,02320,724292,6332,232,261
Earthenware (including bricks, glass, &c.)161,81037,0497,88368,535275,277
Wood, timber, and manufactures thereof (including wood-pulp)7,548133,39922,90774,889238,743
Newsprint55,842185,031..4,491245,304
Seeds and nuts for expressing oil therefrom..4,754....4,754
Oil—Petroleum, crude and refined96,30612,215919,472382,5191,410,512
Hides, skins, and furs, undressed3111,54335,0827,82254,478
Leather and manufactures thereof (including boots and shoes)251,887116,80117,03612,340398,064
Other merchandise2,536,1201,666,864564,623893,3655,660,978
Total merchandise10,518,1885,049,0022,383,0293,074,42421,025,243
Gold and silver (coin and bullion)321,015104,08942213426,139
Total imports10,839,8035,153,6912,383,4513,074,43721,451,382

Since 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports have been compiled according to a statistical classification which assembles the items in well - defined classes as shown in the following table, where the imports for the year 1933 are given under the various classes:—

No.Class.Value in 1933.
  £
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)104,270
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt1,838,644
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same582,220
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors389,481
VTobacco and preparations thereof432,529
VILive animals19,051
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs59,511
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres465,049
IXAApparel1,821,127
IXBTextiles3,146,405
IXCManufactured fibres341,106
XOils, fats, and waxes1,586,210
XIPaints and varnishes184,173
XIIStones and minerals used industrially111,931
XIIISpecie424,704
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partly manufactured, and ores.206,207
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines..1,894,977
XVMachinery and machines1,666,144
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)97,559
XVIBLeather and manufacturer thereof, including substitutes.184,434
XVIIATimber146,197
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures69,704
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials323,638
XIXAPaper730,657
XIXBStationery562,450
XXJewellery, time-pieces, and fancy goods339,433
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments393,369
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares1,057,226
XXIIBManures431,402
XXIIIAVehicles1,257,002
XXIIIBMiscellaneous584,572
      Total£21,451,382

Twenty-one of the thirty-one classes show decreases as compared with 1932, the total for 1933 being £1,593,724 less than the previous year's figure.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.

The import trade of the Dominion, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is yet confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Canada. In the days of the first settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, tended to decrease steadily till from 60 per cent, in 1862 it fell to between 10 and 12 per cent., a figure which remained fairly constant until 1925, after which there was a progressive decline to less than 7 per cent, in 1929, since when the trend has been upward.

In the decade immediately preceding the war the United Kingdom supplied about 60 per cent, of the total imports. The proportion has fallen a good deal in recent years, as explained later. In the “eighties” and “nineties” the figure was, or. the average, nearer 70 per cent, than 60 per cent.

The cause of this relative decline is to be found in the development of trade with other countries in recent years, particularly with the United States and Canada, and in a less degree with Japan, and with France, German}, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Sweden, and other European countries. The United States was sending goods to New Zealand practically from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent., though the proportion maintained a steady increase for several years after the war, and, indeed, considerably surpassed its old level. In 1933 a little more than Hi per cent, of the total imports came from the United States, this representing a continuance of the decline which set in during 1930.

India captured the New Zealand jute-market in the early eighties, and since then there has been a regular import of corn-sacks, woolpacks, &c. In former times the colony imported its sugar from Fiji, but in late years Fiji has been largely supplanted by the Dutch East Indies and Cuba. Similarly, the import of tea from China has given way to imports from Ceylon.

The table which follows shows imports from each of the principal countries during the last twenty years.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF SHIPMENT.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 ££££££££
191411,985,9463,376,371479,140486,978394,444738,7512,282,966187,501
191611,141,0673,554,535797,816527,942408,6971,128,9592,600,248304,322
191613,869,4554,002,171757,286572,257366,7531,053,7543,969,925562,974
19178,817,5133,660,931757,041612,063353,6131,203,3723,900,658628,822
19188,977,7255,133,349930,964712,833319,498939,3414,980,7481,214,865
191911,839,4305,081,9681,622,234772,838383,209980,1867,576,3141,258,016
192029,806,41610,555,6672,386,915900,577725,2781,824,01211,100,2591,470,071
192121,448,8176,486,8471,687,695593,161316,8131,909,1027,746,457593,348
192219,416,4764,213,0851,545,037437,851499,7051,459,3454,948,778485,327
192324,003,6714,259,3232,930,626732,359701,605859,7576,696,723548,632
192424,904,1786,303,0733,909,152726,483822,987984,2747,551,357458,964
192527,263,5095,855,9893,906,152888,787836,4191,251,7978,626,959659,146
192624,331,4105,059,7793,430,988850,720857,011941,3209,729,251557,113
192722,678,8624,264,1752,721,812755,967840,865435,0347,827,755579,984
192822,531,8803,868,2813,237,750771,450843,686584,1827,958,761558,033
192923,738,9473,631,6254,774,493749,293899,828180,4929,073,268613,235
193021,132,1423,674,0733,804,909627,543693,576217,8267,391,361550,686
193112,664,8932,685,8081,217,987389,325613,142108,9503,698,714298,307
193211,788,4192,921,681998,373346,787348,754114,5013,078,544425,883
193311,120,3502,911,2711,006,649451,214434,83894,9492,226,026535,090

The figures given in the foregoing table are on the basis of country of shipment. From 1914 onwards, figures are also available showing countries of origin, and a supplementary table on this basis is new given. Both the foregoing and the succeeding tables include specie imported.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 ££££££££
191411,257,7202,682,218455,468502,495420,l81738,4282,537,545232,364
191510,623,4262,786,174795,617546,540431,8181,120,3792,862,537348,671
191613,313,5883,079,179761,105588,196380,8481,050,0254,358,800616,908
19178,594,0102,636,149771,952646,196397,4191,198,5894,294,279693,808
19188,703,4804,043,383950,588729,419323,123935,8855,472,1221,266,416
191911,523,6533,916,1081,649,550787,669388,428977,3198,053,1271,313,205
192028,564,5878,624,8852,453,379940,509729,8931,818,52911,750,6901,522,675
192120,832,5205,460,3811,727,503607,926320,1881,906,0388,166,967603,275
192218,296,1733,293,6321,556,213441,581501,4191,448,9985,379,372504,955
192322,532,2053,653,4202,950,984742,551705,622853,1636,956,602560,064
192423,203,8255,651,0273,914,404741,202837,506970,3937,788,593496,835
192525,572,8025,249,4933,916,237912,741844,5961,239,4568,885,265693,632
192622,827,4064,625,2003,431,533861,578868,621892,89410,000,507582,352
192721,464,1143,869,2462,739,826759,829855,048424,7858,079,467591,963
192821,289,2753,499,1513,258,828782,144860,886571,7288,204,197576,495
192922,580,1433,258,7274,792,820766,756923,748174,8949,319,926625,714
193020,333,9863,308,9153,802,925637,832704,759200,8777,573,053565,264
193112,192,6492,437,9551,224,569392,088617,042102,9793,885,073304,532
193211,496,1562,691,2421,007,096354,752351,598106,0413,267,398434,746
193310,839,8032,674,0831,012,213461,532442,62884,8772,383,451541,342

Of the total imports of merchandise in 1933, the eight countries shown above supplied 85 per cent, on the basis of origin and 87 per cent, on the basis of shipment. Other countries which supplied more than one-half of 1 per cent, of the Dominion's imports in 1933 were—

Country.Imports according to
Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
Value.Per Cent. of Total.Value.Per Cent. of Total.
 £ £ 
Dutch East Indies790,1313.86798,5793.89
Germany280,7951.37378,7531.84
Sweden190,2280.93199,5620.98
France147,8580.72198,6390.97
Nauru Island140,5870.69140,5870.69
Belgium121,8950.60138,6200.68
Russia (U.S.S.R.)100,5150.49107,4100.52
Italy85,4000.42115,8880.57

About three-quarters of imports produced on the Continent of Europe are received direct, the balance coming mainly through the United Kingdom. Direct shipments from the United Kingdom in 1933 exceeded by £280,547 the imports of goods produced in that country. In view, however, of the considerable quantities of British goods that enter New Zealand by way of Australia it would not be correct to take that figure as fully measuring the re-export trade done by Great Britain in goods from abroad intended for the Dominion.

Australia acts as a re-exporting centre for a certain proportion of goods received from India and Ceylon. British West Africa and the British West Indies both produce more of the imports than they ship direct. The figures for Canada show a small balance in favour of goods of Canadian origin. Goods of United States origin exceeded direct imports from that country by £157,425 in 1933.

The following table shows for the last ten years the percentage of total imports (excluding specie) from each of the principal countries concerned. For the computation of the percentages, imports from Australia have first been converted to a sterling equivalent.

IMPORTS (COUNTRY OF ORIGIN).

Country.1924.1925.1920.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1032.1933.
 PercentPercentPercentPercentPercentPercentPercentPercentPercentPercent
United Kingdom47.8248.7245.6747.9347.3846.1647.5850.1450.9551.28
Canada8.077.476.896.127.279.838.955.064.494.93
India1.531.741.731.701.741.581.501.621.582.25
Ceylon1.721.621.741.911.921.901.662.551.572.16
South African Union0.180.220.280.270.230.200.220.290.340.20
Australia11.6410.019.298.647.806.696.817.819.5910.03
Fiji2.002.371.790.951.270.360.470.420.470.41
Other British countries0.870.780.861.071.001.061.201.632.122.13
Totals, British countries73.8372.9368.2568.5968.6167.78(68.3969.5271.ll73.39
Germany0.600.951.351.872.001.932.292.372.051.84
France1.561.751.641.991.831.501.431.351.200.97
Belgium0.560.840.790.891.111.201.061.200.800.68
Japan1.021.321.171.321.281.281.331.261.942.64
Dutch East Indies2.171.171.601.972.232.371.913.503.533.89
United States of America16.0516.9520.0818.0418.3019.1217.8216.0414.5511.62
Other foreign countries4.214.095.125.334.644.825.774.764.824.97
Totals, foreign countries26.1727.0731.7531.4131.3932.2231.6130.4828.8926.61

Prior to the war, imports from the United Kingdom represented about 60 per cent, of the total, and those of United Kingdom origin would appear on this basis to have been about 55 per cent, of the aggregate. The latter are new a little over one - half of the total. The principal reason for the decline is found in the foreign competition which became established during the war and immediate. post - war years, particularly in the motor - trade. Since 1929, however, there has been a progressive increase in the proportion of United Kingdom goods, particularly motor-vehicles, and tires, tubes, and covers entering the Dominion. Although concerned mainly with hardware and soft-goods, the range of the trade is a very wide one indeed, covering practically the whole field of the Dominion's imports.

Ranking next to Great Britain in the list of exporters to New Zealand, the United States built up a considerable trade during the war period, and of recent years imports from that source have accounted for one-fifth to one-seventh of the total. The highest percentage (20*08) was reached in 1926, the lower level of subsequent years being due to decreases in motor-vehicles and motor-spirits. Motor-spirits new make up the greater part of the total, motor-vehicles having undergone a pronounced decline since 1929 in favour of the United Kingdom. In 1929 the United States supplied (on a value basis) 41 per cent, of the motor-cars entering the Dominion, and 53 per cent, of the lorries, trucks, vans, and buses; in 1933 the corresponding percentages were o and 3 4 respectively. An important factor in the declining trade with the United States has been the high rate of exchange against New Zealand, particularly before the United States currency measures of 1933 and 1934.

Imports of Australian origin in 1933 were a little less than in 1932, Australia's share (on a percentage basis) of the total imports in 1933, however, being the greatest since 1924. There has been a considerable decline in hardwood timber and tobacco during recent years.

Imports of Canadian origin have dropped considerably since 1930, the decline being mainly due to the great decrease in motor-vehicles.

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.

The table which follows shows by main countries of origin details of the principal imports into New Zealand during each of the last five years.

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.

Country of Origin.1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Confectionery
 £££££
United Kingdom105,214115,25058,91425,61920,091
Canada39,15732,5716,1559285
Australia53,81842,97141,43236,74436,329
France8,4686,2961,133355647
Switzerland3,1683,4811,260....
United States of America4,9233,9202,313646568
Other countries2,6133,4481,361567604
     Totals217,361207,937112,56864,02358,324
Sugar.
Australia10,8839,0638,4678,4848,348
Fiji64,177141,62651,77247,43320,641
Dutch East Indies408,689108,966487,824441,545446,618
Cuba247,262251,617..82,01635,634
Peru23183,898..1238
United States of America32,93256,27825,37820,36216,107
Other countries3,0136,8151,66713,36611,090
     Totals766,979758,263575,108613,218538,476
Tea.
Ceylon896,057680,310596,808335,985423,421
India25,55223,51049,73039,47070,279
China9,3284,3233,4943,1094,323
Dutch East Indies4,3692,12838999323
Other countries671296920250
     Totals935,373710,400650,550378,083498,596
Tobacco and Preparations there of.
United Kingdom710,006528,624249,585238,792183,264
Australia370,113266,577201,495137,38969,849
United States of America249,652334,720207,738198,521175,150
Other countries18,79716,81610,0283,6374,266
     Totals1,348,5681,146,737668,846578,339432,529
Hosiery
United Kingdom324,447295,663217,097212,634157,677
Canada110,402138,23488,60074,59250,977
Australia17790112,19240,53535,920
Germany8,33210,1486,3543,7171,716
United States of America53,17123,81417,1672,013326
Other countries13,20013,6436,0535,52210,760
     Totals509,729482,403347,463339,013263,376
Millinery.
United Kingdom194,568189,795116,80595,09374,219
Australia11,53210,3184,4956,8508,289
France24,03416,1317,3906,0171,688
Germany16,60813,4435,9138,3274,120
Italy43,45041,14915,5749,6407,019
United States of America16,92814,4433,4531,687690
Other countries39,31337,76817,87514,58215,823
     Totals346,433323,047171,505142,196111,848
Miscellaneous Apparel and Heady-made Clothing.
United Kingdom1,703,3511,603,781943,730698,410589,154
Canada69,71259,61031,74511,2135,570
Australia13,09016,12712,58120,28531,095
Austria27,43922,4276,403..2,832
Belgium19,70618,1375,6413,7032,688
France120,51178,62826,40011,5347,575
Germany123,405113,75946,71144,86447,890
Italy37,72040,65523,179. .17,020
Switzerland21,70618,0656,475. .579
Japan29,14628,58718,21424,55843,698
United States of America73,78261,66428,23911,1424,782
Other countries27,75830,45412,64429,99210,874
     Totals2,267,3262,091,8941,161,962855,701763,757
Boots and Shoes.
United Kingdom738,552650,018306,514232,066199,360
Canada250,254206,27777,99885,49055,751
Australia2,0704,10827,46635,66447,324
Malaya7833,2435,31329,20313,159
Japan6651,4207,59022,22452,442
United States of America55,92646,77411,485777340
Other countries17,83716,8459,2108,6078,234
     Totals1,066,087928,685445,576414,031376,610
Miscellaneous Drapery.
United Kingdom604,238488,229283,387276,200239,735
Australia23,92018,09113,6427,4593,400
France34,85621,56913,6317,9706,955
Germany36,22121,10714,88212,1729,089
Switzerland61,23644,36026,05718,13016,119
China10,5309,6487,3298,9194,164
Japan4,5083,4722,8202,92210,351
Other countries45,63340,02120,72115,2907,074
     Totals821,142646,497382,469349,062297,787
Cotton, Linen, and Canvas Piece-goods.
United Kingdom1,750,8651,627,1921,046,9731,285,3281,199,493
Belgium43,77650,93523,52824,02728,704
Japan58,06656,36422,50023,83350,123
United States of America73,11449,82723,20217,31512,488
Other countries80,33488,29544,95821,51622,759
     Totals2,012,1551,872,6131,161,1611,372,0191,313,567
Silk, &c, Piece-goods.
United Kingdom437,836363,728234,589275,299243,072
Australia20149811,59221,49835,717
Czechoslovakia13,34522,90212,0225,2441,821
France151,731125,41779,88479,86643,232
Germany33,85040,30524,22319,44916,215
Italy41,50735,67421,32522,84820,119
Switzerland84,58475,71945,74324,43923,344
China10,6337,14713,6656,6156,245
Japan377,624302,785148,667209,211184,910
United States of America28,75325,6499,4645,6384,260
Other countries31,90420,8979,0177,3128,272
     Totals1,212,0281,020,721610,191677,419587,207
Woollen Piece-goods.
United Kingdom679,077561,725361,386401,505415,404
France21,41117,7449,6012,413892
Germany24,04826,74318,59810,5732,879
Other countries17,51316,04411,42810,6849,807
     Totals742,649622,256401,513425,175428,982
Paints and Varnishes.
United Kingdom287,972242,064130,577116,287113,409
Canada3,1151,9311,5531,9951,591
Australia43,79037,79228,74730,60544,604
Germany7,0948,2804,9146,7696,503
United States of America87,05561,96326,67417,93912,403
Other countries8,7367,3664,2305,2395,663
     Totals437,762359,396196,195184,834184,173
Iron and Steel.—Bar, Holt, and Rod.
United Kingdom187,074136,87288,54956,63441,694
Canada76,84663,67110,816..583
Australia8841,36917,70852,25357,098
Other countries7,0951,2131,631759226
     Totals271,899253,125118,704109,64699,601
Iron and Steel.—Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings
United Kingdom460,312372,969191,733195,391133,662
Canada70,13343,65710,79312,62417,631
Australia3,4743,0054,1432,4746,070
United States of America4,94413,5632,901762241
Other countries10,28811,0473,5992,6311,535
     Totals549,151444,241213,169213,882159,189
Artificers Tools.
United Kingdom176,344162,05284,81781,60580,408
Canada33,94427,22712,1507,99110,865
Germany20,06320,8207,8247,2897,408
United States of America111,90682,36820,72211,2238,410
Other, countries10,76910,1096,6675,6385,653
     Totals353,026302,576138,180113,746112,744
Fencing-wire.—Plain and Barbed.
United Kingdom163,874145,871106,252111,17984,103
Canada69,11831,3068,5343897,206
Australia..5963,18324,42031,518
United States of America2,1754,2277,052..4,357
Other countries1,1924,8158,9703,325168
     Totals236,359186,815133,991139,313127,412
Miscellaneous Hardware.
United Kingdom570,820513,305262,636229,351208,103
Canada45,658102,12012,43314,6835,488
Australia33,10124,27024,56320,48424,982
Germany48,99747,82224,46719,44515,955
Sweden17,75811,3144,6165,4525,781
United States of America180,567156,00650,87118,73712,147
Other countries20,54724,86613,40810,68517,381
     Totals917,448879,703302,994318,837289,837
Agricultural Machinery.
United Kingdom84,49081,34422,99132,25136,859
Canada57,99547,6966,4497,73516,511
Australia8,1587,6464,8444,10218,439
United States of America98,41892,77511,89522,05228,914
Other countries18,05326,0652,8064,79012,311
     Totals267,114255,52648,98570,930113,034
Dairying Machinery.
United Kingdom15,36023,55612,52239,77850,116
Australia32,44727,67419,96221,83719,049
Denmark7,82311,1971,5291,487488
Germany18,49520,3503,4562,9342,199
Sweden39,47187,67148,093101,20551,111
United States of America21,87718,8140,9979,9487,015
Other countries2,6931,9603,2901,7062,658
     Totals138,166191,22295,849178,895132,636
Electrical Machinery and Equipment (including Wireless Apparatus and Telephones and Accessories).
United Kingdom1,107,2691,227,937740,700538,855406,354
Australia41,60237,79858,078104,176140,183
Canada161,397100,65966,86842,70741,150
Belgium56,32743,9286,4961,541911
Germany39,50333,73320,74016,18110,466
Netherlands48,31365,98521,81710,8958,885
Sweden26,65230,94766,1828,5786,288
United States of America495,425547,022298,288202,329160,604
Other countries36,01032,61714,37611,43013,426
     Totals2,012,4982,180,6501,302,545936,692848,267
Leather and Leather Goods (excluding Boots and Shoes J.
United Kingdom227,370214,01594,06497,69402,520
Canada17,49815,3745,5892,2551,266
Australia25,37230,44127,73445,08066,664
Germany36,09724,35010,2714,8342,764
United States of America91,37283,79847,61931,83316,909
Other countries6,98910,3003,9412,9134,305
     Totals404,698378,278189,218184,009184,434
 Timber.    
Canada83,90975,73217,92710,4509,497
Australia338,962508,031124,24430,46861,635
Sweden42,46759,60634,06717,70724,121
Japan60,98661,08414,91613,00613,265
United States of America246,203203,20022,5555,7296,253
Other countries12,6469,7708,9722,3681,426
     Totals790,173917,513222,68185,728146,197
Earthenware and Chinaware.
United Kingdom311,696273,621154,210111,44393,724
Australia2,4842,2149629491,303
Czechoslovakia7,2244,4961,867402284
Germany11,9656,9992,857781630
Japan8,4509,0618,55810,21220,287
Other countries4,1702,8951,857909438
     Totals345,989299,286170,311124,696122,666
Glass and Glassware.
United Kingdom197,140143,07682,36467,44358,389
Canada4,4844,0022,9819251,793
Australia18,71716,76413,65822,05130,868
Belgium48,86043,84415,84117,36714,643
Czechoslovakia20,52020,4148,5167,4557,737
Germany21,74220,7569,2633,9614,522
Japan3,7734,4012,7824,1918,750
United States of America30,17932,84721,1538,8687,313
Other countries12,3947,2913,7005,4535,153
     Total357,815293,395160,158137,714139,168
Printing-paper.
United Kingdom219,106262,350202,133204,111142,162
Canada336,924304,131228,260186,394194,042
Germany9,7567,0697,3566,4824,742
Norway4,6243,5071,9094,6379,239
Sweden5,4465,2856,0334,8152,722
United States of America23,86125,44118,54014,7454,215
Other countries7,2806,5468,3385,9716,208
     Totals606,997614,32972,569427,155363,330
Paper, other than Printing.
United Kingdom261,024253,826176,210187,718173,997
Canada98,912100,28868,51963,27762,319
Australia10,7987,4494,7354,7943,507
Belgium20,24516,9459,2467,13612,853
Germany19,04320,84215,11913,70116,346
Netherlands18,62916,5648,8207,8466,924
Norway21,14419,52610,98224,22818,000
Sweden33,02540,43624,81231,22430,271
United States of America74,66180,72156,17945,16420,576
Other countries12,9729,0525,42112,54413,534
     Totals570,453565,649380,043397,632367,327
Books, Papers, and Music.
United Kingdom397,202360,798257,364231,948236,523
Australia67,75370,75253,66250,86654,424
United States of America43,46344,12337,57928,66721,837
Other countries5,3045,4783,8762,6162,646
     Totals513,722481,151352,481314,097315,230
Miscellaneous Stationery.
United Kingdom301,656274,292162,911129,505145,094
Canada17,02615,6408,9953,3354,941
Australia60,70453,48043,49646,30555,859
Germany17,02017,92710,8517,8166,105
United States of America78,60472,38242,70934,52725,664
Other countries14,64215,2057,9967,0079,557
     Totals489,652448,926276,958228,495247,220
Fancy Goods and Toys.
United Kingdom211,630187,650109,61973,23868,742
Australia13,42813,1766,9244,71413,632
Czechoslovakia26,61924,40317,93113,2428,568
France46,75346,30938,89940,52321,435
Germany81,63780,24934,51515,37414,105
Japan16,54517,33812,47411,19831,396
United States of America25,89723,9269,6033,4121,919
Other countries22,15920,31813,87410,1689,403
     Totals444,668413,369243,839171,809169,200
Motor-cycles.
United Kingdom161,026124,62236,23314,97014,084
United States of America28,1159,522215....
Other countries218..29....
     Totals189,359134,14436,47714,97014,084
Motor-cart.
United Kingdom684,820563,591304,792354,449302,839
Canada1,335,810923,17250,30549,68862,352
United States of America1,380,714504,22062,67117,52618,968
Other countries6,5374,5143,997219200
     Totals3,407,8871,995,497481,765421,882384,359
Motor Lorries, Trucks, Vans, and Buses.
United Kingdom168,929123,44746,43190,134114,245
Canada238,436191,35313,5484,76912,761
United States of America459,856164,42936,0539,75120,728
Other countries3,6123,278242..383
     Totals870,833482,50796,274104,654148,117
Tires, Tube, and Covers for Motor-vehicles.
United Kingdom315,781316,465375,793519,700334,991
Canada754,709413,707118,90660,179112,897
Australia2,1444,7655,2897,29214,031
France23,28914,6095,7148,3859,176
Italy1,45914,36274153793
United States of America61,83145,27412,3126,8656,230
Other countries3,62858116732810,349
     Totals1,162,841809,703518,922608,802488,407
Motor-spirit.
Dutch east Indies523,944523,525236,697221,399231,415
United States of America1,580,6651,566,7871,006,409894,086551,426
Other countries26,22623020029990,562
     Totals2,130,8352,090,5421,243,3061,115,784873,403

IMPORTS FROM COOK ISLANDS.

Trade with the Cook Islands is not included in the export and import totals for the Dominion, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows imports into New Zealand from the group. Further particulars of the trade of the islands will be found in the section dealing with Dependencies.

Year.Imports.
 £
1924149,676
1925126,465
1926115,391
1927111,095
1928119,521
1929124,043
1930122,156
193187,581
193289,136
193392,910

The principal articles imported into New Zealand from the Cook Islands are as follows:—

Article.1929.1930.1931.1933.1932.
Fruits, fresh—£££££
Bananas37,25344,92136,17838,99829,903
Oranges58,93758,99036,08231,31849,527
Tomatoes20,22811,79410,93914,2767,192
Other262938791646385
Coconuts1,5251,057547425844
Copra3,7032,1733991,2541,295
All other items2,1352,2832,6452,2193,764

SUBSECTION D.—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE.

THE TARIFF.

A SUMMARIZED historical account of the Customs tariff of New Zealand, setting forth the principal developments and changes from earliest times to 1930 will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. The tariff has new developed into a complex schedule of duties, and consideration of space prevents a detailed account of the rates of duty new levied on goods imported into New Zealand.

Briefly the Customs tariff has for its objects the following:—

  • The development of local industry.

  • The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  • The encouragement of intra-Empire trade.

  • The obtaining of revenue.

Under the Ottawa agreement of 1932, New Zealand, in common with the other Dominions, was committed to hold an inquiry into the tariff and, if necessary, to revise it in accordance with certain explicitly stated principles. New Zealand undertook to afford protection against United Kingdom products only to industries which are reasonably assured of sound opportunities for success and to grant protection on such a level as to enable the United Kingdom producer to compete on the basis of the relative cost of economical and efficient production.

As soon as possible after the Ottawa Conference dutiable goods the produce of the United Kingdom or of any British possession except Canada, Union of South Africa, Irish Free State, Newfoundland, or India, were exempted from the surtax on duty previously payable. Reductions were made in the rates of duty charged on confectionery, apparel, hosiery, and silk and artificial silk piece-goods, and additional preference to British countries was granted by the imposition of a duty or an increase in the existing rate on foreign cocoa-beans, raw coffee, cigars, rum, asphalt and bitumen, certain unground spices, and paper.

A Tariff Commission was set up in 1933 to inquire into the Customs tariff and to recommend for the consideration of the Government any alterations therein with a view to implementing the agreement made at Ottawa, and having regard, inter alia, to the financial, economic, and industrial conditions in the Dominion.

On the basis of the report of this Commission, resolutions amending the tariff were introduced on 10th July, 21st August, and 13th September, 1934, and ratified by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934.

Some of the principal alterations made to the British preferential tariff were:—

  • Protective duties were abolished on: Certain stock foods; nails (as from 1st November, 1936); certain iron and steel pipes; linseed oil; white-lead ground in oil (as from 1st November, 1936); wireless sets in cabinets (as from 1st June, 1935); maizena and cornflour in small packages.

  • The protective duties were reduced on: Preserved and dried milk; baking powder; coffee essence; confectionery; sauce; soap; hats, caps, and millinery; boots and shoes; leather manufactures; glass bottles; oil engines; manufactured stationery; galvanized iron manufactures; metal office furniture; tinware; furniture and upholstery (as from 1st June, 1935); paints and varnishes; biscuits (as from 1st June, 1935); plaster pulp sheets; polishes; apparel; maize; vinegar; cement; matches; furs and for skins; floor-mats and floor-rugs of wool.

  • The revenue duties were reduced on: Carpets; fancy goods; sporting requisites; jewellery; platedware; tobacco pipes; toilet preparations; pianos and other musical instruments; engines for tractors; cigarettes; table chinaware; oak timber; builders' and cabinetmakers' hardware.

  • The protective duties were increased on: Maize, ground or crushed; porcelain enamelled cast iron baths; and household gas meters.

  • Revenue duties were increased on: Cigarette papers.

  • The protective duty previously payable on motor-car bodies was abolished, and the duties were amended to encourage the assembling of motor-vehicles in New Zealand by a reduction in the rate of duty on vehicles imported unassembled or completely knocked-down.

In addition to the ordinary rates of duty imposed on goods entering the Dominion, additional revenue has been obtained in recent years by a surtax on dutiable imports and a primage duty on goods otherwise free.

The surtax was imposed in 1930 in lieu of a primage duty of 1 per cent, or 2 per cent; ad valorem previously charged on practically all imports whether free or dutiable. This surtax was not, however, applied to dutiable goods of Australian origin, which continued to pay the primage duty of 1 per cent, or 2 per cent.

The rate of surtax was fixed at one-twentieth of the total duty otherwise payable on certain goods (e.g., spirits, tobacco, timber, sugar, motor-spirit), and nine-fortieths of such duty on all other dutiable goods, except wheat and flour, and some other lines which have since been exempted.

As stated above, surtax was not charged on goods the produce of the United Kingdom or any British country except Canada, Union of South Africa, Irish Free State, Newfoundland, or India, on and after the 14th October, 1932, and the primage duty payable on Australian goods in lieu of surtax was also removed as from that date.

A primage duty of 3 per cent, was charged, as from the 31st July, 1931, on imports from all countries which were otherwise free of duty. Certain specified items were, however, exempted from primage duty.

The following is a list of the principal items which are free of duty (except primage duty) under the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934:—

Free in any Case.—Live animals; barley (if to be used as stock-food); bran; pollard; seeds; vegetable butters or fats; currants; dates; figs; prunes; glucose and caramel; nuts, except walnuts; rice; acids, other than acetic; inorganic salts of metallic elements and many other drugs and chemicals; bags and sacks; wool-packs; raw cotton; hut makers' materials; buttons; needles and pins; wadding; cotton piece-goods for meat-wraps and cheese-bandages: umbrella-makers' materials; upholsterers' materials; coir, flax, and jute yarns; grindery; leather made from goat and kid skins; japanned or enamelled leather; bricks other than firebricks; marble in the rough; grindstones and whetstones; cinema films (subject however to film-hire tax); bookbinders' materials; cardboard and similar boards; parchment and greaseproof paper; printed books, papers, and music; beekeepers' apparatus; percussion caps, detonators, and explosives; hay-rakes, reapers and binders, mowers, and certain other agricultural implements; dairying machinery; sewing-machines; iron and other metal in ingots, pigs, or billets; fish and vegetable (other than linseed) oils; kerosene and other refined mineral oils other than motor-spirit; waxes; cork; crude tanning materials: manures; skins and hides.

Free if British, but dutiable if Foreign.—Bananas, oranges, mandarins, and grapefruit; raisins; infants' and invalids' foods; mustard; salt; cocoa-beans; raw coffee; sago and tapioca; maizena and cornflour; macaroni; acetic acid; cream of tartar; disinfectants; chloroform and other anaesthetics; antiseptics; manufactured dyes; most surgical, dental, optical, and scientific instruments and materials: felt, cotton, linen, and canvas piece-goods; silk and artificial silk piece-goods; leather-cloth; oil baize; sewing, &c, cottons and threads; elastics; plain tape; tailors' lining materials; cotton, silk, and artificial silk yarns; plain tablecloths; towels and similar plain articles; belting (other than leather); children's boots and shoes; gum boots; rubber hose; most rubber manufactures, except tires for motor-vehicles; sheet glass; lenses; watch-glasses; pianos and other musical instruments; gramophone records; artists' materials; paperhangings; sensitized surfaces; waxed paper; paper (other than wrapping) in sheets of size not less than 20 in. by 15 in., or in rolls; ball bearings; bolts and nuts; rivets and washers; buckles; chains; fire-engines, fire-extinguishers, and other fire-extinguishing appliances; adding and computing machines; typewriters; most electrical apparatus; measuring, testing, &c, appliances; sheep-shearing machines; tractors; artificers, &c., tools; machine tools and machinery peculiar to industrial processes; iron and other metal in bars or sheets; wire and wire netting; metal cordage; rails for railways and tramways; under-carriage springs and metal fittings for vehicles; asphalt and bitumen; table chinaware.

An indication of the incidence of Customs taxation on various classes of commodities imported will be found in the last two columns of the table on page 234, where the Customs duty collected in 1933 on. thirty-one groups is distinguished as a proportion of the dutiable imports and total imports.

It is impossible to give any account of the range of duties payable on all of the numerous tariff items, but the duty on some of the principal commodities in general use is mentioned hereunder. It should be noted that, in addition, surtax or primage may also be payable.

Wheat and Flour.—A sliding scale of duty was provided in 1927 in the case of wheat and flour. The duty on wheat is (from the 1st March, 1932), 8d. per bushel (of 60 lb.) when the current domestic value at the port of export to New Zealand is 5s., the duty falling by ½d. for every ½d. by which the value rises, and vice versa. The standard flour duty is £1 12s. for a £13 ton (2,000 lb.), the rate moving up or clown by Is. inversely to price changes of the same extent.

Tea.—Tea in bulk, when of British origin, was placed on the free list as early as 1907, when the duty on foreign tea was fixed at 2d. per lb. In 1917 a duty of 3d. per lb. was imposed on British tea, the foreign rate being increased to 5d. per lb. British tea in bulk was again placed on the free list in 1923, and the duty on foreign tea reduced to 2d. Rates of 3d. and 5d. per lb. respectively have been reinstated from 31st July, 1931.

Sugar.—Sugar also was placed on the free list in 1907, prior to which the duty was A_d. per lb. Refined sugar of foreign origin was charged ½d. per lb. under the 1921 tariff, the rate being altered in 1923 to 5/16. and in 1924 to ½d., irrespective of origin. The duty on refined sugar was increased to 3/4 d. per lb. in 1931; and raw sugar, which is imported for refinement at Auckland, was made dutiable at ½d. per lb., or, alternatively, id. per lb. excise duty on manufacture. An additional ½td. per lb. on both refined and raw sugar was imposed as from 9th February, 1933.

Tobacco.—The present duties on tobacco are as follows: Cigarettes, exceeding in weight 2½ lb. per 1,000, 10s. 6d. per lb.; cigarettes, not exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 25s. 6d. per 1,000. Cigars, 12s. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 16s. under the general tariff. Manufactured tobacco, cut, 6s. l0d. per lb. and plug, 6s. 8d. per lb. Unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of cigarettes, 3s. per lb.; and unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of tobacco, cigars, or snuff, 2s. per lb. A duty of ½d. British preferential tariff or ¾d. general tariff is new levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof. The excise duties on tobacco, &c, made in New Zealand are shown later under “Excise Duties. ”

Alcoholic Beverages.—The rate of duty payable on most beverage spirits is 40s. per proof gallon, except rum of foreign origin, dutiable at 44s. per proof gallon.

Sparkling wine is liable to a duty of 10s. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and 15s. under the general tariff, and still wines to 4s. and 6s. respectively.

The present duty on imported beer is 1s. 9d. per gallon under the British preferential tariff and 3s. under the general tariff. The excise duty on beer of local origin is given under “Excise Duties. ”

Timber.—Certain types of special timbers and Australian hardwoods, if imported in logs, or rough sawn or rough hewn, are admitted free. Oak timber, from the 1st June, 1935, will be free of duty under the British preferential tariff, and dutiable at 6s. per 100 sup. ft. under the general tariff. Other kinds of timber, such as Douglas fir (Oregon pine), redwood, Baltic pine, are subject to the following rates: Logs, round, unworked, 25s. per cubic foot; rough sawn or rough hewn, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. per 100 sup. ft. under the British preferential tariff, and 9s. 6d. or 11s. 6d. under the general tariff; dressed, 19s. per 100 sup. ft. British preferential tariff and 21s. general tariff.

Motor-vehicles.—Motor-vehicles imported in an unassembled or complete knocked-down condition are dutiable at 5 per cent, under the British preferential tariff and 50 per cent, under the general tariff. Chassis for electrically propelled motor-vehicles are free if British and liable to 20 per cent, if foreign. Other kinds of motor-vehicles are subject to a duty of 15 per cent, if admissible under the British preferential tariff and 60 per cent, if liable to the general tariff.

Tires for Motor-vehicles.—Previously dutiable at 10 per cent, ad valorem under the British preferential tariff and 40 per cent, under the general tariff, these were in 1934 made subject to a duty based on the weight of the tires. Pneumatic rubber tires for motor-vehicles, inner tubes of rubber therefor, and moulded rubber strip for repair of such tires are new dutiable at 2£d. per lb. under the British preferential tariff and 8d. per lb. under the general tariff. Solid rubber tires are liable to a duty of Id. per lb. and 4d. per lb. under the British preferential and general tariffs respectively. The duty on tires is earmarked for the maintenance of highways.

Motor-spirits.—Towards the end of 1927 the Motor-Spirits Taxation Act of that year imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (increased in 1930 to 6d.) on motor-spirits. The proceeds of this tax were devoted to roading purposes. In 1931 and 1933 an increase in duty of 2d. per gallon in each year was made, making the total duty, on motor-spirits l0d. per gallon, plus a surtax of 1/2d. per gallon on foreign. The proceeds from 6d. per gallon of this tax is earmarked for roading purposes, and the balance (4d. per gallon and surtax) is levied for general purposes and remains in the Consolidated Fund.

EXCISE DUTIES.

An important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3¾d. per gallon when the specific gravity did not exceed 1,047, and increasing by 1/16 d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by ⅛d. thereafter. On the 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3¾d. to 4£d. per gallon, and further (on the 15th September, 1917) to 5£d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon. In 1921 a rate of ll½d. per gallon (increased to Is. in 1930, and to Is. 6d. in 1931) was imposed where the specific gravity of the worts used does not exceed 1,047, the rate being increased by -fed. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047. The basic rate of excise duty on beer was reduced from Is. 6d. to Is. 3d. per gallon by the Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1934. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Cut tobacco is new charged an excise duty of 4s. 6d. per lb.; other kinds, 4s. 4d. per lb. Cigars and snuff pay 4s. per lb., and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand is 13s. 6d. per 1,000 on cigarettes under 21 lb. per 1,000, and 5s. 6d. per lb. on cigarettes over 2£ lb. per 1,000. Imported leaf tobacco used in the manufacture of tobacco, &c, in New Zealand pays on importation a duty of 3s. per lb. if for the manufacture of cigarettes, and 2s. per lb. if for tobacco, cigars, or snuff. An excise duty of £d. is new levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act, 1931, imposed an excise duty of £d. per lb. (increased to Id. per lb. from 9th February, 1933) on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has since 1921 been provided on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: On alcohol used in the manufacture of perfumed spirits, 36s. per gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 60 per cent, of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon. In similar preparations containing less than 50 per cent, the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.

The Cold Duty Act of 1858, amended from time to time, first imposed an export duty on gold. Under the Gold Duty Abolition and Mining Property Rating Act of 1890, the export duty on South Island gold was replaced by a system of rating mining property. The consolidating Gold Duty Act of 1908 maintained an export duty of 2s. per ounce of 20 carats fineness on gold produced in or exported from the North Island. A further export duty of 6d. per ounce (on gold of New Zealand origin only, and exclusive of gold produced by alluvial or dredge mining) was levied by the Mining Act of 1926, and this additional duty applied also to South Island gold. The Customs Acts Amendment Act passed in February, 1933, imposed an additional export duty of 12s. 6d. per ounce of 20 carats fineness, and covered all gold, with certain minor exceptions, wherever produced «. or exported. Provision was made for reduction, by Order in Council, of the rate of duty in the event of a reduction in the value of gold in New Zealand.

An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pine and kauri) by Acts of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The rate is 3s. per 100 superficial feet for flitches, and 5s. per 100 superficial feet for logs.

Analogous to export duties are the levies imposed on meat, dairy-produce, and honey exported. The proceeds (less expenses of collection) are, however, handed over to the respective Boards set up to control the export, &c, of these commodities in the interests of the producers.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.

In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties produced a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it does to-day. Down to the outbreak of the Great War there was a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the taxation legislation of the war period temporarily accelerated the movement. The proportion rose after 1921–22, but did not regain its pre-war level, and is new falling again. The figures for the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Total Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.
Amount.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 ££Per Cent.
19155,880,8113,294,94356.03
19167,266,9663,524,06348.49
191710,549,6544,037,62838.27
191812,340,8533,601,38329.18
191913,801,6434,104,01629.74
192016,251,7695,185,72831.91
192122,184,4148,769,25139.53
192216,370,5165,554,33433.93
192315,715,3806,644,42042.28
192416,540,4387,870,30947.58
1925l6,549,6098,187,27349.47
1926117,254,6888,974,23552.01
192717,437,8278,826,28750.62
192817,145,1458,501,24549.58
192917,832,0338,565,73648.04
193019,471,1319,517,35948.88
193118,878,2858,181,07643.34
193217,405,6226,545,42837.61
193319,703,7036,785,64134.44
193421,470,8277,140,47833.26

The figures for Customs and excise duties from 1922–23 onwards are exclusive of tire-tax, and for 1927–28 and subsequent years the highways proportion (6d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits tax—two classes of duties collected through the Customs for road-maintenance purposes, and included in total taxation.

In the foregoing table the financial year has been taken for purposes of comparison with total taxation, figures concerning which are not available for calendar years. In subsequent tables the Customs-taxation figures relate to the calendar year, which is the statistical year for most trade purposes.

In the two tables which follow the figures do not include taxes for highway purposes, excise duties, or export duties, and are also exclusive of surtax, primage, and depreciated-currency duties for the years during which these have been in force.

Year.Amount of Duty derived fromTotal.
Foods and Nonalcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 £££££
1911147,456682,7101,286,6011,048,8903,165,657
1916170,009985,3351,390,3221,036,2273,581,893
1921237,8781,297,1211,930,8981,826,3575,292,254
1926389,6861,760,4082,679,0803,102,6237,931,797
1929333,0161,795,0572,391,8313,414,3177,934,221
1930322,6451,599,2312,253,8662,706,6406,882,382
1931366,709981,1391,780,3051,360,4244,488,577
1932814,125900,4301,561,8151,423,8724,200,242
1933357,157721,0501,463,8091,834,7634,376,779
Year.Percentage of Total Duty collected on
Foods and Non-alcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19114.6621.5740.6433.13
19164.7527.5138.8128.93
19214.4924.5136.4934.51
19264.9122.1933.7939.11
19294.2022.6230.1543.03
19304.6923.2332.7539.33
19318.1721.8639.6630.31
19327.4821.4437.1833.90
19338.1616.4733.4541.92

The Customs and excise duties received during the last five years are shown in more detail in the next table. Primage duties and surtax are included, but not tire-tax, or the highways proportion of petrol-tax, which do not really represent Customs taxation though for the sake of convenience collected through the Customs on imported commodities.

 1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Customs Duties.£££££
Spirits1,091,7611,009,858767,648653,212641,707
Wine51,17448,42031,16324,42126,819
Beer7,2737,6304,04612,6762,437
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff652,030568,112430,709338,822279,407
Tobacco578,057555,008539,970536,214507,080
Tea2,0891,53648,765123,592137,793
Other goods by weight215,906216,688225,749147,021124,074
Other goods ad valorem5,003,6374,024,3812,164,9881,766,3091,526,404
Other duties332,294390,749275,539607,9751,131,058
Primage648,172461,864111,050251,214234,731
Depreciated currency and dumping duties....2727,293494
Surtax..431,857082,611577,164308,589
Totals, Customs duties8,582,3937,776,1035,282,5105,035,9134,920,593
Excise Duties.     
Tinctures—New Zealand20,80618,46917,45818,71317,730
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff—New Zealand manufactured161,828268,331292,659271,159317,172
Tobacco—New Zealand manufactured83,013140,083245,607439,882516,406
Beer—New Zealand622,935598,304602,944665,655647,119
Sugar....67,095318,155595,207
Totals, excise duties888,5821,025,1871,225,7631,713,5642,093,634
Revenue per head:—£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
From Customs duties5 16 75 4 23 9 103 6 03 4 0
From excise duties0 12 10 13 90 16 21 2 51 7 3
     Totals6 8 85 17 114 6 04 8 54 11 3

The following table furnishes a general view of the ratio of Customs revenue to imports since 1895, which is taken as the base year:—

Year.Imports.Revenue.Percentage of Revenue to Total Imports.Index Numbers of Customs Revenue compared with Imports.
Value.Value per Head.Amount.Actual Value per Head.Value per Head at 1895 Ratio.
 ££ s. d.££ s. d.£ s. d.Per cent. 
18956,400,1298 14 31,619,9702 4 12 4 125.311,000
190010,646,09613 5 42,170,3542 14 13 7 120.39805
190512,828,85714 0 112,652,6662 18 13 10 820.68817
191017,051,58316 7 92,954,9892 16 94 2 1017.33685
191521,728,83418 18 13,190,8832 15 64 15 714.68580
192061,595,82849 11 67,953,4776 9 712 14 012.91510
192552,456,40737 17 108,287,2885 19 99 11 915.80624
192948,797,97733 2 78,582,3935 16 78 7 817.59695
193043,025,91428 16 77,776,1035 4 27 5 1117.40687
193124,812,95816 7 115,282,5103 9 104 3 019.89786
193223,045,10615 2 05,035,9133 6 03 16 520.39806
1933.21,451,38213 18 114,920,5933 4 03 10 718.92748

In the preceding table it is to be noted that import values quoted therein are expressed in “recorded ”values (vide p-181)—i.e. chiefly in sterling—while Customs revenue is in New Zealand currency. For the purpose of computing the last two columns import values (except for specie—taken at face value) have been converted to New Zealand currency. It is important to note also that in the two tables under the next heading import values are as “recorded, ”and comparisons with Customs revenue have not been adjusted as in the preceding table.

The figures given in the column “ Value per head at 1895 ratio ”indicate the amount of revenue per head of population which would have been obtained had the same ratio of Customs taxation been levied as prevailed in 1895.

Substantial reductions in the scale of duties were responsible for the sharp fall in the percentage of revenue to imports between 1895 and 1920. The increase in this proportion during the last few years is due partly to heavier taxation and partly to a rise in the proportion of imports from foreign countries. To some extent also the position is affected by a change from the 1st April, 1926, in the system of computation for British preference purposes in the case of articles only partly manufactured in British countries.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

At the present time nearly one-half of New Zealand's imports are admitted free of duty, the proportion showing an upward trend since 1929.

The figures given in the following table are exclusive of specie, which is admitted free. Imports free of duty include items otherwise dutiable but admitted free for Government use, &c.

YearValue of Imports*Percentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.Amount.Percentage of
Dutiable Importstotal Imports
* Excluding specie.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
192422,964,91725,562,68648,527,60347.3252.687,461,55329.1915.38
192524,834,72527,591,03252,425,75747.3752.638,287,28830.0415.81
192622,255,76527,555,99849,811,76344.6855.328,398,53730.4816.86
192718,788,51725,994,14944,782,66641.9558.058,110,49731.2018.11
192820,154,61724,089,48544,844,10244.9455.067,648,74730.9817.06
192920,886,79827,847,67448,734,47242.8657.148,582,39330.8217.61
193019,520,31723,142,51042,662,82745.7554.257,776,10333.6018.23
193111,577,61013,179,19324,756,80346.7753.235,282,51040.0821.34
193210,920,97912,068,81722,989,79647.5052.505,035,91341.7321.90
193310,300,46410,726,21421,026,67848.9951.014,920,59345.8723.40

The next table gives for 1933 detailed figures arranged according to the statistical classification, for the key to which reference should be made to p. 217. The main features of the table are the overwhelming proportion of dutiable goods in the classes covering alcoholic beverages, tobacco, foodstuffs of animal origin, paints and varnishes, vehicles, and apparel, and the high proportion of free goods in non-alcoholic beverages, live animals, animal substances other than foodstuffs, manufactured fibres, stones and minerals (mainly coal), specie, raw metals, paper, and manures. Specie imports are included in this table, and slightly affect the percentages in the “totals ” line.

Class No.Value of ImportsPercentage of Total.Customs Duty collected.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.Amount.Percentage of
Dutiable Importstotal Imports
 £Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.£Per Cent.Per Cent.
I3,827100,443104,2703.6796.3321,84121.7520.95
II812,4361,026,2081,838,64444.2055.80188,42918.3610.25
III41,110541,110582,2207.0692.94146,88727.1425.23
IV6389,475389,4810.00100.00677,325173.91173.91
V48432,481432,5290.0199.99786,484181.85181.83
VI19,051..19,051100.00..   
VII4,42755,08459,5116.5893.423,2455.895.45
VIII305,938159,111465,04965.7934.2131,53119.826.78
IXa344,4711,476,6561,821,12718.9281.08458,08331.0225.16
IXb1,834,8051,311,6003,146,40558.3141.69262,96720.058.36
IXc305,12735,979341,10689.4510.557,21520.052.11
X418,4571,167,7531,586,21026.3973.61986,36992.3862.19
XI60,806123,367184,17333.0266.9822,60518.3212.28
XII110,1811,750111,93198.441.5631117.770.28
XIII424,704..424,704100.00..   
XIVa205,2041,003206,20799.510.49757.480.04
XIVb1,410,329484,6481,894,97774.4225.58109,23322.545.77
XV1,100,807565,3371,666,14466.0733.93122,92021.747.38
XVIa90,0047,55597,55992.267.741,54420.441.58
XVlB75,720108,714184,43441.0658.9420,86419.2011.31
XVIIa90,95255,245146,19762.2137.7915,80128.6010.81
XVIIb26,43743,26769,70437.9362.0712,63429.2018.13
XVIII107,188216,450323,63833.1266.3850,25122.1915.53
XIXa653,33777,320730,65789.4210.5813,18017.051.80
XIXb383,274179,176562,45068.1431.8647,38426.458.42
XX604338,829339,4330.1899.82101,91430.0830.02
XXI344,50248,867393,36987.5812.4210,23020.932.60
XXIIa681,444375,7821,057,22664.4535.5595,7719.06..
XXIIb431,402..431,402100.00..   
XXIIIa73,7191,183,2831,257,0025.8794.13125,28110.599.97
XXIIIb364,851219,721584,57262.4137.5956,40538.959.65
Primage and surtax..    543,814.. 
     Totals10,725,16810,726,21421,451,38250.0050.004,920,59345.8722.94

RATES OF DUTY.

The table on the next page shows imports in 1933 according to the nature or rate of duty. The rates shown are exclusive of primage and surtax.

During that year a duty of 40 per cent, was paid on motor-vehicles imported from foreign countries, 10 per cent, or 20 per cent, on those from Canada, and 10 per cent, on those from other British countries, with, in the main, additional body duties of 16J per cent., 11£ per cent., and 11J per cent, respectively on the first £200 value of the vehicle, and 8£ per cent., 6£ per cent., and 6J per cent. respectively on the remainder of the value. Where additional body duty was payable, the whole of the imports of British origin, other than those from Canada, have been treated for the purposes of this table as being subject to 2¼, per cent. duty, those from Canada to 21¼ or 31¼ per cent, duty, and those of foreign origin to 56¼ per cent. duty.

Nature of Duty.United Kingdom.Other British.Foreign.Totals.
 ££££
Free (excluding specie)5,576,7893,082.,2981,641,37710,300,464
Specific duties907,146971,6601,956,5063,835,312
Ad valorem duties—    
5 per cent.11925,39653,06978,584
10 per cent.627,973186,063190,2771,004,313
15 per cent.22,54847,211435,664505,423
20 per cent.1,507,274219,42567,1401,793,839
21¼ per cent.276,33751,404..327,741
25 per cent.756,320243,157317,0461,316,523
27½ per cent.762,86228,283..791,145
30 per cent.5,84750,54618,42774,820
31¼ per cent...9,685..9,685
32½ per cent...62,890..62,890
35 per cent.71,46572,22362,486206,174
37½ per cent.3,76991..3,860
40 per cent...992,63092,639
45 per cent... 253,073253,073
50 per cent... 340,733340,733
55 per cent... 12,51612,516
56¼ per cent... 16,43016,430
60 per cent... 514514
Totals ad valorem4,034,514996,3831,860,0056,890,902
Specie321,354103,350..424,704
Grand totals of imports10,839,8035,153,6915,457,88821,451,382

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.

Preference to British countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand—that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since 1922, and with Canada since 1932.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items. The effect of the 1921, 1927, 1930, and 1934 tariffs has been to widen the disparity in the duty as between goods of British and of foreign origin. Under the Ottawa agreement, New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods when the margin of preference (did not exceed 20 per cent., and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent, without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom. In the tariff of 1934, where reductions in duty were made under the British Preferential Tariff, the rates of duty under the general (foreign) tariff were, except in a few eases, retained.

The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufactures of countries the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:—

  • Goods wholly the produce of such countries:

  • Goods wholly manufactured within such countries from materials produced in such countries:

  • Goods manufactured within such countries in which all manufacturing processes are performed in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and (or) from one or more of the partly manufactured raw materials, not produced in such countries, which are enumerated in regulations.

  • Goods partially produced or partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and (or) labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

Prior to the 1st Aprils 1926, the minimum mentioned in paragraph (d), which is new one-half, was one-fourth.

In the calculation of the proportion of produce or labour none of the following items is to be included or considered:—

  • Manufacturer's profit, or the profit or remuneration of any trader, agent, broker, or other person dealing in the article in its finished condition;

  • Royalties;

  • The cost of outside packages or any cost of packing the goods thereinto;

  • Any cost of conveying, insuring, or shipping the goods subsequent to their manufacture.

Tea to be entitled to be entered at British preferential rates must be grown in some part of the British Empire, and the final process of manufacture must also be performed in some British country.

As explained later, certain imports from Australia pay more than corresponding items from other British countries, while, from June, 1931, to 24th May, 1932, the bulk of imports of Canadian origin paid the general rate of duty.

The following table shows the extent of the imports which are affected by preference, by giving the percentage of the total imports and of foreign imports so affected. The proportions increased generally after the tariff changes of 1907, 1917, and 1921. In the case of 1927, however, the effect of any change in this direction is hidden, owing to the falling-off of imports, particularly in motor-vehicles—an important item subject to the preferential surtax.

Year.Value of Imports.Imports on which Preferential Surtax payable.Percentage of
     Totalof British OriginOf Foreign Origin.Total Imports.Foreign Imports.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
192448,527,60335,830,90912,696,6946,766,35813.9453.29
192552,456,40738,262,27614,194,1318,118,83815.4757.21
192649,889,56334,073,74115,815,8228,750,17817.5355.33
192744,782,94630,717,56114,065,3857,504,47416.7653.35
192844,886,26630,810,18914,076,0777,461,96316.6353.01
192948,797,97733,094,96915,703,0088,437,21717.3053.73
193043,025,91429,591,93713,433,9776,369,43514.8047.41
193124,812,95817,431,7397,381,2192,824,38711.3938.26
193223,045,10616,558,1166,486,9902,171,0169.4233.47
193321,451,38215,993,4945,457,8882,058,9169 6037.72

For the purpose of studying better the scope and effect of the preferential surtax, imports for the last three years are classified in the next table into four groups:—

 1931.1932.1933.
British.Foreign.British.Foreign.British.Foreign.
 ££££££
Free In any case3,529,4042,829,5253,145,5232,241,9783,502,1081,041,377
Free when of British origin, but dutiable when of foreign origin5,274,836932,5195,588,7881,102,0455,521,6231,022,939
Dutiable with same rates whether of British or foreign origin1,103,1401,727,3071,151,5812,073,990754,2291,757,595
Dutiable with a lower rate of duty when of British origin7,464,3591,891,8686,072,2241,068,9716,155,4741,035,977
     Totals17,431,7397,381,21910,558,1160,486,90015,993,4945,457,888

Of foreign goods imported in 1933, 30 per cent, were free of duty, as compared with 58 per cent, in 1921. A further 32 per cent. (7 per cent, in 1921), although dutiable, paid no higher rate than if they had been of British origin. This leaves 38 per cent. (35 per cent, in 1921) with the disadvantage of the higher rate of duty applicable to foreign goods. Of the total imports of British origin in 1933, 57 per cent, were classified as free. Of goods of United Kingdom origin, 54 per cent. were free, the corresponding percentage for goods of other British origin being 62.

Reciprocity with South Africa.

As stated above, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with British South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was revised in 1922, the duties on wines being increased and tobacco being deleted from the list. A further alteration, whereby maize and dried apples were deleted from the list, was made in 1925.

The main items of import benefited by the reciprocal arrangement are dried apricots and peaches and wine. The former pay no duty under the reciprocal tariff, as compared with 4d. under the general tariff. Sparkling wine is admitted at 9s. 6d. per gallon, as against 15s. under the general and 10s. under British preferential rates. On still wine the rate is 3s. 6d. per gallon, as compared with 6s. under the general and 4s. under the British preferential tariff. Other items specially provided for are feathers, fish, fresh fruit, and tea; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits and tobacco, a reduction of 3 per cent, of the duty payable is made.

The following table shows the imports from South Africa during the last ten years. Figures of exports from New Zealand to South Africa are also given.

Year.Imports.Exports to South Africa.
From South Africa.Of South African Origin.
 £££
192462,86489,29528,585
1925104,520113,95019,306
1926121,240140,02131,540
1927119,305122,59731,251
192899,054104,04364,892
192998,839100,98851,707
193087,84992,00615,589
193169,47169,9788,052
193277,12076,97012,120
193339,03340,51714,427

The imports of South African origin during the last five years are classified into four divisions in the following table:—

 1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 £££££
Special reduction or remission of duty31,57838,22024,45731,75916,881
Reduction of 3 per cent, in duty24,85721,79718,02520,50413,980
No reduction4,4503,4834,4682,1202,460
Free under general or British preferential tariff40,10328,50623,02822,5877,196
     Totals100,98892,00669,97876,97040,517

Of commodities specially provided for in the reciprocal tariff, dried apricots represented £10,319 in 1933, other dried fruits £1,848, and wine £4,734. Bark and other tanning materials (£4,118), and ground or crushed maize (£2,163) accounted for the great bulk of the £7,196 free imports other than under the reciprocal tariff. “Precious stones ” is the principal item in the category “reduction of 3 per cent. ” the 1933 figure being £13,087.

Reciprocity With Australia.

A trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand was first entered into on the 11th April, 1922. Under this agreement each country granted to goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods on which special rates were fixed.

During 1933 a Minister of the Commonwealth Government visited New Zealand to discuss the commercial relations between the two countries. A provisional agreement was reached in April, 1933, and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act, 1933.

Under the agreement lower duties than those under the British preferential tariff on New Zealand products entering Australia are provided for on many lines, the chief of which are Stilton cheese; fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; hay; chaff; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne-seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor-rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale-oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Duties lower than those under the British preferential tariff in force in New Zealand at the time of the agreement were granted on certain lines of Australian goods, chiefly cotton-seed meal, hay, chaff, oats, dried peas, fish, fish pastes and soups, wine, eucalyptus oil, chamois leather, certain oil-engines, and timber. In addition, a duty of Id. per lb., plus surtax, was imposed on foreign raisins on importation into New Zealand, while Australian raisins were admitted free, except for a primage duty of 3 per cent, ad valorem.

To protect New Zealand industries, the duties on many classes of Australian goods were fixed at rates higher than those in force in 1933 on similar United Kingdom goods. The principal commodities affected were potatoes, fresh cherries, canned fruits, jams, soap, rennet, woollen rugs, woollen blankets, woollen textiles, leather manufactures, leather boots, tiles, tinware, gas heating and cooking appliances, certain kinds of machinery and of metal manufactures.

The agreement provides that goods which are partially manufactured in Australia or New Zealand shall not be regarded as the produce or manufacture of the Commonwealth or the Dominion, as the case may be, unless the expenditure in material produced in either country and/or labour performed within either country represents not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of the goods in their finished stated.

Article IX of the agreement provides that where with respect to any goods not specially enumerated in the agreement the rate of duty thereon under the New Zealand British preferential tariff is less than the duty under the Australian British preferential tariff, the New Zealand Government may request the Australian Government to admit into the Commonwealth goods of such class at the rate of duty chargeable on goods of that class under the New Zealand British preferential tariff. If within three calendar months after the receipt of the request the Australian Government does not comply therewith the New Zealand Government may, without further notice, impose on such goods of Australian origin a rate of duty not being greater than the rate of duty for the time being in force in Australia on the like goods under the Australian British preferential tariff. A similar provision is made with respect to goods exported from Australia to New Zealand.

Trade between New Zealand and Australia during the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year.Imports from Australia.Imports of Australian Origin.Exports to Australia.
19246,303,0735,651,0272,509,322
19255,855,9895,249,4932,502,113
19265,059,7794,625,2003,054,433
19274,264,1753,869,2463,665,962
19283,868,2813,499,1513,402,655
19293,631,6253,258,7272,338,410
19303,674,0733,308,9111,562,281
19312,685,8082,437,9551,169,055
19322,921,6812,691,2421,444,860
19332,911,2712,674,6831,393,311

The next table shows for 1933 the imports of principal items specially affected by the reciprocal tariff. The group “ lower than other British countries ” includes items which are free under the Australian reciprocal tariff, but pay duty under the British preferential tariff.

It should be explained that the items shown do not necessarily represent the whole of the imports of Australian origin generally classed under the respective headings, some items of a group (e.g., boots, shoes, &c.) coming within the scope of the reciprocal tariff, and others being treated as under the British preferential tariff. It should be further noted that the figures shown include imports of Australian origin by the New Zealand Government, which, being free of duty from all countries, are not affected by the tariff agreement.

Imports Affected By Australian Reciprocal Tariff, 1933.

Dutiable at Bates lower than British Preferential Bates.

 £
Cheese403
Fish268
Confectionery30,427
Chaff14
Beans297
Oats728
Peas66
Oatmeal and rolled oats470
Sugar7,833
Fresh vegetables100
Wine29,616
Motor-spirit80
Oil-engines42
Timber90,314
Eucalyptus2,316
     Total£162,983

Dutiable at Hates higher than British Preferential Bales.

 £
Canned fruit22,308
Jams, jellies, and preserves444
Hops14
Coffee-essence48
Coffee, roasted7
Boots and shoes40,264
Leather laces86
Woollen piece-goods1,219
Galvanized-iron manufactures325
Gas ranges, rings, &c.408
Lead-headed roofing-nails449
Fittings for pipes61
Lead piping24
Pumps305
Tinware4,039
Valves, cocks, &c.788
Hardware n.e.i.108
Machinery435
Leather goods227
Mouldings1,055
Glass and earthern roofing tiles466
Carbonic-acid gas79
Carriages, carts, perambulators, &c.50
Asbestos sheets, &c.5,870
Brushes and brooms10
Soap26,230
     Total£105,819

The rates of duty payable on certain goods of Australian origin, previously-dutiable at rates lower than the British preferential tariff, were increased to British preferential rates as from 1st August, 1933. The values of the imports of such goods have been omitted from the first part of the above table.

A revised trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand came into force oh 1st December, 1933. The effects of the alterations made by this agreement have been shown in the tables for the proportionate part of the year during which rates different from British preferential rates were in operation.

Reciprocity With Canada.

From October, 1925, to May, 1930, certain items of New Zealand produce were admitted to Canada at rates much below those ruling for Canadian imports from other British countries with the exception of Australia. In particular, butter from Australia and New Zealand paid 1 cent per pound duty as compared with 3 cents in the case of other British countries.

The special rates were withdrawn in 1930 in the case of New Zealand goods, which were placed on the British preferential tariff. At the same time the duty on butter under this tariff was increased to 4 cents and later to 8 cents per pound, as a result of which New Zealand's export of butter to Canada (which had risen to 335,126 cwt., valued at £2,707,(169, in 1929) practically ceased.

In consequence of the removal of the special rates on New Zealand goods entering Canada, Canadian motor-vehicles, motor-vehicle engines, and tires were in August, 1930, removed from the British preferential tariff of New Zealand and made subject to special rates corresponding to those ruling for foreign goods of these classes prior to the tariff amendment of 1930. With the exception of these items, and of three—viz., gum boots, wire, and certain classes of paper—which were admitted free under the British preferential tariff, all goods of Canadian origin paid from June, 1931, the full rates prescribed under the general tariff.

Negotiations between the Canadian and New Zealand Governments bore fruit in a trade agreement which came into force in both countries for a period of one year, as from 24th May, 1932. Further discussions have been taking place during 1933 between the two Governments regarding the existing treaty, which has been extended to 24th May, 1935,

Under the new Canadian tariff on New Zealand produce are included, inter alia: Butter, 5 cents per lb.; cheese, 1 cent per lb.; and lamb, mutton, or beef, 3 cents per lb.; while sausage casings, hides, and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri-gum, and phormium fibre are amongst those admitted free.

One of the largest items imported from Canada is motor-vehicles, on which the duty mentioned in the agreement was: If not less than three-fourths Canadian origin, 10 per cent.; if not less than one-half Canadian origin, 20 per cent. In addition, in both cases there was payable a “ body-duty, ” where such vehicles have passenger-bodies, of 11} per cent, of the first £200 of total value and 6} per cent, of the remaining value. Other items of importance mentioned in the agreement were: Salmon, l¾d. per lb.; boots and shoes, &c, 25 per cent.; electric cooking and heating appliances, 30 per cent.; certain agricultural implements, 35 per cent.; timber, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. (rough sawn) and 19s. (sawn and dressed) per 100 super, ft. The general tariff rate on such timber was increased by 2s. per 100 super, ft. to afford preference to Canada and other British countries.

Trade Arrangement With Belgium.

A trade arrangement between the Economic Union of Belgium and Luxemburg and New Zealand was entered into on the 5th December, 1933, and came into force on the 16th December, 1933. The principal provisions of this agreement were:

  • Each country granted most-favoured-nation treatment to the other;

  • New Zealand reduced the duty on certain Belgian goods, chiefly matches (by abolition of surtax), carpets, glassware, sensitized surfaces, and firearms; and

  • Belgium reduced the duty on New Zealand cheddar cheese and fresh apples, and provided for the free admission into Belgium of New Zealand tallow, hides, skins, greasy wool, and phormium fibre.

Other Trade Arrangements.

New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries other than those referred to above. In certain instances these became applicable to New Zealand automatically as a member of the British Empire, while in others New Zealand has become a party signifying her willingness to adhere to treaties negotiated by the United Kingdom. New Zealand has also in some cases entered into agreements with foreign countries by direct negotiation with those countries, and in others the United Kingdom has acted for New Zealand in making trade agreements on her behalf. In some instances the trade involved is insignificant.

By Order in Council of the 21st February, 1931, the duties and exemptions from duty provided for in the Trade Arrangement (Belgium and New Zealand) Ratification Act, 1933, were applied to similar goods the produce or manufacture of the following countries: Argentina, Austria, Brazil, China, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Norway, and Spain.

SUBSECTION E.—TRADE OF PORTS.

OVERSEA IMPORTS.

NEW ZEALAND has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes, eleven in the North Island and ten in the South.

The following table gives the total value of imports (merchandise and specie) for the several ports of entry. Waitara had no overseas imports or exports during the period Tokomaru Bay no imports, and Tauranga no exports.

Port.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 £££££
Auckland15,740,70013,727,8778,283,1718,317,0147,527,458
Kaipara2,838352..  
Tauranga8,6536,8534,6212,9993,798
Gisborne204,553187,31484,33780,37071,870
New Plymouth697,097627,117390,186393,000343,597
Patea34,81029,27314,83410,8386,684
Wanganui417,686394,867222,024231,972175,884
Wellington16,813,20315,194,7258,586,2177,789,6617,133,214
Napier841,562741,030414,010387,917300,389
Wairau (incl. Picton)63,98068,50728,67827,28929,310
Nelson258,333277,505178,653149,21790,677
Westport53,83864,46727,02917,17116,871
Greymouth138,137145,10666,65974,06666,985
Hokitika10,9659,2186,7665,6903,877
Lyttelton6,906,1415,737,9523,303,9152,810,0982,991,931
Timaru651,483741,287280,109215,763185,645
Oamaru98,517111,33566,80963,28730,006
Dunedin4,975,4514,141,6772,454,6282,106,6252,094,434
Invercargill880,030819,452400,312362,129378,752
     Totals48,797,97743,025,91424,812,95823,045,10621,451,382

During each of the five years covered by the above table over two-thirds of the imports came in by way of Wellington or Auckland, the actual proportion in 1933 being 68 per cent. Over the five years imports into Wellington averaged £11,103,404 annually (34.5 per cent, of the total), and into Auckland £10,719,244 (33.3 per cent.). On the basis of aggregate imports for the five years the next most important ports are Lyttelton, Dunedin, Invercargill, Napier, New Plymouth, and Timaru.

OVERSEA EXPORTS.

From 1914 to 1921 the Customs Department allocated exports as far as possible to the appropriate district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or not, and no complementary figures are available to show the export trade from each individual port for this period. The system, however, did not prove satisfactory in practice, and the former method of showing exports according to the port at which the goods are placed on board the vessel by which they leave the Dominion was reverted to from the 1st January, 1922.

Over the last five years exports through Auckland averaged £13,033,348 annually (30.5 per cent. of the total), and through Wellington £10,722,161 annually (25.l per cent.). Combining imports and exports, Auckland is given place as premier port of New Zealand on this basis. Aggregating exports for the last five years, other important ports are placed in this order: Lyttelton, Napier, New Plymouth, Invercargill, Dunedin, Timaru, Wanganui, and Gisborne.

The following table gives for the last five years the overseas exports according to the port at which they are actually placed on board the overseas vessel The concentration of the export trade in the ports of Auckland and Wellington is less marked than with the import trade. Nevertheless, in each of the five years shown below these two ports together accounted for more than half the total exports of the Dominion.

Port.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 £££££
Auckland14,721,52613,871,22811,413,48611,721,12513,439,375
Kaipara7,1504,5493,8592,182791
Tokomaru Bay154,127164,573139,190240,905197,960
Gisborne1,238,2521,152,890821,899816,8701,032,656
New Plymouth2,941,8682,846,4502,382,6872,278,9362,472,394
Patea..211536
Wanganui1,808,4571,237,935952,566909,9891,133,800
Wellington14,665,54910,822,8838,670,9009,634,6799,816,792
Napier4,114,9773,061,6571,661,0022,055,7312,775,738
Wairau (incl. Picton)270,837241,043154,722195,957245,460
Nelson116,871141,51069,353184,270197,009
Westport130,90765,11619,92537,52934,817
Greymouth383,163323,196248,050218,797243,151
Hokitika2,5752769,86918,70720,295
Lyttelton5,559,8084,051,2573,003,7813,065,6443,432,294
Timaru2,409,6531,864,3221,264,6241,115,0701,467,473
Oamaru402,158329,967404,852299,244327,982
Dunedin3,739,0252,187,3781,759,8611,770,4462,047,504
Invercargill2,796,5802,496,4102,127,3802,351,1092,376,057
Parcels-post115,58078,03145,00748,58740,397
        Totals55,579,06344,940,69235,153,02836,965,78041,301,951

The west coast ports of both Islands, as well as Nelson and Wairau in the northern portion of the South Island, send much of their produce to Wellington for loading into overseas vessels.

PORT TONNAGE STATISTICS.

The following table gives for the aggregate of all ports a summary of the cargo handled.

Year.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.Overseas.Coastal.Overseas.
* Excluding transhipments.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
19241,909,8832,261,822475,9631,958,615581,8147,664,060
19251,938,3662,318,613480,4741,993,132632,3077,843,366
19261,976,7132,309,056470,5532,071,638733,5648,032,077
19272,044,0442,107,024425,4442,098,926785,2967,886,178
19282,109,7242,147,103430,9252,207,194799,4218,125,292
19292,160,8832,319,471406,0542,176,878853,8108,323,150
19302,080,0862,106,784398,7392,115,759801,9597,902,066
19311,565,7951,556,275278,9271,637,703723,0236,040,650
19321,403,9771,489,347248,5361,488,052829,9165,708,364
19331,383,8451,374,774235,7221,447,258995,6505,672,971

In order to obtain statistics of the total trade of each port a system of monthly returns from the various port authorities was instituted in 1922, showing under some forty headings the quantity of goods handled, distinguishing inwards and outwards cargo, coastal and overseas, and transhipments. The resultant statistics show on a tonnage basis the total exports of each port, whether placed on the overseas vessel there, sent to a central port for shipment overseas, or despatched coastwise to another port for consumption in New Zealand. For obvious reasons, total values of goods shipped coastwise cannot be obtained.

For all data given under this head it is advisable to note that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. For a portion only of the goods handled is it practicable to obtain the actual weights involved. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulae as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, &c, to the ton. In a few instances the tons are “short” tons of 2,000 lb. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, are recorded in “measurement” tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in “measurement” tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

The following table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1933. The high proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is very noticeable.

Port.Inwards.*Transhipments.Outwards.*Total Manifest Tonnage.
Coastal.Overseas.Coastal.Overseas.
* Excluding transhipments.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons
Awanui3,430.. 2,884..6,314
Mangonui1,871.. 886..2,757
Russell4,448.. 2,8877,63514,970
Hokianga3,108.. 1,438..4,546
Whangarei19,325.. 55,11831874,761
Kaipara1,963.. 3301972,490
Mangawai723.. 139..862
Auckland409,813571,97637,840195,034237,4061,489,909
Onehunga12,309..1628,323..40,664
Great Barrier531.. 386..917
Port Waikato3,997.. 1,054..5,051
Raglan1,847.. 686..2,533
Kawhia923.. 954..1,877
Thames7,607.. 2,196..9,803
Coromandel1,085.. 450..1,535
Whitianga707.. 403..1,110
Tauranga8,623.. 1,159..9,782
Whakatane8,808.. 11,239..20,047
Opotiki7,343.. 4,708..12,051
Tokomaru Bay6,727..3502,2185,36015,005
Tolaga Bay3,500..1818336515,346
Gisborne38,5492,83728316,77725,13983,868
Waikokopu2,547..23769..3,362
Wairoa2,041.. 2,008..4,049
Napier57,69118,7344,95719,17062,324167,833
Mokau96.. 4,086..4,182
Waitara2,266.. 104..2,370
New Plymouth55,25447,063..4,17756,782163,276
Patea2,156.. 28,204..30,360
Wanganui52,22724,963..15,12729,809122,126
Foxton6,474.. 116..6,590
Wellington341,718365,527172,517194,031227,7671,474,077
Picton20,442.. 34,0827,20961,733
Wairau3,830.. 3,825..7,655
Nelson51,2811,75113,81528,4035,596114,661
Mapua860.. 12,455..13,315
Waitapu2,141.. 1,573..3,714
Motueka7,093.. 16,628..23,721
Westport7,40246..274,38814,103295,939
Greymouth7,97596..173,87048,013229,954
Hokitika1,531.. 4,772..6,303
Lyttelton97,053172,5451,617155,572109,144537,548
Akaroa700163749..839
Timaru20,07912,00423652,68840,891126,134
Oamaru5,4626871615,4697,36629,016
Dunedin62,034127,4873,83456,41145,659299,259
Invercargill7.. 5..12
Bluff25,50029,042..18,85464,281137,677
Half-moon Bay748.. 320..1,068
    Totals1,383,8451,374,774235,7221,447,258995,6505,672,971

The penultimate column of the preceding table shows the quantity of cargo placed on board the overseas vessels at the respective ports, and a table will be found in Section X showing the number and tonnage of overseas vessels calling at each port. These tables give a good indication of the extent to which each port enters directly into the overseas trade of the Dominion. The following table shows for the year 1933 the total shipments from each port (overseas and coastwise and including transhipments) of nine principal commodities exported overseas by the Dominion, and thus shows the extent to which the various ports handle our overseas exports, although the goods may be sent outwards coastwise for transshipment at another port.

TOTAL OUTWARDS CARGO HANDLED AT EACH PORT IN 1933, SHOWING PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS SEPARATELY.

Port.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.TallowHides, Skins, and Pelts.Coal.Fruit, Fresh.Timber.All other Goods.Total.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Awanui..        2,8842,884
Mangonui95..502..l0..   279886
Russell2276,672818524333..251351,78810,522..
Hokianga..1,425..      131,438
Whangarei240..4,305..1221594,3688773645,41955,436
Kaipara..     330..197..527
Mangawai11..     2..126139
Auckland16,29233,079105,57523,7036,93610,1373,9377,3189,851253,452470,280
Onehunga41..552..74617227027,09828,339
Great Barrier..        386386
Port Waikato46     ..680..3281,054
Raglan78..544..     64686
Kawhia293..156..  2..5444 9954
Thames1..721,106..   21,0152,196
Coromandel..        450450
Whitianga11..327..12..  62403
Tauranga22..  127..202668411,159
Whakatane16.. 4,5642732048..2,0184,30011,239
Opotiki302.. 2,822861248..591,3794,708
Tokomaru Bay2,2573,446.. 305203..  1,7177,928
Tolaga Bay964..  5..   6961,665
Gisborne8,34114,8013,118781,3571,884..48018511,95542,199
Waikokopu166..   7..  619792
Wairoa1,072..  413..  9192,008
Napier22,29633,7644,5891573,7335,4842,133169714,18286,451
Mokau107..   13,962.. 164,086
Waitara..       1787104
New Plymouth62417,82611,87723,1861,2081,294.. 104,93460,959
Patea.. 2,11425,353..    73728,204
Wanganui11,73416,1124,1373,4501,5521,260.. 486,64344,936
Foxton..        116116
Wellington37,41248,74121,79046,1956,14910,77939,60640,32140,208339,114594,315
Picton5,4682,7702079143348.. 3932,42441,291
Wairau554..13989..26..151612,8413,825
Nelson1,631721650651423747,25715,84411921,01147,814
Mapua..      12,353..10212,455
Waitapu146..794.. 1..2..6301,573
Motueka174..259.. 3..13,654..2,53816,628
Westport26..247..2271279,073..3,5315,521288,491
Greymouth..   5094174,859..46,344536221,883
Hokitika7..  146.. 4,2445014,772
Lyttelton22,36530,9512,9721,2344,3966,120774,5152,403191,300266,333
Akaroa24..       6286
Timaru10,29715,7625267331,454925.. 1,15062,96893,815
Oamaru1,0135,106.. 67164..3..15,99422,851
Dunedin16,52111,7121,1432,0461,5432,385205,20625165,077105,904
Invercargill..        55
Bluff11,19820,84386914,5502,3251,6981411,1535,13625,22283,135
Half-moon Bay..        320320
   Totals172,072262,306176,359142,38832,69143,808517,189101,36681,3311,149,1202,678,630

TRANSHIPMENTS.

Transhipments of cargo during 1933 totalled 235,722 tons, of which 172,517 tons were transhipped at Wellington.

Transhipments are of four classes, as follows:—

Coastal to Coastal.—Cargo which has been loaded on a vessel at one New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at another New Zealand port.

Coastal to Overseas.—Cargo which has been loaded on a vessel at a New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a port outside of the Dominion.

Overseas to Coastal.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a New Zealand port.

Overseas to Overseas.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge outside New Zealand.

The first class represents purely coastal trade, but each of the others may be added to the appropriate figures of overseas trade shown previously to ascertain the total tonnage of goods arriving from or departing overseas. The total inwards tonnage from overseas is found to be 1,449,013, and the total outward tonnage going overseas 1,102,826. As stated previously, import and export figures are not on the same basis, and are thus not comparable.

Two tables are appended showing the transhipment trade of each port affected for 1933, and the transhipments of the various items of merchandise, &c.

TRANSHIPMENTS, BY PORTS AND CLASS, 1933.

Port.Coastal to Coastal.Coastal to Overseas.Overseas to Coastal.Overseas to Overseas.Totals.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Auckland7,4927,52222,43239437,840
Onehunga16..  16
Tokomaru Bay6344.. 350
Tolaga Bay..181.. 181
Gisborne118..165..283
Waikokopu23..  23
Napier2,2822,468207..4,957
Wellington34,14991,44346,82699172,517
Nelson9,5823,994239..13,815
Lyttelton267479871..1,617
Akaroa37..  37
Timaru..236.. 236
Oamaru..16.. 16
Dunedin828..3,006..3,834
     Totals54,800106,68373,746493235,722

TRANSHIPMENTS, BY ITEMS AND CLASS, 1933.

Item.Coastal to Coastal.Coastal to Overseas.Overseas to Coastal.Overseas to Overseas.Totals.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Beans and peas36543159..738
Butter775,893..85,978
Cement3,2603601..3,621
Cheese2628,043.. 28,069
Coal27,94615,316454..43,716
Flour907..865..1,772
Fruit, preserved55..1,105..1,160
Fruit, fresh2,40728,4251,065..31,897
Hemp (fibre and tow)84263.. 347
Hides, skins, and pelts2154,12482364,457
Manures, artificial9061673,531..4,604
Meat, frozen (beef, mutton, and lamb)3215.. 47
Motor-spirit, kerosene, and other fuel oils430..20,290..20,720
Seeds1691,331319..1,819
Sugar1,07948..1,091
Tallow41,49511..1,510
Timber5434545,558..6,555
Wines, spirits, and beer839155921,401
Wool23916,7132793717,268
All other goods15,5463,53639,46041058,952
         Totals54,800106,68373,746493235,722

Chapter 10. SECTION X.—SHIPPING.

REGISTERED VESSELS.

THE number and tonnage of vessels on the New Zealand register at 31st December, 1933, were as follows:—

Port of Registry.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.Motor-vessels.
VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
Auckland362,4181,8647429,29715,8571929,6584,594
Napier4266253173,8732,025101,548866
Wellington101,1441,00652106,25057,461204,7072,484
Nelson11919159,1004,197101,069559
Lyttelton51,7411,667125,2822,4284350171
Timaru..  19424881113
Dunedin..  2725,57714,741811859
Invercargill..  131,7796504580203
     Totals565,5884,809211182,10097,84724918,0418,939

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New-Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 302 vessels on the Auckland register being only 74 tons. At Wellington and Dunedin many of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered, while several of the larger vessels of this company employed in both the coastal and foreign trade of the Dominion are registered in the United Kingdom. The registration figures at the end of each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Sailing-vessels.Steam- and Motor-vessels.Totals.
VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.VesselsGross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
192412321,29719,392441168,84794,978564190,144114,370
192511721,24419,452462186,520104,241579207,764123,693
19269212,90011,634466189,454105,703558202,354117,337
19279012,65411,418475192,106106,386565204,760117,804
19288812,50411,303472181,80099,586560194,304110,889
1929719,8858,868470201,563110,649541211,448119,517
1930656,6855,892466194,965106,078531201,650111,970
1931656,6855,892465193,264104,047530199,949109,939
1932586,1635,380461208,589111,985519214,752117,365
1933565,5884,809460200,141106,786516205,729111,595

Of the 163 vessels employed in the coastal trade only, 8 were sailing-vessels with an aggregate net tonnage of 235, and 155 steam- and motor-vessels of 32,799 tons. Seven of the sailing-vessels were under 50 tons, and the other of 50 to 100 tons. The 15 vessels employed in both coastal and foreign trade were all steam- or motor-vessels. Very few sailing-vessels are employed in the foreign trade, there being only 1 for 1933, with a tonnage of 785.

In the following table registered vessels in the Dominion have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given here do not agree with those shown previously, as in this table vessels employed exclusively in the “river” trade have not been included.

Size of Vessel.Employed In the Coastal Trade only.Employed partly In the Coastal and partly in the Foreign Trade.Employed in the Foreign Trade only.
Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.Number of Vessels.Net Tonnage.
Under 50 tons631,247..   
50 tons and under 100372,663.. 4352
100 tons and under 200253,40823292292
200 tons and under 300123,07012861263
300 tons and under 40062,1901342.. 
400 tons and under 60042,01115861552
600 tons and under 80053,628.. 21,534
800 tons and under 1,00043,56619441822
1,000 tons and under 1,50045,26767,062.. 
1,500 tons and under 2,00023,35535,256611,086
2,000 tons and over12,629.. 1037,377
     Totals16333,0341514,8052752,278

OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Throughout the remainder of this section all tonnage figures relate to net tonnage.

The tonnage of vessels entered and cleared during 1933 amounted to 5,048,703, as compared with 4,700,569 for 1932. The number of vessels decreased from 1,157 to 1,129.

Of late years the tendency has been for vessels of a larger size to be employed in the New Zealand trade, in order to cope with the growing imports and exports of the Dominion and for the purposes of the passenger traffic. The increase over a period of years is thus more noticeable on a comparison of tonnage than by comparing the number of vessels.

NATIONALITY OF VESSELS.

Considering only vessels entered inwards, the number registered in the United Kingdom represented in 1933 42 per cent, of the total, but on a tonnage basis the percentage is found to increase to 52. The average tonnage of the vessels was 5,528. Although vessels registered in New Zealand and other (i.e., other than United Kingdom) British countries comprised 40 per cent, of the total vessels, the tonnage on the other hand was only 25 per cent, of the aggregate. The average tonnage was comparatively low, being only 2,778. Foreign vessels constituted 18 per cent, of the number, and 23 per cent, of the tonnage, with an average tonnage for each vessels of 5,763.

The foreign vessels entered inwards consisted of 43 American (351,483 tons), 28 Norwegian (126,004 tons), 10 Japanese, 4 Danish, 3 Swedish, 3 Panama, 2 Finnish, 1 German, and 1 Greek.

Year...United Kingdom.Other British Countries.Foreign Countries.Total.
Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.
Entered.
19293281,564,678244588,19270190,4686422,343,338
19302891,472,906224547,64787276,5896002,297,142
19312641,388,307210453,62890313,9855642,155,920
19322531,345,600223496,28798505,7695742,347,656
19332371,310,065229636,126101582,0625672,528,253
Cleared.
19293261,540,569236570,50468190,1546302,301,227
19302971,524,700216524,14186265,1515992,313,992
19312651,391,006213456,00381308,7045592,155,713
19322481,332,160226510,011109510,7425832,352,913
19332331,299,641227638,188102582,6215622,520,450

DIRECTION OF OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during the years 1932 and 1933 are given below:—

Country1932.1933.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom83512,593115692,65295613,453132795,245
British Borneo13,154..     
India316,380.. 316,38015,460
Malaya..   15,060.. 
Seychelles Islands11,565.. 37,264.. 
South African Union26,898.. 1275.. 
British West Indies1290..     
Canada35199,09313120,62355260,86321137,872
Australia245859,231285984,572238916,9582631,010,869
Fiji1016,6502446,589417,9101847,529
Nauru Island1750,034926,2541338,16638,401
Gilbert and Ellice Islands618,237411,828720,009514,486
Norfolk Island1311,8901413,036155260
Papua..     112,088
Solomon Islands14032517..   
Tonga44,91636,28722,03867,804
Western Samoa139,7371310,00713,8131514,938..
Belgium422,771.. 315,473.. 
France..  310,191..13,750
Netherlands..     15,422
Norway18,127..     
Russia (U.S.S.R.)..    39,191..
Portugal14,045..     
Spain..   13,017.. 
Dutch East Indies1553,3091248,1742076,779937,877
China..     13,120
Japan1444,5201342,3781650,5381650,488
Philippine Islands..     14,559
Juan de Nova..   13,147.. 
Madagascar13,174..     
Cuba25,869.. 12,948.. 
Dutch West Indies15,191..     
Mexico12,857.. 13,158.. 
Chile13,242..     
Peru13,674..     
United States of America94470,98559318,05976442,51459346,119
Hawaii.. 13,597..   
New Caledonia..   46,58222,098
Society Islands.. 2624..   
Tuamotu Archipelago38,82125,22412,66238,490
Tutuila.. 13,604..   
Whale-fisheries.. 88,697.. 23,775
     Totals5742,347,6565832,352,9135672,528,2535622,520,450

Slightly more than 42 per cent, of the vessels and 36 per cent, of the total tonnage inwards during the two years covered by the foregoing table came from Australia, while a somewhat higher proportion of the shipping outwards was cleared for Australia. The United Kingdom ranks second, the United States third, Canada fourth, and the Pacific islands next.

Shipping between New Zealand and the principal countries for each of the last five years is as follows:—

Year.Australia.United Kingdom.United States.Canada.Fiji.Pacific Islands (other than Fiji)
Entered.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons
1929850,884483,014488,678195,08354,04379,563
1930805,956506,122478,694182,79238,85162,751
1931728,541526,844434,374155,71046,91875,195
1932859,231512,593470,985199,09316,650104,038
1933916,958613,453442,514260,86317,91083,325
Cleared.
19291,009,999580,335286,876144,71254,377121,254
1930933,869676,139275,440139,84455,407104,859
1931923,722661,729239,032104,14460,35083,103
1932984,572692,652318,059120,62346,58980,978
19331,010,869795,245346,119137,87247,52968,364

SHIPPING TRADE OF PORTS.

New Zealand has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes (vide Subsection E of the preceding section), and there are numerous other ports around the coast. A vessel arriving from overseas may call at several ports in the Dominion to discharge and load cargo, and is recorded as an overseas arrival at the first port of call, and as an overseas departure from the port from which it finally sails. Its movements from one port to another in New Zealand are treated as coastwise shipping. The figures in the following table must simply be taken as showing the extent to which various ports are made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure, and not as indicating the relative overseas trade of the various ports.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING, BY PORTS OF FIRST ARRIVAL AND FINAL DEPARTURE.

Port.Entered.Cleared.
1931.1932.1933.1931.1932.1933.
Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Kaipara..  674684342
Auckland1,214,4531,325,0191,499,672920,5181,106,4681,168,020
Gisborne5,10920,68910,46110,628.. 
Napier14,95915,06321,31031,81059,84659,336
New Plymouth66,06560,19356,55321,43522,59011,958
Wanganui12,14315,44413,88529,42334,92324,692
Wellington575,386619,919599,940709,546672,421797,995
Picton12,0234,6967,4571,892..1,154
Nelson34210,23014,6035,054.. 
Westport1,1673,6043,83529,70726,74033,373
Greymouth1,33016616620,79234,47032,068
Lyttelton86,91996,10895,01456,03681,25894,964
Timaru.. 20,15515,87511,34514,280
Oamaru5,07331,15210,414..1,860..
Dunedin70,99341,99665,683208,515175,375169,454
Bluff89,958103,377109,10593,808124,933112,814
     Totals2,155,9202,347,6562,528,2532,155,7132,352,9132,520,450

Tables showing for each port the total shipping entered and cleared, and distinguishing between overseas and coastal vessels, irrespective of whether the former had been entered or cleared overseas or coastwise, are published annually in Part II of the “Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping.” From these tables may be seen at a glance not only the total shipping of each port, but the number and tonnage of vessels calling there which are engaged in the overseas trade.

The movement of overseas and coastal vessels on the New Zealand coast is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the aggregate number and tonnage of the total calls made during each of ten years.

Year.Overseas Vessels.Coastal Vessels.Total.
Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.Number.Net Tonnage.
19242,4127,767,82824,5575,439,87726,96913,207,705
19252,3887,832,10223,5195,535,56225,90713,367,664
19262,5868,324,12622,4025,450,82524,98813,774,951
19272,3548,237,45122,1235,633,29124,47713,870,742
19282,3938,369,17921,0285,463,60423,42113,832,783
19292,4078,752,83720,8065,447,17123,21314,200,008
19302,5959,494,30620,2385,150,03222,83314,644,338
19312,4128,357,86517,5734,658,13619,98513,016,001
19322,1837,940,90417,4235,025,74219,60612,966,646
19332,1968,531,20717,9815,247,37320,17713,778,580

The figures for overseas vessels in the above table reflect the falling-off in the number of direct arrivals from overseas in the last few years. The number of visits made by vessels engaged exclusively in the coastal trade reached its peak in 1924, since when there has been a continuous decline. The tonnage has not shown a similar movement, the figures indicating a tendency to employ a larger type of vessel in this class of trade.

Figures showing the number and tonnage of all vessels entered into each port during 1933 are given in the following table. In this table, however, no distinction is made between overseas and coastal vessels.

Port.Number.Tonnage.
Parengarenga423,608
Awanui1289,670
Mangonui839,284
Whangaroa18924,948
Russell258132,820
Hokianga9810,059
Whangarei64489,894
Kaipara91,787
Mangawai522,671
Auckland5,6162,584,263
Onehunga23030,579
Raglan598,862
Kawhia598,071
Thames65954,335
Coromandel21315,279
Whitianga1779,876
Tauranga19219,717 !
Whakatane1217,928 j
Opotiki646,466;
Tokomaru Bay170122,949
Tolaga Bay14043,542
Gisborne416327,533
Waikokopu6617,635
Wairoa1005,848
Napier478585,201
Mokau694,185
Waitara562,950
New Plymouth350476,223
Patea19919,80S
Wanganui437295,291
Foxton665,060
Wellington2,9483,570,977
Picton437304,733
Wairau12311,969
Havelock5252
Nelson971287,346
Mapua10513,390
Waitapu11,810,795
Motueka25430,188
Westport371225,926
Greymouth249146,905
Hokitika643,154
Lyttelton1,3712,028,675
Akaroa61,753
Timaru452520,822
Oamaru190183,536
Dunedin586974,099
Invercargill110
Bluff418523,714
Half-moon Bay683,944
     Totals20,17713,778,580

Wellington ranks as the first port of the Dominion as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Napier, Bluff, and Timaru, in that order. Wellington and Lyttelton are termini of the principal inter-Island steamer-express service, and to this fact is due a large part of the coastwise shipping credited to these two ports.

The number and tonnage of overseas vessels included in the totals given above for the various ports concerned are new given. The table covers all vessels engaged in the overseas trade, whether entered overseas or coastwise, and the figures for individual ports differ greatly from those given in a previous table, wherein the tonnage of overseas vessels entered is counted only for the port of first entry in the Dominion.

Port.Number.Tonnage.
Whangaroa39,259
Russell19112,008
Whangarei107,961
Kaipara2684
Auckland4572,146,643
Tauranga1342
Tolaga Bay27,457
Tokomaru Bay1081,345
Gisborne45226,318
Napier99484,410
New Plymouth100398,786
Wanganui47205,377
Wellington5091,939,645
Picton2477,232
Nelson.1142,406
Westport79110,849
Greymouth98107,300
Lyttelton2451,001,560
Akaroa..1946
Timaru..83316,227
Oamaru2477,861
Dunedin193728,103
Bluff134448,488
     Totals2,1968,531,207

Overseas vessels are shown to have called at twenty-three ports during 1933, including eight which were not first ports of call for a single overseas vessel. The total entries of the 567 overseas vessels during the year were 2,196, which gives an average of almost four ports called at on each visit to the Dominion. Many vessels— as, for instance, those engaged in the transport of timber and coal, and those merely touching at a New Zealand port while en route between Australia and America—call at only on port in the Dominion, while, on. the other hand, vessels engaged in the United Kingdom trade generally call at half a dozen or more ports.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.

The examinations for masters, mates, engineers, &c, of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the Imperial Board of Trade, with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions; but the British Board of Trade recognizes the following New Zealand certificates only as of Imperial validity: Master, extra; master, ordinary (endorsement); master, steamship; first mate and second mate, ordinary (endorsement) and steamship; first- and second-class marine engineers, and first- and second-class motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the British Board of Trade.

New regulations for the examination of masters and mates were issued by the Board of Trade on 1st January, 1931, and corresponding regulations were made in New Zealand and came into force on the same date. Since that date masters and mates ordinary certificates have not been issued, steamship certificates endorsed to the effect that the holder is eligible to act in a sailing-ship having been substituted therefor.

During 1933–34 some 266 candidates sat for examinations. Of the 187 who passed, 74 were masters, mates, and engineers of seagoing steamships and motor-vessels; 8 were masters and engineers of steamers plying within restricted limits; 1 yachtmaster in New Zealand waters; 10 signals examinations; 47 were engineers of seagoing motor-propelled boats; 32 were engineers of such boats plying within restricted limits; 1 colonial pilots license; 4 sailing-ship endorsement; 1 fore- and aft-rigged endorsement; and 9 Sub-Lieutenants R.N.V.B..

SURVEY OF SHIPS.

The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1908, and its amendments, provide for an annual survey by Government surveyors of all vessels, with a view to ensuring their seaworthiness. Certificates of survey were issued in 1933–34 to 135 steamers, 401 oil-engine vessels, and 4 sailing-vessels. Vessels to the number of 210 were also surveyed for seaworthiness and efficiency under section 226 of the 1908 Act.

LIGHTHOUSES.

There are fifty-one coastal lighthouses of various types.

The buildings also are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations. In twenty-three cases the light apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its rays through a combination of surrounding lenses. Automatic lights are used in the remainder of the coastal lighthouses. During the year the work of constructing a lighthouse on Baring Head in Cook Strait was commenced.

Three of the lighthouses—Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, and Taiaroa Head— are equipped with fog-signals of the Diaphone type, while a radio-beacon has been established at Cape Maria van Diemen.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen Island, which, placed some 600 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32£ nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Brett light (altitude 510 ft.) and East Cape (505 ft-), both visible at 30£ miles; Godley Head (altitude 450 ft.), visibility 29 miles; Cuvier Island light (altitude 390 ft.) and Moko Hinou (altitude 385 ft.), both of which have a visibility of 27 miles. Sixteen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over.

All manually-attended coastal lighthouses are equipped with signalling flags and lamps, the keepers being competent to transmit or receive messages. Coastal lights —i.e., those outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities—are maintained by the Marine Department.

The average cost of erection and equipment of the main coastal lighthouses was about £6,000 per light. The two most costly were Cape Brett Lighthouse (£11,237) on the Auckland Peninsula, and Dog Island Lighthouse (£10,481) in Foveaux Strait. The cost of maintenance of all lighthouses under the control of the Marine Department was for 1933–34—Salaries, £12,461; stores and general maintenance, £8,598; working-expenses of tender, £17,247; administration expenses, £7,231; interest and sinking-fund charges, £18,784; depreciation, £11,697: total, £76,018. Light dues for 1933–34 totalled £89,075.

WRECKS.

In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marino, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer where the damage has resulted from his wrongful act or default.

Should any wreck occur on the coast the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

During the year 1933–34, 51 inquiries, of which 2 were Magisterial, were held into shipping casualties, the number of vessels involved being 55. The principal casualties were the loss of the steam trawler “Serfib,” which foundered off the East Coast of the North Island, and the stranding of the motor-vessel “Holmglen” at Banks Peninsula. In neither case was there any loss of life. A summary of the casualties is given.

 No.Tonnage.
Strandings— Total loss3104
Slight damage137,069
No damage815,442
Collisions— Slight damage116,729
No damageNil.
Fires— Total lossNil.
Slight damage314,401
No damageNil.
Miscellaneous1714,849
     Totals5558,594

Chapter 11. SECTION XI.—RAILWAYS.

INTRODUCTORY.

RAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton and the first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on the 5th February, 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

Although practically all the railways are State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and the Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companien.

In the year 1876 the railways of New Zealand passed from the control of the Provincial Governments to the Public Works Department. A few years later the opened lines were handed over to the Working Railways Department, and in 1889 a Board of three Railways Commissioners was appointed. This form of management, however, lasted only for five years, at the end of which period a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, took over the administration, and this system continued for close on thirty years. In 1925 the system of railway management was reorganized under the control of a Railways Board of three members, but in 1928 the system of. control by a General Manager was again reverted to. Three years later legislation was passed constituting the Government Railways Board of five members, which took over the control and management of the railways from 1st June, 1931.

The development of automatic and electric-power signalling has been greatly extended since its introduction on the New Zealand railways some years, ago. At the present time automatic signalling controlling the safe running of trains is in use on 63 miles 14 chains of double line and 190 miles 41 chains of single line. Further extensions are under construction.

In addition to automatic signalling, power signalling for the operation of yards has largely superseded the older form of mechanical signalling.

The use of electric power on the New Zealand railways is increasing to a great extent for many purposes, including pumping plants for the supply of water for engines outside stations, for driving electrical machinery in the shops, and for the lighting of stations, locomotives, and carriages. There are 17 railway substations, with a total capacity of 12,000 kv.a. The Christchurch-Lyttelton section of railway, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1928–29. The Otira – Arthur's Pass section, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923. Work in connection with the electrification of the Wellington – Paekakariki section (24 miles 60 chains) is in hand.

The Railways Department owns and operates its own telephone and telegraph communication system, and over all the main lines the running of the trains is controlled from the District Traffic Managers' offices by means of selective telephone equipment. For general communication, the use of automatic telephone exchanges, carrier current telephony, and voice frequency repeaters on the longest lines, give a high-grade service between all stations. Selective inter-calling equipment has been introduced on long lines with success, and extensions of modern telephone and telegraph apparatus are being undertaken.

MILEAGE OF STATE RAILWAYS.

At the 31st March, 1934, there were some 3,320 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into seven distinct sections, as follows:—

Section.Length. Miles.
North Island main line and branches1,486
Kaihu24
Gisborne60
Total, North Island1,570
Section.Length. Miles.
South Island main line and branches1,594
Westport36
Nelson64
Picton56
Total, South Island1,750

Government railways are constructed by the Public Works Department, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed. The last link of the Stratford – Main Trunk line, being the section from Tahora to Okahukura, consisting of 42 miles 1 chain, was taken over by the Railways Department on the 3rd September, 1933, thus reducing the distance between Auckland and Taranaki by 159 miles. Branch lines, totalling 37 miles (North Island, 5 miles; South Island, 32 miles), were taken up during the year.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and a steel rail of 70 lb. weight per lineal yard is the standard for the permanent-way, and is in use on 1,851 miles of line. The greater portion of the remaining mileage is in 53 lb., 55 lb., and 56 lb. steel rails. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,100 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood and New Zealand silver-pine or totara.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION

The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five years is given below. The reduction in 1931–32 was due to the writing-down of the capital by £10,400,00 as authorized in the Government Railways Amendment Act, 1931, this being the estimated amount of accrued depreciation and losses of accrued depreciation and losses of capital not otherwise provided for up to that date.

1929–301930–311931–321932–331933–34
 £££££
Lines open for traffic57,787,67160,545,15451,424,88351,480,94953,909,347
Lines under construction7,738,4188,133,8717,630,8187,747,9455,428,570
Totals65,526,08968,679,02559,055,70159,228,89459,337,917

So varied are the geographical features of the Dominion that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. The numerous mountain-chains and the innumerable rivers fed by the heavy rainfall make railway construction in general both difficult and expensive, as the next statement shows.

Section.Capital Cost of Open Lines to 31st March, 1934.Capital Cost per Mile (Open Lines).Net Revenue, 1933–34.
Per Mile of Open Line.Per Cent. of Capital Cost.
* Loss.
North Island—£££ 
Kaihu167,9246,997− 89*..
Gisborne774,65512,911− 37*..
Main line and branches31,013,99521,2753441.68
Totals, North Island32,556,57420,7373411.56
South Island—    
Westport484,95413,4712511.87
Nelson510,6367,979− 116*..
Picton607,25510,844− 25*. .
Main line and branches18,013,72311,3011531.36
Totals, South Island19,616,56811,2091401.25
Totals, Railways52,173,14215,7152261.48
Lake Wakatipu steamer service17,648..  
Subsidiary services1,708,661..  
General9,896..  
Grand totals53,909,34716,2383272.05

The increase during the year 1933–34 in capital invested in open lines was £2,428,398. Of this sum the taking-over of the Tahora-Okahukura Section was responsible for £2,311,821, the cost of the section. The only other capital expenditure was Wellington new station and yard, £53,974; Wellington-Paekakariki electrification, £9,979; and Tawa Flat deviation, £55,660.

ROLLING-STOCK.

Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways in 1933–34 is given in the following table:—

Locomotives—
Tender371
Tank219
Articulated (Garratt)3
Electric11
Battery5
Clayton1
Total610
Passenger-vehicles—
Sleepers21
Saloon29
First-class246
Second-class792
Composite394
Ladies'6
Postal13
Other15
Total1,516
Wagons—
Horse-boxes287
Cattle742
Sheep2,582
Frozen and chilled meat759
Cool-storage971
Covered goods780
High-side15,812
High-side bogie456
Low-side1,748
Brake-vans485
Other3,281
Total27,903

All carriages and wagons required for use on the State railways have, since 1901, been manufactured in the railway workshops of the Dominion, with the exception of 2,500 four-wheeled wagons imported from England in 1921–22. Locomotives also are built in the railway workshops of the Dominion.

The weights of the locally-built tender-engines in working trim vary from 63 to 135 tons, while those of the tank-engines run from 29½ to 71 tons.

The imported Garratt engines are G-cylinder superheated simple engines of the 4–0–2, 2–6–4 type, and weigh 146 tons with a tractive force of 51,5801b.

The following engines of more recent construction deal with the hulk of the traffic:—

Class.Type.Traffic.Weight.Tractive Force.
 Tons. Tons.lb.
AB4–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed8520,000
A4–6–2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderMixed7817,000
K4–8—4 superheated; simple, with tenderMixed13530,815
X4–8–2 superheated and saturated; compound, with tenderGoods9420,620
WAB and WS4–6–4 superheated; simple tank engineMixed7222,250
C2–6–2 superheated; simple, with tenderShunting6613,798

Twelve of the thirty new mixed-traffic engines designated K Class under construction at the Hutt shops were completed and in service at 31st March, 1934.

Standard carriages are 50 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate twenty-nine to forty-four passengers, steam-heated, and lighted by electricity. Some 572 carriages were equipped with electric light at 31st March, 1934. Locomotives to the number of 288 are fitted with electric head-lights. The Westing-house brake is fitted to all rolling-stock with the exception of that on the Kaihu, Picton, Nelson, and Westport Sections.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The railways have contributed in a great measure towards bringing the Dominion to its present high state of productiveness, have given practical assistance in the development of the country, and have encouraged local industry. For many years a profit of 3 per cent, was regarded as sufficient, and any excess over this rate was followed by reductions in passenger charges or in freights. Consequent on the extension of settlement and the soundness of the Dominion's industries, a rate of 3¾ per cent. was aimed at, commencing with the year 1909–10. During the next twelve years the actual return averaged 4.20 per cent. The year 1921–22 saw a severe depression throughout the country, the return of 1.07 per cent. for that year being the lowest in the history of the railways. For the three years 1922–23 to 1924–25 the return averaged 3.48 per cent.

In 1924 the Government decided upon a financial reorganization of the railways, and an entirely new system of accounts, based on commercial practice, was brought into operation on the 1st April, 1925.

The first and most important step in this direction was the establishment of a separate Working Railways Account into which all earnings are paid and from which all working-expenses, superannuation subsidies, and interest on capital up to the full amount of the net revenue are met. The interest on capital is based on the actual rates payable on the various loans.

The changed financial policy embodied the setting-up of Renewals, Betterments, and Equalization Funds, and also provided for payment of subsidies from the Consolidated Fund for losses on operation of certain developmental lines.

The return for the next four years was 4.35 per cent., 3.99 per cent., 3.64 per cent., and 3.45 per cent.; but in 1929–30 it fell to 1.61 per cent., due mainly to the discontinuance of the subsidy on developmental lines which had been paid by the Treasury since 1925. The economic depression which set in during 1930 caused the return for 1930–31 to fall to 1.16 per cent., but in the succeeding years it has risen to 1.64 per cent. for 1931–32, 1.65 per cent. for 1932–33, and 2.05 per cent. for 1933–34.

9—Ybk.

The total revenue and expenditure of the railways during each of the last ten years are as follow:—

Year ended 31st March,Gross Revenue.Expenditure.Net Revenue.Percentage of Net Revenue to Capital Cost.
 ££££ s. d.
19257,112,5245,545,4161,567,1083 11 0
19238,460,7626,468,4281,992,3344 6 11
19278,434,6546,490,8801,943,7743 19 10
19288,624,5386,685,1231,839,4153 12 10
19298,747,9756,849,3831,898,5923 9 0
19308,288,1167,358,859929,2571 12 4
19317,571,5376,882,810688,7271 3 3
19326,508,9485,670,955837,9931 12 8
19336,034,4035,183,859850,5441 13 0
19346,332,7115,247,1531,085,5582 1 0

Interest on railway capital liability for 1933–34 amounted to £2,282,365, there thus being a deficit of £1,196,807 for the year, as compared with £1,380,111 for the preceding year. A sum of £711,938 was set aside for depreciation and renewals, and is included in the total of expenditure for the year.

The figures in the above table are inclusive of subsidiary services, which in recent years have increased considerably. From 1925–26 to 1928–29 also the figures of receipts are swelled by the inclusion of moneys transferred from the Consolidated Fund to make good deficiencies in revenue on branch lines and isolated sections. This provision, however, has new been cancelled. In 1931–32 the percentage of revenue to capital cost is affected by the writing-down of capital cost by £10,400,000. The revenue and expenditure for the last five years are new given, distinguishing between railway operating and other items:—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.Net Operating Revenue.
Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.Railway Operating.Subsidiary Services.
 £££££
19307,473,993814,1236,848,026510,833625,967
19316,781,388790,1496,406,143476,667375,245
19325,788,965719,9835,301,653369,302487,312
19335,339,075695,3284,833,754350,105505,321
19345,628,835703,8764,877,146370,007751,689

The various subsidiary services new conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years, are given below. Full working costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

Service.Revenue.Expenditure.
1932–33.1933–34.1932–33.1933–34.
 ££££
Lake Wakatipu steamers7,8649,6178,2009,610
Refreshment service69,50573,65766,57772,872
Bookstall service12,38520,78611,31519,102
Advertising service33,61432,70729,93730,159
Departmental dwellings137,575137,238145,786150,781
Leases of bookstalls, &c.16,22415,74910,16710,667
Road-motor service78,64479,18478,12376,816
Miscellaneous receipts339,517334,938.. 
Totals695,323703,876350,105370,007

REVENUE.

In the following table the revenue during the last ten years is classified according to the class of traffic, &c., from which it was derived. Total revenue is covered in 1924–25, and railway operating revenue thereafter.

Year ended 31st March.Passenger-fares.Parcels, Luggage, and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Labour, Demurrage.Rents and Commission.Total.
 ££££££
19252,288,571417,5504,122,017137,149147,2377,112,524
19262,537,047409,2074,499,160143,860..7,589,274
19272,304,180377,3674,596,166145,759..7,423,472
19282,145,296379,9334,680,135138,481..7,343,845
19292,124,746378,1414,846,125175,852..7,524,864
19301,995,927386,7924,904,324186,950..7,473,993
19311,778,726359,2764,487,357156,029..6,781,388
19321,339,589316,2454,019,600113,531..5,788,965
19331,207,296283,8223,745,777102,180..5,339,075
19341,336,334281,8893,911,24599,367..5,628,835

Revenue from the carriage of goods and live-stock had been steadily increasing up to 1329–30, but from then until 1932–33 successive declines were recorded, due mainly to the economic depression and to motor competition. A slight increase was recorded for 1933–34 over the previous year. Passenger traffic, due to the operation of the same causes, has shown heavier falls, but the decline was checked here also in the year 1933–34.

The operating revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1933–34 represented an expenditure on railway travel of 17s. 4d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £3 13s. per caput.

A table is added showing information as to railway revenue in each of the Australian States for the year ended 30th June, 1933. Figures for New Zealand for the year ended 31st March, 1933, are also given.

State.Miles of Line open.Train-miles run (,000 omitted).Gross Revenue (,000 omitted).Net Revenue.
Amount (,000 omitted).Per Train- mile.Per Cent. of Capital.
* Loss.
   ££s.d. 
Queensland6,56610,8265,9921,669314.89
New South Wales6,16425,56216,2054,184333.01
Victoria4,72115,3219,4463,079404.12
South Australia2,5294,9102,734756312.78
Western Australia4,3385,2832,932820313.40
Tasmania6451,1083828020.12
Commonwealth Railways2,14554730939*.... 
Totals for Australia27,10863,55738,00010,477343.22
New Zealand3,3159,8296,034851191.65

The net revenue in the case of New Zealand is arrived at after making full provision for renewals and depreciation and subsidies to the (Superannuation Fund and Sick-benefit Society.

EXPENDITURE.

The total railway expenditure in 1933–34 represented 82.86 per cent, of the gross earnings, and the operating-expenses 86.65 per cent. of operating revenue. It is of interest to trace the movement over a period of years, as in the following statement. Here, also, figures for the last nine years relate to operating revenue and expenditure, while those for previous years show the proportion of total expenditure to gross earnings.

Year ended 31st March,Per Cent.Year ended 31st March,Per Cent.Year ended 31st March,Per Cent.
191471.24192181.59192885.81
191571.14192293.89192984.71
191664.00192381.79193091.62
191760.97192477.37193194.47
191864.91192577.97193291.56
191966.32192681.23193390.54
192071.37192782.96193486.65

The expenditure under various heads is new given for each of the last ten years. For the last nine years the figures are exclusive of subsidiary services, and refer to railway operating expenditure only.

Year ended 31st March,Maintenance of Ways and Works.Maintenance of Signals.Maintenance of Rolling stockLocomotive Transportation.Traffic Transportation.Head Office and General Charges.*Total.
* Including superannuation subsidy.
 £££££££
19251,113,04881,2011,083,7881,408,9271,611,947246,5055,545,416
19264,144,385105,0641,311,3171,636,6201,743,641223,5436,164,570
19271,074,334100,8611,303,4441,669,3521,752,998257,2946,158,283
19231,147,067102,8711,380,7261,662,0741,760,459248,9226,302,119
19291,111,229112,2061,424,1651,650,7931,825,965250,2216,374,579
19304,146,014117,5771,680,9191,755,2091,883,918264,3896,848,026
19311,150,329104,4641,502,6981,594,6721,798,490255,4906,406,143
1932997,629107,5851,270,5851,254,7691,424,520246,5655,301,653
1933931,273105,5861,188,4741,114,8011,255,280238,3404,833,754
1934993,207110,2981,220,1021,064,8271,253,833234,8794,877,146

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.

In addition to the traffic figures shown in the foregoing table for 1934, 2,783,184 passenger were carried by the Railways Department's road-motor services, and 24,640 passengers and 7,719 tons of goods on the Lake Wakatipu steamer service. Passenger train-miles run during the year totalled 4,550,559 and the passenger revenue received represents 70.48d. per train-mile and £411 per mile of line operated.

Year ended 31st March,Length open(Miles).Train-mileage.Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods mid Live-stock.*
Including Season-ticket Holders.Excluding Season-ticket Holders.
* The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given.
      Tons.
19253,0859,083,62326,074,92612,397,079537,5417,025,316
19263,13810,319,40727,621,67511,787,723600,2727,246,692
19273,16410,723,86425,966,74010,274,878585,0787,299,752
19283,18010,838,59425,348,2419,272,547632,7417,358,388
19293,28711,113,48225,542,8639,046,981656,1557,613,445
19303,28712,022,04325,380,1148,466,779667,4197,788,973
19313,32211,281,89822,783,0567,265,912600,4316,957,709
19323,31510,168,72019,151,4806,503,566459,0635,824,811
19333,3159,828,85318,366,6546,870,570437,7755,490,686
19343,32010,163,47419,047,1867,511,346442,7425,642,199

Live-stock carried in 1933–34 comprised 311,872 cattle, 600,239 calves, 9,747,676 sheep, and 492,582 pigs, equivalent to a tonnage of 548,803.

Detailed figures showing the number of rail passengers carried during the last live years are given in the following table:—

1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1033–34.
Ordinary and holiday excursion4,105,4393,496,9572,884,6773,025,8433,272,4111
Suburban2,423,2742,055,4801,924,2962,041,5812,205,172
Other reduced fares1,938,0661,713,4751,694,5931,803,1462,033,764
Totals8,466,7797,265,9126,503,5666,870,5707,511,346
Season tickets issued—     
Workers‧ weekly422,488366,459234,397210,269214,819
Weekly twelve-trip116,376114,676108,58798,16399,863
Trip-bearer56,20050,64257,18277,77276,071
School30,18929,39827,69525,47025,206
Tourist1,129906511398369
Travellers‧ annual141114816767
Other40,89638,23630,61025,63626,347
Totals667,419600,431459,063437,775442,742

The following table gives interesting information as to the constitution of the goods traffic for the last five years. The figures are exclusive of steamer traffic on Lake Wakatipu:—

Commodity.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Grain316,943265,925273,003269,367276,105
Meals117,901112,571109,908110,787115,139
Fruit. New Zealand41,77246,91943,12144,37241,237
Root crops, fodder163,173139,690126,395111,123106,844
Flax, hemp, and tow26,15911,0867,09811,05712,715
Seeds20,64616,66218,66116,75222,343
Cattle and horses151,333141,464121,996119,097134,269
Sheep and pigs414,445414,589430,564425,997414,534
Meat173,669191,384187,891217,538226,021
Butter122,749132,318122,604146,367146,275
Cheese93,220108,14886,90395,33689,480
Wool124,156117,991149,145149,678152,036
Dairy by-products18,66417,19215,30214,86816,666
Fat, hides, skins32,36637,58039,26037,45842,142
Fish8,2339,3707,7117,8088,591
Agricultural lime171,777157,211140,201173,932195,018
Coal, imported5,74937,36137,08828,44132,024
Coal, New Zealand hard1,242,0461,096,247763,926704,984645,461
Coal, New Zealand brown981,0931,020,454915,579681,643752,823
Road-metal413,551234,412113,41078,09591,904
Lime and coke65,01577,43854,49531,95929,418
Timber, imported30,99027,57710,3086,6157,708
Timber, New Zealand543,097375,524243,224247,018293,514
Firewood, posts, &c150,698123,13874,93361,88661,583
Benzine, kerosene, &c.144,418145,086130,439117,660110,731
Cement82,54482,60666,86336,87047,189
Manures681,458563,417572,696614,352552,441
Miscellaneous1,451,1081,254,349962,087929,6261,017,988
Totals7,788,9736,957,7095,824,8115,490,6865,642,199

Information showing for the various commodities the tonnage carried, ton-miles, average haul, revenue, and revenue per ton-mile during 1933–34 is new given:—

Commodity.Tonnage carried.Per Cent. of Total.Tons One Mile (,000 omitted).Average Haul.Revenue.Revenue per Ton-mile.
    Miles.£d.
Grain276,1054.8912,33645126,4192.45
Meals115,1392.047,2916367,8362.23
Fruit41,2370.737,21517558,7572.26
Root crops, fodder106,8441.898,6338166,5621.84
Flax, hemp, and tow12,7150.23859688,6592.41
Seeds22,3430.401,3806217,3023.00
Cattle and horses134,2092.3810,79980155,4753.45
Sheep and pigs414,5347.3431,40576399,4093.05
Meat226,0214.016,43928185,1986.90
Butter146,2752.5910,31771157,5403.66
Cheese89,4801.594,9945693,6284.49
Wool152,0362.098,43755157,8314.48
Dairy by-products16,6660.311,3928416,0022.75
Fat, hides, skins42,1420.751,8524442,0085.44
Fish8,5910.151,35015712,0582.14
Agricultural lime195,0183.4512,9426672,0801.33
Coal, imported32,0240.576011911,7864.70
Coal, New Zealand hard645,46111.4427,60143215,4291.87
Coal, New Zealand brown752,82313.3488,252117484,7641.31
Road-metal91,9041.632,1662420,6442.28
Lime and coke29,4180.521,9806714,9811.81
Timber, imported7,7080.14378496,3884.05
Timber, New Zealand293,5145.2031,162106268,2392.06
Firewood, posts, &c.61,5831.094,6247525,7991.33
Benzine, gasoline, kerosene110,7311.9610,03091193,4424.62
Cement47,1890.844,5799747,2932.47
Manures552,4419.7935,80265263,2151.76
Miscellaneous1,017,98818.0448,70448808,1403.98
  Totals5,642,199100.00383,520683,996,8842.50

The total number of freight train-miles run during the year 1933–34 in carrying the above tonnage was 5,612,915. The revenue received represents averages of 14s. 3d. per train-mile, 14s. 2d. per ton, and 2.50d. per ton-mile.

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.

The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31st March, 1934, was 14,971. The staff is divided into two divisions— namely, the first or clerical division, and the second or out-of-door division—and is further classed in four branches, as shown in the following table:—

Average, Year ending 31st March,General.Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive.Total.
19301,8125,7494,6397,21019,410
19311,8215,5744,2687,17718,840
19321,5095,0563,4256,12416,114
19331,3764,7323,0095,57914,696
19341,3864,6633,1945,72814,971

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since then, applies to Railway employees.

An Appeal Board is constituted to hear grievances of members dissatisfied with decisions respecting promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Railways Board and the other elected by the members of the Department.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railways service was established in 1903. Information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Pensions, Superannuation,” &c.

A sick-benefit fund, providing for the payment of weekly allowances for periods up to seventy-eight weeks to employees other than salaried staff who are incapacitated by sickness, was instituted in 1929. The fund is subsidized by the Department at the rate of approximately 10s. to each £1 contributed by members. Reserve funds amounting to £26,520 bad been built up at 31st March, 1934.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.

With the exception of the Ongarue accident in 1923 (when seventeen passengers were killed and twenty-nine more or less severely injured, through a falling boulder derailing the engine), the history of railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from accidents of a serious nature. A table is given dealing with railway accidents during each of the last five years.

Year ended 31st March,To Passengers.To Employees.To Others.Fatal.Other.Total.
1930411,84175501,9071,957
1931281,71570501,7691,819
1932191,21036371,2281,265
1933171,13954271,1831,210
1934121,28959301,3301,360

Of the persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1933–34, 2 were passengers, 3 employees, and 25 neither passengers nor employees. The last-mentioned included 16 killed at railway crossings.

Included in the total accidents (1,360) were 2 train accidents, 33 accidents on line, 83 shunting accidents, 45 railway-crossing accidents, and 357 accidents in railway workshops, while miscellaneous accidents totalled 840, being mainly minor injuries to employees.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.

Private railways in New Zealand are mainly restricted to lines whose chief object is to serve collieries or sawmills. The following list has been compiled from inquiries made in 1933, and is probably not free from minor inaccuracies or omissions. It covers only those lines actually operating which undertake at least a modicum of general transport in addition to the coal or timber, &c., which is their primary reason for existence. The length of main line is 149 miles 52 chains, brought up to a total of 168 miles 31 chains by the inclusion of branches, sidings, &c, where such information was available.

Owner.Location.Length of Railway.*

* Including main line, branches, sidings, and jig line.

† Sidings additional but not available.

  M.c.
Wilton Collieries, Ltd.Ngaruawahia—Te Akatea675
Waihi Gold-mining Co., Ltd.Waihi - Thorpe's Hill572
Wellington Industrial Development Co., Ltd.Putaruru-Taupo7144
Gisborne Harbour BoardGisborne (Turanganui)069
Napier Harbour BoardNapier - Port Ahuriri125
Castlecliff Railway Co., Ltd.Wanganui (Castlecliff)775
Manawatu County CouncilHimitangi-Pukenui170
Westport Coal Co., Ltd.Waimangaroa Jn.-Conn's Creek430
Burke's Creek Collieries, Ltd.Reefton - Burke's Creek020
Paparoa Coal Co., Ltd.Blackball-Paparoa275
Stuart and Chapman, Ltd.Ross-Waitaha1340
Ashburton County Council (operated by Southern Cross Glass Co.)Mount Somers840
Dunedin City CouncilDunedin (Ocean Beach)133
Kaitangata Coal Co., Ltd.Kaitangata-Stirling40
Sargood and CheesemanLovell's Flat - Taratu Colliery80
Ohai Railway BoardWairio-Birchwood1173
  Total mileage..16831

Chapter 12. SECTION XII.—TRAMWAYS.

SYSTEMS AND OWNERSHIP.

ELECTRIC-TRAMWAY services in New Zealand have since their inception been controlled by local authorities. This is, however, subject to two exceptions—viz., (1) Auckland, where a public company carried on from 1902 until 1st July, 1919, when the system was taken over by the Auckland City Council; and (2) Dunedin, where a section of the system was until 1921 operated by a private company. At the present time five of the seven electric - tramway systems are controlled by the council of the city or borough concerned. At Christchurch the Christchurch Tramway Board is the controlling body, while at Auckland the City Council has handed over the tramways to the Auckland Transport Board.

The local authorities derive their powers for controlling tramways from the Tramways Act, 1908. There are also special Acts empowering the construction, &c., of tramways in certain places.

System.Year of Inauguration.Length of Track as at 31st March, 1934.Approximate Population served, April, 1934.
Thoroughfare.Single Line (including Loops).
  M.ch.M.ch. 
Auckland190244168643181,000
New Plymouth191665774717,000
Wanganui1908146164625,000
Wellington19043060480114,000
Christchurch19054853727112,000
Dunedin18991772301678,000
Invercargill191274094022,000

The Gisborne tramways, opened in 1913, have since been replaced by omnibuses. The Napier tramways have ceased operations since the earthquake of 3rd February, 1931.

Passenger rolling-stock at 31st March. 1934, comprised 731 cars with a capacity of 31,253 passengers, including 7 trackless trams, capacity 266 passengers. The total route mileage was 170 miles, and track mileage (including loops) 270 miles.

POWER CONSUMPTION.

The electrical energy in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin is obtained from the hydro-electric works at Horahora - Arapuni, Mangahao and Lake Waikaremoana, Lake Coleridge, and Waipori respectively. These are the largest hydro-electric works functioning in the Dominion, and energy is new obtainable from them at comparatively cheap rates. In using the per-unit cost figures in the next table due attention should be paid to the fact that, with the exception of Auckland, power is purchased in bulk by the tramway authorities, and is adapted for the use of the trams over the tramway authorities' own distribution systems. In Auckland the whole of the plant installed for the transformation and conversion of power for the tramways is the property of the authority supplying the power, the price paid by the tramway authorities being virtually for electricity delivered to the trams. The capital charges falling due annually in connection with this transforming machinery are therefore included under the heading of “Cost of Power” in Auckland, and under “General Capital Charges” for the other undertakings.

Figures for the fiscal year ending 31st March, 1934, are:—

System.Total Units of Electrical Energy used.Cost per Unit.Units per Car-mile.*Passengers per Car-mile.

* All vehicles.

† Passenger vehicles.

  d.  
Auckland18,603,4400.843.207.58
Now Plymouth751,3620.572.716.69
Wanganui1,125,6200.682.824.28
Wellington9,919,4030.792.438.53
Christchurch7,032,4100.492.438.53
Dunedin3,744,6210.732.2410.36
Invercargill609,0330.801.677.08
Totals41,788,8890.752.727.81

PROGRESS OF TRAMWAYS.

The statistics for 1927–28 and subsequent years given in this table and elsewhere throughout this section are exclusive altogether of figures relating to the operation of buses run by the tramway authorities. Bus operations were included to an unknown extent in 1926–27 and previous years.

Year ended 31st March,Number of Under-takings.Number of Employees.Passenger Car-miles run.*Passengers carried.Number of Passengers per Car-mile.*
* Total car-miles for years prior to 1927.
192593,14415,551,322152,518,0609.81
192693,31017,289,576167,677,0579.70
192793,29117,066,086167,599,6619.82
192893,13616,857,342162,550,4829.64
192993,06216,565,221160,559,3139.69
193082,93616,298,984154,811,2629.50
193182,91516,459,615146,804,9708.92
193272,72315,692,505131,654,2868.39
193372,57815,335,351121,272,9517.91
193472,56515,343,078119,789,3847.81

Of grave importance in recent years, particularly since about 1921, has been the competition of motor-omnibuses, taxi-cabs, and private motor-vehicles.

In 1926 partial relief came in the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926, which prohibited the competition of buses with trams, except where the fare charged per section by buses is 2d. more than the tram fare.

The financial operations of the tramways are summarized in the following table:—

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.Percent-age of Expenditure to Revenue.Capital Outlay.Accrued Funds.
Sinking Funds.Depreciation and Renewal Funds.Accident Funds.
 ££ ££££
19251,621,9351,568,53296.714,701,672553,990631,10367,789
19261,607,9691,584,01698.514,760,756632,732683,61471,736
19271,640,3301,659,802101.195,066,008770,100877,11686,889
19281,612,9641,574,59897.625,036,853915,301787,89184,887
19291,606,7421,531,55195.325,137,9181,015,920780,06798,131
19301,549,0021,499,74096.175,297,2231,126,850886,913109,033
19311,530,0101,506,15198.445,596,2601,231,0841,037,977113,603
19321,331,1731,379,596103.645,592,3371,306,9121,042,310112,313
19331,232,1901,281,567104.015,480,3021,410,7621,039,814108,659
19341,204,7481,242,630103.145,488,4401,636,725842,966108,945

Figures showing details of the total expenditure during each of the last five years are given in the subjoined table:—

Year ended 31st March,Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenses.Total.
 £Per Cent.£Per Cent.£Per Cent.£Per Cent.
19301,053,13870.22397,22026.4949,3823.291,499,740100.00
19311,038,65068.96418,59127.7948,9103.251,506,151100.00
1932913,30766.20420,54130.4845,7483.321,379,596100.00
1933843,52365.82391,66930.5646,3753.621,281,567100.00
1934841,99967.76347,90228.0052,7294.241,242,630100.00

The total capital outlay of the various tramway undertakings is given as £5,488,440 at the 31st March, 1934, and it is of interest to dissect this amount into the principal component parts. Figures for each of the last five years are given in the table following:—

As at 31st March,Permanent way.Electric Equipment of Lines,Cars and other Vehicles.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and Undefined.Total.
Absolute Figures.
 £££££££
19302,173,8801499,2891,352,204151,588597,741522,5215,297,223
19312,327,574531,7381,451,657156,912608,323520,0565,596,260
19322,333,985543,4101,441,842163,652648,870460,5785,592,337
19332,298,074536,0921,417,391160,959603,933463,8535,480,302
19342,302,607538,4031,427,511157,219604,337458,3035,488,440
Proportion of Total.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
193041.049.4225.532.8611.299.86100.00
193141.599.5025.942.8110.879.29100.00
193241.749.7225.782.9211.608.24100.00
193341.939.7825.862.9411.028.47100.00
193441.959.8126.012.8711.018.35100.00

VOLUME OF TRAFFIC.

The number of passengers carried per car-mile is an excellent guide to the relative volume of traffic handled by the various undertakings. As a highly relevant factor the length of track should be kept in mind.

System.Total Passengers carried.Car-miles run (Passenger Cars and Trailers).Passengers per Car-mile.Average Fare per Passenger.
    d.
Auckland43,979,1525,802,6237.582.78
New Plymouth1,862,593278,5506.691.93
Wanganui1,708,241399,2684.282.86
Wellington34,831,7164,084,3328.532.30
Christchurch17,500,3482,741,3906.382.31
Dunedin17,319,0351,671,44410.361.65
Invercargill2,588,299365,4717.081.56
Totals119,789,38415,343,0787.812.37

FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS.

The Auckland and Wellington services provided 71 per cent. of the total traffic revenue for 1933–34, the former returning £509,470, or 43 per cent., of the total, against £333,654, or 28 per cent., in the case of Wellington. Christchurch and Dunedin fall a long way below Auckland and Wellington in traffic revenue.

System.Traffic (Passengers and Freight).Traffic Revenue per Car-mile.*Other.Total.
Cash.Concession.
* All vehicles.
 ££d.£.£
Auckland423,30186,16921.064,989514,459
New Plymouth6,6438,34512.9117615,164
Wanganui17,1923,17812.241,28021,650
Wellington184,854148,80019.616,592340,246
Christchurch89,26079,40514.775,858174,523
Dunedin86,64532,73317.141,550120,928
Invercargill5,92510,94511.0890817,778
Totals813,820369,57518.5121,3531,204,748

On the expenditure side it is informative, in view of the competition from motor-vehicles, to note that the total expenditure—covering operating-expenses, capital charges, and other expenditure—was £37,882 above the total revenue for the year.

System.Operating Expenditure.Capital Charges.Other Expenses.Total.
 ££££
Auckland380,373131,1716,966518,510
New Plymouth11,6146,69574119,050
Wanganui16,97215,86569933,536
Wellington227,42777,54830,109335,084
Christchurch111,50166,79412,333190,628
Dunedin78,80343,3601,598123,761
Invercargill15,3096,46928322,061
Totals841,999347,90252,7291,242,630

The principal item comprised in the total operating expenditure in 1933–34 is expenses on account of traffic, which amounted to nearly 57 per cent. Cost of power follows traffic expenses in order of magnitude, accounting for 15 per cent. Car-maintenance was approximately 12 per cent. of the total, and track-maintenance 8 per cent. Management and office expenses accounted for the remaining 8 per cent.

System.Power.Traffic.Car-maintenance.Track-maintenance (including Electrical Equipment).Management and Office Expenses.Total.
 ££££££
Auckland64,938198,17941,56134,30241,393380,373
New Plymouth1,8006,8329351,45059711,614
Wanganui3,1976,8612,5413,52385016,972
Wellington32,616141,42828,61714,51810,248227,427
Christchurch14,38465,48314,68310,2086,743111,501
Dunedin11,31548,9946,5295,1636,80278,803
Invercargill2,0307,6452,4242,27893215,309
Totals130,280475,42297,29071,44267,565841,999

Annual capital charges in the way of provision for interest and sinking fund and depreciation, reserve, and renewal funds comprised nearly 28 per cent. of the total expenditure during the year ended 31st March, 1934. The magnitude of these charges is not surprising, having regard to the relatively large capital outlay that is a necessity of tramway undertakings. Of the total provision for capital charges for the year ended 31st March, 1934, approximately 66 per cent. consisted of interest charges, and II per cent. of sinking fund charges. As it is impossible for the Wanganui tramways to meet capital charges out of revenue the City Council levies a special rate each year for that purpose.

System.Interest.Sinking Fund Charges.Depreciation Fund Charges.Renewal Fund Charges.Reserve Fund Charges.Accident Fund Charges.Total.
 £££££££
Auckland111,5738,228..11,370.. 131,171
New Plymouth3,5951,1021,998..  6,695
Wanganui9,2265,734..760145..15,865
Wellington38,79812,121.. 24,2902,33977,548
Christchurch45,5821,85718,629.. 72666,794
Dunedin15,7187,2647,45512,898..2543,360
Invercargill3,5151,1221,770.. 626,469
Totals228,00737,42829,85225,02824,4353,152347,902

Apart from general considerations the gross figures relating to revenue and operating-costs, &c., indicate very little; if, however, the figures are reduced to the common relative basis of the car-miles run they are of some value in showing the efficiency of the various undertakings.

System.Per Car-mile* run, 1933–34.
Traffic Revenue.Operating-costs.Capital Charges.
* All vehicles.
 d.d.d.
Auckland21.0615.725.42
New Plymouth12.9110.015.77
Wanganui12.2410.209.54
Wellington19.6113.364.56
Christchurch14.779.765.85
Dunedin17.1411.326.23
Invercargill11.0810.054.25
Average18.5113.175.44

Only in Wellington was revenue per car-mile sufficient to meet operating-costs plus capital charges.

CAPITAL OUTLAY.

At the 31st March, 1934, existing electric tramways represented a capital outlay of £5,488,440.

System.Permanent-way.Electric Equipment of Lines.Cars and other Vehicles.Land.Buildings.Miscellaneous and undefined.Total.
 £££££££
Auckland1,055,566221,500517,31426,819178,43465,8082,065,441
New Plymouth63,4349,15823,8557305,4161,523104,116
Wanganui45,55012,32020,710..4,9508,62492,154
Wellington444,454131,377412,25659,968199,644114,3991,362,098
Christchurch439,604115,183308,27239,500157,600258,2501,318,469
Dunedin209,54541,077105,49529,99050,3878,183444,677
Invercargill44,4547,78839,6091527,9061,576101,485
Totals2,302,607538,4031,427,511157,219604,337458,3635,488,440

It would perhaps be more informative if the above figures could be expressed in terms of capital value. Though attempts have been made by the Census and Statistics Office in this direction to obtain data as to the amount of depreciation written off tramway plant, it has not been able to elicit the required information from all tramway undertakings.

Closely allied to the capital expenditure is the question of accrued funds. At the 31st March, 1934, these totalled £2,588,636. Eighty-four, thirty-nine, and seventy-three per cent. of sinking funds, depreciation and reserve funds, and accident funds, respectively, are invested in securities outside the tramway undertakings.

Figures of accrued funds as at 31st March, 1934, are as follows:—

System.Sinking Funds.Depreciation and Reserve Funds.Accident Funds.Total.
 ££££
Auckland742,434207,0463,173952,653
New Plymouth..15,853..15,853
Wanganui30,8O2.. 30,802
Wellington356,885467,82663,387888,098
Christchurch449,88212,73415,719478,335
Dunedin40,818120,91026,666188,394
Invercargill15,90418,597..34,501
Totals1,636,725842,966108,9452,588,636

OMNIBUS SERVICES OPERATED BY TRAMWAY AUTHORITIES.

Omnibus services were carried on in 1933–34 in the following centres: Auckland, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Statistics for the year 1933.34 show that expenditure exceeded revenue by £16,765. Persons finding employment during 1933–34 totalled 79, made up as follows: Management and office staff, 4; garage, 24; and traffic, 51. The number of vehicles in use was 68.

Omnibus Services of Tramway Authorities.Year ended 3lst March,
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
UndertakingsNo.87766
EmployeesNo.2701831229079
Salaries and wages£80,59650,50333,48024,45118,852
Capital cost of vehicles£173,032129,776115,5391O8,772109,657
Depreciation Reserves£114,61195,67388,14483,49486,301
Total expenditure£197,221136,80794,35272,22956,383
Revenue£137,11483,35159,07143,35339,618
Passengers carriedNo.9,519,2246,167,3124,364,8413,366,2282,939,458
Bus-milesNo.2,575,9271,621,0951,196,501953,758795,723
Average fare per passengerd.3.433.233.233.093.22
Passengers per bus-mileNo.3.703.803.653.533.69

CABLE TRAMWAYS.

There are four cable-tramway systems in the Dominion, one in Wellington and three in Dunedin. The systems, all of which operate on a 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, extend over routes totalling 5 miles 43 chains. The total revenue amounted to £4,743, while expenditure totalled £38,373. The total revenue derived from traffic during the year was £43,928, showing an average of l.83d. per passenger carried. The total capital value stood at £122,437 at 31st March, 1934.

Cable Tramways.Year ended 31st March.
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
UndertakingsNo.44444
EmployeesNo.7577787975
Salaries and wages£20,47020,99919,76017,98515,395
Capital value£113,512117,039122,110117,773122,437
Expenditure— Operating-expenses£35,43435,66833,34931,43830,162
Capital charges£10,59411,1219,7169,0268,211
Total£46,02846,78943,06540,46438,373
Revenue£53,90752,66448,85045,82144,743
Passengers carriedNo.7,030,9926,772,2686,388,7435,976,323?5,773,337
Car-miles run (including trailer miles)No.393,397399,450400,276393,350384,945
Passengers per car-mileNo.1817161515

Chapter 13. SECTION XIII.—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT.

ROADS AND BRIDGES.

THE total mileage of formed roads in the Dominion at the 31st March, 1933 was 50,893, in addition to which there were 5,876 miles of bridle-tracks and 17,474 miles of unformed legal roads.

Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Total.
* Includes 80½ miles unspecified.
Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width and paved or surfaced with—Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
Bituminous or cement concrete117½205¾12344
Bitumen or tar1,308½945¾55¾102,320
Metal or gravel*31,ll5¼2,192½4131,207¾34,928½
Roads and streets formed to not less than dray-width, but not paved or surfaced12,703¼190½93½223¼13,300½
Total formed roads45,334½3,534½5711,45350,893
Bridle-tracks5,777½2169½5,876¼
Unformed legal roads16,596¼342¼79½45617,474
Total of all roads67,708¼3,897¾658¾1,978½74,243¼

The formation of roads in many parts of the Dominion has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system of the Dominion as at 31st of March, 1933, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft. or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges.

Material of which constructed.Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Totals.
No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.No.Total Length.
 Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. 
All concrete or stone50240,206626,1474270615157446,774
Steel and concrete31132,683386,067440038735639,237
Steel, concrete, and timber19924,81610910..   20925,726
Steel and timber26622,932324,410275.. 30027,417
Australian hardwood2,127217,5438010,237122,043145572,233230,380
Native timbers2,245159,561524,6671566541062,316164,999
     Totals5,650497,74127432,438373,453279015,988534,533

ROADS ADMINISTRATION.

The control of roads and bridges in New Zealand comes under the administration of the Minister of Public Works, the main statutes covering roads administration being the Public Works Act, 1928, and the Counties Act, 1920, and amendments. The Main Highways Act receives specific mention later.

Outside of the cities, boroughs, and independent town districts, the local administration is very largely vested in County Councils, and all roads, unless specially exempted and declared Government roads, are controlled by the County Councils or by Road Boards. Local authorities have the assistance and advice of the Public Works Department through its various engineers stationed in most of the main centres.

The allocation and legalization of roads is arranged by the local authorities and the Public Works Department conjointly.

The Government assists materially towards the construction of roads and bridges, and grants and subsidies are given to the County Councils according to the particular circumstances of each individual case. The county quota of the cost is usually found by raising loans secured by a special rate levied over the area to be served by the road. In this connection it may be noted that local-body loans are new closely controlled, and under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, a Board has been, established consisting of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department, and five other persons appointed by the Governor-General. The function of the Board is to consider and investigate all applications from local authorities for developmental loans. The ability of the district concerned to carry the loan and the soundness of the proposal generally are thus fully considered, and, moreover, the operation of the Board tends to exercise a check on excessive borrowing by local bodies.

By statutory provision loan-money is devoted solely to expenditure on construction, maintenance and general repairs being financed from revenue derived from rates, &c.

With the exception of main highways (for which special provisions have existed for some years, as will be seen farther on in this section), the Government's funds for roading purposes, from which the grants and subsidies above referred to are made, have hitherto been derived,—

  1. For construction work, from the Public Works Fund, consisting mainly of loan-money raised in Great Britain.

  2. For maintenance and repairs, from the Consolidated Fund.

The Finance Act, 1930, makes provision for moneys in the Main Highways Account to be appropriated for the construction and maintenance of roads other than main highways, and thus adds a third source from which funds for general roading purposes may be furnished by the Government.

For the allocation of Government grants and subsidies to local authorities for road-construction works the Public Works Department ascertains, as early in the financial year as is possible, the approximate amount of Government money which will be available for that year's roading operations. This is then allocated to the several Public Works districts of control on the basis of each district's claim under such factors as area, population, rating, loans available, mileage of roads in use, estimated amount to complete all roads, value of Crown and Native lands suitable for settlement, and mileage of working railways in each district. These district quotas are then in turn allotted, on the same basis and taking similar factors into consideration, to the various counties within each Public Works district. Each local body is then advised of the amount of Government money it is entitled to for the financial year, and in consultation with the District Engineer of the Department it in turn allots its quota to individual roads in order of urgency.

The benefit of the advice of the Government official removes any parochialism which might tend to arise, and by the operation of this scheme no one local authority receives a greater proportion of Government funds than that to which it is justly entitled, nor does one local body benefit at the expense of another.

The allocations by the counties and the Department are subsequently submitted to Parliament for final confirmation and approval.

Maintenance of roads is administered almost entirely by local authorities, the necessary funds being obtained from general rating, but in cases of exceptional circumstances such as those of roads of considerable length in sparsely populated districts where the local rate is totally inadequate to cover efficient maintenance, the Government grants assistance by way of subsidies from the Consolidated Fund.

Since the advent of modern fast and heavy motor traffic efficient maintenance of roads is becoming increasingly important, and, with a view to protecting the capital expenditure on roads, no opportunity is lost by the Public Works Department of impressing on local bodies their responsibility in this direction. Some years age the Public Works Department instituted a policy of obtaining from local authorities, before issuing any assistance for metalling work, a definite assurance that the Council was in a position and prepared to allot annually from its Revenue Fund sufficient money to maintain the metal efficiently when placed.

On account of New Zealand's climate and configuration damage to roads by heavy rains and floods frequently occurs, and in many instances the cost of restoration is beyond the financial resources of the County Council. In such cases the Government, through the Public Works Department, comes to the assistance of the local body in the way of further grants or subsidies from the Consolidated Fund.

From the inauguration of the public-works scheme in 1870 until the 31st March, 1934, the sum of £22,171,078 has been expended out of the Public Works Fund on the construction of roads and bridges. Considerable further expenditure has been paid out of other accounts on the construction of roads to open up lands for settlement purposes, and out of the Consolidated Fund for the maintenance of roads. Expenditure out of the Main Highways Account is dealt with farther on in this section.

MAIN HIGHWAYS.

Prior to 1924 only a small proportion of the total road-mileage outside of boroughs was represented by roads with permanent surfacing. The advent of the motor-car, however, entirely changed the complexion of the roading problem in New Zealand, as elsewhere, and the demand for better roads arose very shortly after motor transport became an appreciable factor. Later on, with the rapid increase in the use of motor-vehicles, particularly heavy ones, the position became acute, and it was soon quite evident that the type of road that was suitable for slow-moving horse-drawn traffic was inadequate.

In counties where the country was sparsely populated, and the revenue derivable from rates was low, certain lengths of road had in the past been maintained more or less by means of grants or subsidies from the Government. It was found in New Zealand, as in other parts of the world, that under the strain of motor traffic the roads, particularly those running parallel with railways, were deteriorating, while the popular clamour that they be improved to meet modern conditions was insistent. This led in 1922 to the passing of the Main Highways Act. The Act of 1922 has since been amended in several respects.

For the purposes of the Act a Board called the “Main Highways Board” was set up. The Board consists of six members—viz., two members appointed by the Government, an officer of the Public Works Department, two representatives of county councils, and one representative of owners of motor-vehicles.

HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

In 1924 the Dominion was divided into eighteen highway districts, composed of groups of counties, suitable by geographical situation and community of interest for being so grouped. In the majority of cases the constituent counties acquiesced in the grouping; in the few cases where they did not do so the Main Highways Board exercised the authority conferred by the Act.

Consequent on the provision of additional revenue accruing from the taxation of motor-spirits, the main highway districts were redefined in 1927 to include all boroughs with populations under 6,000. Town districts, both dependent and independent, are also included in the main highways scheme.

District Highway Councils are set up in each highway district, these Councils being constituted to include a Public Works Engineer, and one person to represent each constituent county, with an executive of three appointed by the members of the Council.

The functions of the District Highway Councils are to make recommendations to the Board each year as to which roads within the several districts should be declared main highways, and what works should be done and what expenditure incurred on these highways during the year.

The District Highway Councils are guided by the following considerations when recommending roads for declaration as main highways:—

  • As to whether the roads may be regarded as arterial in that they carry appreciable volumes of through as well as local traffic:

  • As to whether the roads connect large centres of population within the highway district:

  • As to whether the roads carry appreciable traffic to and from seaports or railway centres within or without the highway districts.

LENGTH OF MAIN HIGHWAYS.

The Main Highways Board assumed control of the main highways on the 9th June, 1924, on which date the first and principal schedule of main highways was proclaimed.

On the same date 1,046 miles (later increased to 1,637 miles) of main highways were gazetted Government roads, this action being in terms of section 22 of the Act, whereby the Board might declare any main highway to be a Government road, and might provide a greater proportion of the cost of works of (a) construction and reconstruction, and (b) maintenance and repair. The highways which were declared Government roads were chiefly those in districts where settlement was sparse, and where the revenue from rates collectable by the local authorities was insufficient to meet the expenditure necessary for the construction, reconstruction, and maintenance of the highways therein.

A Main Highways Amendment Act passed in 1928 gave the Board authority to increase its subsidies without the necessity of any highway on which such increased subsidies are paid being declared a Government road. Such an amendment was male necessary mainly in consequence of the increased subsidies being paid by the Board towards the cost of reconstruction and surfacing of main highways adjacent to the largo centres of population.

The lengths and maintenance-costs of main highways in each highway district were as follows at 31st March, 1934:—

Highway District.Primary Highways.Secondary Highways.Total.Average Maintenance per Mile, 1933–34.
Primary.Secondary.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.££
1. Auckland North52732184890.6140.29
2. Auckland South5574651,022151.7992.02
3. Tauranga43725168887.8347.03
4. Gisborne255108363116.8581.89
5. Napier46121367485.0873.32
6. King-country34130164297.6140.41
7. Taranaki30912943890.5667.66
8. Wanganui322164486100.5042.04
9. Wellington West315146461124.1267.03
10. Wellington East339127466144.7435.38
Totals, North Island3,8632,2256,088109.1260.26
11. Nelson31022953997.6542.32
12. West Coast366162528127.7172.70
13. Canterbury North31610341970.0222.72
14. Canterbury Central41026767758.9938.62
15. Canterbury South34635470092.8126.38
16. Otago Central34037571583.3420.23
17. Otago South29515545098.0727.33
18. Southland46439585962.1523.55
Totals, South Island2,8472,0404,88784.8531.67
Totals, Dominion6,7104,26510,97598.8246.58

The Main Highways Act, 1922, gave power to the Board to contribute towards the cost of maintenance or repair of any street in a borough which is a continuation of a main highway, the payment being limited to a rate equal to that paid in respect of the maintenance and repair of the adjoining main highway. The Board decided in 1925 that in all cases where the population of a borough did not exceed 6,000 inhabitants assistance would be given under this authority.

However, as a result of the imposition of the petrol-tax of 4d. per gallon in 1927 (vide below, under “Finance”) the Board extended the assistance to boroughs under 6,000 inhabitants by declaring the continuation of all main highways to be main highways and additional highways in these boroughs have been added from time to time.

SUBSIDIES.

Under the Act of 1922 it was provided that the Main Highways Board should pay one-half of the cost of construction and reconstruction of main highways and one-third of the cost of maintenance and repair. The Main Highways Amendment Act, 1925, however, authorized the Board to increase its subsidy on the cost of maintenance on ordinary main highways from one-third to one-half, retrospective to the 1st April, 1925, while an amending Act passed in 1926 authorized a still further increase to three-fifths. The amendment of 1925 also enabled the Board to inaugurate a special system of graduated subsidies towards the cost of erection of largo bridges. The amendment provided for payment by the Board of (a) one-half of the cost up to £10,000. (b) three-fifths of so much of the cost as exceeds £10,000 but does not exceed £20,000, and (c) two-thirds of so much of the cost as exceeds £20,000. It also provided for (a) a more liberal subsidy than £1 for £1 in the case of a major deviation of a main highway, (b) the repair of any extraordinary damage, and (c) certain allowances out of the funds of the Highway Board to be paid to members of the executive bodies of District Highway Councils.

In 1926 the Board was authorized, in special cases, to increase the maintenance subsidy to local authorities without the necessity for declaring the sections of main highways involved to be Government roads in terms of section 22 of the original Act. The 1926 amendment further provided for additional assistance towards the cost of maintenance in boroughs where large bridges are situated on continuations of main highways, but by the declaration of these continuations as main highways it is no longer necessary for the Board to operate under this authority.

A still further amendment passed in 1928 enabled the Board to increase the rates of subsidies, and under this authority the maintenance subsidy was increased to £2 for £1 and bridge subsidies generally were increased to £2 for £1 on expenditure up to £10,000, and £3 for £1 on expenditure in excess of £10,000. The Board may in special cases pay subsidies exceeding those rates.

In August, 1931, a further increase to £3 for £1 was made in the case of maintenance subsidies, made retrospective to 1st April, 1931.

FINANCE.

The Main Highways Account is subdivided as under:—

  1. Revenue Fund, which includes proceeds of: (a) tax on tires and tubes, as collected through the Customs Department; (b) registration and license fees of motor-vehicles, but not heavy traffic fees; (c) part of the proceeds of motor-spirits taxation (the present total motor-spirits tax is 10d. per gallon, of which 4d. is ordinary Customs revenue. Ninety-two per cent. of the revenue from 6d. per gallon is credited to the Main Highways Account. The remaining 8 per cent. is distributed to cities and boroughs of six thousand or more population for expenditure on streets forming continuations of main highways); and (d) a mileage tax on (l) motor-vehicles as defined, the motive power of which is not wholly derived from motor-spirits, and (2) trackless trolley buses.

  2. Construction Fund, to which are paid all moneys borrowed as may be required for purposes of construction and reconstruction, to a limit of £3,000,000, intended to extend over a period of ten years. In addition, sums may be transferred from the Revenue Fund to the Construction Fund in terms of section 15 of the Main Highways Act, 1922.

The Revenue Fund also formerly received an annual transfer of £35,000 from the Consolidated Fund, and the Construction Fund one of at least £200,000 from the Public Works Fund. Both transfers have been discontinued since 1930. Interest is paid on the amount (£1,226,000) transferred to 31st March, 1930, from the Public Works Fund. In addition, subsidies to local authorities in respect of general rates collected are payable out of the Revenue Fund instead of the Consolidated Fund as formerly.

The Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4)*, authorized the payment to County Councils and Road Boards, out of the Revenue Fund, of a subsidy at the rate of two shillings and sixpence in the pound on the amount certified by the Government Statistician to be the average annual amount of all rates collected by each Council or Road Board during the triennium ended 31st March, 1930. This subsidy was to be applied by these local authorities for the purpose of granting to ratepayers a refund or rebate of 12½ per cent. on the rates levied for the year ended 31st March, 1932, and paid not later than that date. The Finance Act, 1932, made the refund or rebate payable to ratepayers notwithstanding that the rates might not have been paid within the time limit referred to. The sum of £253,776 from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account was expended in 1931–32 in respect of this subsidy.

In addition, the Finance Acts. 1932, 1932–33 (No. 2), and 1934 (No. 2), authorized during the financial years ended 31st March, 1933. 1934. and 1935, the retention in the Consolidated Fund of an amount or amounts out of the tax on motor-spirits otherwise payable to the Revenue Fund not exceeding £500,000 in each year.

The following account outlines the receipts of and payments from the Highways Account during the financial year 1933–34:—

Receipts.£
Fees and fines under section 24 of Motor-vehicles Act, 1924340,250
Tire-tax62,980
Petrol-tax669,868
Mileage - tax (Finance Act, 1932–33, No. 2)1,133
Interest6,385
Repayments of advances12,855
Recoveries and miscellaneous159
Loan-money (stock issued)203,000
     Total£1,302,630
Payments.£
Construction192,279
Maintenance710,134
Subsidies to local authorities157,847
Commutation of Hutt Road fees25,112
Abolition of toll-gates1,062
Advances to local authorities3,132
Interest charges155,137
Amortization of debt69,579
Charges, &c., of raising loans11
     Total£1,314,893

At the 31st March, 1934, there was a credit balance of £250,414 in the account.

The estimates of amounts required for maintenance and repairs, construction and reconstruction, and all other items are forwarded by the District Highway Councils, and after review by the Board are incorporated in the Estimates, which in turn are submitted for approval to Parliament, for inclusion in the annual appropriations.

The revenue from the licensing of motor-vehicles and from taxes on tires and tubes is apportioned between the North and South Islands in the discretion of the Board, but generally so that the amount apportioned to either Island is fixed by reference to the number of motor-vehicles in that Island. No statutory provision exists in the case of the petrol-tax, which is, however, apportioned approximately on the basis of the relative consumption of petrol in the two Islands.

* A similar authority is contained in the Finance Bill (No. 3), 1934.

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island as compared with the number of motor-vehicles in each Island at the 31st March of each of the last six years gives the following results, expressed in percentages of the Dominion totals:—

1928–29.1959–50.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–31.
North Island—      
 Maintenance expenditure66.1362.3059.2362.3162.8463.80
 Motor-vehicles63.0863.6363.8463.7763.7863.94
South Island—      
Maintenance expenditure
 33.8737.7040.7737.6937.1630.20
Motor-vehicles36.9236.3736.1636.2336.2236.06

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.

The following table shows, up to 31st March, 1934, the extent and type of work accomplished on main highways since the Main Highways Board commenced to function in 1924–25.

Year.Formation and Widening.Gravelling and Metalling.Tar and Bituminous Sealing.Bituminous Macadam (Penetration).Bituminous Concrete.Portland-cement Concrete.Bridges.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Ft.
1924–25196366.. 2,434
1925–2645881645465,168
1926–27174151353812166,408
1927–281731338334..67,760
1928–292241861225114119,482
1929–301731791333931127,547
1930–31130128954114911,175
1931–321396912932934,062
1932–335645728.. 3,178
1933–344428757..14,988
Totals1,1771,069766301846462,202

At an early stage in the history of the main highways scheme, the District Highway Councils were advised that the standards of road-construction recommended for adoption should be such as were warranted by the existing or early prospective traffic. To ensure uniformity in construction as far as possible throughout the Dominion the following standards for first-class, second-class, and third-class roads have been laid down:—

 First Class.Second Class.Third Class.
Formation width, exclusive of water-tablesFt.24–3018–2414–18
Width of surfacingFt.18–2014–1810–14
Minimum radius of curvature—    
  Easy topographyChains63
  Difficult topographyChains21
Minimum visibilityFt.300200100
Maximum grades1 in 15 to1 in 201 in 121 in 10

As a guide to local authorities for the preparation of proposals the Main Highways Board issued Bulletin No. 2, which comprises a number of typical standard specifications for all classes of road formation and surfacing, together with a series of helpful notes on highway design. These specifications are not laid down as hard-and-fast rules which local authorities must in every case adopt, but are regarded as standard practice, the following of which will result in satisfactory work. The standard of construction in all cases should, of course, be regulated by local conditions, and should be commensurate with the traffic requirements. As much construction work is financed wholly or in part by loan, it is essential that the character of the work should be such as to ensure a life at least equal to the period of the loan.

The average cost of maintenance per mile per annum of the primary highway system during the ten years since the Board commenced its operations has been—1924–25, £51; 1925–26, £73; 1926–27, £111; 1927–28, £120; 1928–29, £125; 1929–30, £151; 1930–31, £121; 1931–32, £116; 1932–33, £85; 1933–34, £99. The average maintenance-cost per mile of the secondary highways for 1928–29 was £55; for 1929–30, £88; for 1930–31, £71; for 1931–32, £55; for 1932–33, £48; and for 1933–34, £47. Details for each highway district in 1933–34 are given in an earlier table of this section.

The following tabulation shows the amount which has been provided, by the Board and by local authorities for expenditure on both maintenance and construction of primary and secondary main highways during the last six years. Maintenance figures exclude indirect charges such as supervision, interest, &c., but include the cost of earthquake restoration.

1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 ££££££
Maintenance by Board756,3991,049,249,872,577849,734600,324674,026
Maintenance by local authorities284,526375,849317,839215,568168,466187,735
Construction by Board936,1481,007,957667,902361,969159,323198,295
Construction by local authorities214,155203,148150,98494,97343,18155,997
     Totals2,191,2282,636,2032,009,302l,522,244971,2941,116,053
Percentages.Per Cent.Per Cents.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Maintenance by Board72–773–673–379–878–178–2
Maintenance by local authorities27–326–426–720–221–921–8
Construction by Board81–483–381–679–277–6 177–0
Construction by local authorities18–616–718–420–822–423–0

Maintenance in 1933–34 may be subdivide as follows: Maintenance by Board—Primary highways, £524,183; secondary highways, £149,843. Maintenance by local authorities—Primary highways, £138,911; secondary highways, £48,824.

The use of up-to-date machinery on construction and maintenance of main highways is recognized to be in the interests of economy and efficiency, and, with the idea of encouraging local bodies to use such plant, power enabling the Main Highways Board to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, equipment, and appliances to local authorities on the hire-purchase system was given by the Main Highways Amendment Act, 1925. As a consequence of this legislation a great number of local authorities have purchased modern roadmaking plant through the Board.

A petrological laboratory was established in Wellington at the beginning of 1925. Full reports are made on the various materials submitted by local authorities for use as road-metal as well as for other purposes.

Tests for bitumens, tars, &c., are carried out by the Dominion Analyst, Wellington, while the testing of steel is carried out by the Public Works and Railways Departments, and at the Canterbury (University College) School of Engineering.

ROADING COSTS.

The following statement of the Dominion's annual roading bill has been derived by the Transport Department from various official sources. In some cases estimation has been resorted to chiefly in regard to classification into main highways, urban roads, streets, &c., but where such has occurred a conservative basis has been adopted, and it is considered that the figures are sufficiently close to fact to justify their use as a basis for reliable broad conclusions.

Expenditure on1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Maintenance—£££££
 Main highways1,111,6571,455,8451,326,3721,202,343858,577
Urban roads and streets461,530484,609581,734529,104453,969
Other roads953,515995,0401,130,8111,009,702763,648
     Total2,526,7022,935,4943,038,9172,741,1492,076,194
Construction—     
 Main highways1,105,1471,187,367838,477540,841261,602
Urban roads and streets1,067,0741,155,6361,077,3801,338,6771,224,214
Other roads976,4421,175,0481,656,3951,489,1271,122,145
     Total3,148,6633,518,0513,572,2523,368,6452,607,961
Interest and sinking fund charges—     
Main highways533,355562,909595,845635,930622,128
Urban roads and streets556,847600,188615,530640,728642,282
Other roads938,1591,033,9651,125,0271,198,7861,129,482
     Total2,028,3612,197,0622,336,4022,475,4442,393,892
Grand total7,703,7268,650,6078,947,5718,585,2387,078,047

In view of the proportion of road traffic new assumed by motor-vehicles, and of the additional expenditure necessitated thereby, the following recapitulation of returns of special taxation of motor-vehicles is of direct interest:—

Yield of1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 £££££
Tire-tax196,747157,474130,40885,43764,163
Motor-spirits tax802,231961,94S1,316,3851,358,6221,263,881
Fees, –c, under Motor-vehicles Act, 1924244,598391,368393,797370,126352,561
Heavy-traffic fees190,789183,486194,557179,105178,183
Drivers' licenses36,83056,57859,46258,86057,132
     Total1,471,1951,750,8542,094,6092,052,1501,915,920
Proportion per cent. of total to total road bill shown in preceding table19.120.223.423.927.1

Included in the 1932–33 figure for motor-spirits taxation is the £500,000 retained in the Consolidated Fund and thus diverted from roading purposes. Customs duties on motor-vehicles and parts are, however, excluded. Such taxation is not special taxation, as all imported goods of similar nature pay duties towards the general expenses of the State.

The total motor-spirits taxation is at the rate of l0d. per gallon—i.e., British preferential tariff (the general tariff pays one-twentieth surtax, and thus equals 10½d.). The first 6d. collected under this head is devoted to road purposes, and this is the figure (including cost of collection) which is quoted in the above table. The remaining 4d. (2d. from October, 1931, and 2d. additional from February, 1933) is ordinary Customs revenue, and was imposed for that purpose, the increased taxation being only a part of increased taxation required for the various purposes of Government. It may be mentioned that, although non-users of the roads obtain a rebate of the first 6d. of the motor-spirits tax, this does not apply to the additional 4d.

The comparison of the two preceding tables is necessarily not an exact or a complete one. There are numerous items directly or indirectly caused by road traffic which do not appear in the road costs shown. For instance, there are such items as traffic control, increased police duties, cost of collection of petrol and other taxes, general administration charges, examinations for drivers' licenses, hospital maintenance costs resulting from motor-vehicle accidents, &c.

REGISTRATION OF MOTOR-VEHICLES.

Before the Main Highways Act was passed the Government recognized the reasonableness of motor-vehicle owners contributing towards the cost of the construction and upkeep of the road-surfaces which were required principally for them.

Amongst the funds laid down in the Main Highways Act as being available for the Revenue Fund was a sum to be derived from the licensing of motor-vehicles. When the Main Highways Act was passed it was expected that a Motor-vehicles Act dealing with the registration and licensing of motor-vehicles would be simultaneously passed, but owing to the difficulty of co-ordinating all interests it was not until November, 1924, that the Motor-vehicles Act came into being.

This Act provided for the registration and annual licensing of all motor-vehicles.

Registration fees are 10s. for a motor-cycle and 20s. for any other motor-vehicle. License fees include 10s. for a motor-cycle; £2 for a motor-car; £3 for a motor-omnibus; £5 for a traction-engine; and from £2 to £3 for a motor-lorry, according to weight and tires. Other fees include drivers' licenses, 5s.; changes of ownership, 5s.; and manufacturers' and dealers' fees.

All such fees, except that for a driver's license, which is payable to the local authorities, have in terms of the Motor-vehicles Act to be credited to the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund. Heavy-traffic fees (£178,183 in the fiscal year 1932–33) are distributed among local bodies. Consolidating and amending regulations as to the use of heavy motor-vehicles, made under the authority of the Public Works Act, 1928, and the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924, came into force on the 16th February, 1932.

The customary figures of motor-vehicles licensed (quarterly figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics) show a classification based upon licensing requirements. The figures in the tables following have been specially compiled to distinguish completely the actual types of vehicles.

Type of Vehicle.Licensed as at 31st March.Dormant Registrations at 31st March, 1934.
1933.1934.Registrations of 1931–32.Registrations of 1932–33.
Cars127,753128,6186,0576,034
Taxis1,5981,5396538
Service cars1,0798156263
Omnibuses5595486827
Trucks, 2 tons and under19,60420,4451,6532,569
Trucks, over 2 tons14,34215,0381,0091,082
Motor-cycles25,10524,6893,3434,055
Tractors, traction - engines, and trailers3,2263,960365606
Others5786001628
     Totals193,844196,25212,63814,502

Dormant registrations are those of vehicles the registration of which has not been cancelled, hut which have not been relicensed for the current year. Dormant registrations stand for two years, and are then cancelled if not previously relicensed. The number of dormant registrations is always high in the early months of the registration year, but declines rapidly during the year.

Upon the arbitrary assumption that, of vehicles whose registration is “dormant,” three-fourths of 1932–33 registrations and one-half of 1931–32 registrations still existed as practicable vehicles, the approximate number of motor-vehicles in New Zealand at 31st March, 1934, was 213,500, of which 196,252 were actually upon the roads.

The latest figures available show the number of motor-vehicles licensed as at 30th September, 1934:—

Cars118,461
Rental and private-hire cars198
Taxis1,474
Service cars640
Dealers' cars984
Omnibuses493
Passenger trucks612
Light trucks18,674
Heavy trucks13,864
Local-body road vehicles1,203
Government vehicles1,443
Motor-cycles18,781
Dealers' motor-cycles118
Trailers1,707
Total178,652

Of the total motor-vehicles licensed at 30th September, 1934, 115,629 were in the North Island and 63,023 in the South Island.

In number of motor-vehicles per head of population New Zealand ranks high, and is, in fact, usually credited in statistical compilations as being exceeded in this respect only by the United States and Canada.

Figures have been compiled by the Transport Department covering vehicle-mileage for the year ended 31st May, 1933, restricted to vehicles relicensed between the 1st June, 1933, and the 31st July, 1933. Out of 150,112 vehicles, data were obtained in 137,147 cases. The total mileage recorded for these was approximately 500,190,000 vehicle-miles; with allowance for the 12,965 cases where data were not available and for vehicles relicensed or licensed in subsequent months, the total vehicle-mileage for the year was probably in the neighbourhood of 700,000,000 miles. Average mileage per annum included: Cars, 3,680 miles; light trucks, 3,960; heavy trucks, 6,790; omnibuses, 22,200; taxis, 10,860; service cars, 19,620; and motor-cycles, 2,620.

MAKES OF MOTOR-VEHICLES.

Figures given under this head refer to motor-vehicles licensed during the first two months of the registration year commencing 1st June, 1933.

For motor-cars (other than service cars, taxis, contract, rental, or private-hire cars) some 368 different makes were recorded, of which the following had the greatest representation:—

Ford19,328
Chevrolet12,288
Austin7,417
Essex7,056
Dodge6,693
Buick5,550
Chrysler3,527
Studebaker2,722
Rugby2,305
Whippet2,275
Overland2,188
Morris Cowley1,911
Plymouth1,676
Nash1,522
Morris Minor1,449
Singer1,394
Hupmobile1,380
Hudson1,368
Pontiac1,352
Willys Knight1,280

Light trucks recorded 191 makes and heavy trucks 187 makes. For both in combination leading makes were: Ford, 9,502; Chevrolet, 4,875; Dodge, 1,226; International, 958; Reo, 406; and Graham, 428.

Omnibuses were of 46 makes, including Reo, 68; Stewart, 59; Leyland, 34; and Thornycroft, 31.

Taxis comprised 75 makes, of which the principal were: Chevrolet, 138; Dodge, 122; Hudson, 110; and Essex, 103.

Service cars were of 53 makes, including: Hudson, 174; Cadillac, 69; and Studebaker, 61.

The 106 makes of motor-cycles included: B.S.A., 2,429; Harley-Davidson 1,979; Indian, 1,761; A.J.S., 1,612; Triumph, 1,383; and Douglas, 1,134.

ROAD TRANSPORT.

The post-war period ushered in a rapid development of an already considerable road motor transport which has necessitated extensive legislation, not alone for its control but also for the provision of adequate road-surfaces. Certain principal enactments are referred to briefly in chronological order.

The Customs Amendment Act, 1921, among numerous tariff changes, imposed a tire-tax on rubber tires and tubes, previously free. The proceeds are credited to the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account. For an account of the moneys derived from this and other highways taxation, vide Section XXIIB (Taxation).

The Main Highways Act of 1922 constituted the next landmark. It has been referred to earlier in this section. Two years later came the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924 (amended in 1927), which has received specific mention under the immediately preceding title. At the same time the Public Works Amendment Act, 1924, was passed. Under it regulations could he made fixing, in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local bodies for road-maintenance purposes, and also classifying roads and providing other measures. Regulations to this effect were passed in 1925. In the financial year 1932–33 local bodies received £178,183 by way of heavy-traffic fees.

With the object of controlling motor-omnibus competition with tramways, regulations under the Board of Trade Act were issued in 1926. In the same year they were superseded by the Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, itself later repealed by the comprehensive Transport Licensing Act, 1931.

The Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927, imposed a Customs duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases are not connected with road taxation). From the net proceeds 92 per cent. is paid into the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account, and the balance distributed pro rata on a population basis amongst cities or boroughs of a population of 6,000 upwards.

In 1927 the administration of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924, was transferred to the Public Works Department, which subsequently issued in draft form regulations containing a uniform code of rules for motor-traffic in the Dominion. After full opportunity for criticism by interested parties the regulations were brought into law in 1928.

The Public Works Act, 1928, contained extensive provisions relating to the construction, maintenance, and use of roads. Almost simultaneously came the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928, vide Section XXVIIB (Accident Insurance).

In 1929 the Transport Department Act constituted the portfolio of Minister of Transport, and the Transport Department under a Commissioner of Transport. The Act placed the administration of the following Acts under the Transport Department:—

Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

Motor-omnibus Traffic Act, 1926.

Motor-spirits Taxation Act, 1927.

Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 1928.

Public Works Act, 1928, in so far as it relates to heavy traffic or to motor-vehicles.

Later legislation is dealt with under succeeding heads.

TRANSPORT LICENSING.

The Transport Licensing Act, passed on the 11th November, 1931, marks an important stage in the control of road transport other than tramways. The Act is designed to regulate motor road transport with a view to securing co-ordination between it and other forms of transport and to its organization from the standpoint of maximum utility.

Four metropolitan districts were constituted under the Act, and provision was made for the division of the remainder of the North and South Islands by Order in Council. There are new nine transport districts, of which five are in the North Island. Each transport district consists of a group of geographic counties, and the whole with the four metropolitan districts comprises the total area of the mainland.

A district licensing authority is constituted for each transport district, and, in addition, a central licensing authority of three members appointed by the Minister of Transport functions where licenses involve services to be carried on in more than one district. A representative Transport Appeal Board was also created, but has been replaced by the Transport Co-ordination Board referred to later.

After a day appointed all motor-vehicle passenger-services were not permitted to operate except under license. This does not apply to taxis unless running on defined routes, to carriage of school-children, or to carriage in certain cases of a private party by a contract vehicle on a special occasion.

In considering applications for licenses the licensing authority is required first to have regard to the necessity or desirability of the service in the public interest and to the needs of the district in relation to passenger transport. Should these requirements be fulfilled, the Licensing Authority must further take into account, inter alia, the financial ability of the applicant, time-tables, fares, existing transport services, transport requirements, vehicles to be used, conditions of roads or streets to be traversed, and representations by the Railways Board, local authorities, other transport owners, &c. In certain circumstances applications by the Government or by local authorities receive preference.

It was the intention of the Legislature first to examine, regulate, and co-ordinate the passenger-transport services of the Dominion, and then, with the administrative experience thus gained, to proceed with the more complicated undertaking of rationalizing the goods-transport services. Regulation of passenger-transport was introduced at a time when adverse economic conditions had brought about intense competition, with its attendant evils. As a result of the Act, unnecessary or undesirable competition was eliminated, time-tables were arbitrarily defined and strictly enforced, standards of serviceability of vehicles were imposed, and routes and fare-schedules laid down.

During the year 1933 work on the goods services was commenced. The Act, together with subsequent Orders in Council, provides for the licensing of all goods services conducted between any two points or areas involving the traverse of at least five miles of a rural main highway, subject to certain exceptions— e.g., where the only goods carried are milk or cream being carried from farms to daily factories, goods carried in a vehicle used solely in connection with funerals, or goods towed or carried on “break-down” vehicles. It was laid down also that no application for a goods-service license should be refused, provided that the applicant had proved that he had continuously carried on his service since the date of the passing of the Act—a period of approximately eighteen months. Most of the applicants were able to qualify for “automatic” licenses, which expire after a period of twelve months, and which, as in all other licenses, carry no right of renewal. The rationalization of the goods-service industry is not yet very far advanced. Licensees have been restricted to fixed routes or areas, subject to certain provisions enabling them to obtain temporary licenses to perform occasional jobs outside their respective territories. In due course it is hoped that in the goods-vehicle field the licensing authorities will have success, corresponding to that achieved for passenger services, in reducing the heavy burden of over capitalization, and thus making further progress in reducing national inland transport costs to a more reasonable figure.

TRANSPORT CO-ORDINATION BOARD.

The Transport Law Amendment Act, passed on the 18th December, 1933, provided for the setting-up of the Transport Co-ordination Board. The functions of this Board are as follows:—

  1. From time to time to hold such inquiries, make such investigations as it or the Minister deems necessary or expedient, and to report to the Governor-General through the Minister of Transport the result of such inquiries and investigations, with such recommendations as if thinks fit for the purpose of securing the improvement, co-ordination and development, and better regulation and control of all means of and facilities for transport and all matters incidental thereto.

  2. To make in respect of each year ending on the thirty-first day of March a report to Parliament which shall include all reports and recommendations made pursuant to the last preceding paragraph.

  3. To hear and determine appeals under section forty-three of the Transport Licensing Act, 1931.

The Act provided for the abolition of the former Transport Appeal Board and for the taking-over of its functions by the new Board. Several further amendments were made to the Transport Licensing Act, 1931—e.g., the frequent-submitting of applications by an operator for a license after his previous application had been refused was made impossible. In certain circumstances the carriage of paying passengers under authority of goods-service license was authorized. The jurisdiction of the Central Licensing Authority was amended to include only those principal services forming links in the main chain of road-transport services, whereas it had previously dealt with all services which operated in two or more districts.

At present the Transport Co-ordination Board is conducting inquiries and investigations into the road, rail, shipping, and harbour facilities of the Dominion, but details of its activities are not yet available.

PASSENGER-SERVICE LICENSES.

The following table deals with passenger-service licenses for the year ended 31st March, 1934. It covers licenses issued by the nine district authorities, by the four metropolitan authorities, and by the Central Licensing Authority.

Continuous.Seasonal.Temporary.Total.
Applications—    
  Total759331,7832,575
  Granted664251,7552,444
  Refused5122780
  Withdrawn263130
  Deferred183..21
Licenses issued628221,7552,405
Vehicles authorized..  1,842

Passenger-service statistics for the South Island for the year 1933–34 were not available in time for inclusion, and the following figures refer only to North Island licensed passenger-services.

 1932–33.1933–34.
Vehicle-journeys run1,452,4721,556,087
Vehicle-miles covered16,541,66815,475,980
Empty trips42,81046,175
Passengers carried13,311,74613,901,751
Operating-costs—££
    Vehicle-running339,625305,385
    Vehicle standing charges213,682205,419
    General overhead charges81,45259,619
Total£634,759£570,423
Revenue—££
   Passengers564,035519,372
   Mail contracts20,85121,581
   Newspapers8,8989,384
   Goods and parcels26,65825,898
   Other17,73813,253
Total£638,180£589,488
 ££
Net profits3,42119,065
Total assets925,737648,782
   Vehicles (included in “Total assets”)384,814290,919
Capital593,504418,383
Reserves40,99617,648
Other liabilities291,237212,751

Operating-expenses in North Island licensed services during the year 1933–34 averaged S.85d. per vehicle-mile, made up of: Vehicle.running costs, 4.74d.; vehicle standing charges, 3.19d.; and general overhead charges, 0.92d. Revenue, 9.14d. per vehicle-mile, was derived from: Passengers, 8.05d.; mail-contracts, 0.33d.: newspapers, 0.15d.; goods and parcels, 0.40d.; other, 0.21d.

Goods-service Licenses.

The following table deals with goods-service licenses under the Transport Licensing Act, 1931, for the year ended 31st March, 1934. It covers operations of the Central Licensing Authority, the nine district authorities, and also of post-offices in respect of temporary licenses.

Continuous.Seasonal.Temporary.Total.
Applications—    
  Total2,146993,8006,045
  Granted1,898883,7935,779
  Refused11837128
  Withdrawn438..51
  Deferred87....87
Licenses issued1,879883,7935,760
Vehicles authorized..  2,906

Statistics of goods-services operating (in both North and South Islands) under license during the year 1933–34 are given. Figures are incomplete, as approximately 30 per cent, of licensees failed to furnish prescribed returns.

 1933–31.
Vehicle-miles covered31,959,500
Operating-costs—£
  Vehicle-running650,692
  Vehicle standing charges423,163
  General overhead charges123,883
  Total£1,197,738
Revenue—£
  Carriage of goods1,255,722
  Mail contracts20,370
  Passengers and other sources65,685
  Total. £1,341,777
 £
Net profit144,039
Total assets1,706,343
  Vehicles (included in “Total assets”)636,864
Capital and reserves1,144,960
Other liabilities561,463

Running-costs in 1933–34 averaged 4.88d. per vehicle-mile; standing charges, 3.l8d.; overhead charges. 0.93d.: total operating-expenses, 8.99d. per vehicle-mile. Revenue per vehicle-mile averaged 10.08d.

It should be noted that the licensed goods-services engaged only a small portion of the total number of motor-trucks actually on the road. The number of vehicle authorities issued under the Act was 2,906, whereas there were 35,766 motor-trucks registered on the 31st December, 1933.

Half-yearly collections of motor-transport statistics were made by the Census and Statistics Office from November, 1927, to July, 1932. The inquiries covered only regular public services on defined routes, as it was considered that this would give the best indication of changes in the volume and character of the transport being developed by motor-vehicles on the roads of the Dominion. In 1932 passenger-services were no longer included in the field of inquiry. Detailed results of the data obtained will be found in the 1932 and earlier editions of the Year-Book, and summarized figures, covering the last five collections, in the 1934 number.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS.

There is no comprehensive statistical series giving information concerning traffic accidents on the roads of the Dominion. Figures are available in cases of accidents resulting in fatalities, and these are discussed briefly in an earlier section (vide p. 106). Further details of fatal motor accidents are given below.

Nature of Accident.Year ended 31st March.Total of Five Years.
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Collisions, motor-vehicle with—      
  Pedestrian5255304526208
  Motor-vehicle4075293921204
  Train71183938
  Tram1   . .4
  Bicycle12711101561
  Horse-vehicle or horse under control4116416
  Fixed object68155640
  Straying stock11..125
Went over bank272922918105
Otherwise2233311524125
  Total accidents172221148140125806

Of 868 persons killed in motor accidents during the same five years as in the table preceding, 207 were pedestrians, 222 were on motor-cycles, 361 were on other motor-vehicles, and 78 were on other vehicles or on horseback. Thirty-five were under five years of age, 40 were from five years to under ten years, 20 were from ten years to under fifteen years, 592 were between fifteen and fifty-five years, and 181 in excess of fifty-five years.

WELLINGTON TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS.

In the absence of Dominion figures upon a comparable basis, the following data have been extracted from a report made available by courtesy of the Wellington City Council. The report relates to the twelve months ending 30th September, 1933, and is based upon information supplied by the Police Department and by the Traffic and Tramways Departments of the City Council. As motor accidents in which no personal injury resulted are not compulsorily reportable, the figures are not complete, but it is considered that they cover over 80 per cent, of all accidents, and those omitted are probably in the main of a relatively minor character.

The total number of accidents noted was 744, made up as follows:—

Fatal accidents14
Serious with injury51
Serious without injury14
Minor with injury131
Minor without injury (or injury unknown)534

Accidents resulting in death or serious personal injury were:—

Nature of Accident.Number of Accidents.Number of Persons injured.
Fatal.Serious.Fatally.Seriously.
Collisions—    
Vehicles with pedestrians923926
Motor-vehicles with push cycles2323
Vehicles and fixed objects. .2. .2
Between motor-vehicles. .15. .16
Went over bank2555
Fall from vehicle1314
     Total14511756

Saturday appears to be definitely the worst day for traffic accidents. The experience of Wellington City is confirmed in this respect by the records of motor fatalities for the whole of New Zealand.

Between 5 p.m. and 6 p.m. proved the most dangerous hour of the day, this being usually the hour of greatest traffic volume. Next in order are 4 to 5 p.m., 7 to 8 p.m., and 8 to 9 a.m. The experience of Saturdays and Sundays is naturally quite dissimilar.

December recorded more traffic accidents than any other month, but on an average winter months record 20 per cent, more than summer months. The report states: “From this fact it may he assumed that darkness, bad weather conditions, and greasy roads contribute somewhat towards the main cause of street traffic accidents—i.e., general carelessness.” Of 800 fatal motor accidents in the Dominion during the quinquennium ended March, 1934, 420 occurred in daylight, 82 at dusk, 69 in artificial lighting, and 236 in darkness or moonlight.

Accidents in Wellington occurred to the extent of 316 at street intersections, one at a level-crossing, and 428 elsewhere, thus to some extent disproving the view frequently expressed that intersections account for the great bulk of street accidents.

A comparison of the proportion of vehicles figuring in accidents with the proportion of such vehicles on the streets as determined by sample traffic tallies indicates that motor-cars figure in 58.3 per cent, of accidents, although comprising only 49.8 per cent, of the vehicles on the streets. At the other end of the scale are the push-cyclists, who figure in only 8.8 per cent, of accidents, although forming 16.1 per cent, of vehicles on the streets. Motor-cyclists have a relatively high accident rate, omnibuses record about a proportionate figure, and motor-lorries and horse-vehicles appear rather favourably in ratio.

Chapter 14. SECTION XIV.—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC.

POSTAL BUSINESS.

AT the 31st December, 1933, there were 1,780 post-offices in New Zealand. At the same date there were 2,415 street letter-boxes in the Dominion. The decrease in post-offices in recent years is indicative of the growth of the rural-mail-delivery system (referred to later).

The following table shows the number of articles posted and delivered during each of the last five years.

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Pattern-packets.Newspapers.Parcels.
1929309,162,1039,402,931157,966,11848,658,4706,881,027
1930313,148,0589,584,009165,180,05447,644,0986,447,194
1931263,633,9527,609,964151,369,56839,454,9713,415,554
1932246,395,1306,827,012147,208,46733,410,3722,774,416
1933261,979,3127,053,628155,038,05533,775,3893,286,188

Articles which are posted in New Zealand and delivered in the Dominion as well represent, of course, the great bulk of the business, and such articles are necessarily counted twice in the foregoing table. Separate figures of articles posted and delivered during the year 1933 are as follows:—

 Posted.Delivered.
Letters and letter-cards125,841,774136,137,538
Post-cards3,062,0373,991,591
Books, &c.78,449,18076,588,875
Newspapers15,919,45117,855,038
Parcels1,546,4571,739,731

These figures include registered articles, of which 1,762,399 were posted in the Dominion and 1,889,758 were delivered therein.

The average numbers of letters, &c., posted in the Dominion per head of mean population (including Maoris) during each of the last five years are:—

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Parcels.Newspapers.Total.
1929101.282.8256.0514.66174.81
1930101.952.9157.8514.13176.84
193183.642.2851.1711.58148.67
193277.492.0251.019.73140.25
193381.801.9951.9910.34146.12

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY.

The rural-mail-delivery system was instituted in the Dominion above 1900, but due to the high comparative cost little progress was made with it until 1922. As from the 1st January of that year a scheme was introduced whereby a nominal fee is charged for this service; the rates are 10s. per annum for a delivery thrice weekly or less frequently, or £1 for a delivery having a greater frequency. These charges do not bear heavily on the farmer, and they enable the Post Office to extend rural-mail-delivery benefits to districts which are without such amenities. Every comparatively well-settled district new has its network of deliveries. The rural-mail carrier delivers and collects correspondence and parcels at or near the gates of farmers living sometimes far removed from post-offices, and sells postage stamps and obtains, as required, money-orders and postal notes. In effect, the farmer has what practically amounts to a post-office at his gate.

It is an indication of the popularity of the system that, whereas there were 8,700 rural boxholders in 1920, there were 22,581 on the 31st March, 1934.

AIR MAILS.

In 1920 and 1921 several experimental air-mail services were operated, principally between Auckland and the North and between Christchurch and Timaru. These services were not used to a payable extent. Towards the end of 1930 tenders were invited for the conveyance of mail by air once daily each way between Auckland. Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, but none of the tenders received complied with the conditions.

During 1031–32 a number of special air-mail flights were carried out by arrangement with the New Zealand Air-mail League, the first for over a decade if occasions of national emergency be disregarded. There appears as yet no real need for regular air-mail services within the Dominion, but special flights were again made in 1932–33 and in 1933–34. The following special air-mail services have been operated since the 1st April, 1933:—

Date.Flight.Number of Letters carried.Net Weight of Letters carried.
   lb.
12th December, 1933Auckland-Invercargill10,638166
17th February, 1934Auckland-Sydney39,255550
29th March, 1934Kaitaia-Sydney21,866317½
11th–12th April, 1934Sydney - New Plymouth39,971515
14th April, 1934Kaitaia-Sydney22,189289
12th April, 1934New Plymouth - Auckland24,582295
12th April, 1934New Plymouth - Hastings67812
12th April, 1934New Plymouth - Wellington Christchurch12,324165
2nd July, 1934Kaitaia-Sydney9,891150

The Auckland-Sydney flight of the 17th February carried the first trans-Tasman air mail, and the Sydney-New Plymouth flight of 11th-12th April brought the first air-mail from Australia to New Zealand.

OVERSEAS PARCEL-POST.

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and beyond the Dominion have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 22 lb. in weight being sent to Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Hong Kong, and Tonga, and of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to all other countries of the world. Inland parcels may weigh up to 14 lb.

Year.Overseas Parcels received.Overseas Parcels despatched.
Number.Weight.Declared Value.Customs Duty.Number.Weight.
  lb.££ lb.
1929361,2512,703,6021,648,250372,14463,649258,384
1930278,3822,065,1241,301,121332,79457,276225,456
1931189,2201,330,243744,530202,05045,629163,685
1932151,436999,035603,891147,52842,432157,629
1933142,571929,223549,195116,15944,244164,922

The figures show a huge preponderance of inward parcels. Of the parcels received from overseas in 1933 no fewer than 70,067 came from Great Britain (including those from foreign countries via London), while 18,308 came from the United States and 40,584 from Australia and foreign countries via Australia. These countries, to which 16,017, 2,792, and 19,009 parcels respectively were despatched, also ranked highest among countries to which parcels were sent from New Zealand.

NEWSPAPERS.

There are (August, 1934) 301 publications on the New Zealand Register of Newspapers. Of these, some 56 are published daily, 16 being morning papers and 40 evening papers. Twenty-three appear three times per week, 23 twice per week, 71 weekly, 10 fortnightly. 111 monthly, and 7 at irregular intervals.

MONEY-ORDERS.

During 1933 money-orders from places beyond New Zealand numbered 32,465 for the amount of £166,491, while those issued in New Zealand for payment overseas numbered 80,450, and represented an aggregate value of £178,732.

Calendar Year.Number of Offices at end of Year.Money-orders issued.Money-orders paid.
Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
   ££ £
1929888835,3585,187,55325,673711,0514,815,868
1930889833,5055,069,62935,604719,1244,711,217
1931886714,4783,993,03540,704641,5083,838,829
1932878648,9513,335,55231,629592,8433,264,578
1933875635,6743,112,72938,772587,6843,112,194

POSTAL NOTES.

The popularity of the postal-note system for remitting small amounts is clearly illustrated in the table given below:—

Year ended 31st March.Number of Offices at end of Year.Postal Notes issued.Postal Notes paid.
Number.Value.Commission.Number.Value.
 £ ££ £
19301,1823,816,6351,123,44625,7113,797,7941,092,627
19311,1203,907,2881,128,80726,0333,916,9711,106,918
19321,1072,884,654952,44422,7042,964,928941,990
19331,1002,686,648958,37323,9022,668,697930,355
19341,0972,883,0701,061,94626,2492,853,0541,027,434

British postal orders issued in the Dominion during the year ended 31st March, 1934, numbered 77,229, of a value of £37,921. Those paid numbered 28,056, and represented £14,643.

TELEGRAPH AND TOLL SERVICES.

Up to the 31st March, 1934, a total sum of £9,596,747 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1933–34 was £144,159.

There were 12,294 miles of telegraph and toll pole line in existence at the end of March, 1934, carrying 65,004 miles of wire.

During the year ended 31st March, 1934, the revenue from telegrams and toll communications was £681,516, to which should be added £1,104,711 revenue of telephone exchanges and £59,430 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £1,905,057.

Year ended 31st March.Number of Telegrams and Toll Messages forwarded during the Year.Revenue (including; Miscellaneous Receipts).Value of Government Messages.*Total Value of Business done during the Year.
Paid.Free* Government.Total.Telegraph and Toll.Telephone Exchange.
* Urgent marine telegrams: no payment received.
    ££££
193018,303,68043,41818,347,104936,2221,206,7143,8022,146,738
193117,185,44437,01817,222,462886,2211,238,6492,9542,127,824
193214,132,95333,45014,166,403752,605l,218,0723,4081,974,085
193313,105,55732,20913,137,766730,7651,169,5123,2961,903,573
193413,255,59131,71213,287,303740,9461,164,7113,2891,908,946

From the 3rd April, 1934, a system was introduced by which the charge for telegrams varies according to distance. For ordinary telegrams of twelve words or less and for letter-telegrams of twenty-four words or less the charges are as follows:—

  • For local delivery, 6d.

  • For delivery at other offices, 9d. to Is. 3d., according to the distance between the offices of origin and destination.

  • For each word in excess of twelve in ordinary telegrams, and for each two words in excess of twenty-four in letter-telegrams, the charge is Id.

  • For urgent telegrams the additional charge is (id., irrespective of the number of words contained in the telegram or of the distance the telegram requires to be transmitted.

(Letter-telegrams are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment.)

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE.

Telephone facilities are extensively utilized in New Zealand. According to o data compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. as for the 1st January, 1933, New Zealand ranks third in number of telephones per head of population. Leading countries in this respect are: United States of America, 13.94; Canada, 11.98; New Zealand, 10.12; Denmark, 9.82; Sweden, 9.33; Switzerland, 843; Australia, 7.40; Norway, 6.96; Hawaii, 5.90; United Kingdom, 4.62; Germany, 4.51; Netherlands, 4.07.

At the 31st March, 1934, there were 349 telephone exchanges in the Dominion. Of this number 330 are of the magneto type, 2 common battery, and 17 automatic. The automatic exchanges are: Whangarei, Auckland, Hamilton, Hastings, Dannevirke, Stratford, Hawera, Wanganui, Marton, Palmerston North, Masterton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Blenheim, Christchurch, Oamaru, and Dunedin.

The following statement shows the automatic-exchange equipment installed and in use in the Dominion on the 31st March, 1934:—

 Capacity of Equipment Installed.Equipment in use.
No.No.
Individual lines73,70049,231
Party-lines—  
 Two-party3,5002,409
 Four-party2,2001,483
Multi-party450328
 No.
Individual-line stations49,680
Party-line stations10,105
Total of main stations59,785
Extension stations20,705
Total number of automatic-telephone stations connected80,490

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service during the last ten years:—

 1924.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Exchanges327351349349349349349
Subscribers, main stations86,605120,274126,763127,606125,826120,511119,689
Toll and service stations3,9063,9453,9463,9123,9643,9824,029
Public call offices371612679735745750787
Extension stations15,88223,10525,63525,51426,43726,51427,178
Telephone-station totals106,764l47,936157,023157,767156,972151,757151,683

The total number of telephone-stations shows an increase of 44,919, or 42 per cent., during the period. The increase in subscribers’ stations amounted to 33,084, or about 38 per cent., while extension stations show an increase of 11,296, or over 71 per cent. The demand for public call offices is clearly revealed in the table, these showing an increase from 371 in 1924 to 787 in 1934. Although a decrease in the number of telephones in New Zealand is again shown for the financial year 1933–34, this amounts to only seventy-four telephones for the year, as against 5,215 during the previous year. During the latter half of the year a gradual increase took place in the number of subscribers’ stations.

In addition to the above, there are 3,376 stations connected by private telephone-lines with departmental toll-stations, making a grand total of 155,059 telephone-stations in New Zealand on the 31st March, 1934.

The “party” line system of telephone service is being largely availed of, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March,. 1934, the number of party-line connections was 11,847, with a total of 45,209 stations.

The first public call offices (coin-in-the-slot telephones) erected in the Dominion were installed at Wellington in August, 1910. Of the total of 787 such instruments in use in the Dominion at the 31st March, 1934, the charge in 743 cases is 1d.; in five, 2d.; and in thirty-nine, 3d. The revenue of slot telephones during the year ended 31st March, 1934, was £39,094.

The telephone-exchange system included on the 31st March, 1934, 15,318 miles of pole line and 560,509 miles of wire.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &c., of the telephone exchanges up to the 3l8t March, 1934, was £8,419,509, equal to an average cost of £55 10s. 2d. for each connection.

RADIO COMMUNICATION.

GOVERNMENT STATIONS.

The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on the 26th July, 1911.

There are new 21 stations under the control of the New Zealand Government, the principal being those at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Apia in Western Samoa, at Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations on the mainland or on adjacent islands are those at Kawau Island, Milford Sound, Stephens Island, Puysegur Point, and Portland Island, while there is a radio beacon station at Cape Maria van Diemen Lighthouse.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga-Radio through small feeder-stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, and Mauke. Small stations at Aleipata, Fagamalo, Fakaofo, Salailua, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia-Radio, while Niue communicates with both Apia-Radio and Wellington-Radio.

By means of the radio-stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the three last-mentioned stations having direct communication with New Zealand. Wellington-Radio has also direct communication with Papeete-Radio (Tahiti).

The radio business transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the last five years was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Forwarded.Received.
Messages.Words.Value.Messages.Words.Value.*
* Amount earned by New Zealand.
   £  £
193013,921164,8215,53124,282272,3354,526
193112,959150,6735,10023,130259,9764,331
19328,88895,9263,34416,865174,1353,150
19338,59195,1923,39414,543142,6502,689
19348,960103,6253,57215,131160,1053,142

The foregoing table does not include free (service) messages.

The charge for the transmission of an ordinary radio-telegram to or from ships registered in New Zealand or Australia, or engaged exclusively in trading between these two countries, is 6d. per word. The rate for transmission to other vessels is 11d. per word, with the exceptions that messages to His Majesty’s ships are charged for at the rate of 3d. per word, and messages to vessels engaged in the Wellington-Lyttelton steamer-express service at the rate of 2½d. per word. Ship stations registered in New Zealand numbered 55 at 31st March, 1934.

PRIVATE STATIONS.

Private radio-stations are governed by the Radio Regulations which were gazetted on the 21st July, 1932.

The licenses for radio receiving-stations are designed to provide for reception from radio-telephone broadcasting stations as well as for experimental reception, and may be obtained at any postal money-order office or at any District Radio Inspector’s office on payment of the prescribed fee.

The licenses for private experimental (amateur) stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued subject to the qualifications of the applicants being satisfactory.

The licenses for private experimental (research) stations are intended to provide facilities for the work of pure research in radio science, and are issued only to persons of recognized attainment in the theory or practice of radio-telegraphy, or to universities or other scientific institutions engaged in conducting experiments for the development of the science of radio-telegraphy.

The part of the regulations relating to “Radio-dealers” is intended to provide for the proper control of the sale of apparatus designed and intended for use in connection with wireless telegraphy.

RADIO BROADCASTING.

The regulations governing radio-telephone broadcasting are designed to render the broadcasting of music, lectures, religious services, news, and other items of interest as widely available as possible. Prior to the 1st January, 1932, the broadcasting service was provided, under agreement with the Postmaster-General, by the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand, Ltd. The service is new provided by the New Zealand Broadcasting Board, appointed under the provisions of the Broadcasting Act, 1931. The Board maintains stations at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The major portion of the fees collected from listeners is paid to the Board. Additional services are provided by privately-owned stations operating independently of the Board; these, which are known as private broadcasting-stations, at present number twenty-six, situated at Auckland (2), Balclutha, Christchurch, Cromwell, Dunedin (6), Gisborne (2), Greymouth (2), Hamilton, Hastings, Invercargill, Manurewa, Masterton, Napier, Nelson, New Plymouth, Palmerston North (2), and Wairoa. The Broadcasting Board subsidizes private stations at Hamilton, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Napier, Masterton, Greymouth, and Invercargill.

The following are the particulars of the stations operated by the New Zealand Broadcasting Board as at the 31st March, 1934:—

 Power Input to Aerial.Frequency (Kilocycles).
 Watts. 
1YA, Auckland500650
1YX, Auckland150880
2YA, Wellington5,000570
2YC, Wellington250840
3YA, Christchurch3,000720
3YL, Christchurch2501,200
4YA, Dunedin500790
4YO, Dunedin2001,140

The higher-powered stations furnish the main broadcasting service in the respective cities, and the other stations provide an alternative service in each case. The main stations transmit almost continuously on week-days from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m., and on Sundays from 9 a.m. to 12.15 p.m., 1 to 4.30 p.m., and 6 p.m. to 10 p.m., while the alternative stations transmit from 5 to 6 p.m. and 7 to 10 p.m. on week-days, and 6 to 10 p.m. on Sundays.

The number of radio licenses issued in New Zealand as at the 31st March, 1934, was as follows. The license fee for a receiving-station is £1 10s. per annum.

 Receiving-stations.Transmitting-stations.Radio-dealers.Total.
Auckland35,05419439935,647
Wellington46,35434639947,099
Canterbury21,02815322221,403
Otago15,65010015915,915
     Totals118,0807991,179120,064

The numbers of licensed receiving-stations during the last eight years have been: 18,162; 39,315; 44,810; 53,407; 62,713; 74,980; 93,489; 118,086.

The total revenue derived from the issue of radio licenses in the year 1933–34 was £168,919 7s., allocated as follows:—

 £s.d.
New Zealand Broadcasting Board132,948910
Post and Telegraph Department20,153112
Amalgamated Wireless Australasia, Ltd. (royalty)15,81760

OCEAN CABLES.

The Pacific cable, opened for traffic between New Zealand and Australia and Fiji on the 9th April, 1902, was completed to Bamfield, Vancouver Island, on the 31st October following, and opened for international business on the 8th December, 1902.

The route is from Auckland to Vancouver, via Norfolk Island, Fiji, and Fanning Island. The Australian connection is at Norfolk Island. The deep-sea portion of the Vancouver - Fanning Island cable is stated to be the longest in the world.

Direct communication between Auckland and Sydney was established on the 31st December, 1912, thus giving the Pacific Cable Board an alternative route to Australia.

Additional facilities were provided between New Zealand and Fiji by the laying, by the Pacific Cable Board, of a new cable between Auckland and Suva. The work was completed on the 12th August, 1923. The duplication of the two northern sections—Vancouver to Fanning Island and Fanning Island to Fiji—was completed on the 20th November, 1926. These new sections were opened for traffic on the 18th December, 1926.

The Pacific Cable Board and the Eastern Extension, Australasia, and China Telegraph Co., Ltd., previously controlling the two cable systems connecting New Zealand with overseas countries were, together with certain cable and wireless services in existence in other British countries, in 1929 absorbed in a merger company new known as Cable and Wireless, Ltd. As a result, the Eastern Co.’s station at Wellington, the New Zealand terminal of the “Eastern” cable, was closed on the 31st May, 1932, from which date all cable traffic to and from New Zealand has been handled by the Pacific cable office at Auckland, where the specific cable terminates. One of the two “Eastern” cables previously in use between Wellington and Sydney has been diverted to Auckland, while a portion of the second cable—extending from Wellington to a point several miles out to sea—has been picked up. The remaining portion has been left intact, and could again be brought into use if required.

The length of submarine cable in use in connection with the inland telegraph and telephone services is 338 nautical miles, containing 2,254 nautical miles of conductors.

STAFF.

The huge volume and multifarious nature of the business of the Post and Telegraph Department entail the employment of a large staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, with the Director-General as executive head.

The staff at 31st March, 1934, was as follows: Permanent, 8,410; temporary, 150: total, 8,560. In addition there are 1,677 country postmasters and telephonists who act as such in conjunction with other pursuits and do not rank as officers of the Department. There are also 85 officers of the Railways Department who act as postmasters.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the last two financial years are shown in the following table:—

RECEIPTS.1932–33.1933–34.
££
Postages1,043,104911,194
Money-order and postal-note commission52,59756,450
Private-box and bag rents and rural delivery fees47,55846,224
Miscellaneous receipts310,130340,318
Paid telegrams273,615271,879
Paid tolls397,416409,638
Telephone exchanges1,169,5121,164,711
     Totals£3,293,932£3,200,414
PAYMENTS.££
Salaries1,444,1201,465,121
Conveyance of mails by sea87,62285,284
Conveyance of inland mails133,223128,174
Conveyance of mails by railway69,27876,579
Maintenance of telegraph and telephone lines64,86480,461
Depreciation Fund122,81836,739
Motor services and workshops14,52620,355
Miscellaneous205,668202,887
Interest on capital liability546,000553,000
     Totals£2,688,119£2,648,600

The year commenced with a credit balance of £34,529. Of the gross balance of £551,814 at the end of the year, £154,388 was paid to the Consolidated Fund as profits and £395,000 invested in the Renewal and Replacement of Assets Fund, leaving £36,955 to be carried forward.

Receipts and payments for the past ten years are shown by the following ?figures:—

Year ended 31st March.Receipts.Payments.
* Excluding payment to Depreciation Fund and interest on capital liability, which were first included in expenditure in 1U28–29.
 ££
19252,889,4502,416,257
19263,100,3972,409,557
19273,220,6662,346,274
19283,329,5112,299,571
19293,445,5452,442,158*
19303,641,6202,630,199*
19313,707,4202,642,400*
19323,715,2292,164,538*
19333,293,9322,019,301*
19343,200,4142,058,861*

Chapter 15. SECTION XV.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

SURVEYS.

THE surveys of Crown lands, Native lands, and land purchased under the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, or the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands, and are carried out by staff and contract surveyors registered by the Survey Board constituted under the Surveyors Registration Act, 1928.

In respect of surveys for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act, an additional and special license under the hand of the Surveyor-General is required, in terms of section 177 of the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

Any surveyor or other person, in pursuance of the written authority of the Surveyor-General or of the Chief Surveyor of the district, may enter upon Native land for survey purposes (vide section 501 of the Native Land Act, 1931).

Authority for a surveyor and his assistant to enter on any land for the purpose of making a survey under the Public Works Act must be obtained from the Minister of Public Works, the Minister of Lands, the Surveyor-General or his Deputy, or the local body, as the case may be.

Regulations for conducting the survey of the Dominion lands are made by the Survey Board in terms of the Surveyors Registration Act, 1928. Power is conferred on the Surveyor-General to make necessary rules.

The Surveyor-General is the custodian of the legal standards of length for survey purposes. All measurements of land affecting titles are to be expressed in terms of the chain of 100 links, and all areas in acres, roods, perches, and decimals of a perch.

Full information as to the New Zealand system of survey will be found in the 1929 number of the Year-Book (pp. 438–44).

OCCUPATION OF LAND.

The total area of the Dominion, excluding the Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901, but inclusive of the Kermadec Islands and the “outlying islands,” since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,196* acres. Of this total, 42,643,008 acres were returned in 1934 as being in occupation, including reserves and Native lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Native land held on the communal system.

* See note to next table.

According to information published by the Lands Department, the following is the condition of the land in the Dominion as at the 31st March, 1934:—

 Acres.
Total area sold or granted and held on freehold21,490,567
Total area reserved for public purposes15,486,237
Total area of Crown lands leased under all tenures (exclusive of reserves leased by the Crown)17,832,122
Total area of Crown land available for future disposal1,873,370
Total area of Native land4,554,134
Land unfit for settlement, including rivers, lakes, roads, &c.5,153,766
     Total66,390,196*

* Differs by 66 acres from area quoted on page 1, due to subsequent adjustment of boundaries of Otago and Southland land district.

The numbers of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation in groups of sizes, as returned at the last five collections available, are given below—

Area, in Acres.Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
1920.1930.*1932.*1933.*1934.*1929.1930.*1932.*1933.*1934.*
1 to 1014,94213,02911,13310,98410,94517.4615.3013.4213.1112.97
11 to 5014,07114,43514,19314,45914,64016.4416.9517.1117.26;17.36
51 to 10011,59011,35011,475;11,74312,00813.5413.3313.8314.0214.23
101 to 20014,55215,17215,27715,055;15,89817.0017.8118.4118.68;18.84
201 to 3208,7739,4099,393,9,4819,50010.2511.0511.3211.32.11.26
321 to 64010,34210,33610,25310,23010,20012.0812.1312.3612.22,12.09
641 to 1,0004,3024,2574,168;4,184;4,1755.035.005.024.994.95
1,001 to 5,0005,9506,1056,0316,986;5,9446.967.177.277.147.05
5,001 to 10,0005485525455510.640.650.660.660.660.65
10,001 to 20,000303306294;2950.350.300.350.360.350.35
20,001 to 50,0001651621521481490.190.190.180.180.18
Over 50,00055545455540.060.060.070.070.07
     Totals85,60285,16782,96883,78084,368100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

* From 1930 the classification grouping is “ 1 and under 10,” “ 10 and under 50,” &c.

Seventy-five per cent, of the holdings are seen to be not more than one-half a square mile in area. These, however, represent only 14 per cent, of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion. Sixty-eight per cent, of the occupied land is held in areas of over 1,000 acres, and 41 per cent, in areas of over 5,000 acres.

Sizes of Holdings, in Acres.1929.1930.1932.1933.1931.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1 to 1072,58856,03050,71450,63950,710
11 to 50401,497354,963358,070363,884369,525
51 to 100895,983814,829830,099847,592866,412
101 to 2002,142,2792,118,9632,142,5792,190,9912,224,672
201 to 3202,241,3942,350,7632,352,5832,369,4322,378,261
321 to 6404,707,3854,676,1664,637,0134,621,7604,616,450
641 to 1,0003,465,7973,394,2153,324,0483,322,4743,322,397
1,001 to 5,00011,702,50611,844,34511,728,92911,629,70411,519,983
5,001 to 10,0003,759,9663,740,0043,693,3433,754,1233,771,274
10,001 to 20,0004,249,5544,251,8954,113,1604,146,1064,115,552
20,001 to 50,0005,018,8604,942,7704,735,7604,555,1864,568,109
Over 50,0004,864,3224,823,7104,762,4514,821,5034,839,663
     Totals43,522,13143,368,65342,728,74942,673,39442,643,008

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS.

The following table gives for the last five years the number of holdings in the Dominion classified according to purpose for which used. Figures exclude borough holdings and holdings under 1 acre in extent.

Class of Holding.Area, 1929–30. (Latest available.)1929–30.Number of Holdings.
1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Acres.Per Cent.     
Dairy-farming3,484,6468.0433,30136,31138,39538,54542,579
Sheep-farming29,673,22668.4217,25517,30515,86114,73114,498
Mixed agricultural and sheep-farming1,992,0234.594,6814,6544,4115,2404,950
Mixed dairying and sheep-fanning2, 8O1,1626.406,8036,6007,4207,3416,830
General mixed farming421,4310.972,9703,0084,0273,9883,336
Fruit growing37,2790.081,4741,5781,3311,4401,441
Market-gardening10,8590,039579661,0791,020970
Poultry-farming2,8940.01297400217209250
Nurseries and seed-gardens1,3640.005595727858
Timber-growing322,3160.741061461239598
Flax-growing45,9700.114962413032
Idle and unused1,898,7154.386,3304,2603,0092,7593,059
Other and unspecified2,676,7626.1710,8898,4316,9828,23S6,261
     Totals43,368,653100.0085,16783,81082,96883,78084,368

TENURE OF OCCUPIED LANDS.

Land in occupation as at 31st January in each of the last two years, tabulated according to tenure, is given in the following table. Freehold land includes land held on deferred payment, if occupied by the owner.

Land District.1933.1934.
Freehold.Leasehold.Total Holdings.Freehold.Leasehold.Total Holdings.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland2,319,555679,1882,998,7432,295,760697,0222,992,782
Auckland2,953,6411,258,1284,211,7092,941,8891,252,7134,194,602
Gisborne1,440,0051,182,2702,628,2811,369,6831,242,9322,612,615
Hawke's Bay1,415,371661,8322,077,2031,404,198677,0292,081,827
Taranaki893,340709,6941,603,034901,369690,0781,591,447
Wellington3,430,5731,426,1114,856,6843,410,1341,473,8504,883,984
Nelson630,677597,4661,228,143629,235611,1131,240,348
Marlborough798,8561,646,0662,444,922795,9511,662,5562,458,507
Westland160,4341,115,7331,276,167168,2951,065,3371,233,632
Canterbury3,154,7744,952,1738,106,9473,129,3854,976,7078,106,092
Otago1,747,5626,252,1957,999,7571,663,4136,341,80S8,005,221
Southland1,485,9161,755,8283,241,7441,466,8511,775,1003,241,951
 Totals20,436,70422,230,69042,673,39420,176,16322,466,84542,643,008

Lands in occupation are not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown. It must also be remembered that not all of the freehold land in the Dominion is in occupation, while (as stated previously) holdings within borough boundaries or under one acre in extent are excluded from the annual statistics.

CONDITION OF OCCUPIED LAND.

The land in occupation in the Dominion at the 31st January, 1934, according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.Per Cent, of Total.
In grain and pulse crops730,807*3.86*
In green and root crops724,568*3.78*
In fallow105,7660.55
In sown grasses and clovers— Cut for hay, seed, or ensilage599,6623.13
Not cut for hay. seed, or ensilage16,472,00485.86
In vineyards and orchards.25,4480.13
In passion-fruit vines219
In hop-vines510
In market gardens, nurseries, and seed-gardens7,5220.04
In tung trees4,0110.02
In private gardens and pleasure-grounds79,1600.41
In plantations427,4712.
Total area in cultivation19,186,748100.00
Unimproved land23,450,260..

* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.

Further details of land in cultivation and of the various crops grown are given under their respective headings in Subsection B of the next section. Unimproved lands are not again referred to, and accordingly a table is appended showing by land districts more detailed information as to the condition of unimproved occupied land in January, 1934.

Land District.Phormium (New Zealand Flax)Tussock And Other Native GrassesFern, Scrub, and Second GrowthStanding Virgin Bush.Barren And Unproductive LandTotal Unimproved Occupied Land
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland9.108148,577756,891287,11353,2331,254,922
Auckland22,805162,306911,352460,26239,1841,595,909
Gisborne1,307100,684208,140250,66215,245576,038
Hawke's Bay366392,097163,11851,70918,134625,424
Taranaki32711,807165,511210,2907,986395,921
Wellington9,004455,841379,772313,69291,4071,252,806
Nelson3,230249,486272,986320,52333,991880,210
Marlborough3,6691,223,400250,732177,348382,6322,037,781
Westland7,140119,983138,344690,588128,5421,084,597
Canterbury2,7414,420,11898,979150,362640,2005,312,400
Otago3,0285,356,137391,632314,254417,0866,482,137
Southland10,1281,373,741278,087142,748153,4051,958,109
     Totals72,85314,014,1774,015,5443,369.5511,984,13523,456,260

SCENIC RESERVES, PUBLIC DOMAINS, AND NATIONAL PARKS.

The consolidating Scenery Preservation Act, 1908, with its amendments of 1910, 1915, and 1020, contains the major legislation dealing with the reservation of land, Crown or private, for scenic, thermal, or historic reserves. The Act is administered by a Scenery Preservation Board through the Department of Lands and Survey.

The Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, is also a consolidation of earlier measures. For the purposes of this Act public reserves do not include education reserves (vide next subsection), scenic reserves (supra), State forests (vide Section XVII.—Forestry), land reserved under the Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1908, or reserves under the Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act, 1908. The Act declares the general right of the public to free access to recreational reserves, but gives limited powers—extended by the Local Authorities Empowering (Aviation Encouragement) Act, 1929—to charge for admission.

An public reserve for health or recreation purposes vested in or acquired by the Crown may be declared a public domain. Public domains are generally administered by Domain Boards, many of which comprise already existing local authorities. Domain Boards may purchase land, and land may also be taken for recreation-grounds under the Public Works Act, 1928. In certain limited instances power is given to charge for admission to public domains.

National parks are administered by National Park Boards, which have power, subject to Ministerial approval, to fix fees for camping or picnicking within the parks.

The following areas are as for 31st March, 1934:—

 Number.Acres.
Reserves under Scenery Preservation Act961669,513
Public domains76575,446
National parks82,845,060

No figures are available for the “ public reserves” referred to above, which comprise a highly miscellaneous group, ranging from gravel-pits to climatological reserves. The area of reserves controlled by local authorities also is not available, but the estimated value of reserves, gardens, cemeteries, &c,, of local-governing authorities in March, 1933, was approximately £3,000,000. As noted above, certain local authorities control public domains.

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Under the land transfer system introduced in 1870 the title to land is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land Transfer Department assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

The Land Transfer system of title by registration has great advantages over the older system of title by deeds, oven when the deeds are duly registered. The state of a Land Transfer title can be ascertained by a search of the register with very much greater facility than can the state of a title under the other system, and the powers vested in Registrars under the Land Transfer Act enable them to keep the register simple, clear, and free from doubts; the simplicity of searching and of the preparation of instruments under the Land Transfer system enables transactions with land under that system to be carried out at less cost than under the other system; and under the Land Transfer system there is the State guarantee of a practically indefeasible title, as mentioned previously.

These considerations led to the passing in 1924 of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, which has for its object the bringing under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, 1915, of all land alienated by the Crown and not already under the provisions of that Act, except lands held by aboriginal Natives of New Zealand under their customs and usages.

The work of bringing all land titles under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act as required by the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924, is still being proceeded with, and has been completed, except in the Districts of Auckland and Otago, and except in the case of a few titles in other districts that it has been considered unwise to deal with at present owing to grave doubts as to ownership, or for some other reason. Steady progress is shown in the Auckland and Otago Districts, but it is considered that it will require at least three years to complete the work in these districts.

DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Provision has existed since 1841 and is new contained in the Deeds Registration Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as Against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it.

Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production.

The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees.

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the last ten year is given in the following statement:—

Year ended 31st March,Deeds recorded.Fees. £
192527,34725,152
192628,78425,649
192722,58520,104
192816,52315,215
192913,92512,622
193012,83411,601
19318,6607,746
19324,7454,314
19333,6163,081
19342,7972,610

LAND TRANSFER.

Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last ten years is given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March,Applications.
Number.Area.Value.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
192542387625,6261,285,325
192642219425,720989,404
192727117517,983677,364
19282441263,689723,957
1929204868,084575,525
1930133728,238501,898
1931834924,353278,652
19324212755139,566
193326122,02338,280
193428330213,477

The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last ten years. Included in the totals are those certificates issued in lieu of Crown grants, 382 being the number for 1933–34. Also included in the numbers for the last nine years are certificates (4,447 in 1933–34) issued compulsorily under the Act of 1924.

CERTIFICATES OF TITLE ISSUED.

Year ended 31st March,Number.
192514,206
192623,654
192725,088
192824,383
192922,630
193020,535
193118,189
193214,798
193312,304
193411,354

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last ten years:—

TRANSFERS REGISTERED.

Year ended 31st MarchNumber.Area.Consideration money.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
1925 .34,2898,5892,007,98433,625,622
1926.36,0388,6682,007,45135,195,960
1927.34,1068,0952,058,66632,338,860
1928.31,1418,1881,892,81930,157,665
1929.30,7607,5992,161,09631,155,226
1930.32,1127,7501,697,20830,832,305
1931.25,6266,8631,474,04022,068,814
1932.16,9434,1131,214,54013,205,708
1933.15,3814,161990,50711,015,434
1934.15,7604,1931,017,6129,551,205

Monthly statistics of transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act are given from April, 1933, onwards in the table which follows, a distinction being made between town and suburban transactions on the one hand and country transactions on the other.

Month.Town and Suburban Properties.Country Properties.All Properties.
Number.Consideration.Number.Consideration.Number.Consideration.
1933–34
  £ £ £
April584257,807250242,095834499,902
May877356,316367361,7261,244718,042
June796347,565394428,1991,190775,764
July997347,851427486,9451,424834,796
August1,120459,495471454,4101,591913,905
September982351,489434454,3211,416805,810
October1,000328,583431486,5501,497815,133
November1,104436,363410564,9961,5141,001,359
December1,009361,337443448,6231,452809,960
January642253,466234253,196876506,662
February893359,845276522,4751,109882,320
March1,113457,864440529,0881,553987,552
 Year 1933–3411,1834,317,9814,5775,233,22415,7609,551,205
1934–35.
April777332,551317487,4891,094820,040
May1,172510,152493603,0421,6651,113,194
June1,127426,970445544,9911,572971,961
July1,118407,383498678,5271,6161,085,910
August1,234605,642518715,0331,7521,320,675
September1,120433,512405563,5911,525997,103

Information as to mortgages registered under the Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Acts is contained in the section of this book dealing with mortgages.

SUBSECTION B.—CROWN LANDS.

ADMINISTRATION.

THE Crown lands are administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1924, the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, by the Minister of Lands at Wellington, his executive officer being the Under-Secretary of Lands, who is the permanent head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into twelve land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner of Crown Lands and a Land Board.

Commissioners of Crown Lands are executive officers of the land districts, having large discretionary powers under the Act. Each is the Chairman of the Land Board of his district, and transacts all its routine business in the sale, letting, and occupation of Crown lands. A Land Board consists of five members—viz., the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district, three members nominated by the Governor-General, and one member elected by the Crown tenants of the district.

The Boards transact all business connected with the sale, letting, disposal, and occupation of Crown lands, and all matters connected with the management and control of the public lands in their hands. They are the sole judges of the fulfilment of conditions in leases and licenses, and they can declare them forfeit.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.

A selector may purchase for cash, or on deferred payment, or may select on renewable lease. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and may apply for Crown land solely for his own use and benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person. Including the land lie applies for, he is not to be the owner, holder, or occupier under any tenure of more than one year's duration, either severally or jointly or in common with any other person or persons, of any land anywhere in New Zealand exceeding in the whole 5,000 acres of land, computed as follows:—

  1. Every acre of first-class land is reckoned as 7½ acres;

  2. Every acre of second-class land is reckoned as 2½ acres;

  3. Every acre of third-class land is reckoned as 1 acre.

Crown land may be selected and occupied under the following tenures and systems:—

  1. Town, suburban, and village lands—

    1. For cash and deferred payment, by public auction;

    2. By lease for terms up to ten years;

    3. By renewable lease for thirty-three years.

  2. Rural land (unimproved), (under optional system)—

    1. For cash, by application;

    2. Purchase by deferred payment;

    3. Renewable lease for sixty-six years.

  3. Village settlements—

    Under the three foregoing tenures of optional system.

  4. Special settlements (rural land)—

    On renewable lease for sixty-six years and under special regulations.

  5. Land-for-settlement estates (improved rural and pastoral land)—

    1. Under renewable lease for thirty-three years, with right to acquire freehold of 400 acres of first-class land, 1,200 acres of second-class land, or 3,000 acres of third-class land;

    2. For cash or on deferred payment, by auction,

  6. Pastoral land—

    1. By small-grazing-run lease for twenty-one years, with right of renewal (maximum area, 20,000 acres);

    2. By pastoral license on terms up to thirty-five years.

  7. Land within mining districts—

    1. On pastoral licenses under special regulations, with right to acquire the freehold or exchange to a renewable lease;

    2. On occupation leases under special regulations, with similar rights as to purchase of freehold and exchange.

  8. Miscellaneous—

    1. Temporary occupation on terms up to five years;

    2. Sale or occupation for special purposes;

    3. Outlying land.

By the passing of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1926, it was provided that after the 9th September, 1926, no more Crown lands were to be disposed of under the occupation-with-right-of-purchase tenure, and that any lands which might have been so disposed of could be disposed of by way of sale on deferred payment in addition to the other modes of disposal provided by the Land Act.

Full particulars are given in the Crown Lands Guide, issued periodically and obtainable at any land office, as to the conditions of lease and occupation. Improvements to a certain value are required to be effected on rural land purchased for cash or on deferred payment or held on renewable lease, and residence is compulsory for certain periods on cost Crown leaseholds.

DISPOSAL OF ENDOWMENTS AND RESERVES.

National endowments may be disposed of under renewable lease, small-grazing-run lease, or pastoral license. These lands are occupied on the same conditions as ordinary Crown lands.

Owners of renewable leases and small-grazing-run leases of national-endowment lands new have the right to acquire the fee-simple of their holdings on the conditions provided by the Act pertaining to each class of lease. A pastoral licensee of national-endowment land, if the area is not more than sufficient for the maintenance of the licensee and his family, can acquire the fee-simple.

Education endowments are available for leasing under the Education Reserves Act, 1928, which permits of a lease being granted under the Public Bodies Leases Act, 1908, as well as under the Land Act, 1924 The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

Public reserves not vested in trustees or a local authority may be leased under the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act, 1928, for any term not exceeding twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LAND DEVELOPMENT.

The Land Laws Amendment Act, 1929, deals chiefly with the promotion of settlement on undeveloped Crown lands. Power is given for the Crown to develop idle Crown lands, and also for the making of advances to Crown tenants holding undeveloped country for the erection of buildings, purchase of stock (the latter since the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932), and for clearing, grassing, fencing, &c. Settlers taking up unimproved sections may apply for financial assistance up to £1,250 each, the payments to be made as improvements are effected. The rate of interest has been fixed at 6 per cent., subject to the temporary reductions imposed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Crown tenants already in occupation of land coming under the designation of undeveloped are also eligible to apply for development advances. Loam? approved to 31st March, 1934, numbered 455, totalling £180,00S, while in addition £304,992 has been expended by the State in the roading, surveying, and development of various blocks of land to be opened for settlement.

LANDS OPENED FOR SELECTION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1934, an area of 160,153 acres of land was offered for selection under the various tenures provided by the Land Act, Land for Settlements Act, and Education Reserves Act.

Under renewable lease an area of 57,055 acres was offered, 11,122 acres being national endowment, 11,125 acres land for settlements, and 32,254 acres ordinary Crown lands. An area of 19,621 acres of ordinary Crown land was offered under the optional system. The pastoral-run area comprised 51,113 acres.

In addition to the above a total area of 2,869 acres of Crown, settlement, and national-endowment lands was set apart for selection by discharged soldiers, under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act and the Land for Settlements Act and the special tenures of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. Fuller particulars regarding these lands will be found at the end of this subsection.

The total selections during the year covered an area of 285,166 acres, by 1,118 selectors. These figures include, however, 153 purchases of small town, suburban, and rural lands, aggregating 2,726 acres, offered for sale at auction. The ordinary Crown lands holdings represented 157,032 acres; land for settlements and Cheviot Estate, 13,133 acres: national endowment, 104,070 acres; educational endowments, 9,659 acres; and other endowments, 1,272 acres. Selections by discharged soldiers are included in the foregoing totals.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.

Areas under this heading include all lands sold for cash or selected on the deferred-payment system, small grazing-runs, and leases under the following tenures: Renewable lease, mining districts land occupation leases, educational-endowment leases, and pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations.

Year ended 31st March,Sold for Cash.Deferred-payment Licenses.Leases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small Grazing-runs.Totals.
NUMBER.
1930286490571..1,347
193121625056131,030
19321661584872813
19331141354773729
19341531273122594
AREA (ACRES).
19304,15934,771159,554198,484
19317,42726,050147,3185,403186,198
19324,41337,278138,2706,525186,486
19332,0329,583112,98127,431152,027
19342,7268,62069,09621,626102,068

CROWN LAND HELD OR MADE FREEHOLD.

The following table shows the position al 31st March, 1934:—

Tenure.Total Number of Selectors.Total Area held from the Crown.Total Yearly Rental or Instalment payable.Total Area made Freehold.
Number of Purchasers.Area.
  Acres.£ Acres.
Cash lands..   13,285,577
Deferred payments4,013539,360101,17111,4871,321,579
Perpetual leases1616,5349733,108864,978
Occupation with right of purchase3,045859,89472,1845,0671,292,232
Lease in perpetuity7,4581,564,638189,2383,250539,845
Renewable lease9,0882,587,273451,12635259,098
Agricultural lease9282211,408140,896
Mining districts land occupation leases72918,7052,0401554,942
Homestead..  6180,453
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations576125,5593,1809218,824
Small grazing-runs7912,553,806106,8545866,175
Pastoral runs6068,871,58488,673723,412
Hanmer Crown leases69279204.. 
Miscellaneous leases and licenses6,7851,083,23641,70913813,170
 Totals33,33018,211,1501,057,37325,183uk*17,711,181
Thermal-springs leases (Rotorua)3001,9831,83430206
Education endowments - Primary3,647777,453117,741581
Secondary48139,90112,422.. 
 Totals4,428819,337131,99735287
 Grand totals37,75819,030,4871,189,37025,21817,711,468
Other endowment lands876351,40318,77966,105

Excluding “ cash lauds.“

National-endowment lands are included in the above table in the figures for the various tenures under which they are held. National-endowment lands of an aggregate area of 6,527,407 acres were held at 31st March, 1934, by 4,470 selectors, the annual rental payable being £142,419. Settlement lands under the Land for Settlements Act, which are dealt with later on in this subsection, are also included.

CROWN LAND MADE FREEHOLD, YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH.1934.

Tenure (immediately prior to acquisition of freehold).Area.Amount realized.
 Acres.£
Cash lands sold2,7265,011
Freehold acquired under following tenures—Deferred payment10,37731,508
Occupation with right of purchase4,9064,801
Lease in perpetuity1,0595,598
Perpetual lease162210
Renewable lease1,5843,484
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations151110
Miscellaneous428305
 Totals21,39351,027

SUBDIVISION OF LAND.

Much of the land legislation of recent years has been in the direction of preventing large areas of good land from being acquired or retained by a single individual. Part VI of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provides for an agreement being made between the Minister of Lands and the owner in fee-simple of any land for the subdivision of that land, and for the disposal by public tender of the allotments by way of sale or by way of lease with right of purchase.

Section 97 provides for similar agreements between the Minister and the owners of Native freehold land in respect of the disposition by sale or lease of that land.

In Part VII of the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, provision is made whereby the Minister of Lands may at any time in writing notify an owner of land that such land or a portion thereof is required for purposes of settlement. The owner of the land is required, within six months after such notice has been gazetted, to notify the Minister whether he elects (a) to subdivide and offer the land for sale in subdivisions, or (b) to enter into an agreement with the Minister as above, or (c) that the land shall be taken compulsorily under the Act.

In sections 381 and 382 of the Land Act, 1924, provision exists for compulsorily taking private land (not within a borough or town district) in cases where in the opinion of the Dominion Land Purchase Board such land has been acquired by way of aggregation, and where such aggregation is contrary to the public interest. Compensation is payable for all land so taken.

The Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1932–33, which is administered by the Department of Lands and Survey, authorized the Board constituted under the Act to acquired lands for the Crown by way of purchase, or by lease with right of purchase, or by resumption of suitable areas of Crown lands held under lease or license. Where land suitable for the purposes of the Board is, in the opinion of the Board, not being adequately used powers are given by the Act for its compulsory acquisition. A description of small-farms operations is given in Section XXXVIII.

LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS.

The purchase of private lands by the Crown for closer settlement purposes is authorized by the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, a consolidation of former legislation.

The number of estates offered during the year ended 31st March, 1934, was 29) of an area of 48,867 acres, but the majority of these properties were not suitable for sub divisional purposes.

The area purchased during the year ended 31st March, 1934, was 2 roods 0.8 perches, of a value of £2. The total number of estates purchased since the inception of the land-for-settlements scheme is 726, of a total area of 2,127,718 acres, the aggregate amount of purchase-money being £13,922,665. These figures do not include any purchases under section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917.

SUMMARY OF ESTATES ACQUIRED TO 31ST MARCH,1934.

Land District.Number.Area.Purchase-money.
  Acres.£
North Auckland5348,924455,060
Auckland75376,0731,243,775
Gisborne2686,380790,131
Hawke's Bay59264,7831,714,292
Taranaki2630,978375,881
Wellington155160,8282,350,297
Marlborough22224,090755,482
Nelson1448,821150,473
Westland36,03214,062
Canterbury178451,2013,521,523
Otago81335,2122,029,409
Southland3494,396522,280
 Totals7262,127,71813,922,665

The transfer of certain areas from Crown to settlement lands, and the adjustment of areas to account for ascertained surpluses or deficiencies, bring the total area to 2,275,455 acres at the 31st March, 1934. Of this, 246,393 acres have been sold for cash or made freehold, the number of purchasers being 2,358 and total purchase-money £1,080,915, and 95,908 acres are occupied by roads or by reserves unlet. At the 31st March, 1934, 7,124 selectors were holding a total of 1,876,658 acres, the annual rental for which amounts to £543,108; and the remaining 56,496 acres were unlet. Rent and other payments received during 1933–34 were £345,208, while total receipts from inception to 31st March, 1934, have been £11,231,184.

PURCHASE OF LANDS FOR GROUPS OF APPLICANTS.

Part II of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1928, gives power whereby two or more persons may purchase land acquired on their behalf by the Crown. No properties, however, were purchased during the years ended 31st March, 1933, and 1934.

ASSISTING PURCHASE OF PRIVATE LAND.

Section 3 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1932, provides authority for the making of advances to purchasers of part of private freehold properties up to 90 per cent, of the purchase money, all such advances to be secured by way of first mortgage.

LAND-SETTLEMENT FINANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

On the 1st January, 1910, the Land Settlement Finance Act, which is described fully in the 1915 issue of this book, came into force. The associations incorporated new number forty-six. There have been no transactions for several years past.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, and amendments, any person is entitled to the benefits of the Act who was an honourably discharged member of a New Zealand Naval or Expeditionary Force in 1914–18, or was a bona fide resident of New Zealand, and served during the war with other British Forces.

There is power to dispose of land under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act, 1924, and the Land for Settlements Act, 1925—i.e., for cash, on deferred payment, or on renewable lease under the former Act, and on renewable lease under the latter Act; also under the “special tenures” of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, which are cash, deferred payment, or a renewable lease with a purchasing clause.

Under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, 2,869 acres were proclaimed in 1933–34 and a total of 1,448,868 acres has been proclaimed to 31st March, 1934, comprising 609,931 acres of ordinary Crown Lands; lands for settlement, 401,849 acres; national-endowment lands, 433,532 acres; and Cheviot Estate, 3,356 acres. Some 702,837 acres of this aggregate fall under section 3 of the Act (ordinary tenures) and 745,831 acres under section 4 (special tenures).

During the year ended 31st March, 1934, 10 applications were made under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, and allotments were made in the case of 8 applicants, the total area being 1,536 acres.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE.

The various systems of financial assistance in connection with the settlement of discharged soldiers were dealt with in the 1924 and previous issues of the Year-Book. Operations at the present time are confined mainly to advances on current account for stocking and developing farms.

From the inception of the scheme of discharged-soldiers settlement in 1915 to the end of the financial year 1933–34, loans totalling £23,511,403 had been granted to 22,785 discharged soldiers, as follows:—

Class.Number of SoldiersAmount  
Advances on current account5,1275,610,324
Advances towards purchase of farms, market gardens, and orchards, and discharge of mortgages5,5569,050,515
Advances towards purchase and erection of dwellings and discharge of mortgages thereon in town and suburban areas12,1028,850,624
 Totals22,785£23,511,463

Repayments of principal to the 31st March, 1934, total £11,865,691, of which £788,757 was repaid during the financial year 1933–34. Receipts in respect of interest and sundries brought the total receipts for the year to £1,314,335.

During 1933–34 loans totalling £31,871 were granted. Of this amount £6,829 was for the purchase or erection of dwellings, and £25,042 towards the improvement and stocking of lands. Advances actually made during the year, including loans previously authorized and readvances from current account, totalled £384,604.

REVALUATION OF SOLDIER PROPERTIES.

By the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1923, a Dominion Revaluation Board was constituted with power to revalue and reduce where necessary the capital values of lands leased by soldiers from the Crown, and also to reduce mortgages in cases where soldiers had acquired lands by means of Government advances. Reductions to the total of £2,892,926 were made in capital and mortgage values.

The Board was also engaged in investigating current accounts under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1924, and capital reductions totalling £201,969 were made.

SUBSECTION C—NATIVE LANDS.

DEFINITION AND KINDS OF NATIVE LAND.

NATIVE land is of two kinds—namely, customary land and Native freehold land. Customary land is land which has never been the subject of a Crown grant and is hold by Natives under the customs and usages of the Maori people. It is land in respect of which the ancient customary Native title as recognized and guaranteed by the Treaty of Waitangi has not yet been extinguished. Such land, since it has not been Crown-granted, remains vested in the Crown, subject, however, to the customary title of the Natives, and to their right to have the customary title transformed into a freehold title by the Native Land Court. There is little of this class of land new left in the Dominion.

Customary land has always been restricted from alienation except in favour of the Crown. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown, and in all statutes since passed the alienation of customary land to private individuals has been prohibited, and this prohibition is new extended to the Crown. Native freehold land is the land held by Natives under an English “freehold title, though subject to certain restrictions on alienation and other special incidents which are unknown to the ordinary law.

Whether land is Native or European land depends upon the beneficial ownership of it, and not merely on the legal ownership. If land is held by a European upon trust for a Native, it is Native land; if it is held in trust by a Native for a European, it is European land. There are, however, four exceptions to this:—

  1. When land has once become European land, it never again becomes Native land unless by special enactment.

  2. Land purchased by a Native from the Crown for a pecuniary consideration is not Native land. This does not include an exchange of land, with or without a payment of money by way of equality of exchange.

  3. Land held by a Native in severalty may be declared to be European land by the Native Appellate Court.

  4. Under certain circumstances the Native owner may have been declared a European. (The Native Land Amendment Act, 1912, empowered the Governor-General, by Order in Council upon recommendation of the Native Land Court to declare a Native to be a European for the purpose of the Native Land Act or any other Act. Such a person did not lose his right of succession to Native land or property, nor, if he died intestate, were his heirs affected by the change of status. Any such Order in Council did not affect the status as a Native of the wife, husband, or child of the person. These provisions were repealed, without re-enactment, by section 525 of the Native Land Act, 1931, which maintains and defines the status of all Natives previously declared Europeans, but permits revocation of any such Order in Council.)

Even though one of many Native owners may sell, the land remains Native land until all have disposed of their interests, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. A “ Native “ means a Maori or half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

The Native Land Act, 1931, and the Native Purposes Act, 1931, are consolidations, with amendments, of existing legislation.

The total area of Native land at 31st March, 1934, was estimated at 4,103,059 acres.

THE NATIVE LAND COURT.

The Native Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General thinks fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exorcise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorizes. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are:—

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Native freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. This sanctioning of exchanges for other Native land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and succession orders to Natives.

  5. Making orders for the adoption of children.

  6. Appointing trustees for Natives who are minors or under other disability.

  7. The incorporation of the owners of Native land.

  8. The determination of various claims as between Natives.

  9. To grant confirmation of alienation of Native land.

Business dealt with in 193:5–34 was as follows:—

Number of sittings89
Number of cases notified13,100
Number of cases for which orders wore made4,512
Number of cases dismissed1,094
Number of cases adjourned sine die7,497
Number of partitions made189
 Area affected (acres)18,133
Number of investigations of title3
 Area affected (acres)2,895
Number of succession orders made3,446
Number of other orders made1,516

The Native Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Native Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Native Land Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.

There are seven Maori Land Boards, each consisting of two members, viz.—the Judge (or. if there be no Judge of the district, a Commissioner of the Court appointed by the Native Minister), and Registrar of the Native Land Court district, the Judge acting as President. The chief functions of a Maori Land Board are—

  1. To administer contain largo areas of Native land vested in those Boards in trust for the Native owners, the Boards having extensive powers of sale, lease, and management.

  2. To act as statutory agent of the Native owners in respect of certain areas of Native land set apart for Native settlement.

  3. To control the administration and disposition of Native land, by resolution of the assembled owners.

  4. To assist Natives in farming their lands.

The total area vested in and administered by the various Maori Land Boards as at the 31st March, 1934, was 654,665 acres.

During the year 1933–34, 41 acres of vested land were sold or revested in the Native owners.

With regard to Native freehold land, the Boards during the year approved at leases comprising 27,076 acres, and confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 4,693 acres of freehold land.

POWERS OF ALIENATION.

The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Native land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Native cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Native cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Native land by a Native has any effect until it is confirmed by the Native Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Native alienating; that no Native is rendered landless; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase-money is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law.

A lease cannot be for a longer term than fifty years, and a mortgage must have the approval of the Native Minister to its confirmation by the Native Land Court.

PURCHASE OF NATIVE LAND FOR CROWN.

Since 1st January, 1933, the duty of undertaking, controlling, and carrying out all negotiations for the acquisition by the Crown of Native lands, and the performance and completion of all contracts entered into is by subsection (2) of section 7 of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1932, imposed upon the Native Land Settlement Board—consisting of the Native Minister, the Under-Secretary of the Native Department, the Under-Secretary of Lands, the Value-General, the Financial Adviser to the Government, the Director-General of Agriculture, and such other members (not exceeding two) as the Governor-General may appoint.

Where Native land is being acquired for general settlement, the Native Land Settlement Board must Act upon the advice or request of the Dominion Land Purchase Board, referred to in the Land for Settlements Act, 1925, but this requirement is not necessary in the case of land being acquired for Native settlement.

The Native Land Purchase Board mentioned in earlier editions of the Year-Book was abolished by subsection (1) of section 7 of the Native Land Amendment Act, 1932.

Pending any purchase by the Crown the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, prohibit alienation otherwise than to the Crown. Upon the purchase being completed the land is proclaimed Crown land, and is subject to administration under the Land Act, 1924. Where the land is subject to lease when purchased the option may be extended to the tenant of purchasing the land from the Crown or having a renewable lease granted to him.

Since 1st April, 1910, a total of 1,543,346 acres of Native land has been purchased by the Crown. The total area of Native land alienated by way of sale to the Crown or to other purchasers since 1910 is 3,267,128 acres.

The area of Native land still held by Natives in the North Island is estimated at 3,851,122 acres, and in the whole Dominion at 4,103,059 acres. In many cases the Natives are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by Maori Land Boards and by the East Coast Commissioner.

NATIVE TRUSTEE.

The administration of Native funds and Native reserves, formerly conducted by the Public Trustee, was by statute transferred to the Native Trustee as from 1st April, 1921. This was part of a comprehensive scheme which seeks to rehabilitate the Maori by inducing him to farm and manage his own lands. As a further means to this end the Native Trustee with the approval of the Native Land Settlement Board advances money to Natives on the security of their lands, the expenditure of this money, and the management of Native farming operations generally, being supervised in a helpful and sympathetic manner. The Native Trustee Act, 1930, consolidated existing legislation.

The Native Trustee administers many reserves of Native land on behalf of the beneficiaries, and grants leases thereof. The beneficial owners of these reserves have no power of alienation other than to the Crown.

The Native Trustee also, where necessary, acts as trustee for Natives who are minors or under other disabilities, administers special funds, and acts as executor or administrator of the estates of deceased Natives.

The funds of the Native Trust Office at the 31st March, 1914, were:—

Amounts held under—£
 West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 189255,514
 Native Reserves Act, 188261,622
 Native Land Act, 1931 (Part X)111,077
 Native Land Act, 1931 (Miscellaneous)192,823
 Native Trustee Act, 193031,686
Miscellaneous funds67,218
Sundry creditors1,913
Reserve and Assurance Fund102,415
Investment Fluctuation Fund6,156
Advance under Native Land Act, 1931129,994
Reserve against unpaid interest3,287
 Total£763,705

Of the total funds £532,061 was invested in the form of mortgages, and £10,200 in local bodies securities.

Commissions, fees, charges, and. net interest on investments for the year 1933–34 totalled £17,051. The net profit for the year was £3,897, of which £3,124 was placed to the Reserve and Assurance Fund, £347 to the Investment Fluctuation Fund, and £420 was added to the reserve against unpaid interest.

Chapter 16. SECTION XVI.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

THE Dominion of New Zealand is a country specially favoured for primary production. The soil covering is varied in character, a considerable portion of it being of high fertility; but even the poorer soils are largely capable of profitable utilization by reason of the comparatively mild and equable weather conditions. The best grasses and fodder plants flourish in the congenial environment, and the country has gained a world-wide reputation for the quality of its pastures. Numerous streams intersect the country-side and present to the farmer a great potential source of cheap power. Electricity is new put to a variety of uses on the farm, but by far the most important is that of providing power for milking-machinery.

A conspicuous feature of New Zealand farming is that the stock do not require to be stalled in the winter, though the pastures are more or less supplemented by fodder crops in the colder months of the year.

New Zealand is primarily a grazing country, and, while more of the land is every year being given up to the cultivation of fodder crops, its future will, no doubt, be inseparably associated with stock-raising, principally of dairy cattle and of sheep. Though less than a century has. elapsed since the settlement of New Zealand, over seventeen million acres of land in the Dominion have been sown down in English grasses. A great proportion of the crops grown in the Dominion are for the production of such commodities as meat, wool, and dairy-produce.

Grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are grown chiefly in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island. Barley also is grown, but to a very much smaller extent. Much of the crop of oats produced is chaffed for stock-feeding purposes within the country. Root crops, principally turnips, are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock-fattening purposes, more particularly in the South Island. Owing to the comparative difficulty of growing large areas of turnips free from disease, other stock-foods are coming into prominence. Mangolds are cultivated to an appreciable extent, and farmers have realized the great value of lucerne. Ensilage-making, particularly in the stack and trench forms, is increasing in the dairying districts. Quite a feature of milk - producing operations is the growing of green fodder crops to maintain the milk-supply during the drier months of the year. It will be seen that live-stock in New Zealand is for the most part maintained on food produced on the farm itself.

THE NORTH ISLAND.

The North Island of the Dominion is remarkable for the congenial environment it furnishes for many phases of primary production. In no part is the winter really severe, and the question of stalling stock during the colder months of the year has not to be considered. It is more a grazing than an agricultural country, and practically all the crops raised are used for feeding farm stock. The dominant industries are dairying and sheep-farming. There is probably no finer sheep-country in the world than the limestone downs of Hawke's Bay. It may be said with every confidence that there is more butterfat produced to the acre on many farms in the North Island than on any other area in the world, when it is considered that all the food provided for the stock is produced on the farm itself. The standard of dairy-farming is steadily improving, not only by reason of special fodder being provided for the drier parts of the summer and the colder months of the year, but on account of the fact that the farmer has learned the value of herd testing and culling, and the advantages to be derived from the judicious application of top-dressing fertilizers to pastures.

In various parts of the Island fruitgrowing, principally of apples, pears, and peaches, is being placed on a sound commercial basis. In the northern portion citrus fruits can be successfully produced, and, with the adoption of better storage and marketing methods, lemons in particular are being cultivated on a considerable scale. Outdoor grapes are freely grown. Both the North and the South Islands have established an export trade in apples, and to a lesser extent in pears.

During recent years the Waikato district and the Auckland Provincial District in general have shown themselves to be admirably adapted to the dairy industry, and dairying has made remarkable development. The Auckland District, in fact, has become easily the largest exporter of butter in the Dominion, while it also leads in the production of milk-powder.

With the adoption of improved methods in the treatment of the land, and the demonstration of correct manurial treatment, farming in the Auckland Provincial District has been placed on a much more productive basis. Assisted by a favourable climate, of which a short and mild winter is a feature, stock-raising of all descriptions is being carried on with conspicuous success. The country is eminently adapted for the production of root and fodder crops, and stock can be brought to maturity and fattened for the market at a minimum of cost.

THE SOUTH ISLAND.

The South Island is the portion of the Dominion where agriculture proper was first established, the settlement of the land being greatly facilitated by the fact that on the eastern, southern, and northern portions large fertile plains, rolling downs, and hills were available, devoid of the forests which in a very large portion of the North Island had to be cleared before the land could be utilized by the farmer. Agricultural operations in the South have been maintained at a high standard for many years, principally in Otago and Canterbury, many of the pioneers of which districts were British yeomen farmers who brought with them the best methods of the Old Land. So in the breeding of live-stock, many of the original holders of land in the South, and the shepherds and herdsman they employed, had been well trained in stock-management by live-stock breeders of the Mother-country. The South Island may be fairly said to have been the nursery of the live-stock of the Dominion, and the high quality of the stock bred in the country is in a large measure due to the capacity of the men who founded and developed the flocks and herds in the eastern and southern districts. The growing of the finer wools, and the raising of fat lambs for the frozen-meat industry, are features of primary production in the South Island, while the dairy industry is also well represented, especially in Otago and Southland. The breeding of draught horses of a very fine stamp is carried on to some extent in certain districts.

While the climate in the southern districts of the South Island is not so genial as that in the northern, there are only a few portions where the winter is at all rigorous. The Nelson Provincial District, in the north-west corner of the Island, is noted for its climate. Nelson has a sunshine-record which is equalled in but few parts of the Temperate Zone. The district is specially suitable for fruitgrowing, which has been developed extensively on commercial lines, and the culture of tobacco-leaf is well established. At the other end of the Island, in Central Otago, a peculiar configuration of the country enables fruitgrowing to be prosecuted with great success. The winter is comparatively severe, but the warm summer sun and the absence of wind make it an ideal environment for fruitgrowing.

In some sections, particularly in Canterbury, Otago, Southland, and Marlborough, grain-growing is prosecuted on a considerable scale. The Canterbury Plains, extending a hundred and fifty miles north and south and running inland for forty miles from the sea, represent an area of over 3,000,000 acres. This region contains the principal grain-growing areas. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated to a large extent. In Otago and Southland oats are the grain principally produced. On some of the richer lands the yield of wheat has reached very high figures, even up to 80 or 90 bushels per acre, while over 100 bushels to the acre have been recorded for crops of oats. In root crops up to 70 tons per acre of turnips have been secured, while the yield of mangolds has frequently reached 90 tons.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture the Department of Agriculture is a service which is mainly concerned in advancing the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock, Dairy, Fields, and Horticulture, also a Chemistry Section.

While the service is mainly educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Live-stock Division, all meat exported is inspected by qualified officers. Cattle are inspected for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles; sheep and swine also receive attention; slaughterhouses are licensed and controlled; and all stock exported and imported is examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in poultry-keeping, swine husbandry, and wool growing and handling. The Division is provided with a well-equipped laboratory at Wallaceville, Wellington, mainly devoted to veterinary research, &c.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, &c, is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy-produce is inspected and graded prior to shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture content of butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk-samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers.

The duties of the Fields Division comprise agricultural instruction, the control of experimental areas, advice regarding crops, pastures, and farm-management, co-operative experimental work, hemp-grading, and grain-grading. The Division also has charge of the system of seed certification introduced by the Department.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work and instruction to beekeepers and tobacco-growers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It also inspects orchards and apiaries, inspects fruit for export, and grades export honey.

The Chemistry Section carries out analyses of soils, limestones, fertilizers, water, &c, also the inspection of fertilizers.

The Plant Research Station at Palmerston North conducts research in crop and grassland production, plant-breeding, and control of plant diseases and pests. Seed-testing and farm economics sections are also attached to the station.

The Department's principal farm establishment is the Ruakura Farm of Instruction at Hamilton, in connection with which a farm training-college for youths is also conducted. The Te Kauwhata Horticultural Station,* in the lower Waikato district, is mainly devoted to vine-growing and winemaking. There are also several other smaller experimental and demonstration areas.

The agricultural instructional work covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or by letters of advice. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. A monthly Journal, the New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, is published at a low rate of subscription, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer can obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination-capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described, and remedies suggested—all these services being rendered free of charge. Among other responsibilities of the Department is the registration of live-stock brands, slaughterhouses, dairies, dairy-factories, fertilizers, orchards, nurseries, apiaries, &c.

* New (October, 134) under offer of sale to private tenders.

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES.

In addition to research work carried out by the Department of Agriculture, cognate or related research is conducted by other authorities, including private concerns (notably those interested in dairying), the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Cawthron Institute at Nelson, the agricultural colleges at Palmerston North and Lincoln, and the Wheat Research Institute, Christchurch. The last named commenced to function in November, 1928. The following description is quoted from an article by the Institute Director in the Journal of Science and Technology.

“The Wheat Research Institute is an activity of the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, which is responsible to Parliament for the work of the Institute, secures its finance, and, on the recommendation of the interests concerned, appoints its Advisory Committee. The object of the Institute is to improve the yield and quality of wheat, flour, and bread in New Zealand, and it is supported by farmers, millers, and bakers. Each farmer pays a levy of three halfpence for each fifty bushels of wheat he sells, each miller three half-pence for each ton of flour he sells, and each baker three half-pence for every ton of flour he buys. These levies are fixed by an Act of Parliament in force till 1933, and are collected directly from millers and bakers, while, those payable by farmers are collected through the good offices of the grain-merchants. These levies, which amount to about £2,000 per annum, are subsidized pound for pound by the Government. The Institute has a plant-breeding station at Lincoln, the land, implements, and buildings and much of the labour being provided by Canterbury Agricultural College. There yield trials are made, introductions are tested, and crossbred wheats are raised, while extension work is done by the Agricultural Department in consultation with the Institute. There is also a cereal laboratory in Christchurch, in close proximity to Canterbury University College. In this are located an experimental milling-plant, bakers' ovens, and all the chemical apparatus required for various tests on wheat and flour.”

COLLECTION OF AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL STATISTICS.

Commencing with the 1915–16 season, a new and comprehensive system of collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics was substituted by the Census and Statistics Office for the methods formerly in vogue. The amended system was based on personal canvass by the agency of officers of the Police Department. Within the scope of the collection are comprised all holdings of 1 acre upwards situated outside borough boundaries, but not inclusive of purely residential holdings or Maori lands held under the communal system. The questionnaire in use in New Zealand was found to comply with practically all requirements for use in connection with the taking of the World Agricultural Census in 1930 under the auspices of the International Institute of Agriculture.

Considerations of economy caused the substitution in the 1930–31 season of a postal collection embracing the most important particulars. A combination of postal collection and personal canvass was adopted in 1931–32 and has been repeated each year.

Interim returns of principal crops and live-stock are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, and when the collection is completed final figures for the principal items are published in the next available issue of that publication. The full statistics are published in the “Annual Statistical Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Production.”

In addition to the main collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics the following supplementary inquiries are undertaken: Stocks of wool in the Dominion as at the 30th June; areas sown or intended to be sown in wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes (taken at the end of September); stocks of flour, wheat, and oats in the hands of millers, merchants, storekeepers, and farmers (at the end of November); estimated yields of wheat, oats, and barley (early in February); and returns of wheat and oats threshed (throughout the threshing season). The results of these first three inquiries are gazetted, and they are also, together with the figures of threshings, published from time to time in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Stocks of eggs and egg-pulp in cold storage are ascertained six times each year, and the results are published in the press and in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

FARM MACHINERY.

The following summary of farm machinery employed on holdings outside borough boundaries during the last five years is of interest as showing the increased use new being made of electricity and of mechanical equipment.

Class of Machinery, &c.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* Not available.
Milking-plants20,41522,54723,22224,35025,178
Cream-separators48,30247,11251,33454,20055,625
Shearing-machines—Plants7,3948,1917,8537,9367,894
 Stands21,48223,14022,32622,56222,482
Wool-presses9,006****
Agricultural tractors3,8915,0234,8564,9725,062
Reapers-and-binders15,484****
Threshing-machines418****
Chaffcutters2,206****
Water-wheels or motors923****
Electric motors16,45622,52024,16426,75729,164
Steam-engines398****
Internal-combustion engines19,16922,13620,97421,66721,758

The 25,178 milking-plants in use in 1934 had a capacity for milking 88,273 cows simultaneously. The total number of cows milked on holdings employing milking-plants was 1,324,063. Regarding agricultural tractors, electric motors, and internal-combustion engines shown above, the aggregate horse-powers returned were 79,884, 39,613, and 68,141 respectively.

SUBSECTION B.—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

NEW ZEALAND is a country very favourably situated for grazing purposes, and consequently the cropping of the soil is not carried out on a very extensive scale, the greater proportion of the area in occupation either being under permanent artificially sown pastures or still remaining in tussock or other native grasses. Certain districts in the Dominion, however, have been found to be particularly suited for the growing of wheat, oats, and other cereal crops, and the production of grain is new almost exclusively limited to those areas which are especially so suited. On the other hand, the desirability of supplementing the supply of fodder during the winter months of the year, for the large number of sheep and cattle in the Dominion, has necessitated the cultivation of considerable areas of turnips, mangolds, and green fodder crops, besides the maintenance of large acreages of grasses and clovers and of lucerne for the production of hay and ensilage. Fairly large areas are also sown down annually in the bettor-class grasses and clovers for the production of grass-seed.

In general, agricultural farming in the Dominion may be said to be new limited to the growing of those crops necessary for the augmentation of existing pastures in order to maintain a high standard of production, and to the growing of grain for local consumption. Grass-seed and peas are the only two crops that regularly have a sufficient margin for export.

Certain statements in tins subsection are subject to amendment on the passing of the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Bill at present (November, 1934) before the Legislature. This Bill gives drastic powers for the control of primary industries,

AREA UNDER CROP.

Generally speaking, there is very little movement from year to year in the total area under field crops. Green and root crops comprise a high proportion, 725,078 acres, or 35 per cent., of the 2,064,547 acres under crop in 1933–34 being sown down in these crops. Of the total area under grain and pulse crops, 58 per cent, was threshed and the balance of 42 per cent, was cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage, or fed off to stock. The condition of the crop at the time of harvesting greatly influences the proportions utilized for either purpose.

The Canterbury Land District had 69 per cent, of the total area under grain and pulse crops for threshing, and 53 per cent, of the area for chaff, hay, ensilage, &c. About 74 per cent, of the area in green and root crops was grown in the Canterbury, Otago, and Southland Districts, while grasses and clovers cut for seed were mainly confined to Canterbury and Southland. On the other hand, grasses and clovers (including lucerne) cut for hay and ensilage show the North Island in a more favourable position, the predominating districts of Auckland and Taranaki accounting for 52 per cent. of the total area. These two districts are the centre of the dairying industry in New Zealand.

Canterbury, Otago, and Southland together account for 64 per cent, of the total area under crop in the Dominion.

In the following table the area under crop according to the different classes of crop is given for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Grain and Pulse Crops.Green, Root, and other Crops.Grasses, Clovers, and Lucerne.Total area under Crop.
For Threshing.For Chaff, Hay, Ensilage, &c.Cut for Seed.Cut for Hay, Ensilage, &c.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1924–25371,206327,900736,394103,159229,6441,768,303
1925–26309,641267,236764,51679,549224,7771,645,719
1926–27398,868272,300722,54087,699288,4551,769,862
1927–28411,822218,507713,11865,681280,2411,689,369
1928–29378,571213,228735,27768,017351,1071,746,200
1929–30348,331218,900716,71666,855412,5881,763,390
1930–31390,609295,621718,28189,184443,0881,936,783
1931–32378,781321,791720,82373,582464,1601,959,137
1932–33467,249325,911700,567135,962562,3362,192,025
1933–34427,098312,709725,07893,344506,3182,064,547

PRINCIPAL CROPS.

The areas under each of the principal crops for the last five years have been as follows: —

Crop.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
Wheat238,653252,219280,602305,924294,992
Oats282,814367,551364,345424,587364,729
Barley18,63131,03427,04023,47629,607
Maize8,65212,10311,46015,15017,275
Peas9,85510,55814,70122,37030,362
Beans17114016893263
Linseed7,75712,2001,7653331,441
Hops598634466355510
Potatoes23,21428,45923,78624,60525,028
Turnips475,254493,902482,229472,995478,652
Mangolds10,51910,7069,82411,96113,745
Onions8707718741,1341,112
Tobacco1,0739321,7262,1261,803
Green fodder203,438180,308199,624184,992201,508
Grasses and clovers for seed66,85589,18473,582135,96293,344
Grasses and clovers for hay, ensilage, &c.380,898409,586431,592526,469470,412
Lucerne31,69033,50232,56835,86735,906
Other crops2,4482,9942,7853,6263,858
     Totals1,763,3901,936,7831,959,1372,192,0252,064,547

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS.

The total area under grain and pulse crops in 1933–34 was 739,807 acres, as compared with 793,160 acres in 1932–33. Of the total in 1933–34, 427,098 acres were for threshing and 312,709 acres were for chaff, hay, ensilage, &c, 58 per cent. of the total area under grain and pulse crops thus being threshed out during the year, as against 59 per cent. (467,249 acres) in 1932–33. In the table below the areas of the principal crops threshed, and the total and per-acre yields, are given for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas.*Linseed.
* Including beans prior to 1928–29.
AREAS.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1924–25166,96447,38725,1388,62114,0276,679
1925–26151,673102,48525,9698,50811,7498,143
1926–27220,083117,32629,88610,24915,4954,933
1927–28260,987188,22321,09110,29125,1285,213
1928–29255,31273,10119,5008,98617,8932,800
1929–30235,94267,72218,2297,9579,8557,757
1930–31249,01487,15223,9527,16810,55812,200
1931–32268,75668,69018,2455,96514,7011,765
1932–33302,531116,20616,3368,15322,370333
1933–34286,27178,34321,0248,25630,3621,441
TOTAL YIELDS.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1924–255,447,7585,707,174798,128426,875410,58242,700
1925–264,617,0414,115,606947,002423,700287,77547,220
1926–277,952,4424,997,5351,243,333491,468454,72238,580
1927–289,541,4443,852,687861,985482,928802,41631,265
1928–298,832,8643,065,113781,102456,296527,50423,227
1929–307,239,5563,002,288755,007377,955294,24270,377
1930–317,579,1533,376,609837,696316,845241,40287,344
1931–326,582,6982,818,152537,398258,612309,38312,757
1932–3311,054,9725,132,183561,017389,432585,4182,705
1933–349,036,0173,242,500730,963373,212698,29312,564
YIELDS PER ACRE
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Cwt.
1924–2532.6238.7231.7549.4729.276.39
1925–2630.4440.1436.4749.8024.495.80
1926–2736.1342.5841.6047.9529.357.82
1927–2836.5643.6640.8746.9331.936.00
1928–2934.6041.9340.0650.7829.488.30
1929–3030.6844.3341.4247.5029.869.07
1930–3130.4438.7434.9744.2022.867.16
1931–3224.4941.0329.4543.3521.057.23
1932–3336.5444.1634.3447.7723.178.12
1933–3431.5641.3934.7745.2023.008.72

Wheat for threshing is grown principally in Canterbury, 80 per cent. of the total grain produced in 1933–34 coming from that district. Otago, with 12 per cent., supplied the bulk of the remainder. The growing of oats for threshing is also mainly confined to these two districts with the addition of Southland, the proportion of grain produced by each being 43 per cent., 24 per cent., and 30 per cent. respectively. Two-thirds of the barley produced in the Dominion is supplied by Canterbury and Otago, Marlborough furnishing most of the remainder. Maize, on the other hand, is almost exclusively confined to the northern part of the North Island, Auckland and Gisborne supplying 88 per cent, of the total corn produced. Peas are grown to considerable extent only in Canterbury and Marlborough, while linseed is evidently not looked upon as a suitable crop outside of Canterbury, Otago, or Southland.

WHEAT.

Wheat is one of the most important crops grown in New Zealand, but the area new devoted to this purpose is not as considerable as in former times. In the “eighties” the area under wheat was between 300,000 and 400,000 acres annually, and the production of grain more than sufficient for local needs, thus allowing for quite an appreciable export. The advent of butter and cheese factories and the introduction of refrigeration, however, gave a great impetus to the dairying and pastoral industries, resulting in a large proportion of the land formerly utilized for wheat-growing being shown down in grass and other fodder crops.

It may be said that, although from twenty to thirty countries in the world generally produce more wheat than does New Zealand, only one or two European countries have a better record of production per acre. This says much for the fertility of the soil of the Dominion, for cultivation here is naturally less intensive ban it is in the closely settled Continental countries.

The area (for threshing) and the production of wheat per head of population (including Maoris) for the last ten years are new given. The population is taken at the 31st March, a date corresponding approximately to harvest-time.

Year.Per Head of Population.Year.Per Head of Population.
Area.Production.Area.Production.
 Acres.Bushels. Acres.Bushels.
1924–250.123.951929–300.164.86
1925–260.113.281930–310.165.02
1926–270.155.531931–320.184.32
1927–280.186.561932–330.207.19
1928–290.176.011933–340.195.86

CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT.

Based upon the figures in the table following, the average annual consumption of wheat is 8,300,000 bushels. Of this total, 6,300,000 bushels are converted into flour, 400,000 bushels are utilized for the next season's sowings, and 1,600,000 bushels are used as poultry-food, pig-food, or for other purposes.

 1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
* Excess of exports over imports.
Wheat
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
Wheat-production at. preceding harvest8,832,8647,239,5567,579,1536,582,69811,054,972
Excess of imports over exports−110,795*279,231188,2471,361,250−639,019*
 8,722,0697,518,7877,767,4007,943,94810,415,953
Change in carry-over+ 357,328−1,132,758− 438,026− 495,735+ 2,531,054
Estimated total consumption8,304,7418,051,5458,205,4208,439,0837,884,299
Converted to flour6,390,6426,281,6356,245,7706,140,2296,413,952
Used for sowing (estimated)357,980378,329420,903458,886442,488
Apparent farm and other consumption1,616,1191,991,5811,538,7531,840,5681,027,859
Flour.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Production136,917135,732129,602130,721133,624
Excess of imports over exports9,5899,34611,68912,83510,989
Change in carry-over−825+686−181+2,445+359
Apparent consumption147,331144,392141,472141,111144,254

WHEAT PURCHASE BOARD.

As a contrast to the abnormally poor wheat harvest of 1931–32, the result of protracted, drought, conditions experienced principally in South Canterbury and North Otago, the wheat harvest of 1932–33 was extraordinarily abundant. The yield of grain totalled 11,054,972 bushels from 302,531 acres threshed, the average yield per acre being 3654 bushels. Although yielding two million bushels less than in the previous season, the wheat harvest of 1933–34 was nevertheless above the average. The quantity of grain produced—namely, 9,030,017 bushels from 280,271 acres—has been exceeded only four times in the last thirty years.

To cope with the situation arising from a surplus beyond local requirements, a Wheat Purchase Board was set up in the 1932–33 season to regulate wheat prices and to control the purchase and disposal of wheat, including disposal of the exportable surplus. The Board was again set up to operate in respect of the 1933–34 harvest.

OATS.

In point of area oats is the most important grain crop of the Dominion. About 86 per cent, is grown in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, 5 per cent, in the remainder of the South Island, and 9 per cent, in the North Island. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chaff without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends partly on the condition of the crop and partly on market conditions. In 1929–30, 23.95 per cent, of the area harvested was threshed; in 1930–31, 28.02 per cent; in 1931–32, 18.86 per cent.; in 1932–33, 27.37 per cent.; and in 1933–34, 21.48 per cent.

The total and average yields of grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the last ten seasons were as follows:—

Season.GrainChalf, Hay, or Ensilage.
Total Yield.Average per Acre.Total Yield.Average per Acre.
 Bushels.Tons.Bushels.Tons.
1924–255,707,17438.72507,1731.64
1925–264,115,60640.14354,3731.45
1926–274,997,53542.58434,9671.70
1927–283,852,68743.66344,3221.71
1928–293,065,11341.93333,2201.71
1929–303,002,28844.33314,7341.65
1930–313,376,60938.74367,1981.64
1931–322,818,15241.03309,3011.35
1932–335,132,18344.16453,5031.75
1933–343,242,50041.39357,8621.64

POTATOES.

Potatoes are grown extensively in the Dominion. In 1933–34 57 per cent, of the total potato area was in Canterbury Land District. The figures for the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Area.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Tons.Tons.
1924–2523,092122,1845.27
1925–2623,484143,7816.09
1926–2724,616116,7714.73
1927–2821,693121,4025.59
1928–2921,304123,6075.77
1929–3023,214130,1075.60
1930–3128,459151,5255.32
1931–3223,786116,7434.91
1932–3324,605129,0795.25
1933–3425,028131,0455.24

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS.

Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, it has been found that at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order that the grassland may not become unduly exhausted, and also in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In midwinter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses a great amount of its nutritive value. During these periods, therefore, it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or ensilage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops available during each of the last ten years:—

Year.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.Green Fodder.Root Crops for feeding to Stock.Total Area of Fodder Crops.
Cereal Crops.Grasses and Clovers, including Lucerne.Wheat and Oats not harvested.Other Crops.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1924–25310,474229,64417,426240,061471,9551,269,560
1925–26246,810224,77720,412255,429484,441,231,869
1926–27257,558288,45514,742219,031477,4921,257,278
1927–28203,838280,24114,669216,702472,1011,187,551
1928–29196,545351,10716,683219,088491,8421,275,265
1929–30192,660412,58826,240203,438486,9691,321,895
1930–31228,215443,08856,735190,979506,1431,425,160
1931–32232,925464,16075,826212,664493,7891,479,364
1932–33262,970562,33650,300197,633486,8001,560,030
1933–34221,644506,31874,688217,885494,6431,515,178

In 1933–34, grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage totalled 470,412 acres, and lucerne 35,906 acres; oats was the only cereal crop utilized in any quantity for this purpose, the area in 1933–34 being 218,155 acres. Of the cereal crops fed off to stock during the past year, oats comprised 68,231 acres of the total area. Turnips are the principal root crop grown in the Dominion, the total acreage in 1933–34 being 478,652 acres (including 63,741 acres of turnips and rape mixed). Other root crops comprised 13,745 acres of mangolds, and 1,250 acres of carrots and parsnips. Pumpkins and marrows were grown for fodder to the extent of 996 acres.

The total and per-acre yields obtained from the various crops cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage are as follows for the last two seasons:—

Crop.1932–331933–34
Total Yield.Yield per Acre.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Wheat4,5332.083,3731.49
Oats453,5031.75357,8621.64
Barley1,9522.271,9312.49
Maize5,0888.003,6018.04
Grasses and clovers1,229,7422.341,059,8772.25
Lucerne106,0952.94107,1782.98

GRASS-SEED.

The total area of grasses and clovers cut for seed during the year 1933–34 was 93,344 acres, yielding 1,041,495 bushels of 20 lb., as against 2,195,897 bushels from 135,962 acres in 1932–33. Canterbury, Otago, and Southland Land Districts between them provide 85 per cent, of the area cut.

A considerable export of grass-seed has been built up during recent years, especially with the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America, the quantity exported to these countries in 1933 amounting to 77,346 cwt., valued at £147,025. The total quantity of locally-produced grass and clover seed exported to all countries amounted to 80,308 cwt., with a recorded value of £152,458.

The areas and yields of the principal grass and clover crops actually harvested for seed during each of the ten years 1924–25 to 1933–34 are given in the following table. Second or catch crops an taken account of in the yield figures, the total yield including crops obtained from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. The areas, however, do not include second crops, and average yields cannot therefore be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area shown.

AAREAS.

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Brown Top*.

* Not available prior to 1930–31.

† Of 20 lb.

 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1924–2566,76412,2584,4591,96910,4003,196..
1925–2645,1549,7456,9022,6796,5795,358..
1926–2742,0829,8209,6349,3078,5404,029..
1927–2823,54511,49310,0218,9487,8872,294..
1928–2926,34311,2559,5065,7029,7503,338..
1929–3030,05511,7299,8083,4044,7033,710..
1930–3147,94214,00110,5933,3123,3233,3395,158
1931–3230,1419,43713,0102,6963,8672,42310,758
1932–3386,92411,2939,4262,93510,6334,3608,465
1933–3445,9309,4967,8342,69911,5656,6987,936

YIELDS.

Year.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Crested Dogstail.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Brown Top*.
 Bushels.†lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
1924–251,517,5541,852,7541,198,111398,4322,016,486490,073..
1925–261,041,7161,381,6071,574,502469,5981,517,763954,082..
1926–27904,1561,858,0822,177,1251,482,2141,935,328671,828..
1927–28523,4121,992,3772,684,6012,116,4882,041,413399,298..
1928–29564,5112,048,8322,723,1241,276,7851,936,088566,395..
1929–30641,3162,009,9702,416,381828,8941,040,022604,874..
1930–31987,4662,666,2802,337,070575,664647,949574,224412,273
1931–32466,873919,9112,383,941491,348786,782284,333311,358
1932–331,796,9742,335,4972,295,763708,6091,738,218568,888188,531
1933–34758,180724,6841,403,151458,2201,838,736834,552268,877

PASTURE GRASSES.

Grass is by far the most important crop to the farmer, the soils, the climate, and other natural conditions obtaining in the Dominion being very favourable for the growth of grass. Wherever there is light and moisture English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off, and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are very few places where there is not some growth even in the coldest months of the year, enabling cattle to be kept all the year round in the open.

At the beginning of the year 1934 there were 17,336,490 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 599,602 acres cut for seed, hay, or ensilage during the preceding season), and in addition 14,014,177 acres of occupied land still remained in tussock or other native grasses, making a total of 31,350,607 acres of grassland in occupation. The following table shows the respective areas occupied by artificially sown grasses and tussock and self-sown native grasses during the last ten years.

Year.Artificially Sown pasture Grasses.Tussock and other Native Grasses.Total Area under Grass.
Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage.Not Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1924–25332,80316,450,62514,470,99031,254,418
1925–26304,32616,615,96014,298,61831,218,904
1926–27376,15416,680,34814,197,85331,254,355
1927–28345,92216,871,53014,091,71731,309,169
1928–29419,12416,855,51214,131,63031,406,266
1929–30479,44316,872,94814,182,14231,534,533
1930–31532,27216,722,21314,124,03031,37S,515
1931–32537,74216,494,91714,294,46331,327,122
1932–33698,29816,422,16314,137,37531,257,836
1933–34599,66216,736,82814,014,17731,350,667

During the year 1933–34, 76,859 acres of land which had not previously been cultivated was sown down in new pasture, as against 83,318 acres in 1932–33.

PHORMIUM.

Large areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium, or New Zealand flax, the fibre of which is largely used for rope-making, &c. Of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion, 72,853 acres were returned as in phormium in 1933–34. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Area. Acres.
1924–2554,814
1925–2657,780
1926–2769,420
1927–2866,492
1928–2962,704
1929–3068,260
1930–3171,219
1931–3277,437
1932–3364,206
1933–3472,853

Three-fifths of the area in phormium in 1933–34 was in the North island (vide p. 301).

Flax-milling of recent years has recorded a very heavy decline. At the census of factory production for the year 1933–34 there were only 23 flax-mills in operation employing 258 hands, the total value of the output being £74,291. Flax used by the mills totalled 41,196 tons, resulting in 4,770 tons of dressed fibre and 652 tons of tow. The total area of flax cut by the above mills was 1,720 acres, and 2,736 acres attached to the mills were not cut or not ready for cutting during the year.

During the year 1934 a large wool-pack and sacking factory commenced operations, at Foxton, thus providing a fresh avenue for fibre consumption.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.

In 1933–34 there were 6,634 acres in market gardens. Nurseries and seed-gardens occupied 888 acres, while 79,160 acres were in private gardens, grounds, &c. The area in plantations (not virgin bush; was 427,471 acres, made up of 412,049 acres of conifers and 14,822 acres of eucalyptus and other broad-leaved trees. The totals for plantations arc, however, considerably understated, due to the omission of some of the State plantations (vide Section XVII) and certain other classes of plantations.

The figures for the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Market Gardens.Nurseries, &c.Private Gardens, &x.Plantations.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1924–254,51648263,20671,218
1925–264,59950564,87288,050
1926–275,10246464,783160,188
1927–285,65548968,566232,083
1928–295,85558273,263293,911
1929–305,87165774,434289,020
1930–316,6841,00470,208341,591
1931–327,61498476,247399,307
1932–336,8521,00377,886409,860
1933–346,63488879,160427,471

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.

A great impetus to the planting of fruit-trees was given by the discovery some years age that tracts of land, principally in the Nelson Land District, which formerly were looked on as being practically useless, were eminently suited for growing fruit, particularly apples. For a time, considerable areas of this and other land were annually added to the Dominion's orchards, but in more recent years planting has diminished to comparatively small proportions.

The following table shows the area outside the borough boundaries which has been returned as under fruit-trees at each of the last ten annual enumerations:—

 Acres.
1924–2527,525
1925–2627,068
1926–2725,377
1927–2824,987
1928–2924,538
1929–3024,861
1930–3128,134
1931–3225,755
1932–3325,317
1933–3425,069

Unfortunately, the area shown cannot be relied upon as being altogether accurate; and, though the position is improving in this respect, it would seem that the area (which as stated above is not inclusive of orchards within borough boundaries) is still to a certain extent overstated.

A good market exists locally for choice, clean fruit, but growers of apples and pears are mainly concerned with the export market, which oilers more attractive prices for their produce. Peaches, apricots, plums, quinces, and citrus fruits all find a ready sale in the New Zealand markets. The export trade in apples and pears has been encouraged by the State by the provision of guarantees in recent years. In the season 1933–34 the State guaranteed a gross market price of 10s. 6d. per case to growers of “Extra Fancy” and “Fancy” grades of specified varieties and packing, and 7s. per case for “Good” grade of these varieties and all grades of other varieties accepted for export by the Department of Agriculture. Stunner pippins received for grading after 30th April were eligible for the 7s. guarantee rate only. Exchange is brought into account when assessing gross market price. The guarantee does not extend to exports to South America. Claims on the guarantee in the 1933–34 season amounted to £17,500, but the imposition of a levy of 1½d. per case in pursuance of guarantee conditions yielded £8,370 and reduced the Government liability to £9,190. All fruit intended for export is subjected to a rigid inspection by Government officials. The success of the export trade is to a very large extent due to the goodwill gained through this inspection which, in addition to protecting the guarantee interests, assures overseas buyers of uniform standard of high-quality fruit. In 1933 the value of apples exported aggregated £655,746, of which exports to the United Kingdom represented £559,931. Pears exported aggregated £65,020 in value, the United Kingdom likewise receiving the bulk of the fruit. The rapid progress of the export trade can be gauged by comparing the foregoing figures with those for 1927, in which year exports of apples and pears amounted to £264,446 and £8,456 respectively.

For the purpose of the proper control of the fruit industry the Fruit Control Act was passed in the session of 1924. Part I of the Act provides for a Dominion Fruit-export Control Board, to have power of control of all fruit intended for export.

Polls taken in December, 1924, resulted in the provisions of Part I being carried by a majority of 151 votes, Otago Provincial District being, however, excluded from the operation of the control on account of a petition to that effect having been signed by 70 per cent, of the producers in that district.

The Department of Agriculture assists orchardists by supplying information on fruitgrowing generally, and as to the most up-to-date methods to adopt for the control of diseases and insect pests, pruning, &c. Practical demonstrations of pruning, spraying, and the grading and packing of fruit are given regularly by the Orchard Instructors attached to the Department. A comprehensive scheme of experiments is being conducted by the Department, the operations covering a wide field. These embrace the testing of spraying specifics and other materials for the better and more economic control of diseases and pests, orchard manurial experiments, &c.

The total acreage in vineyards outside of borough boundaries is 379 acres. The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay. The greater portion of the crop is used for wine-making, but considerable quantities of outdoor-grown grapes are sold for table use.

Passion-fruit is grown to the extent of 219 acres, mainly in the North Auckland Land District where climatic conditions are favourable to production.

Since 1913 the State has had authority to borrow money for the purpose of making advances for the establishment of cold stores for fruit and of fruit-canning works, and otherwise for the assistance of the fruitgrowing industry. (Vide Section XXIID.)

The Orchard-tax Act, 1927 (amended in 1933) continuing legislation dating from 1916, provides for the levying in each year of a tax of 1s. per acre on commercial orchards, with a minimum tax of 5s., the proceeds to be paid over to the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation and to be expended in aid of the fruitgrowing industry, and for additional tax in the case of apple, pear, and quince orchards in commercial fruitgrowing districts for the purpose of combating fireblight. No tax is payable in respect of any orchard with fewer than 120 fruit-trees.

Commercial orchards registered as at March, 1934, numbered 6,406, 2,873 being taxable and 3,033 non-taxable. The total orchard-tax payable in respect of the year 1933–34 was £1,400.

TOBACCO.

Although the cultivation of tobacco leaf was initiated only a few years ago, the industry has made marked progress. Certain districts appear to be well suited to the growth of good quality leaf, and growers are becoming increasingly familiar with the methods and plant required for the production of cured leaf acceptable to manufacturers. Much of the production is in accordance with contracts arranged between local manufacturers and growers.

Figures collected from occupiers throughout the Dominion of holdings of 1 acre or more situated outside boroughs show the following areas planted in tobacco in the years specified:—

 Acres.
1928–291,000
1929–301,073
1930–31932
1931–321,726
1932–332,126
1933–341,803

Practically the whole of the tobacco crop is produced in Waimea County.

TOP-DRESSING.

Top-dressing operations during the twelve months ended 31st January, 1934, covered a total area of 2,249,170 acres, as shown in the following table, a decrease of 188,944 acres as compared with the area returned as top-dressed during the preceding twelve months:—

Nature of Top-dressing.North Island.South Island.Dominion.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.
Artificial fertilizers only1,333,026136,5111,469,537
Lime only71,12645,108116,234
Both artificial fertilizers and lime562,776100,623663,399
     Totals1,966,928282,2422,249,170

SUBSECTION C.—PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK.

THE numbers of live-stock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations are as shown in the following table. With the exception of the figures for sheep as disclosed by the special annual collection of sheep returns as at the 30th April, the figures relate to the 31st January.

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.

* Not available.

Horses297,195295,743280,994276,897273,906
Dairy cows1,441,4101,601,6331,702,0701,845,9721,932,511
Cattle (including dairy cows)3,770,2234,080,5254,072,3834,192,0234,301,128
Sheep shorn during season26,999,41027,574,28926,205,01925,069,40925,017,656
Lambs shorn during season**2,542,4702,629,8373,508,008
Lambs tailed during season14,887,59914,528,30914,974,99115,015,62815,278,797
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April30,841,28729,792,51628,691,78827,755,96628,649,038
Pigs487,793476,194513,416591,582660,393

The live-stock census formerly covered asses, mules, and goats also but these classes have been dropped since 1930. Numbers in 1930 wore: Asses and mules, 218; Angora goats, 9,514; other goats, 29,613.

SHEEP.

The Dominion is eminently suited for sheep-breeding, practically every description of sheep finding a favourable local habitat. In the hilly and down country of the South Island the Merino has been bred for very many years, and was the original sheep depastured. In fact, the Merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock which has made Canterbury mutton famous on British meat-markets. In the early days of the Canterbury meat trade the English Leicester of the original type was the favourite ram for putting to the Merino owe. Of later years the Lincoln has been largely employed to cross with the Merino, and black-faced rams have been further employed to put to the crossbred ewes. Systematic inbreeding of Merino-longwool half-bred sheep produced the new world-known Corriedale breed. In the North Island the Romney sheep, which suits the rather moist climate of this portion of the Dominion, has become the most popular sheep; it is also increasing in numbers in the South Island. The Lincoln and the Border Leicester are also favoured in both Islands, while the Southdown is taking the lead for fat-lamb production throughout the Dominion.

The number of sheep at the 30th April reached its maximum (30,841,287) in 1930. The number then declined by about one million per annum for the next three years. The 1934 figure, however, shows that the decline has been arrested, the present total of 28,649,038 being, in fact, an increase of 893,000 over the 1933 total.

In the following table the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. In dealing with land districts, however, they are included with Wellington.

Year.North Island.South Island.Total.
192513,719,54110,828,41424,547,955
192613,830,25011,074,74324,904,993
192713,957,82011,691,19625,649,016
192814,482,10512,651,70527,133,810
192915,588,44413,462,93829,051,382
193016,535,91314,305,37430,841,287
193115,886,87613,905,64029,792,516
193214,946,98713,744,80128,691,788
193314,954,02912,801,93727,755,966
193415,264,58813,384,45028,649,038

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding-ewes, dry ewes, and lambs in the Dominion for the last five years:—

Year.Rams.Wethers.Breeding-ewes.Dry Ewes.Lambs.Totals.
Stud Sheep (entered in Flock-book).
193014,248..244,4807,884174,862441,474
193115,001..238,2818,081169,879431,242
193217,169..232,0067,855164,750421,780
193313,353..226,3306,625160,265406,573
193412,034..228,7697,083162,631410,517
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but not entered in Flock-book.
1930434,3691,051,2863,987,758261,9842,004,4297,739,826
1931447,0081,250,6004,538,476370,7341,907,1458,513,963
1932451,8821,172,9734,783,296383,0932,012,4668,803,710
1933450,2661,092,5334,780,723334,0391,941,1318,598,692
1934455,1771,019,5734,159,764260,3611,782,2877,677,162
Crossbred and other Sheep not otherwise enumerated.
1930..2,316,63013,331,937807,8046,203,61622,659,987
1931..2,178,94112,831,972831,8995,004,49920,847,311
1932..1,557,85312,047,758877,2304,983,45719,466,298
1933..1,322,65012,202,644657,2224,568,l8518,750,701
1934..1,418,04513,182,893665,7125,294,70920,561,359
Totals.
1930448,6173,367,91617,564,1751,077,6728,382,90730,841,287
1931462,0093,429,54117,608,7291,210,7147,081,52329,792,516
1932469,0512,730,82617,063,0601,268,1787,160,67328,691,788
1933463,6192,415,18317,209,697997,8866,669,58127,755,960
1934467,2112,437,61817,571,426933,1567,239,62728,649,038

The average size of the flocks was 1,027 in 1930, 968 in 1931, 942 in 1932, 923 in 1933, and 961 in 1934. A classification according to size shows the following position:—

Size of Flocks.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
1- 2007,1008,0608,6248,9038,131
201–5007,1847,3786,9377,1066,964
501–1,0006,7646,6926,6526,2526,475
1,001–2,5006,3186,1575,8375,4745,848
2,501–5,0001,8601,7591,6691,6071,670
5,001–10,000615571563554544
10,001–20,000151146143141142
20,001 and over3026242626
Total flocks30,02230,78930,44930,06329,800

The numbers of the different classes composing the flocks in April, 1934, were as follows:—

Breed of Sheep.Stud Sheep entered in Flock-book.Sheep of a Distinctive Breed, not entered In Flock-book.Total.
Merino22,4081,029,5631,051,971
Lincoln3,39624,01827,414
Romney181,6412,917,4023,099,043
Border Leicester19,55936,45756,016
English Leicester18,24844,10462,352
Shropshire2,21812,55014,768
Southdown109,124181,035290,159
Corriedale46,2211,230,0351,276,256
Ryeland4,1243,6467,770
Half-bred3,5362,196,0062,199,542
Other breeds422,3462,388
     Totals410,5177,677,1628,087,679
Flock sheep—   
Crossbreds and others not otherwise enumerated.. 20,561,359
Grand total.. 28,649,038

SHEEP FLOCKS OF THE WORLD.

The latest figures obtainable showing the number of sheep in the principal sheep countries for which information is available are given hereunder:—

Country.Number of Sheep.
* Including goats
Australia112,914,645
United States51,374,000
Russia (U.S.S.R.)50,600,000
South African Union49,777,106
India (whole)44,628,474
Argentina44,413,221
New Zealand28,649,038
Uruguay20,558,124
Spain20,046,532
China*19,418,241
England and Wales18,085,300
Rumania12,293,566
Turkey11,768,109
Peru11,209,000
Brazil10,701,672
Italy10,268,119
France9,730,000
Bulgaria8,739,803
Yugoslavia8,600,418
French West Africa8,568,866
Persia8,544,200
Scotland7,846,600
French Morocco7,556,318
Greece7,427,129
Chile6,263,482
Algeria5,262,000
Bolivia5,232,000
Iraq4,307,493
Portugal3,721,000
Mexico3,673,887
Irish Free State3,416,000
Canada3,386,000
Germany3,381,000
Kenya3,227,772
Tunis2,931,041
Manchuria2,640,560
Poland2,556,000
British Somaliland2,500,000
Tanganyika2,281,405
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan2,250,000
Nigeria2,127,038
Syria and Lebanon2,080,325

PRODUCTION OF WOOL.

Although appearing seventh in order in the preceding table of flocks, in point of actual production of wool New Zealand is the fifth largest in the world, according to figures collected by the Empire Marketing Board. With the exception of some 6,000,000 or 7,000,000 lb., the whole of the woo) produced in New Zealand is exported.

From figures of exports, consumption by local mills, and stocks at the end of the season it is possible to estimate the total annual production of wool with a fair degree of accuracy. In the following computation scoured, washed, and slipe -wood has been converted to a greasy basis on the assumption of an average loss of 33⅓ per cent, in weight, while wool on skins has been taken at an average of 4 lb. per skin.

Year ended 30th June.
1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Million lb.
Exports of wool250.3252.2207.2244.3248.1310.0308.9
Exports of wool on skins5.54.74.86.46.811.114.4
Acquired by New Zealand mills6.96.66.16.27.06.66.0
 262.7263.5218.1256.9261.9327.7329.3
Variation in stocks- 0.5+ 8.5+ 54.8+ 14.2+ 20.9- 39.3- 28.8
Estimated production262.2272.0272.9271.1282.8288.4300.5

A provisional estimate of 1934–35 production is 292,000,000 lb. (greasy basis).

STOCKS OF WOOL.

Statistics relating to stocks of wool held in the Dominion on 30th June are compiled from returns obtained from woolbrokers, woollen-mills, freezing-works, wool-scouring works, shipping companies, Harbour Board stores, farmers, and the New Zealand Railways Department. A little wool held by farmers is probably omitted, but the statistics are complete enough for practical purposes.

Comparative figures since the first complete official collection in 1927 are—

At 30th June.Greasy.Scoured and Washed.Sliped.Crutchings, &c.Wool on Skins.Unspecified Wool.Total, converted to Greasy Basis.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
19276,362,0222,437,4713,951,2582,767,942946,700349,17520,000,000
19285,313,7371,584,0894,675,3683,318,045550,494920,44019,500,000
19298,270,5432,510,0356,693,6594,183,987732,515989,10228,000,000
193052,396,4294,278,92510,411,7486,289,298690,5821,323,65482,800,000
193159,811,2596,616,46810,915,8917,067,4971,620,5882,115,01497,000,000
193274,560,0056,168,17415,133,3617,151,6421,790,3242,319,800117,900,000
193355,580,6023,985,5225,352,3656,453,8412,090,007538,60078,000,000
193427,444,1834,157,0495,932,9293,869,9571,510,3561,797,48049,800,000

Of the total stocks at 30th June, 1934, woolbrokers held 19,500,000 lb. and farmers 5,900,000 lb; both these figures are on a greasy basis. The balance was divided between woollen-mills, freezing-works, wool-scouring works, shipping companies, and railway and Harbour Board stores. The classification is made on the basis of possession and not of beneficial ownership.

Details of wool at 30th June, 1934 (without conversion to a greasy basis) are as follows:—

Greasy.Scoured.Washed.Sliped.Crutchings &c.Wool on Skins.Unspecified.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
Merino1,277,85298,783..12,04007,50017,052..
Half-bred2,909,973348,911146,016041,714312,888154,858..
Corriedale269,5798,272..3,51359,60713,084..
Other (including crossbred)—       
Sheep21,019,2662,191,731178,4551,618,9373,216,780581,448..
Lambs1,028,273493,776597,6253,193,705213,182473,756..
Unspecified939,24092,880..462,960..266,5581,797,480
     Totals27,444,1833,234,353922,6965,932,9293,809,9571,510,3561,797,480

CATTLE.

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in the Dominion by herds bred on sound lines, though the development of the beef breeds in later years has received a check partly owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations and partly through the difficulties of competing with other countries in the British market. There are still very many fine Shorthorn herds of the beef type, while Hereford and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are also largely bred. There are herd-books for. each of these breeds.

The breeding of dairy cattle has made great progress in recent years. Herd-book societies are established for the Jersey, Friesian, Ayrshire, Milking Shorthorn, and Red Poll breeds. The various societies have heartily co-operated in a scheme for establishing registers of merit in connection with the certificate-of-record testing of purebred dairy cuttle, thus giving a great fillip to the breeding of purebred dairy stock. The dairy-farmer is encouraged to use purebred bulls and thereby to assist materially in raising the standard of the dairy stock of the country. He is new familiar with the value of herd-testing work, and is utilizing this knowledge to improve the quality of his herd.

The total number of cattle in the Dominion at the enumeration of 1934 was 4,301,1:28, as against 4,192,023 in 19,33. The figures for the two years, according to the classification in use, are as follows:—

Bulls two years old and over, for breeding purposes—1933.1934.
For beef purposes15,41515,042
For dairy purposes60,26760,478
Cows and heifers two years and over, for dairying—  
In milk1,723,9131,816,402
Dry122,059116,109
Cows and heifers two years old and over, other than for dairying521,640534,887
Heifers one and under two years old Intended for dairying359,697365,126
Heifers one and under two years old Other140,386145,971
Steers two years old and over400,090364,909
Steers and bulls one and under two years old158,175153,328
Calves under one year old—  
Heifers Intended for dairying380,244379,030
Heifers Other137,379159,832
Bulls and steers172,758190,014
     Totals4,192,0234,301,128

By far the greater proportion of the total cattle in the Dominion is found in the North Island, the figures being 3,604,088 in the North Island and 697,040 in the South Island. The proportion of dairy cows in the North Island works out at 45 per cent, with a similar proportion in the South Island.

More than half of the total cattle in the Land Districts of North Auckland. Auckland, and Taranaki respectively are cows and heifers over two years old used or intended for dairying purposes. Auckland Land District has the greatest number, of dairy cows, followed by North Auckland, Wellington, and Taranaki. The order of the principal land districts for cattle other than dairy cows is: Wellington, Auckland, Gisborne, and North Auckland.

In point of density Taranaki takes first position with 164 dairy cows to every 1,000 acres, Auckland coming next with 141, and North Auckland third with 121.

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

In connection with the enumeration of live-stock, additional information as to breeds of cattle, horses, and pigs was collected thrice in each decade until 1928, since when the inquiry has been discontinued as an economy measure. A summary of the results of the 1928 enumeration as regards cattle (exclusive of a few within borough boundaries) is given in the table following.

Breed.Total Cattle.
Purebred— 
Jersey39,379
Guernsey70
Friesian10,670
Ayrshire4,905
Red Poll831
Shorthorn (including Milking Shorthorn)6,829
Hereford4,210
Polled Angus4,269
Devon116
Crossbred with predominating strain of— 
Jersey and other Channel Island breeds1,236,289
Friesian231,022
Ayrshire48,192
Milking Shorthorn440,585
Red Poll6,909
Other dairy breeds (including unspecified)1,286
Shorthorn417,493
Hereford426,241
Polled Angus351,118
Devon2,121
Other beef breeds (including unspecified)6,164
Total, purebred71,279
Total, crossbred3,107,420
Dominion totals3,238,699

THE WORLD'S CATTLE.

The latest available information showing the number of cattle in the main cattle countries of the world is as follows:—

Country.Number of Cattle.

* Cows and buffaloes.

India (whole)159,763,471
United States67,352,000
Brazil42,539,203
Russia (U.S.S.R.)38,600,000
Argentina32,211,835
China*22,240,555
Germany19,714,000
France15,830,000
Australia12,783,137
South African Union10,573,869
Mexico10,082,958
Poland8,982,000
Canada8,876,000
Colombia8,000,000
Uruguay7,372,381
Italy7,088,752
England and Wales6,621,800
Madagascar6,574,584
Tanganyika5,336,000
Turkey5,315,329
Kenya5,192,824
Siam4,972,178
Dutch East Indies4,081,261
Czechoslovakia4,382,871
New Zealand4,301,128
Rumania4,188,590
Irish Free State4,174,000
Cuba4,032,907
Paraguay4,000,000
French West Africa3,920,519
Yugoslavia3,876,000
Spain3,053,667
Denmark3,237,436
Sweden3,120,500
Netherlands2,877,230
Southern Rhodesia2,747,485
Nigeria2,560,118
Chile2,387,910
Austria2,312,531
Venezuela2,278,000
Uganda Protectorate2,151,608
Bolivia2,064,300

DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The Dairy Industry Act, 1908 (a consolidation of previous legislation), with its amendments may in general terms be described as an Act to regulate the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture under proper sanitary conditions of dairy-produce—i.e., milk, cream, butter, or cheese, and any other product of milk or cream—intended for sale for human consumption or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy-produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises or the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection therewith may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the Inspector, and until so remedied their use for the purposes of dairy-produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorized to condemn any dairy-produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited.

Milk or cream purchased for the manufacture of dairy-produce and paid for according to the percentage of butterfat contained therein must have this percentage determined by the Babcock or Gerber test. Owners of dairy factories are required by regulations under the Act to pay different prices for different grades of milk or cream supplied for the manufacture of dairy-produce. Owners are also required to furnish to suppliers a certified annual statement of overrun, and provision is made for an independent investigation by the Audit Department where a supplier is dissatisfied with the statement received.

Dairy-produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking. The export of butter containing more than 16 per cent. of water or less than 80 per cent, of butterfat is prohibited. The export of cheese of which the water-free substance consists of less than 50 per cent, of fats wholly derived from milk is also illegal.

Wide powers are conferred to make regulations prescribing matters of detail with regard to the production, manufacture, sale, and export of dairy-produce. In particular, regulations may be made for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture of dairy-produce, the registration of brands to be used on dairy-produce, and for the inspection, grading, packing, marking, stamping, and labelling of dairy-produce. Regulations relating to the manufacture and export of dairy-produce are new contained in the Dairy-produce General Regulations, 1933, gazetted on the 18th May, 1933, and consolidating all previous regulations on. the subject.

Since 1926 provision has been made for a national brand comprising a design of a fern-leaf bearing the words “New Zealand” to be placed on packages of butter or cheese exported and grading 90 points or over, but since the enactment of the consolidating regulations in May, 1933, the grading points in respect of cheese have been raised to 91 points or over.

The Act provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies. Companies so registered are authorized to accept or to compel the surrender of shares issued in certain cases, subject to the rights of shareholders being safeguarded. A dairy company must not include in its registered name the word “co-operative" unless it is entitled to be registered as a co-operative dairy company under the Act.

Under the extension of powers provided by the Dairy Industry Amendment Act, 1933, an important amendment to existing regulations was gazetted on the 22nd February, 1934. The new regulations made it illegal for a supplier of milk or cream to a factory to transfer (without the antecedent consent in writing of the owner or manager of the factory) his supply to another factory during the same season. New regulations were gazetted at the same date, effective from the 1st April, 1934, in respect of managers of dairy factories, by which no uncertificated person may act as manager after the expiration of three months from the 1st April, 1934. The qualifications necessary for applicants for registration are prescribed, and a Registration Board constituted with a Registrar as executive officer. Provision is made for appeals against the decision of the Board.

The following table shows the number of factories registered under the Dairy Industry Act as at 31st March, 1934, together with the amount of butter and cheese forwarded for export during the preceding twelve months, and the number of suppliers to such factories: —

District.Number of Factories.Forwarded for Export, 1933–34.Number of Suppliers.
Butter.Cheese.Dual Plant.Butter.Cheese.Butter.Cheese and Dual Plant.
    Tons.Tons.  
Auckland6938497,02621,84026,2381,644
Hawke's Bay121716,9674,3794,873756
Taranaki57703114,45844,4833,2024,154
Wellington2850615,49413,8256,9361,805
Nelson7211,9302751,72989
Marlborough641771861880170
Westland101..867207328
Canterbury1115..2,2221,8777,496539
Otago and Southland107712,20816,2857,0493,537
Totals, 1933–3421027445141,943103,84559,13512,702
Totals, 1932–3321327546122,26396,24256,81912,803

The butter-factories shown in the above table include both creameries and whey-butter factories. In previous issues of the Year-Book creameries only were shown, although the figures showing the quantities of butter forwarded for export have always included both creamery and whey butter.

From a survey in 1930–31, covering some 1,654 farms, the average per-acre production of butterfat was ascertained as 80 lb.

The estimated* yield per cow measured in terms of butterfat-production has been—

 lb.
1904–5127.83
1905–6124.74
1906–7124.79
1907–8127.66
1908–9139.25
1909–10148.45
1910–11139.46
1911–12140.10
1912–13150.78
1913–14156.52
1914–15154.07
1915–16160.52
1916–17163.96
1917–18152.23
1918–19150.64
1919–20152.04
1920–21154.25
1921–22174.97
1922–23180.62
1923–24174.10
1924–25182.09
1925–26179.40
1926–27198.50
1927–28195.38
1928–29210.84
1929–30218.05
1930–31201.05
1931–32199.65
1932–33215.10
1933–34220.80

Statistics are compiled monthly showing by district of production the quantities of butter and cheese loaded out from grading-store for export. The districts adopted are the land districts, which in some cases have been further subdivided. A list of the counties included in the various production districts was given in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for March, 1927. The butter or cheese is in every case assumed to be the product of the district in which the factory at which it was manufactured is situated. Exports for the various production districts for the twelve months ended 31st July, 1934, are given in the table following, 40 boxes of butter or 14 crates of cheese being equivalent to 1 ton.

* Department of Agriculture.

It should be noted that the figures refer to butter and cheese exported, and do not include quantities graded and subsequently used for local consumption.

District.Butter.Cheese.
Land District of North Auckland—Boxes.Crates.
Northern portion942,574..
Southern portion507,75016,992
Land District of Auckland—  
Western portion1,730,861244,661
Eastern portion524,53331,010
Land District of Gisborne—  
Opotiki County78,3611,131
Remainder of land district137,1541,157
Land District of Hawke's Bay144,42758,408
Land District of Taranaki485,778592,095
Land District of Wellington—  
North-western portion232,56211,447
South-western portion406,11865,293
Eastern portion103,886123,755
Land District of Nelson79,1292,964
Land District of Marlborough29,73310,688
Land District of Westland23,965284
Land District of Canterbury—  
Northern portion56,40314,869
Southern portion17,82811,671
Land District of Otago50,54434,960
Land District of Southland24,911186,814
Totals, Dominion5,576,5231,408,199

Returns of factory production showed that during the 1932–33 factory year 2,926,449 cwt. of butter was produced by butter-factories in the Dominion. In addition to this, 47,792 cwt. of whey butter was manufactured. For the twelve months ended 31st January, 1930 (since when the collection of data has been discontinued), 52,158 cwt. of butter was produced on holdings of 1 acre and over.

Returns from cheese-factories give the quantity manufactured during 1932–33 as 2,071,181 cwt.

The total export of butter and cheese in the last ten years, and the total quantity of each commodity sent to the United Kingdom, are tabulated below. The butter export figures for 1933 constitute a record, as do also the figures for cheese.

Calendar Year.Total Export of Butter.Butter exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
19241,269,4551,174,8941,594,4861,585,635
19251,245,3241,186,9651,376,7541,371,986
19261,168,0401,062,2781,461,5481,450,637
19271,455,5391,188,6641,492,7921,478,870
19281,449,5701,158,2341,567,2721,551,523
19291,653,8071,276,8411,779,0931,770,150
19301,884,2371,553,7251,812,981l,809,348
19311,988,5661,962,3201,636,3471,635,233
19322,185,5452,156,1271,790,4311,788,989
19332,635,2472,597,0081,982,9421,980,872

On a value basis, butter exports greatly exceed those of cheese, the figures for 1933 being £11,648,699 for butter and £4,766,351 for cheese.

DAIRY-PRODUCE EXPORT CONTROL.

It is to be noted that, under the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Bill at present (November, 1934) before the Legislature, drastic extensions and changes in the control of the dairy industry are contemplated. The Bill is consequent, upon the report of the Dairy Industry Commission set up in April, 1934.

Under the Dairy-produce Export Control Act, 1923, there has been established a Board consisting of two Government nominees, nine representatives of suppliers to dairy factories, and one person representing exporters and manufacturers of dairy-produce. Broadly defined, the duties of the Board are to control the export of butter and cheese in the interests of the producers, and to aid in the marketing of dairy-produce outside of New Zealand. The London agency, under a manager in charge, is required to keep the Board informed as to current prices and other matters relating to the disposal of the New Zealand dairy-produce in England. The funds of the Board are derived from levies on butter and cheese exported, the present levies being 3/64 d. per lb. on butter and, 3/128 d. on cheese. The gross amount collected through the Customs Department in respect of these levies during the year ended 31st July, 1934, was £81,037.

The Board inspects the conditions of loading and discharging of dairy-produce; regulates quantities to be shipped each month; arranges contracts in regard to freight, marine insurance, cold storage and landing conditions; and conducts a continuous advertising campaign in England. The results have been shown in a steady reduction in freight and insurance rates. The present freight rate is 4s. per box for butter and ⅞d. per pound for cheese, in both cases being less 21 per cent., plus 13⅕ per cent, for exchange surcharge. The exchange surcharge was reduced from 13⅔ per cent, from the 1st August, 1934, consequent upon the slight improvement in exchange rates.

Freight rates—Butter.Cheese.

* Less 21 per cent., plus 13⅕ per cent, exchange surcharge.

1923–244s. 6d. per box1d. per pound.
From 1st Aug., 19344s. per box*⅞. per pound.*

Marine insurance rates are 6s. 4d. per cent, for butter and 7s. per cent, for cheese.

The following table of monthly arrivals in Great Britain will give an indication of the trend during recent years, the aim being to keep New Zealand butter and cheese on the British market all the year round:—

Month.1927–28.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Butter (Boxes).
August124,232102,02295,082232,895193,849271,034357,126
September88,47064,60274,385147,357212,458270,392315,250
October74,170137,35658,014133,129160,593154,101314,609
November222,673225,188209,103299,486253,480425,791489,757
December243,435191,777274,928345,128600,660612,010568,348
January384,584379,962343,935477,783413,316553,599617,719
February391,491287,703292,603340,868426,053386,513575,906
March361,079483,140267,425382,839404,309451,250584,206
April147,059220,260429,405412,303360,939460,201462,952
May179,729246,447255,699313,285397,399504,963591,420
June150,334132,144131,005212,270232,791356,137366,626
July120,880127,336157,324304,493233,382331,731357,533
     Totals2,488,1362,597,9372,588,9083,601,8363,889,8354,783,7285,601,452
Cheese (Crates).
August50,49274,17376,526102,54437,39064,29294,739
September59,19614,86939,97770,19244,26773,22479,181
October..7,23021,70616,67447,65233,76854,597
November61,28266,44846,29464,90830,29653,30663,388
December69,07181,99899,184133,283135,8O8138,064112,403
January123,850159,315159,562178,977136,516164,893160,480
February153,174176,931126,406105,693148,800141,205156,086
March162,183148,258134,635156,868130,813156,242154,889
April78,487108,941147,286174,355107,280150,699139,372
May139,010124,243113,679136,780156,859155,024166,291
June103,55695,67588,97864,31595,316121,395112,081
July52,18188,70690,42087,80983,699110,478117,796
     Totals1,058,4821,146,7871,144,6531,292,3951,154,7861,362,5901,411,353

Over the seven years ending July, 1933, the Board spent the sum of £120,000 on advertising, and in furtherance of the campaign expended £41,438 on advertising during the year 1933–34. Results have been shown in a greatly increased demand for New Zealand dairy-produce, more especially in the North of England. This part of England is the main market for Danish butter.

Generally, the Board works in close co-operation with the Dairy Division of the Department of Agriculture in assisting to maintain and improve the quality of dairy-produce.

The Board has power to exercise either limited or absolute control over the export of dairy-produce. Absolute control was instituted from midnight on 31st July, 1926, but limited control was reverted to as from midnight on 30th September, 1927.

WORLD PRODUCTION OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The following table shows the production of butter and cheese in the principal dairying countries:—

Country.Year.Butter.Cheese.
Quantity.Place on List.Quantity.Place on List.
   1,0001b. 1,0001b. 
ArgentinaT.193181,6021333,11212
AustraliaT.1932390,654331,42213
CanadaT.1932320,9396121,5515
ChileF.19307,727195,51817
CzechoslovakiaF.193120,043173,24518
DenmarkT.1932414,400257,5689
GermanyF.1932177,807877,0837
FinlandF.193161,568147,49116
FranceT.1931385,8054418,8742
United KingdomF.1930113,4561251,72410
Irish Free StateT.1932170,800918219
NetherlandsT.1931186,9507292,7713
New ZealandT.1932–33338,9575231,9724
NorwayF.193113,2721836,61411
Russian Soviet UnionF.1931132,2721028,34714
SwedenF.1931118,8871162,2428
SwitzerlandF.193250,48515109,5696
Union of South AfricaT.193029,487167,66315
United StatesT.19322,245,0821484,1031

NOTE.—The letter “T” denotes total production, while the letter “F” denotes production of creameries and factories only.

The following table, taken mainly from the International Review of Agriculture, shows the quantities of butter and cheese exported from the principal countries engaged in the export trade during the last six calendar years. The New Zealand figures relate to the twelve months ended 30th June following the year shown.

Country.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Butter.
 1,0001b.1,0001b.1,0001b.1,0001b.1,0001b.1,0001b.
Denmark325,714350,620372,582378,429347,886333,087
New Zealand175,548203,593202,522220,493272,186316,500
Australia112,355102,917126,325208,924229,105211,532
Russia71,62657,84626,01568,02468,19882,023
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania59,24068,87397,96492,34890,51176,113
Netherlands103,488104,32592,37472,66044,92662,554
Irish Free State62,65662,83658,86442,30736,93245,232
Sweden38,65854,98358,86443,16229,87537,759
Argentina44,18336,81148,94351,16755,92530,660
Finland29,48936,61037,69938,36732,02026,211
Poland24,19433,24826,67627,4702,7073,547
Cheese.
 1,000 lb.1,000 1b.1,000 lb.1,0001b.1,0001b.1,0001b.
New Zealand186,032187,701200,466181,821214,945223,131
Netherlands203,002211,237206,794190,460170,061140,900
Canada114,15192,94567,02184,79086,94074,168
Italy80,46772,41380,91089,03266,37052,343
Switzerland62,69569,73565,91854,30743,70045,321
Denmark13,41714,51312,5669,38114,53522,218
Czechoslovakia7,9217,0508,27410,9816,1242,665

CONSUMPTION AND EXPORT OF MEAT.

MUTTON AND LAMB.

Figures showing sheep and lambs slaughtered for food purposes, together with the exports of frozen mutton and lamb, are given in the tables following.

The balance between killings and exports during the period, with due allowance for variations in stocks, represents an annual consumption of over 93 lb. of mutton and lamb per head of population, including Maoris.

Year ended 31st March.SlaughteringsExports (including Pieces).Excess of Slaughterings over Exports.
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.Number.Approximate Weight.

* Year ended 31st January.

Mutton.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
19303,420,282571,9433,992,2251,971,0302,021,1951,082,783
19313,563,952699,5844,263,5362,581,4771,682,059901,103
19324,464,894768,8255,233,7192,343,1482,890,5711,548,520
19333,569,598786,8144,356,4122,354,1842,002,2281,072,622
19342,867,245688,8893,556,1342,010,0841,546,050828,241
Totals for five years17,885,9713,516,05521,402,02611,259,92310,142,1035,433,269
Lamb.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
19306,594,63557,1326,651,7676,283,960367,807118,223
19318,092,795104,7578,197,5527,819,980377,572121,362
19328,689,196138,4428,827,6387,574,1471,253,491402,908
19339,718,585135,3459,853,9309,056,071797,859256,455
19348,726,39099,0328,825,4228,719,301106,12134,110
Totals for five years41,821,601534,70842,356,30939,453,4592,902,850933,058

BEEF.

Now Zealand mutton and lamb meet with a ready sale in the London market, but the Dominion's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beet from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that exports of frozen beef from the Dominion have declined in recent years.

During 1933 several trial shipments of New Zealand chilled beef were despatched to England. The experiments proved very successful, and were followed by larger shipments. Up to the 30th June, 1934, 16,112 quarters had been forwarded to the United Kingdom.

The following table, which is exclusive of veal, shows the number and approximate weight of cattle slaughtered for food purposes in each of the last five years, together with the weight of beef exported. In the figures of slaughterings an average weight of 600 lb. per carcass is taken, and the export figures include potted and preserved meats, the greater portion of which is beef. (Note.—An average of 700 lb. was used previously, but this made insufficient allowance for bone when a contrast is drawn with beef prepared for export.) After making allowance for variations in stocks, it is found that consumption of beef per head of population (including Maoris) during the period averaged 114 lb. per annum.

Year ended 31st March.Slaughterings.Exports.Excess of Slaughterings over Exports (Approximate Weight).
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.Approximate Weight.

* Year ended 31st January.

 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.Cwt.cwt.
1930362,9684,304367,3321,967,850412,4991,555,351
1931326,1308,635334,7711,793,416354,5761,438,840
1932322,9427,537330,4791,770,423317,8341,452,589
1933393,60811,373404,9812,163,541600,25S1,569,283
1934475,14913,255488,4042,616,450853,4881,762,962
Totals for five years1,880,80345,1641,925,96710,317,6802,538,6557,779,025

VEAL.

In recent years the veal industry developed rapidly, mainly as a result of the organization of the “ bobby ” calf trade. An appreciable increase in exports resulted. and producers were anticipating still further expansion of the industry. However, an embargo was placed on the export of “ bobby ” calf meat as from the 7th 12th July, 1934, as a consequence of trade agreements with (lie Imperial Government.

The following table gives particulars of slaughterings and exports for the past five years:—

Year ended 31st March.Slaughterings.Exports during Twelve Months ended 31st March.
At Abattoirs and Slaughterhouses.On Farms.*Total.
* Year ended 31st January.
 Carcasses.Carcasses.Carcasses.Cwt.
1930440,3743,341443,71565,448
1931551,7627,444559,20683,582
1932593,02911,558607,587117,420
1933599,33514,538613,87391,341
1934941,70512,705954,410134,092
Totals for five years3,126,20552,5863,178,791491,883

MEAT-EXPORT CONTROL.

The New Zealand Meat-producers Board was constituted under the provisions of the Meat-export Control Act, 1921–22. It consists of eight members—five representing the producers of meat for export, two representing the Government, and one representing the stock and station agents. Briefly, the objects of the Board are to control the export of meat in the interests of the producers.

Since the Board was constituted in 1922 freight rates have been sensibly-reduced. Rates new current, a three-year contract commencing 1st September, 1933, are (per pound): Mutton (or lamb over 42 1b.), 1 3/32d.; lamb, 9/32 d.; veal, ⅞ d.; pork, ⅞d.; beef quarters, ⅞d.; other items at various rates. The rates quoted are all less 21 per cent., but plus exchange surcharge, which was reduced from 13⅔ per cent, to 13⅕ per cent, as from the 1st August, 1934, consequent upon a slight improvement in exchange rates.

Probably one of the most important functions of the Board is to regulate shipments so as to keep a steady flow of meat going on to the British markets over the twelve months of the year, having due regard to the months of the highest consumption of each class of meat. The Board is enabled to carry out this work as it has the freight arrangements for the shipment of New Zealand meat in its hands under its statutory powers.

Another very important section of the Board's work comes under the heading of advertising. Along with the Dominion's increasing lamb-production, the Board is making every effort to expand our trade by advertising, and has spent large sums of money in the United Kingdom for this purpose.

Amongst other reductions in costs secured by the Board, special mention should be made of the reductions in cold-storage rates in London, secured in 1928.

Other important functions of the Board include supervision of grading, inspection of loading and unloading of vessels, trial shipments to new markets, scientific survey work, and grants to the Royal Agricultural Society and other bodies to encourage production of suitable export types of lambs, pigs, &c.

A clause in the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Bill is designed to authorize the transfer to the proposed Executive Commission of Agriculture of any powers of the Meat-producers Board and of various other Boards concerned with the control or oversight of primary industries.

A meat-export restriction order was imposed (at the request of the United Kingdom Government) by Order in Council operative from 12th July, 1934. prohibiting the export of frozen beef and veal without the consent of the Minister of Agriculture, acting upon the advice of the New Zealand Meat-producers" Board. Subsequently, boneless beef and veal held by operators at 12th July has been released for export, but the restriction otherwise is still in force.

The following table shows shipments during each month of the season 1932–33 and the first ten months of the season 1933–34:—

Month of Shipment.Season 1932–33.Season 1933–34.
Beef.Mutton.Lamb.Beef.Mutton.Lamb.
 Quarters.Carcasses.Carcasses.Quarters.Carcasses.Carcasses.
November1,66437,490119,0807,6637,614279,845
December5,56969,437415,15989,92374,997758,893
January8,01438,090761,06248,118124,472737,348
February19,901189,4941,214,61818,171177,8051,002,788
March41,94630,7291,216,77633,491221,9521,063,978
April48,950211,2151,172,86147,008195,883871,376
May48,830204,1491,029,08194,840160,2881,124,472
June43,803193,7081,028,68542,395141,286929,332
July33,467232,916863,74724,689174,443777,701
August30,818331,546767,6788,742283,143752,450
September1,319182,518159,25826,927164,542372,776
October3,62356,11376,737..  

HORSES.

Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,284 was reached, horses have tended to decline numerically. The number recorded as at 31st January, 1934, was 273,906, and shows a recession of 2,991 from the 1933 figures.

Totals for the last five years are as follows:—

Year.Horses on 31st January.
1930297,195
1931295,743
193228O,994
1933276,897
1934273,906

The following numbers of horses were returned in 1934 in the classes specified:—

Draught and three-quarter draught124,768
Spring-cart or light artillery (including half-draught)49,608
Hacks and light-working horses85,128
Thoroughbred and other horses14,402
Total horses273,906

PIGS.

After earlier vicissitudes, pig-breeding showed signs of being in a more stable condition, as increases in the total number were recorded in each year from 1919 until 1928. A check then occurred, the figures gradually receding from 586,898 in 1928 to 476,194 in 1931. Since then successive increases have been noted, and the number of pigs returned in 1934 (660,393) is the highest ever recorded.

The following table shows the classification by breeds as at the special collection conducted in 1928. The figures are exclusive of pigs within borough boundaries.

Breed.Pigs under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Totals.
Pure Berkshire56,4415,77216,54578,758
Pure Yorkshire5,5996422,3148,555
Other purebred9,5201,4914,64515,556
Crossbred410,3737,46259,000476,835
     Totals481,93315,36782,404579,704

Figures (including pigs within borough boundaries) as at the 31st January for each of the years shown are given in the next table.

Year.Pigs under Six Months Old.Pigs Six Months and under One Year Old.Boars One Year Old and over.Sows One Year Old and over.Total Pigs.
1930302,880110,48512,72261,706487,793
1931291,737106,59212,88464,981476,194
1932319,467104,15614,38475,409513,416
1933372,856114,29216,74887,686591,582
1934422,185121,69518,21498,299660,393

During the five years ended the 31st March, 1934, 2,644,003 pigs were slaughtered at abattoirs and registered slaughterhouses, and during the quinquennium to 31st January, 1934, 260,367 were slaughtered by farmers on holdings of 1 acre or over, the total slaughterings during the five years representing approximately 2,900,000 cwt. of pork, bacon, and ham, of which total slightly more than one-third was exported. The balance of two-thirds was consumed in the Dominion, the average annual consumption per head of population being 28 lb. The figures for each year are:—

Year ended 31st March.Pigs slaughtered.Export of Frozen Pork, and Bacon and Ham.Excess of Slaughterings over Exports (Approximate Weight).
At Abattoirs, &c.On Farms.*Total.Approximate Weight.

* Year ended 31st January.

 Number.Number.Number.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
1930485,90743,669529,576529,576155,288374,288
1931450,49051,180501,670501,670150,024351,646
1932430,91451,536482,450482,450104,889377,561
1933532,12358,484590,607690,607186,646403,961
1934744,56955,498800,067800,067378,760421,307
Totals for five years2,644,003260,3672,904,3702,904,370975,6071,928,763

POULTRY.

The number of poultry in New Zealand at the taking of the 1926 census was ascertained to be 3,781,145, a decrease of 209,864 as compared with the number for the year 1921 (3,991,009). The number of poultry per head of population was 2*8, which is the lowest figure since 1864.

The figures of poultry for each of the last five censuses are as follows:—

Census Year.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.Total.
19062,784,269281,99944,30077,1013,187,669
19113,215,031329,23045,38997,9333,687,583
19163,141,354220,80846,95556,5213,465,638
19213,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009
19263,308,384352,03043,87976,8523,781,145

In connection with the census of 1926, statistics were compiled as to the sizes of flocks of fowls, and the results are instructive as showing that, though poultry-farming as a definite branch of farming existed to some small extent, poultry-keeping was generally carried on merely as a side-line.

The average number of fowls per flock was only twenty-one. The total number of households keeping poultry of any kind was 158,856, of which no fewer than 68,133 were in cities and boroughs.

The Poultry Act, 1924, provides for the regulating of poultry-keeping and of the sale and export of poultry and eggs. Provision is made for the appointment of inspectors, on whom certain powers of entry for purposes of inspection of poultry or eggs intended for export are conferred. Poultry are required to be kept under sanitary conditions, and cruelty to poultry is made an offence. Every owner of poultry is required to notify an inspector of any outbreak of disease among his poultry and to comply with the inspector's directions. It is an offence to sell diseased poultry. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to declare diseases. to appoint ports of export, and to appoint grading-stores.

In order to provide moneys for the organization and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in December, 1933. The Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry-run which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than twenty-five head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. The fee payable annually for registration is 2s. 6d. if the flock does not exceed one hundred head. For each additional hundred (or part thereof) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable. A Board is constituted for the administration of the Act. Further clauses provide for a poll to be taken as to the expiry of the Act if a petition signed by not less than 20 per cent, of registered producers is presented to the Minister during February, 1937. If such a poll is carried the Act is to be deemed to be repealed as from the 31st May, 1937.

BEES.

The dairying-lands of the Dominion are eminently suited for the rearing of bees, and a very high-grade product is put on the market from local apiaries. The export trade is, of course, small when compared with the main primary industries, but is capable of considerable development. Honey from the apiaries of the Dominion is much appreciated wherever it is known.

In New Zealand the Department of Agriculture devotes proportionately the same attention to detail in the case of honey for export as is given to butter and cheese forwarded for consumption beyond the Dominion. Honey must be forwarded to grading-stores at Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Lyttelton, Greymouth, Timaru, Dunedin, and Bluff for grading prior to export, and may be exported only through those ports. The Apiaries Act, 1927, which came into operation on 1st January, 192S, was passed to consolidate and amend the law relating to the bee industry. Stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee-moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register their apiaries, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that in September, 1934; 7,579 beekeepers and 115,5GS colonies, were registered.

Exports of honey for the last five years were —

Year.Quantity. lb.Value. £.
19292,305,88782,743
1930171,5366,216
1931584,73919,401
1932226,2437,054
1933757,10021,823

A system of control on much the same lines as in the case of meat and dairy-produce was introduced by the Honey-export Control Act, 1924. The function of the Board set up (after a poll of producers, who decided by a large majority in favour of the scheme) 13 to control all honey intended for export.

Chapter 17. SECTION XVII.—FORESTRY.

STATE FORESTS.

AT the 31st March, 1934, the area of State forest was 3,025,789 acres, and of provisional State forest 4,855,785 acres, these totals including 391,231 acres and 1,510,704 acres respectively of national-endowment lands. The aggregate area (7,881,574 acres) represents 1887 per cent, of the superficial area of the Dominion.

The administration of the State forests and of the afforestation activities of New Zealand is controlled by the State Forest Service.

The legislation governing the State forests is contained in the Forests Act, 1921–22, and its amendments of 1925 and 1926, and in section 17 of the Finance Act, 1924. Section 5 of the Finance Act, 1930 (No. 2), authorized the borrowing of a maximum of £1,000,000 for the purposes of the Forests Act, 1921–22. Regulations have been issued under the State Forests Act, 1908, and the Forests Act, 1921–22.

FOREST AREAS.

The areas of indigenous forests estimated at intervals since the settlement in the Dominion are—

 Acres.
184727,600,000
186923,500,000
188621,200,000
189320,500,000
190917,000,000
1923–3212,600,000

FOREST POLICY.

The national forest policy has a two-fold purpose—the maintenance of climatic. soil, and water equilibria, and the supply of timber and other forest-produce. Owing to its influence upon agriculture, the former objective—viz., the conservation of the protection forests—is of the greater national significance. Conservation may be defined as the preservation of the forests by wise use, and the intensive management of these forests will assist to solve the problem of timber-supplies. It is with this latter consideration that the establishment of exotic forests is most intimately associated.

Important features of the national timber-supply situation are—

  1. Eighty per cent, of the remaining virgin forests are overmature, and there is no net growth, new growth being offset by decay, &c.:

  2. The conversion of overmature forests into healthy growing stands of indigenous species producing timber to the maximum capacity of the forest soil will necessitate silvicultural management extending over a long period, probably one hundred and fifty years:

  3. Current timber demands are depleting the virgin indigenous forests at such a rate that, without other provision being made, an adequate supply of timber would not be available during the whole of the intervening period:

  4. The establishment of exotic plantations to supplement the indigenous forest resources is therefore of great importance, and large forests of exotic trees have accordingly been established during recent years:

  5. The part which exotic forests will ultimately play in the forest economy of the Dominion is difficult to predict. Experience in foreign countries where forestry has been practised over a period of several centuries indicates, however, that exotic species have definite limitations, and for this reason the national policy must envisage the management of the indigenous forests to secure their maximum possible production of timber.

The idea is prevalent that to preserve the existing indigenous forests to posterity it is sufficient to fence them against stock and to protect them from fire: this is entirely erroneous. The composition of the forest gradually changes, one type of forest growth succeeding another. Generally the valuable timber-producing species are replaced by weed species such as kamahi, taraire, rewarewa, &c. The outstanding example is the remaining kauri forests. Of all the indigenous softwoods amenable to silvicultural treatment kauri is outstanding, and the results of investigations have been most promising. In many of the remaining kauri forests the percentage of overmature timber has risen already to as high as 50 per cent, (by volume), emphasizing the urgent need of marketing such timber before it further deteriorates, and of managing the forests to encourage the growth of the immature trees, and to secure re-establishment with young growth. By no other means can the kauri be preserved to posterity. If further neglected, the overmature trees will continue to decay and die, and the healthy ones will follow suit much more quickly than otherwise, until ultimately the whole of the kauri growth will be replaced by a climax succession of taraire, rewarewa, &c, which already are commencing to take command. As soon, therefore, as the demand for timber returns to normal, it is the intention of the State Forest Service to bring the whole of the national kauri forests under management plans which will ensure their perpetuation for all time.

Other problems upon which work has already commenced—although admittedly on a small scale—concern the management of the rimu pole-type forests of the coastal plains of Westland and the silver-beech forests of Southland. How to introduce selective logging into the rimu pole-type forests without complete paralysis of the industry operating on these areas is a difficult question. The first step to be taken is the collection of increment data, and the completion of a growth study which has been in progress for six years is new in sight.

In review, the general forest policy may be stated as the perpetuation of the indigenous forests and the provision of a supplementary exotic-forest capital which. by rapid growth, will eke out the supplies of indigenous timber and bridge the gap between the exhaustion of the overmature indigenous forests which otherwise would occur, and their conversion into healthy production forests. With the establishment of the exotic plantations new approaching completion, it will be possible to give proper attention to the silvicultural treatment of the indigenous forests. The timber-supply position of the future envisages a balanced yield from both exotic and indigenous forests, and the future alone will determine the relative importance of the two sources of supply.

For the establishment of exotic-forest resources it has been the policy to concentrate upon those species which, from previous experience in New Zealand. appear suitable for growing in the various localities and each of which possesses a diversity of uses. Except on a strictly experimental scale, planting has been avoided of any species which yield timber either of restricted uses or intended for the production of any one type of product. Briefly, the policy is one of diversification of species with diversification of use.

The underlying motive has been to spread the risk of wholesale or epidemic damage by insect and fungal attack, and it is primarily in pursuit of this objective that the current plantings are largely of Douglas fir, Corsican pine, pondosa pine, Bishop's pine, lodge-pole pine, insignis pine, and Lawson's cypress. At the completion of the establishment programme it is anticipated that no one species will form more than 30 per cent, of the total. In search of new species for future work, experimental plantings are being made every year.

The purpose of avoiding the establishment of species with restricted use or for any one particular purpose is to guard against the failure of the anticipated demand owing to the disappearance or changing of the particular field or fields of use during the growth of the trees. Again, exotic trees may produce timbers quite different from those produced in their native habitat and unsuitable for the purposes anticipated. No risk is incurred, however, if woods of high general utility are produced, since new uses are developed almost as rapidly as old ones disappear or change.

The saw log has always been visualized as the major product of the exotic forests, and no exotic forests have been established for the production of either pulpwood or any other particular product. As the population of the Dominion increases and likewise the consumption of pulp and paper products, it is possible that economically sized pulp-production units may become feasible. Should this prove to be the case, a supply of raw material for the cheaper classes of pulp and paper products, which form the bulk of the trade, may become available from the exotic forests, but in the form of low-grade logs and sawmill waste, since for the utilization of high-grade logs down to 4 in. diameter inside bark (which is the smallest timber usually accepted by pulp-mills) the Scandinavian type of sawmill is as well adapted as the pulping unit, possessing the additional advantages of smaller size and lower investment.

Already the production of exotic timber has attained a level of 15,000,000 ft. board measure per annum, and is rapidly increasing, the increase being limited solely by the lack of available supplies of mature trees. All available supplies of thinnings will probably be required for many years to maintain this increasing production; and the fact that over 80 per cent, of the Dominion's fruit and cheese exports, and enormous quantities of other boxed goods, are shipped in exotic pine timber containers is evidence of the growing popularity of these woods. Likewise they are replacing white-pine for concrete boxing and rimu. for rough constructional, scaffolding, and general building framework, while in some districts complete houses and other buildings are being constructed of exotic timbers.

RESEARCH.

A forest entomologist is stationed at the Cawthron Institute in Nelson and a forest mycologist at the Plant Research Station in Palmerston North. Both of these officers are responsible to the Director of Forestry. Silvicultural investigation has centred round kauri and rimu. Experiments have been made to test the value of under planting cut-over bush lands with exotics, but further time must elapse before definite conclusions can be arrived at.

FOREST UTILIZATION.

Investigations into all the major problems relating to the utilization of forest products have been in progress for many years, and cover the fields of physical and mechanical properties of timber, timber physics, and kiln-drying, wood-preservation, pulp and paper, derived products, and industrial uses of timber.

A pre-requisite to the extended utilization of the indigenous timbers by the local wood-using industries is a thorough knowledge of their mechanical and physical properties. Tests to determine these have been carried out over a period of ten years, and the results presented in a number of publications describing the properties and uses of the different woods, leaflets dealing with kauri, miro (Podocarpus ferrugineus), matai (Podocarpus spicatus), and totara (Podocarpus totara) having been completed recently for printing. As a direct outcome of the work, allowable working-stresses for the design of poles and cross-arms were substantially increased during the year.

The outstanding feature of the export butter-box trade is the increasing use of the Saranac box, which accounted for 51 per cent, of the total boxes exported during the 1933–34 season. In spite of its poor insulation properties and low re-use value, this type of package continues to gain in popularity, and the first factory to substitute veneer stock for sawn timber was established during the year. Shippers ' also continue to experiment with fibre-board boxes, but here again the disadvantage of poor insulation acts as a deterrent to their use. To economize white-pine supplies, sap rimu and miro are being used in increasing quantities for cheese-crates and milk-powder boxes, while experiments are still in progress to determine the value of sap rimu for butter-boxes, a shipment having been forwarded recently to London for observation and report.

In accordance with the Department's policy of encouraging better seasoning practices for New Zealand timbers, the services of technical officers were made available to timber operators who installed dry kilns in Westland and Invercargill. These officers supervised the drying of initial charges and trained operators for the subsequent management of the kilns. Schedules were developed in Westland for the drying of white-pine, and in Southland for the drying of rimu.

Markets for New Zealand timbers generally have gradually been extended and new uses found. Thus, pencil-manufacturers in Australia and Great Britain were interested in totara for lead-pencil manufacture, while locally the use of tawa for the manufacture of clothes-pegs, dowels, and handles was considerably increased. Tests are at present in progress to determine the suitability of silver-beech for cable-separators, of southern rata (Metrosideros lucida) for telegraph cross-arms, of silver-beech for beer-barrels, and of tawa for shoe-heels.

With the increased shortage of mature insignis-pine stands in New Zealand. sawmillers are giving attention to the possibility of utilizing exotic softwood thinnings for the manufacture of boxes and crates. The first sale of timber for such purposes was made during this year, a substantial volume of thinnings having been contracted for from the older stands in the Dusky and Conical Hills Plantations. The material available is particularly suitable for crates and boxes of the batten type, such as cheese-crates, fruit-cases for the Island trade, &c., and cases for the banana trade have already been supplied to Samoa. Thinnings from the exotic forests have also found favour for mining work, and, with the development of cheap preservative treatments, may be expected to dominate this market.

Fencing-posts of various exotic species, preserved with creosote and erected at varying periods during the past twelve years, show the excellent durability which can be secured by suitable preservative treatments with timbers which are naturally non-durable in the ground.

FOREST-FIRE PROTECTION.

One of the greatest problems of forest-conservation is that of fire-prevention, and fire-fighting methods have been improved by the establishment of fire lookout stations, access tracks, tool caches, improved telephone communication, and the provision of mobile fire-fighting equipment. The fire districts constituted to minimize the fire risks and danger to the indigenous and exotic forests total forty-four, including nine private fire districts.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE INDIGENOUS FORESTS.

The forests of New Zealand, as a whole, belong to that great division of the earth's vegetation entitled rain-forest—a community with its most extreme development in the tropics (vide article on “Flora and Vegetation” in Section I). New Zealand rain-forest may be naturally divided into the two classes, subtropical rainforest and subantarctic rain-forest, the former, in regard to its trees, being a mixed community of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of beech (Nothofagus). For practical purposes the names rain-forest proper and beech-forest suffice. Between these two classes there are many intermediates, the one gradually grading into the other.

Rain-forest proper consists of many kinds of tall, medium-sized, and small trees, together with a dense undergrowth of numerous species of shrubs and ferns. Woody lianes and huge epiphytes are characteristic, and bryophytes abound. This class of forest is generally confined to the coastal, lowland, and montane belts—the upper altitudinal line of the last-named becoming gradually lower in proceeding from north to south.

In regard to appraisal of timber, rain-forest proper is divided into the following groups, to each of which is appended its distribution: The kauri (extending northwards from a line joining Port Waikato to Tauranga); the rimu (throughout all three Islands, its heaviest stands in the central part of the North Island and on the west coast of the South Island); the kahikatea (throughout the North and South Islands, occupying low-lying swampy ground); and the totara (throughout, but mainly in the central part of the North Island).

Beech-forest must be divided into milling-forest and protection-forest. The former consists of (1) forest where the hard beech (Nothofagus truncata) and the black beech (Nothofagus Solandri) are present in quantity, or where there is only the latter (this extends from the south of lat. 38° southwards to northern Nelson, Marlborough, and eastern Canterbury); (2) forest where the silver beech (Nothofagus Menziesii) and the red beech (Nothofagus fusca) are either the sole or the principal species; they extend from the Thames mountains in the montane and lower subalpine belts southwards to northwestern Nelson, Westland (but absent from the Taramakau Paver southwards for one hundred miles), and the fiord country of Otago; and (3) forest where the silver beech is pure or nearly so, such principally in southern and western Southland, and extending over the western slopes of the Dividing Range. Protection-forest, where beeches dominate, particularly the mountain-beech (Nothofagus cliffortioides), is essentially high-mountain forest, but on Mount Egmont and on the western side of the Southern Alps, from somewhat north of the Taramakau River for rather more than one hundred miles southwards, the forest is modified rain-forest proper with thin-bark totara (Podocarpus Hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus Bidwillii) as important trees. In Stewart Island Nothofagus is absent, and the trees of the upper forest are mainly kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa) and southern-rata (Metrosideros lucida).

In addition to the high forests there are scrub forests, of which those made up of manuka (in a wide sense)—Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides—are commercially important on account of the value of their wood for fuel, and because, in many instances, they are an early stage of rain-forest.

The foregoing gives merely a general classification of the forests, but, from the aspect of forestry, a division into smaller groups is essential, such to be based on the composition, structure, and life-history of each group. In this regard, altitude, climate, latitudinal change, and the nature of the soil have to be taken into consideration, as well as the combination and forms of the species composing the forest and their arrangement within the forest. In all forests changes, progressive or retrogressive, are taking place, and, so far as rain-forest proper is concerned (leaving swamp-forest on one side), that of the North Island and the northern part of the South Island is tending towards the dominance of the tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), and, for the remainder of the South Island and Stewart Island, to that of the kamahi. On the other band, beech-forest regenerates into similar forest.

Though the forest-trees of New Zealand number about 112, only a few are of value as timber-trees; in fact, at present only six are being used to any extent by sawmillers, and, of these, five are coniferous (softwood) timbers. There are several—e.g., puriri, kohokohe, pukatea—which possess very high qualities, but which are new to be obtained only in such small quantities that they are of little commercial importance.

CHIEF FOREST TREES.

A brief description of the principal forest-trees, with their distribution and the uses of their timber, is new given. The weights shown for the timber are per cubic foot, air-dry. For a description of additional forest-trees the reader is referred to the 1034 Year-Book or its immediate predecessors.

SOFTWOODS.

KAHIKATEA; WHITE PINE(Podocarpus dacrydioides).—This tree occurs to some extent in all forests except the beech-forests from north to south of the North and South Islands; formerly it was found in almost pure stands in swampy areas, but most of these stands have new been exploited. The average height of the tree is about 120 ft., and the average diameter about 32 in. The sapwood, which comprises the greater part of the log, is white, and the heartwood yellow. The timber (29 lb.) is straight in the grain, easily worked, and long, clean lengths and wide widths can be obtained. The yellow heartwood is durable, but the sapwood is very susceptible to the attacks of the larvae of the white-pine borer. The timber is inodorous, and is at the present time used mainly for butter-boxes, cheese-crates, and other packages.

KAIKAWAKA; MOUNTAIN CEDAR(Libocedrus Bidwillii).—Though the distribution of this tree is often local, its range extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the forests of South Otago. It is most plentiful on the west coast of the South Island. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., with an average diameter of about 18 in. The timber (27 lb.) is dark red in colour, easy to work, light, and rather weak; it has considerable resemblance to totara, but is not so strong, and generally not so durable. The timber has been used for telegraph-poles, shingles, and palings. It has also been proved suitable for the manufacture of second-grade lead pencils, and at the present time is used for the manufacture of window-frames in the districts where it is obtainable. Being difficult to burn, it is specified for the construction of fireproof doors. Unfortunately, though occurring over a wide area, it is limited in quantity, and, if used freely, the supply would soon be exhausted.

KAURI(Agathis australis).—This, the largest tree of the New Zealand forest and the most celebrated, is rather restricted in its distribution, extending as it does only from a little to the north of lat. 38° S. to the extreme north of the North Island. Its average height is about 100 ft. The maximum diameter which has been measured is 22 ft., and a few trees still exist with diameters of 14 ft. The average diameter is, however, about 40 in. The timber (30 lb.) is light yellowish-brown in colour; it is straight in the grain, strong, easily worked, and remarkably free from knots and defects; probably there is no more generally useful softwood in the world. Though formerly much used for house-building, its present high price confines its use to railway-carriage building, and cabinet and general joinery purposes. Mottled and figured kauri is much prized for cabinet-work. The kauri yields a very valuable resin called kauri-gum. It is regrettable that the remaining stands of this valuable timber-tree are new limited.

MATAI; BLACK PINE(Podocarpus spicatus).—This tree occurs more or less plentifully in forests throughout the North, South, and Stewart Islands. Its average height is about GO ft., and average diameter about 24 in. The timber (38 lb.) is light yellowish-brown in colour, straight in the grain, and easily worked. In the ground it is of second-rate durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is used chiefly for weather-boarding, exterior joinery, and flooring, and for the latter purpose is one of the best limbers in the world.

MIRO(Podocarpus ferrugineus).—This tree occurs in lowland and montane forests from the north of the North Island to the south of Stewart Island, but is most abundant: in Southland. The average height is about 65 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber (30 lb.) is used in house-building, and is often sold as rimu, to which it bears considerable resemblance. The heartwood is brownish in colour, very fine in the grain, easily worked, and of exceptional strength, though not durable in the ground.

RIMU; RED PINE(Dacrydium cupressinum).—This, the principal timber-tree of the New Zealand forest, is to be found more or less in all forests except the pure beech-forests. The average height is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber (37 lb.) when first cut is reddish-brown, but it changes when seasoned to a light brown with darker and lighter streaks. It is fairly straight in the grain, easily worked, and it is the chief timber used in house-building. It is often beautifully figured, and when so is used for furniture, doors, and panelling. A high grade of kraft pulp may be produced from rimu.

SILVER PINE; YELLOW SILVER PINE; PINK PINE(Dacrydium Colensoi, D. intermedium. D. biforme. and J). Kirkii).— The group of small podocarps, here taken together, is far from well known, while as commercial timbers there is no uniformity in the timber supplied, that of D. Colensoi and D. intermedium being both sold as “ silver pine.” In the case of the so - called “ yellow silver pine ” the timber is white and not yellow. As at present defined, D. Colensoi occurs from near Kaitaia (but only occasionally) to the volcanic plateau, where it is fairly common, and in the South Island it forms (or originally formed) considerable stands in north-western Nelson and Westland. D. intermedium has much the same range in the North Island, but rather wider (Thames mountains, Ruahine-Tararua Mountains), and in the South Island it occurs in north-western Nelson, south-west Otago, and Stewart Island. D. biforme, except in the southern part of its range, belongs essentially to the mountains, and extends from the volcanic plateau to Stewart Island, but only where the rainfall is high. D. Kirkii is confined to the North Auckland Peninsula from the Manukau Harbour northwards. Considering here only the extremely valuable timber (39 lb.) of the silver-pine, it is whitish when first cut, but darkening to a light yellowish-brown; it is straight in the grain and easy to work. Owing to its extreme durability it has been used mainly for railway-sleepers, telegraph-poles, and posts; it is occasionally beautifully mottled, and is then used for cabinet-work. The remaining supplies are new limited.

TANEKAHA(Phyllocladus trichomanoides).— This tree occurs, but not in great numbers, throughout the North Island and in the South Island in northern Marlborough and Nelson, extending southwards to near Westport. In height it is from 50 ft. to 70 ft., with a diameter of 1 ft. to 2 ft. The timber (42 lb.) is yellowish-white, free from knots, close-grained, dense, heavy, and very strong, and shrinks very little in seasoning, and for this reason is favoured for the manufacture of astragals in greenhouses, which have to remain straight in varying conditions of heat and moisture. Tanekaha is the strongest New Zealand softwood. It is of uncertain durability in the ground, but is very durable out of the ground. In the past it was used for bridge-building, sleepers, and mine-props. It is new used in railway-carriage construction. The bark is very valuable, for it contains as much as 28 per cent, of tannin.

TOTARA(Podocarpus totara and P. Hallii).—These trees, which are very closely related and hybridize freely, extend throughout all three Islands (P. Hallii only in Stewart Island and subalpine forests), though in many localities the totara is rare. It is most plentiful in the forests of the central portion of the North Island. The average height is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber (301b.) is reddish when first cut, seasoning to a reddish-brown. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle. Its great durability (that of P. totara being the most durable) has caused it to be much used for railway-sleepers, wharf-piles, telegraph-poles, and posts. Its high price and its freedom from warping and shrinking are now, however, causing it to he used for such special purposes as window and door frames: it is also much used for veranda-posts, flooring, and steps.

HARDWOODS.

BLACK BEECH(Nothofagus Solandri).— This tree occurs in abundance—but not everywhere—in the lowland and montane belts of the North Island southwards from about lat. 38° S. (but absent in south-western Auckland and western Taranaki), and, in the South Island, in northern Marlborough and Nelson, extending southwards through eastern Marlborough and Canterbury to Banks Peninsula and Alford Forest. The timber (49 lb.) is pale-reddish, or greyish, and frequently streaked with black. Probably it is fairly durable when in the ground, and it is suitable—to say the least—for rough buildings, fencing-posts, and structural purposes. At present it is used only for fencing-posts and firewood.

HARD BEECH(N. truncata).—This tree occurs in a few localities in the North Island from Kaitaia southwards to the Thames mountains, whence its distribution is the same as that of N. Solandri. In the South Island it is abundant in northern Marlborough, and extends through Nelson with its southern limit just north of the Taramakau River. Its height ranges from 60 ft. to 100 ft. or more, and its diameter from 2 ft. to 5 ft. Until recently its timber (weight 48 lb. per cubic foot) was confused with that of the red-beech, but it is harder and probably more durable. When first cut it is pinkish in colour. Its uses are the same as those of its near relative, the red-beech. With the black-beech it forms many hybrids.

RED BEECH(N. fusca).—This tree extends from about lat. 37° S. on the Thames mountains southwards throughout the North Island in the montane belt (Mount Egmont excepted), and throughout the South Island where the rainfall is high (except southwards from the Taramakau River for one hundred miles), and in the south of Southland. It is a tall and massive tree, ranging from 60 ft. to rather more than 100 ft. in height, and 3 ft. to 6 ft. in diameter. The timber (44 lb.) when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split, durable, and of about the same weight as English ash. It is difficult to season, being particularly prone to honeycombing in drying, and for this reason has not been much used for house-building, except at one time on the Otago goldfields, where it has proved very durable; its chief use at present is for posts and mine-props, and it is used to a small extent for sleepers and bridge-work. It is valuable for furniture and bentwood work. With the increasing scarcity of Australian hardwoods it is certain to have a much more extended use in the future.

SILVER BEECH (AT.Menziesii).—This tree has much the same distribution as the red-beech, but it ascends higher, and is plentiful in the west of Southland, east of the Divide, extending to the Longwood Range. It also occurs at several places near Dunedin, and in the vicinity of Mount Cook and on the Blue Mountains. The average height of the tree is about. 80 ft., and the average diameter about 2 ft. The timber (34 lb.) is of a pinkish colour when first cut, but it changes to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, and strong; it is, however, not durable in contact with the ground. It is new being used for flooring, interior finish, furniture, bentwood work, agricultural implements, bodies of motor-cars, billiard-tables, tool-handles, dowels, rifle-stocks, shoe-heels, casks, barrels, cheese-crates, and packing-cases, and its use for these and in other directions is sure to extend.

BLACK MAIRE(Olea Cunninghamii).—This tree occurs in all forests (except the beech-forests) throughout the North Island, but it is only in the central portion that it is fairly plentiful. In the South Island it is found only in Marlborough, and is very rare. It occasionally reaches a height of 70 ft. and a diameter of 4 ft., but the average height and diameter are 40ft. and 18 in. respectively. The wood (62 lb.) is light brown, often with dark streaks, and bears considerable resemblance to that of its relative, the European olive. It is extremely dense, heavy, bard, strong, and durable. It has been used to a small extent for framing for machinery and for bridge-building, but owing to its exceptional heat-giving property its chief use has been for firewood.

NORTHERN RATA and SOUTHERN' RATA(Metrosideros robusta and M. lucida).—The Bret-mentioned of these trees is found in most forests below 2,000 ft. in the North Island; it is rather rare in the South Island, being found only occasionally in the lowland forests of Marlborough and Nelson. This tree generally commences life as a “ perching-plant “ in the forks of other large trees, and there from sends down huge roots, which generally envelope and strangle the supporting tree. These roots usually (but not always) coalesce, and so form a huge bole with an average diameter of about 54 in., which is generally hollow. The southern-rata, though found only rarely in the North Island, is plentiful in the South Island and Stewart Island. It has usually the same habit of growth as an ordinary tree; its average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter is about 20 in. The timber of both trees is reddish-brown in colour, extremely hard, heavy, strong, and (out of the ground) very durable; it is highly valued as firewood. On account of the difficulty of seasoning southern rata (71 lb.) 'without excessive twisting and warping it has not the same value as the northern species (f)5 lb.), which is used to a small extent for cross-arms for telegraph-poles and for wheelwrights' work.

TAWA(Beilschmiedia tawa).—This tree is to be found in most forests of the North Island up to an altitude of about 1,700 ft. In the South Island it occurs in the coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is light brownish-white in colour, rather hard, straight in the grain, but somewhat brittle. It is difficult to season satisfactorily, and requires special treatment to ensure fungi-free timber. At present it is used for clothes-pegs and to a small extent only for inside lining and packing-cases, but, if kiln-dried, should find more extensive employment for flooring and interior finish. It has been proved suitable for the manufacture of many classes of pulp and paper.

OUTPUT AND CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER.

The principal timbers milled in New Zealand at present are rimu and kahikatea. The subjoined table gives particulars regarding the output of timber by species for the last five years. Quantities are quoted in board measure feet—i.e., units of 12 in. × 12 in. × 1 in.

Species of Timber1928–20.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.Ft. B.M.
Kauri10,742,96710,471,2978,943,4806,891,3525,410,390
Rimu156,239,992163,293.2SS124,998,82571,082,07476,192,513
Kahikatea56,790,30658,505,36449,009,10943,161,29947,997,700
Matai15,752,74417,972,24313,917,1877,474,8678,160,873
Totara8,610,6399,046,1599,467,6975,344,1006,346,942
Beech9,845,60610,225,2557,680,9135,756,8685,781,441
Pinus radiata (insignis)9,168,41210,381,58512,739,92513,404,70014,676,010
Other and unspecified3,063,7542,509,9822,710,8861,077,2501,703,541
     Totals270,214,420282,405,173229,468,022154,192,510166,269,410
 Per Cent. of TotalPer Cent. of TotalPer Cent. of TotalPer Cent. of TotalPer Cent. of Total
Kauri3.973.713.904.473.25
Rimu57.8257.8254.4746.1045.82
Kahikatea21.0220.7221.3627.9928.87
Matai5.836.366.064.854.91
Totara3.193.204.133.473.82
Beech3.643.623.353.733.48
Pinus radiata (insignis)3.403.685.558.698.83
Other and unspecified1.130.891.180.701.02
     Totals100.00l00.00100.00100.00100.00

The total of 1,703,541 ft. b.m. shown for “ Other and unspecified ” species for 1932–33 is made up as follows:—

SpeciesFt. B.M.
Miro441,051
Taraire440,150
Tawa289,743
Tanekaha Rata198,118
Rata72,335
Puriri58,924
Blue-gum51,550
Poplar34,842
Pukatea20,460
Yellow pine17,925
Rewarewa16,166
Mangeao13,827
Kawaka9,971
Hinau2,545
Unspecified35,934
     Total1,703,541

Exports of New Zealand timber during the calendar year 1933 amounted to 25,829,404ft. b.m., valued at £237,503, the principal species being kahikatea (19,311,054 ft.), rimu (3,641,873 ft.), beech (1,375,374 ft.), Pinus radiata (691,793 ft.), and kauri (410,875 ft.). Imports during the year comprised 0,983,001 ft. b.m. of sawn timber (including 1,338,428 ft. of Oregon pine (Douglas fir), 4,095,060ft. of Australian hardwoods, 461,176 ft. of redwood, and 1,039,553 ft. of oak), valued at £82,936; 1,401,560 ft. b.m. of logs and poles, valued at £17,729; 1,820,153 ft. b.m. of butter-boxes and cheese-crates, valued at £24,520; 54,125 ft. b.m. of cases. valued at £426; and laths, sleepers, and other items of a value of £20,586. The figures of exports and imports of timber during the last live years are:—

Year.Exports of New Zealand Timber.Imports of Timber.
Measured in FeetOther Items.Total Value.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Ft. B.M.£Ft. B.M.£££
192939,102,831439,34261,004,182713,90276,271790,173
193026,676,131300,58259,324,130718,484199,029917,513
193117,532,304172,63315,888,603183,47939,202222,681
193227,286,884253,8836,982,70383,4452,28385,728
193325,829,404237,50310,258,839125,61120,586146,197

SALES OF STATE TIMBER.

Under the timber - sales policy in operation for the disposal of the mature timber in State forests the standing timber is appraised and disposed of by tender as a block sale, the quantity of each species being shown in cubic feet, with the equivalent board-foot measurement. During the depressed slate of the timber-market, timber has not been offered for sale unless definitely applied for.

Year.Timber sold.Sale Price.
 Ft. B.M.£
1929–3060,053,00073,865
1930–3142,118,02441,883
1931–3212,240,00016,435
1932–3332,314,95535,693
1933–3449,026,30252,118

FINANCE.

Up to and including the financial year 1915–16 the expenditure on afforestation was provided out of rents and royalties received from State Forest reserves and by an annual contribution from the Consolidated Fund. In 1916–17 provision was made for the borrowing of money for forestry purposes, and since that date all receipts and payments are shown in a State Forests Account. Commencing with the year 1933–34. interest on loans is carried forward as a liability to the Consolidated Fund until realization of the plantations.

1920–30.1030–31.1931–32.1832–38.1033–34.
Receipts.
 £££££
Timber-sales (native forest)60,71156,39136,32027,12931,017
Timber royalties and trespass6,7903,5383,7513,6673,164
National-endowment allocation12,1569,8666,3916,2216,612
Leases—Grazing2,1152,0931,7041,0371,816
Sawmill-sites, &c.2,8501,6361,8651,4121,348
Opossum revenue4,953   
Nurseries and plantations11,3307,4683,2783,5426,546
Miscellaneous4,732 3,7232,2491,5872,206
     Total105,63784,71555,55845,19552,709
Payments.
Interest and loan expenses59,88482,80990,22397,256269
National-endowment and local body allocations18,49319,84112,7537,0997,401
Staff salaries47,81749,52640,97434,23232,901
Management, &c, native forests..28,52032,33114,47110,5809,757
Nurseries and plantations248,404194,556107,79549,34854,292
Research, &c.,6,3874,8671,1991,0171,022
Land-purchase12,9586,3616,87412,64610,542
Miscellaneous4,9552,774888205202
     Total427,418393,065275,177212,383116,386

The revenue from indigenous forests is heavily reduced by statutory payments in favour of local bodies and the National Endowment Account, and during recent years the residue has been little more than sufficient to meet the expenses of supervision and management; consequently the establishment of plantations has been financed almost exclusively from loan-moneys.

STATE AFFORESTATION.

State afforestation on an organized basis dates from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed, and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island, and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, when a total of 54 acres was established.

Figures of the areas planted each year in the last decade are shown below. Figures in parentheses are areas of direct formation and have been included in the totals with which they are associated.

Year.Acres.
1924–2510,459
1925–2615,875
1926–2722,305(1,257)
1927–2836,792(2,576)
1928–2960,635(3,215)
1929–3056,630 (30)
1930–3153,847(95)
1931–3240 979
1932–3316,997(1,163)
1933–3430,532

STATE PLANTATIONS.

The gross area of State plantations at the 31st March, 1934, was 596,765 acres, of which the areas actually established in plantation was 393,998 acres, exclusive of fire-breaks, waste lands, reserves, &c. The new area planted during the year was 30,532 acres. Particulars of State plantations are given below.

Locality.Plantation.Year of Establishment.Total Net Area established.
   Acres.
AucklandWaipoua1925824
Puhipuhi1904849
Riverhead192610,999
Maramarua192812,280
Tairua19309,930
RotoruaWhakarewarewa18987,591
Waiotapu19017,051
Kaingaroa1913233,055
WellingtonErua19302,359
Karioi192716,077
NelsonGolden Downs192717,757
WestlandWestland19223,063
CanterburyHanmer19017,750
Balmoral191620,647
Eyrewell192818,055
OtagoDusky Hill18984,368
Conical Hills19033,551
Naseby19003,308
Pukerau1915565
Blue Mountains19258,732
SouthlandPebbly Hills19304,332
 Minor areas1875–1933855
     Total..393,998 

While many species were experimented with in the initial stages of the work, the chief species used in the North Island were European larch (Larix decidua), Austrian pine (Pinus austriaca), Corsican pine (P. Laricio), Western yellow pine (P. ponderosa), and a number of eucalypts. Of more recent years the species used for planting have been Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), Western yellow pine, insignis pine (P. radiata), Corsican pine, lodge-pole pine (P. Murrayana), and Western red cedar (Thuya plicata).

In the South Island practically all the best-known commercial trees of the Northern Hemisphere have been tried, but many have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, until at the present time operations are being conducted with a comparatively small range of conifers which experience has shown will most readily adapt themselves to local conditions. The principal species planted new being used are Western yellow pine, Corsican pine, Douglas fir, insignis pine, lodge-pole pine, and Western red cedar.

Cleaning and thinning of the older-age classes in the plantations was continued during the year as an unemployment-relief measure, and resulted in 546 acres being cleaned by under scrubbing, &c, while thinning was carried out over 735 acres (72 acres of which were thinned for the second time), making the total areas dealt with since 1929 as follows: Thinning, 7,937 acres; under scrubbing, 18,204 acres.

COMMERCIAL AFFORESTATION.

INTRODUCTORY.

In 1923 the planting of forests was undertaken by commercial concerns. Two classes of companies have been formed to carry out the various ventures. The first is the ordinary joint-stock company, where the property is vested in the company and the shareholders receive a pro rata share of the profits according to the amount of capital contributed; the second is a private company registered with a comparatively small capital, but of which the investing public do not become shareholders. The company contracts with each investor that in consideration of his paying the prescribed amount of cash it will convey to him at the end of a given term a certain area of land duly planted according to a prescribed agreement. The interests of bond-holders are watched over by trustees until the time for conveyance to the bond-holders arrives. Of the thirty returns received from companies engaged in afforestation operations during the year ended 31st March, 1933, thirteen were from companies organized on the latter basis; but. though in the minority in point of numbers, their operations form the greater part of the work carried out during the year. The figures for the year ended 31st March, 1933, show that total assets and liabilities increased from £2,762,050 in 1931–32 to £3,156,788 in 1932–33, or by 14 per cent., while the receipts for 1932–33 (£612,341) show a drop of 2 per cent. in comparison with the year 1931–32. Payments declined from £640,593 in 1931–32 to £591,160 in 1932–33, or by 8 per cent.

The following comparative statements show the classifications of the liabilities and assets of all afforestation companies as at 31st March in each of the last five years:—

1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Liabilities.
 £££££
Paid-up share capital715,463824,899814,106833,782962,194
Loan-money40,18424,8186,8014,33318,542
Forfeited Shares Account3,1095,71010,7058,43313,325
Mortgages255,228286,464128,454140,022127,176
Sundry creditors192,766129,330158,816137,388129,879
Bondholders1,143,3611,315,5501,435,3481,405,1511,655,938
Other134,414100,651193,709232,941249,734
     Totals2,484,5852,747,4222,747,9392,762,0503,156,788
Assets.
Land for afforestation purposes512,197554,993545,590510,671518,606
Land for other purposes3,6951,301  
Development Account1,142,4091,106,795930,247957,863979,885
Investments464,110700,879786,700976,4061,167,455
Goodwill and preliminary expenses132,860109,36668,80029,34964,721
Other229,314274,088410,590287,761426,121
     Totals2,484,5852,747,4222,747,9392,762,0503,156,788

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

The following statement shows a classification of the receipts recorded for afforestation companies for each of the last live (March) years. Attention is drawn to the fact that the figures in the following receipts table represent receipts from the cash point of view and should not be confused with revenue.

1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Receipts.
 £££££
Share capital124,566101,02578,95292,73031,338
Instalments on bonds607,889662,876624,568454,971501,269
Loan-money2,4002,230  
Other receipts47,35272,049137,96879,75979,734
     Totals782,207838,180841,488627,460612,341
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Payments.
Tree-raising22,19125,16923,05714,8849,929
Establishment charges134,81691,50885,16838,90335,811
Maintenance22,02432,29628,76725,69418,6651
Management, &c.226,628223,338277,469146,509123,820
Land-purchase79,372100,00570,51534,53018,108
Investments242,507243,30472,340154,413276,480
Dividends11,57021,17217,97516,772
Other65,839114,332206,735207,68591,575
     Totals793,377841,522785,223640,593591,160

SALES OF FOREST AREAS.

The eleven companies engaged in the sale of forest areas effected sales involving 15,366 acres of land during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1933, making a total of 284,410 acres sold up to that date. The instalments paid in accordance with the contracts of sale entered into during the year under discussion amounted to £393,277, while the total instalments paid up to 31st March, 1933, on all bonds amounted to £3,850,188. The total commitments of the investing public on account of contracts entered into daring the year amounted to no less than £459,307, bringing the total for this item to £7,329,055 at 31st March, 1933.

Against the foregoing must be set contracts involving 100,115 acres, of a total selling-price of £2,772,511, which have been cancelled by the purchasers. Instalments amounting to £176,983 were paid up on these cancelled contracts.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The average number of employees engaged during 1932–33 was 558, of whom 102 were engaged in tree-raising; 242 in planting; 109 in maintenance; 75 in fire-prevention; and 30 in management. This number represents a decline of 333 from the peak year, 1930. The total wages and salaries paid during 1932–33 was £73,915.

PLANTING OPERATIONS.

The following table shows particulars regarding the species and number of trees planted during the year ended 31st March, 1933, together with particulars as to the areas planted:—

Species.Number of Trees.New Area planted during the YearTotal Area planted to 31st March 1933.
To replace Blanks.On New Areas.
   Acres.Acres.
Pinus radiata (insignis)10,851,3256,763,92510,468228,894
Pinus ponderosa1,665,9504,261,7506,60312,179
Pinus pinaster190,500897,5001,3962,136
Pinus Laricio  178
Redwood50,000  4,615
Douglas fir18,6502,75052,057
Cupressus Lawsoniana  673
Cupressus macrocarpa  96
Poplar125,900 200
Eucalypts6,60014,30030921
Unspecified17,62525341
Totals. 1932–3312,926,55011,940,25018,502252,290

LAND HELD FOR AFFORESTATION PURPOSES.

At 31st March, 1933, the total area of land held by companies for afforestation purposes was 332,760 acres, valued at £702,184, which amounts to £2 2s. 2d. per acre.

STATE ASSISTANCE TO AFFORESTATION.

The method first adopted in New Zealand for encouraging the planting of trees for the production of timber was by means of “ land grants”—a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. Several large plantations were established in Canterbury by this method, which, however, was abandoned in the “eighties.” The Selwyn and Ashburton County Councils are the outstanding examples of local authorities which took advantage of this scheme, and are new receiving substantial revenues from their tree plantations.

The State assists also by reduction of rent to Crown tenants planting trees on their land.

Under the system of taxation in operation in New Zealand, encouragement is given to the conservation of indigenous forests and plantations, and to the establishment of new plantations by exempting the trees from land-tax and local rates.

The taxes to which indigenous forests and plantations are subject are— (a) Land-tax; (b) income-tax; (c) local rates; (d) stamp duties; (e) death duties; (f) levy on sawn timber (indigenous forests only).

Land supporting indigenous forests and plantations is subject to land-tax. The tax, however, is assessed on the unimproved value, which for taxation purposes does not include the value of any trees or the value of the labour or capital expended in planting them.

Local rates on land supporting indigenous forests and plantations are levied on the value of the land only. A County Council is empowered to make an annual levy of ½d. per hundred feet board measure on timber in the county converted from the log into sawn timber; but this levy is not applicable to timber cut from plantations.

Appraisements of timber are not liable to stamp duty if made for the Crown, for a local authority, or for the information of one party only.

Licenses granted by the Crown to cut timber are exempt from stamp duty; other licenses are not exempt.

Land on which trees of any kind are growing is subject to death duties (estate duty, succession duty, and gift duty), which are assessed on the capital value of the land, which includes the value of the trees.

Chapter 18. SECTION XVIII.—FISHERIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

WITH its great extent of coast-line, splendid natural harbours, and numerous sheltered bays, New Zealand has from the earliest times been famed for the productivity of its coastal fisheries. Off its more northerly coasts, which come within the influence of the south equatorial current, a rich variety of subtropical fish-life is found, as exemplified by such species as the flying-fish, the sunfish, the swordfish, and several shark species. On the other hand, its southern coasts, washed by the antarctic drift, are the natural haunt of the fur-bearing seal, and yield varieties of fish which are characteristic of cold-water conditions. Up to the present only the east coast fishing-grounds have been regularly exploited on a commercial scale. Some of the western fishing-grounds remain in practically virgin condition, and offshore deep-sea fisheries have been neither exploited nor explored.

The ease with which abundant catches were made led to a certain wastefulness in the utilization of the fisheries in the past, but with the development of a more rational appreciation of the value of the marine natural resources the fishing industry is becoming increasingly important as a source of food-supply to the population of the Dominion and as a means of providing an export trade.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the flounders of different species (Rkombosolea), which occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters, the snapper (Pagrosomus auratus), which is particularly abundant in the north, the blue cod (Parapercis colias), which provides the staple product of the southern line fisheries, and the groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios), which is caught on lines in the deeper water from the North Cape to Stewart Island.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.

A statement is compiled annually by the Chief Inspector of Fisheries as to the weight and value of fish caught. The figures for principal fishing-ports are as follows for the year ended 31st March, 1934, a period of financial depression and diminished demand in the Dominion. Both quantities and values are approximations.

Port.Principal Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.
RussellSnapper, mullet, hapuku, flounder, kingfish, garfish, tarakihi, gurnard, maumau, crayfish1,000 cwt.£ 933
WhangareiSnapper, mullet, flounder, hapuku. blue cod4,931. cwt.7,506
KaiparaSnapper, flounder, mullet2,970 cwt.4,000
Port.Principal Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.
Auckland DistrictSnapper, tarakihi, trevally, flounder, gurnard, hapuku, dory, kingfish, blue cod, barracouta, mullet, garfish91,512 cwt.£ 65,498
 Crayfish1,587 cwt.1,420
 Mussels3,500 sacks875
ThamesSnapper, gurnard, dory, mullet, flounder, dab, pioke17,412 cwt.13,595
Mercury BaySnapper, tarakihi, hapuku, gurnard, blue-cod, flounder, kingfish, crayfish1,603 cwt.1,302
TaurangaSnapper, hapuku, trevally, blue cod, tarakihi, mullet, kingfish6,046 cwt.4,053
OpotikiFlounder, hapuku, gurnard, snapper, tarakihi129 cwt.427
GisborneTarakihi, gurnard, snapper, flounder, sole, kahawai, hapuku3,281 cwt,4,593
NapierTarakihi, snapper, moki, kahawai, gurnard, trevally, hapuku, kingfish, barracouta, john-dory, flounder, sole, brill, warehou11,325 cwt.9,942
New PlymouthSnapper, hapuku, kingfish, tarakihi, kahawai, cod, crayfish, gurnard3,772 cwt.4,428
WanganuiBlue cod, hapuku, flounder, snapper244 cwt.298
WellingtonTarakihi, gurnard, flounder, sole, snapper, ling, warehou, hapuku, moki, butterfish, blue cod, southern kingfish, crayfish, hake, trevally43,477 cwt.54,025
PictonHapuku, moki, butterfish, garfish, crayfish, blue cod, flounder3,280 cwt.3,121
BlenheimRed cod, sole, flounder, snapper, moki, hapuku, gurnard, tarakihi, butterfish, crayfish3,060 cwt.2,470
NelsonSnapper, flounder, gurnard, bream, hapuku, coil, crayfish3,558 cwt.3,569
WestportSole, hapuku, turbot, flounder, ling, crayfish, snapper513 cwt.731
GreymouthWhitebait, flounder, sole, cod, hapuku, snapper, gurnard, hake, tarakihi, turbot4,547 cwt.3,849
KaikouraHapuku, ling, trumpeter, southern king fish, cod, hake, tarakihi, crayfish4,431 cwt,5,220
AkaroaHapuku, conger eel, flounder, sole, brill, blue and red cod, crayfish, barracouta, kingfish, moki, butterfish4,297 cwt.3,828
LyttletonHapuku, barracouta, flounder, sole, gurnard, brill, tarakihi, ling11,172 cwt,10,110
TimaruFlounder, sale, brill, hapuku, ling, red cod, gurnard, barracouta11,519 cwt.14,974
Oamaru and MoerakiHapuku, red cod, blue cod, moki, barracouta, ling, crayfish4,880 cwt.4,905
Dunedin and Otago DistrictHapuku, ling, red cod, barracouta, kingfish, blue cod, moki, trumpeter, tarakihi, trevally, mullet, garfish, kahawai, kelpfish, sole, flounder, brill, skate50,320 cwt,35,224
Bluff and InvercargillHapuku, blue cod, flounder8,470 cwt.12,898
 Oysters42,170 sacks21,088
Stewart IslandBlue cod, hapuku8,982 cwt.8,580
Chatham IslandsBlue cod, hapuku0,079 cwt.3,117

The quantity of fish recorded as having been brought in from the fishing-grounds for the year ended the 31st March, 1934, was 313,319 cwt., which, with 2,118 cwt. or whitebait, 4,888 sacks of mussels, and 8,922 cwt. of crayfish, represented a whole-sale value of approximately £300,903. The wholesale value of the oysters landed from the various beds was £20,342, and in addition the produce of the mainland whale-fisheries was 208 tons of oil.

Included in New Zealand produce exported during the last five years were—

Item.1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 £££££
Fish83,00070,72144,58851,30775,019
Oysters4361,4805313821,048
Whalebone50..   
Whale-oil7,6254,9853,7612,7002,274
Ambergris7,200.. 62222
Other products of fisheries1850141051,011
Total exports98,32977,23048,89454,55078,003
Imports209,359159,25173,29481,10568,233

Frozen blue cod comprises a considerable portion (£20,700 in 1933) of the exports.

VESSELS AND PERSONS EMPLOYED IN FISHING INDUSTRY.

A table showing the various classes of vessels engaged in the fishing industry, together with the number of persons employed, is given below for the year ended 31st March, 1934:—

 Whole Time.Part Time.Total.
Vessels engaged in fishing for wet fish—   
Steam trawlers81725
Motor trawlers275083
Steamers—Danish seining3..3
Motor-vessels—Danish seining402167
Motor-vessels—Set-net and line fishing527332859
Sailing-boats61022
Row-boats107314421
Vessels engaged in shell-fishing—   
Oyster-dredging vessels7..7
Mussel-dredging vessels314
Cray fishing-vessels3190199
Number of persons employed—   
Fishermen1,6731,1392,812
Others (excluding retailers)24293335

OYSTER-BEDS.

The principal oyster-beds round the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland Peninsula. The Foveaux Strait beds are very extensive.

During the 1933 season 42,176 sacks of oysters, valued at £21,088, were dredged from the Foveaux Strait beds, as compared with 37,481 sacks, valued at £19,076, in 1932.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but owing to stripping of the beds close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock-oysters from the North Island beds has been undertaken by t e State, private picking being prohibited. Oysters picked and sold by the State in 1933 realized £5,337 (1932, £5,047); the cost of picking and soiling this item, including interest and depreciation on the cost of the oil-launches used by the Inspectors and all overhead expenses, was in 1933, £5,007 (1932, £5,221). A profit accrues to the State in most years, and the scheme has, moreover, resulted in the conservation and extension of the beds.

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

CRAYFISH.

Marine crayfish occur in abundance off many parts of the New Zealand coast and are caught in baited traps and nets for supplying the local markets. A small but increasing canning industry is also carried on. In the last two years an export trade has been developed, and 2,728 cwt. of frozen crayfish “tails,” valued at £9,288, were exported in the year ended 31st March, 1937.

WHALING

The whaling industry in New Zealand has gradually declined in importance until at presort only two stations remain. The whales caught are mostly of the hump-back variety. At Whangamumu, North Auckland, a very serviceable whaling plant has been established. Forty-eight whales were taken in the 1931 season in this locality, yielding 240 tons of oil and 44 tons of bonedust. The station was inactive in 1932. In 1933 three whales were caught during the taking of a motion-picture film, and yielded three tons of oil. The product of the Marlborough whale-fisheries in 1931 was 290 tons of oil and 30 tons of fertilizer, &c. Sixty-two hump-back whales and one blue whale were taken. In 1932 only a limited amount of whaling was carried on in the Marlborough Sounds, the yield being 92 tons of oil from 18 whales. Diminished activities in 1932 were due to markets being ever-supplied with whale-oil. In the 1933 season 41 hump-back whales were taken which yielded 205 tons of oil.

A reference to the whaling operations carried out in the Ross Sea appears in the section on “Dependencies.”

SEALS.

For many years past the taking of seals has been prohibited, the close season originally declared having been extended from time to time for periods of three years. The latest extension carries the close season to 30th November, 1937.

MARINE FISH-HATCHERY.

The erection of the marine fish - hatchery at Portobello, Otago Harbour, was carried out by a Board set up to superintend the work of the hatchery, funds being provided by the State, and grants being made by the Otago Institute, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and a number of acclimatization societies. The State makes an annual grant towards the maintenance of the hatchery, the buildings and equipment of which have also been added to from time to time.

Experiments have been carried out with a view to introducing certain English food fishes to New Zealand waters—viz., lobsters, edible crabs, and turbot. Valuable work has also been done in the direction of hatching the spawn of various indigenous fishes and in making a study of their life-habits.

INLAND FISHERIES.

The early colonists who emigrated from Britain to New Zealand were much surprised to find a country with such splendid rivers and lakes, but with no fish of any commercial or sporting value in them. In a few years the question of introducing some of the British salmonidae was considered, and as early as 1864 the matter assumed definite shape when the Otago Provincial Council took it up, and voted a sum for the importation of Atlantic salmon and English brown trout. There was, however, some delay in arranging for shipment, and it was not until 1868 that the first consignments of salmon and trout eggs arrived. Since that time the English brown trout (S. fario), Loch Leven (S. levenensis), American rainbow (S. irideus), American brook-trout (S. fontinalis), Quinnat salmon (0. tschawytscha), Atlantic salmon, English perch, and tench have been successfully acclimatized.

Ova of the sockeye or blue-back salmon were imported in 1902, and specimens of this fish were said to have been caught in 1907. A number of dwarf sockeye exist in Lake Ohau, having acquired a land-locked habit. These fish run up creeks at the head of the lake and spawn there every season in March and April.

Several shipments of whitefish-ova were made in 1898 and succeeding years, the fry being liberated in Lakes Kanieri and Tekapo. Reports as to the fish having been seen were received from time to time, but so far as is known no whitefish have yet been caught.

With the exception of the Hot Lakes District, which is under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs, the propagation of trout and the oversight of fishing operations is carried out by thirty local acclimatization societies, fishing licenses being issued on payment of a small fee. The Department of Internal Affairs maintains hatcheries at Tokaanu (Tongariro) and Rotorua.

The acclimatization of sporting varieties has been attended with such remarkable success that now, and for many years past, the widespread fishing waters of New Zealand have been unexcelled as an angler's Paradise.

ATLANTIC SALMON

The first shipment of Atlantic-salmon eggs arrived in 1868, but up to 1908 there was no proof that these fish had been acclimatized, and the Government in that year decided to make a vigorous and systematic effort to establish them, concentrating on a single river, the Waiau, in Southland, and a hatchery was erected near the lower end of Lake Te Anau. The first definite results wore obtained in 1921, and the Atlantic salmon is new established in the Waiau River system.

The fish appear to have increased rapidly, but of recent years, with improved access to Te Anau, the fishing has also greatly increased. In 1930 certain restrictions were imposed on the fishing, and a limit was placed on the number which might be taken in any one day. Last spawning season the weather and river conditions were very unfavourable for collecting salmon-eggs, and only 233,000 were secured, from which 220,000 fry were liberated in the Upokororo and Eglinton Rivers. Stocking the Wanganui River, in the North Island, with these fish has been attempted, most of the eggs collected during seven seasons having been hatched out at the Government hatchery on Waitea Greek, on the upper Wanganui, and the young fish liberated in suitable tributary streams and in the main river. It would appear that the North Island waters are not suitable for the species.

QUINNAT SALMON.

The first importation of quinnat-salmon ova was made in 1875, and from that date to 1880 several shipments were made without result.

In 1900 the Government decided to make a vigorous effort to establish this fish, and from that year to 1907 annual importations of half a million eggs were made, the young fish being liberated in the Waitaki. The result of the systematic effort made to establish the quinnat has been highly successful. There has been a steady increase in the Waitaki every season, and they have new spread northward into all the larger rivers of Canterbury as far as the Waiau, North Canterbury. They occasionally make their way into North Island rivers. Quinnat have been taken in the Wanganui River and in the Tarawera River, Bay of Plenty. These are cases of the furthest north distribution so far ascertained. Licenses for £1 for the season are issued to anglers empowering them to sell their catches, and sea-fishermen, on payment of a license fee of £1, are allowed to take salmon and market their catches. In the 1934 season four licenses were issued (fee, £5) for restricted net-fishing in the Waimakariri River. From January to April 1,118 fish, averaging 12. in weight, were caught by the nets-men and probably no fewer by anglers.

Chapter 19. SECTION XIX.—MINING.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN no other country of equal size to New Zealand are indications of a greater number of economic minerals to be found, yet, with the exception of iron-ore, the known mineral reserves are not great in comparison with those in many other countries. The coal reserves of the Dominion are considerable, however, and their duration will be extended by the utilization of the enormous water-power resources of the country.

The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, has again come into prominence, mainly on account of the enhanced price of gold. The present depression has also caused a large number of unemployed men to turn their attention to gold prospecting.

In chronological comparisons of values of production or export, particularly in the case of gold, it is important not to overlook the fact that all monetary expressions of value in this section are in terms of New Zealand currency, which since 1929 has been at widely varying levels below gold-standard parity.

The following statement shows the production of metalliferous mines, of stone-quarries under the Stone-quarries Act, and of coal-mines:—

Mineral.1932.1933
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Oz.£Oz.£
Gold and silver729,1461,019,814592,2471,099,579
Platinum.. 21
 Tons cwt. Tons cwt. 
Iron.. 3,286 016,842
Quicksilver.. 4 01,240
Stone..241,920..196,481
Pumice3,166 011,8122,387 08,544
Coal1,842,022 01,842,0221,821,258 01,821,258
     Totals..3,115,568..3,143,965

The production of gold and silver is of necessity taken together, as separate figures are not available; an estimate is, however, given under the next title. Kauri-gum, the (chiefly) fossilized resin of former kauri forests, is counted as a mineral, but is not included in the above table.

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals and allied substances exported:—

Mineral.1931.1932.1933.Total from 1st January, 1853, to 31st December, 1933.
 ££££
Gold581,0321,092,2881,281,61297,413,444
Silver34,43640,73736,6663,301,513
Tungsten-ore320710766313,005
Antimony-ore36.. 55,081
Quicksilver7,760..1,23018,514
Other minerals7,78011,8328,557534,075
Kauri-gum128,09562,13777,97323,099,972
Coal (including bunker)83,39356,32153,6907,265,136
     Totals842,8521,264,0251,460,494132,000,740

GOLD-MINING

The actual figures of gold-production are not available owing to no distinction being made between gold and silver in the case of certain mines which produce both. The following statement shows bullion-production during 1933:—

Production of Bullion.*Number of Persons ordinarily employed at Productive and Unproductive Mines and Dredges.Number of Productive Mines and Dredges.
Quantity.Value.
* Including a proportion of silver.
 Oz.£  
Quartz-mining534,821721,0921,56151
Dredge mining22,045160,0331207
Alluvial mining35,381217,8544,5312,410
Totals, 1933592,2471,099,5796,2122,468

The number of persons employed in gold-mining shows a considerable increase over the previous year's figure of 3,630, while the number of mines have increased from 1,960 to 2,468. This improvement has been caused partly by the enhanced price of gold and partly by the system of assistance to miners by subsidies from the Unemployment Fund (vide Section XXXVIII).

The following table shows the production of bullion for the last five years and the estimated gold content for four years. It will also be seen from the last column what the advance in the price of gold has meant to the industry. The price of gold has shown a further advance in 1934. and on 11th October had reached a record level of £(N.Z.)8 19s.

Year.Production of Gold and Silver Bullion.Estimated Gold Content.Approximate Average London Price of Gold per Ounce.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* Ounces of fineness of 20 carats or upwards.

† Fine ounces-i.e., 24 carats. Prices are given in New Zealand currency.

 Oz.*£Oz.*££ s.
1929571,320527,340.. 4 6
1930639,795550,978120,931499,7444 8
1931564,871657,189129,861627,4515 17
1932729,1461,019,814166,354974,7346 9
1933592,2471,099,579161,7551,063,5437 16

It is to be noted that export duties on gold have been raised considerably in recent years (vide “Export Duties” p, 230)

The export of gold (New Zealand produce only) according to districts of production during the last two years, together with the total since April, 1857, when the first parcel was exported, is as shown in the next table. Quantities are in ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards (actually they approach closely to a 24-carat standard; investigation in a recent year gave an actual average of 23.5 carats). The figures comprise gold in the form of bar, dust, ingot, sheet, concentrate;, ores, jewellers' sweepings, &c., or contained in or recovered from old jewellery.

District.1932.1933.Total, 1857–1933.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
Oz.£Oz.£Oz.£Oz.
Auckland84,042474,87276,722578,9367,876,98631,138,062
Wellington..   188706
Marlborough2,02810,5841,55210,556113,918450,899
Nelson2,27313,7915,29337,3881,751,3666,965,081
West Coast58,965314,33258,405419,6346,781,67827,187,853
Canterbury313212162645
Otago20,410112,11123,009158,7397,851,58431,372,136
Unknown32,921160,58512,25876,34759,031298,062
     Totals200,0481,092.288177,2411,281,61224,434,91397,413,444

With the departure of Britain from the gold standard in September, 1931, and the consequent depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of gold, the resultant high prices ruling for gold induced a considerable export in 1932 and 1933 of old jewellery or metal obtained therefrom. The gold content of this export in 1932 and 1933 amounted to 48,905 oz. and 21,492 oz. respectively, valued at £241,348 and £135,146. Of the 1933 total, some 11,757 oz. (1932, 32,003 oz.), valued at £73,167 (1932, £161,825), was classed (as New Zealand produce, and is therefore included in the preceding table and also in the second table in this section.

The most important gold-mining operations in New Zealand consist in the working of quartz lodes and the extraction of the precious metals therefrom. Quartz-mining in the North Island is conducted mainly in With Borough, whence was derived a great part (£529,833) of the raw gold exported during 1933. In the South Island quartz-mining operations are carried on principally in the Reefton and Blackwater districts and in Otago. The average value per ton of ore treated during 1933 amounted to £2 9s., as compared with £2 16s. 3d. during 1932.

Alluvial gold, the production of which in 1933 was greater by 8,167 oz. than in the previous year and the value by £66,800, is found chiefly on the West Coast of the South Island and in Otago, where mining operations have been conducted over an area of 17,000 square miles. Greatly increased activity has taken place in prospecting the auriferous alluvium of the West Coast and Otago during the last two years.

Gold-dredging has rapidly declined in importance, the number of productive dredges having decreased from 167 during 1906 to seven during 1933. Of the total dredge production of £1611,033 in 1933, £146,941 was won by four dredges on the West Coast, the largest producer of which was the Rimu dredge with £110,671. One dredge in Otago won gold to the value of £9,118.

Renewed activity is being shown in this branch, the number of dredges operating having increased by three during the year.

WORLD'S GOLD-PRODUCTION.

The following figures showing the world's gold-production for the last ten years have been compiled from official sources by the American Bureau of Metal Statistics:—

Year.Fine Ounces.
* Subject to amendment.
192419,050,134
192519,031,137
192619,369,364
192719,445,612
192819,583,153
192919,584,821
193020,721,981
193122,370,718
193224,227,415*
193325,369,879*

SILVER.

Nearly the whole of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand, amounting in value up to the end of 1933 to £3,301,513, has been obtained from the refinement of bullion from tie quartz-mines, principally those of the Hauraki Goldfield, where gold and silver are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in this country. Estimated production during the last four years has been (fine ounces): 1930, 5 18,864; 1931, 435,010; 1932, 562,792; and 1933, 430,492.

IRON-ORES.

The most extensive iron-ore deposits occur near Parapara and Onakaka, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Provincial District. The limonite deposit of this locality is of great extent, and it is estimated in “Iron-ore Resources of the World,” published by the International Geological Congress, to contain 64,000,000 metric tons, of which about 30,000,000 tons occur in the Onakaka Block.

In 1921 an iron and steel company constructed a blast-furnace installation on its lease at Onakaka, and, subsequently, a pipe-making plant. A considerable output of excellent quality was maintained for some years, but production ceased in 1931. The plant was re-opened for several months in 1933. during which 3,286 tons of pig iron were produced. At present it is understood that there is a possibility of a large-scale rehabilitation at Onakaka in the near future.

A trial of the Onakaka pig-iron carried out during 1931 yielded the exceptionally good test of 35,000 lb., British standard specification showing a test at 28,000 lb.

Several attempts have been made to smelt Taranaki ironsand, but the results have not been quite satisfactory, as the cost was too high.

During 1914 the Government, with a view to stimulating interest in this industry, passed an Act having for its object the payment of fairly large bonuses for the production in New Zealand of pig iron, puddled bar iron, and steel.

TUNGSTEN-ORE.

Scheelite, one of the, principal ores of tungsten, was for a number of years mined on a fairly extensive scale in conjunction with gold, the principal gold-scheelite mines being those at or near Glenorchy; Paradise, Macrae's, Stoneburn, Hyde, and Barewood, Otago; and at Wakamarina Valley, Marlborough.

Exports which in 1910–19 averaged £26,000 annually fell to a low figure from 1920 onwards. No scheelite was produced during 1933, on account of the continued low-values. The market, however, shows an improvement and production is likely to recommence in 1934.

The total quantity of locally produced ore exported to 31st December, 1933, was 2,481 tons, valued at £313,005.

COPPER.

Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities, but the total recorded copper export to the end of 1933 amounted in value to only £19,390. There has been no production for a number of years. Prior to the inauguration of systematic records there was a considerable production from mines on Great Barrier and Kawau Islands.

MANGANESE-ORE.

Manganese-ore has been found at Otau, Wairoa, Ba}' of Islands, Purua Bay, Mangapai, Otonga, Waiheke Island, and Taieri Mouth, and has been mined at Tikiora, near the Bay of Islands, and at Waiheke Island. Fluctuating prices have prevented expansion of this industry. The total quantity of locally produced manganese-ore exported to the end of 1933 amounted to 19,387 tons, of a value of £62,011.

CINNABAR.

Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand. The most important accumulations are in North Auckland, where for some years efforts were made to place the production on a commercial basis. The deposits are large enough to make this a reasonable expectation. Since mercury-ore bodies are notoriously irregular in form, no reliable estimate of the amount available can be made on the present data.

At Ngawha Springs. North Auckland, production ceased in 1931 owing to difficulties in recovering the mercury and the substantial fall in price.

The total quantity of quicksilver of New Zealand origin exported to the 31st December, 1933, was 37 tons 11 cwt., valued at £18,514.

TIN.

Cassiterite in the form of “stream-tin” occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, where it has been worked to some extent. “Lode-tin” has been found in the same locality. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Reef ton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.

In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand platinum is stated to occur in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been exported.

The Customs Department has not, kept any separate record of the quantity and value of platinum entered for exportation, the value of this metal exported being included in a general total of exports by parcel-post, by which means platinum has generally been despatched from the Dominion.

During 1933 3½ oz. of platinum, valued at £21, were recovered from the claims at Orepuki.

SULPHUR.

Native sulphur in sufficient quantity to be worked profitably occurs in the thermal districts of the North Island, near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island.

White Island also contains several guano deposits, but no reliable estimate has yet been made of the quantity and quality available.

Sulphur is mostly disposed of locally as fertilizer, but exports of New Zealand origin to the end of 1033 have aggregated £13,241. None of the sulphur deposits were worked during 1933, although a little prospecting and testing was done in one mine near Taupo.

COAL.

Coal, varying in grade from anthracite to lignite, occurs in many parts of New Zealand. In proportion to the present yearly consumption of about 2,000,000 tons the supply may be considered relatively large, but in comparison with probable future needs it is decidedly small.

An estimate of the proved coal resources of New Zealand prepared in 1927 is as follows (millions of tons): Anthracite, very little; bituminous, 206; semi-bituminous, 60; brown, 247; lignite, 150: total, 663. The probable resources are estimated at 1,631,000,000 tons.

The following table summarizes coal-mining operations:—

Year.Output. (Tons.)Persons employed above and below Ground.Tors raised per Person employed Underground.Lives lost
Number.Per Million Tons raised.Per Thousand Persons employed.
Prior to 192457,521,141..3696.42.. 
19242,083,2074,869594104.802.05
19252,114,9954,77760683.781.67
19262,239,9995,159586156.692.90
19272,366,7405,374593104.231.86
19282,436,7535,37660893.691.67
19292,535,8645,497614124.732.18
19302,542,0925,867574145.502.38
19312,157,7565,74549841.850.69
19321,842,0224,636545126.512.59
19331,821,2584,38657073.841.59
Totals to date79,661,827..4705.90.. 

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1933 is summarized as follows:—

Class of Coal.Northern (North Island).West Coast (South Island).Southern (South Island).Totals.Total Output to the End of 1933.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous and sub-bituminous96,499747,340..843,84547,320,800
Brown530,42734,775295,036860,23827,567,015
Lignite..1,264115,911117,1754,773,412
Totals, 1933626,926783,385410,9471,821,25879,661,827
Totals, 1932607,469844,010390,5431,842,02277,840,569

The gross output of coal for 1933 was 20,764 tons less than the total for 1932. The decline in output is due to the lessened demand occasioned through the general depression, also to the increasing use of fuel oil and electricity for power purposes. The better use of lower-grade coal in many plants has resulted in the displacement, to a certain extent, of the high calorific-value coals. This tendency appears to be reflected in the increased production of brown coal and lignite and the decreased output from bituminous mines. Co-operative mining continues to be successfully carried out in the Northern and Went Coast districts.

Regular and systematic coal-research work at the Dominion Laboratory has not been possible since the disbandment of the Coal Research Association in 1932.

During the year two carbonizing and briquetting plants were operating at Stockburn and Rotowaro respectively, although in the latter case the plant was shut down during the summer months. There is an increasing demand for carbonettes, while by-products, such as fuel-oil and weed-killer, find a ready sale. Experiments were also carried out in regard to the production of Diesel oils, disinfectant, and sheep-dip. Production at Rotowaro in 1933 was: Raw coal treated, 21,936 tons; carbonettes manufactured, 12,425 tons; oil made, 135,320 tons; and pitch made, 300 tons. Results of briquetting experiments have been published in Bulletin No. 39, New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

STATE COLLIERIES.

The Coal-mines Act of 1901 provided for the acquisition and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines. At the present time two State collieries are in operation.

During 1933–34 the Liverpool Colliery produced 88.870 tons of marketable coal, a decrease of 4,910 tons on the previous year's production. The James Colliery produced 32,579 tons of marketable coal during the year, an increase of 3,559 tons on the production for 1932–33.

The disposal, inclusive of stocks on hand at the beginning of the year, was as follows:—

Supplied toTons.
Depots30,786
Railways20,924
Other Government Departments2,595
Shipping companies7,548
Gas companies50,282
Other consumers3,217
     Total115,352

The total sales of State coal from the Liverpool Mine for the year amounted to 87,104 tons, value £104,191, as compared with 94,031 tons, value £ 114,432, for 1932–33. a decrease of (5,927 tons, in value £10,241. The average price realized by the mine on the total sales for the year was £1 3s. 11.ld. per ton, a decrease of 5d. on the previous year's average.

The total sales of State coal from the James Mine for the year amounted to 28,248 tons, value £41,328, giving an average of £1 9s. 3.1d. per ton, an increase of 2s. 10.9d. on last year's average. As compared with 1932–33, there is an increase in quantity of 824 tons, and in value of £5,197. The values for both mines include sales made c. and f. and f.o.b. as well as f.o.r.

The sales of coal, &c, through the medium of the depots totalled 8O,170 tons, value £144,025, as against 89,482 tons, value £158,873, for 1932–33. The net profit for 1933–34 at the mines was £3,059, and the net profit at the depots, royalties, &c, £8,326, making a total net profit of £11,985. The sum of £8,078 was applied to Sinking Fund Account, leaving a balance of £3,907 in the Profit and Loss Account.

The number of miners, &c., employed in State collieries at 1st April, 1934, was 376.

PETROLEUM.

Drilling for petroleum has in recent years been carried out in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Southland, and Westland. A considerable number of deep boreholes in search of petroleum have been drilled, the deepest being at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which attained a depth of approximately 6,000 ft. Petroleum of good quality but in limited quantity has been proved, but up to the present time boring for petroleum in the Dominion has achieved only a small flow.

During 1933 a limited amount of drilling was carried on in the New Plymouth district. The aggregate footage bored was 3,128 ft. A total production of 169,675 gallons of oil was obtained from Moturoa Nos. 1 and 2 wells at New Plymouth. The total production of crude petroleum oil to the 31st December, 1933, is estimated at 2,067,464 gallons.

Oil-prospecting operations throughout the Dominion have received very liberal financial assistance from the Government in the form of bonuses, subsidies, and loans.

KAURI-GUM.

The European market for kauri-gum—used in the manufacture of varnish and linoleum—being greatly restricted by the war, new but smaller markets were obtained. The Kauri-gum Industry Amendment Act, 1914, providing for State purchase of gum from diggers and the disposal of the gum, served a useful purpose in enabling the industry to keep going in spite of the disorganization occasioned by the war.

A system of control of the trade in and export of kauri-gum was provided by the Kauri-gum Control Act, 1925. The Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2) provides for the “repeal of the Control Act, 192”). The property of the Kauri-gum Control Hoard is vested in the Crown, the Minister of Lands taking over the powers and obligations of the Board.

During 1933 3,089 tons of kauri-gum, valued at £77,973, were exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1933 being 425,337 tons, valued at £23,099,972.

Production of kauri-gum can be gauged approximately by export figures or by the following figures showing kauri-gum received at Auckland from the gumfields: 1929–30, 4,628 tons; 1930–31, 3,520 tons; 1931–32, 3,004 tons; 1932–33, 2,229 tons; 1933–34, 2,804 tons. The Kauri-gum Industry Account (account abolished 31st March, 1931) showed an accumulated loss of £72,995 at 31st March, 1934.

PHOSPHATE ROCK.

At Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, considerable deposits of phosphate rock were discovered in 1902, and up to recent years were actively worked. There has been no output, however, since 1924. A thin bed of phosphatic rock has been identified at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, in Marlborough. A similar bed occurs near Port Robinson. Phosphatic nodules are found in the Kaikorai Valley (near Dunedin), at Weka Pass (North Canterbury), and elsewhere. A limestone containing 10.6 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate occurs in the neighbourhood of Onewhero, Waikato district. Other districts where phosphatic material of good quality, though, so far as known, not in commercial quantity, is found are Amberley, Dipton, Oamaru, Waimate, Wangapeka, Clarence Valley, Tutira Block (Mangaharuru Survey District, Hawke's Bay), and Whangarei.

GREENSTONE.

The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” whenever observed in situ occurs as rounded segregations in talc or talc-serpentine rocks. These segregations vary up to 2 ft. or even more in lateral dimensions. As a rule they average less than 1 ft. in width. So far as is known, the mineral has been found in its original locus only in the Griffin Range, Turiwhate Survey District, North Westland.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.

New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, andesite, porphyrite and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. In addition there are the Whangarei limestone and the Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there is the granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay, and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. The Parliamentary Buildings at Wellington were constructed of this marble. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, North Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there are the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

The following table relates to quarries under the Stone-quarries Act for the year 1933:—

Provincial District.Number of Working Quarries under the Act.Number of Persons ordinarily employed.Output of Stone.
Stone or Gravel for Macadamizing or Ballast.Stone for Harbour-works.Building or Monumental Stone.Limestone for Agriculture.Limestone for Cement or Mortar.Miscellaneous.Value at Quarry.
   Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.£
Auckland184964347,767..70069,07183,74675684,935
Hawke's Bay3212026,397.. 16,834.. 8,228
Taranaki169717,310..    2,984
Wellington3012349,401..  1284,00010,544
Nelson..        
Westland2013948,95610,883..5,45222,15113,06516,670
Marlborough..        
Canterbury..        
Otago37268132,09247,8601,294100,53130,714..73,120
Southland..        
Totals, 19333191,711621,92358,7431,994191,888137,03917,821196,481
Totals, 19323321,888714,73286,240884201,735151,1005,020241,920

The Stone-quarries Act, 1910, and amendments, applies to every place, not being a mine, in which persons work in quarrying stone and any part of which has a face more than 15 ft. deep, and also to any tunnel in the construction of which explosives are used. The Act, however, does not, apply to any Government operations, or any road or railway cutting, or excavations for buildings.

PERSONS ENGAGED IN MINING AND QUARRYING.

The following table shows the number of persons employed in or about mines and stone-quarries during the last five years:—

 1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Metalliferous mines1,6111,8162,0103,6526,221
Coal-mines5,4975,8675,7454,6364,386
Stone-quarries2,1301,9581,9951,8881,711
     Totals9,2389,6419,75010,17612,318

STATE AID TO MINING.

In no other country does the State offer such liberal and varied assistance to miners and prospectors as in New Zealand. State aid to mining in this Dominion is given in several forms, viz.:—

(1) Geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) Government prospecting-drills: (4) schools of mines; (5) subsidized roads to mining-fields.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Since the first discovery of coal and the precious metals in New Zealand the Government has employed skilled geologists, who have reported, after examination. on all the known mineral deposits. Since 1910 the Geological Survey has been enlarged.

During the field season of 1933–34 the Geological Survey continued detailed investigations of an area north of Masterton where indications of petroleum are numerous, and. in addition to the systematic survey of Maniototo District, detailed investigation of gold diggings in Otago and of the alluvial deposits on the West Coast have been carried out.

During the year geophysical parties were established by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and much important ground work has been accomplished. It is hoped that in the coming year the application of modern geophysical methods will result in increased activity in gold production.

FINANCIAL AID TO PROSPECTING.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Native land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licenses for coal.

During the year ended 31st March, 1934. a total of £3,100 was actually expended by the Mines Department in subsidies for prospecting (exclusive of £036 in connection with the Unemployment Board's prospecting schemes), and 190 persons were given employment thereby. In addition, approximately 4,000 men were engaged during the year under the Unemployment Board's prospecting schemes at an approximate cost of £200,000 (vide Section XXXVIII).

GOVERNMENT PROSPECTING -DRILLS.

Prospecting-drills of various types suitable for the conditions existing in the Dominion are lent to bona fide prospectors. A monthly rental is charged for the plant, and the hirer is required to maintain it in good order and condition. Working-expenses are also paid by the hirer, including renewals, &c, and the loss on carbons.

The hirer is required to furnish to the Mines Department weekly reports of boring results.

Considerable use was made of the Government prospecting-drills during 1933, an aggregate of 10,806 ft. being drilled in 255 holes for nineteen parties.

SCHOOLS OF MINES.

For the education of prospectors and mining students six schools of mines are subsidized by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Westport, Reefton, and Runanga. Six scholarships, tenable for four years, are offered annually by the Mines Department.

The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended the 31st March, 1934, was £3,209, as against £3,094 during the previous year.

SUBSIDIZED ROADS.

The expenditure in the form of subsidies and direct grants upon roads on gold-fields during the year ended the 31st March, 1934, amounted to £1,227. as compared with £1,182 during the previous year.

LEAFLETS.

Another form of Government assistance to mining consists of the publication of several leaflets as a guide to the prospector. These leaflets may be obtained on application to the Mines Department, and deal with: (a) Description of fields which may be considered to warrant further examination for gold; (b) description of best ways of seeking for and saving gold; (c) brief summary of statutory procedure to be followed to obtain a right to prospect or mine for metals or minerals under the Mining Act; (d) notes on the taking of samples of mineral deposits and the valuation of mining prospects; (e) notes for drilling and a method of calculating gold value of alluvial deposits.

BOARD OF EXAMINERS.

The Board of Examiners annually conducts examinations of candidates for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers and mine-surveyors under the Coal-mines Act. Examinations of candidates for certificates as underviewers and firemen and deputies under the Coal-mines Act are held periodically when necessary. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners. Forty-five certificates were issued in 1933.

SICK AND ACCIDENT AND COAL-MINERS' RELIEF FUNDS.

As required by the Coal-mines Act, 1925, the owner of every coal-mine contributes £d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of coal-miners who may be injured while working, and for the relief of families of goal-miners who may be killed or injured.

Under that Act the Miners' Sick and Accident Funds were as from the 1st April, 1926, abolished and incorporated in the Coal-miners' Relief Fund. All accident relief payments are new made from the Coal-miners Relief Fund, which is administered by the Public Trustee with the assistance of local committees.

The income from the ½d. per ton contribution was £4,401 during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1934, as compared with £3,805 during 1932–33, and interest earnings brought the total receipts to £5,230 and £4,725 for the respective years. The total expenditure for the year ended 31st March, 1934, amounted to £4,605, as against £4,722 for the previous year. The amount standing to the credit of the fund as at the 31st March, 1934, was £23,749, as against £23,125 twelve months earlier.

MINER'S PHTHISIS PENSIONS.

Information concerning pensions for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis appears in the section of this book dealing with pensions, superannuation, &c.

Chapter 20. SECTION XX.—FACTORY PRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

AT present the Dominion's industrial field is for the main part limited to the treatment of the principal primary products. Statistics for recent years, however, indicate advancement among the principal branches of manufacture, as well as a tendency, with the increasing population, for greater diversity in the branches covered. Statistics of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census. Commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one. Years quoted in this section correspond approximately to fiscal years ending 31st March. Figures will be found in greater detail than is possible here in the annual “Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.”

Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of factory production a “factory” is defined as an establishment engaged in the manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export, which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies. waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even although employing less than two hands and not. using motive power: Tanneries; bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories; brickyards: and timeworks.

The definition is fairly comprehensive, and includes such industries as, for instance, jewellery and watch repairing and boot, shoe, and saddlery repairing. Small establishments thus engaged were at one time included in the statistics, but they are new excluded unless they are. also engaged in actual manufacture and have at least two persons engaged or use motive power.

Other classes of establishments formerly covered by the statistics but excluded from 1921–22 onwards are those engaged in dressmaking and millinery (unless manufacturing wholesale for sale in retail shops), bespoke tailoring, and establishments engaged in tea blending and packing, bottling liquor, stone quarrying and crushing, asphalting, or monumental masonry. The latter industries were excluded to bring the statistics into line with those of other British countries. In addition. returns are not required from plumbers or from builders who make joinery for their own building contracts. Builders are, however, required to furnish annual returns of building and construction, which are dealt with in the next section.

It should be noted that factory-production statistics do not cover, and do not purport to cover, all establishments registered as factories in the Dominion, for the following reasons: “One man” businesses are excluded with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap, or candle factories, brickyards, or lime-works; some small repair-shops (as explained previously) are excluded even although they may employ two or more hands; and in some cases where a factory has two or more branches it has been found impracticable to obtain separate returns, and all branches have been treated as one establishment. The effect of this is seen from the fact that while for the year 1932–33 1(3,176 factories, employing 80,222 hands, were registered under the Factories Act, only 4,993 factories (with, however. 68,921 persons engaged) were covered by the statistics of factory production.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

Both the present magnitude and the steady growth of New Zealand“s factory production are made manifest in the table below. The last three years show a recession, but this is symptomatic of the present conditions of world-depression and does not represent a real decline. If the year 1929–30, as the year preceding the depression, be compared with the year 1910–11, the number of establishments has increased by 4S per cent, of the 1910–11 figure; the cost of materials used by 211 per cent.; the value of output by 214 per cent.; and the “added value” by 217 per cent. The last three figures are, of course, affected by the changes in the purchasing-value of the monetary unit. During the same period the population increased by 41 per cent. The year 1032–33 shows, in some respects, slight improvements as compared with its predecessor. Establishments reporting operations and the number of persons engaged recorded increases of 0.5 per cent. and 0.3 per cent. respectively. The cost of materials used, the value of products, and the “added value” advanced by 0.6 per cent., 0.5 per cent, and 0.3 per cent. respectively. A decline of 4.7 per cent, is registered for the salaries and wages paid, while the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery receded by 0.1 per cent.

Year.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.“Other Expenses” (i, e., Expenses of Operation other than Salaries and Wages and Cost of Materials).Value of Output.Added Value.

* Productive employees.

† Not available.

 £ £££££
1910–113,48345,924*4,786,698*18,782,92929,317,02310,534,094
1915–163,75548,744*5,791,704*30,197,78443,034,03312,836,249
1920–214,02269,68113,172,99652,933,49477,828,01324,894,519
1923–244,45174,51013,851,89046,253,40375,433,60629,180,203
1924–254,53877,18314,945,97551,337,11582,479,37831,142,263
1925–264,79478,70816,153,82251,668,1009,472,30083,435,23031,767,130
1926–275,07878,61316,255,17749,344,4429,684,35181,372,17332,027,731
1027–285,15678,62016,053,21054,558,1679,851,96186,119,03931,560,872
1928–295,12680,61816,291,21259,136,55210,417,29991,565,48032,428,928
1929–305,16882,86116,846,28658,484,2411,112,40491,915,52433,431,279
1930–315,19477,91415,617,05248,458,35610,858,79379,215,41630,757,060
1931–324,96968,69712,642,93542,343,0789,617,23767,813,39425,470,316
1932–334,99368,92112,048,14842,000,49010,251,20468,138,06425,537,574

In making use of the following summary for the year 1932–33 it is necessary to keep in mind the differences in size and population of the respective provincial districts (vide page 55).

Provincial District.Number of Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Cost of Materials.Other Expenses of OperationValue of Output.Added Value.
   £££££
Auckland1,57023,4023,998,36816,776,9004,229,62426,033,9099,257,069
Hawke's Bay2402,641500,8452,085,981412,3143,301,5091,215,528
Taranaki3132,359469,6703,167,845667,1224,402,9901,235,145
Wellington1,06314,8352,623,0138,186,5231,871,03013,479,3795,292,856
Marlborough6949482,540309,45766,636470,691161,234
Nelson1651,271210,574512,022180,934916,551404,529
Westland881,073192,975198,616171,676565,717307,101
Canterbury72111,1261,985,1445,876,5741,267,0309,576,8853,700,311
Otago5049,0831,501,3863,444,726957,8146,295,8742,851,148
Southland2602,637483,6332,041,846427,0243,094,4991,052,653
     Total4,99368,92112,048,14842,6OO,4901O,251,20468,138,06425,537,574

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES.

The establishments recorded in 1932–33 numbered 4,993, an increase of 24 over that for the previous year (4,009). Several Wine- and cider-making concerns were brought within the scope of the collection for the first time, the total establishments in this industry thus showing a nominal increase of 12. Other industries showing noteworthy increases were: Sawmilling, 10; clothing, 10; printing and publishing, 7. Decreases of 10 and 9 establishments were shown for general engineering and furniture respectively.

The following table shows the average (monthly) number of wage-earners and of total persons engaged in each class of industry and the number of establishments operating for the year 1932–33:—

Class of Industry.Number of Establishments.Wage-earning Employees.Total Persons engaged.
M.F.M.F.
Animal food5698,52813610,440531
Vegetable food1351,9131,4272,4791,618
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants2561,2785441,856660
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)6858494775135
Working in wood4904,817195,73298
Vegetable produce for fodder14301568
Paper manufactures19204260287 
Heat, light, and power1462,982194,051355
Processes in stone, clay, glass, &c.2151,30421,69260
Metals other than gold or silver4353,0201174,542293
Precious metals30113215113
Books and publications3624,0931,0106,0591,394
Musical instruments412..151
Ornaments and minor art products44951713424
Designs, medals, type, and dies209121269
Machines, tools, and implements8062672828127
Carriages and vehicles1,0423,17094,270290
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware1348421201,088144
Ships, boats, and their equipment58476120595148
House-furnishings3241,2141701,614228
Chemicals and by-products728782491,135332
Textile fabrics108821,3889981,411
Apparel3952,1087,6612,9668,075
Fibrous materials3034898404107
Miscellaneous2315296182119
     Totals4,99341,02613,63352,45410,467

The distribution of the sexes among the employees shows a considerable preponderance of males. The number of females per hundred males in each of the five years ending 1932–33 has been: 26, 26, 28, 30, and 31.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent; but the male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in greater demand. In Otago the excess of males is less than in any other district, due to the comparative importance of its woollen-milling industry.

The following figures show that for every eight wage-earners there is one proprietor (actively engaged), manager, or overseer.

Group.1931–32.1932–33.Number of Per Cent.Persons. of Total.
Number of Per Cent.Persons. of Total.
Proprietors actively engaged2,1773.22,2683.3
Managers, overseers, &c.4,5356.64,5626.6
Accountants, clerks, &c.7,33710.77,43210.8
Wage-earning employees54,64879.554,65979.3
     Totals68,697100.068,921100.0

An interesting classification of establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, for the last five years is—

Year.10 or under.11–20.21–50.51–100.Over 100.Totals.
Number of Factories.
1928–293,4737755811691285,126
1929–303,4768005911641375,168
1930–313,6067565491531305,194
1931–323,6476304451331144,969
1932–333,6825994611331184,993
Number of Employees.
1928–2915,31011,30817,54211,32425,13480,618
1929–3015,47411,78517,97711,65825,96782,861
1930–3114,96910,98516,57410,58624,80077,914
1931–3214,6539,30413,3969,26722,07768,697
1932–3314,6658,77713,7809,06422,62968,921

SALARIES AND WAGES.

The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages cover the amounts paid in the ordinary way as salaries and wages, as well as bonuses and overtime. Figures illustrative of the rise in the aggregate amount paid in salaries and wages will be found in the first table of this chapter.

The amounts received by male and female employees, and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below:—

Year.Males.FemalesBoth Sexes.
Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 ££££££
1928–2914,623,149227.91,668,063101.416,291,212202.1
1929–3015,102,667230.41,743,619100.716,846,286203.3
1930–3113,974,531228.71,642,52197.715,617,052200.4
1931–3211,194,608211.51,448,32791.812,642,935184.0
1932–3310,588,745201.91,459,40388.612,048,148174.8

Owing to the fact that employees who were engaged for part of the year only could not be excluded from the figures in computing the averages given above, and, further, as it was not practicable to take into consideration other factors which would disturb their accuracy, the averages shown cannot be regarded in other than a general way.

The table following shows the total salaries and wages paid in each class of industry during the year 1932–33.

Class of Industry.Males.Females.
 ££
Animal food2,434,86851,091
Vegetable food499,345126,168
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants427,33469,955
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)171,06112,506
Working in wood963,1198,891
Vegetable produce for fodder10,286904
Paper manufactures59,52923,160
Heat, light, and power959,18944,772
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.311,4085,941
Metals other than gold or silver802,15224,845
Precious metals29,3791,150
Books and publications1,300,496147,239
Musical instruments2,47850
Ornaments and minor art products19,2091,845
Designs, medals, type, and dies25,146769
Machines, tools, and implements144,55411,960
Carriages and vehicles707,48123,815
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware207,62612,876
Ships, boats, and their equipment119,30312,798
House-furnishings252,13419,556
Chemicals and by-products248,69631,991
Textile fabrics201,819123,431
Apparel597,179686,559
Fibrous materials65,1488,101
Miscellaneous29,2069,030
     Totals10,588,7451,459,403

Special returns as to employees and wages in a selected week are collected each year. The period covered is the nearest normal week to 31st March, and the data collected include the number of employees engaged at each wage-rate, as well as the total employees and the total earnings during the specified week. Working proprietors, managers, overseers, accountants, and clerks do not come within the scope of the return, which covers wage-earning employees only, and out-workers, if any. All productive employees are covered, irrespective of age or sox, and the figures are therefore inclusive of many young male and female workers receiving low wages. The inclusion of these workers has the effect of making the average earnings lower than they would otherwise be, and this fact must not be overlooked when the figures are made use of.

Year.Total Wage-earning Employees.Earnings during Specified Week.
Total.Average.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
   £s. d£s. d£s. d.£ s. d.
192452,03811,820221,71621,9754 5 21 17 2
192554,14012,048240,54621,3994 8 101 15 6
192653,90012,287239,16923,3454 8 91 18 0
192753,41212,807236,44524,43914 8 71 18 2
192854,09513,224237,99825,5294 8 01 18 7
192954,65113,696244,54327,0514 9 61 19 6
193057,31714,823262,20027,8804 11 61 17 7
193148,41612,776208,63322,9444 6 21 15 11
193242,29113,143162,69522,8123 17 01 14 9
193343,62113,659160,6551 22,7053 13 81 13 3

Due attention should also be paid to the fact that, although every endeavour is made to choose comparable weeks each year, certain factors may disturb the comparability of the figures from year to year. An unduly late or early season, abnormally wet weather, &c, would conceivably operate to affect the usefulness of either the number of employees or their earnings as indexes of the volume of employment. In using the average earnings it should be borne in mind that these have been computed from the amount earned during the specified week, and are, of course, affected by overtime and short time.

In the table following a summary showing the number of employees within the various wage-groups is given for the specified weeks covered by the returns in 1923 and 1933. Some noteworthy changes in the distribution have occurred in the ten years.

Weekly rate of Wages.Males.Females.
1923.1933.1923.1933.
Under 20s.1,1821, 7711,4492,356
20s. and under 25s.1 1,3911,4601,2591,296
25s. and under 30s.1,2991,1221,3181,346
30s. and under 35s.1,3691,5161,3611,396
35s. and under 40s.8411,4388851,261
40s. and under 45s.9831,4531,9553,438
45s. and under 50s.7021,4591,5651,452
50s. and under 55s.6648651,034565
55s. and under 60s.389810437212
60s. and under 65s.1,0291,282414144
65s. and under 70s.7301,37515540
70s. and under 75s.1,5533,1908940
75s. and under 80s.3,0974,2374017
80s. and under 85s.6,1465,7576229
85s. and under 90s.3,9294,3092613
90s. and under 95s.5,3733,5882210
95s. and under 100s.4,7252,078119
100s. and under 105s.4,3781,7982413
105s. and under 110s.3,05798695
110s. and under 115s.2,24085354
115s. and under 120s.9393432..
120s. and under 130s.2,15687156
130s. and under 140s.900340..1
140s. and under 160s.83539924
160s. and over51032112
     Totals50,42343,62112,13013,659

MOTIVE POWER.

A supply of cheap motive power is essential for industrial development. New Zealand industries have in the past been somewhat handicapped in this respect, as coal and oil, which were in the earlier days the only sources of power, were by no means cheap. The difficulties in the way of obtaining a plentiful supply of cheap motive power are new met by the steady development of hydro-electric power, for which New Zealand is topographically well suited. The State has in recent years developed this phase of the Dominion's resources, and in doing so has provided a margin of power for attracting special industries depending on a supply of cheap motive power, as well as meeting present demands.

The following table shows the numbers of each class of engine used in factories for the last five years, with figures of horse Power:—

Class of Engine1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
SteamNo.1,8471,8181,7911,6171,562
H.P.130,686129,347130,736135,211134,065
Coal-gasNo.191162149116116
H.P.5,8465,3645,0802,0353,158
Suction gasNo.130123949688
H.P.8,5138,3735,9745,9415,685
OilNo.335336372391445
H.P.16,07017,45621,01630,00330,315
ElectricNo.13,73815,02916,02716,42216,942
H.P.119,637131,463136,240134,282139,173
WaterNo.252232205201305
H.P.182,914295,549224,601226,310329,720
TotalsNo.16,49317,70018,63S18,84319,458
H.P.463,666587,552523,647533,78S642,116

It should be borne in mind that the figures relating to the horse-power represent o the indicated horse-power of the engine installed. This may he, and probably is, in many cases quite a different thing from the actual horse-power used. Attention is also directed to the fact that the statistics include the horsepower of turbines, pelton wheels, and other engines used in the generation of electric current.

Class of Industry.1927–28.1932–33.
Number of Engines.Horse-power.Number of Engines.Horse-power.
Animal food3,51462,8304,20966,557
Vegetable food66310,54891812,455
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants7464,9781,0626,549
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1902,1132262,401
Working in wood1,89136,1322,08234,577
Vegetable produce for fodder1323930508
Paper manufactures824,1711003,943
Heat, light, and power198221,097210431,905
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.67523,33693326,428
Metals other than gold or silver1,1409,9271,48512,556
Precious metals58764568
Books and publications1,7017,8442,2149,064
Musical instruments1257722
Ornaments and minor art products37712857
Designs, medals, type, and dies314468130
Machines, tools, and implements1411,1613311,635
Carriages and vehicles1,4004,3131,7374,715
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware3503,2623733,006
Ships, boats, and their equipment104808144906
House-furnishings6903,9139464,680
Chemicals and by-products4655,0507387,948
Textile fabrics2276,0112585,571
Apparel6952,5431,0922,976
Fibrous materials2246,1231182,661
Miscellaneous75458104798
     Totals15,322417,10519,458642,116

A drawback to the statistics arises through the lack of information relating to the actual or estimated period during which the engines or motors were in use. This is an important aspect of considerations affecting the quantitative measurement of the motive power in use.

CONSUMPTION OF COAL.

During the year 1932–33 621,850 tons of coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production, as against 801,225 tons in the previous year. Of this amount, 549,133 tons represented New Zealand coal, and the balance (72,717 tons) imported coal.

Five industries utilized 77 per cent, of the total coal used for the year— namely, gas-making, 207,329 tons; butter, cheese, and condensed milk making, 110,372 tons; lime crushing and burning, 44,014 tons; meat freezing and preserving, 91,825 tons; and electricity-generation and supply, 24,914 tons.

MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.

The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. For instance, materials used or operated upon in the tanning, fell-mongering, and wool-scouring industry were in 1932–33 valued at £632,092, while those used in printing, publishing, and bookbinding were valued at £933,163. If, however, value of output is considered, it is found that the figure for printing and publishing (£3,473,987) is over £2,500,000 greater than that for tanning, &c. (£946,888).

The cost of materials used in the various classes of industries during the last five years is given in the table hereunder:—

Class of Industry.1928–20.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 £££££
Animal food35,320,98034,135,15026,415,23223,912,20823,920,191
Vegetable food4,452,5244,489,3534,255,2573,802,9773,481,267
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,211,4191,351,6741,438,8971,175,6091,142,505
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)808,000734,010682,621384,748382,084
Working in wood1,708,3581,787,3501,410,4311,053,5351,023,15
Vegetable produce for fodder67,13571,78880,04474,13040,130
Paper manufactures171,824183,972187,848174,514174,864
Heat, light, and power3,714,6324,072,7714,230,3724,149,3644,310,691
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.452,151493,471419,953258,538199,595
Metals other than gold or silver1,423,0421,457,1601,233,259894,570831,064
Precious metals39,79338,29337,49127,38029,252
Books and publications1,105,9381,203,1311,170,299980,520933,103
Musical instruments1,6001,7931,208509511
Ornaments and minor art products45,75545,58941,98324,92020,857
Designs, medals, type, and dies11,48916,28212,0809,3707,585
Machines, tools, and implements462,138501,138344,023209,708257,043
Carriages and vehicles888,244966,960803,707717,813793,292
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware1,068,9301 388,177828,737608,901728,791
Ships, boats, and their equipment170,632185,587140,780100,030119,002
House-furnishings752,556755,774042,987408,292325,548
Chemicals and by-products1,287,2081,232,1101,079,4091,000,0041,283,220
Textile fabrics624,658513,501359,105285,217352,572
Apparel2,305,7382,431,5062,245,5971,825,6881,995,908
Fibrous materials272,854298,822173,137130,129109,879
Miscellaneous102,788128,211120,57362,27870,457
     Totals59,130,55258,484,24548,458,35642,343,07842,000,490

In considerations affecting the cost of materials used it should be borne in mind that the semi-primary industries (e.g., meat-freezing and butter and cheese making) bulk very largely therein. In 1932–33, for example, the two industries mentioned accounted for approximately £23,460,000 out of a total of £42,600,490 for cost of materials used. The butter and cheese industry is operated principally by co-operative enterprises on the part of the producers, and the cost of material given in such cases represents the difference between the return from the manufactured product and the expenses of manufacturing and marketing. Constituting as they do over 50 per cent. of the total cost of materials used in all industries, the figures for the semi-primary industries influence the total figures for any year. Indeed, a study of the total cost of materials over a number of years shows that frequent and wide oscillations in primary - produce prices are clearly reflected therein. Again. difficulty has been experienced in determining what actually constitutes materials in connection with the electric-supply industry. For the purpose of factory-production statistics the figure for materials in respect of this industry is deemed to be the total expenditure for the year, less salaries and wages met out of revenue from the sale of energy.

PRODUCTS.

The products of manufacture are valued at the current selling-price of the goods manufactured or work done at the factory, where a valuation on this basis is possible, but in many of the principal industries, such as butter, cheese, &c, and meat-freezing, where the commodities are largely marketed abroad, the values are based on the prices realized in the overseas markets.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which constitutes more than half of the total value; in fact, the cost of materials used has represented no less than 65, 64, 61, 62, and 63 per cent, respectively of the value of the products in the last five years. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture-making, joinery, &c, it must be obvious that part of the value of timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of joinery and furniture made. Duplication of this kind is apparent in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of products by classes of industries as recorded in the last five collections:—

Class of Industry.1928–20.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 £££££
Animal food42,088,15440,011,11232,790,10230,810,28031,288,l208
Vegetable food6,300,2516,488,0226,287,1745,041,4825,167,805
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants2,988,3163,259,9173,201,0863,006,8702,788,175
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)1,313,0091,238,5171,104,128836,002827,003
Working In wood5,045,1445,356,2324,334,9062,715,7152,080,081
Vegetable produce for fodder95,973109,826115,130101,42862,800
Paper manufactures372,909377,316380,073375,371384,000
Heat, light, and power5,303,5335,865,7086,024,2775,837,7445,050,217
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.2,277,4742,367,0182,106,1031,208,530959,127
Metals other than gold or silver3,730,2723,798,9073,402,7732,310,8772,143,215
Precious metals96,542101,169100,50475,78177,412
Books and publications4,642,7254,772,8114,500,7863,772,3233,473,087
Musical instruments9,71311,2326,8873,3893,359
Ornaments and minor art products125,505123,937105,20162,10851,084
Designs, medals, type, and dies58,98477,02871,48254,63947,368
Machines, tools, and implements912,8091,025,306740,067454,557523,417
Carriages and vehicles2,794,4093,120,4002,052,0082,010,0831,805,253
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware2,210,6021,848,8041,220,015962,0691,143,483
Ships, boats, and their equipment480,571523,296446,087307,181326,908
House-furnishings1,674,1141,697,0511,426,441918,847737,560
Chemicals and by-products2,273,6142,319,3252,063,3021,887,0582,235,575
Textile fabrics1,303,6141,156,086954,229843,200931,018
Apparel4,532,8714,757,6094,410,7223,720,3023,075,570
Fibrous materials632,878641,535317,234249,400304,03O
Miscellaneous232,404203,520240,190124,803148,521
     Totals91,565,48091,915,52479,215,41667,813,39468,138,064

ADDED VALUE.

As indicated under the heading of “Products,” the value of products is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. Another part, and in many cases by far the larger portion, represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, therefore, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the products, and is referred to as the “added value.” As the basis of the added value is the value of products, it is clear that it must be affected by fluctuations in values, and this fact should not be lost sight of when use is made of these figures.

The table given hereunder shows the added value by classes of industries for each of the last years:—

Class of Industry.1928–20.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 £££££
Animal food6,701,1746,475,9026,383,9006,398,0187,308,077
Vegetable food1,856,7271,998,0692,031,9171,888,5051,680,028
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,770,8971,903,2731,852,7891,831,2011,645,010
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)505,009503,907511,507452,214444,409
Working in wood3,330,7803,508,8822,924,5351,662,18010,666,822
Vegetable produce for fodder28,83833,03S34,49527,29822,070
Paper manufactures201,175193,344201,225200,857210,042
Heat, light, and powerl,618,9011,792,9371,793,9051,688,3801,633,556
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass,&.1,825,3231,873,5471,686,150949,092759,532
Metals other than gold or silver2,306,6302,341,8072,139,5141,422,3071,312,151
Precious metals56,74962,87063,07348,40148,100
Books and publications3,470,7873,569,0803,339,4872,791,8033,540,824
Musical instruments8,05312,4095,0792,8802,848
Ornaments and minor art products79,75078,34863,30837,18831,127
Designs, medals, type, and dies47,4956O,74059,40245,20939,783
Machines, tools, and implements450,671524,228401,444;244,789205,774
Carriages and vehicles1,900,1652,153,4941,788,8411,298,8701,101,901
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware541,600460,027391,278353,108414,092
Ships, boats, and their equipment309,939337,709299,301201,145207,300
House-furnishings921,558941,277783,454510,555412,012
Chemicals and by-products980,4001,087,209983,893827,054952,355
Textile fabrics678,950643,185595,004558,052578,440
Apparel2,227,1332,320,0432,165,1251,903,0741,9711,008
Fibrous materials300,524342,713144,097113,331135,051
Miscellaneous129,610135,309113,01762,52578,064
     Totals32,428,92833,431,27930,757,00025,470,3101,537,574

In 1919–20 the added value per person engaged was £329, while in 1932–33 it had reached £371, an increase of 13 per cent. The index numbers of prices computed in regard to New Zealand manufactures decreased considerably from 1592 in 1919–20 to 1037 in 1932–33, or by 35 per cent. During the same period the aggregate mechanical power available increased by 231 per cent., which is quite out of proportion to the increase of S per cent, in the total persons engaged. In view of the above it seems a reasonable conclusion that the increase in the added value per employee since 1919–20 has been due to increased motive power combined to a certain extent with an increase in the productivity of labour.

The following table shows various percentages and rates that have been computed in connection with the added value for the last five years:—

 1928–20.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 £££££
Added value per head of mean population22.2122.6320.5416.7916.70
Added value per person engaged402.25403.46394.76370.76370.53
Added value per £100 expended on salaries and wages199.10198.40196.90201.50211.96
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Percentage of salaries and wages to added value50.2450.3950.7849.6447.18
Percentage of added value to cost of materials used54.8457.1663.4760.1559.95

Although the relation between the aggregates of wages paid and of added value bears out to a certain extent the changing times through which industry has passed, definite conclusions cannot be arrived at without due regard to the effects brought about by the increased use of machinery and changes in the relative importance of different groups of industries. Some idea of the effects of the latter consideration can be seen from the following table showing the percentages of salaries and wages to added value in some principal classes of industries during the last five years:—

Class of Industry.1928–20.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Animal food38.6840.7741.4238.9033.74
Vegetable food36.1235.5435.1934.3537.09
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants31.9431.4031.3927.6230.22
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)47.9448.0548–8943.0741.44
Working in wood56.9255.3255.6160.4358.32
Meat, light, and power65.4360.1262.9363.1761.64
Books and publications52.8752.0854.0756.3756.98
Machines, tools, and implements49.6152.3060.9962.4758.89
Apparel67.0665.7167.3366.4364.8o
Fibrous materials54.9159.0052.6752.0554.24

OTHER EXPENSES OF OPERATION.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operations other than salaries and wages and cost of materials for the last five years:—

Item.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 £££££
Cost of coal732,791746,529699,481544,346471,661
Cost of other fuel and power537,577546,652553,610484,915520,980
Insurance290,853289,304271,443249,608238,276
Depreciation1,321,0111,436,9541,405,3541,296,5261,331,015
All other expenses7,535,0678,092,9657,928,9057,041,8427,689,272
     Totals10,417,29911,112,40410,858,7939,617,23710,251,204

In 1929–30, “other” expenses totalled £11,112,404, the highest figure yet recorded for this item. Declines were registered for the years 1930–31 and 1931–32 of £253,611 and £1,241,556 respectively, while an increase of £633,967, or 6.6 per cent., was shown for the year 1932–33.

It is necessary when attempting to gauge the success or otherwise of an industry to take into consideration the figure for “other” expenses. The operating costs of an industry are determined by adding together the salaries and wages, cost of materials used, and other expenses. This result, when contrasted with the value of the output of the industry, indicate.* either a surplus or a deficit. Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1932–33 amounted to £64,899,842 (£12,048,148, salaries and wages; £42,600,490, cost of materials; £10,251,204, other expenses), while value of output totalled £68,138,064, showing therefore a surplus of £3,238,222.

FIXED ASSETS.

The values of the fixed assets give some idea as to the permanency and stability of the manufacturing industries in New Zealand, and afford the means of judging to some extent of the amount of capital that has been invested therein.

In connection with the statistics of fixed assets, it should be understood that the figures given are of necessity only approximate, the principal reason for this being that where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries an apportionment has to be made between the industries, and this cannot be done with accuracy. Furthermore, in many instances fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an understatement owing to appreciated site value, or an overstatement owing to insufficient allowance being made for depreciation, obsolescence, &c. Where premises occupied are rented or leased it is the practice to ascertain the annual rental value and capitalize this.

The value of land, buildings, and plant and machinery may be taken as representing approximately the fixed capital, and a classification by classes of industries is therefore interesting, as it shows to a certain extent the amount of this capital required in the various classes. It is recognized that electric-supply undertakings and gasworks require heavy expenditure on plant and machinery, &c. and it is not surprising that the value of fixed assets employed in the industries coming under the “Heat, light, and power” class is much greater than that for any other class, notwithstanding that the added value in this case is relatively small. It is particularly interesting to note that while the added value in the “Animal food” class amounts to £7,368,077, as against £1,633,556 for heat, light. and power, the fixed capital in the latter case is £32,197,635, while in the former it is £8,844,981—over £23,000,000 less. The following table shows the value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery by classes of industries for the last five collections:—

Class of Industry.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
 £££££
Animal food8,890,8299,006,9958,833,5888,740,8608,844,981
Vegetable food2,267,9162,316,7542,392,2802,384,9112,308,165
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,599,5201,960,9011,877,6821,823,8171,802,864
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)698,009521,662526,894535,967517,248
Working in wood2,877,8562,953,8912,846,8352,457,9752,300,023
Vegetable produce for fodder55,47062,09375,11870,19574,733
Paper manufactures278,763260,463268,689288,715270,184
Heat, light, and power26,962,95130,025,46431,405,21732,203,00732,197,635
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,970,0002,122,6152,101,9292,007,1311,951,844
Metals other than gold or silver2,463,6522,638,9142,608,0342,433,9382,507,220
Precious metals91,02193,559113,40899,28097,020
Books and publications4,050,2724,008,0934,093,4633,807,0083,842,479
Musical instruments19,9758,5367,3614,8044,549
Ornaments and minor art products126,011121,655100,48090,71866,906
Designs, medals, type, and dies51,51975,13973,59173,20165,086
Machines, tools, and implements332,135416,549409,128390,250397,010
Carriages and vehicles2,698,3312,863,7002,677,9122,320,1442,241,906
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware539,152518,736468,340441,679437,748
Ships, boats, and their equipment288,500292,505286,663202,641209,519
House-furnishings961,288932,737884,123816,070712,532
Chemicals and by-products1,640,7601,770,3821,675,9291,004,7601,723,790
Textile fabrics926,407950,472856,222827,420813,301
Apparel1,822,6771,900,3221,890,4821,803,2611,803,382
Fibrous materials374,223367,900191,217150,219177,150
Miscellaneous212,837162,894147,553131,029151,551
     Totals62,200,07966,357,93166,818,15065,907,01865,855,447

Successive substantial increases in the total value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery were a feature of the factory-production statistics until recently. However, the figure registered for 1932–33 (£65,855,447) is £51,571 below 1931–32, and approximately £1,000,000 less than the figure recorded for 1930–31.

FACTORY PRODUCTION

The relation between the value of (a) land and buildings, and (b) plant and machinery illustrates the tendency for the latter to increase at a proportionately faster rate than the former. In 1905–6 the proportions per cent, of land and buildings and of plant and machinery to the total fixed assets were 57 and 43 respectively, but these positions are new more than reversed, the percentages in 1932–33 being 35 and 65. Each collection since 1906 has shown a gradual and consistent decrease in the percentage of the value of land and buildings to the total fixed assets. The table given hereunder shows the movement during the last five years:—

Year.Land and Buildings.Plant and Machinery.Total Amount.
Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.
1928–2923,370,38837.5738,829,69162.4362,200,079
1929–3024,697,48037.2241,660,45162.7866,357,931
1930–3123,563,84235.2743,254,30864.7366,818,150
1931–3222,988,57734.8842,918,44165.1265,907,018
1932–3322,909,67734.7942,945,77065.2165,855,447

CAPITAL.

Although information as to the amount of capital sunk in each factory has been collected for some years, the figures in this respect have been found to be inaccurate and have not been made use of. The chief factors militating against the collection of satisfactory information in this connection are the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning the capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing. In the case of joint-stock companies the capital figures have been found to be reasonably accurate. In the following table the figures in the second column relate to the number of companies, not the number of works.

Year.Number of Companies.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Percentage of Paid-up Capital to Total Capital.Loan and Reserve Capital (excluding Bank Overdraft).Percentage of Loan Capital to Total Capital.Total Capital.Paid-up Shares issued Vendors as Part of Purchase Consideration, included under leading “Paid-up Capital.”
Private Companies.
   £ £ £ 
1928–291,29713,768,53412,705,86781.682,849,70818.3215,555,5752,287,685
1929–301,40013,981,43712,888,12781.003,022,38819.0015,910,5152,269,900
1930–311,44713,953,20512,843,08082.172,787,23117.8315,030,3111,930,318
1931–321,45213,670,98112,069,24482.082,765,01617.9215,434,8602,029,841
1932–331,47513,618,30212,783,43980.763,046,11719.2415,829,8562,010,279
Public and Co-operative Companies.
1928–2975325,774,08123,107,01780.225,695,97719.7828,802,9943,495,440
1929–3074625,835,55723,092,85178.966,151,85921.0429,244,7103,710,008
1930–3172825,873,18023,074,21480.175,706,58719.8328,780,8014,228,743
1931–3271525,227,30922,099,82480.585,471,22319.4228,171,0474,145,640
1932–3371720,107,74823,060,33980.835,011,45019.1729,271,7054,145,908
Total (All Companies).
1928–292,05039,542,01535,812,88480.738,545,685192744,358,5695,783,125
1929–302,14039,810,99435,980,97379.689,174,24720.3245,155,2255,979,974
1930–312,17539,820,44535,917,29480.878,493,81819.1344,411,1126,159,001
1931–322,16738,904,35035,309,00381.118,236,83918.8943,605,9076,215,481
1932–332,19239,720,05030,443,77880.808,657,87319.2045,101,0516,156,187

In considering the figures given in regard to capital it must be borne in mind that the registered capital is taken in each case, except where the company may not be fully engaged in manufacture (in which case an apportionment on the basis of fixed assets is taken), and that the capital necessarily includes capital invested in securities outside the company. This excess capital, as it may be called, would for various reasons be more likely to be found to any great extent in public companies than in private companies, and has, no doubt, the effect of swelling the capital figure for public companies to some considerable extent, beyond the amount actually invested in the various factories.

CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION.

Information as to the character of organization of the establishments engaged in factory production is given in the following table for each of the last three years.

Character of Organization.1930–31.9131–32.1932–33.
No.Added Value.No.Added Value.No.Added Value.
  £ £ £
Individual1,7992,471,1101,6901,768,3771,7211,583,640
Private firm or partnership7311,470,710671946,450645907,123
Public registered company49811,117,8454819,382,4814768,922,850
Private registered company1,56211,089,3571,5349,0397099,060,765
Municipal1371,169,4951341,056,8051341,009,382
Co-operative and miscellaneous4673,438,5374593,276,4944574,053,814
     Totals5,19430,757,0604,96925,470,3164,99325,537,574

AGES OF INDUSTRIES.

Out of the 4,993 manufacturing establishments in existence in New Zealand during the year 1932–33 2,044 were shown to have been in operation prior to 1914, so that, excluding those cases where the date of establishment is unknown, 2,580 of the present establishments came into existence during the last nineteen years, at an average rate over this period of 130 per annum. Some 1,205 date from the decade 1914–23; 793 from the quinquennium 1924–28, 460 from 1929–31; and 122 from 1932; while in 369 cases the date of establishment was not given.

ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY.

New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organized on a relative small scale. The statistical evidence does not appear to indicate a concentrative tendency so marked as in older countries where the industrial arts are in a relatively more advanced stage.

The law in the Dominion restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 10 persons, a private company to not fewer than 2 or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than 7 persons. Co-operation in industry is characteristic of the semi-primary industries engaged in the preparation of primary produce for the market. The principal of these is the butter and cheese making industry. Municipal enterprises are confined mainly to public- utility industries—e.g., gasworks and the generation and distribution of electricity— while the State operates the chief central hydro-electric generating stations and the Government Printing Office.

There are considerable differences in the average size of the industrial unite operated under the different kinds of organization; the order of magnitude, however, has remained substantially the same over the last decade.

ADDED VALUE PER ESTABLISHMENT.

Year.Individual.Partnership.Joint-stock Companies.Municipal and General Government.Co-operative and Miscellaneous.Total.
Public.Private.
 £££££££
1923–242,1023,19723,8148,1936,8978,7806,556
1924–252,1392,87823,5098,4168,0929,5076,863
1925–262,1492,77324,8128,3208,5716,2856,626
1926–271,8602,65124,6787,9708,9426,9996,307
1927–281,7292,38123,6657,8087,3386,7046,121
1928–291,6802,55523,8198,0008,1546,8986,326
1929–301,6582,39724,5788,1068,7437,1596,469
1930–311,3742,01222,3257,0998,5367,3635,922
1931–321,0461,41119,5065,8937,8877,1385,126
1932–339201,40618,7455,8O87,5338,8705,115

The above figures represent the arithmetic average in each case—i.e., the total added value for each class divided by the number of establishments.

The table following shows the relative position of each kind of organization to the total for all classes.

Year.Individual.Partnership.Joint-stock Companies.Municipal and General Government.Co-operative and Miscellaneous.Total.
Public.Private.
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ESTABLISHMENTS.
 Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per Cent.
1928–2935.7615.399.6227.472.579.19100.00
1929–3035.1014.619.3128.932.619.44100.00
1930–3134.6414.079.5930.072.648.99100.00
1931.3234.0113.509.6830.872.709.24100.00
1932–3334.4712.929.5331.242.699.15100.00
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PERSONS ENGAGED.
 Per Cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.
1928–2912.897.9532.7036.844.425.20100.00
1929–3012.487.2430.9039.8l4.215.30100.00
1930–3111.086.5031.6040.474.915.44100.00
1931–3210.545.5032.0340.865.245.83100.00
1932.3310.385.4931.1341.925.026.06100.00
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL HORSE-POWER.
 Per Cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.
1928–293.092.1920.8514.4754.684.72100.00
1929–302.491.5516.9012.0762.984.01100.00
1930.312.661.9119.7513.4457.974.27100.00
1931.322.381.7018.8513.2459.584.25100.00
1932–332.081.1315.6211.3766.113.69100.00
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ADDED VALUE.
 Per Cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.Per cent.
1928–299.506.2136.2134.743.3210.02100.00
1929–308.995.4235.3636.253.5310.45100.00
1930–318.034.7836.1536.063.8011.18100.00
1931–326.943.7236.8435.494.1512.86100.00
1932–336.203.5534.9435.483.9515.88100.00

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES.

The true position of the real manufacturing industries is somewhat obscured by the incorporation of figures relating to such industries as meat-freezing and butter and cheese making, &c. To enable the formation of a more accurate view of the extent of the real manufacturing industries in the Dominion it is necessary to attempt a classification of the industries according to the nature of the work carried on. The results of the classification drawn up for this purpose are presented in the table that follows. The main purpose of the classification is to separate those industries which are closely associated with the primary industries of the Dominion, or represent the provision of public utilities under monopoly conditions, and thus are not in normal usage covered by the term “secondary industries.”

Group I comprises those industries engaged in the preparation of farm products for the market, with the resulting by-products. In this group the “added value” is relatively small in proportion to the value of the output. The specific industries falling under this category are: Meat freezing and preserving, ham and bacon curing, butter and cheese making, sausage-casing, fellmongering and wool-scouring, boiling-down and manure making.

Group II covers those industries which provide public utility services under monopoly conditions in so far as competition within the industry is concerned. It comprises gasworks and electricity generation and supply.

Group III consists of another portion of what are generally referred to as semi-primary industries. It covers industries arising from the utilization of natural resources. The added value in these industries is large in proportion to the value of output, and represents principally wages. The following industries come within this group: Fish-curing, sawmilling. lime-crushing, brick, tile, and pottery making. concrete-block and fibrous-plaster making, pumice-insulation making, and flax-milling.

Group IV comprises all industries for which statistics are available and which do not come under the previous groups. It includes several industries, such as grain-milling, iron-smelting, &c, which may be considered to be on the border-line between it and Group I or Group III, and also several industries, such as motor and cycle engineering and repairing, &c, which are not perhaps covered by the term “secondary industries” as is generally understood.

The following table shows the principal statistics for the various groups enumerated above for the years 1931–32 and 1932–33:—

Group.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Materials used.Other Expenses of Operation.Products.Added Value.Land Buildings, Plat, and Machinery.
1931–32.
  ££££££
I11,2032,633,56724,376,0393,431,27131,029,5646,652,0259,059,313
II4,5101,066,6034,149,364435,6985,837,7441,688,38032,203,007
III6,5351,179,631975,9891,056,9363,226,0702,250,0813,942,391
IV46,4497,763,13412,841,0864,693,33227,720,01614,878,93020,702,307
     Totals68,69712,642,93542,343,0789,617,23767,813,39425,470,3165,907,018
1932–33.
I11,6842,634,26024,440,7194,316,46232,094,7987,654,0499,158,560
II4,4061,003,9614,316,691413,2765,950,2471,633,55632,197,635
III6,5011,099,682871,247944,7802,956,4212,085,1743,892,480
IV46,3307,310,24512,971,8034,576,68627,136,59814,164,79520,606,772
     Totals68,92112,048,14842,600,490l0,251,20468,138,06425,537,57465,855,447

Comparisons of Group IV—i.e., secondary industries—for the years 1931–32 and 1932–33 reveal that persons engaged in 1932–33 receded by 119 in number, and that there was a drop of 6 per cent, in the salaries and wages paid. Despite the fact that the cost of materials increased by 1 per cent., a decrease of 2 per cent, is recorded for the value of products. Added value also declined by 5 per cent., and other expenses fell away by 2 per cent. The value of land, buildings, plant, and machinery registered a shrinkage of £95,535.

It is not claimed that the classification adopted above will suit all requirements. Some rearrangement may be necessary to meet particular cases. Nor is it claimed that it is mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive throughout.

OVERTIME And SHORT TIME.

The amount of overtime worked or short time recorded by industries gives a rough indication as to whether an industry has been busy or slack. Statistics in connection with these two phases of factory production have been collected for a number of years, and the tables presented hereunder threw some interesting light on one phase of industrial production during the last ten years.

Overtime needs no explanation, and as particulars of overtime are readily ascertainable from the records kept in the wages-books, the information may be accepted as of a reliable character. For statistical purposes short time is deemed to be time lost through machinery, tools, &c, being out of order, lack of materials, adverse market conditions, and other cognate causes. Time lost through holidays (annual, ordinary, or public holidays) and sickness is not counted as short time. Information as to how much short time is attributable to each cause is not available.

The following table summarizes overtime worked and short time recorded in factories in respect of wage-earning employees.

Year.Overtime.Short Time.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Total.
 Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.Hours.
1923–241,297,269100,6421,397,911593,00166,219659,220
1924–251,366,158153,2041,519,362724,686161,550886,236
1925–261,492,467154,0911,646,558705,274141,279846,553
1926–271,388,503178,7801,567,283954,922163,7411,118,603
1927–281,472,869187,4291,660,2981,456,049154,9421,010,991
1928–291,532,711213,1391,745,8501,055,337154,2331,209,570
1929–301,621,910243,4091,865,319909,063192,8971,101,960
1930–311,211,078117,6291,328,7072,723,274722,8233,446,097
1931–32933,700176,5581,110,2583,789,0561,209,9274,998,983
1932–331,072,759331,7091,404,4683,028,668953,7223,982,390

Prior to the year 1930–31, the number of hours overtime worked each year exceeded the number of hours short time recorded. The years 1930–31 to 1932–33 show the reverse, however, to be the case. The big drop of overtime registered for the years 1930–31 and 1931–32 has been arrested in the year 1932–33. while short time recorded in 1932–33 is more than 1,000,000 hours below the figure for 1931–32. As between industries, it is interesting to note that the meat freezing and preserving industry accounted for 44 per cent, of the total overtime worked by male wage-earners in 1932–33, actually 474,278 hours. Short time loomed large in the sawmilling industry (905,841 hours) and the clothing industry (536,516 hours).

The following table gives for overtime and short time, the average number of hours per employee affected per week, and the average number of hours during the year for all employees whether or not working overtime or short time.

Year.Overtime.Short Time.
Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Overtime during Year for all Employees, whether working Overtime or not.Average Number of Hours per Employee affected per Week.Average Number of Hours Short time during Year for all Employees, whether working Overtime or not.
 M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
1923–246–25.324.98.513.818.111.45.6
1924.256.86.025.113.012.014.313.313.8
1925–206.15.427.712.512.817.613.111.5
1926–275.85–026–014.012.519.917.912.8
1927–286.56.227.214.211.716.726.911.7
1928.295.95.328.115.611.916.619.311.3
1929.305.55.728.316.412.515.115.913.0
1930.315.45.225.09.213.615.256.256.5
1931.325.87.122.113.415.014.889.62.l
1932–335.66.924.624.313.914.269.489.5

DETAILS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.

The principal statistics regarding the leading factory industries for the last three years are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual “Statistical Report on Factory and Building Production.”

STATISTICS Of PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.

 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Meat Freezing and Preserving.
Number of—    
Works..403536
Persons engaged..5,8916,0406,365
Salaries and wages paid£1,623,3851,553,4671,549,361
Cost of all material used£10,656,3648,466,6349,119,435
Other expenses£778,901701,252385,914
Frozen sheep—    
CarcassesNo.2,557,6612,802,8182,660,585
Value£1,806,5971,574,7981,486,741
Frozen lambs—    
CarcassesNo.7,314,0408,395,6619,235,608
Value£6,017,1735,775,7086,163,241
Frozen mutton and lamb pieces—    
QuantityCwt.15,15219,53620,026
Value£22,24024,62723,418
Frozen beef—    
QuantityCwt.581,687545,957782,082
Value£838,856546,252846,842
Frozen rabbits—    
Value£44,58725,33423,807
 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.

* Including milk used (63,851,401 lb. in 1932 33) in making dried whole milk and condensed milk.

† Including butterfat (2,979,093 lb. in 1932–53) contained in milk used for making dried whole milk and condensed milk.

Meat Freezing and Preserving—continued.
Preserved meats—    
QuantityCwt.69,85634,23351,531
Value£205,418103,100137,309
Tallow—    
QuantityCwt.399,822391,818446,356
Value£436,087336,374399,954
Bonedust—    
QuantityCwt.71,925119,56965,009
Value£27,91139,19322,120
Other manures舒    
QuantityCwt.575,325406,809646,494
Value£184,333121,419167,734
Hides and pelts—    
QuantityNo.10,807,20012,233,68S12,803,563
Value£1,042,959660,870783,513
Wool—    
Quantitylb.32,669,47134,670,98832,784,939
Value£980,628844,110726,827
Total value of output£12,970,38410,974,95211,881,474
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of—    
Works..413940
Persons engaged..380384398
Salaries and wages paid£92,69287,08887,675
Pigs dealt with—    
Number..189,898184,739188,450
Cost£574,251458,796392,674
Cost of other materials used£49,81035,52734,190
Other expenses£153,179149,308142,188
Hams and bacon—QuantityCwt.104,205151,233144,575
Lard—QuantityCwt.9,5698,6898,654
Total value of output£949,597761,121702,442
Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories.
Number of—    
Factories..482480478
Persons engaged..4,1843,9914,137
Salaries and wages paid£914,396830,179838,361
Number of separators—    
At home..46,52452,18258,247
At factories..484450487
Butterfat separated—    
At homelb.196,702,460217,100,103259,565,402
At butter-factorieslb.12,829,5366,871,2847,334,380
Milk received by cheese factories*lb.2,025,426,5402,110,030,8252,244,198,424
Butterfat receivedlb.83,494,89182,022,02794,696,894
Value of materials used£15,080,88114,891,50614,337,534
Other expenses£2,755,5922,499,4803,319,598
Butter produced (including whey butter)—    
QuantityCwt.2,342,0552,479,1762,974,782
Value£13,096,69212,787,54312,942,087
Cheese produced—    
QuantityCwt.1,857,8521,781,7822,071,181
Value£4,879,5795,059,0055,030,016
Total value of output£18,788,73018,481,58218,641,590
 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
* Including beer duty.
Grain-mills.
Mills..504948
Persons engaged..692682695
Salaries and wages paid£173,463157,355157,407
Wheat used—QuantityBushels6,281,6356,245,7706,140,229
Total grain—Cost£2,175,1411,953,2681,703,883
Cost of other materials£138,207125,090114,252
Other expenses£316,251314,433290,888
Flour producedTons135,732129,602130,721
Oatmeal producedTons4,3324,5804,442
Other oaten products for human consumptionTons3,7353,7373,058
Total value of output£2,995,3572,716,6732,384,392
Biscuit and Confectionery Making.
Number of—    
Works..605758
Persons engaged..2,7162,5232,512
Salaries and wages paid£367,944315,664313,210
Flour usedTons4,8964,1753,878
Sugar usedTons6,7565,5866,096
Cost of other materials£557,586440,102401,992
Other expenses£349,906308,694287,200
Biscuits and confectionery made£1,533,3971,243,9181,174,629
Total value of products£1,596,6601,327,0131,210,733
Fruit-preserving and Jam-making.
Number of—    
Works..101111
Persons engaged..352441388
Salaries and wages paid£63,12859,07455,302
Fruit usedTons3,5393,8633,317
Cost of—    
Fruit used£69,06772,32459,446
Sugar and other materials£125,693112,256106,613
Other expenses£28,56328,16128,932
Jams and jellies made—    
QuantityCwt.54,65751,65041,934
Value£165,655158,507126,815
Fruit bottled or canned£45,69140,57254,350
Other products—Value£119,176106,72996,701
Total value of output£330,522305,808277,866
Breweries and Malt-houses.
Number of—    
Establishments..515050
Persons engaged..952870810
Salaries and wages paid£266,017228,813208,756
Barley used in production of maltBushels544,655450,673434,856
Hops usedCwt.4,5553,8963,454
Sugar usedCwt.23,51120,21518,345
Total cost of materials used£422,761330,105300,629
Other expenses*£873,074977,397931,985
Ale brewedGallons10,404,1588,977,0278,120,840
Stout brewedGallons1,108,080789,484683,713
Value of output*£1,813,9521,691,6971,557,557
 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Aerated-water end Cordial Factories.
Number of—    
Works..127123123
Persons engaged..601518541
Salaries and wages paid£134,010101,373100,904
Total cost of materials used£92,42365,21971,312
Other expenses£91,48567,36271,339
Aerated waters—In bottlesDozen1,801,7631,385,5391,378,630
Aerated waters—In bulkGallons593,811114,984109,950
Cordials—In bottlesDozen48,87338,78139,404
Hop-beer—In bottlesDozen91,72995,25956,380
Hop-beer—In bulkGallons129,81972,80363,428
Total value of manufactures£370,974256,189260,063
Sauce, Pickle, and Vinegar Making.
Number of—    
Works..222020
Persons engaged..234224219
Salaries and wages paid£45,27039,38638,080
Cost of materials used£87,13175,07974,757
Other expenses of manufacture£33,98133,27934,018
Total value of manufactures£203,741187,334177,801
Soap and Candle Works.
Number of—    
Works..222123
Persons engaged..438422470
Salaries and wages paid£96,91986,61186,570
Cost of materials used£226,906185,150216,130
Other expenses£76,78567,01162,970
Soap manufacturedTons7,2406,8087,633
Soap-powder (including washing-powder)lb.2,594,5752,680,3232,989,003
Candles manufacturedlb.2,541,3612,295,8622,424,948
Total value of products£478,896444,270467,393
Clothing and Waterproof Factories.
Number of—    
works..244244254
Number of persons engaged—    
Males..1,2281,2031,278
Females..6,4625,9526,338
Salaries and wages paid—    
To males£305,545265,124268,909
To females£610,500519,544538,297
Cost of materials used£1,319,1271,044,1911,212,446
Other expenses£210,552241,608272,178
Output—    
SuitsNo.159,331114,445152,252
ShirtsDozen103,76974,90797,195
Hats and capsDozen17,04921,07024,394
Total value of products£2,597,9282,153,4672,400,599
Hosiery-factories.
Number of—    
Works..262632
Persons engaged..736714757
Salaries and wages paid£91,93186,30590,332
Cost of materials used£192,881171,535189,013
Other expenses£53,74357,32351,515
Total value of manufactures£380,767347,423365,327
 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Boot and Shoe Factories.
Number of works..726970
Number of persons engaged—    
Males..1,4591,3241,358
Females..905859919
Salaries and-wages paid—    
To males£296,211257,106253,436
To females£80,87378,30978,625
Cost of materials used —    
New Zealand leather£291,440253,906259,162
Imported leather£157,108125,647118,333
Other materials£101, 871110,293115,819
     Total£550,419489,846493,314
Other expenses£102,056115,155115,685
Manufactures—    
Adults' boots and shoesPairs1,351,2561,256,0431,445,276
Children's boots and shoesPairs103,14793,15387,755
SlippersPairs212,216300,128434,172
UppersPairs1,5611,477994
Total value of manufactures£1,142,2811,010,5601,029,011
Flax-mills.
Number of—    
Mills...221720
Persons engaged..177135213
Salaries and wages paid£26,22313,19827,349
Raw material used—    
QuantityTons18,75116,71020,564
Cost£8,1419,44215,975
Other expenses£24,06611,74718,753
Fibre dressedTons2,0152,0463,916
Tow producedTons46631373S
Total value of output£47,72233,87854,658
Sawmills.
Number of—    
Mills..401345355
Persons engaged..6,3904,5914,787
Salaries and wages paid£1,368,563820,163796,965
Cost of materials used£962,240704,501659,784
Other expenses£925,324635,381621,760
Sawn timber—    
QuantityFt.229,468,022154,192,510166,269,410
Value£1,965,4981,171,5051,144,672
Posts, rails, &c.—Value£17,1195,8055,479
Resawing, planed flooring, skirting, &c.—    
QuantityFt.62,824,62039,669,47136,430,187
Value£1,039,147538,054481,816
Doors and sashes—Value£119,61980,47162,265
Other products£279,003275,627343,550
Total value of output£3,420,3862,071,4622,037,782
Gasworks.
Number of—    
Works..464646
Persons engaged..1,7781,7841,787
Salaries and wages paid£438,553400,018394,650
Coal used—    
QuantityTons239,788220,101207,329
Cost£479,883432,649393,951
 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Gasworks
Other expenses£457,074435,698413,276
Total gas generated1,000 cub. ft.4,230,2644,083,2833,961,651
Gas fold1,000 cub. ft.3,594,1113,438,4293,338,434
Coke soldTons77,76365,32465,000
Tar soldGallons2,535,7082,344,1391,996.075
Total receipts£1,578,1371,475,2771,408,712
Total expenditure£1,376,1101,268,3651,201,877
Electric Current (see also Section XLI).
Number of—    
Works..101100100
Persons engaged..4,0833,7103,239
Salaries and wages paid£1,004,175873,778726,323
Horse-power availableH.p.309,050325,400431,905
Fuel used—    
CoalTons170,189185,49724,914
Motor-spiritGallons52,3731,073..
Crude oilTons4,7452,3314,234
Units generated or purchased1,212,035,4061,242,969,0151,434,329,720
Revenue£4,446,1404,302,4674,541,535
Expenditure£4,440,8204,383,3004,532.051
Units retailed..590,756,732614,525,266035,260,201
Lime and Cement Work
Number of—    
Works..404345
Persons engaged..912794688
Salaries and wages paid£205,414164,665134,842
Cost of materials used£184,906127,028101,937
Other expenses£297,235221,352179,361
Total value of output£878,732601,849483,849
Brick, Tile and Pottery Works.
Number of—    
Works..615044
Persons engaged..946563405
Salaries and wages paid£213,895102,69474,167
Cost of materials used£26,71419,38712,237
Other expenses£221,510137,03486,280
Bricks manufactured—    
CommonNo.36,613,12310,955,3557,704,894
FireNo.1,027,252527,677506,920
Total value of all bricks manufactured£221,17762,08547,429
Value of pottery manufactured£279,550154,52596,267
Total value of manufactures£564,489253,356180,785
Tinware and Sheet-metal Works.
Number of—    
Works..127124125
Persons engaged..1,4481,2291,262
Salaries and wages paid£273,647206,150200,000
Cost of materials used£388,276280,204294,702
Other expenses£100,52489,37090,181
Total value of manufactures and repairs£843,765597,074628,294
 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Iron and Brass Foundries
Number of—    
Works..464747
Persons engaged..751595529
Salaries and wages paid£163,553114,24194,699
Cost of materials used£105,16060,73255,882
Other expenses£61,40048,55143,534
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£355,097206,446189,060
Engineering-works.
Number of—    
Works..200198188
Persons engaged..3,4552,6912,329
Salaries and wages paid£725,690513,554414,409
Cost of materials used£576,834413,728351,411
Other expenses£299,412257,290219,316
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£1,692,2141,161,974974,490
Printing and Publishing Establishments.
Number of works..358355362
Persons engaged—    
MalesNo.6,5746,1786,059
FemalesNo.1,6181,4321,394
Salaries and wages paid—    
To males£1,624,1331,410,3291,300,496
To females£181,487163,341147,239
Cost of materials used£1,170,299980,520933,163
Other expenses£1,061,411965,827905,023
Total value of output£4,509,7863,772,3233,473,987
Agricultural and Dairying Machinery and Implement Making.
Number of—    
Works..323237
Persons engaged..850505542
Salaries and wages paid£179,13797,76197,094
Cost of all materials used£272,999132,784158,001
Other expenses£63,08353,44751,603
Total value of manufactures (including repairs)£574,721280,751329,476
Coachbuilding and Motor and Cycle Engineering.
Number of—    
Works..1,0981,0491,042
Persons engaged..6,3545,0904,560
Salaries and wages paid£1,202,942895,782731,296
Cost of materials used—    
Coachbuilding£237,031143,686110,405
Motor engineering£626,736574,127682,887
Other expenses£382,843319,677325,737
Value of work done—    
Coachbuilding£610,990469,008411,680
Motor engineering£2,041,6181,547,6751,483,573
Tanning, Fellmongering, and Wool-scouring.
Number of—    
Works..474547
Persons engaged..749683809
Salaries and wages paid£165,958144,123157,468
Cost of materials used£720,833529,188632,092
Materials operated upon—    
Sheep-skinsNo.686,032807,8531,263,473
Greasy woollb.14,106,19714,613,36119,994,481
Hides, pelts, &c.No.894,843780,345879,946
Bark usedTona1,8371,7981,794
 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Tanning, Fellmongering and Wool-scouring—continued
Other expenses£90,74593,95091,212
Output—    
Scoured and sliped woollb.8,863,51111,380,41215,229,193
PeltsNo.196,373162,67341,006
Leatherlb.4,806,6034,805,5994,867,637
Basilslb.70,162104,721367,381
Pickled peltsNo.1,047,169960,1821,127,615
Total value of output£1,000,138795,621946,888
Ship and Boat Building
Number of—    
Establishments..332927
Persons engaged..808598460
Salaries and wages paid£172,064113,25393,481
Cost of materials used£78,77258,21148,154
Other expenses£40,34126,15720,879
Number of vessels built..1193612
Total value of manufactures and repairs£327,838208,950198,045
Furniture-making Works.
Number of—    
Factories..335308299
Persons engaged..2,3781,7791,584
Salaries and wages paid£451,376285,649236,860
Cost of materials used£506,804309,068262,039
Other expenses£123,21893,78581,790
Total value of manufactures£1,156,512726,795611,019
Woollen-mills.
Number of—    
Mills..101010
Persons engaged..2,2372,2162,349
Salaries and wages paid£328,826300,399316,352
Scoured wool used—    
Quantitylb.3,345,8803,314,6923,900,547
Cost£266,749194,935241,422
Cost of other materials used£58,00266,12682,188
Other expenses£152,571153,142154,015
Output—    
Tweed and clothYards1,014,0951,012,4921,276,144
FlannelYards541,099774,597865,726
BlanketsPairs121,194116,714110,668
Rugs and shawlsNo.63,30647,97939,201
Yarnlb.25S,878544,669829,476
Total value£896,677802,105888,46

Chapter 21. SECTION XXI.—BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN 1925 the annual collection of returns covering the operations of builders and contractors, on the same lines as the returns of factory production, was instituted. The basis of the annual inquiry is the list of builders and contractors subscribing to the Carpenters and Joiners' award as members of the New Zealand Federated Builders and Contractors' Industrial Association of Employers, together with such other builders and contractors as can be traced through various sources.

The regulations empowering the collection of the statistics define the term “ building and contracting establishment ” as including establishments engaged in the construction or repair of buildings, wharves, jetties, bridges, or other construction work which employ two or more hands, inclusive of working proprietors, and the period to be covered as the twelve months ended the 31st March each year.

The statistics of building and construction do not include the construction of railways, roads, streets, bridges, wharves, buildings, &c, erected by the Public Works Department or local authorities, except in the case of bridges, wharves, and buildings where the work has been carried out by contract. Particulars are included in respect of local authorities which carry on building contracts in their own name or have a special staff engaged on repairing and making alterations to existing structures.

From the nature of the industry, it is obviously impossible to collect returns from all who engage in building operations. Undoubtedly many who only intermittently undertake building contracts or whose operations are small do not furnish returns. Nevertheless, the statistics cover the great bulk of building operations throughout the Dominion, all builders and contractors engaged in a large way or on big contracts and the great majority of others regularly undertaking building and construction work being included among those from whom returns are received.

The value of building permits issued in boroughs, town districts, and certain suburban counties and road districts during the year ended 31st March, 1933, was £1,874,795 for new work and £000,071 for alterations and additions to existing premises, compared with work amounting to £1,518,682 and £678,806 respectively actually done throughout the Dominion by concerns furnishing returns. The difference between the total represented by building returns as compared with permits for the same year is due to several additional reasons. First, that no permits are included for the great majority of counties; second, that the permit totals are exclusive of such construction work as bridges, wharves, &c., which may (as above) be included in the building returns; and, finally, that construction may be spread over one or more years following that in which the permit for the whole work is recorded.

The explanations given hereunder will be found of assistance in interpreting the terms used in connection with the statistics:—

  • “ Average number of persons engaged ”: This represents the sum of the persons engaged each month during the year covered, divided by twelve.

  • “ Cost of materials used ”: This covers materials supplied by the builders as well as payments to subcontractors.

  • “ Other expenses of operation ”: This heading comprises expenditure on fuel and power, insurance, depreciation, and other items not coming under the headings of salaries and wages or cost of materials.

  • “ Value of work done ”: This represents the total contract price of the work actually commenced and finished during the year. Where contracts were not commenced and finished within the period covered, the value of the work done was assessed as being a proportion of the total contract price equal to the proportion which the total expenditure during the period bears to the total estimated expenditure on the contract.

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The number of persons engaged (including working proprietors but excluding subcontractors) and the salaries and wages paid to these during the year ended 31st March, 1933, are given hereunder:—

Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.
Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.
    £££
Proprietors900..900140,211..140,211
Managers and overseers131..13142,932..42,932
Accountants, clerks, &c.785313112,8294,92417,753
Wage-earners2,760..2,760461,140..461,140
     Totals3,869533,922657,1124,924662,036

The decline in the building trade consequent upon the economic depression is exemplified in the following summary table:—

Year ended 31st March,Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid.Average paid as Salary or Wage (Males).
Proprietors.Managers and OverseersAccountants, Clerks, &c.Wage-earners.Total.
      ££
19261,1572342058,3469,9422,429,831245
19271,0492562369,20410,7452,532,900237
19281,1462682418,84510,5002,417,669231
19291,5652542879,59711,7032,736,588235
19301,4442162869,36611,3122,665,458237
19311,2812452457,7349,5052,096,420222
19329231501453,6514,869920,010190
19339001311312,7603,922662,036170

MATERIALS USED AND WORK DONE.

In the table following, the cost of materials includes payments to subcontractors. The year 1932–33, as compared with 1931–32, shows a decline of £508,281, or 26 per cent., in the cost of materials used. In total value of work done the decline is £845,930, or 27.5 per cent, of the 1931–32 figure.

The jobbing and repair work in 1932–33 accounted for 30 per cent, of the total value of work done.

Year ended 31st March.Cost of Materials.Value of Work done.
Buildings.Bridges, Wharves.Other Construction.Jobbing and Repairs.Total.
 ££££££
19264,957,1076,577,676126,914240,7961,207,9978,153,383
19275,132,8286,269,513294,1001,088,1831,062,9478,714,743
19284,968,1916,204,96686,9651,009,5111,117,0218,418,463
19296,224,8267,666,096201,534344,2631,492,1699,704,062
19306,010,1137,294,729197,790280,8231,634,5399,407,881
19314,600,0595,230,024233,589289,4911,463,5237,216,627
19321,955,1381,873,87792,623161,816945,1023,073,418
19331,446,8571,445,62866,31936,735678,8062,227,488

BUILDINGS COMPLETED.

The following summary shows a classification of the buildings completed during the last four 3Tears.

Number—1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.
Private dwellings3,9162,6201,076987
Business premises783457274216
Other1,4061,058528436
     Totals6,1054,1351,8781,639
Value—££££
Private dwellings3,424,9782,323,1858O8,125594,523
Business premises2,365,0361,866,388572,855525,155
Other1,000,5681,332,449434,690287,412
     Totals£6,790,582£5,522,022£1,815,670£1,407,090

Blocks of flats, which are included under private dwellings, numbered forty-eight in 1929–30, thirty in 1930–31, eight in 1931–32, and five in 1932–33. The values were £147,695, £120,328, £11,422, and £4,427 respectively.

BUILDING-COSTS.

The following table shows, for the last two years, the number of private dwellings (excluding blocks of flats) completed, together with the total cost and cost per room:—

Number of Rooms.Number of Dwellings.Value.Value per Boom.
1931–32.1932–33.1931–32.1932–33.1931–32.1932–33.
   ££££
One39543,2204,5858385
Two625610,5598,6388577
Three998932,60824,17411091
Four271287146,217131,458135115
Five369327286,866216,911156133
Six143103141,91198,703165160
Seven362745,89033,424182177
Eight232041,30626,714225167
Nine6914,96517,303277214
Ten10620,02315,759200263
Over ten10453,13812,427.. 
     Totals1,068982790,703590,096.. 

No special definition of the term “ room ” is made on the forms, and the customary interpretation must therefore be placed upon it. Under this, bathrooms, pantries, and kitchenettes are not counted as rooms.

CLASSIFICATION BY DISTRICTS.

The subjoined table shows the principal statistics for the year 1932–33:—

Provincial District.Establishments.Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages.Cost of Materials (including Payments to Subcontractors).Value of Buildings completed during Year.Total Value Of Work done.
   ££££
Auckland211978169,304410,098341,293617,395
Hawke's Bay5452898,686224,247258,076328,282
Taranaki4615220,37249,50349,05774,883
Wellington172788139,525282,138263,409445,832
Marlborough12415,97713,2119,18920,527
Nelson2513023,07439,33739,32368,339
Westland6415,7057,5085,73113,783
Canterbury138673109,356206,603257,410338,934
Otago10142465,996142,043114,823216,927
Southland5616724,04172,16968,779102,586
     Totals8213,922662,0361,446,8571,407,0902,227,488

Of the total number of persons finding employment in the building industry (3,922), no fewer than 1,766, or 45 per cent., are located in the Auckland and Wellington Provincial Districts. As between Auckland and Wellington, Auckland leads in the volume of building done, this being the first occasion during the eight years for which statistics are available.

BUILDINGS UNDER SMALL FARMS SCHEME.

Under the Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Scheme, the Public Works Department erected 550 cottages during the year ended 31st March, 1933, to the value of £91,104, and farm buildings to the value of £8,186. During the year 1933–34 the approximate expenditure was: Cottages, £44,023; farm buildings, £10,653.

Practically the whole of these buildings were erected in districts from which no statistics of building permits were collected.

BUILDING PERMITS.

Statistics of building permits have been collected annually from 1921–22 for all boroughs and town districts. In 1926–27 certain road districts in Eden County (suburban to Auckland) were added, and in 1928–29 two counties (increased to four in 1929–30), adjacent to Wellington and Christchurch, were also incorporated in the collection.

Year.Number of New Private Dwellings.Value of New Buildings, all Classes.Total Value of all Building Operations.
  ££
1924–255,8057,823,3319,304,160
1925–266,8508,613,54910,169,530
1926–277,1799,357,97711,019,389
1927–285,6908,127,7329,665,216
1928–295,2127,326,4649,054,421
1929–305,7477,917,3499,959,877
1930–313,4634,240,2385,473,395
1931–321,5551,936,4472,728,486
1932–331,4961,874,7952,474,866
1933–342,6493,141,8973,889,890

In 90 per cent, of the total instances in 1933–34 (including most of the larger towns) the basis of value was the contract price; in other instances official valuations, estimates, &c, were returned.

Building activities for the year 1933–34 show a remarkable increase of approximately £1,415,000 (equivalent to 57 per cent.) on the 1932–33 figures.

A more detailed summary for the last three years follows:—

BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED.

Private dwellings,—   
New buildings—1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Number1,5551,4962,649
Value£1,063,467£860,593£1,597,035
Value of alterations and additions£348,293£298,925£304,004
Business premises,—   
New buildings—   
Number347348345
Value£525,858£620,833£1,120,161
Value of alterations and additions£330,162£236,136£359,750
Total, including other buildings,—   
New buildings—   
Number2,1311,9603,135
Value£1,936,447£1,874,795£3,141,897
Value of alterations and additions£792,039£600,071£747,993

Of the £1,597,035 covered by permits for new dwellings in 1933–34, £1,286,651 represented wooden residences and £310,384 houses in other materials.

Building operations in respect of new private dwellings show an increase of 1,153 (value, £736,442), as compared with the previous year. New business premises show a decrease on the previous year of three in number, but an increase of £499,328 in value. The inclusion of two unusually large buildings accounts for over £600,000 of this year's total for new business premises. Compared with the peak year, 1926–27, the total value of all building operations in 1933–34 showed a decline of £7,129,499. It is probable that the 1926–27 level was the highest in the history of the country.

The following table arranges districts with minimum building values of £50,000 in descending order. The figures for Wellington, Dunedin, and South Invercargill have been considerably increased by the inclusion of one exceptionally large building in each instance.

 £
Wellington City788, 258
Dunedin City492,973
Auckland City410,842
Christchurch City268,005
Napier Borough140,460
South Invercargill Borough121,220
Invercargill City111,919
Hastings Borough78,899
Palmerston North City78,222
Gisborne Borough71,458
Waimairi County67,620
Nelson City67,427
Lower Hutt Borough55,595
New Plymouth Borough50,386
Masterton Borough50,102

MONTHLY PERMIT STATISTICS.

In addition to the more comprehensive annual returns of building permits obtained from all boroughs and town districts, monthly returns are also collected from twenty-one principal towns, with their suburban boroughs and town districts, and certain adjacent counties and road districts. These monthly returns, while not giving a complete record for all towns in the Dominion, nevertheless cover a population of nearly 800,000, and afford a good index of the movement in building activity.

BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER TOWNS.

Month.Alterations to Existing Buildings.New Buildings.Total Permits.
Number.Value.Dwellings only.Totals.Number.Value.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
1933. £ £ £ £
January35727,4818455,54110497,831461125,312
February38232,4156338,6878464,39746696,812
March52850,0649049,892126251,215654301,279
April42430,7556230,2898445,27350876,028
May55037,1838548,94110861,18665898,369
June48370,7774723,4187675,633559146,410
July52941,178179113,489205142,708734183,886
August53766,381211138,412246180,607783246,988
September54269,758233161,574288520,982830590,740
October49843,394211137,089253216,529751259,923
November51359,967264178,646295204,629808264,596
December35564,560203125,545228150,110583214,670
1934.        
January38137,029188131,899217226,800598263,829
February40059,434162107,764187345,699587405,133
March47692,52813681,917177520,769653613,297
April43041,50210768,118135105,320565146,822
May59380,12411387,048139192,211732272,335
June50952,7299767,72012598,309634151,038
July47183,5147949,63712587,239596170,753
August60872,284149107,673183139,815791212,099
September46558,252247182,910280238,979745297,231

Chapter 22. SECTION XXII.—PUBLIC FINANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1926, which consolidated and amended the then existing enactments on the subject. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post and Telegraph Department, the Government Insurance Department, the Public Trust Office, the Native Trust Office, the State Advances Office, the State Fire and Accident Insurance Office the various Public Service Superannuation Funds, and the National Provident Fund. are paid into one account at the bank called the “ Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following funds or accounts in the books of the Treasury: The Consolidated Fund; the Public Works Fund; separate accounts or funds specially created. The Public Account, formerly held at the Bank of New Zealand, has been taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand from 1st August, 1934.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The revenue of any financial year is, the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year, together with that received into the Public Account at London of which advice is received in time for inclusion in the accounts for the year. The expenditure is the money paid (a) at the Treasury within the year, (b) by imprestees of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year, and (c) at London of which advice is received in time for inclusion.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Act of that year lapses, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months* from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed Ike unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth* of such vote.

The usual practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year, and to vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.

In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees, temporary officers, and officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; unauthorized expenditure; transfers between Government accounts; or expenditure chargeable against the accounts of local bodies. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the Head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

GROSS TRANSACTIONS OF ACCOUNTS.

Recent years have witnessed the cutting out of many small accounts and their merging with other accounts or funds. Accounts and funds which were included in the Public Account during 1933–34 are listed in the table on the next page, which shows for each the year's transactions and the balance at the beginning and end of the year. For reasons that will be apparent later, the figures of gross transactions afford no indication of actual receipts and payments.

* For the financial year 1933–34, owing to the lateness of the Parliamentary session, the period was extended to 31st October, 1033. and the proportion was correspondingly increased.

The State Advances Account covering State advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities, together with several minor accounts dealing with advances for various purposes, which are administered directly by the State Advances Board, are not included; nor are the other funds mentioned in the first paragraph on the preceding page. Particulars concerning these funds and the working of the Departments concerned will be found elsewhere in this book.

Account.Balance, 1st April, 1933.Receipts.*Credits.Payments.*balance, 31st March, 1934.
*Excluding credits
Consolidate; Fund—£££££
 Ordinary Revenue613,164251,965,5744,848,675236,551,01816,027,720
 Local Bodies52,032134,371165,07121,332
Deposits318,3661,741,1781,269,617789,927
Public Works Fund—     
General Purposes1,320,971921,978701,1061,416,989825,960
Electric Supply133,4301,438,25630,6261,155,426416,260
Electric Supply Sinking Fund83,79124,080107,871 
Bank of New Zealand Shares1,859,375179,688179,6881,859,375
Discharged Soldiers260,3693,313,5038323,145,904427,968
Settlement..    
Land for Settlements57,805704,05213,479689,28772,570
Loans Redemption303,6088,927,8858,817,042414,501
Loans Redemption—6,398113,311,927113,318,325
Part II, Conversion Main Highways—     
Construction Fund57,786203,00036,989192,27968,507
Revenue Fund204,8911,099,63083,9271,122,614181,907
Native Land Settlement3,4453,445 
Public Debt Repayment429,1171,395,1161,776,27047,963
Remittances from London560560
Remittances to London    
Reserve Fund478,05021,9653793,822406,693
Silver and Bronze Coin25,0002,28622,714
States Advances Loan1711414171
State Coal-mines65,976203,3061,003203,18166,101
State Coal-mines Sinking Fund8,3008,1238,0008,423
State Forests14,299138,1172,809126,62425,792
Unemployment Fund424,4264,440,33242,1924,243,241621,517
Working Railways1,265,3006,030,697274,0315,564,4371,731,560
 Totals7,961,620396,228,3526,035,706380,045,14024,144,832

NET RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

In ascertaining the aggregate net receipts and payments of a financial year, it is always necessary to deduct substantial amounts from the figures of gross receipts and payments. Special factors operating in 1933–34 swelled the gross transactions to a figure ten times greater than the net receipts and payments.

Many of the accounts have their receipts and payments increased through the transfer of moneys from one account to another. Some of these transfers rank as. credits, and are not included as receipts or payments in the table under the previous heading. The principal transfers between accounts which are treated as credits in reduction of expenditure are recoupments to the Consolidated Fund in respect of interest paid by that fund on loan-money.

There are, however, substantial transfers between accounts (or between items of an account) which rank as receipts of the receiving account. These are not always disclosed in the published statements, but an approximate total can be arrived at. This is found to have been in the neighbourhood of £5,475,000 for the year 1933–34. The principal item was the transfer of £1,392,257 from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Debt Repayment Account in accordance with the scheme of debt-reduction. Next in importance among transfers from the Consolidated Fund was the payment of £1,080,230 motor-vehicles-taxation revenue to the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account.

On the other hand, the Consolidated Fund received a good deal of revenue from other accounts, the principal items being £1,085,000 from the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability, £179,68S by way of dividends first paid into the Bank of New Zealand Shares Account, £200,000 from the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account as interest on surplus moneys transferred from the Consolidated Fund some years ago and now forming part of the Public Debt Redemption Fund, and £333,693 from the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account by way of refund in respect of advances obtained by hypothecation of securities. A further transfer of £2,000,000 from the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account is referred to later on. Payments aggregating £130,879 were made from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account to other accounts or funds, and £115,998 was paid from the Land for Settlements Account to other accounts.

Most payments from one item of the Consolidated Fund to another rank as credits, but there are two classes of exceptions—viz., interest payments on certain balances, and receipts of the Printing and Stationery Department from other Government Departments. The former totalled approximately £34,000 in 1933–34 and the latter £150,000. in addition, £47,000 of interest payments of the Consolidated Fund were paid into other accounts.

Although, as stated previously, post and telegraph receipts and payments are not included in the Public Account, profits of the Post and Telegraph Department are now (commercing 1931–32) payable to the Consolidated Fund. Receipts from this source totalled £553,000 in 1933–34, but as costs of other Departments for postages and for other services performed by the Post and Telegraph Department aggregated approximately £190,000 for the year, this latter amount represents in effect a transfer to the Consolidated Fund revenue from various votes of that fund or of other accounts.

The revenue of the Working Railways Account also includes a considerable amount received from Government Departments and paid out of the Consolidated Fund and other accounts. The amount under this head in 1933–34 was approximately £475,000, exclusive of payments from the Post Office Account.

In addition to the £5,475,000 transfers referred to in the foregoing paragraphs, temporary transfers between accounts and repayments thereof (shown only in the statement for the borrowing account) swelled both receipts and payments by £20,000.

Included in the gross receipts of the Consolidated Fund are Treasury bill issues and renewals to the huge aggregate of £201,258,820, while redemptions and renewals of Treasury bills swell the expenditure by £181,187,182. The receipts also include £27,214,000 transferred from the Indemnity Exchange Account hi London, and the expenditure £31,161,810 (including exchange cost, £4,477,810) hi respect of the purchase of surplus exchange under the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 1932–33. The three first-mentioned items are definitely not true receipts or payments, while the exchange purchased was in the nature of a temporary investment, the bulk of the amount held in August, 1934, being taken over by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. The transactions in connection with the purchase of surplus exchange were treated in the accounts as in suspense, and were not included in the net receipts and payments of the Ordinary Revenue Account of the Consolidated Fund.

The scheme of conversion of locally domiciled public debt carried out during 1933–34 was responsible for another huge addition to the year's gross transactions, with, however, little effect on the real receipts and payments for the year. Towards arriving at net receipts and payments the sum of £112,810,751 is deductible from both sides of the Loans Redemption Account—Part II, Conversion Account, as merely representing conversion or exchange of securities.

Practically the whole of the receipts and payments of the Loans Redemption Account proper are nominal only, consisting in the main of entries due to the renewal of loan-moneys. A deduction of £7,822,]20 must be made on this account from receipts and of £7,823,710 from expenditure in 1933–34, and a further deduction of £735,540 and £734,540 from the respective sides in respect of sinking funds being paid into the account and utilized for the redemption of securities.

Advances obtained by the hypothecation of securities are responsible for book entries of £2,000,000 appearing in both receipts and expenditure of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account, whence the amount was paid to the Consolidated Fund. where it ranks as part of the year's receipts. The Remittances from and to London Accounts merely cover the withdrawal of money in London or Wellington for remittance to or from New Zealand, and are in practically the same category as the Loans Redemption Account, the receipts and payments representing book entries only, and usually balancing. Receipts and payments of these two accounts in 1933–34 totalled £560 only.

Further deductions have still to be made from the gross totals before a figure approximately representing true Governmental revenue and expenditure (apart from State advances and other activities not included in the Public Account) can be arrived at. The accounts of local bodies merely record the receipt of moneys collected by the Government on behalf of local bodies and the payment of these to the local bodies concerned. The Deposits Account represents only lodgments and withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government moneys. The State Advances Loan Account covers the raising of moneys for advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities. and the transfer of these to the State Advances Office, whose operations are, as previously stated, outside the Public Account. The three accounts referred to had in 1933–34 an aggregate of £1,875,563 receipts and £1,434,702 payments.

Including small per contra items not already referred to (£31,593), the total deductions to be made from aggregate nominal receipts are approximately £359,250,000, and from payments £342,680,000, leaving net totals of £37,000,000 receipts and £37,400,000 payments for the year.

The gross and net figures of receipts and payments are as follows for each of the last, five years:—

Year ended 31st March,Gross Transactions.*Credits.Net Transactions.
Receipts.Payments.Receipts.Payments.
*Excluding credits.
 £m.£m.£m.£m.£m.
193089.996.46.939.144.1
193188.689.67.642.343.2
193284.185.116.935.738.7
193387.888.66.234.734.9
1934396.2380.06.037.037.4

The net totals would be still further reduced if only the net increase (£1,277,394 in 1933–34) in long-term debt were taken into account as a receipt, and both receipts and payments diminished by the amount of loan-money redeemed (£1,350,960 in 1933–34).

THE CONSOLIDATED FUND.

The Ordinary Revenue Account of the Consolidated Fund covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the General Government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, &c. Until recent years its operations afforded an excellent comparison of State revenue and expenditure from year to year, but changes in system during the last few years have largely destroyed the comparability of the figures. The principal of these changes are as follows:—

The removal of railway revenue and expenditure from the Consolidated Fund from 1st April, 1925. Consolidated Fund receipts now include an amount paid by the Working Railways Account as interest on railway capital liability.

Similar action in regard to post and telegraph revenue and expenditure from 1st April, 1928. In addition to interest on capital liability, the Consolidated Fund now (commencing 1931–32) receives Post and Telegraph Department profits.

Payment of motor-vehicles-taxation receipts into the Consolidated Fund since 5th December, 1927, the great bulk of the money being later transferred to the Main Highways Account into which these receipts were previously paid direct. In each of the years 1932–33 and 1933–34 £500,000 of motor-vehicles-taxation receipts were retained in the Consolidated Fund.

The transfer of reserve moneys into the Consolidated Fund, £1,494,825 in 1931–32, £2,500,000 in 1932–33, and £2,000,000 in 1933–34, £2,250,000 of the 1932–33 amount and the whole of the 1933–34 total having been obtained by hypothecation of securities of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account.

It is possible to make adjustments covering these principal items, and this is accordingly done in the following table covering the last ten years. All railway moneys are omitted throughout, and transfers of reserve moneys in 1931–32 and following years, while taxation receipts paid direct to the Main Highways Account have been added on for 1927-J-8 and preceding years. In the case of post and telegraph finances, a difficulty arises in that part of the profits in 1931–32 was due to higher postage rates imposed for the purpose of assisting the Consolidated Fund. In the circumstances, the gross excess of post and telegraph revenue over expenditure (i.e., without deduction for interest charges) has been counted for the ten years.

Year ended 31st MarchRevenue.Expenditure.Surplus (recorded)
Recorded.Adjusted.*Recorded.Adjusted.*

* See letterpress.

†Deficit.

 £££££
192528,043,00019,501,76127,399,20019,726,484l,243,00
192624,725,76220,681,85223,570,08321,094,6541,155,679
192724,943,10721,094,50824,355,90522,121,731587,142
192825,123,98020,992,44624,944,90522,459,579179,075
192923,599,67621,793,72824,176,92823,680,350–577,252
193025,349,86123,747,95825,200,88225,020,953148,979
193123,068,93122,786,70324,708,04224,708,042–1,639,l11
193222,719,73320,383,18824,860,55224,860,5522,140,819
193322,568 52119,217,97622,528,37922,528,37940,142
193423,492 74920,407,74924,202,02724,202,027–709,278

The adjusted figures, it should be noted, are comparable vertically only, and not horizontally, the net amount deducted from the revenue figures being in each year considerably higher than that deducted from the expenditure side.

Fifty years' figures of receipts and expenditure of the Consolidated Fund will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume.

REVENUE.

Source.Year ended 31st March
1932.1933.1934.
*This excludes unemployment-taxation receipts, which are not paid into the Consolidated Fund. For details of taxation receipts see Subsection B.
 £££
Taxation*16,188,17115,604,04117,057,606
Registration and other fees199,032197,380218,248
Marine93,930131,473133,110
Interest on Public Debt Redemption Fund699,790620,089629,496
Interest on railway capital liability841,720850,5441,085,000
Interest on post and telegraph capital liability550,000546,000553,000
Interest on other public moneys776,628625,077596,360
Post and Telegraph Department profits941,616456,000154,388
Tourist and health resorts59,98560,17965,700
National-endowment revenue79,82481,732134,249
Other territorial revenue153,894153,812245,163
Departmental receipts405,697450,953418,549
From reserves1,494,8252,500,0002,000,000
Miscellaneous (including recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years)234,621291,241201,880
     Totals22,719,73322,568,52123,492,749

The revenue of the Consolidated Fund is now derived principally from taxation and from interest on the Public Debt Redemption Fund and other public moneys, with transfers from the Working Railways Account and from the Post and Telegraph Department in respect of interest on capital liability. An additional Source—viz., profits of the Post and Telegraph Department—was added in 1931–32, and certain reserve moneys were paid into the Consolidated Fund in 1931–32 and the two following years.

EXPENDITURE

Expenditure from the Consolidated Fund is divided into two main groups, according to whether it is made under permanent or under annual appropriation. The latter heading covers the expenditure under the various departmental votes, while the former covers interest on and amortization of the public debt, exchange, disposal of special taxation for main highways, and expenditure under numerous special Acts. Several items which formerly ranked as permanent appropriations, including expenditure on pensions, superannuation, and Hospital Board subsidies, are now (commencing 1932–33) the subject of annual appropriations.

Expenditure under the main heads of permanent appropriations and each head of annual appropriations during the last three years was as follows (the figures are net— i.e., exclusive of credits):—

Head.Year ended 31st March,
1932.1933.1934.
* Now paid out of annual appropriations. †Discontinued. ‡see under annual appropriations.
Permanent appropriations—£££
Civil List26,82122,18422,504
Interest on public debt9,035,0258,498,681S,836,467
Amortization of debt1,421,7511,308,4451,412,959
Pensions, including family allowances3,075,414**
Subsidies to superannuation funds and National Provident Fund 198,749**
Subsidy to Unemployment Fund1, 118,753**
Subsidies to Hospital Boards642,809**
For education purposes158,87251,93853,221
Transfers to Main Highways Account Revenue Fund1,685,9771,059,9401,080,230
Motor-spirits tax paid to borough councils100,54198,591100,060
Contribution towards Singapore Naval Base100,000100,000100,000
Exchange–709,278812,4511,797,188
Other289,750240,978347,525
 Totals, permanent appropriations17,854,46212,193,20813,750,154
Annual appropriations—   
Legislative Departments98,04686,78774,107
Prime Minister's Department15,37422,18123,991
Treasury Department37,38527,25931,080
Land and Income Tax Department68,20262,39559,367
Stamp Duties Department97,39477,96577,400
National Provident and Friendly Societies Department4,69789,26680,285
Public buildings41,68335,22344,018
Maintenance and repairs to roads9,9175,0469,831
Maintenance of irrigation works, &c.12,81812,10312,687
Maintenance of unopened railway lines 5,868
Native Department65,70956,74365,163
Department of External Affairs1,95683,09481,159
Head.Year ended 31st March,
1932.1933.1934.
* See under permanent, appropriations.
Annual appropriations—continued.£££
Department of Industries and Commerce, Tourist, and Publicity122,95461,227118,235
Justice and Prisons Department230,519251,786241,208
Crown Law Office.5,1434,4504,723
Police Department413,821426,988427,344
Pensions Department160,5643,139,2253,260,109
Mines Department18,67920,80319,540
Department of Internal Affairs196,841523,418320,414
Audit Department24,50519,76722,218
Public Service Commissioner's Office4,6664,2904,349
Printing and Stationery Department138,044122,566137,901
Mental Hospitals Department264,427240,047233,501
Department of Health199,387708,449741,846
Naval Defence344,674362,094397,384
Defence Department182,974207,827264,723
Customs Department86,28278,23583,511
Marine Department101,97591,754103,488
Department of Labour41,47542,82235,484
Department of Lands and Survey162,888144,911151,658
Valuation Department38,90029,99736,608
Electoral Department66,1205,9245,642
Department of Agriculture440,630555,614675,464
Education Department2,851,9222,620,2272,526,078
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research51,53551,76848,749
Transport Department4,81317,19523,096
Services not provided for18,69845,7253,644
Exchange374,473**
 Totals, annual appropriations7,006,09010,335,17110,451,873
Grand totals24,860,55222,528,37924,202,027

The amounts shown above under the head of “ Education Department” do not represent the full payment on education services, expenditure under special Acts and from certain reserves revenue not being included. A statement of public expenditure on education is given at the close of Section VI (Education) of this volume.

A system of Departmental balance-sheets and statements of accounts was inaugurated on commercial lines in 1920 to show the true cost of the various Departments and services, as distinct from payments out of appropriations on the basis referred to at the beginning of this subsection. These balance-sheets and statements of accounts are published annually in Parliamentary Paper B.-l [Part IV], to which the reader is referred for details of income, expenditure, &c, in respect of the various Departments and services. A State balance-sheet covering all Departments and services, with the exception of the Post Office Savings-bank, the Public Trust Office, and the Insurance Departments, is now included in the publication mentioned. (Vide also Section XXXII—Wealth.)

PUBLIC WORKS.

For the prosecution of the policy of public works inaugurated in 1870 there was set up a Public Works Fund. For many years all expenditure on public works was borne by this fund, but in course of time separate subsidiary accounts were established to deal with certain special activities. These subsidiary accounts have in general either become merged in the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund or have ceased to exist on the completion of the work for which they were called into existence. The Electric Supply Account, with its separate Sinking Fund Account, is the only one now remaining.

The Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account, which was established in 1923–24 to provide finance for the construction, reconstruction, &c, of main highways, is analogous to the Public Works Fund, and its operations are included in the following brief conspectus of public works receipts and payments. Several other accounts formerly treated similarly have now been merged in the Public Works Fund.

RECEIPTS.

A summary of the receipts of the accounts covering the construction of public works is given below for the last five years. The figures are exclusive of credits, and transfers between the accounts considered are omitted, as are also temporary transfers from other accounts.

Year ended 31st March,Loan-money.Transfers from Other Accounts.Recoveries on account of Expenditure of Previous Years.Interest on Investments, &c.Sales of and Electrical EnergyOther and UnspecifiedTotal.
 £££££££
19303,029,550610,62364,09735,279607,26243,9374,390,748
19318,820,700153,73646,97533,469686,44340,9099,782,232
19324,393,5502,83672,45615,628648,02920,3175,152,816
19331,019,801100,00074,4238,917823,64411,7012,038,536
19341,607,5653,44547,0927,278880,37421,0212,566,775

The principal transfers during recent years have been from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account to the Construction Fund.

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of the various accounts dealing with the construction of public works is summarized below for the last five years. As in the case of receipts, the figures have been diminished by the exclusion of credits and of transfers between the various accounts.

Year ended 31st MarchPublic Works.Maintenance and Working-expenses.*Charges and Expenses of raising or transferring Loan-money.Amortization of Debt.Interest.Management Charges of Consolidated Stock.Other Items (Non capital).Total.
* Where shown separately.
 ££££££££
19307,505,496193,917713,68550,374481,2612,9219548,948,608
19318,221,64685204,14423,783505,8402,2382,8308,960,566
19324,634,4752,754129,33317,163537,3042,3694555,323,853
19331,773,9597932,85537,876571,3692,6484392,419,225
19342,179,0508869920,539561,1702,7094392,764,694

In 1929–30 a distinction was made in the Electric Supply Account between capital and maintenance expenditure out of vote, but this has now been discontinued. The item “ Departmental ” in the Public Works Fund covers both construction and maintenance, and other items also are probably affected.

The principal items of public-works expenditure included in the first column are as follows for the five years:—

Year ended 31st MarchRailways.Roads.Telegraph Extension.Development of Water- power.*Public Buildings.Lands and! River Improvement, Irrigation, &c.Lands SettlementDepartmental and other.

* Including maintenance except in 1929–30.

†Settlement of unemployed workers, and (in 1033–34) Native land settlement.

 ££££££££
19302,980,7432,158,055594,383504,235771,614262,009234,457
19313,015,2922,233,430419,7561,187,797924,364233,526207,481
1932952,3881,465,237249,9781,241,796454,803117,560152,713
1933160,853538,44899,999589,06190,567107,003118,72269,306
1934132,111551,950144,160570,323149,392152,622351,594126,898

In addition to expenditure on roads included in accounts taken as covering public works, there is the expenditure incurred in roading Crown lands and lands purchased for settlement, which is a charge on the Land for Settlements Account, and is included in the values upon which the rentals of the lands are based.

A more detailed statement of the net expenditure out of public works accounts during 1933–34 is now given:—

 £
Public works, departmental98,703
Railways132,111
Public buildings— 
General642
Courthouses72
Education buildings52,239
Prison buildings and works1,018
Police-stations74
Postal and Telegraph21,078
Mental-hospital buildings73,021
Health and hospital institutions1,248
Lighthouses1,276
Harbour-works11,988
Development of tourist resorts13,510
Main highways192,279
Roads, &c.359,671
Telegraph extension144,160
Lands, miscellaneous71,825
Irrigation and water-supply66,838
Swamp-land drainage13,959
Settlement of unemployed workers172,109
Native land settlement179,485
Development of water-power570,323
Plant, material, and stores1,421
Subsidy to Ellesmere Lands Drainage Board439
Administration expenses in connection with Ellesmere lands88
Charges of raising loans364
Stamp duty335
Interest561,170
Managements charge of consolidated stock, &c.2,709
Amortization of debt20,539
     Total£2,764,694

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.

As stated, the figures given under the two preceding sub-headings include the operations of the Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account and, prior to 1932–33, those of various other accounts. The following figures relate only to those accounts which form part of the Public Works Fund—i.e., the General Purposes Account and subsidiary accounts.

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.£Payments. £
19302,339,3586,237,585
19317,356,0506,547,883
19325,179,8984,895,861
19331,958,3862,277,336
19342,363,7752,572,415

Similar figures, covering a period of fifty years, are contained in the Statistical Summary at the end of this publication.

GENERAL PURPOSES ACCOUNT.

The total net expenditure of the General Purposes Account of the Public Works Fund from its inception in 1870 to 31st March, 1934, has been £122,294,129, spread over the various classes of public works as follows:—

Class.£
Immigration3,313,791
Public works, departmental2,975,391
Railways56,333,421
Roads22,171,078
Land-purchases2,054,024
Settlement of unemployed workers290,831
Development of mining881,015
Telegraph extension11,424,605
Public buildings11,770,518
Lighthouses, harbour-works, and defences1,312,525
Contingent defence1,401,847
Rates on Native lands68,672
Thermal springs14,600
Development of tourist resorts691,298
Lands improvement809,764
Swamp-land drainage28,470
Plant, material, and stores129,645
Charges and expenses of raising loans3,827,707
Coal-mines10,835
Interest and sinking fund218,500
Irrigation and water-supply1,126,524
Motor-transport service33,635
Transfer to Main -Highways Account Construction Fund1,226,000
Native land settlement179,433
     Total£122,294,129

The total receipts of the General Purposes Account to 31st March, 1934, were £123,120,089, of which £107,433,453 represented the proceeds of loans, and £14,555,000 transfers from the Consolidated Fund. The largest item in the residue of £1,131,636 was an amount of £506,820 in respect of sinking funds set free, next in importance being receipts from stamp duties to 31st December, 1876 (£264,658). The balance of the account at 31st March, 1934, was £825,960.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS.

Thanks to the closing of several accounts and the merging of these in other accounts or funds, there now remain only two accounts dealing primarily with land-settlement—viz., the Land for Settlements Account and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account. The former has numerous and diverse activities in connection with land-settlement, while the latter is mainly concerned with the receipt of principal and interest in respect of advances to returned-soldier settlers and the making of fresh advances from repaid principal moneys.

The following summary of receipts and payments of land-settlement accounts includes in 1931–32 the operations of the Hutt Valley Lands Settlement Account (now merged in the Land for Settlements Account), and in 1931–32 and 1932–33 those of the Native Land Settlement Account (merged in 1933–34 in the Public Works Fund).

The principal advances accounts, those relating to State advances to settlers and workers, are, as stated earlier in this subsection, outside the Public Account and are not included here.

LAND-SETTLEMENT ACCOUNTS—RRECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

 1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.

* Excluding Native lands.

†Not included under other headings.

Receipts.£££
Repayments of advances638,001633,230772,082
Sales of land63,35752,65071,999
Rents344,789317,018359,455
Survey liens11,5257,364
Valuation fees417396140
Interest—   
On advances499,807465,374493,773
On sales of land35,42122,82326,911
On survey liens1,004584
On investments58,26712,97511,437
On temporary transfers69 
Loan-money175,000441,000198,000
Transfers from other accounts5,13219,789
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years96781,941
Sale of live-stock, produce, &c.10,01539,71945,269
Suspense Account (net)7552,656
 Totals£1,843,655£2,013,000£1,983,663
 Payments.£££
Administration57,928*57,781*57,684
Purchase of lands159,260*244*Cr. 128
Incidental expenses—roading, surveys, &c.11,710*1,497*1,372
Purchase and improvement of Native lands.268,969261,066
Development of unoccupied lands130,71881,18291,091
Payments to lessees for improvements 135
Refunds of rent, &c. (deteriorated lands)311519
Farm accounts7,9495,6006,220
Advances made456,354390,347416,690
Interest payments995,699996,0881,014,173
Management charges of consolidated stock.1,0151,015799
Expenses of raising or transferring loan-money1,8768,233450
Exchange7,268 
Principal refunded to Consolidated Fund 200,000
Amortization of debt30,773100
Transfers to other accounts950,394258, 84916,210
Payment to Domain Board95 
“ Halves,” “ thirds,” and “ fourths ” to Local Bodies' Deposits Accounts1,2881,36783
Suspense Account (net)1,836
 Totals£3,081,327£2,065,356£1,804,788

TRADING ACCOUNTS.

Several important trading operations of the Government (Public Trust, Post and Telegraph, fire, life, and accident insurance) are outside the orbit of the Public Account, while certain others are still included in the Consolidated Fund; and the Electric Supply Account covers both construction and trading operations. Trading accounts other than those which might be so regarded but have already been dealt with under previous headings are as follows:—

Working Railways Account.
Westport Harbour Account (closed in 1932–33).
State Coal-mines Account.
State Forests Account.

The revenue of these Sour accounts during the last three years was as follows:—

Item.Account.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
  £££
Railway revenueWorking Railways6,227,4885,751,7505,986,224
Contributions and subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit FundDitto8,0008,0008,000
Port charges, coal rate, &c.Westport Harbour21,271 
Endowments and rentsDitto13,306 
Advance from Consolidated FundDitto2,000 
Sale of coal and wood, rents, &c.State Coalmines253,776216,038199,168
Forests revenueState Forests54,95944,53752,235
Administration expenses recoveredState Forests602662475
Loan-moneyState Forests200,000170,00075,000
Transfers from other accountsState Forests1,120
Interest receiptsVarious17,98226,73840,004
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous yearsVarious2,8312,6141,059
     Totals£6,802,215£6,221,459£6,362,165

Expenditure during the same three years was composed of the following amounts:—

 1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Out of appropriations—£££
Working railways5,075,8754,476,2204,471,437
Westport Harbour20,498 
State coal-mines238,324187,053176,750
State forests180,887113,294112,462
Interest954,233953,5991,091,894
Management charges of consolidated stock797979
Charges and expenses of raising or transferring loans51074149
Amortization of debt12,5308,21419,578
Transfers to other accounts7,9254,3183,893
Subsidy to Railway Employees' Sick Benefit Fund8,0008,0008,000
     Totals£6,498,861£5,750,851£5,884,242

UNEMPLOYMENT FUND.

The Unemployment Fund was set up in 1930–31 to handle receipts of taxation and other revenue for unemployment purposes and the disbursement of moneys for the relief of unemployment. years have been as follows:—

Item.1931–321932–331933–34
Receipts.£££
Unemployment levy538,503429,004428,550
Emergency unemployment charge710,2993,591,4323,998,317
Subsidy from Consolidated Fund1,118,753 
Repayment of loans3,2414,340
Interest on loans2418331,210
Interest on investments, &c.1,8772,6757,365
Fines411808356
Miscellaneous6194
     Total2,370,0844,027,9994,440,332
payments   
Administration37,343100,643112,555
Employment grants2,200,5453,594,6373,972,186
loans16,34021,63320,920
Sustenance payments12,96033,302
Food clothing &c58,667104,278
     Total2,254,2323,788,5404,243,241

MAIN HIGHWAYS ACCOUNT.—REVENUE FUND.

The Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account is concerned with the maintenance of main highways and the payment of subsidies to local authorities. Its revenue consists mainly of special taxation collected by the Consolidated Fund and paid over, less certain deductions. Receipts and payments of the Revenue Fund during the last three years have been:—

Item.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
*Including interest on loan-moneys raised for construction purposes.
 Receipts.  
 £££
Taxation1,685,5491,059,9401,080,230
Repayment of advances9,53112,87312,855
Interest25,0469,5256,385
Miscellaneous236372160
 Total1,720,3621,082,7101,099,630
 Payments.  
Maintenance of highways*1,047,205802,727803,971
Subsidies to local authorities444,97,5181,171157,847
Advances to local authorities26,06738,5193,132
Transfers to Construction Fund100,000
Commutation of Hutt Road fees22,24623,55025,112
Abolition of toll-gates1,8071,6041,662
Interest on transfers from Public Works Fund61,30061,30061,300
Interest on temporary transfers356 
Loan charges81411
Amortization of debt56,61867,80769,579
     Total1,661,3881,276,6781,122,614

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.

TOTAL TAXATION.

ALL; revenue collected by means of taxation was until the end of the financial year 1921–22 paid into the Consolidated Fund and applied to general purposes. From 1922–23 to the 5th December, 1927, however, certain items were paid into the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund to help to defray the cost of improving and maintaining roads. From the last-mentioned date all such moneys are paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first instance, and (with certain exceptions) transferred to the Main Highways Account Revenue Fund. The proceeds of the unemployment taxation introduced in 1930–31 are paid direct into the Unemployment Fund.

A summary of tax collections (total and per head) during the last ten years is given in the following table. From 1924–25 to 1927–28 the figures include amounts paid direct into the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account, while for 1930–31 and subsequent years gross collections of unemployment taxation are included.

Year ended 31st March.Total.Per Head.
 ££s.d.
192516,549,6091235
192617,254,68812711
192717,437,8271256
192817,145,14511177
192917,832,0331243
193019,471,1311337
193118,878,28512121
193217,405,6221196
193319,703,70312179
193421,470,82713187

The following table shows receipts under the various heads of taxation during the last five years:—

Head.Revenue for Year ended 31st March,
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £££££
Customs revenue8,897,0477,605,9765,904,3486,131,4146,485,014
Beer-duty620,312575,100641,080654,227655,464
Motor-vehicles taxation1,510,7901,840,5901,814,1861,680,6051,703,527
Land-tax1,506,9111,145,617542,128498,916498,978
Income-tax3,533,7644,003,6064,447,8143,556,7752,961,243
Death duties1,727,4391,809,7351,444,2981,511,6951,390,742
Bank composition193,017233,31S260,206268,122279,244
Stamp duty on interest  309,13278,771
Duty on instruments457,148326,121228,975192,179199,639
Totalizator revenue542,899529,143410,878302,371340,740
Amusements-tax79,887105,93674,76353,56448,715
Other stamps taxation401,917380,558378,288361,050372,780
Unemployment taxation280,8291,217,4514,099,6624,413,221..
Film-hire tax41,75641,20730,10232,960
Sales tax  38,2531,847,333
Gold-export duty  15,636117,090
Interest-tax   45,000
Mileage-tax residue   366
     Totals19,471,13118,878,28517,405,62219,703,70321,470,827

The amounts of £309,132 shown for 1932–33 and £78,771 for 1933–3–4 as stamp duty on interest represent the Government's proportion of the special duty imposed, by Part IV of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, on interest received from Government and local body securities domiciled in New Zealand. Though imposed in the form of a tax and its proceeds treated as such in the Public Account, this duty was, in effect, a temporary means towards reducing interest and expenditure, rather than a means to increase revenue. It has now been superseded by a debt-conversion plan, under which a similar effect will be achieved but without the saving in expenditure ranking as taxation. Commencing with 1933–34, however, there is an interest-tax, which is payable on interest on “ dissented “ securities—i.e., those the holders of which declined to participate in the 1933 conversion scheme.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.

The figures shown under the heading of Customs revenue in the table on the preceding page are exclusive of receipts from tire-tax and from that portion of the petrol-tax which is imposed to provide funds for roading purposes, as referred to under the next heading. The following figures show Customs and excise revenue both exclusive and inclusive of these items.

Year ended 31st March.Customs Duties.Excise Duties.Total Customs and Excise Duties.
Excluding Main Highways Items.Including Main Highways Items.Excluding Main Highways Items.Including Main Highways Items.
 £££££
19257,536,8897,689,192650,3848,187,2738,339,576
19268,344,6778,573,388629,5588,974,2359,202,946
19278,204,4748,395,049621,8138,826,2879,016,862
19287,891,6218,262,588609,6248,501,2458,872,212
19297,954,2528,953,231611,4848,565,7369,564,715
19308,897,04710,016,469620,3129,517,35910,636,781
19317,605,9769,052,769575,1008,181,0769,627,869
19325,904,3487,348,408641,0806,545,4287,989,488
19336,131,4147,459,458654,2276,785,6418,113,685
19346,485,0147,840,694655,4647,140,4788,496,15S

For fuller information on the subject of Customs taxation the reader is referred to Section IXD of this book. It should be noted that gold-export duty and sales tax receipts are not counted as Customs revenue, although collected by the Customs Department.

MAIN HIGHWAYS TAXATION.

The Main Highways Act, 1922, laid down that the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account was to be credited, inter alia, with—

All moneys received as Customs duties imposed in respect of rubber tires, rubber tiring, and inner tubes of rubber for pneumatic tires, n.e.i. (as per the Customs tariff):

All moneys received by the Crown under any Act in respect of the licensing of motor-vehicles.

The tire-tax had been imposed by the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, prior to the passing of which tires had been admitted free. The licensing of motor-vehicles by the Crown became operative in the financial year 1924–25, consequent on the passing of the Motor-vehicles Act, 1924.

A third class of taxation for main-highways purposes was introduced towards the end of 1927 by the Motor-spirits Taxation Act of that year, which imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon on all motor-spirits imported. The rate was increased to 6d. per gallon in 1930. The duty collected is paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first place, and after deduction of expenses of administration and of refunds (which are provided for in cases where the motor-spirit is used otherwise than for motor-vehicles) the residue is divided between (1) the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account, and (2) boroughs with a population of 6,000 or over, in the proportions of 92 per cent, and 8 per cent respectively.*An additional 2d. per gallon was imposed from 7th October, 1931, and a further 2d. from 9th February, 1933, but these imposts are for general purposes, and the proceeds are paid into the Consolidated Fund as part of the ordinary Customs revenue.

By section 19 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), a mileage-tax was imposed on motor-vehicles using motive-power other than petrol. Part of the receipts is regarded as the equivalent of Customs taxation on petrol and remains in the Consolidated Fund, the balance for highway purposes being divided between the Main Highways Account and the larger boroughs after deduction of administration expenses and of refunds.

With the exception of a proportion of the tire-tax in respect of tires attached to or imported with motor-vehicles (which was first paid into the Consolidated Fund and an allocation later made for transfer), the whole of the proceeds of the tire - tax and license fees was formerly paid direct to the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account. In accordance with section 24 of the Finance Act, 1927 (No. 2), however, all taxation receipts for main - highways purposes since the 5th December, 1927, are paid into the Consolidated Fund in the first place, and then transferred as permanent appropriations.

Taxation receipts for main-highways purposes have been as follows during the last ten years:—

Year ended 31st March,Fees, &c, under Motor-vehicles Act.Tire-tax.Motor-spirits Taxation.Mileage-tax.Total.Proportion of Total Taxation.
 £££££Per Cent.
1925257,500152,303 409,8032.48
192686,681228,711 315,3921.83
1927395,797190,575 586,3723.36
1928345,510227,451143,516716,4774.18
1929244,598196,747802,2321,243,5776.97
1930391,368157,474961,9481,510,7907.76
1931393,797130,4081,316,3851,840,5909.75
1932370,12685,4371,358,6231,814,18610.42
1933352,56164,1631,263,8811,680,6058.53
1934346,25063,8011,291,8791,5971,703,5277.93

The low figure shown for 1925–26 in respect of fees under the Motor-vehicles Act is due to the fact that a considerable proportion of revenue from this source, which in the ordinary course of events would have been collected during the last quarter of the year, was not paid into the account until early in 1926–27. A change in the registration year is responsible for the apparent fall in 1928–29.

LAND AND INCOME TAX.

Except in regard to minor details, the system of land and income taxation in force at the outbreak of the Great War had remained unaltered for many years. Probably the only noteworthy point was the gradual hardening-up of the graduated land-tax, designed to prevent aggregation of land and to compel the cutting-up of large estates rather than to secure additional revenue.

The war taxation of 1915, however, not only included increased rates of 33⅓ per cent, in the case of income-tax, ¼d. in the pound in the case of land-tax payable on mortgages, and 50 per cent, in the case of graduated land-tax, but also involved an important change of principle. Among the incomes previously exempt from income-tax were those derived directly from land, but in 1915 income-tax was made payable on such incomes.

With the exception of the abolition of the land-tax on mortgages and the substitution of an income-tax in its place, the principles of lard-tax assessment were not altered in 1916, nor were the rates increased, but an entirely new scheme known as the excess-profits tax was brought into operation in respect of income-tax, the 1915 system remaining also, with increased rates, for ordinary income-tax. The excess-profits tax being found inequitable and otherwise unsatisfactory, a system of progressive land and income tax, with a special war tax on incomes, was adopted in 1917.

* For each of the financial years 1932–33 and 11)33–34 £500,000 of petrol-tax receipts otherwise Payable to the Main Highways Account was retained in the Consolidated Fund. For 1934–35 a similar authority has been enacted.

In 1920 a complete revision of the rates of taxation was made. A feature of that year's legislation was the introduction of a deduction from the amount of tax payable of 10 per cent, in respect of tax assessed on “ earned income.”

In 1923 further alterations were made, the principal being the restoration of the exemption from income-tax of income derived from the direct use or cultivation of land. Reductions in the rates of taxation were also made.

Further reductions in income-tax rates were made in 1924 and 1925, and other alterations in respect of exemptions, method of assessment, &c, were also made. Alterations made in 1927 in the progressive scale of increases in the rate of tax and also in the scale of reduction of exemptions had the effect of slightly increasing income-tax except on the very highest incomes and those below £450.

In 1929 the maximum mortgage exemption for which full allowance is made in the computation of land-tax was reduced from £10,000 to £7,500, and special land-tax (additional to ordinary tax) was imposed on farm-lands exceeding £14,000 in unimproved value. At the same time income-tax was provided for in the case of farm-lands in excess of £14,000. From the income-tax assessed in such cases land-tax (including special) was deductible.

In 1930 the special land-tax was discontinued, but income-tax was imposed on profits from farm-lands of an unimproved value of £7,500 or over. Income-tax rates were increased by 10 per cent., and in place of the income exemption of 5 per cent, of capital value of land used in the derivation of income, a 5 per cent. unimproved-value exemption, with allowance for depreciation of premises, was substituted. An increase in the land-tax rates was also made, through the deduction of 5 per cent, from the computed tax (which had been in force for some years) being discontinued.

In 1931 the graduated scale of land-tax was abolished, only the flat rate of Id. in the pound of unimproved value being retained. To balance the reduction in land-tax and to provide additional revenue, the following alterations were made in respect of income-tax:—

  1. Reduction of general exemption to £260, diminished by £1 for every £3 of income between £260 and £560, and by £1 for every £1 10s. between £560 and £800.

  2. Increase of surtax to 30 per cent.

  3. Imposition of a special flat-rate tax of 4d. in the pound on incomes of individuals, with a general exemption of £500.

  4. Imposition of a special emergency tax on unearned income of individuals, equal to one-third of the income-tax payable on such unearned income.

  5. Elimination of 10-per-cent. deduction on earned incomes up to £2,000.

  6. Elimination of exemption of 5 per cent, of unimproved value of land used in production of income.

  7. Extension (from 1st April, 1932) of income-tax provisions to farmers with £3,000 unimproved value or over.

  8. Inclusion in assessments (but only for purpose of fixing rate and general exemption) of all tax-free income and income taxed at the source.

  9. Removal of discrimination on income derived from local-body debentures issued before and after the 28th August, 1923.

In 1933 the general exemption was reduced to £210, but a special exemption of £50 (reducible by £1 for every £1 10s. of income over £725) was provided for a married man in respect of his wife if he supports her and if her own income does not exceed £50. A further amendment in 1933 extended this exemption to cover the case of a woman supporting her husband, and made a similar exemption in respect of the employment of a housekeeper by a widower or widow.

LAND-TAX.

Land-tax is assessed at the rate of Id. for every £1 of unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. An owner of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,500 is allowed an exemption of £500, and where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £2 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when £2,500 is reached.

Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale of exemption is provided—viz., £7,500 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £7,500, the exemption of £7,500 being diminished by £1 for every £1 above the margin of £7,500 of unimproved value, and disappearing altogether at £15,000. Where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is deducted instead.

No special exemption is allowed in the case of land not situated in a borough, which has been owned by a person for three years and not improved to the extent of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the unimproved value, when in the opinion of the Commissioner of Taxes it should have been so improved. In the case of such land, also, the rate of land-tax is 50 per cent, more than the ordinary rate.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, lessees and life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and also severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital or half (in nominal value) of the allotted shares of each company is held by or on behalf of shareholders in the other.

In case of default by a taxpayer in respect of land-tax the amount of tax may be demanded from his successor in title, from a tenant of the taxpayer or this successor, or from a mortgagee of the estate or interest concerned. Land-tax constitutes a charge on the land, and, not with standing any disposition of it, such land continues to be liable in the hands of a purchaser or other holder thereof for the payment of the tax so long as the charge remains in force. Registration of the charge is required, and no disposition of the land or of any interest in it may be registered while the charge remains in force. Relief in cases of hardship is provided for.

INCOME-TAX.

Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies and of absentees, and in other cases on income in excess of £210 per annum. The exemption of the first £210 of income applies fully only to income not exceeding £260. On income between £260 and £560 it is reduced by £1 for every £3 above £260, and between £560 and £725 by £1 for every £1 10s. above £560, no exemption at all being allowed under this head for incomes above £725. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation, and a further £50 (reducible by £1 for every 30s. of income in excess of £725) is deductible from assessable income in respect of a dependent wife or husband whose personal income does not exceed £50. A similar exemption is allowed in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widower or widow, £50 deduction is allowed for each child or grandchild under eighteen years of age who is dependent on the taxpayer, and amounts up to £50 contributed towards the support of the taxpayer's widowed mother are also deductible from assessable income. Exemption (maximum 15 per cent.) is allowed for life-insurance premiums and National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. By the Unemployment Amendment Act, 1931, amounts paid as unemployment-relief tax may also be claimed as a special exemption. Allowance is made for depreciation of premises and plant used in the production of income, the scale of depreciation adopted in the case of premises being 3 per cent, for wooden-frame buildings; 2 per cent, for brick, stone, or concrete walled buildings; and 1½ per cent, for buildings of reinforced stone or concrete throughout.

Income derived from farm-lands of an unimproved value of £3,000 or over is subject to income-tax, as also is income from (1) Crown land held as small grazing-runs or for pastoral purposes; (2) the extraction, removal, or sale of minerals, timber, or flax; or (3) the business of dealing in agricultural and pastoral products. Otherwise income derived by any person from his direct use or occupation of land is exempt from income-tax.

The present scale rate of tax is 7d. in the pound for incomes not exceeding £300, the rate being increased by 1/100d. for every £1 in excess of £300 up to a maximum of £1,500. For incomes between £1,500 and £3,900 the rate is 1s. 7d., increased by 3/400d. for every £1 in excess of £1,500; and for those between £3,900 and £5,900 it is 3s. Id., increased by 1/200d. for every £1 in excess of £3,900. Above £5,900 the rate is 3s. lid. in the pound, increased by 1/400d. for every £1 in excess of £5,900, but with a limit of 4s. 6d. in the pound. At present all scale rates are increased by 30 per cent. Except in the case of companies, an additional 33⅓ per cent, is imposed in respect of unearned income, and a flat rate tax of 4d. in the pound on assessable income in excess of £500.

On income derived from company debentures issued prior to the 28th August, 1923, there is a uniform tax of 3s. in the pound. Income from company debentures issued after that date, or from local-body debentures, pays a rate of 4s. 6d. in the pound. Debenture-income paying 3s. in the pound is exempt from the 33J per cent, imposed in respect of unearned income; otherwise the additional rates mentioned in the preceding paragraph (30 per cent., 33⅓ per cent., and 4d. in the pound) are payable where applicable.

A holder, if resident outside New Zealand, of stock or debentures issued by the Government of New Zealand, or any local or public authority, or by the Public Trustee as agent of a land-settlement association, the interest on which is payable out of New Zealand, is not liable in New Zealand for income-tax on such interest.

DEATH DUTIES.

The law dealing with these classes of duty is embodied in the Death Duties Act, 1921, as subsequently amended. The main heads of taxation are estate and succession duties, which are generally referred to by the collective title of “ death duties.” In addition to these there are gift duties and Native succession duties.

Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Commissioner of Stamp Duties on assessment, an additional 5 per cent, penalty, together with interest (at 5 per cent, per annum up to twelve months after death, and 5 A per cent. thereafter) being payable if duty is not paid within three months after death. Gift duties are payable at the time the gift is made, and Native succession duties before the registration of the succession order by the Native Land Court. Generally the decision of the Commissioner of Stamp Duties in regard to matters of fact incidental to the assessment of duty is final, but there is an appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court. An appeal on a question of law may be referred to the Court of Appeal.

The net revenue received from death duties during each of the last five years was—

Year ended 31st March.Estate Duty.Succession Duty.Gift Duty.Total Death Duties.
 ££££
19301,295,330366,83365,2761,727,439
19311,425,287319,41065,0381,809,735
19321,092,741302,34249,2151,444,298
19331,120,395349,43141,8691,511,695
19341,064,563263,14763,0321,390,742

ESTATE DUTY.

When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person, estimated as at the date of his death, exceeds £1,000 an estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5,000 is exempt from estate duty. The value of any life-insurance policy or policies comprised in the estate is also deductible up to a maximum of £1,000, irrespective of the amount of the estate. The rate of duty on the whole estate must, however, be determined before any deduction is made under either head.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent, in cases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 15 per cent, for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increased the duty payable, the rates, which were embodied in the Act of 1921, ranging from 1 per cent, on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent, on estates of more than £100,000. Part II of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed a rate of 30 per cent, on the amount by which the final balance exceeds £100,000. The present scale of duties is as follows:—

Final Balance of Estate.Rate per Cent.
*20 per cent, on first £100,000, and 30 per cent, on excess over £100,000.
£  £ 
1,000 to 2,0001
2,000 to 3,0002
3,000 to 4,0003
4,000 to 6,0004
6,000 to 8,0005
8,000 to 10,0006
10,000 to 15,0007
15,000 to 20,0008
20,000 to 25,0009
25,000 to 30,00010
30,000 to 35,00011
35,000 to 40,00012
40,000 to 45,00013
45,000 to 50,00014
50,000 to 60,00015
60,000 to 70,00016
70,000 to 80,00017
80,000 to 90,00018
90,000 to 100,00019
Exceeding 100,000*

SUCCESSION DUTY.

In addition to the estate duty referred to above, a succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will or by intestacy. An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of the war of 1914–19 is allowed a £5,000 exemption additional to the amounts otherwise provided.

The rates of duty vary according to the nearness of kin of the beneficiary to the deceased person. The rates shown below were introduced in amending legislation in 1920, and, as in the case of the estate duties, are embodied in the 1921 consolidating Act.

If Successor isValue of Estate.Rate per Cent.
 £ 
WifeUp to 10,000Nil.
10,000 to 20,0002
Over 20,0004
HusbandUp to 500Nil.
500 to 1,5001
1,500 to 2,5002
Over 2,5003
Brother orUp to 500Nil.
500 to 20,0005
Over 20,00010
Child or lineal descendantUp to 1,000Nil.
1,000 to 5,0001
5,000 to 10,0002
10,000 to 15,0003
, 15,000 to 20,000
Over 2,0004
Other relative to 4th degreeUp to 500Nil.
500 to 10,0005
over 10,00010
Other personUp to 500Nil
500 to 20,00010
Over 20,00020

In respect to moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand, and where the beneficiary is not the husband or wife of the deceased or a relative of the deceased within the third degree of consanguinity, there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent, of the excess over £1,000.

NATIVE SUCCESSION DUTY.

Where any succession order is made by the Native Land Court on the death of a Native, no death duty in the ordinary way is payable on the property included in it, but a Native succession duty of 2 per cent, is payable on the value of the property, with a general exemption of £200.

GIFT DUTY.

A gift means any disposition of property which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £500, and exemption from gift duty is provided in cases of the voluntary discharge of a mortgage debt where the donor and beneficiary are not connected by ties of blood or marriage. Various other exemptions were made by the Death Duties Amendment Act, 1923.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made are required to be furnished for assessment of duty within one month of the date of the gift. and in default an additional daily of 50 per cent, is payable. Where duty is payable, the rate is based on the following scale:—

Value of GiftRate of Duty Per Cent
£5,00 to £1,000
£1,000 to 5,0005
£5,000 to 10,000
every £10,00010

Prior to 1920 there was a flat rate of 5 per cent, on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value. Gifts between £500 and £1,000 were made dutiable in 1930.

STAMP DUTIES.

The term “ stamp duties ” covers a miscellany of items of taxation imposed by the Stamp Duties Act, 1923, as amended subsequently.

The receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads of stamp duties revenue used in the public accounts.

Year ended 31st March.
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £££££
Adhesive stamps115,46391,483104,05770,10480,581
Duty on instruments457,148326,121228,975192,179199,639
Impressed stamps209,476198,512174,470168,709173,311
Stamp duty on interest  309,13278,771
Licenses to companies76,06687,49085,35183,91084,984
Share brokers' licenses9121,4701,5211,5832,178
Bank composition193,017233,318260,206268,122279,244
Totalizator revenue542,899529,143410,878302,371340,740
Amusements-tax79,887105,93674,76353,56448,715
Lottery duty 9,66117,30615,245
Oversea-passenger duty 1,66818,24615,348
Mortgagees' indemnity fees1,5411,5671,1651,075
Miscellaneous2662Dr. 72758
     Totals1,674,8941,575,0761,353,1101,486,4181,319,889

Bank-note tax (i.e., bank composition) will yield diminishing returns from 1st August, 1934, when Reserve Bank notes commenced to replace those of the trading banks. As from 1st August, 1936, trading banks are required to pay to the Reserve Bank amounts equal to their then outstanding notes, and the former assumes liability in respect thereof. As the Reserve Bank is not required to pay note-tax, this item of revenue will then disappear.

Totalizator revenue, amusements-tax, and stamp duty on interest are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

TOTALIZATOR-TAX.

The Government tax on totalizator investments is 5 per cent, of the gross amount passed through the machines. This percentage was substituted in August, 1930 (by Part I of the Finance Act, 1930), for the former rate of 2½ per cent., which had been in force since March, 1910, prior to which the percentage was 1½. A refund of 1J per cent, (up to a limit of £250), and in special cases 2½ per cent. (limit, £500) may be made to -clubs, the Minister of Internal Affairs having the right to specify the purpose or purposes for which the amount refunded in any case is to be applied. For the financial years 1932–33 and 1933—34 one-fifth of the duty collected on totalizator investments was retainable by the racing clubs concerned; one-tenth is retainable in 1934–35.

From the 1st November, 1915, a tax of 1 per cent, was imposed on the total value of all stakes, and a tax of 2J per cent, on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments. From the 22nd December. 1921, the tax on stakes was increased to 10 per cent., and that on dividends to 5 per cent. From the 1st April, 1924, the tax on stakes was reduced to 5 per cent.

The following figures relate to the racing-year, which ends on the 31st July:—

Year ended 31st July.
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* Retained by the clubs.
Number of racing-days324320312319319
Number of races2,5612,5132,4222,4702,479
 £££££
Amount of stakes576,9205,11,021352,173312,788335,985
Totalizator investments7,461,1925,279,4043,680,0083,678,2513,904,948
Amount paid in dividends6,342,5004,366,0833,036,7473,033,5103,221,812
Government taxes—     
On totalizator investments186,530257,638176,447147,130161,383
On dividends335,747231,227160,943160,839170,753
On stakes28,84625,55117,60915,63916,799
     Totals551,123514,416354,999323,608348,935
Percentage of totalizator investments retained by clubs559,589395,955283,554312,651326,735
Unpaid fractions*36,82628,50122,31724,12124,265

The totalizator revenue accruing to the State during the 1933–34 racing-year is seen to have totalled £348,935. For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1934, the amount was £340,740.

Refunds to racing clubs totalled £26,404 in the financial year 1933–34, as against £25,397 during the preceding twelve months.

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.

A form of tax first introduced in 1917 is the amusements-tax, payable on payments for admission to entertainments. “ Entertainment” is defined as “ any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” The maximum admission charge above which tax is payable was originally fixed at 9d., but has been successively altered to Is., 2s., and (in 1930) Is. 6d. When the payment for admission exceeds 1s. 6d., but is not more than 2s, the tax is 3d.; thereafter, up to 3s., it is 4d.; up to 3s. 6d., 5d.; and above 3s. 6d., Id. for each Is. or part thereof plus 2d. “ Payment for admission ” includes reservation charges. Provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases— viz., shows promoted by agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, or poultry societies; meetings held for educational, scientific, patriotic, or philanthropic purposes; and swimming-sports.

The following net amounts have been collected during the last ten years:—

Year end 31st MarchAmount collected. £
192578,877
192664,163
192763,555
192863,165
192960,586
193079,887
1931105,936
193274,763
193353,564
193448,715

FILM-HIRE TAX.

Part V of the Finance Act, 1930, imposed, as from 1st July, 1930, a film-hire tax, which payable monthly by holders of renters' licenses under Part IV of the Cinematograph Films Act, 1928.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net monthly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British films the tax is 10 per cent., and on foreign films 25 per cent., of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of £41,756 in 1930–31 (nine months), £41,207 in 1931–32, £30,102 in 1932–33, and £32,960 in 1933–34.

UNEMPLOYMENT TAXATION.*

Towards the provision of funds for the relief of unemployment, an unemployment levy was instituted as from December, 1930. Originally at the rate of £1 10s. per annum, payable quarterly, the low is imposed on all males of the age of twenty years and over, with certain exceptions.

In 1931 the levy was reduced to £1 per annum, but an “ emergency unemployment charge ” was imposed at the rate of Id. for every 6s. 8d. of wages (other than those of domestic servants in private homes and of relief workers employed by public authorities, but with their wages wholly borne by the Unemployment Fund) and of incomes received from other sources by all males not wholly exempt from the levy and by women with incomes of £250 or over (from any source). In 1932 the emergency unemployment charge was altered to Id. for every 1s. 8d. of wages, &c, and in the case of income of women other than from salary or wages was made applicable to the portion of such income in excess of £20 per annum. By Order in Council operative from 1st October, 1934, the emergency unemployment charge was reduced to Id. for every 2s. or part thereof.

For the portion of 1930–31 during which the Unemployment Act was in force, levy receipts totalled £280,829. Unemployment taxation yielded £1,217,451 in 1931–32, £4,099,662 in 1932–33, and £4,413,221 in 1933–34. ' Towards the 1933–34 total, the tax on salary and wages provided £2,866,626 and on other income £1,114,035, the balance of £432,560 representing levy receipts.

* An amendment, passed November, 1934, exempts persons under twenty from tax on earned income. Women under twenty; women in receipt of pensions; and men of sixty-five, or women of sixty upwards, or permanently disabled persons whose incomes (in all eases) are under £105 are exempted from lax on unearned income. Natives (male and female) of twenty years or over are required to pay tax on unearned income in the same way as if Europeans. Women's exemption of £820 on unearned income is increased to £50.

TAXATION OF INTEREST RECEIPTS.

Part IV of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, imposed a stamp duty of 3d. for every 2s. 6d. of interest derived from New Zealand Government and local-body debentures or other securities, with certain specified exceptions. The duty receipts in respect of securities of local bodies, the State Advances Department, and the Rural Intermediate Credit Board (less 5 per cent, thereof to cover administrative expenses) were payable to the respective authorities. The proportion of the duty accruing to governmental revenue during the year 1932–33 amounted to £309,132, a further sum of £78,771 being received in the early portion of 1933–34.

The stamp duty on interest was imposed not only to aid the public revenues, but to assist in equalizing in equity the 20-per-cent. reduction in mortgage interest and in rents. The balance of the equivalent reduction in interest on Government and local-body securities was to be obtained by an adjustment of income-tax rates on investment income, but the stamp duty ceased to operate on 31st March, 1933.

In lieu thereof a general conversion of the whole internal public debt on the basis of a 20-per-eent. reduction to a minimum effective rate of 4 per cent., operative from 1st April, 1933, was undertaken, while as a preliminary to conversion a statutory reduction of 20 per cent, to a minimum of 4 per cent. was made in the interest on local-body securities.

Interest on such part of the public debt as continued to bear a higher rate than 4 per cent.—i.e., the small “ dissented ” balance—was made subject to an interest-tax of 33$ per cent., and this provision will also be applicable to dissecters from local-body conversions when launched. Post Office investment certificates are at maturity dutiable at 20 per cent, in respect of interest accruing after 1st April, 1933. A tax of 20 per cent., payable (less 5 per cent. of proceeds) to the Departments concerned, was also imposed on State Advances, Rural Intermediate Credit, and Land Settlement Association securities.

Governmental receipts from the new interest-tax amounted to £45,000 in 1933–34.

SALES TAX.

The 9th February, 1933, marked the inauguration of a sales tax in New Zealand. The tax is at the rate of 5 per cent, of the sale value of the goods to which it applies, a discount of 5 per cent, of the amount of tax otherwise payable being allowed for prompt payment. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable once only (there may possibly be exceptions) and, so far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to ^he retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department.

Numerous classes of goods me exempt from the tax, these being, in the main, commodities of primary production, articles used in the primary industries, machinery for use in manufacture, and foodstuffs for household consumption, Goods exported from the Dominion are exempt, as are also certain commodities (e.g., gold, motor-spirit), subject to special taxation.

Monthly collections of sales tax to date are as follows:—

Month.1933.£1934.£
January187,649
February10,785143,631
March27,409162,416
April191,091168,313
May119,967165,007
June130,733160,877
July129,951168,662
August134,290185,037
September151,796172,945
October158,073
November164,829
December166,847

The collections during a month relate in general to sales during the preceding. At the commencement of the scheme tax on goods sold in February and March, 1933, except in the case of importing retailers, was not payable until into hence the low figures for February and March and the high aggregate for April

LOCAL TAXATION.

Local governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes as set out in another section of this book. The amount of revenue collected for local purposes during the ten years ended 31st March, 1933, is shown below, and the subject is dealt with in more detail in the section (No. XXIV) of this book relating to local government.

Year ended 31st March,Rates.Licenses and other Taxes'TotalPer Head of Population
 ££££s.d.
19244,445,627313,0904,758,7173114
19254,668,884344,2485,013,1323138
19265,039,645435,7245,475,3693188
19275,311,260576,7615,888,0214211
19285,615,672507,7036,123,37541011
19295,844,495503,2656,347,7604611
19306,010,987535,8096,546,796487
19315,637,254535,8476,173,101425
19325,511,818508,8576,020,6753195
19335,237,688505,7965,743,4843152

The figures are exclusive of wharfage dues, tolls, &c, received by Harbour Boards, such receipts being regarded as in respect of charges for services.

SUBSECTION C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE Minister of Finance may raise loans, when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion, and may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment of loans, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured, as well as for the redemption and cancellation of securities before maturity.

During the war period provision was made for the issue to the public of “Post Office investment certificates” of a nominal value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation was enacted which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates. Receipts from this source are utilized for the purposes of any loan which may be authorized by Parliament. The term of the certificates, formerly a minimum of five years, was altered in 1927 to such term as the Minister of Finance may determine. Certificates are now issued with a definite currency of six years, the redemption value being calculated at 3½ per cent, compound interest. After six-months from date of issue the certificates have a graduated redemption value, and, in addition, if not presented for payment at date of maturity, remain interest-bearing (at the maximum rate payable on Post Office Savings-bank deposits) for four years more.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of the Dominion. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

The public debt is domiciled partly in New Zealand and partly in the United Kingdom, with a little in Australia.

In the debt tables the whole debt is shown (in pounds) at its nominal amount, no adjustment having been made on account of the fact that New Zealand currency is at present at a discount on sterling and at a slight premium on Australian currency. If the whole of the debt (£161 millions) domiciled in the United Kingdom were redeemed in cash at the present time, an amount equal to £200 millions in New Zealand currency would be required for the purpose.

Similarly, the present depreciation of New Zealand currency in terms of sterling is not taken into account in reckoning the rate or amount of interest on the debt domiciled in the United Kingdom, Interest is taken at its nominal rate, and the cost of purchasing sterling for payment in London is included in the public accounts as expenditure on exchange.

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS.

The gross debt of the General Government stood at £302,791,996 at 31st March, 1934, the nominal increase for the year being £20,169,038. The great bulk of the increase, however, was in respect of floating debt, practically the whole of which has since been redeemed without renewal, the Government having sold surplus sterling to the Reserve Bank of New Zealand and paid off Treasury bills with the proceeds. The increase in long-term debt during 1933–34 was only £1,277,394, including £41)1,254 due to premiums arising out of conversion operations referred to later on.

The gross indebtedness of the General Government and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (inclusive of Maoris) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table:—

As at 31st March,Amount.Per Head of Population.

* Including £5,379,105 raised in January, 1929, for expenditure in 1929–30.

† Increase mainly floating debt, paid off in 1934–35.

 ££s.d.
1915100,059,91086197
1916109,637,3979564
1917129,836,l05112162
1918150,840,0551301211
1919176,076,26014985
1920201,170,755162129
1921206,324,319162157
1922219,051,385168610
1923218,953,32416542
1924221,616,36116485
1925227,814,647165211
1926238,855,47816986
1927245,850,889170195
1928251,396,252172192
1929264,191,983*1791210
1930267,383,343179125
1931276,033,3581821310
1932281,942,800184186
1933282,622,958183178
1934302,791,99619599

On only two occasions in the history of New Zealand has a reduction in the gross public debt been effected during the financial year. The first occasion was in 1891–92, when the debt was reduced by £117,282, and the second in 1922–23, when another slight reduction (£101.,061) was recorded.

The history of the public debt in New Zealand may conveniently and with advantage be divided into four distinct periods—viz., (1) Up to the end of the financial year 1890–91; (2) from the 1st April, 1891, to the 31st March, 1914; (3) from the 1st April, 1914, to the 31st March, 1920; and (4) from the 1st April, 1920, to date.

Up to the 31st March, 1891, loan expenditure had been chiefly concerned with railways and roads, the taking-over of the loan liabilities of the Provincial Governments on their abolition, and the Maori War. The year 1891 marks the beginning of a period during which the functions of the State were widely extended, most notably as regards financial assistance to settlers, workers, and local bodies, the repurchase of alienated lands, the working of coal-mines, the development of hydro-electric power, and the establishment of State fire- and accident-insurance offices.

The advent of the war in 1914 created a second point of demarcation in the history of the loan expenditure of the General Government, necessitating as it did the postponement of all public works, &c., except those of pressing necessity. Expenditure of an unproductive nature occasioned by the war was necessarily continued for some time after the Armistice, but the end of the financial year 1919–20 may be fairly regarded as concluding this period.

The gross indebtedness at the 31st March, 1891, 1914. 1920, and 1934, with the increase between these dates, is as follows:—

* Excluding £4,976,600 raised in March, 1914, for redemptions early in 1914–15.

† Long-term debt only—i.e., excluding £22,856,981 Treasury bills

 £
At 31st March, 189138,830,350
Increase to 31st March, 191455,923,477*
At 31st March, 191494,753,827*
Increase to 31st March, 1920106,416,928
At 31st March, 1920201,170,755
Increase to 31st March, 193478,764,260
At 31st March, 1934£279,935,015

CLASSIFICATION OF PUBLIC DEBT.

In classifying the public debt according to nature or purpose the most usual distinction is that made on the basis of whether raised for ordinary purposes, war purposes, the settlement of discharged soldiers, or State advances. The following summary shows that the whole of the increase between 31st March, 1920, and 31st March, 1934, is in respect of the ordinary and State advances debt, the war and discharged soldiers sections showing substantial reductions. The total war loans raised amounted to £82,245,673, of which over £15,500,000 has been redeemed to the 31st March, 1934.

Class.Total.Per Head.
1920.1934.1920.1934.
* Including £22,856,081 Treasury bills.
 £££s.d.£s.d.
Ordinary95,483,658193,987,839*77311125410
War80,089,02566,724,765641504317
Discharged soldiers11,120,0006,843,5518199484
State advances14,478,07235,235,84111141221520
     Total201,170,755302,791,996*16212919599

A somewhat more detailed allocation of the debt as at the 31st March, 1934, is now given:—

 £
Railways60,748,386
Hydro-electric schemes12,147.771
Post and Telegraph12,839,191
Public buildings and schools13,838,450
Roads and highways26,319,538
Harbours and lighthouses1,930,942
State forests1,870,046
State advances38,740,698
Land settlement and improvement28,381,336
Shares in Rank of New Zealand875,000
Share in Nauru and Ocean Island Phosphates479,200
Development of mining1,034,308
Tourist resorts703,909
Immigration3,318,510
War and defence72,021,528
Revenue deficiencies (prior to 1803)2,216,856
Old provincial liabilities878,739
Miscellaneous764,647
Cash and investments in hand825,960
 279,935,015
Floating debt22,856,981
 £302,791,996

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1933–34.

New loan - money aggregating £2,138,690 was raised during 1933–34 for the following purposes:—

Public Works Fund$£
 General Purposes Account1,066,065
 Electric Supply Account596,625
Land for Settlements Account198,000
Main Highways Account203,000
State Forests Account75,000

Premiums (£491,254) on conversion of the locally domiciled debt brought the total of new long-term debt to £2,629,944. Loans paid off during the year aggregated £1,352,550, resulting in a net increase of £1,277,394 in the long-term debt. A temporary increase of £18,891,644 in the floating debt made the total debt £20,169,038 higher on the 31st March, 1934, than a year earlier.

PUBLIC DEBT CONVERSION.

A scheme of conversion of practically the whole of the locally domiciled debt bearing interest higher than 4 per cent, was successfully carried out in the early part of 1933. Holders had the option of dissenting, but, as mentioned in the preceding subsection, interest on the dissented portion was made subject to an interest-tax of 33⅓ per cent. Holders who signified neither assent nor dissent were regarded as having assented.

On the new securities issued in lieu of converted securities the interest-rate is 4 per cent, per annum, except that in the case of securities exempt from income-tax the rate will be 31 per cent, until expiration of the period of exemption and 4 per cent, thereafter. The new securities are spread over six maturity dates as follows:—

  • 15th January, 1940.

  • 15th March, 1943.*

  • 15th February, 1946.

  • l5th April, 1949.

  • 15th May, 1952.*

  • 15th June, 1955.

* For securities exempt from income-tax.

In cases where interest was reduced by not more than 20 per cent., the new securities issued were for the same amount of principal as the converted securities. Where the reduction of interest amounted to more than 20 per cent., the holder received a premium, the conversion scheme thus involving a slight increase (£491,254) in the aggregate gross debt.

The amount of debt to which the conversion scheme applied was £115,000,000. Actual assent to conversion was given in respect of some £110,000,000, and implied assent to approximately £5,000,000, dissents expressed covering only £480,000, or less than ½ per cent, of the total.

The successful conversion of £5,000,000 5-per-eent. debt into 3½-per-cent. securities at 97 in October, 1933, was the only debt operation undertaken in England during the fiscal year 1933–34.

DOMICILE OF DEBT.

Between the 31st March, 1914, and the 31st March, 1934, the amount of New Zealand's public debt domiciled in London increased from 78½ to 161 millions, while that domiciled in New Zealand increased from 17 to 116 millions, or, including Treasury bills outstanding, 139 millions. The amount domiciled in Australia is negligible. The table following shows, of the total amount outstanding in each of the last ten years, the amount domiciled in London, Australia, and New Zealand.

PUBLIC DEBT: WHERE DOMICILED.

At 31st March.Amount.Percentage of Total.
London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1925120,818,4872,952,200104,043,96053.031.3045.67
1926128,047,6593,643,100107,164,71953.611.5244.87
1927132,512,8054,042,450109,295,63453.901.6444.46
1928139,756,9734,168,850107,470,42955.591.6642.75
1929149,346,2444,168,350110,677,38956.531.5841.89
1930146,580,5024,276,750116,526,09154.821.6043.58
1931154,546,9414,175,350117,311,06755.991.5142.50
1932159,641,8553,914,550118,386,39556.621.3941.99
1933161,400,7032,868,710118,353,54557.111.0141.88
1934160,908,1052,908,150138,973,74153.140.9645.90

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT.

The maturity years of the long-term debt outstanding at the 31st March. 1934, are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between the various countries of domicile. The floating debt has practically all been redeemed since the 31st March, 1934, and not renewed.

Maturity Year (ended 31st March).Due in—Total.
London.Australia.New Zealand.
Public.Departmental.

* Option to redeem on or after earlier date on giving notice.

† Funded debt—repayable by instalments.

 £££££
Overdue..50043,870..44,370
1925–452,090,909..  2,090,909
1933–43*3,989,100..10,900..4,000,000
1934–3537,000725,700319,200..1,081,960
1935–36120,800186,70024,620..332,120
1935–45*10,135,800..  10,135,800
1930.377,500667,75032,730..707,980
1936–51*5,869,989..  5,869,989
1937–38..92,200254,300..346,500
1937–40*..12,430,835.. 12,430,835
1938–394,0003,00019,330..26,330
1938.41..2,327,850.. 2,327,850
1939.4017,173,191..17,141..17,190,332
1940–43*..13,747,390.. 13,747,390
1940.41.. 15..15
1941–42..17,30039,600..56,900
1943–447,339,650..  7,339,656
1943–46*.. 10,301,785..10,301,785
1943–63*10,505,989..378,639..10,884,628
1944–457,780,408..  7,780,408
1945.4622,543,590..2,500..22,546,090
1940–49*.. 9,475,395..9,475,395
1947–4811,221,609..  11,221,609
1948.49..  10,50010,500
1948–58*19,225,465..  19,225,465
1949–507,500,000..  7,500,000
1949–52*..13,724,655.. 13,724,655
1949–54*5,000,000..  5,000,000
1950.511,250,0001,215,000.. 2,465,000
1952–55*.. 11,175,530..11,175,530
1955.56..   353,706
1956–71*5,000,000..  5,000,000
1950.5712,900.. 4,048,0204,060,920
1957–5824,100,199.. 13,425,83837,526,037
1958–59..  15,626,46615,626,466
1959–60..  8,327,8858,327,885
 160,908,1052,908,15074,326,34541,792,415279,935,015
Floating debt—     
Revenue Treasury bills.. 3,372,10980,0003,452,109
B a n k s Indemnity (Exchange) bills.. 16,509,8722,895,00019,404,872
     Total160,908,1052,908,15094,208,32644,767,415302,791,996

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCKS.

The highest and lowest London prices for the principal New Zealand stocks, taken over a range of five years, are quoted.

Rate per centMaturingHighest.Lowest.
1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
3194580¾82¼81⅜92½95¼7577¼70⅜63 3/1690 1/16
194088⅜9189¾98 15/16100½84⅞85797398 5/16
41933–4391¼93⅝92¼100 7/16102 7/1685⅜86867399
41943–6389⅛89¾91⅝102102 15/1682⅛82½7466100
19449898⅞97½104⅞10791½9285½77 7/16101 15/16
194597⅞9997 9/16104⅞10791⅞92½85½77⅜101 15/16
194797⅜98¼97 7/16106½107 1/1691⅜92¼83⅛77⅛102 11/16
1948–5895⅛98½97(447–3/16)106⅝107 9/1690⅛9184½74 7/16101 15/16
51935–45102¼103½101 7/16103103⅜98¼998984101⅛
51946104105102 15/16107½109 11/1698¾99⅝8984106¾
51949..105102 13/16110⅞113 7/16..1018983 11/16110¼
61936–51106⅞106½103 7/16105107 1/16101⅝1029096104¼

INTEREST.

Of the public debt outstanding at 31st March, 1932, only £78,749,156, or 29 per cent, of the total (excluding Treasury, bills), bore interest at a rate of 4 per cent, or lower. As a result of conversion operations the corresponding figures at the 31st March. 1934, were £162,099,165 and 58 per cent.

The rates of interest on the debt as at the 31st March, 1934, were as follows:—

Rate of Interest.Debt maturing in—
London.Australia.New Zealand.Total.
* Funded dept.
Per cent—££££
 65,00065,000
39,670,38015,705,25625,375,636
22,172,19151,755,65273,927,843
 2,596,7512,596,751
414,495,08945,638,84660,133,935
47,463,54720,30021,10547,504,952
£4 19s. 5.88d.*24,100,199 24,100,199
535,758,41012,77035,771,180
5⅛466,1502,880469,030
903,600242,2001,145,800
1,378,3001,518,10078,3002,974,700
65,869,989 5,869,989
 160,908,1052,908,150116,118,760279,935,015
Floating debt—    
Revenue Treasury bills 3,452,1093,452,109
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) bills 19,404,87219,404,872
     Totals160,908,1052,908,150138,975,741302,791,996

The total annual amount of interest payable on the public debt as at the 31st March, 1934, including the funded debt (payments in respect of which are at present in abeyance), but excluding Treasury bills, is £11,572,779, which gives an average rate of £4 2s. 7d. per £100. The total interest and the average rate per cent, payable on the debt domiciled in the various markets are:—

 Total.Average Rate.
 ££s.d.
London (sterling)7,190,957495
Australia155,737572
New Zealand4,226,08531210

The actual net interest payments during the last twenty years out of the Consolidated Fund Ordinary Revenue Account are shown in the table following, together with, the rate per head of mean population. The figures for recent years have been affected by the discontinuance of payments en the funded debt, by conversion operations, and (adversely) by the existence of Treasury bills of considerable proportions.

Year ended 31st March,Amount.Rate per Head.
 ££s.d.
19152,823,878294
19162,933,7622110
19173,705,961346
19183,936,080384
19195,409,2104129
19206,352,344552
19216,807,217588
19227,390,8645150
19237,904,260607
19247,877,5975181
19257,865,2625158
19268,129,79951610
19278,450,7945190
19288,397,0745156
19298,675,22051810
19309,136,301638
19319,266,676639
19329,035,0255191
19338,498,6815112
19348,836,4675148

The above amounts are net payments out of the Consolidated Fund only, and do not comprise the whole of the interest payments in respect of moneys raised by way of loans. For loans raised for the purposes of State advances to settlers, workers, local authorities, &c., the interest, although made a charge upon the Consolidated Fund, is recovered from the receipts derived from interest paid by borrowers. Other loan-money coming within the same category is that raised for land-settlement, State coal-mines, the development of water-power, and a number of other purposes. Such interest does not become a burden upon the taxpayer, and consequently is not included in the figures upon which the rate per head of mean population is calculated.

The gross interest charges borne by the Consolidated Fund during the year ended 31st March, 1934, totalled £11,657,915, of which £2,821,448 was recovered from other accounts, &o. In addition there should be set off against the interest charges certain amounts shown in the public accounts not as recoveries but as revenue. These are interest on railway capital liability (£1,085,000), interest on post and telegraph capital liability (£553,000), and interest earned on the investment of public moneys (£596,360).

Of the gross interest payments from the Consolidated Fund during 1933–34 £5,931,417 was paid in London, £155,737 in Australia, and £5,570,761 in New Zealand. The figure for payments in London represents interest only, exchange being additional. Through the courtesy of the Imperial Government, no payments were made in respect of the funded debt.

AMORTIZATION OF DEBT.

PUBLIC DEBT REPAYMENT.

A brief historical account of the provisions for paying off loan-moneys will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. With certain exceptions, the public debt is now subject to the provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925. This Act, which repealed the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, substituted for the long-term sinking-fund system a method whereby the Dominion's debt-reduction resources may be available to purchase and cancel Government securities as the market price is advantageous, or pay them off at maturity, and so ensure an actual reduction in the public debt annually. For this purpose there is issued annually out of the Consolidated Fund a sum equal to ½ per cent, of the debt affected as at the 31st March, plus ½ per cent, of the total amount previously repaid or redeemed under the provisions of the Act. To this is added a sum equal to interest at 3½ per cent, per annum on the debt paid off under the scheme. By this means the bulk of the savings in interest on debt paid off is applied to further repayments of debt, and the debt existing at the commencement of the scheme will be liquidated in about sixty years, while all future loans will be liquidated within a similar period from the date of their inception.

Under the Act of 1925 a capital fund termed “ The Public Debt Redemption Fund ” was created, consisting of (1) the accumulations of sinking funds, amounting to £11,225,645 (leaving aside the State Advances, Westport Harbour, and other special sinking funds); (2) the amount advanced out of surplus revenue for discharged soldiers settlement, originally £13,500,000, but since reduced to £10,050,000 (£4,050,000 of the investments representing this sum is 113-pothecated to banks) through £800,000 having been transferred to the Consolidated Fund and £2,650,000 written off as a result of the revaluation of the properties of discharged soldiers. The net earnings from the Public Debt Redemption Fund are credited to the Consolidated Fund and applied towards meeting the charge against that fund created by the Act.

The Act does not apply to the whole of the public debt, revenue bills, and certain classes of the debt for which there are special amortization provisions, being excluded. Of the total gross indebtedness of £227,814,647 at the 31st March, 1925, £174,128,135 was subject to the operations of the Act. The corresponding figure at the 31st March, 1934, was £226,543,393.

To the 31st March, 1934, securities of a nominal value of £10,208,873, had been redeemed under the operation of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act. These transactions have effected an annual saving of interest to the Consolidated Fund amounting to £137,437, the difference between the rate formerly payable on the securities redeemed and the rate of 3½ per cent, now payable to the Public Debt Repayment Account in respect of these securities.

The following table shows the operations of the Public Debt Repayment Account during each of the nine years of its existence, together with the interest earnings of the Redemption Fund. In addition to transfers from the Consolidated Fund, the Public Debt Repayment Account is credited with interest earnings (£5,661 to 31st March, 1934) on its investments. On the expenditure side there have been £242 for cost of exchange and transfers of £23,672 to the Consolidated Fund in respect of premium on exchange. The account had an unexpended balance of £47,963 at 31st March, 1934.

Year ended 31st March,Interest on Redemption Fund (paid to Consolidated Fund).Transfers from Consolidated Fund.Utilized to redeem and cancel Securities.Nominal Value of Securities redeemed and cancelled.
½per Cent, of Debt at Beginning of Year or redeemed under Act.3½ per Cent, of Debt redeemed.Total.
Prior to Beginning of Year.During Year.*
* Computed from dates redemption.
 £££££££
1926897,756870,6412,093872,734870,637889,733
1927863,942896,65131,14113,737941,529939,231942,020
1928878,408919,72764,1119,926993,764998,188999,811
1929995,202944,45499,1053,3691,046,9281,041,8711,046,000
1930996,695993,567135,71524,9631,154,2451,158,4721,158,472
1931858,8931,006,800176,26123,9981,207,0591,209,9281,209,928
1932699,7901,047,687218,60912,9041,279,2001,243,1181,264,330
1933620,0891,066,173262,8616,9861,336,020919,850922,310
1934629,4961,083,209295,14113,9121,392,2621,776,2301,776,270

The funds in the Public Debt Repayment Account are not the only source from which debt-redemptions are made. Other accounts provided £756,280 for redemption purposes in 1933–34.

AMORTIZATION OF FUNDED DEBT.

At the 31st March, 1922, £27,532,164 of New Zealand's public debt was owing to the British Government, all but £1,191,919 of this being on account of war expenditure. Arrangements were made with the Imperial Government in 1922 for * the funding of this debt.

The funding was carried out on an annuity basis of 6 per cent., the total payment each year (payable half-yearly at 1st June and 1st December) being £1,651,930. Interest is at the rate of £4 19s. 5–88d. per cent., the balance of the 6 per cent, going to reduction of the debt.

Under the agreement the original amount of £27,532,164 would have been automatically discharged from the public debt by the end of the financial year 1958–59. The British Government has, however, generously postponed New Zealand's obligations in respect of the funded-debt payments due in and since December, 1931. On the other hand, a provision that any part of the funded debt may be redeemed at any time was taken ail vantage of in 1924, when £200,000 was paid off the Naval Defence Loan.

Payments to the end of 1933–34 have been:—

Year ended 31st March,Interest.Principal.Balance of Debt outstanding.

* Half-year only.

†Including £200,000 additional, paid off Naval Defence loan.

 £££
1923*684,794141,17127,390,993
19241,358,966292,96427,098,029
19251,344,212507,71826,590,311
19261,318,641333,28926,257,022
19271,301,856350,07425,906,948
19281,284,224367,70625,539,242
19291,265,706386,22425,153,018
19301,246,254405,67624,747,342
19311,225,822426,10824,321,234
1932**604,930221,03524,100,199
1933 and 1934NilNil24,100,199

The provisions of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, do not apply to the funded debt.

ACCRUED SINKING FUNDS.

The passing of the Repayment of the Public Debt Act, 1925, has robbed the comparative figures of accrued sinking funds of much of their significance. The table following is nevertheless of interest, as showing the growth of the sinking funds up to the date of the alteration of the system.

As at 31st March.Accrued Sinking Funds.
Amount.Proportion of Gross Debt.
 £Per Cent.
19153,178,0553.18
19163,679,9643.36
19174,263,5903.28
19184,971,6053.30
19195,951,0563.38
19207,257,5643.61
19218,763,0724.25
192210,655,3944.86
192311,879,2565.43
192412,974,0285.85
192513,462,8395.91
19262,274,2620.95
19272,443,5400.99
19282,635,7661.05
19292,156,5610.82
19302,331,4230.87
19312,313,6730.84
19322,435,1170.86
19332,509,5450.89
19342,647,9850.88

Payments to sinking funds during the year ended 31st March, 1934, totalled £42,540, premiums on /-on version of securities yielded £695, and the funds earned £106,230 by way of interest. Sinking-fund holdings to the amount of £11,000 were utilized for the redemption of debentures during the year, and an administration fee of £25 was paid in the case of Westport Harbour.

Details of the accrued sinking funds as at 31st March, 1934, were as follows:—

 £
State advances to settlers1,993,106
State advances to workers90,055
State advances to local authorities192,171
State coal-mines8,422
Samoan loan119
Westport Harbour loans256,241
Electric supply107,871
     Total£2,647,985

NET INDEBTEDNESS.

While the sinking funds were annually increasing it was customary to regard the net-indebtedness figures as giving the best comparison between one year and another. The initiation of the present system of amortization has, however, destroyed the comparison on this basis, and the gross figures now afford a better and more comparable index. The figures of net indebtedness for the last twenty years are as follows:—

As at 31st March.Amount.Per Head of Population.
 ££s.d.
191596,644,4558403
1916105,957,4339224
1917125,572,51510921
1918145,868,450126610
1919170,125,20414475
1920193,913,191156155
1921197,561,222155174
1922208,241,12116008
1923207,024,04815642
1924208,595,743154153
1925214,287,12815569
1926236,581,216167163
1927243,407,3491695 
1928248,740,73617127
1929256,652,371174104
1930265,051,9201781 
1931273,715,71018131
1932279,507,68318367
1933280,113,41318250
1934300,144,011193157

In general the net indebtedness shown in the foregoing table is merely the balance left after deducting the accrued sinking funds from the amount of debentures and stock in circulation. In some years, however, a further deduction has been made on account of loan-money, included in the gross indebtedness, having been raised towards the end of the financial year for the redemption of debentures falling due early in the succeeding financial year, or (in 1928–29) for expenditure in the next year. The years concerned and the amounts so deducted on this account are—

Year ended 31st march Amount.
£
1915237,400
192125
1922157,870
192350,020
192446,590
192564,680
192819,750
19295,383,051
19313,975

In computing the net indebtedness, no allowance is made for the fact that portion of the debt is actually held by the Government itself. In the course of the year's financial transactions securities are brought and sold by Treasury accounts, and the investments held as at the 31st March in each year, while forming part of the debt, do not represent amounts due directly or indirectly to the public. Public debt held by Treasury accounts as at the 31st March of the last five years has been: 1930,' £2,380,348; 1931, £2,051,110; 1932, £2,085,828; 1933, £3,201,068; 1934, £442,6(53.

GENERAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT DEBT.

The statistics given throughout this subsection refer to the indebtedness of the General Government only, and do not include the debt of local governing authorities, which is dealt with in the section of this volume relating to local government.

Local governing authorities had at the 31st March, 1933, a gross indebtedness of £73,912,122, and if this amount be added to the gross debt of the General Government at the same date (£282,622,95S) the aggregate becomes £356,535,080. From this total should be deducted £5,030,720 in respect of outstanding loans to local authorities from the State Advances Office and the Main Highways Board, and £1,867,702 on account of inscribed debt under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Act, leaving £349,630,658 as the sum total of the public and semi-public debt as at the 31st March, 1933. This figure represents a rate of £227 per head of population.

The figures relating to local authorities' indebtedness in the foregoing paragraph are inclusive of Hospital Boards, and to this extent differ from those given in the section on local government. Hospital Board indebtedness at 31st March, 1933, totalled £1,436,066, including £64,907 from the State Advances Office.

SUBSECTION D.—STATE ADVANCES.

INTRODUCTORY.

As is shown in Subsection C of this section, an appreciable proportion of the public debt of New Zealand is represented by money borrowed by the State not for its own requirements, but for the purpose of lending out at easy rates of interest for various denned purposes.

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c., for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes vary considerably in detail, but all lie in one of two main classes—those in which the money is advanced on security, and those in which the expenditure is incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, and discharged soldiers are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlements (including the settlement of discharged soldiers) is the principal of the latter.

Of the advances proper, several classes are administered by a separate Department known as the State Advances Department, and the accounts relating to these are not included in the Public Account, nor are they dealt with in Subsection A of this section. The various systems of advances administered by the State Advances Department are dealt with in the present subsection, as is also the rural intermediate credits scheme. The system of advances to discharged soldiers for settlement purposes is dealt with in the section of this book dealing with land tenure and settlement, while particulars of advances for mining purposes are given in the section relating to mining.

Statements appearing later in this subsection are to be read subject to certain temporary modifications imposed by legislation passed in the first session of 1932.

The National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, effected a reduction in the rate of interest of existing mortgages as from 1st April, 1932, until the expiry of its provisions three years (extended to five years by the Finance Act, 1934) later. The standard reduction is 20 per cent, in the case of mortgages entered into on the 1st January. 1930, or within five years immediately preceding, and in the case of earlier mortgages 20 per cent, of the rate of interest that would have been fixed by the mortgage had it been entered into on the 1st January, 1930. No such deduction shall, however, have the effect of bringing the net interest rate on chattel mortgages below 6½ per cent, or on other mortgages below 5 per cent.

Part III of the Finance Act, 1932, made temporary provision (also for three years, but extended to six years by the Finance Act, No. 3, 1934), for the capitalization of arrears of interest in respect of advances, and for the extension of provision relating to rebate of interest on instalments. It made also certain permanent amendments to the State Advances Act, 1913.

A proposal of major importance was outlined in the Financial Statement (Budget) of the 23rd August, 1934, in which the Government indicated its intention of introducing legislation for the incorporation by statute of a National Mortgage Corporation upon a basis somewhat similar to that of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. To bridge the gap between the stock exchanges and mortgages, and thereby obtain finance at the lowest possible rate of interest, this corporation would be empowered to raise capital by the sale of mortgage bonds somewhat similar to rural advances bonds (referred to at a later page). The underlying idea of these bonds is to spread risks and also to turn mortgages into readily saleable stock securities representing small amounts.

The especial importance of the proposal in the present connection is that it is intended that the corporation, under suitable financial arrangements, will take over the present investments of the State Advances Office, the Lands Department, and the Rural Intermediate Credit Board.

Legislation is at present (October, 1934 pending, which authorizes State lending Departments to grant relief to mortgagors without an order of Court, and in other ways improves machinery found inadequate in the present depression.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

The following résumé covers collectively the three major fields of operation of the State Advances Department—viz., Advances to Settlers (including Rural Advances), Advances to Workers, and Advances to Local Authorities.

From the inception of the Department in 1894 to the 31st March, 1934, a total amount of £75,462,498 has been advanced. Repayments in full and payments of instalments have aggregated £32,950,915, leaving a balance outstanding of £42,511,583, comprising outstanding loans to settlers, £23,332,852; to workers, £14,606,506; and to local authorities, £4,572,225.

The average balance of principal outstanding per mortgagor at 31st March, 1934, was:—

 £
Loans on rural properties1,073
Loans on urban and suburban properties548
Loans to local authorities15,605

The total losses from the inception up to the 31st March, 1934. amount to £785,563, or £1 Os. l0d. in every £100 of advances, an increase of £121,536 for the year 1933–34. This total does not include losses which may in fact exist, but are not definitely ascertainable until securities are realized. Unless the price-levels of primary produce substantially improve, losses will be considerable. To provide in some measure for this contingency, the balance of gross profits available has been transferred to the reserve for loss.

At the 31st March, 1934, the proportion of arrears to the balance of advances outstanding was 5–519 per cent., as compared with 4–199 per cent, a year earlier. The increase in arrears during 1933–34 was £508,132; in 1932–33, £559,210; and in 1931–32, £642,184.

The total capital amounts to £44,880,936 and the cost of management in 1933–34 was £65,522, being thus 0–146 per cent., or 2s. 11d. per £100 of capital employed.

During 1933–34 mortgages and instalments of principal repaid amounted to £1,402,246. Interest collected totalled £1,825,714, and interest capitalized £22,676. The interest paid on loan-moneys during the year was £1,667,209. Interest earned for the year on the sinking funds administered was: Public Debt Sinking Funds, £145,047; Advances Office Sinking Funds, £93,794. The assets of the Advances Office sinking funds amounted to £2,279,034 at the close of the year.

To assist those urban and suburban mortgagors who, through adverse circumstances, are unable to meet their commitments in full on the half-yearly due date, the Department has instituted a system of frequent and regular collections. For the year ended 31st March, 1934, 343,127 actual collections were made, the total sum received from them being £514,344.

So far as possible, securities are not forced on the market. In some cases realization proceedings are necessary, but in the main a policy of “ nursing” securities against better times is being followed The claims of mortgagors in difficulties and deserving of further assistance are considered, with the result that many remain in possession of their properties, provided an amount approximating the current, instalment is paid during the half-yearly period.

Consequent on the Department exercising its powers of sale, the following advances granted to purchasers replaced existing mortgages during the year:—

 Number.Amount. £
Loans to settlers192238,475
Loans to workers1813,830
 210252,305

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS.

The Advances to Settlers Office was established by an Act passed in 1894. An administrative officer called the Superintendent was appointed early in the following year, and a Board was set up to advise and co-operate with the Superintendent. Advances can be granted only with the consent of the Board.

The legislation has been amended at different times, and is now embodied in the State Advances Act, 1913, and its amendments.

Money is advanced to settlers on first mortgage of lands and improvements held under numerous specified classes of tenure, free from all encumbrances, liens, and interests other than leasehold interests.

Loans are granted only on the instalment system and for periods not exceeding thirty-six and a half years—

(a) On freeholds, up to three-fourths of the value of the security:

(b) On leaseholds, up to three-fourths of the value of the lesses interest in the lease.

No loan of less than £25 or more than £3,500 can be granted. Applications for loans not exceeding £500 have priority over applications for larger sums. If the applicant has already obtained any advance under the Act and is desirous of obtaining a further advance, the amount of the application, added to the amount of the advances already obtained, must not exceed £3,500. The property which the applicant offers as security for the loan must consist of one or more holdings of the several classes of tenure referred to previously, and must, of course, be of the necessary value; and, if the property is leasehold, all the covenants and conditions of the lease, including the payment of rent, must have been regularly complied with.

Mortgages are repayable by half-yearly payments of principal and interest combined. They may also be wholly repaid at any time. Very low rates of interest were adopted at the inception of the scheme, the general rate up to the end of 1925 being 5 per cent., reducible to 4½ per cent, for prompt payment.

Interest on loans advanced since 19,25 is charged at the rate of 6¼ per cent., reducible to 5¾ per cent., save on advances authorized for the purpose of repaying mortgages, in which case the rate is 6½ per cent., reducible to 6 per cent., provided that in each case payment is made not later than fourteen days after due date and no arrears in respect of instalments or other payments under the mortgage remain outstanding. The mortgagor has the privilege of repaying the whole balance of principal at any time; of paying an additional £5 or multiple of £5 towards reduction; and, in certain cases, of readjusting the loan.

A more detailed account of the system will be found in the 1930 number of the Year-Book.

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS ON STOCK AND FARM IMPLEMENTS.

Advances may also be made on the security of stock and of farm implements. Every advance must be secured by a mortgage of land or chattels either with or without any collateral security to be approved by the Board of the Office. Not more than £500 may be advanced to any one borrower, the term of the loan not to exceed five years.

Interest on the amount of the loan for the time being outstanding is payable at the rate of 7 per cent, per annum, reducible to 6½ per cent, per annum provided that the half-yearly instalments of principal and interest are paid within fourteen days of due date.

STATISTICAL.

Statistics given under this heading include advances, &c, from the Rural Advances Branch.

The 1934 and earlier Year-Books contained a decennial summary of numbers and amounts of loans authorized and amount advanced and repaid, together with the total under these heads from the inception of the scheme. It is, however, no longer possible to maintain the table on this basis. For the same reason, similar tables formerly included under “ Advances to Workers” and “ Advances to Local Authorities ” have also been discontinued.

The number and amount of advances which were outstanding at the 31st March, 1934, were classified according to amount as follows:—

 Number of Advances.Amount outstanding. £
Freeholds20,12518,997,606
Leaseholds9,0213,933,352
Freeholds and leaseholds combined374401,894
     Totals29,520£23,332,852

The number and amounts of current advances on rural and on urban and suburban land are—

 Number.Amount.£
On rural land16,70217,912,161
On urban and suburban land12,8185,420,091

At 31st March, 1934, interest overdue on loans amounted to £1,100,328, as compared with £905,299 twelve months earlier.

RURAL ADVANCES.

The Rural Advances Act, 1926, established, as from the 1st April, 1927, a separate branch of the State Advances Office, known as the Rural Advances Branch, and controlled by the State Advances Board.

The business of the Rural Advances Branch is to make advances, under the special provisions of the Act, on the security of first mortgages of the various classes of land covered by the advances to settlers scheme, but exclusive of urban and suburban lands. Advances may be made not exceeding £5,500, inclusive of any amounts granted under the advances to settlers or advances to workers schemes. Advances must not exceed two-thirds of the value of the security in the case of freehold land, or two-thirds of the value of the lessee's interest in the case of leasehold land.

To provide funds wherewith to make rural advances, the Superintendent of the State Advances Office may issue bonds or stock or other securities, which constitute a floating charge on all the assets of the Rural Advances Branch, including all mortgages for the time being securing loans granted under the Act. Such bonds, &c, are not secured on the public revenues, and do not form part of the public debt. Bonds to an aggregate value of £4,213,050 have been issued to the 31st March, 1934.

Statistics of loans, repayments, &c, are incorporated in those of advances to settlers, given previously.

RURAL INTERMEDIATE CREDIT.

The Rural Intermediate Credit Act, which was passed during the 1927 session of Parliament and came into force on the 1st January, 1928, provided for the setting-up of a special Rural Intermediate Credit Board, and the making of advances as follows:—

  1. To members of co-operative rural intermediate credit associations, whose formation (with not less than twenty member and with certain defined objects) is provided for. The application for the loan is received and considered by the association concerned, which, on approving it, applies to the Board to advance the amount required to cover the loan. The term of the loan is not more than five years. An association may arrange with a bank or other approved financial institution for a loan in cases where the term is less than six months.

  2. To persons engaged in farming operations on their own account, or to trustees, executors, or administrators carrying on farming operations, the loan (for certain specified purposes and for a term of not more than five years) being advanced direct.

  3. To co-operative societies (with not less than thirty members and with a subscribed capital of at least £2,500) having for their principal objects the production or sale of staple agricultural or pastoral products. In this case the term of the loan is not less than six months nor more than three years.

The Finance Act (No. 2), 1932–33, authorizes the Board, or an association with the consent of the Board, to grant an extension of time or other concession in the case of an existing loan. Every loan granted after 10th March, 1933, by the Board or an association may be made repayable upon demand, or by instalments, or by such other conditions as the Board thinks fit.

The Board may also carry on the business of discounting farmers' promissory notes and bills of exchange.

The total amount of advances in force at any time to a person in classes (a) or (b) was originally set down as not to exceed £1,000. This limit was extended to £2,000 by the Rural Intermediate Credit Amendment Act, 1929. To the case of cooperative societies the amount advanced may be not more than 80 per cent, of the fair market value of the live-stock or produce upon which the loan is secured.

The Rural Intermediate Credit Board consists of eight members, including the Public Trustee, who is the principal executive member, and in his capacity as such is styled the Commissioner of Rural Intermediate Credit. The funds of the Board are obtained partly by way of advance from the Consolidated Fund and partly by the issue of debentures.

There are also throughout the Dominion sixteen District Rural Intermediate Credit Boards to which has been delegated authority to approve applications referred to in classes (a) and (b) above, up to certain amounts and subject to certain stipulated conditions.

The accounting year under the scheme ends on the 30th June. The following figures show the position at 30th June, 1934:—

 £
Investments (including loans made and face value of bills and notes discounted)274,963
Loans granted but not completed14,434
Applications entertained and in course of consideration6,755
     Total£296,152

The investments referred to above were made up as follows:—

 £
Advances to associations for preliminary expenses836
Advances to associations under Part II of the Act195,552
Advances to farmers under Part III of the Act76,266
Bills and notes discounted (face value)2,309
     Total£274,963

From the inception of the scheme on 1st January, 1928, up to the 30th June, 1934, advances made and bills discounted totalled £1,065,179, and the business dealt with up to or under consideration at that date reached the total of £1,086,368.

The interest fixed for advances other than to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations is now 5 per cent, per annum, this being also the discount rate. In the case of loans to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations the rate charged is 4½ per cent., so that associations may be in a position to make advances to their members at 5 per cent. The Board has imposed conditions as to the manner in which this margin of ½ per cent, is to be employed by the associations.

Advances totalling £400,000 have been received from the Consolidated Fund, and £262,900 had been raised to the 30th June, 1934, by the issue of debentures. Income from investments during the year ended 30th June, 1934, totalled £22,854, and expenditure for the year was £17,124, leaving an excess of income amounting to £5,730. The income referred to does not include £7,058 earned by the investments of the Rural Intermediate Credit Redemption Fund, to which one-third of all advances received from the Consolidated Fund must be allocated and invested in Government securities. The interest earned by this Fund, plus one-half of the net profits on the year's working, is credited to the Redemption Fund, the grand total of which amounted at the end of the year to £184,553.

ADVANCES TO WORKERS.

The system of advances to workers, instituted in 1906, is on much the same general lines as that of the advances to settlers. Advances are made on first mortgage of lands and improvements held under the same classes of tenure as in the advances to settlers scheme. The scales of charges and of payments of principal and interest, and the provisions for paying off the whole or part of the principal outstanding, apply to the workers' scheme as well as to the settlers.

A worker is defined as a person of either sex engaged (whether as an employee or on his or her own account) in manual or clerical work who is not in receipt of an annual income exceeding £300, increased by £25 in respect of each child or other person dependent on him, and is not the owner of an}' land other than that offered as security.

Not more than £1,250 may be granted to any one borrower; and an advance must not exceed 95 per cent, of the total value of the security in the case of freehold land, or 95 per cent, of the value of the lessee's interest in the case of leasehold land, or, where the loan is to provide for the erection of a dwellinghouse, 95 per cent, of the cost of the dwellinghouse inclusive of the cost of the land and improvements. No advance can be made to any applicants who do not take up their permanent residence on the property. Married applicants must make the declaration on the application form jointly with wife or husband, as the case may require.

The net amount of advances outstanding at the end of the financial year was £14,000,506, secured upon the following tenures:—

Tenure.Number of Loans outstanding.Aggregate Amount outstanding.
£
Freehold22,29713,825,364
Leasehold1,442781,142

The whole of advances current are secured upon urban or suburban land. Interest overdue on loans to workers at 31st March, 1934. was £680,414, as compared with £543,058 at the end of the preceding fiscal year.

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The system of State advances to local authorities was initiated in 1910. The total advances current at 31st March, 1934, were £4,572,225, of which £2,387,140 was classified as upon rural land and £2,185,085 as upon urban or suburban lands. The security consists of debentures issued by the local authority.

Interest overdue on loans to local authorities at 31st March, 1934, amounted to £22,002, and may be compared with £20,602 overdue at the end of the preceding fiscal year.

The foregoing figures are exclusive of funds (£237,115) provided by the Treasury and advanced under the Hawke's Bay Earthquake (1931) rehabilitation scheme. The balance outstanding at the close of the year was £236,285.

MISCELLANEOUS ADVANCES.

The administration of the following accounts, created as national emergency measures during the war period, were transferred by amalgamation to the State Advances Superintendent in 1922. The functions in respect of each account are now limited.

Homing Account.—No moneys were expended during the year 1933–34 in acquiring land, in preparing land for dwellings, or in the erection of houses.

The amount outstanding at the close of the year in respect of 479 homes under agreements to purchase was £267,691, and the arrears at the close of the year were £13,270, as compared with £11,077 a year earlier. The net loss for the year was £9,375, including £4,270 loss on realization of securities or writing-down of doubtful securities.

Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings Account.—At 31st March, 1934, principal owing by mortgagors was £1,897 and overdue mortgage interest £370. The gross profit for the year was £20 and the net profit £8.

Repatriation.—During the year 1933–31 the sum of £11,850 principal-moneys was repaid by borrowers.

The present position is that 930 borrowers are indebted to the extent of £118,724 for business loans, and 3,833 borrowers owe £78,173 for furniture loans: a total of £196,897 in respect of principal-moneys. Overdue interest on bills of sale at the end of the year amounted to £4,697.

Repatriation advances should not be confused with the system of advances to discharged soldiers to enable them to acquire farms and homes. Discharged soldiers' settlement advances are dealt with in Section XV B of this book.

Fruit-preserving Industry Advances Account.—At 31st March, 1934, principal owing by mortgagors amounted to £29,131 and overdue interest on mortgages to £2,739. The year's gross profit was £332, and the net profit £200.

Cold-storage Advances Account.—At 31st March, 1934, the sum of £17,572 was-owing by mortgagors in respect of principal and £1,182 in respect of overdue interest. The year's operations resulted in a gross profit of £115, but a net loss of 5s. 9d.

Fishing-industry Promotion Account.—The principal owing on bills of sale at the 31st March, 1934, was only £75, with a further £11 as overdue interest. Gross profits for the year were £27 and net profits £8.

Chapter 23. SECTION XXIII.—PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

SUMMARY OF PENSIONS.

A SUMMARY showing the total amount of pensions administered by the Pensions Department during the last two fiscal years is as follows:—

Class of Pension.Annual Value.Gross Payments.
As at 31st Mar., 1933.As at 31st Mar., 1934.1932–33.1933–34.
* Excludes payments under section 45 of Pensions Act, 1926. These are included in old-age pensions.
 ££££
War1,200,4681,228,5721,217,5861,246,441
Old-age1,305,7721,403,3751,271,1571,350,982
Widows'307,926301,388311,317302,020
Maori War5,1944,2145,8314,522
Miners'56,61856,18462,56356,810
Epidemic3,6902,6354,1973,290
Blind18,42220,39918,06519,306
Boer War*2,1572,0822,1762,163
Civil Service Act6,1424,9336,4535,917
Sundry pensions and annuities10,09012,3679,62611,678
Family allowances131,118151,765122,810146,766
        Totals3,047,5973,187,9143,031,7813,149,895

Total payments in 1933–34 represented £2 2s. 10d. per head of mean population other than Maori.

As an illustration of the growth of the pension responsibilities of the State, figures are appended covering total and per caput payments at five-yearly intervals on account of civil pensions and family allowances. Civil pensions comprise old-age, widows', miners', blind, epidemic, and Maori war. Only old-age pensions were in force over the whole period.

—;Year ended 31st March.Payments during Year.
Total.Per Head of European Population.
££s.d.
1900157,343042
1905195,475047
1910362,496075
1915540,0490910
1920931,5200161
19251,132,6020174
19301,577,641124
19341,883,696158

The aggregate amount paid to the 31st March, 1934, in respect of civil pensions and family allowances is £28,572,287.

The rates of pension quoted in this section are as reduced by Part II of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, except in the case of old-age pensions and South African War pensions, in which cases reductions were partially restored by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1934.

War and other pensions paid by the Pensions Department in 1933–34 on behalf of other Governments amounted to £238,656 in actual payments for the year.

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

The history of old-age pensions in New Zealand dates back to 1898, in which year was passed the original Old-age Pensions Act. The law relating to old-age pensions is new contained in the Pensions Act, 1926 (which is a consolidation of previous enactments on the subject), and its amendments.

The qualifications for the old-age pension are briefly as follows:—

  1. The applicant, if a male, must have reached the age of sixty-five, or, if a female, must have reached the age of sixty, except in cases where the applicant is the parent of two or more children under fifteen years of age who are dependent on him (or her). The pension-age in such cases is sixty for men and fifty-five for women, and the pension payable may be any sum up to £13 per annum, in addition to the ordinary pension payable.

  2. The applicant must be resident in New Zealand, and must have resided continuously in the Dominion for the past twenty-five years.

  3. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have been imprisoned for four months or on four occasions for an offence punishable by twelve months' imprisonment and dishonouring him in the public estimation.

  4. The applicant must not during the past twenty-five years have been imprisoned for five years for any offence dishonouring him in the public estimation.

  5. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have deserted his wife (or husband, as the case may be) or his children under the age of fifteen years.

  6. The applicant must have lived a sober and reputable life during the past year.

  7. The yearly income (including pension) of the applicant, if single, must not reach £84, and, if married, £127 (joint income of husband and wife, plus pension).

  8. The net value of accumulated property (see below) must be under £410.

  9. The applicant must not have deprived himself or herself of property or income to qualify for a pension.

All residents of New Zealand who fulfil the necessary conditions are eligible for the old-age pension, with the exception of—

  1. Maoris who receive votes other than pensions out of the grant appropriated by the Civil List Act, 1908.

  2. Aliens.

  3. Naturalized subjects who have not been naturalized one year.

  4. Chinese or other Asiatics, whether naturalized or not, and whether British subjects by birth or not.

The term “alien” is deemed not to include a woman* who ceased to be a British subject by reason of marriage with an alien who is since deceased, or from whom she is legally separated.

The original Act of 1898 provided for a maximum general pension of £18 per annum. This maximum was increased to £26 in 1905; to £39 in 1917; to £45 10s. (in certain cases in 1924; all cases, 1925); in 1932 was reduced to £40 19s.; and increased to £43 in 1934. The maximum general pension, £43, is reducible by—

  1. £1 for every complete £1 of income over £41.

  2. £1 for every complete £10 of net capital value of accumulated property.

A further deduction of £1 for every year or part of a year by which the age of a woman pensioner is less than 65 is also made, except in cases where the pensioner is the mother of two or more children under 15 years of age who are dependent on her.

The income of a married applicant for pension purposes is considered to be half of the joint incomes of husband and wife. The joint incomes of a married couple must not exceed, with pension added, the sum of £127.

Net accumulated property is the capital value (reduced by £50) of all real and personal property owned by an applicant, other than any property on which he permanently resides, or life-assurance policies and annuities, or other life interests in the capital sum of which the applicant has no interest beyond the income derived therefrom. The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for pension purposes is half of the total net accumulated properties of both.

* The position of women who have married aliens is further improved in this respect by the recently passed British Nationality and Status of Aliens (in New Zealand) Amendment Act, 1934.

The exemption of the total value of the home in the computation of net accumulated property was not provided for prior to 1925, but a substantial allowance was made.

From the inception of the scheme to 31st March, 1934, 105,400 old-age pensions have been granted. Of these, 55,016 have been discontinued on account of the death of the pensioner, and 12,877 for other causes. The number of pensions in force on the 31st March, 1934, was 37,507, an increase of 2,575 on the figure for the previous year. The annual liability was £1,403,375, being an average of £37 8s. 4d. per pension. A decennial summary is—

At 31st March,Pensioners.Amount paid during Year.
 ££
192522,062806,953
192622,905903,577
192723,751982,356
192824,8751,010,575
192926,1101,060,760
193026,9091,107,993
193128,9951,158,788
193232,3171,277,107
193334,9321,271,157
193437,5071,350,982

The total payments in respect of old-age pensions have aggregated £21,857,128 to the 31st March, 1934. Thirty per cent. of the net revenue from national endowments is apportioned to old-age-pensions expenditure, the total amount so credited to 31st March, 1934, being £740,946.

WIDOWS' PENSIONS.

The Widows' Pensions Act, 1911, came into operation on the 1st January, 1912. The scope of this Act, which is embodied in its amended form in the Pensions Act, 1926, has been widened from time to time by various amendments.

Applicants for widows' pensions must be British subjects of good character, with at least one child under fifteen, and applications require to be lodged with the local Registrar of Pensions, and to be investigated by a Magistrate, who alone (except as below) has power to grant pensions. The term “widow” includes a woman whose husband is detained in a mental hospital.

An Act of 1924 empowers the Minister in Charge of Pensions to grant, after investigation by a Magistrate, a widow's pension to a mother, otherwise ineligible, having care of her child or children whose father is dead and who are dependent upon her.

The maximum rate of pension payable is 18s. per week to a widow with one child under fifteen years of age, with an additional 9s. per week added for each additional child under fifteen, the maximum gross pension payable being £3 12s. per week. The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child legally adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant, but not an illegitimate child unless legitimized.

The total income, including her widow's pension, of a widow and her children must not exceed £1 14s. per week plus 9s. per week for each child, or £4 17s. per week, whichever is the greater.

The number of widows' pensions in force on the 31st March, 1934, was 4,619, covering in addition 9,442 children. The figures for the last five years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March,Number at End of Year.Annual Value. Annual Payments.
  ££
19304,373323,250323,419
19314,566336,039325,998
19324,709345,471340,162
19334,687307,926311,317
19344,619301,388302,020

The average pension as at 31st March, 1934, was £65 5s. The total widows' pension payments since the inauguration of the scheme in 1912 have been £4,242,957.

MAORI WAR PENSIONS.

The Military Pensions Act, 1912, was enacted to provide for the payment of an annual pension of £36 (now £49) to veterans of the Maori War who were awarded the New Zealand War Medal for active service in that war. This Act is new embodied in the Pensions Act of 1926.

The figures for five years are—

Year ended 31st March,Number at End of Year.Annual Value. Annual Payments.
  ££
193020910,24111,498
19311708,3309,102
19321437,0077,582
19331065,1945,831
1934864,2144,522

The grand total paid in pensions of this class since the institution of this scheme in 1912–13 has been £601,253.

MINERS' PENSIONS.

Miners' pensions are provided for by Part IV of the Pensions Act, 1926 (which incorporates the Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, and amendments), and by a section of the Finance Act, 1929, which extends the grounds on which a claim for pension may be based and increases the amount of pension where there are dependent children.

The pension is payable to any miner, qualified by residence, &c., who is totally incapacitated or seriously and permanently incapacitated for work owing to miner's phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand. The term “miner's phthisis” is extended to include tuberculosis of the lungs and any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with or a sequel to pneumoconiosis. The weekly pension (as reduced in April, 1932) payable during incapacity is as follows:—

  • To an unmarried man, £1 2s. 6d.

  • To a married man with wife or children under fifteen years of age dependent on him, £1 2s. 6d., plus 9s. in respect of his wife and 9s. in respect of each child.

  • To a widower with children under fifteen years of age dependent on him, £1 2s. 6d., plus 9s. for each child.

The maximum weekly pension is £3 16s. 6d. The annual amount payable in respect of any child or children is reducible by £1 for every £1 of income from other sources in excess of £104.

The qualifications for this class of pension are—

  1. The applicant must have been a British subject for one year.

  2. He must have resided continuously in New Zealand for five years immediately prior to his application. By an amendment of November, 1932, occasional absences not aggregating six months do not make an interruption.

  3. He must have been employed as a miner in New Zealand for two years and a half.

  4. He must not have deserted or failed to provide for his wife or children, nor have been convicted for any offence punishable by imprisonment for two years.

  5. He must be of sober habits and good moral character.

The widow of any miner who is entitled to a pension under the Act and who dies of miner's phthisis is entitled to claim a pension of 15s. 9d. a week for two years (prior to April, 1932, the period was “during widowhood”) following her husband's death. The Pensions Amendment Act of November, 1932, provides, inter alia, that every widow in receipt of a pension as a miner's widow at the passing of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, shall on the termination of that pension be entitled to a maximum pension of £35 19s. during widowhood or until entitled to an old-age pension. The actual reasonable expenses (not exceeding £20) of the funeral of a miner dying of miner's phthisis are also payable.

The average pension in force at 31st March, 1934, was £76 6s. 9d. Pension payments from the commencement of the scheme aggregate £693,631. Against this the amount of £54,742 was credited in respect of gold duty up to the 31st March, 1933, since when this credit has been discontinued. Funeral expenses paid to the 31st March, 1934, have totalled £7,649.

Year ended 31st March,Number.Annual Liability.Annual Payment.
 £££
193077953,35451,684
193187662,57558,441
193299174,03569,785
193374356,61862,563
193473656,18456,810

Of the 736 pensions in force at the 31st March, 1934, 617 were being paid to miners and 119 to widows of miners.

The total pensions granted since 1916 have been 2,125. Of these 854 have been discontinued on account of death, and 535 for other causes.

WAR PENSIONS.

The War Pensions Act, 1915, as amended, provides for the payment of pensions on certain conditions to disabled members of the New Zealand Forces (as defined by the Act) and to dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of the Forces.

No person in receipt of a pension under the Pensions Act, 1926 (other than an old-age pension) can new receive a pension under the War Pensions Act, 1915. War pensions (except economic pensions) payable to dependants of a deceased soldier (other than a widow, child, or widowed mother) were diminished by 17½ per cent. as from 1st April, 1932.

SUMMARY OF ANNUAL LIABILITY AT 31ST MARCH, 1934.

Class of Pension.Number of Pensioners.Number of Children.Annual Value.Average Pension.
   £ 
Soldiers (permanent)9,08641512,67153
Soldiers (temporary)3,76258261,62070
Dependants of disabled soldiers1,9883,901147,42474
Widows (without children)1,063..97,49392
Widows (with children)34058152,679155
Other dependants of deceased soldiers— Parents4,102..140,35834
  Other adult dependants90..2,57829
  Guardians of children28350513,74949
      Totals21,3145,0861,228,57258

Figures showing the number of pensions, according to class, in each of the last five years are given below:—

At 31st March.Soldiers (Permanent).Soldiers (Temporary).Wives and Parents (on account of Disablement).On account of Death.Total.
Widows (including Children's Pensions).Parents and other Dependants.
19309,2853,3681,1021,3975,58720,739
19319,4053,4861,3131,3945,42721,025
19329,5043,4721,5031,3945,16821,041
19339,5483,6151,7441,3884,80921,104
19349,6863,7621,9881,4034,47521,314

The total payments on war pensions to the 31st March, 1934, were £22,213,662, the figures for the last ten years being—

Year ended 31st March,Pension Payments.
 £
19251,244,483
19261,185,161
19271,128,988
19281,151,979
19291,184,003
19301,207,748
19311,245,499
19321,261,778
19331,217,586
19341,246,441

During the year 1933–34 medical treatment of war pensioners cost £69,131; railway concessions to certain classes of war pensioners cost £1,562; and loading on life-insurance policies of war pensioners due to war-service disabilities amounted to £167.

War pensions payable outside New Zealand (chiefly in Great Britain and Australia) as at 31st March, 1934, numbered 1,803 with an annual liability of £94,199.

ECONOMIC PENSIONS.

By an amendment of the War Pensions Act, 1915, provision was made for the payment of economic pensions to soldiers or their dependants. An “economic pension” is defined under the Act as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds, and being in addition to any pension payable as a right in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the Forces.

Economic pensions consist of three classes. Rates, as reduced in 1932 (former rates being shown in parentheses), are:—

  1. A maximum pension of £1 1s. (30s.) weekly to disabled soldiers.

  2. A maximum pension of 8s. (10s.) weekly to widows of soldiers with one child, with an additional 2s. (2s. 6d.) weekly for each child in excess of one.

  3. A maximum pension of 16s. (20s.) weekly to widowed mothers of deceased soldiers.

In every case the income of the pensioner affects the grant. Soldiers pensioned for minor disabilities do not receive economic pensions.

The total number of economic pensions in force at the 31st March, 1934, was 2,939, of an annual value of £144,149. Payments in respect of economic pensions are included in the general total of war pensions.

SOUTH AFRICAN VETERANS' WAR PENSIONS.

The total number of pensions in force under this heading at the 31st March, 1934, was 52, corresponding to an annual liability of £2,082. The amount actually paid out on claims during the year was £2,163. Pensions are granted under authority of the Defence Act, 1909.

In addition to the war pensions granted to South African veterans, old-age pensioners who served in the South African War may receive additional old-age pension of 5s. per week in cases where the total income, including pension, does not exceed £84. Prior to April, 1932, the total was not to exceed £97 10s., but was then reduced to £79 19s. and increased from 1st April, 1934. Payments under this head are included with old-age pensions and not with South African War pensions.

DEFENCE PENSIONS.

Section 34 of the Finance Act, 1926, provides for pensions to be paid in the event of the death or disablement of members of the New Zealand Defence or Naval Forces by reason of misadventure suffered in the performance of their duties. The pensions rates under this section are not to exceed the corresponding pension rates under the War Pensions Act, and all applications for pensions of this class are dealt with by the War Pensions Board.

EPIDEMIC PENSIONS.

To relieve distress arising out of the influenza epidemic of 1918 a system of pensions was instituted. The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1934, was 68, representing an annual liability of £2,635, the average pension being £38 15s. 1d. The amount paid during the financial year 1933–34 in respect of epidemic pensions was £3,290, and the total amount paid since the commencement of the scheme £470,944.

The number of pensions is rapidly decreasing, having fallen during the past year by 30, and since the 31st March, 1920, by 871.

PENSIONS FOR THE BLIND.

Part III of the Pensions Act, 1926, which incorporates legislation passed in 1924 And amended in 1925, provides for the payment of a pension of £45 10s. per annum to blind people over the age of twenty. To be eligible for a pension an applicant must (1) have been born blind in New Zealand, or (2) have become blind while permanently resident in New Zealand, or (3) have been permanently resident in New Zealand for at least ten years before the 29th October, 1924, or twenty-five years before the date of applying for the pension. Ten years' continuous residence in the Dominion is required in every case.

Similar provisions apply in regard to property and unearned income as in the case of old-age pensions. In regard to earned income, however, personal earnings up to £2 15s. per week are not taken into account, while an additional pension equal to 25 per cent. of earnings is granted, with a proviso that total income and pension must not exceed £3 12s. 6d. per week.

The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1934, was 438, representing an annual liability of £20,399, or an average of £40 11s. 5d. per annum. The total amount of pension-money that has been paid under this head to the 31st March, 1934, is £129,639.

FAMILY ALLOWANCES.

The Family Allowances Act was passed in the session of 1926, to provide for the granting of allowances towards the maintenance of children by parents of limited income. The Act came into force on the 1st April, 1927.

The allowance is at the rate of 2s. per week for each child in excess of two, the average weekly income of the applicant and his wife and children, including allowance, not to exceed £4 (reduced to £3 5s. by section 26 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932) plus 2s. for each child in excess of two. For the purposes of the Act the term “child” in general means a child under the age of fifteen.

The application for the allowance is made by the father, but in general the allowance is paid to the mother.

The number of claims dealt with during the year ended 31st March, 1934, totalled 3,644, of which 3,022 were granted and 360 rejected, the remaining 262 being held over. Of the rejected claims, 149 represent cases where the income of the family was in excess of the limit. The total number of family allowances in force at the 31st March, 1934, was 12,145 with an annual liability of £151,765. This averages £12 9s. 11d. per annum each. The total amount paid out during the year was £146,766, the aggregate for the seven years during which the Act has been in force being £576,735. Altogether, 16,897 family allowances have been granted to 31st March, 1934, and of these 4,752 have been discontinued.

The total number of children of the 12,145 families receiving allowances at 31st March, 1934, was 53,367, and the number in excess of two was 29,077, the average per family being 4.39 and 2.39 respectively. The number of families granted allowances during the year 1933–34 according to the number of children in excess of two is set out in the following table:—

Number of Children in Excess of Two.Number of Families.
One1,584
Two776
Three348
Four177
Five93
Six22
Seven18
Eight4

Of the 3,022 families granted allowances during the year 157 had incomes of £1 or under; 1,719 over £1 and up to £2; 762 over £2 and up to £3; 371 over £3 and up to £3 5s.; and 13 over £3 5s. The weekly rates at which allowances were granted were—

Rate.Number.
1s.2
2s.1,653
3s.5
4s.758
5s.5
6s.332
7s.1
8s.155
9s.2
10s.73
12s.21
14s.12
16s.3

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS.

In addition to the various classes of pensions enumerated in the foregoing part of this section, the Pensions Department is charged with the payment of pensions under the Civil Service Act, 1908, and other miscellaneous pensions and annuities.

The total number and the gross annual value of pensions in force under the Civil Service Act at the 31st March, 1934, were 16 and £4,933 respectively. The total payments during the year amounted to £5,917. These pensions are granted to ex-officers of the Civil Service, and since the introduction of compulsory contributory superannuation schemes are rapidly dwindling. There were at the 31st March, 1934, 135 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities,” of a total annual value of £12,367 the amount actually paid out during the year being £11,678. This class covers ex-members of the Legislative Department, and of the Police, Defence, and Naval Forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others by way of compassionate allowance, &c.

SUPERANNUATION FUNDS.

Schemes in force for the provision of superannuation pensions for public servants on their retirement embrace the State Railways, Public Service (including Police), Teachers, and Stipendiary Magistrates. Local bodies are empowered to establish schemes under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908.

The law relating to the various superannuation schemes, other than those for the Railways Department and local authorities, is contained in the Public Service Superannuation Act, 1927, a consolidation of former legislation on the subject.

PUBLIC SERVICE SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Public Service superannuation scheme, which includes all branches of the Public Service except the Railways Department and that part of the Education service which comes under the operations of the teachers' superannuation scheme, came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The scheme, although optional on the part of public servants permanently employed at that date, is compulsory on all persons appointed thereafter.

The Police Provident Fund, which was established on the 1st December, 1899, under the Police Provident Act, 1899, was merged in the Public Service Superannuation Fund on the 1st April, 1910.

The fund is administered by a Board, and consists of contributions from contributors, interest on investments, Government subsidy, fines imposed on public servants, and proceeds of sales of unclaimed property.

The contributions vary with the age on joining the fund: For ages under thirty they are 5 per cent. of the salary; ages thirty and under thirty-five, 6 per cent.; thirty-five and under forty, 7 per cent.; forty and under forty-five, 8 per cent.; forty-five and under fifty, 9 per cent.; fifty and over, 10 per cent.

The principal benefits are—

  1. A pension for every year of service equal to one-sixtieth of the average annual salary for the last three years, payable (a) after forty years' service, or (b) at age sixty-five, or (c) on retirement owing to ill health. The maximum pension is not to exceed two-thirds of the salary, nor, in the case of entrants after the 24th December, 1909, £300 per annum.

  2. A pension of £31 per annum to the widow of a contributor or pensioner during widowhood, and £26 per annum for each child under the age of fourteen. Prior to the 1st April, 1925, widows' and children's pensions were £18 and £13 per annum respectively.

Special pensions may be given in the case of members of the Police Force for injuries received on duty.

Females may retire after thirty years' service or at the age of fifty-five. In certain cases, and subject to certain terms and conditions, the Minister in charge of a contributor's Department may reduce the retiring age to sixty years for males, or may reduce the requisite service to thirty-five years irrespective of age, or age not less than fifty-five years if length of service not less than thirty years; and fifty years for females.

Section 14 of the Finance Act, 1931, as amended by a section of the Finance Act (No. 4), 1931, modified the retiring qualifications to permit of a further reduction of five years in age or service in the case of contributors compulsorily retired through no fault of their own. A specially computed reduced superannuation was provided. The provisions covered the three major funds.

At the 31st March, 1934, there were 17,369 contributors, paying £227,015 per annum into the fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 3,558, and were entitled to £488,074 per annum, made up as follows:—

 Number.Pensions.
  £
Retired for age or length of service1,960419,678
Retired for ill health27727,843
Police injured on duty111,653
Widows96830,008
Children3428,892
           Totals3,558£488,074

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the fund at the 31st March, 1934, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution:—

Rate per Cent. of Contribution as provided by the Act.Number.Annual Salary.Annual Contributions.
Male.Female.Total.
    ££
512,4521,95214,4043,389,080169,454
61,3191411,460413,89024,833
782091911260,42618,230
840245447130,99510,480
91151312838,4643,462
10172195,562556
     Totals15,1252,24417,3694,238,417227,015

Accumulated funds at the 31st March, 1934, amounted to £2,899,564, total assets to £2,972,391, and investments to £2,811,643, £1,530,216 being invested in mortgage securities, £1,016,271 in local-body debentures and Government securities, and £265,156 in rural advances and rural intermediate credit bonds. The investment figures include £22,439 invested on Stipendiary Magistrates' account.

Officers who have retired since the initiation of the scheme, and who possessed compensation rights under the Civil Service Act, 1866, would have been entitled to receive the sum of £561,134, the amount of compensation accrued to the date when they joined the Superannuation Fund, had they not become participants in the benefits of the fund. To this amount must be added accretions to the date of retirement, approximately £143,000, for which the Consolidated Fund would otherwise have been liable, and whole may be fairly set against the total subsidies paid to the fund, amounting to £2,071,433.

The Government subsidy to the fund was originally £20,000 per annum, rising in 1910 to £22,500, and in the next two years to £23,000. In 1913 it was increased to £48,000, and in 1919 to £86,000. In consequence of the position disclosed by the Actuary as at 31st December, 1919, an additional amount of £100,000 was contributed to the fund by the Government, divided between the years 1923–24 and 1924–25. An additional amount of £100,000 was also paid in 1929–30, following the actuarial investigation as at 31st March, 1927; and a special payment of £40,776 was made under the provisions of section 29, Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2). The additional charge on account of the increase granted in 1925 in the amount of pensions payable to widows and children is met by the Consolidated Fund.

The actuarial report for the triennium ended 31st March, 1930, shows that on the basis of valuation adopted the subsidies paid for 1911 and 1912 were too low by £25,000 per annum; for the three years 1914–16, too low by £18,000 per annum; for 1917 and 1918, too low by £38,000 per annum; for the three years 1920–22, too low by £39,000 per annum; for 1923, too low by £86,000; for the first three months of 1924, too low by £9,000; for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1925, too low by £104,000; and for each of the next two years, too low by £154,000 per annum; for the next two years, too low by £199,000 per annum; and for 1929–30, too low by £99,000; making a total shortage to 31st March, 1930, of £1,301,000, or, with accumulations at 4½ per cent. to 1931, £1,776,357. The valuation of the fund as at the 31st March, 1930, gave the following results:—

 £££
Present value of existing pensions and allowances.. 3,375,540
Present value of prospective benefits..11,157,495..
    Less present value of members' contributions£ 3,208,114.. 
    Less present value of State subsidy under section 114 of Act570,978.. 
 ..3,779,092..
 .. 7,378,403
Total net liabilities10,753,943
Funds in hand2,882,504
Present value of total liability of State7,871,439
    Less present value of existing subsidy of £86,000 if treated as a perpetuity1,911,111
        Value of future subsidies to be provided for by the State over and above present subsidy of £86,000£5,960,328

The actuarial report estimated that, apart from making provision for the shortages of past years, the subsidy for each of the three years ending 31st March, 1931 to 1933, should be increased to £248,000. It was stated that at least £80,000 per annum should be added to the subsidy to meet the deficiency in past subsidy payments; and administration expenses, which have hitherto been borne by the fund, were estimated to require a further £4,000 subsidy per annum.

All valuations of the fund prior to 1924 were made on the basis of interest at 4 per cent., a 4½ per-cent. rate being adopted for the last two periods. This rate is, however, much lower than that received for many years past, the average rate of interest earned on the mean funds being:—

Year ended 31st March.Average Rate per Cent.
£s.d.
19255187
1926615
1927610
1928618
19295176
193051611
193151611
19325196
19335189
19345116

The total revenue of the fund for the year ended 31st March, 1934, was £535,093, including members' contributions £228,590, interest on investments and on contributions £157,851, which includes a special payment of £30,633 from the Consolidation Fund to reimburse the Superannuation Fund of the amount of the statutory reduction of interest on all classes of securities, and Government subsidy £143,529, the last-mentioned including a special payment of £16,754 on account of increased benefits to widows and children. The total amount expended during the year was £532,944, including retiring and other allowances £486,925, refunds of contributions £37,551, transfers to other funds £17, and cost of administration £7,180.

A table is new given showing the progress of the fund for the last five years:—

Year ended 31st March.Number of Contributors.Annual Contributions.Interest receivable from Investments.Contributions from Government.Annual Value of Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
193017,976263,384154,758200,844372,1382,818,004
193118,197270,316162,888101,361383,9232,917,154
193217,516241,966168,453102,082458,4342,888,034
193317,219225,301166,814104,388482,5912,897,415
193417,369227,015157,200143,529488,0742,899,564

TEACHERS' SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The scheme of superannuation for teachers came into operation on 1st January, 1906. The benefits were brought into line with those of the Public Service Superannuation Fund in 1908, existing contributors having, however, the right of electing to remain subject to the provisions formerly in force.

There are a few slight differences between the Public Service and the Teachers' Funds, the chief being that where teachers' back service is recognized it need not be continuous, and that a contributor is not deemed to have retired from the Education service by reason of unemployment unless the unemployment extends for twelve months or unless the contributor deliberately retires from the service as distinct from a particular position in the service. In certain circumstances the period of twelve months can be extended by the Board.

The revenue for the year was £226,495. The total amount of Government subsidy paid into the fund to the 31st January, 1934, is £1,100,575. The expenditure of the fund for the year ended 31st January, 1934, was £334,952, of which retiring and other allowances represented £299,516, and refunds of contributions £31,802.

On the 31st January, 1934, there were 8,903 contributors, representing annual contributions amounting to £111,843.

The retiring and other allowances were made up of—

 Number.Amount of Pension.
Retired for age or length of service1,366267,048
Retired for ill health17622,457
Widows2688,316
Children711,846
 1,881£299,667

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Year ended 31st January.Number of Contributors.Amount of Contributions received.Interest received.Government Subsidy.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
* After deducting £20,970 rebate allowed under Finance Act, 1931, in connection with reduction in salaries.
 ££££££
19309,616141,09470,14471,831222,4231,198,711
19319,909143,39273,105126,106235,9021,272,148
19329,964115,961*72,68246,917254,9271,218,166
19339,355113,76461,11747,020283,7381,111,642
19348,903114,77554,31055,948299,5161,003,185

The actuarial report on the Teachers' Superannuation Fund for the triennium ending 31st January, 1930, gives the present value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund in January, 1930, as £5,559,202.

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Government Railways Superannuation Fund was established on the 1st January, 1903, by the Government Railways Superannuation Fund Act, 1902, new embodied in the Government Railways Act, 1926.

The pension is here also one-sixtieth of the annual rate of pay for every year of service, but the retiring-age is sixty for both males and females (of. Public Service, supra). The only other difference of importance is that the annual allowances to widows and children are paid only on the death of contributors before retiring on a pension.

From 1st April, 1924, the moneys belonging to the fund have been separately invested by the Public Trustee. The average rate of interest earned during the year 1933–34 was 5.75 per cent.

The income for the year totalled £394,481, including members' contributions £133,560, interest £75,220, subsidy from Railways Department £183,006 (including £13,006 on account of increased allowances to widows and children), The expenditure during the year amounted to £486,930, of which retiring-allowances represented £425,193, allowances to widows and children £28,980, and refunds of contributions, &c., £32,757.

At the 31st March, 1934, there were 3,351 persons on the fund, receiving allowances involving an annual liability of £440,371.

The progress of the fund during the last five years is shown below:—

Year ended 31st March.Number of Contributors.Amount received from Contributors.Interest earned by Fund.Amount received from Government.Amount paid in Allowances.Accumulated Fund.
  £££££
193014,148175,87273,123182,112275,9361,371,919
193113,872170,68680,049181,959296,0451,488,566
193212,828142,23984,483182,200373,6751,454,173
193312,172143,98482,297182,545451,5951,333,245
193411,865133,56075,220183,006454,1731,240,831

The actuarial report on the Railways Superannuation Fund as at 31st March, 1927, gives the present value of the total liability of the State in respect of the fund at that date as £6,810,204.

SUPERANNUATION OF MAGISTRATES.

The scheme for Magistrates provides for the same rates of contribution as under the Public Service scheme, but gives an annual retiring-allowance for each year of service (whether continuous or not) equal to one-fortieth of the annual salary receivable at the date of retirement, with, however, a limit of twenty-five fortieths. The retiring-age is also increased to sixty-eight, instead of sixty-five.

Members' contributions during the year ended the 31st March, 1934, totalled £1,640, and interest on investments brought in £1,251. Administration expenses during the year were £64, return of contributions on retirement, £689, and retiring-allowances were £3,448. The accumulated fund at the 31st March, 1934, amounted to £22,418.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES SUPERANNUATION.

The Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, which came into force on the 10th October, 1908, applies to Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, Road Boards, Harbour Boards, Fire Boards, tramway companies, or any body possessing rating-powers over any district.

Statistical information as to the various funds which have been initiated under the authority of this statute is not available. The provisions of the Act, however, have not largely been availed of, special provisions concerning employees of local authorities having been subsequently made under the National Provident Fund scheme, referred to under the next heading.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.

The National Provident Fund was established by Act in 1910, and came into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The fund is administered by a Board composed of the Minister of Finance as Chairman and four members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is the Superintendent of the fund.

The system is open to any person between the ages of sixteen and fifty years residing in New Zealand whose average income during the three years prior to joining has not exceeded £300 per annum. There is no medical examination on entry, and the method of joining is extremely simple, the applicant having merely to fill in a form at a postal money-order office or local office of the fund, and pay a first weekly contribution.

The following benefits are payable: —

  1. After contributing for twelve months, a payment not exceeding £6 (£4 in case of those joining after 28th April, 1931) for medical attendance and nursing on the birth of a contributor's child or children.

  2. After contributing for five years, an allowance, after three months' incapacity for work, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child of a contributor under fourteen years of age; payable independent of any allowances due from friendly societies. No contributions payable while in receipt of incapacity allowance.

  3. After contributing for five years, an allowance, on the death of a contributor, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age, and 7s. 6d. for the widow so long as any child is under fourteen years of age.

  4. On reaching age sixty, a pension of 10s., 20s., 30s., or 40s. per week, according to the scale of contributions. The receipt of a pension under the National Provident Fund Act originally did not affect a person's claim to the old-age pension under the Pensions Act, but this provision was repealed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.

The maternity allowance is payable only if the combined income of a contributor and wife or husband does not exceed £270 (contributors who joined prior to 28th April, 1931, £300) per annum at the time of claim, but this limitation does not debar from the other benefits. The incapacity allowance is not to exceed the pecuniary loss which, in the opinion of the Board, the contributor has probably suffered during incapacity, and the income of a contributor during incapacity, independent of the fund, is not to exceed the rate of £4 per week.

The contributions for each 10s. of weekly pension range from 9d. per week in the case of persons joining at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age fifty.

In the event of a contributor leaving the fund or dying, all contributions (less any benefits received) are returnable. If a contributor dies before the first five years are completed his representatives receive the contributions he has paid, less anything he received during lifetime. Should he die after age sixty, before receiving in benefits a sum equal to the contributions paid in during his lifetime, the difference is returnable to his representatives; and, further, if the allowances paid for widow and children do not exhaust the contributions his representatives are entitled to the residue. If a contributor dies before age sixty, leaving a widow and no children, all the contributions are returnable, less benefits paid out.

The benefits under the Act are guaranteed by the State, which subsidizes the contributions to the extent of one-fourth (for four years from 1st April, 1931, the subsidy is one-fifth) of the amount paid into the fund.

An important extension of the fund was made in 1914, when it was provided that the employees of local authorities, &c, could be enrolled in the fund for superannuation purposes. The Amendment Act of 1931 provided certain modifications consequent upon the general reduction in wages and salaries in 1931. A further extension of the fund was made in 1916, whereby members of approved friendly societies were granted maternity allowances and offered annuities on reduced terms and under special tables.

In 1925 provision was made for the payment out of the National Provident Fund of retiring-allowances to nurses and other members of the permanent staffs of Hospital Boards. The National Provident Fund Act, 1926, which is a consolidation of previous legislation on the subject, imposes on Hospital Boards the obligation to contribute to the Fund on behalf of their permanent officers, and thus places Hospital Boards in a different category from other local bodies, which are empowered, but not obliged, to become contributors.

Schemes of contribution by employers on behalf of employees are provided for by sections of the Finance Act (No. 2), 1927, and the Finance Act, 1929.

Since the inauguration of the fund in 1911, 84,390 persons (70,577 males and 13,813 females) have entered, and of these 59,441 (males 49,182, females 10,259) have discontinued for one reason or another, leaving 24,949 (males 21,395, females 3,554) on the books at the 31st December, 1933. Of 3,394 discontinuances in 1933 67 were on account of death and 98 on account of having attained the pension-age.

The numbers of contributors for the various pension rates as at 31st December, 1933, were as follows, male and female contributors being shown separately:—

Pension Rate.Males.Females.Total.
10s.15,24660515,851
20s.1,7203252,045
30s.20653259
40s.435113548
Other3,7882,4586,246
       Totals21,3953,55424,949

Contributions received during the year 1933 amounted to £220,849 and interest to £162,185. Government contributions under the Act totalled £44,795, not including £31,444 for maternity claims, which are a charge on the Government. The largest item on the expenditure side was £80,826 by way of refund of contributions on lapse, reduction, or withdrawal.

The growth of the National Provident Fund scheme during the last five years is indicated in the following table:—

Year.Number of Contributors.Annual Rate of Contribution payable.Total Amount of Fund.Claims paid during Year.
Maternity.Incapacity.Retiring.Widows and Children.
  ££££££
192930,909256,1962,598,98141,9743,30223,52310,158
193031,293262,7152,936,20342,9844,11025,99410,783
193129,359253,5253,263,00543,5825,78529,44511,559
193226,140233,7503,501,55041,0146,75735,20311,820
193324,949225,8163,756,98136,9787,64441,71511,981

The latest actuarial investigation of the National Provident Fund (as at 31st December, 1925) showed the assets to exceed the liabilities by £54,200. The amounts required to provide maternity allowances are voted by Parliament annually, and these allowances are accordingly regarded as being outside the actuarial aspects of the scheme.

Chapter 24. SECTION XXIV.—LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

INTRODUCTORY.

LOCAL government throughout New Zealand is exercised by a number of local authorities constituted under various Acts of Parliament. These Acts provide for the creation of districts over which the local authorities exercise jurisdiction. Different types of district are distinguishable, each type being identified with a specific function or group of functions. Geographically, the Dominion is divided into 129 counties, which comprise its total area, except for certain small islands which are not included within the boundaries of the adjacent counties. Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties—e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are comprised of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose—e.g., electric-power districts. The number of local authorities actively functioning at the 1st April, 1934, was 683, made up as follows: County Councils, 125; Borough Councils, 122; Town Boards (independent), 41; Town Boards (dependent), 26; Road Boards, 1(5; River Boards, 45; Land-drainage Boards, 57; Urban Drainage Boards, 3; Water-supply Boards, 3; Fire Boards, 50; Local Railway Board, 1; Harbour Boards, 45; Electric-power Boards, 40; Hospital Boards, 45; Tramway Board, 1; Transport Board, 1; Gas-lighting Board, 1; and Rabbit Boards, 55. In addition to the foregoing there are 18 District Councils of the Main Highways Board constituted under the Main Highways Act, 1922. These, although not local authorities in the strict sense of the word, are nevertheless intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, and have power to make recommendations of great importance.

Full details of the constitution, functions, powers, &c, of local authorities, and also an account of the origin and development of local government in the Dominion, are contained in the 1932 edition of the Local Authorities Handbook, an annual publication of the Census and Statistics Office. Detailed statistics relating to each local-governing body are also contained in each issue of that publication. Some of the principal powers of local authorities are briefly referred to under the next heading.

A recent occurrence of some interest was the appointment by the Napier Borough Council (under section 49 of the Municipal Corporations Act, 1920) of two persons to act as a special committee of management to whom the powers of the council were delegated. This appointment followed the disastrous Hawke's Bay earthquakes of 3rd February, 1931, and the powers of the committee were extended by section 64 of the Hawke's Bay Earthquake Act, 1931. The committee ceased to function in May, 1933. In view of the financial position of the Thames Borough, the Thames Borough Commissioner Act, 1932, was passed and a Commissioner appointed to administer the borough as from the 21st September, 1932. For similar reasons, section 10 of the Local Legislation Act, 1932–33, provided for the administration of Matakaoa County by a Commissioner whose appointment was made from the 1st May, 1933. The three cases of Napier, Thames, and Matakaoa represent a form of local-authority administration believed to be without precedent in New Zealand.

GENERAL POWERS.

Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act, 1925, and the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. In the case of Harbour Boards, there is in addition to a general Harbours Act a special Act for each Board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—Urban Drainage Boards, Local Railway Boards, the Tramway and Transport Boards, and the Gas-lighting Board—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

TOWN-PLANNING.

Town-planning legislation of 1926 and 1929 provides for the making and enforcement of town, extra-urban, and regional planning schemes. Every town-planning scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the city or borough to which it relates (including the reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as to promote its healthfulness, amenity, convenience, and advancement. Extra-urban schemes have a like object in regard to their areas.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of their areas, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, services, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority.

The principal Act constitutes a Director of Town-planning and a representative Town-planning Board under the Minister of Internal Affairs as chairman.

All cities or boroughs with a population of one thousand or over at the census of 1926, together with certain road districts, are required to prepare town-planning schemes and submit them to the Town-planning Board by the end of 1936. Other boroughs may be added by Order in Council, and smaller boroughs may submit schemes voluntarily. Provision is made for a combined scheme by two or more adjoining local authorities.

Counties, inclusive of smaller boroughs and of town districts, comprise rural areas for the purpose of extra-urban schemes. The authority responsible for the scheme is the County Council, or where more than one local authority is concerned a representative committee approved by the Board.

When a town or extra-urban scheme has been approved by the Board it is the duty of the local authorities having jurisdiction to enforce the requirements of the scheme in respect of all new works of any description. The provisions of a regional planning scheme are not obligatory, but are intended to serve as a guide to the local authorities within the region.

One of the most important divisions of the town-planning legislation deals with betterment, which is defined as the increase in property values attributable to the approval or carrying-out of a town-planning scheme. Briefly, one-half of betterment increase in the value of rateable property constitutes a debt payable to the local authority by the owner of the land. Moneys from this source are to be applied, inter alia, to compensate persons whose lands are acquired for town- or extra-urban-planning schemes, or who are otherwise injuriously affected within prescribed limits.

Town-planning activities have been restricted of later years by reason of the depression. During the year ended 31st March, 1934, two town-planning schemes, an amended scheme, two provisional town-planning schemes, and two civic surveys were received by the Board.

BORROWING.

Under the Local Government Loans Board Act, 1926, all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. The Board consists of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department, and five other members appointed by the Governor-General. In cases where a poll of ratepayers is necessary preparatory to raising a loan, the Board's consent must be obtained before the poll is held. In no case may the Board sanction any application unless provision is made to its satisfaction for repayment of the loan within such period as it deems reasonable, having regard to the probable duration and continuing utility of the works on which the loan-moneys are to be expended.

The principal legislation dealing with the borrowing-powers of local authorities is contained in the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926, which is mainly a consolidation of previous measures on the subject. A local authority is thereby empowered to raise a special loan for the construction of any public work, for the purchase of land or buildings, or for the purpose of engaging in any undertaking which the local authority may lawfully enter into. As explained previously, a loan proposal first requires the sanction of the Local Government Loans Board. It must then be sanctioned by the ratepayers at a special poll held for the purpose (except in those cases where a poll is not required to be taken), and the proposal is not. deemed to have been carried unless at least three - fifths of the valid votes recorded are in favour of it, save in the case of boroughs and town districts, where a bare majority only is necessary. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The special provisions for borrowing under the authority of the Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment) Act, 1926, and the (idem) Extension Act, 1931 were repealed by section 52 of the Finance Act, 1932.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospital and Charitable Institutions Act, 1926, a Hospital Board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. In the case of Fire Boards the precedent consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs is required, and Rabbit Boards must first seek the approval of the Minister of Agriculture. In both of these cases the amount that may be borrowed is limited by statute. Harbour Boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour-works from special empowering legislation. Similar authority is given for the capital works of Urban Drainage Boards, the Christchurch Tramway Board, the Auckland Transport Board, and the Petone and Lower Hutt Gas-lighting Board.

Under legislation of 1933  4¼ per cent, was fixed as the statutory maximum rate of interest for further borrowings by local authorities, except in anticipation of revenue. Under a (May, 1934) ruling of the Local Government Loans Board the rate of interest on future loans sanctioned is not to exceed 3¾ per cent. in the case of “best” local authorities, 3⅞ per cent, for authorities of the second class, and 4 per cent, for smaller authorities.

RATING.

Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are ultimately liquidated by such revenues—known then as special rates. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:—

1. General, for general purposes.

2. Separate rates are levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

3. A special rate is imposed to secure the repayment of loan-money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be. Special rates can be levied only by resolution gazetted, and, unlike general and separate rates, are not subject to any statutory limit.

  The Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Amendment Act, 1934, limits future borrowings to an interest-rate not exceeding 3½ per cent., provided, however, that a different rate may he prescribed by Order in Council under the Local Government Loans Hoard Act, 1926. County Councils, under conditions specified, are authorized to raise loans for defined areas without taking polls.

There are three main systems of rating: (1) Capital (land and improvements) value, (2) annual value, and (3) unimproved value. In a few cases rating is on an acreage basis; and in the case of certain Rabbit Boards the rate is according to the number of sheep or cattle owned.

The Rating Act, 1925, provides that the local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or on the capital value shall be in force in the district. The system of rating is upon the basis that 1s. in the £1 on the annual value is deemed to be equivalent to ¾d. in the £1 on the capital value of rateable property; or where in a district not rating on the annual value it is necessary for any purpose to ascertain the annual value of any rateable property, then the annual value thereof is equal to 6 per cent, on the capital value of such property. The annual value is deemed to be the letting-value, less 20 per cent, in case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per cent, of land, but in no case is the rateable value to be less than 5 per cent, of the value of the fee-simple.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act, 1932, with the object of affording some relief to owners of farm lands subject to rating by a borough council, authorizes the preparation of a special farm-land roll, which is deemed part of the valuation roll for rating purposes.

Consequent upon the recent decline in property values, many owners took advantage of the provisions of the Valuation Act permitting individual revaluations. In order to preserve equity in rating, the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (December), 1933, authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part, not being less than 75 per cent, of the values upon the roll. Where individual revaluations have been made, rates are to be levied either upon the new valuation or upon the proportionate part of the value existing prior to revaluation, whichever value was the lower.

RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE OF LAND.

The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, was passed by the General Assembly to afford local authorities the opportunity of adopting the principle of rating which is expressed in the title of the measure. The Act is new incorporated in the Rating Act, 1925. It is entirely at the option of the ratepayers of local districts to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. The poll is to be taken in the same manner as in the case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1926. Under the original Act it was necessary for a minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers to vote, and a majority of their votes carried the proposal. New the question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a bare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

The valuation roll is supplied to the local authority by the Valuer-General under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1925, and the definitions of “capital value,” “improvements,” “unimproved value,” and “value of improvements” found in that Act, as amended in 1926 and 1927, apply also to rating on unimproved value. Provision is made for adjustment of rating-powers given under other Acts by fixing equivalents. Thus a rate of 1s. in the pound on the annual value is to be considered equal to ¾d. in the pound on the capital value.

It should be noted that some local authorities automatically adopt rating on unimproved value. For example, a town district, borough, or another county formed from part of a county which itself rates on unimproved values, automatically rates on the system in force in the county at the time of the constitution of the new district; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their Councils agree to the contrary.

A table is given of systems in force during the fiscal year 1932–33:—

System of Rating.Total.
Unimproved Value.Capital Value.Annual Value.Acreage Basis.On Stock.
Counties5966..  125
Boroughs791627 ..122
Town districts32305 ..67
Road districts315  ..18
River districts1524..4..43
Land-drainage districts3027..  57
Electric-power districts1326..  39
Water-supply districts12..  3
Urban drainage districts..21 ..3
Local railway district..1..  1
Rabbit districts16..39551
     Totals23321533435529

Although the figures referred to indicate that the number of local authorities rating on the unimproved value during 1932–33 was 44 per cent, of the total, yet on a population basis the figures reveal that 58 per cent, of the people of the Dominion are in districts so rating. The position in regard to the four major classes of local authorities at 1st April, 1933 (i.e., the beginning of the 1933–34 financial year) was as follows:—

District.Rating on Unimproved Value.Total for Dominion.*Ratio of Unimproved Value to Total.
No.Population.No.Population.No.Population.

* Exclusive of migratory, &c., population of 7,114. †Includes the four counties, Eden, Taupo, Sounds, and Flord, in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force.

     Per cent.Per Cent.
Counties (excluding all town districts)59279,360129†587,800†45.7447.53
Boroughs79592,520122894,50064.7566.24
Town districts (independent)1717,6104037,55042.5046.90
Town districts (dependent)154,1502710,00055.5541.50

For the purposes of the foregoing tables a district is deemed to rate on the unimproved value where the general rate is levied on an unimproved-value basis. In a number of instances, in particular of boroughs, certain of the subsidiary rates are levied on other systems.

FINANCIAL STATISTICS OF LOCAL GOVERNING AUTHORITIES.

A study of the finance of local governing authorities from their incipient stages to the present time reveals a process of evolution from a state of semi-dependence on the General Government to a stage where, with the exception of subsidies on rates, contributions from the Main Highways Board (or, for boroughs of 6,000 population or over, receipts under the Motor-spirits Taxation Act), together with occasional grants for special works, all expense is borne locally.

The sources from which the various classes of local authorities secure the moneys necessary to exercise their functions vary greatly according to the nature of the statutory duties of the local authority concerned. Generally, however, receipts fall under one of three main classes—viz., rates, licenses and fees, and receipts which cannot properly be regarded as revenue. These three classes are dealt with in detail below, where the nature and relative importance of each are more particularly referred to.

The tables given in this section cover the operations of all local authorities which furnish statistical returns to the Census and Statistics Office. Hospital Boards supply their returns to the Inspector-General of Hospitals, and their financial statistics are given in section VB of this volume.

The local-body year new uniformly ends on 31st March, except in the case of most Harbour Boards. In certain cases where the harbour is administered by a County or Borough Council, the year ends on 31st March, but in all other cases on 30th September.

RECEIPTS.

Local governing authorities received by way of rates in the financial year 1932–33 a total amount of £237,688, of which £2,216,015 consisted of general rates and £3,021,673 of other rates, including penalties on overdue rates. The sum of £376,844 was raised by licenses, and £128,1)52 by other taxes, making £5,743,484 altogether from taxation, which sum is equivalent to £3 15s. 2d. per head of the mean population (including Maoris), a rate which has declined progressively from £4 8s. 7d. in 1929–30.

The receipts of local governing authorities, divided into the various groups shown above are given for each of the last ten years.

Year ended 31st March.Revenue fromTotal Revenue.Receipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Fees, Rents, and other Sources.Government.
 ££££££
19244,445,0276,403,378300,76611,149,7715,685,10716,834,878
19254,668,8847,213,300298,77412,180,9647,613,39919,794,363
19265,039,6458,014,583319,33813,373,5667,505,70220,879,268
19275,311,2608,621,904332,72114,265,9456,680,17620,946,121
19285,615,0729,454,315331,95615,401,9435,667,65121,069,594
19295,844,4959,190,055392,92115,428,0716,042,00721,470,078
19306,010,98710,309,785436,94616,757,7185,495,42722,253,145
19315,637,25410,201,076426,31516,204,6454,432,95020,697,601
19325,511,8189,054,187628,06415,194,0694,374,25119,568,320
19335,237,6888,462,628450,65714,150,9734,433,29418,584,267

During 1932–33 rates formed 37.0 per cent, of the revenue proper; licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 59.8 per cent.; and 3.2 per cent, came from the General Government.

Of the revenue proper of counties, which amounted to £2,000,799 in 1932–33, no less a sum than £1,293,498, or 65 per cent., was raised by way of rates. Town districts, road districts, river districts, land-drainage districts, and urban drainage districts also rely on taxing for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, electric-power districts, and Harbour Boards, on the other hand, rate supply a considerably lesser proportion of the total revenue. During 1932–33 this source of income accounted for only 47 per cent, of the total revenue of boroughs, the corresponding proportion for Harbour Boards and electric-power districts being as low as 11 per cent, and 2 per cent, respectively.

LOCAL GOVERNING AUTHORITIES.—RECEIPTS,1932–33.

Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Rents, &c.Government.
 £££££
Counties1,293,498519,115188,1861,645,7273,646,526
Boroughs3,226,9903,481,210188,9102,004,1918,901,301
Town districts109,38642,0596,81984,404242,668
Road districts49,6814,7123,95234,27592,620
River districts59,97616,43894574,749152,108
Land-drainage districts53,5251,93455448,189104,202
Electric-power districts56,7212,228,20125,84858,7002,369,470
Water-supply districts3,24819501,4074,724
Urban drainage districts215,7204,9475,08087,168312,915
Urban transport districts..725,9406,702197,707930,349
Railway district..14,11557..14,172
Gas-lighting district..46,6274201847,065
Rabbit districts13,8641,19411,61124126,910
Fire districts..140,2703,7913,222147,283
Harbour Boards155,0791,235,8477,732193,2961,591,954
     Totals5,237,6888,462,628450,6574,433,29418,584,267

RATES.

As stated previously, rates contributed in 1932–33 the sum of £5,237,688 to the revenue of local governing authorities. General rates levied brought in £2,216,015 and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates), £3,021,673. Of the latter, £2,202,742 was received by boroughs and £533,423 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by Harbour Boards (£155,079) were general rates.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1932–33 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £3.88 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). In boroughs it was £10.37; in independent town districts, £11.83; and in town districts forming parts of counties, £6.25 (excluding rates levied by County Councils).

LICENSES, TOLLS, RENTS, &c.

Rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publicans' licenses, heavy-traffic fees, motor-drivers' licenses, drivers' (other vehicles) licenses, auctioneers' and hawkers' licenses, abattoir fees, building permits, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, tolls, &c. Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are—Rents; fines and penalties; market dues; sales of material; sales of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works; tramway receipts; interest on deposits; wharf dues, &c.

Of a total revenue of £3,481,210 accruing to boroughs under this head in 1932–33, £668,707 represented tramway and omnibus receipts, £1,279,930 sales of electric light and power, and £384,800 sales of gas.

RECEIPTS FROM GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

In addition to the following revenue receipts, there are special grants from the General Government (£3,185,248 in 1932–33) for various local works of a public or semi-public character, including from 1930–31 subsidies from the Unemployment Board, the amount in 1932–33 being £2,536,662. A further class of receipts from the Government is provided by loans from the State Advances Office and advances from the Main Highways Board. These totalled £94,303 in 1932–33, bringing the total receipts from Government during 1932–33 to £3,730,208. Of this total, counties received £1,718,283 and boroughs £1,604,767.

A statement of revenue receipts by controlling bodies of local districts from the Government during the last five financial years is given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March,
1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
 £££££
Rates on Crown and Native lands11,7301,1044,7991,5381,242
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment or held on perpetual lease14,10510,29710,3795,4604,557
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs2,6993,5182,153510563
Timber and flax royalties9,89515,24913,2329,4804,945
Goldfields revenue and gold duty28,31828,84828,50317,93420,988
Subsidies on rates—     
Ordinary226,798241,441231,815204,644193,366
Under section 45 of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4)..  253,143..
Petrol-tax54,95374,56583,227101,08999,302
Stamp duty on interest..   105,600
Fees and fines6,3216,2967,0757,1165,741
Other receipts38,10255,62845,13227,15014,353
Total Revenue Account392,921436,946426,315628,064450,657

Section 45 of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4), as amended by section 39 of the Finance Act, 1932, provided for a subsidy to County Councils and Road Boards of 12½ per cent, of the average annual amount of rates collected during the three years ending March, 1930. This subsidy, which was derived from the Main Highways Revenue Fund, was in general to be applied as a partial refund or rebate of rates paid or due in respect of the year 1931–32. A similar subsidy of 12½ per cent, in respect of rates on farm lands is authorized for the year 1934–35 by the Finance Act, 1934 (No. 3).

Reductions of 10 per cent, from 1st April, 1931, and a further 10 per cent. (on the reduced amount) from 1st April, 1932, were made in the rates of grants or subsidies from the Consolidated Fund to various classes of local authorities by section 7 of the Finance Act, 1931, and section 8 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of local governing authorities during each of the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Public Works (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Other. Total Expenditure.

  Including amounts paid to sinking funds and for repayment of loan-money, the amount for 1932–33 being £1,135,158.

 ££££££
192412,031,580500,082833,1152,290,773865,40016,520,950
192514,256,887502,245843,4462,523,3031,296,95219,422,833
192615,454,839549,938908,6062,726,2771,275,98520,915,645
192715,831,600565,733941,7943,079,3781,329,05221,747,557
192815,200,280629,379965,3763,452,2932,175,83922,423,167
192913,298,839677,085964,0983,641,5492,718,45321,300,024
193014,486,488685,1341,053,6133,895,6321,940,22122,061.088
193114,402,327699,5841,029,0174,021,2332,022,36322,174,524
193212,694,508561,905989,3663,963,3341,878,26820,087,381
193311,584,311574,960907,6593,877,3401,940,90318,885,173

The progressive decline since 1930–31 has been achieved in spite of the inclusion in payments for subsequent years of expenditure out of grants from the Unemployment Board, the total grants received from this source in 1932–33 being £2,536,662. Included in other payments for 1932–33 is an amount of £140,009 for exchange, the bulk of which related to interest payments.

The expenditure of the various classes of local governing authorities during 1932–33 is shown below:—

 Public Works (Construction and Maintenance).Hospital Board Levies.Administration.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Amortization of Debt.Total Expenditure. 

  Including other items. † Included in “Construction and Maintenance.”

 ££££££
Counties2,625,690272,041270,350406,449145,8553,807,043
Boroughs5,524,996290,983362,3711,733,746560,9058,861,807
Town districts147,7049,00821,73846,32213,607241,731
Road districts62,6482,0287,59517,5164,75795,142
River districts111,431..12,96224,2956,040155,118
Land - drainage districts70,086..7,94324,0035,073107,444
Electric - power districts1,318,096..727,594202,3112,429,335
Water - supply districts2,997..5936872364,578
Urban drainage districts79,503..17,835152,98844,557315,733
Urban transport districts549,720..29,172177,20830,259814,275
Railway districts7,052..2,5773,2741,65214,630
Gas-lighting districts27,907..2,8457,9892,24242,839
Rabbit districts23,084..5,25139729929,250
Fire districts97,802..20,14314,3968,887145,009
Harbour Boards935,595..146,278540,476108,4781,820,579
     Totals11,584,311574,960907,0593,877,3401,135,15818,885,173

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure on new works out of loan-money during the last ten years, classified under various heads:—

Year ended 31st March,Streets and Footways.Drainage and Sanitation.Waterworks.Tramways and Bus Services.Abattoirs, Slaughter-houses, and Pounds.Lighting and Power Services.Other Public Works.Totals.
 ££££££££
1924389,840306,089163,942192,65522,273514,312292,1451,881,256
1925706,380317,868309,033217,55712,177540,540310,3322,413,887
19261,039,948348,685456,359214,23725,089268,306266,7292,619,353
1927875,704311,820362,177223,44515,883235,018214,6482,238,695
1928939,786268,083394,026163,97526,390176,972149,9872,119,219
1929649,081236,068202,7441,4996,612259,796134,8061,490,606
1930715,818289,430154,4341,25411,042304,860119,5431,596,381
1931475,044271,906145,55539514,331308,589120,6731,337,093
1932359,486222,72785,22498819,265134,05077,504899,250
1933133,417104,08022,334..1,3768,01051,477380,694

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The assets and liabilities of local governing authorities at the end of the financial year 1932–33 are as shown in the table following. The figures shown in the column “Other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete.

Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets (as estimated in published Balance-sheets).Loans—Net Indebtedness (excluding Loans from Government).Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board (Amount owing on 31st March, 1933.)Inscribed Stock, i.e., Loans from Treasury under Loans to Local Bodies Acts (Estimated Present Indebtedness.)Liabilities other than the Loans Included in preceding Columns (Bank Overdrafts, Temporary Loans, Outstanding Accounts, &c).
 ££££££
Counties1,643,0781,841,4733,770,3512,187,943334,956286,487
Boroughs3,784,92829,873,51924,983,5172,170,185286,507934,176
Town districts97,529575,67l510,018219,7241,96629,456
Road districts36,702193,038245,96915,5171,03215,609
River districts59,143262,813382,12748,97413,23733,864
Land - drainage districts73,86568,813220,242160,36424,20825,204
Electric - power districts3,144,61712,999,67111,29S,909.. 561,833
Water-supply districts1,0191,9608,3251,281263127
Urban drainage districts173,4071,106,4232,469,782113..129,496
Urban transport districts237,1353,837,6862,533,865.. 94,681
Railway district908177,248..  31,087
Gas-lighting district8,651167,517114,073.. 20,757
Rabbit districts24,88915,8464,963.. 3,061
Fire districts23,675560,989185,2756,700..60,881
Harbour Boards1,336,79015,640,6318,546,634155,012..307,746
     Totals10,646,33667,323,29855,274,0504,965,813662,7692,534,465

It should be noted that the figure for “Other assets” is on the conservative side, inasmuch as no valuations are made for certain items. This applies particularly to roads, which, although representing considerable wealth to the community, do not figure at all in the assets. In this connection it may be mentioned that the greater part of the expenditure of counties and road districts goes in this direction, while in the case of boroughs no less than 41 per cent, of the loan-money expended during the last five years went on streets and footways. Assets of all local authorities as returned for the last ten years are as under —

As at 31st March,Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).
 ££
19248,219,11943,451,174
19258,876,52248,299,927
19269,743,96953,646,527
19279,930,58156,999,264
19289,648,08760,328,936
192910,443,79462,550,235
193012,859,67664,509,880
193112,194,41766,504,801
193212,820,72467,811,808
193310,646,33667,323,298

Cash assets are made up chiefly of loan balances, reserve investments, and cash in hand. Sinking funds, which amounted to £10,368,491 at 31st March, 1933, do not appear in the foregoing table, but are shown as a deduction from the gross loan indebtedness of local authorities. Other assets are comprised mainly of fixed assets and stocks of stores and materials.

Boroughs are responsible for 43 per cent, of the total assets, Harbour Boards for 22 per cent., and electric-power districts for 21 per cent. Counties show the comparatively low percentage of 4, but this is due to the fact that practically the whole of county expenditure goes on roads, for which no valuation is available.

INDEBTEDNESS.

The total gross debt of local bodies at 31st March, 1933, was £72,476,056, made up of debentures and stock in circulation, £65,642,541; loans from the State Advances Office, £4,888,282; loans from the Main Highways Board, £77,531; and inscribed debt (i.e., inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882), £1,867,702. The net indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and stock in circulation, and making an actuarial estimate of the liability on account of inscribed debt) was £60,902,632.

Since 1912–13 the gross debt has increased by £50,292,629. Up to 1918–19 the increase was gradual, being on an average a little less than £1,000,000 per annum. The following eight years, mainly because of the vigorous prosecution of electric-power and road works, marked a period of intensive borrowing, during which the debt increased by £35,937,297, an amount equal to practically half of the present total, and an average of £4,500,000 per annum. Since the coming into operation of the Local Government Loans Board Act in 1927 borrowing has been on a much lower scale, and during the six years from April, 1927, to March, 1933, the increase in the debt aggregated £8,463,809, a yearly average of less than £1,500,000. The debt at the end of 1932–33 was actually £210,000 less than 1930–31.

The outstanding loans of local authorities at the end of each of the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

As at 31st March.Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board.Inscribed Debt.Total Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt.Amount borrowed.Amount owing.Gross Debt.Present Indeptedness.Gross Debt.Net Debt.
 ££££££££
192439,110,00034,620,4145,701,8355,113,5292,314,3041,190,87040,537,83340,929,813
192545,720,79140,770,5276,029,9655,360,0742,272,59855253,353,46647,259,153
192651,726,89746,029,5496,228,3975,453,2402,239,616700959,419,76452,549,798
192756,412,75950,107,4046,293,8355,409,8612,189,6271,006,25464,012,24750,523,579
192858,949,02851,812,9716,325,7005,325,4012,129,743044,31566,404,17258,082,687
192962,003,78653,972,6926,328,0305,212,7452,078,088886,68669,294,01960,072,123
193064,052,02155,638,9666,370,4965,128,0482,027,470828,72671,207,63961,595,740
193165,602,60650,369,1456,391,5485,024,4031,969,027772,65172,686,03662,166,199
193265,407,71855,828,7456,506,1335,009,9991,924,565716,16272,402,28261,554,906
193365,642,51155,274,0506,601,7104,965,8131,867,702662,76972,476,05660,902,632

Of recent years loans advanced to local authorities by the State Advances Department have been less than the repayments, with the result that the amount outstanding under this head has decreased. In addition to the scheme of State advances, there exists a system whereby the State guarantee to the payment of interest and principal in the event of default by the local authority may be obtained by the borrowing authority. Local body loans guaranteed by the State aggregated £2,978,075 at the 31st March, 1934, sinking funds in respect of these loans totalling £880,108. Included in these figures are loans (£15,000; sinking funds. £(6,420) to Hospital Boards.

Of the total net indebtedness of £60,902,632 at the 31st March, 1933, boroughs were responsible for no less than £27,440,209, which represents 9.77 per cent, of their rateable capital value. In the case of counties, which have a much less per caput expenditure on public works, the percentage is only 1.98.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross debt of local governing authorities and the annual charge thereon for the last ten years.

As at 31st March.Population.Gross Debt.Annual Loan Charge.
Amount.Rate per Head.Amount.Rate per Head.
  ££ s. d.££ s. d.
19241,347,85346,537,83334 10 82,798,6452 1 6
19251,379,48753,353,46638 13 73,331,1632 8 3
19261,409,81259,419,75442 2 113,740,6472 13 1
19271,437,98064,012,24744 10 44,050,8952 16 4
19281,453,51766,404,17245 13 84,255,4692 18 6
19291,470,65469,294,61947 2 44,479,1803 0 11
19301,488,59571,207,53947 16 84,682,1813 2 11
19311,510,94072,686,03648 2 24,828,7933 3 11
19321,524,63372,402,28247 9 94,905,4673 4 4
19331,536,96472,476,05647 3 14,919,2213 4 0

INCIDENCE OF DEBT.

The table below is of interest as showing the increase of loan indebtedness in each of the principal types of local authority. The figures represent the gross liability on all loans.

As at 31st March,Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Road Districts.Electric-power Districts.Harbour Boards.Other Districts.Total.
 ££££££££
19245,307,49122,871,515709,896330,4614,740,8059,173,4843,404,12146,537,833
19255,904,67826,676,095658,356368,9906,514,7579,750,6603,479,93053,353,466
19206,650,71328,816,717702,810502,9988,745,7559,993,2594,007,50259,419,754
19277,215,85130,823,857804,079625,41010,113,40010,257,7814,171,86364,012,247
19287,371,70032,374,244831,181688,25510,175,30410,476,8834,483,53966,404,172
19297,483,63133,012,519904,780343,39011,986,70710,774,1394,789,45369,294,019
19307,624,39532,276,814810,178343,98012,636,35110,468,8817,0460,94071,207,539
19317,699,17532,894,035835,205274,62513,011,52910,517,3907,453,47172,086,036
19327,719,43132,445,623820,219288,37513,121,96010,549,4937,457,18172,402,282
19337,610,69832,534,350820,917286,43513,031,93010,620,4427,571,28472,476,056

During the ten years 1922–23 to 1932–33 the gross debt of all local authorities increased by £29,284,872, of which boroughs were responsible for £10,136,113 and electric-power districts for £9,979,630. It should be noted that the debt of electric-power districts does not represent the complete local-body debt on account of electric power, since a considerable portion of the borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose. The debt of “other districts” at 31st March, 1933, was mainly composed of urban transport districts (£3,495,050) and urban drainage districts (£2,690,013).

PURPOSES OF DEBT.

An analysis of the local-authority debt, according to purpose raised, at the end of the financial year 1932–33 is as under:—

Purpose of Loans.Loans other than from Government.Loans from State Advances Office and Main Highways Board.Inscribed Debt.Totals.
 ££££
Electric supply and lighting16,944,512.. 16,944,512
Roads, streets, footways, and bridges12,891,2022,529,580981,32916,402,111
Drainage, sewerage, and water-supply12,655,3991,416,236613,68914,685,324
Harbour-works10,465,430156,6387,10710,629,175
Tramways, omnibuses, and other passenger and carrying services5,107,109.. 5,107,109
Gas supply and lighting1,046,59026,118..1,072,708
Municipal buildings914,206..4,068918,274
Workers' dwellings232,075411,411..643,486
Land-drainage246,500164,71880,903492,121
River-works415,80853,82070,717540,345
Parks, reserves, and gardens328,187.. 328,187
Fire-prevention347,7586,700..354,458
Abattoirs254,8713,720100,860359,451
Miscellaneous3,354,573152,9393,8923,511,404
Unclassified438,32143,9335,137487,391
     Totals65,642,5414,965,8131,867,70272,476,056

Electric supply and lighting loans account for 23 per cent, of the total; roads, streets, footways, and bridges, 23 per cent.; drainage, sewerage, and water-supply, 20 per cent.; harbour-works, 15 per cent.; and tramways, &c, 7 per cent. This leaves 12 per cent, for other objects. Hydro-electric works on a large scale are of comparatively recent date, and this fact accounts in a large measure for the rapid growth of the debt within the last few years. That there has been considerable activity in other directions also is evidenced by the fact that of loan - money amounting to £5,704,024 expended on new works by boroughs during the last five years (1928–29 to 1932–33) no less a sum than £2,313,446 (41 per cent.) went on roads, streets, and footways; and £1,171,473 (21 per cent.) on drainage, sewerage, and water-supply. The amount expended by boroughs on electric supply and lighting during the five years was £922,941, representing 16 per cent, of the total. The foregoing considerations, taken in conjunction with the fact that except in the case of Harbour Boards capital works are very rarely undertaken other than by means of borrowed money, are the explanation of the present size of the Dominion's local-body debt. Of the sum of £18,440,200 expended on harbour-works up to 30th September, 1932, no less than £6,484,346 (35 per cent.) was provided out of revenue.

Government loans have been made for the more primary needs of local districts. In the case of State Advances loans and Main Highways Board advances 51 per cent. of the existing debt is for roads, streets, and footways: 29 per cent, for drainage, sewerage, and water-supply; and 8 per cent, for workers' dwellings. Of the inscribed debt total 53 per cent, is for roads, &c, and 33 per cent, for drainage, sewerage, and water-supply.

DOMICILE OF DEBT.

The loans outstanding, other than Government loans, at the end of the financial year 1932–33, are shown below, classified according to domicile, and also rate of interest. In the case of loans domiciled in New Zealand, both the old interest-rates (which were actually in operation on 31st March, 1933), and the reduced rates in operation from 1st April, 1933, referred to later, are shown:—

Rate of Interest per Cent.Domiciled in New Zealand.Domiciled in United Kingdom.Domiciled in Australia.Totals.
Old Rates.New Rates.Old Rates.New Rates.
 ££££££
4 and under841,833841,833881,900153,5501,877,2831,877,283
568,30013,261,49281,400729,5001,379,20014,072,392
4(3/10)..23,000..  23,000
4(8/25)..7,000..  7,000
4⅖..10,578,657..  10,578,657
1,574,312189,9871,409,425333,7523,317,4891,933,104
4(8/15)..10,000..  10,000
4(14/25)..42,000..  42,000
4⅗..7,947,261..  7,947,201
4(7/10)..38,700..  38,700
422,200:..  422,200..
4(19/25)..110,000..  110,000
4⅘..9,396,339..  9,396,339
52,868,32l6007,677,300212,92010,758,5417,890,820
5⅛85,100.. 50,000135,10050,000
5⅕..460,673..  460,673
7,743,253..2,217,300424,50610,385,0592,641,806
5⅜23,000..  23,000..
5⅖7,0002,000.. 7,0002,000
10,578,657..2,057,0961,243,15613,878,9093,366,252
5⅝189,987.. 148,733338,720148,733
5⅔10,000.. 130,000140,000130,000
5(7/10)42,000;..  42,000..
7,947,261..50,2001,759,1119,756,5721,809,311
5⅞38,700..  38,700..
5(19/20)110,000..  110,000..
69,396,339..1,710,000358,45011,464,7892,068,450
600.. 600.. 
460,673..918,70020,0001,405,373944,700
2,000..  2,000..
7..  160,000160,00016,000
     Totals42,909,54217,003,3215,729,67865,642,54l65,042,54165,042,541

The interest-rates quoted above are those applicable to the amount of debt outstanding. They have not been adjusted to the prices at which the respective loans were raised—e.g., where a loan was issued below par the rate of interest on the sum actually received (omitting the question of flotation expenses) would be higher than the rate shown above.

A five-year summary of the domicile of loans outstanding, other than loans from the Government, is given hereunder.

At 31st March.Amount.Percentage of Total.
London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £££Per Cent.Per cent.Per Cent.
192918,316,2907,385,07736,301,81929.5411.9158.55
193017,715,0898,199,59938,137,33327.6612.8059.54
193117,533,4258,574,52939,584,65226.6913.0560.26
193217,362,7257,281,98140,823,01226.5211.1262.36
193317,003,3215,729,07842,909,54225.908.7365.37

The increase of £2,086,530 during 1932–33 of the amount domiciled in New Zealand is mainly due to the transfer of loans formerly domiciled in Australia, for which reason also the amount domiciled in Australia shows a marked reduction.

DEBT CHARGES.

Particulars of the annual loan charge of local bodies during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

As at 31st March.On Debentures and Stock.On State Advances and Main Highways Debt.On Inscribed Debt.Total.Average Rate of
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.Interest on Debentures and Stock.Total Debt Charge (including Government Loans).
 ££££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19241,992,220413,3692,405,589307,09985,9572,798,6455.096.01
19252,396,824523,8762,920,700326,26084,2033,331,1635.246.24
19262,740,445580,2003,320,645337,25982,7433,740,6475.306.30
19273,000,223628,7503,628,973341,41480,5084,050,8955.326.33
19283,158,359675,5103,833,869343,43778,1634,255,4095.366.41
19293,334,009725,5474,059,556343,69575,9294,479,1805.386.46
19303,467,994789,8214,257,815350,62273,7444,682,1815.406.57
19313,536,510866,6464,403,156354,32571,3124,828,7935.386.64
19323,536,936931,3664,468,302367,68069,4854,905,4075.406.78
19333,547,877931,4964,479,373372,09067,1494,919,2215.406.79

The following table gives a more detailed analysis for 1932–33. It sets out the annual charge according to the rates of interest in force on 31st March, 1933, and also on 1st April, 1933, thus showing the saving to local bodies consequent on the interest-reducing legislation referred to later. Further savings will accrue through the adoption of conversion schemes which local bodies are empowered to undertake.

 31st March, 1933.1st April, 1833.
Interest charges—  
On debt other than Government—££
Domiciled in New Zealand2,359,7931,922,657
Domiciled in United Kingdom880,772880,772
Domiciled in Australia307,312307,312
On inscribed debt13,26513,265
On State Advances debt210,719200,641
On Main Highways Board debt4,2983,440
Total interest charges3,776,1593,328,087
Amortization charges—  
On debt other than Government931,496931,496
On inscribed debt53,88453,884
On State Advances debt145,235145,235
On Main Highways Board debt12,44712,447
Total amortization charges1,143,0621,143,062
Total interest and amortization charges4,919,2214,471,149

The average rate of interest on the locally domiciled portion of the debt (other than Government) was 5.50 per cent, at 31st March and 4.48 per cent, at 1st April, the average over the whole debt (excluding Government) being 5.40 per cent, and 4.74 per cent, at the respective dates. On the debt domiciled in the United Kingdom the rate of interest averaged 5.18 per cent, and on that domiciled in Australia 5.36 per cent. Interest payable in the United Kingdom is subject to an additional charge for exchange.

REDUCTION IN INTEREST.

As part of the interest-reduction policy of the Government. Part IV of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, passed on the 10th May, 1932, imposed, inter alia, a stamp duty of 10 per cent, on interest derived from local authority debentures or other securities. All local authority interest coupons or warrants presented in New Zealand for payment on or after the 14th May, 1932, were chargeable. Interest payments made (as of express right) out of New Zealand were exempted from charge. After deduction of 5 per cent, of the proceeds as administrative charges the net amount of stamp duty collected was returned to the respective local authorities. A hardship clause permitted the Minister of Finance to refund stamp duty where the total annual income of the payer was not in excess of £100. An additional provision allowed payment of stamp duty of this nature to be treated as a special exemption under the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923. The stamp duty was abolished, in so far as it affected interest accruing after 31st March, 1933, by the legislation next mentioned.

A further step towards reduction of interest on local authority debt was taken by the Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act,  1932–33, and its amendment of 1933. This statute, passed on the 9th March, 1933, followed somewhat similar legislation dealing with the public debt. The principal section of this Act imposed a reduction in the rate of interest payable in New Zealand on all local authorities' securities existing at the 1st April, 1933, by 20 per cent, or to 4½ per cent, per annum, whichever rate was the higher. Loans domiciled outside New Zealand were again exempted, and rules laid down for the determination of domicile. The Act also empowered local authorities to draw up individual conversion schemes whereby existing securities could be converted to new securities at a lower and uniform rate of interest. Any such proposals are required to be submitted to the Local Government Loans Board and to receive the consent of the Governor-General given by Order in Council issued not later than the 31st March. 1935†. Where any such conversion scheme is undertaken, and any holder of existing securities signifies his dissent from their conversion as prescribed in the Order in Council, the rate of interest in his case is then further reduced to 33½ per cent, below the rate originally prescribed by the securities. Further sections of the Act limit the rate of interest for future loans, empower relief measures in certain cases of hardship, and create necessary machinery for implementing its provisions.

LOANS MATURING.

The following table classifies loans (other than from Government) according to years of maturity and countries of domicile.

Years of Maturity (ended 31st December).New Zealand.United Kingdom.Australia.Totals.

  Further amended in November, 1034. † New extended to 31st December, 1935.

 ££££
Prior to and during 19354,576,7052,510,100553,3027,640,107
1936–405,708,9353,784,700144,7419,638,376
1941–458,881,0193,464,5961,081,81813,427,433
1946–505,096,5791,926,3251,152,5578,175,461
1951–554,709,1942,472,300472,9597,654,453
1956–605,332,0202,230,300801,8488,364,168
1961–657,487,963615,0001,272,4539,375,416
1966–70536,034.. 536,034
1971 and after565,000..250,000815,000
Unspecified16,093.. 16,093
     Totals42,909,54217,003,3215,729,67865,642,541

Chapter 25. SECTION XXV.—VALUATION OF LAND.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE.

THE existing law relating to the valuation of land in New Zealand is contained in the Valuation of Land Act, 1925 (a consolidation of previous legislation), and its amendments of 1926, 1927, 1932, and 1933. A brief historical account appears in the 1932 and earlier Year-Books.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General. The actual work of valuation is done by District Valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the “capital value” of the property. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides that in boroughs rating on the unimproved value the unimproved value only or the value of improvements only may be ascertained, the capital value being adjusted accordingly.

Under the New Zealand law the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local body expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the Ȝunimproved value.” Any increased value, however, which is represented by the improvements effected by the individual possessor, either past or present, does not form part of the “unimproved value.”

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land under exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling-value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used. Land containing or supposed to contain oil, coal, or other mineral deposits is valued as for the surface use only.

THE VALUATION ROLL.

The Valuation of Land Act directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:—

  1. The name of the owner of the land and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:

  2. The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act:

  3. The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. The nature and value of the improvements on the land:

  5. The unimproved value of the land:

  6. The capital value of the land:

  7. Such other particulars as are prescribed.

The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

In December, 1932, the Urban Farm Land Rating Act was passed with the object of giving some rating relief to farm lands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town boards, and certain road boards. The Act provides for the preparation of farm rolls, which are deemed to be part of the valuation roll for rating purposes.

After the values in a district have been revised a new valuation roll is prepared, and the Valuer-General addresses to each person whose name appears thereon a notice setting forth the values at which his property is entered, and naming a date on or before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged.

THE ASSESSMENT COURT.

The Valuer-General refers objections to values to the District Valuer to enable him to review valuations before the sitting of the Assessment Court. If after careful reconsideration by the District Valuer it is decided that an objection will be allowed or a reasonable compromise effected, the valuation is altered accordingly. On the other hand, if the Valuer-General considers that the valuer's estimates are fair, the objection is heard and determined by the Assessment Court.

The Assessment Court consists of three members, of whom one—the President— is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Of the other two members of the Court, one is appointed by the Governor-General in Council, and the other by the local authority of the district whose roll has been revised, or by two or more local authorities acting in unison, provided the appointee is not a member or a paid officer of any local authority. The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1927, provides for assessors representing local bodies to be elected (after nomination by two or more ratepayers) by a meeting of ratepayers convened for the purpose.

If the objection to the valuation is allowed, the new valuation is deemed to be entered on the valuation roll, for rating purposes, as on the 31st March of the calendar year following that on which notice of objection was duly given. If the objection is disallowed, the owner may, within fourteen days after the hearing by the Assessment Court, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the objector) considers to be the fair selling-value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of His Majesty at that value or sold in the prescribed manner.

If the Valuer-General is of opinion that the Assessment Court has made an unfair reduction in a valuation he may, within fourteen days of the hearing, require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair selling capital value, and, failing such consent being given within thirty days after notice is delivered at his address, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of His Majesty.

The decision of the Assessment Court on any objection is subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on a question of law. On all other questions the decision of the Assessment Court is final. The decision of a majority of the three members constitutes the decision of the Court, but if no two members agree the President's decision is taken.

Owing to the recent heavy decline in values and the impracticability of a universal revaluation, advantage of the provision enabling new valuations has been taken by many owners with the object of reducing their rate-payments. In order to maintain rating equity, the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1933, authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part (not being under 75 per cent.) of values upon the roll. Where an individual owner has obtained a revaluation, the new figure or the proportionate part of the previously existing figure is taken, whichever is the lower.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND.

General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897–98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole Dominion have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures have been revised to include the latest valuations of small divisions.

GROSS CAPITAL and UNIMPROVED VALUES.

Year.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
187899,566,67962,573,868
1882101,000,000..
1885113,270,649..
1888111,137,71475,497,379
1891122,225,02975,832,465
1897138,591,34784,401,244
1902154,816,13294,847,727
1905197,684,475122,937,126
1907236,644,536149,682,689
1909271,516,022172,759,948
1911293,117,065184,062,798
1913340,559,728212,963,468
1915371,076,683230,705,147
1916389,164,729241,322,255
1917405,466,071251,087,708
1918421,383,373260,921,812
1919445,533,445275,988,409
1920470,093,697290,880,264
1921518,584,318317,631,245
1922544,503,376329,174,337
1923553,403,794330,790,991
1924568,500,653333,869,581
1925587,349,575339,310,260
1926603,250,306341,047,952
1927618,264,093341,519,107
1928631,454,676335,217,075
1929655,906,887344,757,796
1930664,571,181338,887,411
1931667,911,212331,634,774
1932662,829,264321,798,700
1933653,707,517314,556,174

Recent revaluations have resulted in lower unimproved values being placed on country lands, a progressive decline having set in since 1925, the decrease to 1933 being nearly £40,000,000. This decline was partly counterbalanced by increases in urban districts up to 1931, but urban valuations have declined since that year and the total unimproved value of the Dominion in 1933 was over £29,400,000 less than in 1929. The total capital value of the Dominion continued to increase until 1931, but dropped by over £14,000,000 in the next two years.

The values shown in the foregoing table and in that following are the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

GROSS VALUES.

Year.Number.North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
Counties.
  ££££££
1924129214,571,989137,323,119126,047,70393,131,206340,619,692230,454,325
1925129217,347,187138,452,089126,696,66693,162,705344,043,853231,614,794
1926129218,934,039137,478,551127,019,17693,135,848345,953,215230,014,399
1927129220,899,534136,669,081128,528,96493,546,458349,428,498230,215,539
1928129222,034,723128,466,999128,979,60093,112,481351,014,323221,579,480
1929129218,994,624125,113,171128,578,47792,339,116347,573,101217,452,287
1930129217,047,143120,939,949128,369,80590,038,141345,416,948210,978,090
1931129216,904,602119,125,252126,112,66784,989,699343,017,269204,114,951
1932129214,849,109115,921,478123,017,74879,835,599337,866,857195,757,077
1933129212,616,936113,753,386121,051,37178,032,449333,668,307191,785,835
Boroughs.
  ££££££
1924118153,284,67473,591,42767,069,28726,435,569220,353,961100,026,996
1925118165,944,93477,762,00569,402,51226,505,881235,347,446104,267,886
1926119176,492,48479,937,20372,316,31526,911,670248,808,799106,848,873
1927119184,483,84980,253,29875,083,75727,279,451259,567,606107,532,749
1928119193,357,81682,113,91077,546,51527,760,690270,904,331109,874,600
1929119215,559,20792,633,63683,723,05731,178,700299,282,264123,812,336
1930121224,252,97693,192,26785,669,38731,108,515309,922,363124,300,782
1931122228,502,59593,016,63887,312,58331,204,231315,815,178124,220,869
1932122228,332,22891,862,45487,553,54130,934,909315,885,769122,797,363
1933122223,524,94088,941,80287,637,53030,724,359311,162,470119,666,221
Independent Town Districts.
1924396,644,5563,042,977882,444345,2837,527,0003,388,260
1925407,043,1273,081,319915,149346,2617,958,2763,427,580
1926397,450,9253,202,3241,037,367382,3568,488,2923,584,680
1927408,221,3723,387,7361,046,617383,0839,267,9893,770,819
1928428,468,6863,397,3421,067,336365,6539,536,0223,762,995
1929427,977,8323,136,3771,073,690356,7969,051,5223,493,173
1930418,145,6443,277,4341,086,226331,1059,231,8703,608,539
1931407,936,5502,967,0641,142,215330,9909,078,7653,298,954
1932407,920,4862,911,4191,156,152332,8419,076,6383,244,260
1933407,676,6962,752,6901,200,044351,4288,876,7403,104,118
Grand Totals.
1924..374,501,219213,957,523193,999,434119,912,058568,500,653333,869,581
1925..390,335,248219,295,413197,014,327120,014,847587,349,575339,310,260
1926..402,877,448220,618,078200,372,858120,429,874603,250,306341,047,952
1927..413,604,755220,310,115204,659,338121,208,992618,264,093341,519,107
1928..423,861,225213,978,251207,593,451121,238,824631,454,676335,217,075
1929..442,531,663220,883,184213,375,224123,874,612655,906,887344,757,796
1930..449,445,763217,409,650215,125,418121,477,761664,571,181338,887,411
1931..453,343,747215,109,854214,567,465116,524,920667,911,212331,634,774
1932..451,101,823210,695,351211,727,441111,103,349662,829,264321,798,700
1933..443,818,572205,447,938209,888,945109,108,236653,707,517314,556,174

A summary of rateable values for the year 1933 is next given:—

North Island.South Island.New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££££££
Counties202,550,755108,462,321115,822,42375,308,538318,373,178183,770,859
Boroughs201,293,72578,392,77379,616,99827,863,438280,910,723106,256,211
Town districts (independent)7,086,4612,558,1381,098,792323,8698,185,2532,882,007
     Totals410,930,941189,413,232196,538,213103,405,845607,469,154292,909,077

Of the gross capital value, counties represent 51.0 per cent., and boroughs and independent town districts 49.0 per cent. For unimproved value the proportions are 61.0 per cent, and 39.0 per cent, respectively.

On the basis of rateable values, counties possess 5.24 per cent, of capital and 62.7 per cent. of unimproved values, as against 47.6 and 37.3 per cent. for boroughs and independent town districts.

The gross capital and unimproved values for each county, borough, and independent town district as in 1933 are next given.

COUNTIES.

GROSS CAPITAL and UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1933.

County (including Dependent Town Districts).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (Included in previous Column).
 ££
Mongonui1,507,091599,565
Whangaroa436,834127,730
Bay of islands2,249,231872,101
Hokianga1,593,241569,496
Whangarei4,886,24l1,711,838
Hobson2,454,7461,037,920
Otamatea2,111,099875,118
Rodney1,745,523571,716
Waitemata4,669,5262,455,199
Eden3,357,7581,390,071
Manukau5,075,4912,922,514
Franklin6,010,1603,231,978
Great Harrier Island154,65097,820
Islands—  
Little Barrier, Waiheke, &c.542,399351,352
Waikato5,628,9733,134,760
Raglan4,068,6541,807,096
Waipa6,188,7873,349,163
Coromandel654,841367,761
Thames727,027366,962
Hauraki Plains2,164,7801,044,805
Ohinemuri781,303395,768
Tauranga2,274,6231,005,466
Piako4,442,0452,382,220
Matamata3,747,6351,787,370
Rotorua1,785,1441,337,909
Whakatane2,487,2911,431,097
Taupo799,968527,570
Taumarunui1,164,314492,124
Ohura1,097,668362,759
Kawhia695,654266,825
Waitomo2,805,4251,175,060
Otorohanga2,158,441986,572
Island—Motiti33,12019,150
Opotiki1,675,396610,551
Matakaoa895,745368,671
Waiapu3,165,7931,188,033
Uawa1,519,772713,021
Waikohu3,919,7001,745,315
Cook5,362,4352,419,438
Wairoa3,830,9011,529,921
Hawke's Bay10,734,6486,633,041
Waipawa3,021,0732,117,570
Waipukurau905,353666,345
Dannevirke3,799,1992,033,676
Woodville1,769,2131,059,785
Patangata4,628,0513,563,135
Weber636,454358,493
Clifton1,376,155785,425
Taranaki2,775,3291,510,576
Inglewood1,407,971658,502
Egmont2,065,1731,092,091
Stratford3,141,2501,710,212
Whangamomona553,956169,916
Waimate West2,102,6191,349,798
Eltham2,630,2111,436,565
Hawera3,416,9552,101,142
Patea3,326,4211,915,152
Waitotara2,615,3001,493,117
Waimarino1,723,312485,565
Wanganui2,320,1061,018,677
Rangitikei9,837,6116,001,494
Kiwitea2,653,0521,509,775
Pohangina1,261,523671,334
Kaitieke1,037,046469,637
Manawatu3,569,0982,501,473
Oroua3,079,4222,090,651
Kairanga4,795,6803,300,364
Horowhenua5,276,9383,272,975
Islands—  
Kapiti, Mana, and Somes17,98413,378
Chatham Islands273,724183,978
Pahiatua2,532,6191,426,839
Akitio1,494,112727,978
Castlepoint1,121,152638,609
Eketahuna1,850,7081,004,433
Mauriceville620,525338,297
Masterton4,329,2412,730,004
Wairarapa South3,048,1881,777,449
Featherston4,733,4133,009,086
Hutt3,987,3021,807,925
Makara1,553,139673,097
Collingwood450,598270,145
Takaka711,041390,776
Waimea3,453,5961,514,808
Sounds821,814493,531
Marlborough4,074,8092,483,051
Awatere2,059,0451,355,918
Buller1,378,987679,755
Murchison534,172219,192
Inangahua701,858392,066
Grey1,043,174614,061
Westland997,222504,214
Kaikoura1,590,6001,076,685
Cheviot1,454,9451,087,560
Amuri2,399,8661,673,541
Waipara3,652,7702,912,785
Ashley957,625740,545
Kowai1,390,0241,051,889
Oxford989,351693,771
Rangiora1,539,6051,062,320
Eyre1,447,3101,030,530
Waimairi4,589,4831,981,222
Paparua2,774,5021,751,088
Malvern2,447,0541,837,643
Tawera442,425322,485
Heathcote2,251,280925,395
Halswell1,133,230771,845
Selwyn1,565,9691,077,724
Springs1,220,940906,405
Ellesmere2,678,5372,239,152
Mount Herbert603,570424,425
Wairewa1,297,675992,375
Akaroa2,189,7001,654,225
Ashburton11,160,6958,610,140
Geraldine3,485,4402,391,500
Levels3,490,2482,634,653
Mackenzie2,499,4451,551,510
Waimate6,042,6284,091,878
Waitaki5,274,9133,989,849
Maniototo1,543,1701,036,710
Waihemo810,776593,098
Waikouaiti1,278,274772,334
Peninsula715,298346,000
Taieri2,426,4581,628,722
Tuapeka2,512,1581,570,690
Bruce1,808,9151,140,426
Clutha3,069,3811,714,668
Islands—  
Quarantine and Goat3,454900
Vincent1,658,1121,038,208
Lake838,293579,559
Fiord144,295137,513
Wallace4,177,6742,284,080
Southland12,817,9386,481,076
Stewart Island103,42549,950
Islands—  
Antipodes, &c.13,88013,880

BOROUGHS.

GROSS CAPITAL and UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1933.

Borough.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
Whangarei2,556,670934,954
Dargaville540,432140,761
Birkenhead933,372355,418
Devonport3,342,0541,346,556
AUCKLAND CITY—  
City Portion32,915,53516,426,902
Parnell Portion2,448,2481,067,585
Grey Lynn Portion2,815,692886,792
Arch Hill Portion538,799194,235
Eden Terrace Portion612,245219,981
Point Chevalier Portion1,169,754499,378
Avondale Portion1,324,497500,689
Epsom Portion3,093,4521,182,308
Remuera Portion5,944,8592,311,501
Orakei Portion313,700273,590
Tamaki Portion2,130,2871,245,020
Total of City53,307,06824,807,981
Newmarket1,705,789863,153
Onehunga3,050,6721,055,191
Takapuna2,506,4141,031,945
Northcote530,144216,445
New Lynn679,561195,723
Mount Albert5,508,0831,842,487
Mount Eden5,932,1832,141,472
One Tree Hill3,458,3861,400,577
Otahuhu1,405,913431,864
Pukekohe863,813386,762
Hamilton5,842,4212,462,810
Cambridge815,361293,916
Huntly367,19496,524
Ngaruawahia260,62563,000
Te Awamutu696,653253,676
Thames726,210180,640
Tauranga917,802393,935
Paeroa520,513173,253
Waihi354,11152,787
Morrinsville485,756132,111
Te Aroha772,308286,240
Rotorua2,018,1191,018,749
Whakatane382,737101,202
Taumarunui702,255273,661
Te Kuiti690,273252,179
Opotiki365,162139,799
Gisborne5,017,5051,751,294
Wairoa737,141308,148
Napier4,787,8801,690,801
Hastings3,705,7901,518,445
Dannevirke1,537,949494,594
Woodville191,78554,698
Waipawa293,989113,637
Waipukurau557,859160,109
New Plymouth5,327,6371,725,542
Hawera1,436,350583,173
Patea159,54057,572
Waitara330,558101,748
Inglewood292,20869,445
Stratford1,136,326434,900
Eltham567,728190,467
Wanganui City6,692,7162,030,575
Marton868,888214,783
Raetihi224,68549,355
Ohakune126,19636,876
Taihape589,318273,712
Feilding1,508,885501,396
Palmerston North City7,970,8062,499,419
Foxton292,73568,091
Wellington City—  
City Portion39,080,95219,780,148
Wadestown Portion1,395,500408,485
Northland Portion1,018,130290,365
Melrose—  
Kilbirnie5,850,1021,675,512
Island Ray Portion1,996,041556,175
Ohiro Portion3,192,935888,755
Onslow Portion1,728,659470,082
Karori Portion2,321,847625,250
Miramar4,033,8751,008,120
Total of City60,018,04125,708,892
Shannon174,81558,300
Levin786,411216,953
Otaki341,544142,284
Pahiatua363,16096,058
Masterton2,797,810845,193
Carterton533,828102,940
Greytown226,52954,706
Upper Hutt865,069231,539
Lower Hutt5,562,8541,917,242
Petone3,249,181884,291
Eketahuna165,05942,134
Martinborough255,39047,940
Featherston207,03244,144
Eastbourne775,680288,695
Richmond277,335120,335
Nelson City3,254,3091,277,143
Picton394,173149,815
Blenheim1,607,235526,339
Motueka427,174189,459
Westport611,625177,717
Greymouth1,342,025350,990
Brunner176,18372,637
Kumara33,5116,850
Hokitika432,88088,820
Ross24,7627,358
Runanga84,81221,563
Rangiora622,515162,860
Kaiapoi344,99889,073
CHRISTCHURCH CITY—  
St. Albans Portion5,217,8801,703,005
North Richmond Portion613,275157,890
Papanui Portion1,212,350398,580
Richmond Portion388,390121,845
North-east Portion1,211,355505,325
North-west Portion3,892,9652,046,050
South-east Portion2,872,2151,358,155
South-west Portion6,362,5853,707,005
Sydenham Portion3,086,7801,040,857
Opawa Portion323,400119,905
St. Martin's Portion279,97080,198
Beckenham-Fisherton Portion439,265112,610
Lin wood Portion1,932,325605,520
Linwood North Portion551,005140,545
Avonside Portion436,175127,255
Linwood East Portion156,69543,685
Spreydon West Portion1,011,635304,055
Spreydon East Portion979,975262,665
Woolston Portion1,102,145336,412
Total of City32,070,38513,237,562
New Brighton1,134,365403,494
Summer862,905309,232
Lyttelton Portion784,010271,085
Akaroa163,57372,056
Riccarton1,544,928413,252
Ashburton760,251274,494
Timaru5,651,5071,941,447
Geraldine Portion211,69450,725
Temuka431,100130,165
Waimate544,232128,195
Oamaru1,671,335557,602
Hampden34,2579,667
Naseby19,9782,583
Palmerston125,67329,253
Waikouaiti..127,21939,572
Port Chalmers384,846120,883
West Harbour423,62581,355
DUNEDIN CITY—  
Valley Portion1,150,873296,294
Maori Hill Portion955,559244,435
Roslyn Portion1,775,859479,740
Mornington Portion1,226,536264,835
Leith Portion4,772,4731,831,806
Central Portion5,270,1402,200,870
Caversham Portion1,687,690407,610
South Dunedin Portion1,131,821278,375
Bay1,179,004229,357
Total of City19,149,9556,233,322
St. Kilda.1,831,376395,318
Green Island405,18585,640
Mosgiel325,09090,290
Roxburgh80,63521,715
Lawrence70,4058,702
Tapanui42,7009,125
Milton250,89355,996
Balclutha299,32585,190
Kaitangata112,90131,538
Cromwell85,21616,229
Alexandra97,71915,111
Arrowtown20,7002,780
Queenstown180,49034,285
Gore1,159,768316,820
Mataura317,82585,925
Winton186,74056,845
Invercargill City5,725,9751,663,375
South Invercargill135,11048,155
Riverton183,04249,037
Bluff391,060105,380

INDEPENDENT TOWN DISTRICTS.

GROSS CAPITAL and UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1933.

Town District.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 ££
Kaitaia147,71844,425
Kaikohe162,62555,715
Hikurangi177,24142,856
Kamo131,60543,505
Warkworth92,09519,055
Helensville204,64554,947
Henderson280,321115,768
Glen Eden284,437104,028
Ellerslie771,088247,551
Waiuku280,52097,439
Howick244,315110,670
Papatoetoe649,011252,227;
Manurewa457,645171,957
Papakura517,422223,207
Tuakau189,94378,925
Leamington148,09068,060
Te Puke327,364116,446
Matamata397,525141,755
Putaruru181,33068,310
Otorohanga182,00060,654
Taradale290,456135,730
Havelock North346,195133,124
Opunake213,86469,897
Manaia118,73026,037
Waverley116,29826,270
Rangataua31,0019,077
Mangaweka56,83721,478
Hunterville105,80236,054
Bulls123,42137,980
Manunui71,29625,954
Johnsonville375,856113,589
Tahunanui220,47875,480
Cobden158,92432,959
Leeston169,78538,430
Tinwald134,85551,435
Pleasant Point118,52539,500
Nightcaps78,49515,140
Otautau140,85343,838
Lumsden54,40915,171
Wyndham123,72039,475

Chapter 26. SECTION XXVI.—BANKING AND CURRENCY.

INTRODUCTORY.

WITH the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, which commenced to function on 1st August, 1984 f! ere was inaugurated an entirely new era in banking practice in New Zealand. The salient feature of the change in system is illustrated by the following extract from a statement issued by the flight Hon. the Minister of Finance shortly after the passing of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act:—

“At present New Zealand has six note-issuing banks, five of which have head offices outside New Zealand; four of these are predominantly Australian institutions. The Reserve Bank will, for the first time in the history of this Dominion, bring the control of our credit and currency into the hands of a New Zealand Board of Directors controlled by New-Zealanders.

“The Reserve Bank will exist to carry out such monetary policy as Parliament may enact, the administration being a matter for the Reserve Bank Board; it will provide a uniform note-issue; it will assist the taxpayer not only by its anticipated lower rates of interest on Treasury bills, but also by any profits made by the Reserve Bank which, apart from the £2(5,000 going to shareholders, will accrue to the State; it will assist the banks by pooling their reserves, extending them credit in a crisis, relieving them of note-tax and freeing them of dead gold reserves which earn no profit; it will assist the people by providing a conscious monetary policy in place of the competitive extension of credit which aims at providing dividends for shareholders rather than at promoting the economic welfare of New Zealand; finally, it will make credit easier and cheaper in times of depression, and have a restraining influence to prevent speculation in boom times.

“The establishment of the Reserve Bank does not mean that New Zealand will be on the gold standard or on the gold-exchange standard. Nor does it mean that we will be bound to sterling at any fixed and unalterable ratio. The Act places us on the sterling-exchange standard, but, pending more settled world conditions, the relation of New Zealand currency to sterling is held over. The Act which has new been passed declares it to be the primary duty of the Reserve Bank to act so that‘the economic welfare of the Dominion may be promoted and maintained’; this is the mandate entrusted to the Bank.”

A description of banking practice in New Zealand is beyond the scope of a Year-Book section, but those desiring information on this subject may usefully refer to the Report of the Parliamentary Monetary Committee, parliamentary paper B.-3 (1934), and to its minutes of evidence, published as an appendix.

TRADING BANKS.

The Banking Act, 1908, which consolidated the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in the Dominion, provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed by the Act. and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. Every bank trading in the Dominion is required to furnish quarterly statements of its business, for publication in the Gazette. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court, unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for bank holidays, and for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of ten years from the date or duo date of such documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act. 1908, consolidates the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The Companies Act, 1933, with the exception of Part XII (re companies incorporated outside New Zealand), and also of the provisions relating to branch registers, does not apply to banking companies formed within and operating only within the Dominion.

There are six banks trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand, being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of the Dominion. The Bank of New Zealand has branches in London, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa, while its branches and agencies within the Dominion number 218. The other five banks have between them 291 establishments within the Dominion, making a total of 509, or an average of one branch bank to every 3,037 inhabitants.

CAPITAL AND RESERVE FUNDS.

The total paid-up capital of the above banks, their reserve funds, and the rate of their last dividend as on the 31st December, 1933, were as follows:—

Bank.Paid-up Capital.Rate per Cent. per Annum of Last Dividend and Bonus.Amount of Reserved Profits at Time of declaring Dividend.
Bank of New Zealand—£Per Cent.£
4-per-cent. stock guaranteed by New Zealand Government529,9883,919,795..
“A” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1020)500,000103,919,795
“B” preference shares Issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)1,375,0008443,919,795
“C” long-term mortgage shares issued to the Crown234,37563,919,795
“D” long-term mortgage shares468,7503,919,795
Ordinary shares3,750,00011½3,919,795
Union Bank of Australia, Ltd.4,000,00064,850,000
Bank of New South Wales8,780,00056,150,000
Bank of Australasia4,500,00072,644,783
National Bank of New Zealand, Ltd.2,000,00042,154,742
Commercial Bank of Australia, Ltd.—   
Ordinary2,000,00052,329,251
Preference2,117,35042,329,251

The movement of paid-up capital and reserved profits, as at 31st December, during the last ten 3years is given below:—

Year.Paid-up Capital.Reserved Profits.
 ££
192422,327,53719,461,399
192524,581,06417,627,901
192624,772,28420,000,461
192727,041,13021,542,680
192828,439,26523,497,555
192928,754,16324,339,031
193028,898,86224,359,819
193130,255,46324,431,821
193230,255,46322,118,724
193330,255,46322,048,571

LIABILITIES.

The liabilities of the trading banks for the last ten years are shown in the table following, the figures given referring to New Zealand business only. The liabilities shown represent the average of the four quarters of the year.

Year.Notes in Circulation.Bills in Circulation.Balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Total Liabilities.*
 £££££
19246,587,546315,601725,58949,502,49957,131,235
19256,775,470312,983924,04252,207,20260,219,697
19266,730,421292,370850,25650,135,11458,008,161
19276,510,018292,369948,92648,294,09656,321,397
19286,374,043307,0071,146,54353,799,22161,850,595
19296,433,911327,667850,44157,609,74665,232,866
19306,255,717269,2941,024,96356,425,01463,984,419
19315,782,354191,4171,798,37553,645,01861,463,034
19325,958,26S158,8661,566,10752,851,73660,649,208
19336,205,429179,4271,111,97957,620,23365,281,375

* Including from 192" transfers from Long-terra Mortgage Department in case of Bank of New Zealand.

The next table shows the total liabilities for each quarter during the same period:—

QUARTERLY LIABILITIES.

YearMarch Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarters.
 £££££
192458,860,05758,673,34355,347,45855,644,08057,131,235
192561,309,07562,215,23859,194,08458,160,39160,219,697
192659,484,11060,765,98957,219,99554,562,55158,008,161
192756,804,37158,092,95754,575,76355,812,49756,321,397
192860,554,20663,658,26961,789,57461,400,32961,850,595
192966,055,87567,481,60864,773,54362,620,43765,232,866
193064,982,78766,208,80963,547,53761,198,54363,984,419
193161,215,97762,672,52961,246,88460,716,74761,463,034
193261,517,25361,562,03559,815,24459,702,29860,649,208
193362,793,94865,745,00965,949,52066,637,02365,281,375
193469,780,02772,415,89970,664,672.. 

Details of liabilities from September quarter of 1932 to the corresponding quarter of 1934 are new given.

LIABILITIES.

Quarter.Notes in Circulation.Bills in Circulation.Balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Transfers from long-term Mortgage Department.*Total Liabilities.
 ££££££
September, 19325,919,824144,9291,483,01952,138,358129,11459,815,244
December, 19326,016,850157,3021,467,22451,918,400142,51659,702,208
March, 19336,004,821190,6741,283,93155,166,873147,64962,793,948
June, 19336,305,061144,0491,663,37057,474,310158,21965,745,009
September, 19336,145,203180,195898,52258,558,951160,64965,949,520
December, 19336,366,031202,790602,09159,280,798184,71366,637,023
March, 19346,294,031228,530760,37062,304,082192,41469,780,027
June, 19346,423,115201,731827,36064,753,545210,14872,415,899
September, 19344,665,858177,798506,72765,085,749228,54070,064,672

* Bank of New Zealand only.

ASSETS.

Assets are new presented in a manner similar to that in which liabilities are shown. The figures represent the average of the four quarters of the year.

Year.Coin and Bullion.Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due, exclusive of Bad Debts.Balances due from other Banks.Government Securities.Total Assets (including others).
 ££££££
19247,816,1451,589,76342,947,398725,5895,126,08261,325,865
19257,722,9171,639,16843,659,7871,214,3214,782,17062,128,808
19267,797,3191,787,50447,361,756881,8454,654,84665,765,297
19277,874,9711,610,36848,421,835978,2644,647,19166,626,676
19287,511,8331,286,18544,893,2781,301,9074,790,40462,819,485
19297,051,3911,103,14948,175,045955,8034,887,46265,475,529
19306,798,5561,173,36752,484,0301,075,3344,777,89669,748,071
19316,917,897843,04151,576,4861,832,7814,505,58168,557,120
19325,957,944644,95349,610,7211,592,8948,521,01769,015,209
19335,105,846814,22844,890,8161,109,25715,266,03269,656,700

The next table shows the total assets for each quarter during the same period:—

QUARTERLY ASSETS.

Year Quarter.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarter.
 £££££
192461,523,98560,243,83460,258,64163,276,99961,325,865
192561,199,18660,452,02961,340,14665,523,87062,128,808
192665,171,19465,624,70464,367,51067,897,77965,765,297
192767,646,15667,529,75764,668,32766,662,40366,626,676
192863,164,33962,736,74661,324,36764,052,48862,819,485
192962,650,70363,478,79265,979,61169,793,01165,475,529
193069,855,43670,211,06968,546,94370,378,83669,748,071
193169,413,04668,877,97567,210,65768,726,80168,557,120
193267,707,59069,359,67569,602,76369,390,80969,015,209
193366,913,94069,977,27869,798,02571,937,55569,656,700
193473,435,09876,620,05875,776,875.. 

In the next table details of assets are given from September quarter, 1932, to September quarter, 1934.

ASSETS, 1932–34.

Quarter.Coin and Bullion.Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due, exclusive of Bad Debts.Balances due from other Banks.All other Assets (mainly Government Securities).Total Asset;.
1932.££££££
September5,605,427583,74149,391,4741,502,70312,519,41869,602,763
December5,420,060617,00549,016,7431,491,78012,245,22169,390,809
1933.      
March5,213,756565,44647,934,8281,299,00311,900,90766,913,940
June5,078,458609,73246,147,3791,664,40316,477,30669,977,278
September5,076,2541,095,02042,715,791883,97420,026,98669,798,025
December5,054,918986,71342,765,264589,64622,541,01471,937,555
1934.      
March5,093,4181,264,10340,311,423764,14426,002,01073,435,098
June5,045,1991,915,03639,429,093792,77429,437,95676,620,058
September3,158,348963,61639,213,52110,181,31622,260,07475,776,875

DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES.

The total amount of deposits, the amount per bead of mean population, the total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits, taking the average of the four quarters for each of the last ten years, are as follows:—

Year.Deposits.Advances
Total Amount.Per Head of Population.Total Amount.Ratio to Deposits.
 ££ s. d.£Per Cent.
192449,502,49936 11 1144,537,16189.97
192552,207,20237 14 245,298,95586.77
192650,135,11435 9 349,149,26098.03
192748,294,09633 11 450,032,203103.60
192853,799,22136 19 146,179,46385.84
192957,609,74639 2 349,278,19485.54
193056,425,01437 16 253,657,39795.10
193153,645,01835 8 1152,419,52797.72
193252,851,73634 12 750,255,67495.09
193357,620,23337 9 045,705,04479.32

A fifty-years table of deposits and advances will be found in the Statistical Summary at the latter end of this volume.

Deposits for each quarter of the year are new given.

QUARTERLY DEPOSITS.

Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.Average of Quarters.
 £££££
192451,693,55151,606,63247,853,80046,856,01349,502,499
192553,090,84254,551,31651,459,75149,726,89752,207,202
192651,314,67452,595,62750,010,35646,619,79850,135,114
192748,624,08449,773,41047,302,89847,475,99148,294,096
192852,336,87254,903,20854,224,70453,732,09653,799,221
192958,209,93459,846,14957,367,76655,015,13457,609,746
193057,469,32658,847,38756,150,53953,232,80356,425,014
193154,141,06554,996,12553,466,00351,976,87953,645,018
193253,336,88554,013,30052,138,35851,918,40052,851,736
193355,166,87357,474,31058,558,95159,280,79857,620,233
193462,304,08264,753,54565,085,749.. 

The following table shows the three different classes of deposits for each quarter from 1929 onwards:—

Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.
Government.
 ££££
19292,864,4392,794,2552,799,1401,658,402
19303,466,0865,099,3493,600,1001,859,407
19312,889,1263,826,7382,694,7861,195,845
19321,871,7741,796,5181,429,1921,457,057
19332,496,6031,740,3071,250,3441,139,812
19341,190,6491,017,6491,533,887..
Not bearing Interest.
192925,736,74326,810,88123,968,29522,728,494
193023,905,82223,225,86420,803,17118,597,839
193118,329,85318,124,16216,590,66116,145,439
193216,998,82216,815,88215,370,15215,087,313
193317,461,28218,866,44518,395,72618,622,333
193421,657,55022,874,32722,111,521..
Bearing Interest.
192929,608,75230,241,01330,600,33130,628,238
193030,097,41830,522,17431,747,26832,775,557
193132,922,08633,045,22534,180,55634,635,595
193234,466,28935,400,90035,339,01435,374,030
193335,208,98836,867,55838,912,88139,518,653
193439,455,88340,861,56941,440,341..

In the non-interest-bearing class, which is made up of current accounts, the lowest level is generally associated with the final quarter of the year, and the highest with the second quarter, a state of affairs probably due largely to the seasonal influence of sheep-farming among the Dominion's productive activities. Interest-bearing deposits, and the proportion of these to the total, show a marked increase during recent years. Government deposits also are usually at their lowest level in the December quarter, certain classes of taxation receipts mainly coming to hand in the earlier portion of the calendar year.

The table following shows the amount of advances quarterly during the lost ten years, together with the ratio to deposits:—

QUARTERLY ADVANCES AND RATIO TO DEPOSITS.

Year.Total Advances.Percentage of Advances to Deposits.
March.June.September.December.March.June.September.December.
 ££££££££
192444,403,52443,885,58743,923,08145,936,45385.9085.0491.7998.36
192543,730,26243,935,77144,975,36048,554,42682.3780.5487.4097.64
192648,285,14048,714,74248,323,94651,273,21194.0992.6296.63109.12
192750,800,80950,753,10748,815,23149,759,644103.88101.44102.52104.26
192846,070,37145,426,95645,119,42448,101,10488.0382.7483.2189.52
192946,359,74447,407,21149,537,99253,807,83279.6479.2286.3597.81
193053,676,77854,063,16252,506,90254,382,74893.4091.8793.51102.16
193154,332,23553,395,53550,933,55751,016,781100.3597.0995.2098.15
193250,232,33750,581,39549,975,21550,233,74894.1893.6595.8596.76
193348,500,27446,757,11243,810,81243,751,97787.9281.3574.8173.80
193441,575,52641,344,12940,177,137..66.7363.8561.73..

The amount of advances generally attains n maximum in the final quarter of each year, although this has not been the case since 1930.

SUMMARY OF ALL DEPOSITS.

The average deposits standing to the credit of depositors in the trading banks for the week nearest 31st March, 1934, were £04,701,713, and if to this figure be added the deposits in the Post Office and trustee savings-banks at the same date the grand total of bank deposits amounts to £120,419,813, representing an average of £77 14s. lid. per head of population. In addition to deposits with banks there were at 31st March, 1934, deposits of £3,238,110 with building and investment societies, and of £5,988,115 with trading companies (including persons and firms accepting deposits). The latter figure includes £3,254,916 from shareholders, partners, and staff.

MONTHLY BANKING STATISTICS.

The tables following show, from January, 1933, to the latest month available, a monthly summary of the weekly returns furnished (since April, 1028) by the six trading banks. The figures represent the average of four or five weekly returns, the period in each case terminating with the week ending on the last Monday of the month. In the weekly returns debits and clearings represent transactions during the week; all other items show the position at the end of the week.

ADVANCES AND DEPOSITS.

Weekly Average of Four or Five Weeks endedAdvances.Deposits.Ratio of Advances to Deposits.
Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due.Government.Not bearing Interest.Bearing Interest.
1933.£££££Per Cent.
January 30581,90349,138,2872,579,22616,266,99535,014,38492.31
February 27572,53347,337,8512,678,43317,990,80935,087,78685.93
March 27537,78447,027,5062,211,49618,424,55435,573,47984.62
April 24480,79747,216,7282,123,93418,854,25636,065,72083.62
May 29467,70646,223,5261,634,45918,955,93636,838,94081.30
June 26916,09044,982,8381,488,99318,766,78637,705,17479.19
July 311,196,27143,306,0651,286,98518,550,51138,389,72876.43
August 28895,22642,421,9121,404,53618,393,06638,926,20073.76
September 251,168,25342,271,8251,050,35218,204,90239,553,51473.87
October 30976,16942,954,0501,045,53818,264,48139,765,15474.30
November 27972,77642,877,3331,280,55618,571,84439,576,21873.78
December 251,013,82842,417,2451,116,01019,120,14239,152,96973.13
1934.      
January 29917,48141,199,6761,280,70620,563,17139,287,90368.89
February 261,119,55039,933,7081,050,90022,009,54639,386,90065.74
March 201,841,95839,578,8791,217,72822,673,50339,734,87665.10
April 301,398,67139,855,1661,219,09423,230,74440,187,13063–82
May 282,279,46439,342,048909,24922,983,90040,967,89864.17
June 252,196,05438,982,646874,24222,319,23041,598,26963.56
July 301,811,04238,785,898915,37521,930,11541,767,40662.83
August 27406,71230,172,5232,338,53322,125,86741,503,44159.95
September 24461,26139,789,0621,502,38022,273,92840,968,44662.17

DEBITS, CLEARINGS, RESERVES, AND NOTES.

Weekly Average of Four or Five Weeks endedBank Debits.Bank Clearings.Metal Reserves.Legal-tender Notes.
Government.Other.Coin.Bullion.Gross Circulation.Net Circulation.
1933.£££££££
January 304,017,1479,595,7485,611,8445,215,27910,5986,034,8505,981,984
February 275,532,90512,062,6737,561,8035,220,3039,6345,906,7665,864,574
March 276,938,32512,410,7027,561,5905,170,51011,8596,065,4816,022,465
April 245,895,34810,826,1906,254,4375,080,92514,6676,484,0546,440,369
May 294,316,21910,345,0476,040,9105,057,32011,8776,297,1566,256,217
June 263,843,41510,269,1606,209,8055,059,47813,3456,135,9276,092,986
July 314,742,11910,641,2427,319,9935,067,60513,9866,170,4336,138,954
August 2S4,129,1069,555,7546,244,5096,068,62413,3696,080,6216,043,644
September 254,707,0259,771,2286,581,4505,045,92717,9306,170,7446,127,816
October 303,798,35010,677,8246,502,4975,025,47318,8566,242,1756,199,804
November 274,411,34710,485,8107,121,5205,055,08810,6496,191,6826,150,997
December 255,521,70612,813,5768,586,9185,045,05012,2896,697,1486,653,721
1934.       
January 294,595,64211,950,2277,909,6705,110,16211,2396,406,0126,355,095
February 267,093,66915,534,01711,038,6615,051,91712,0306,196,6026,154,095
March 268,170,86015,202,92411,390,6265,077,69510,2196,253,3236,208,426
April 308,101,82114,678,08010,708,6045,036,09211,3916,598,1256,553,234
May 284,906,24113,210,0768,494,2245,028,39611,2536,331,8006,285,245
June 255,117,36611,733,1238,450,4485,038,0129,8846,295,7026,246,941
July 304,448,68811,503,4377,726,9735,040,404146,247,9576,200,081
August 2710,120,41011,463,7776,546,4763,300,232..*4,375,264*4,343,025
September 242,776,07110,624,9635,620,481663,869..*2,993,892*2,975,561

* Not including Reserve Bank notes.

DEBITS AND CLEARINGS.

The following table shows quarterly and annual aggregates of bank debits and clearings for the full period for which such information is available. Debits represent the total amount debited to customers' accounts at all branches, and clearings show the total outward exchanges delivered at all branches. These figures, which have been compiled from the weekly returns furnished by the six-banks of issue, give a reliable indication of appreciable changes in the volume of business, and strikingly reflect the depressed trade conditions which set in during 1930 and continued downward until the end of 1932, since when there has been a gradual improvement.

Quarter or Year ended.Quarterly Aggregates.Annual Aggregates.
Debits other than Government.Government Debits.Total Debits.Clearings.Debits other than Government.Government Debits.Total Debits.Clearing.
1928.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.£ million.
June*183.544.3227.8110.8..   
September182.250.1232.3100.9..   
December229.360.8290.1132.9..   
1929...       
March228.770.7299.4139.1823.7225.91,049.6492.7
June221.261.9283.1129.5861.4243.51,104.9511.4
September213.767.5281.2130.5892.9260.91,153.8532.0
December217.162.1279.2129.5880.7262.21,142.9528.6
1930.        
March234.682.0316.6138.5886.6273.51,160.1528.0
June202.757.8260.5122.2868.1269.41,137.5520.7
September179.076.0255.0108.8833.4277.91,111.3499.0
December176.056.1232.1103.8792.3271.91,064.2473.3
1931.        
March165.266.2231.495.7722.9256.1979.0430.5
June153.945.5199.489.4674.1243.8917.0397.7
September134.458.0192.476.9629.5225.8855.3365.8
December 1032. March139.054.4193.480.6592.5224.1816.6342.6
1932        
March147–962–9210–885–8575.2220.8796.0332.7
June139.146.6185.776.6560.4221.9782.3319.9
September119.547.7167.269.1545.5211.6757.1312.1
December135.249.0184.275.2541.7206.2747.9306.7
1933.        
March145.969.9215.888.6539.7213.2752.9309.5
June136.160.5196.680.1536.7227.1763.8313.0
September130.559.1189.687.9547.7238.5786.2331.8
December146.658.7205.395.8559.1248.2807.3352.4
1934.        
March182.784.0266.7129.3595.9262.3858.2393.1
June173.280.6253.8121.3633.0282.4915.4434.3
September14,59073.8219.787.3648.4297.1945.5433.7

* Commencing with week ended 10th April.

THE RESERVE BANK.

The Reserve Bank was constituted by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933 (later to receive minor amendments by the Finance Act, 1934), with the primary object of exercising control, within defined limits, over monetary circulation and credit in New Zealand to the end that the economic welfare of the Dominion be promoted and maintained. The Bank is a body corporate, limited by shares in accordance with the Act. The shareholders were proclaimed to be a body corporate as from the 1st April, 1934, and the bank commenced business on the 1st August, 1934. The capital of the bank is £500,000, composed of 100,000 publicly subscribed shares of £5, bearing a cumulative dividend of 5 per cent. on the paid-up capital. The share-issue was heavily oversubscribed, and, in order to achieve the stated object of the Government in having the share capital distributed over a wide field, not more than twenty shares were allotted by the Minister of Finance to any one applicant. Allotments of shares could be made only to British subjects ordinarily resident in New Zealand. A Government contribution to the Bank's Reserve Fund of £1,000,000 was authorized, this sum being irrecoverable except upon the winding-up of the Bank.

The management of the Bank is entrusted to a Board of Directors, consisting of the Governor and the Deputy-Governor, three State directors, and four shareholders' directors, of whom two represent primary industries and two industrial or commercial pursuits. The Secretary to the Treasury it an ex officio member without voting-power. All members of the Board (other than the Secretary to the Treasury) must be British subjects by birth, and may not he members of the Legislature, public servants of any Department, or undischarged bankrupts. Not more than one member may act as director of any other bank.

BUSINESS OF THE RESERVE BANK.

The transfer of the note-issuing functions of the trading banks to the Reserve Bank is dealt with later in this section under “Coinage and Currency.” The Reserve Bank is further empowered to—

  1. Buy and sell gold and silver coin and bullion.

  2. Accept money on deposit or current account.

  3. Discount, rediscount, buy and sell (a) bills, notes, &c., whether commercial or agricultural, maturing within one hundred and twenty days from date of document or ninety days after sight; (b) agricultural bills, notes, &c, maturing within six months of acquisition, with the proviso that the total held must never exceed 5 per cent, of the Bank's assets; (c) Treasury bills of any Government, or bills of any local body or public body in any British country, all such bills to be maturing within three months of acquisition.

  4. Grant advances, up to three months, against (a) gold coin or bullion or relative documents; (b) Government, local body, or other approved securities readily marketable in New Zealand: (c) bills, &c., as referred to above; (d) promissory notes of banks in New Zealand.

  5. Buy and sell securities of the New Zealand or United Kingdom Governments. with the proviso that the total held must never exceed three times the paid-up capital and reserves.

  6. Buy and sell currencies of other countries.

  7. Issue and manage, but not underwrite, loans for the Government or any local body or public body in New Zealand.

  8. Keep a register of inscribed stock on behalf of a local authority or public body.

  9. Organize a clearing system.

  10. Act as correspondent for overseas banks or as agent of other reserve banks.

  11. Do any other banking business not prohibited by the Act.

Other duties of the Bank in connection with note issue, exchange, and maintenance of reserves are referred to elsewhere in this section.

Within one year, which may he further extended by six months, the Government accounts must be transferred to the Reserve Bank. The Reserve Bank may also be required to act as agent for the Treasury in respect of interest-payments and management generally of the public debt.

Inter alia, the Bank is prohibited from engaging in trade; purchasing its own shares or those of other banks (except the Bank for International Settlements); making unsecured loans or advances; purchasing or making advances on real property; paying interest on moneys placed with it on deposit or on current account, except to the Government on Government funds held by the Bank outside New Zealand; renewing bills, except in exceptional circumstances; drawing or accepting bills payable otherwise than on demand. There is also a limit placed upon the accommodation that can be given Government Departments, local authorities, or public bodies.

The Bank is required to furnish to the Treasury a weekly statement in prescribed form, and this is directed to be published in the Gazelle. A copy of the annual accounts must be similarly furnished and published. A list of names and addresses of shareholders at the close of the year must be transmitted to the Treasury.

The net profits of the Bank, after payment to shareholders of a 5-per-cent. per annum cumulative dividend, are paid to the Consolidated Fund, provided that the Bank's General Reserve Fund is not less than twice the paid-up capital. If the Reserve Fund falls below that level part of the profits must be credited to the Reserve Fund.

OBLIGATIONS OF TRADING BANKS TO RESERVE BANK.

All gold coin or bullion held by trading banks for their own account was required to be transferred to the Reserve Bank in exchange for equivalent notes of the Reserve Bank or for credit with that Bank. The basis of payment was £3 17s. l00d. per ounce of standard (i.e., eleven-twelfths fine) gold content, which was the price at which such gold (in actual fact, coin only) had originally been acquired by the banks. Any profit that may in the future be derived from the sale of this gold overseas by the Reserve Bank will accrue to the State and not to the Reserve Bank. Each trading bank is required to maintain with the Reserve Bank a balance of not less than 7 per cent, of its demand liabilities in New Zealand, and 3 per cent, of its time liabilities in New Zealand.

A monthly return, in prescribed form, including a statement of overseas assets in respect of New Zealand business held (1) in London or (2) elsewhere—hitherto not available for public information—must be furnished to the Reserve Bank by each of the other banks. A summary is required to be furnished by the former to the Treasury and must be published in the Gazette.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The short time that has elapsed since the Reserve Bank commenced business precludes any survey of its operations. The following is a statement of assets and liabilities at the latest date (22nd October, 1934) available at time of writing.

Assets.
Reserve—£
Gold3,201,727
Exchange24,721,050
Subsidiary coin115,669
Discounts..
Advances..
Investments1,516,222
Other assets43,608
Total assets29,598,276
Liabilities.
Capital and General Reserve£
Fund1,500,000
Bank-notes8,878,564
Demand liabilities— 
State4,402,794
Banks14,783,547
Other2,902
Liabilities in non-New-Zealand currencies..
Other liabilities30,469
Total liabilities29,598,276

The net reserve ratio—i.e., reserve, less liabilities, in currencies other than New Zealand currency, expressed as percentage of notes and oilier demand liabilities'—was 99.48 per cent.

NOTES IN CIRCULATION.

As indicated elsewhere, the Reserve Bank assumed the note-issuing function on the 1st August, 1934. At the present time notes of both the Reserve Bank and the trading banks are in circulation, those of the latter being in process of replacement by Reserve Bank notes. The following table combines the two issues, and shows the total net circulation at the end of each week since the inauguration of the Reserve Bank:—

At End of Week endedNotes in Circulation.Less Notes held by other Banks.Net Note Circulation.
Trading Banks.Reserve Bank.Gross Total.Notes of Trading Banks.Notes of Reserve Bank.Total.
1934.£££££££
6th August5,342,2317,791,41413,133,67545,5276,866,6666,912,1936,22l,482
13th August4,537,0817,788,60112,325,68233,1436,210,8586,244,0016,081,681
20th August4,012,5807,820,68711,833,26726,3915,726,4535,752,8446,080,423
27th August3,609,1637,975,31011,584,47323,8955,487,7135,511,6086,072,865
3rd September3,337,6167,973,52611,311,14222,7935,031,8545,054,6476,256,495
10th September3,064,1988,106,66811,170,86619,5455,101,7915,121,3366,049,530
17th September2,868,0228,684,35011,552,37216,4735,570,9965,587,4695,964,903
24th September2,705,7318,664,80211,370,53314,5135,196,6845,211,1976,159,336
1st October2,584,6078,701,32311,285,93011,4195,006,6515,018,0706,267,860
8th October2,473,2848,699,20711,172,49111,4264,926,3724,937,7986,234,693
15th October2,372,2748,783,47011,155,74410,9124,981,4524,992,3646,163,380
22nd October2,305,0128,878,56411,183,57611,2814,821,2604,832,5416,351,035

Between 30th July and 22nd October trading-bank notes in circulation have fallen from £0,169,849 to £2,305,012.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

In connection with the Post Office in New Zealand a savings-bank has been conducted since the 1st February, 1807. The minimum deposit receivable, except in certain specified cases, is Is., and no interest is given on any sum less than £1. The present (on and after 1st August, 1934) rate of interest on so much of the deposit as does not exceed £500 is 3 per cent, per annum, and on so much as exceeds £500 and does not exceed £2,000, 21 per cent, for the amount over £500. Special provisions apply in the case of sums in excess of £2,000.

The Postmaster-General may pay deposits to a maximum of £200 to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. This provision, together with another provision whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit after the depositor's death, enables a widow or orphan to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without either delay or cost.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at the 31st March, 1034, was 870.

There were 71,1184 new accounts opened during the year ended the 31st March, 1934, and 09,919 accounts were closed during the period. The total number of open accounts at the 31st March 1934, was 798,202, or 52 to every 100 of the population, including Maoris.

Year ended 31st March.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
 ££££££
1925735,14829,582,89730,413,609−830,7121,680,92046,948,628
1926758,15531,833,62232,602,506−768,8841,731,57847,911,322
1927783,82729,456,38330,149,629−693,2461,767,42648,985,502
1928804,72527,611,06630,584,997−2,973,9311,747,15647,758,726
1929828,29627,252,38128,111,940−859,5591,745,05048,644,217
1930852,75728,561,85429,575,994−1,014,1401,806,41449,436,491
1931878,04324,531,56928,063,338−3,531,7691,763,82547,668,547
1932877,09019,463,98525,488,081−6,024,0961,611,04843,255,499
1933797,09716,933,17619,635,928−2,702,7521,475,87442,028,621
1934798,26219,428,85317,818.1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,391

The minus sign (−) represents excess of withdrawals over deposits.

There was a steady increase in the average amount standing to the credit of each depositor up to the 31st March, 1921, but a practically continuous fall has been recorded to 1933. The average open account at 31st March, 1934, was £56 4s. 2d., as against £52 14s. 7d. in 1933.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings-bank Fund on the 31st March, 1934, represented a nominal value of £45,676,403. A summary of the investments is as follows:—

 £
In New Zealand Government securities41,454,736
In local bodies' securities458,928
In Government stock of other British countries3,762,739
 £45,676,403

TRUSTEE SAVINGS-BANKS.

There are five savings-banks not connected with the Post Office—viz., Auckland, established in 1847; New Plymouth, 1850; Dunedin, 1864; Invercargill, 1864; and Hokitika, 1866. The total amount to the credit of depositors at the 31st March, 1934, was £10,847,709, representing an average account of £49 7s. 4d. Figures for ten years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
 ££££££
1925124,7314,823,8394,526,652297,187226,3665,740,132
1926135,0745,392,7295,022,121370,608253,6436,364,383
1927151,4075,500,2815,137,088363,193280,5347,008,110
1928166,6945,787,8355,453,091334,744314,5537,657,407
1929180,0156,307,5095,839,660467,849352,8638,478,119
1930193,0846,703,6226,324,762378,860376,5269,233,505
1931204,4676,555,2866,512,46942,817410,2649,686,586
1932214,5176,168,0326,138,77029,262416,38510,132,233
1933212,6735,678,8435,718,258−39,415*377,72010,470,538
1934219,7325,817,8465,741,98975,857301,31410,847,709

* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

The following table shows the results of the transactions of each of the trustee savings-hanks during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1934.

Bank.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total A mount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
 ££££££
Auckland157,9843,618,1393,635,072−16,933*197,8387,103,797
New Plymouth12,134368,878329,81839,06017,038617,774
Hokitika1,98538,61045,430−6.820*4,020137,620
Dunedin31,981820,041845,478−25,437*62,6822,191,290
Invercargill15,648972,178886,19185,98719,736797,228
     Totals219,7325,817,8465,741,98975,857301,31410,847,709

* Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES.

The overdraft rates and the rates of discount current in the Dominion were A per cent, higher in 1920 than the corresponding rates ruling prior to the 1914–19 war. A further increase of i per cent., following a period when importations had been made on a larger scale than at any previous time in the Dominion's history, was made in January, 1921, the demand on banks for money being very considerable. Another aspect of the position was the rapid diminution—from twenty millions to two millions—in the excess of deposits (other than Government) over advances during the closing six months of 1920. It is not surprising accordingly to find a further increase in the overdraft (and the discount) rates as from March, 1921. There was no further alteration in the rate until January, 1923, when the overdraft rate was reduced to 6J per cent., a rate which ruled until April, 1927. As a result of financial stringency, occasioned by adverse trade conditions during 1926–27, both the overdraft and discount rates wore increased to 7 per cent, in May, 1927. Vastly improved conditions, brought about by the successful export season of 1927–28 and a diminution in imports, were responsible for the reduction of both rates to 6 1/2 per cent, in July, 1928; but by February, 1930, conditions had so changed that a return was made to the 7 per cent. rates. This rate remained in force until the 1st November, 1931, when a reduction to 6A- per cent, was made, followed by further reductions to 6 per cent, as from the 1st September, 1932, 5 per cent, as from the 1st May, 1933, and 4£ per cent. as from the 30th November, 1934.

The Reserve Bank's minimum discount or rediscount rate for New Zealand bills is 4 per cent.

TRADING BANKS' FIXED-DEPOSIT RATES.

The following is a complete schedule (since June, 1912) of the rates paid by the associated banks in New Zealand for moneys lodged on fixed deposit:—

Date Operative fromThree Months and under Six Months.Six Months and under Twelve Months.Twelve Months and under Twenty-four Months'.Twenty-four Months.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
1st June, 1912..24
20th January, 192134
20th June, 19214
11th December. 19264
9th May, 192745
9th July, 19284
1st February, 1930..5
22nd April 193045
1st August 19314
1st June, 193234
2nd December, 19323
11th July, 193323
5th July, 19342
2nd November, 1934*

* Five of six banks.

COINAGE AND CURRENCY.

The consolidating and amending Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain) empowered Her Majesty by Proclamation to direct that the whole or any part of the Act should apply to any British possession with or without modification. On the 1st August, 189G, Her Majesty directed that the Parts of the Act, as amended in 1891, that were set out in the Proclamation should be in force in New Zealand from the promulgation of the Proclamation in New Zealand. By Proclamation of the Administrator of 17th March, 1897, it was declared that Her Majesty's Proclamation should take effect from the publication of the Administrator's Proclamation in the Gazelle (25th March, 1897).

The Coinage Act, 1920 (Great Britain) altered the fineness of silver coins. Its provisions were adopted for New Zealand by Proclamation of the Administrator of 14th September, 1920.

.Subject to the modifications of the Coinage Act, 1933 (see below), the legal coinage of New Zealand was and is the coinage of Great Britain as determined from time to time by Royal Proclamation under the Act of 1870. In the past the necessary supply of coins has been obtained from the Royal Mints and put into circulation by the banks. In practice certain coins—e.g., £5, £'2, crown, double florin, and farthing, have never circulated to any appreciable extent in New Zealand. Since the Proclamations referred to in a later paragraph gold has virtually disappeared from circulation.

NEW ZEALAND COIN.

Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), authorized the Minister of Finance to arrange with the Master of the Royal Mint (in England) for a special issue of silver and bronze coinage of distinctive design for use in New Zealand. Any coins minted in accordance with this arrangement would conform to the standard Mint requirements of weight, fineness, &c, and were given status as legal tender in New Zealand.

Before proceeding with the arrangement as authorized, the question of possible changes in the coinage system {e.g., to a metric basis) was, inter alia, referred to a committee of investigation appointed, in May, 1933. This committee, which included a representative of the Treasury, Audit, Industries and Commerce, and Post and Telegraph Departments, together with a representative of the Associated Banks, of the Associated Chambers of Commerce, of retail interests, and of the New Zealand Numismatic Society respectively, in a report released 1st July, 1933, advocated adherence to coins of the existing face-value and mintage in England.

Arrangements were made under which the Royal Mint agreed to remint free of charge the Imperial and Australian silver coin circulating in the Dominion, replacing it with New Zealand coin of distinctive design, and to allow the New Zealand Government the bullion value of the coin not used in making such replacement.

It was at one time estimated that the profit arising to the New Zealand Government from the recoinage on this basis would be in the neighbourhood of £180,000, but this will depend on the amount of coin actually replaced, and the relative fineness of such coin. The profit arises from the fact that the Australian coinage and a proportion of the British coinage hitherto in circulation in New Zealand contained a larger proportion of silver than is required in the new coin under the standard set out in the Schedule to the Coinage Act, 1933, which is also the standard governing the present production of Imperial silver coin. The profit would have been much larger had it been possible to repatriate all such coin at its face-value, which was, of course, the value at which New Zealand actually purchased it. The Commonwealth Government agreed to the repatriation at face-value of a proportion of Australian coin circulating in the Dominion.

New Zealand coins ordered from the Mint were of a total face-value of £1,420,000, and comprised the following denominations and total face-values:—

 £
Half-crown500,000
Florin420,000
Shilling200,000
Sixpence150,000
Threepence150,000

The first consignment of New Zealand silver coins, consisting of half-crowns, arrived towards the end of November, 1933, and was put into circulation almost immediately. By the end of April, 1934, the first cycle of coins, amounting to £710,000, was in circulation.

By Order in Council of the 3rd May, 1934, New Zealand coins were made subject to the “Trial of the Pyx” in the same manner and by the same jury as in the case of British coins, one silver coin being set aside for this purpose from each journey weight consisting of 00 lb. troy weight. The verdict given was that the coins were within the permitted degrees of variation in weight and fineness.

Up to the 30th September, 1934, New Zealand coin of a nominal value of £1,420,000 bad been handed to banks; Imperial coin of a nominal value of £598,459 and Australian coin of £121,741 nominal value had been forwarded to the Royal Mint; and Australian coin to the extent of £50,000 had been forwarded to Australia. for which £50,000 was received. A further amount of £1,000 in Imperial coin was disposed of at face-value to the Royal Mint. Expenses credited to the Silver and Bronze Coin Account totalled £5,575 at the 30th September, 1934, and the credit balance at that date amounted to £184,425.

The Coinage Act, 1933, which came into operation on the 1st December, 1933» repeals section 8 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2), and makes necessary provisions in respect of silver and of bronze or cupro-nickel coins. The Act makes no provision for the issue of New Zealand gold coins. The denominations of bronze or cupro-nickel coins are to be determined by Proclamation under the Art. Section 5 (4) of the Act authorizes Proclamations declaring that British coins (other than gold coins) shall not be legal tender in New Zealand, and a Proclamation has been issued declaring British silver coins not legal tender in New Zealand on and after the 1st February, 1935; but otherwise the Act does not appear to affect the continued applicability to New Zealand of the Coinage Acts of Great Britain. A schedule to the Act gives the principal requirements of New Zealand silver coins: these are identical with Royal Mint standards.

Denomination of Coin.Standard Weight.Standard Fineness.Remedy Allowance.
Imperial Weight.Metric Weight.Weight per Piece.Millesimal Fineness.
Silver—Grains.Grammes. Imperial Grains.Metric Grammes.
Crowns*436.3636328.27590500.02.0000.1296
Half-crown218.1818114.13795500.01.2160.0788
Florin174.5454511.31036500.00.9970.0646
Shilling87.272725.65518500.00.5780.0375
Sixpence43.636362.82759500.00.3460.0224
Threepence21.818181.41379500.00.2120.0138

* Not issued.

The melting of current gold or silver is made an offence by section 48 of the Finance Act. 1920.

COIN NOT LEGAL TENDER.

In past years certain private tokens, mainly of penny-size, were issued in times of copper shortages. They have long disappeared, and their issue would new be unlawful.

Australian gold coins (the first Mint was established at Sydney in 1855) were not legal tender abroad until the Royal Proclamation of 1866, although they are understood to have circulated in New Zealand during those years. Under the Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain) gold coin struck at all the Australian Mints has been an integral part of the currency of Great Britain, distinguished from that struck at the Tower Mint only by an inconspicuous mint-mark. Australian gold coins, therefore, were and still are legal tender in New Zealand. Australian silver and bronze coins have never been legal tender in New Zealand, although in free circulation at face-value both among the general public and into and out of the hanks. The quantity of Australian silver currency in circulation has been considerable in recent years, some private estimates placing it as high as 30 per cent, of the silver in circulation. Recent repatriation by governmental action would reduce this proportion.

No other non-legal-tender coin circulates. As noted above, British silver coin will cease to be legal tender from 1st February, 1935.

RESTRICTIONS ON DEALING IN COIN.

During the period 1914—19 various Orders in Council (now revoked or lapsed) prohibited absolutely, or without the consent of the Minister of Customs, the exportation to a varying extent of silver coin, and in one instance of gold coin. The Finance Act (So. 3), 1934, authorizes the issue of Proclamations prohibiting the export of coined gold except with the consent of the Minister of Finance. Previous restrictions in respect of gold are referred to under the next sub-title.

The depreciation of the New Zealand pound in relation to sterling created an incentive for silver coins (which, for instance, in England would still preserve their face - value) to leave the country. Furthermore, the fact that, until January, 1933, the depreciation of the Australian pound was considerably greater than that of the New Zealand pound was a direct incentive for an influx of Australian silver coins. Accordingly, regulations effective from the 2nd April, 1931. were gazetted under the Customs Act. 1913, and its amendment of 1921, prohibiting the import or export of silver coins save with the consent of the Minister of Customs. These regulations were revoked as from the 23rd July, 1931, and were replaced as from the same date by regulations under the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 2). Under the new regulations a person entering New Zealand was permitted to bring with him silver coins to the value of £2, and a person departing to take silver coins of a value of £10 if going direct to the British Isles, or, if otherwise, £5. These sums could be increased only by consent of the Minister of Finance. Later amendments, dating from the 30th March, 1933, and still in force, diminished the latter sums to £5 and £2 respectively. With the advent of New Zealand coins the necessity for these regulations has diminished.

The appreciation in the price of gold having led to a temporarily large trade in the realization of jewellery and hoarded coin, and to attempts to melt or export the latter, it became necessary to introduce safeguards. The Board of Trade (Coined Gobi) Regulations, 1932, were therefore enacted, whereby a system of licenses for dealers was introduced, evidence of character and suitability being required. To enable purchases of coin to be traced a register is required to be kept, open to police inspection. Under an amendment, effective from the 15th November, 1933, delivery of gold coin in the case of purchases must take place in the presence of a notary public, Justice of the Peace, or officer of the police to whom the purchaser is personally known, and whose signature must be affixed to the record.

LEGAL TENDER AND ISSUE OF NOTES.

By a provision of the Coinage Act, 1870 (Great Britain), made applicable to New Zealand, coins of Great Britain were legal tender in New Zealand to the same extent as in Great Britain—viz., gold, to any amount; silver, for amounts not exceeding £2; bronze, for amounts not exceeding Is. Section 5 (1) of the Coinage Act, 1933, declares that a tender or payment of money, if made in British coins or New Zealand coins of current weight, shall be a legal tender to the extent quoted above. Under section 5 (4) a Proclamation has been issued declaring that British silver coin shall no longer be legal tender in New Zealand from the 1st February, 1935.

Prior to the establishment of the Reserve Bank under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act passed on the 27th November, 1933, the Banking Act, 1908, dealt with the issue of notes generally. The Governor-General could empower any bank to issue and circulate notes, subject to the provisions and restrictions contained in the charter or letters patent under which such bank is incorporated; all such notes to be payable in gold only at the office of the bank at the place of issue, and to be a first charge on all assets of the bank.

Under the Bank-note Issue Act, 1893 (amended in 1894 and 1895) certain bank-notes were, for a short period, made legal tender in New Zealand.

On the 5th August, 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the late war, an amendment to the Banking Act was passed empowering the Governor-General in Council, from time to time, to make a Proclamation declaring “that the notes payable on demand by any bank therein named, and then issued or thereafter to be issued or reissued within New Zealand under any lawful authority in that behalf, shall during the period limited by the Proclamation be everywhere within New Zealand a good and legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable.” Conditions governing the issue of such Proclamation were laid down, and the bank might 1M required to give adequate security that it would redeem the notes in gold on the expiration of the period covered by the Proclamation, Provision was also made for payment by the State Treasury in case of default by the bank. During the period any such Proclamation was in force coined gold could not be exported except with the consent of the Minister of Finance. During the period between 5th August, 1914, and 5th November, 1919, this prohibition also applied to uncoined gold. Immediately on the passing of the amendment referred to, a Proclamation was gazetted declaring notes of all six banks of issue doing business in New Zealand to be legal tender from the 6th August to the 6th September, 1914. Further extensions were made from time to time. Under the Finance Act (No. 3), 1934, this legislation is repealed as from the 10th January, 1935. The position in respect of export of coined gold has been given under the preceding sub-title. That in respect of legal-tender notes is next referred to.

The position in respect of the note-issue was radically altered by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, 1933. Section 15 enacted that on and after a date-fixed by Proclamation—the Proclamation was signed on the 26th January, 1934, and fixed the date as the 1st August, 1934—the Reserve Bank had the right to issue bank-notes in New Zealand; and thereupon the authority of every other bank to issue or re-issue bank-notes was terminated, and such banks were required to redeem their outstanding notes in Reserve Bank notes or subsidiary coin to the extent to which the latter was legal tender. On the expiration of a period of two years—i.e., on the 1st August, 1936—every other bank carrying on business in New Zealand is required to pay over to the Reserve Bank an amount equal to the value of its then outstanding notes issued or payable in New Zealand, and its liability in respect of such notes to the holders is deemed to have been assumed by the Reserve Bank. Bank-notes not presented for payment within forty years. commencing 1st April after date of issue in the case of Reserve Bank notes, or after assumption of liability (as above) in other cases, are deemed not to be in circulation, and an amount equal to the value thereof must be paid into the Consolidated Fund as if unclaimed moneys.

Reserve Bank notes are constituted legal tender up to any amount while the Bank continues to pay its notes in accordance with the provisions of section 16, as amended by the Finance Act, 1934, which requires the Bank, on presentation at its head office in Wellington of notes to any amount not less than £1,000, to give in exchange sterling for immediate delivery in London. On similar presentation of gold or of sterling for immediate delivery in London, in either case to an amount of £1,(100 or more, the Bank must give its notes in exchange therefor. The rate of exchange for these transactions shall be fixed by the Bank.

The Bank is required at all times to maintain a minimum reserve of not less than 25 per cent, of the aggregate amount of its notes in circulation and other demand liabilities. The term “reserve” includes—

  1. Gold coin and bullion in the unrestricted ownership of the Bank.

  2. Sterling exchange, comprising (1) Deposits at the Bank of England, (2) British Treasury bills of not more than three months unexpired currency, (3) bills of exchange bearing at least two good signatures and of not more than three months unexpired currency.

  3. Net gold exchange, as defined in section 17 (c).

At the request in writing of the Board of Directors, the Minister of Finance may suspend the requirements as to maintenance of the above minimum reserve for a period not exceeding thirty days, with extensions, upon further request, of not more than fifteen days at any one time. If the reserve, whether requirements have been suspended or not, falls below the prescribed minimum the Bank is liable to pay to the Consolidated Fund a graduated tax computed on the amount of the deficiency. Tt must also add to its minimum discount rate a percentage not less than the rate of such graduated tax unless the Minister of Finance suspends such obligation in whole or in part.

The Reserve Bank may not issue bank-notes of a less denomination than 10s., except with the authority of the Governor-General in Council. The present issue of notes consists of the following denominations: 10s., £1, and £5.

CURRENCY OTHER THAN LEGAL TENDER.

The use of Australian silver has been referred to in an earlier paragraph. Neither Australian nor other overseas paper-money circulates, presumably on account, of the exchange fee charged by the banks on receiving it.

No consideration of the amount of credit currency in use at any moment can overlook the very large proportion of payments made by cheque, mainly upon the trading banks, but also upon trustee savings-banks and upon various stock and station agents which act in this respect for their customers in the capacity of banker. Such cheques usually go straight from the payee to the collecting bank, but in earlier days, and still occasionally in odd localities, they often passed from hand to hand.

At the present time Government postal notes (issued in thirty-nine denominations of from Is. to £1) sometimes enjoy a certain life in the form of currency.

NEW ZEALAND-STERLING EXCHANGE.

Although the movement of gold, whether internally or externally, was unrestricted in years prior to the War, certain of the conditions usually considered essential in the full operation of the gold standard were never effective in New Zealand. More correctly, New Zealand was. and still is, upon a sterling-exchange standard. The explanation is that the New Zealand banking system is not self-contained, in that the banks normally hold a large amount of funds in London. In fact, these London balances are the real regulative factor and the key to the whole banking system. This system has evolved out of economic conditions, and. in general, has functioned smoothly without effective legislative regulation.

War conditions caused the abandonment of the gold standard by Great Britain. A return was made in May, 1925, but from September, 1931, Britain has again departed from a gold basis. While New Zealand currency was at parity with sterling, except for minor fluctuations above or below parity, no necessity existed for distinction between sterling and New Zealand currency. The latter is entitled to be considered as one of the sterling currencies; but, adopting the convenience of a growing usage, sterling is used herein to refer solely to the currency of Great Britain.

The relationship of New Zealand currency to sterling assumed added significance since December, 1029. Prior to that date the Dominion currency was at parity with British currency, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931, a level of approximately £110 New Zealand = £1()U London for telegraph transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January, 1933, when as a result of Government intervention (referred to below) it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree.

The unusual significance of the currency level in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon its position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of the Dominion has not reached a stage where the country is self-contained to an average degree and the external trade per caput is greater than that of almost all, if not all, other countries. Most of this external trade is with the United Kingdom, while the function of London as an international clearing-house is ako of importance in this connection. New Zealand's borrowings overseas, chiefly from the London financial market, have also been upon a high scale, requiring, as noted elsewhere {vide State and also Local Authority Indebtedness), heavy annual payments in London.

The following table gives, in order to complement and interpret other data in this volume, quotations representing the. amount of New Zealand currency required to purchase £100 London. The period covered is from January, 1929, to the commencement of Reserve Bank operations (1st August, 1934). Figures are quoted for telegraph transfer (cable) and sixty-day rates New Zealand on London as sufficiently indicative of the position. The majority of quotations are from The Statist (London), supplemented in a few instances from other sources.

Operative fromBuying (£100 London).Selling (£100 London).
Cable.Sixty Days.Cable.Sixty Days.
1929—    
1st January*..98⅜100¾99½.
29th July..98⅝10199¾
4th September..98⅞101¼100
30th September..98⅞101½100¼
4th December..99l0l¾100½
21st December..99¼102⅛100¾
1930—    
31st January..99⅝102⅝101¼.
18th February..100⅛103⅝101¾
19th March..l00⅝103⅝102¼
3rd April..102½105103⅝
1931—    
14th January..105107½106⅛
29th January..107½110108⅝
4th June..107¾110109
12th October..107½110109
1932—    
— March..107¾110109
3rd May..107⅞110109⅛.
1933—    
20th January to 31st July, 1934124½123½125124⅝

* Actually from 15th November, 1028.

From the 1st August, 1934, Reserve Bank quotations for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London are: Buying rate, £124; selling rate, £125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. To assist in achieving this measure of stability, the Reserve Bank was prepared to enter into forward exchange contracts with the trading banks. While prepared to fill its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank does not desire to compote for exchange business, provided adequate facilities are available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted an adjusted scale of rates as from the 1st August, 1934. The following, ((noted for New Zealand on London, basis £100 London, will serve as an example: Telegraph transfers—Buying-rate, £124; selling-rate, £124 10s. Sixty days-—Buying-rate, £123; selling-rate, £124 2s. (id. These rates represent a reduction of 10s. per £100 on the rates ruling from the 20th January, 1933. to the 31st July, 1934.

It may be observed that the above exchange rates have not had entirely universal operation. The primary purpose in raising the exchange rates in January, 1933, was to assist the farming community, and the increased exchange was intended only for genuine trading transactions, and did not apply in general to imports of capital, lottery prizes, private investments, &c. Legacies below a certain limit received the premium, and also if the money was intended to be applied to developmental purposes. Cases of hardship were considered on their merits. Revenue, such as interest from overseas investments, received the exchange premium. This position, however, was terminated as from the 1st August, 1934, exchange thenceforward functioning without restriction in this way. As most of the export credits are utilized for financing imports, it is advisable to note that the full exchange rate is not operative in respect of dutiable goods. This arises from the fact that, although Customs duties are assessed in sterling, payment of Customs duties is accepted in New Zealand currency without addition of exchange.

A proportion, although not a large one, of exchange business functions through channels other than those of the recognized banking institutions. Exchange rates in such instances are understood to fluctuate more widely than the ': official “rates”.

Based upon the average of daily London quotations of gold prices during the month of July, 1934, the New Zealand pound was worth 9s. l0d. in terms of gold, conversion New Zealand—London being allowed at the ratio 125 = 100. At the latest available date (10th November) the level was 9s. 9d.

Figures given previously link the New Zealand currency to that of Britain, but since the British suspension of the gold standard on the 21st September, 1931, it is necessary to provide complementary data giving the relationship of British currency to gold. For this purpose the following quotations of The Statist's index number (parity = 100) of the value of British currency in terms of the gold standard currencies serve admirably:—

 1931.1032.1933.1934.
January100.0770.7069.1265.53
February100.1471.1670.2262.70
March100.1174.5870.3962.39
April100.1377.1170.2762.74
May100.1775.3569.0462.18
June100.2674.9469.4561.59
July100.1073.0868.4961.54
August100.1571.5567.3261.16
September .*71.5464.5460.16
October79.7469.9964.45..
November76.7667.5065.89..
December69.5267.5467.28..

* September 1–10, 100.18; September 21–30, 82.03.

The course of exchange Australia on London may be noted briefly. As in the case of New Zealand, depreciation of Australian currency commenced at the end of 1929. The principal movements have been (telegraph transfer, equivalent of £100 London): 18th December, 1929, £102; 17th February, 1930, £103; 10th March, 1930, £104; 24th March, 1930, £106; 9th October, 1930, £109; 6th January, 1931, £115; 13th January, 1933, £11S; 17th January, 1931, £125; 29th January, 1931, £130; 3rd December, 1931, £125. It has remained around the last-quoted figure since that date.

EXCHANGE POOL.

In order to ensure that funds would be available overseas to meet all commitments, arrangements were made with the banks in 1931 for the formation of an exchange pool. Regulations were gazetted in December, 1931, under the Customs Act, 1913, and the Board of Trade Act, 1019, prohibiting the export of goods after the 1st January, 1932, except under license. Conditions of such licenses, inter alia, provided for the proceeds of the sale of goods to be paid to an authorized bank to be remitted to New Zealand at the current rate of exchange at the time of payment to the bank.

The system of export licenses terminated as from the 30th June, 1932.

BANKS INDEMNITY (EXCHANGE) ACT, 1932–33.

As a matter of policy the Government arrived at the decision to raise the exchange-rate, New Zealand on London, to a level of approximately £125 New Zealand = £100 London, as from the 20th January, 1933.

At the request of the Government the banks carrying on business in New Zealand raised, as from the date quoted, the rates of exchange based on the rate for the telegraphic transmission of moneys from New Zealand to London. In return the Government undertook to insure the banks against any losses they might sustain by reason of such fixation of the rates of exchange and arising from the purchase and sale of exchange. Legislative sanction was given by the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, passed on the 1st March, 1933.

The Bank of New Zealand was constituted the agent of the Government for this purpose, and was authorized to buy surplus exchange held in London by other banks, or to re-sell to any such bank exchange up to the amount purchased from it under the Act. Sales to or from the Bank of New Zealand were required to be made at the fixed exchange-rate, subject to such concessions as might be mutually agreed upon. Payment of exchange purchased or sold on Government behalf was authorized to be paid for in cash or in Treasury bills, the latter to be discounted at a rate not exceeding the riding rate fixed for overdrafts on best accounts. Provision was made regarding the issue of Treasury bills, &c. (part under the further authority of section 4 of the Finance Act, 1932–33 (No. 2)), and the investment of exchange purchased under the Act.

From the 20th January, 1033, to the commencement of Reserve Bank operations. exchange purchased and paid into the New Zealand Government Indemnity Exchange Account in London aggregated £36,208,000. The exchange cost of London funds treated as surplus sterling assets (i.e., additional to Government requirements) was £4,899,703. Treasury bills under the Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act to the amount of £23,708,836 were outstanding at the 30th June, 1934, less £1.000,000 held against these bills in the New Zealand Government Indemnity Exchange Account in London.

The regulation of currency exchange is new a function of the Reserve Bank, as noted previously. Since the Reserve Bank commenced business the Suspense Account created for operations under the Banks Indemnity (Exchange)' Act has been liquidated and the outstanding Treasury bills redeemed. The Act has been repealed, as from the 1st August, 1934, by the Finance Act, 1934, thus terminating the period in which the rate of sterling exchange was fixed by statute. The Finance Act, 1934, provides that any appreciation or depreciation of the assets of the Reserve Bank (expressed in the currency of New Zealand) due to any alteration that may subsequently be made in the exchange rate, while the value of the local currency is not fixed by statute in terms of sterling, shall be credited to or borne by the Consolidated Fund.

Chapter 27. SECTION XXVII.—INSURANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—LIFE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statutory provisions affecting life insurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendments of 1920, 1921–22, and 1925; the Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910; and the Government Life Insurance Act, 1908, and its amendment of 1912. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Every life company must deposit with the Public Trustee money or securities of the statutory character to the value of from £5,000 to £50,000. Deposits aggregating £722,805, representing statutory deposits by life-insurance companies, were held by the Public Trustee as at 31st March, 1934.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making such funds available only for liabilities arising from life business.

The law bearing on industrial assurance has received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of insurance the premiums must be payable at shorter intervals than three months, and provision is made for its control by regulation. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements.

The most recent legislation on the subject of life insurance is contained in section 26 (2) of the Finance Act, 1932, which provides that the proceeds of a policy shall become “unclaimed moneys” on the expiration of six years from the date on which the company first has reason to suppose the policy has matured by death or the date (if any) on which it otherwise matures, whichever date is the earlier. This provision operates notwithstanding that the policy may provide for legal proof of death, or proof of age, &c.

Annual returns of life assurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance. It is from these returns that the statistical matter following has been compiled.

With the entry of the Prudential Assurance Co., Ltd., and the Producers' and Citizens' Co-operative Assurance Co., Ltd., the number of life-assurance offices operating in New Zealand during 1932 was increased to fourteen. Of these, three only are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, the Provident Life Assurance Co., and the Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand, Ltd.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in the Dominion.

LIFE INSURANCE.—ORDINARY AND INDUSTRIAL.

Ten years' figures for new business, discontinuances, and amount in force for the combined departments (ordinary and industrial) are given in the table following.

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
 £££
192310,067,9804,901,46270,385,827
192411,008,9265,458,93575,935,818
192511,556,0226,091,48081,400,360
192611,769,2906,415,55686,754,094
192712,544,7227,188,59592,110,221
192813,576,8317,612,87898,074,174
192914,586,0397,388,794105,271,419
193014,928,1338,132,934112,066,618
193111,410,69910,774,277112,703,040
193210,375,17910,984,419112,093,800

The effects of the changed economic conditions are clearly reflected in the figures for the last two years. The amount of now business transacted, which established a new high-level total in 1930, showed a decline of £3,517,434 in 1931, with a further reduction of £1,035,520 in 1932. Discontinuances in 1932, which exceeded the amount of new business for the first time since the information was first made available in 188S, were £210,142 in excess of the 1931 total compared with that year's increase of £2,641,343 over 1930. The net result of the transactions for 1932 was to lessen the amount in force by £609,240, compared with a net increase of £636,422 in the previous year. During the ten years from 1922 to 1932 the amount in force has increased by £46,874,491, or 72 per cent. The increase in the Dominion's population during the same period was 16 per cent.

Policies existing at the end of the year represent a rate of 292 per 1,000 of population (other than Maoris) for 1922 and 371 per 1,000 for 1932. The sum assured rose from £51.5 per head of population in 1922 to £76.6 per head in 1932. According to a statement prepared in 1933 by the Los Angeles (U.S.A.) Chamber of Commerce, New Zealand occupies third place in the life-insurance world on a per caput basis. United States was ranked first, with Canada, New Zealand, Australia, United Kingdom, Sweden, Italy, Norway, and the Netherlands following in that order.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.

The amount of new business transacted during 1932 was less than that of 1931 to the extent of £1,043,135, while discontinuances increased by £469,084. As a result the amount in force has been lessened by £470,990, compared with the previous year's addition of £1,041,229. A table showing the progress over a period of ten years is given below.

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
192322,2488,408,585278,77513,6493,951,557134,289205,71763,119,0042,032,272
192423,7869,016,163302,64914,7344,329,561148,403214,76967,805,6062,186,518
192524,3339,435,956318,02616,0434,861,071164,843222,32272,380,4912,340,272
192624,3809,425,080324,34916,2675,018,926172,408230,43576,787,2512,492,153
192724,7889,797,732334,49917,0995,512,913187,813238,12481,072,0702,638,839
192826,99710,826,619371,10017,7335,786,691212,017247,38886,111,9982,797,922
192928,18911,534,102393,68517,4415,515,811194,040258,13692,130,2892,997,567
193028,32111,975,361413,69618,1065,969,955207,937268,35198,135,6953,203,326
193124,5339,166,928311,90422,6608,125,699281,384270,22499,176,9243,233,846
193222,3538,123,793280,57724,4038,594,783300,341268,17498,705,9343,214,082

A significant feature is the decrease in the average sum assured under each policy of new business during the last two years. This gives a per-policy figure of £374 and £363, with an average annual premium of £12 14s. 3d. and £12 11s. Id. for 1931 and 1932 respectively, compared with £422 and £14 12s. 2d. for 1930.

The corresponding figures for total insurances in force are £3GS and £11 19s. 8d. respectively.

Particulars of policies discontinued during the last five years are contained in the next table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Totals.
Number of Policies.
19281,5343,3224,6527,70052517,733
19291,5743,3874,7437,19754017,441
19301,6893,3294,6047,98849618,106
19311,6503,3427,06210,04656022,660
19321,6923,4158,9859,96534624,403
Sum assured.
 ££££££
1928550,361758,1421,559,6062,679,806238,7765,786,691
1929541,801692,6581,531,3952,496,737253,2205,515,811
1930618,679651,4801,482,9623,006,977209,8575,969,955
1931627,687627,6062,550,2964,015,711304,3998,125,699
1932651,514660,4573,166,1053,859,950256,7578,594,783

The amounts written oil in 1932 by way of death and maturity differ but little from the corresponding figures for 1931. Surrenders, which during 1931 increased by 72 per cent, when compared with 1930, continued to mount, the 1932 total being £615,809 greater than the corresponding figure for 1931. Lapses, on the other hand, although far in excess of normal, failed to reach the 1931 amount by £155,761. The total amounts written off represent for 1932 and 1931 8.67 per cent, and 8.28 per cent, respectively of the amount in force at the end of the year immediately preceding.

Reducing the amounts in the foregoing table to a percentage basis, the following result is arrived at:—

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
19289.5113.1026.9546.31413100.00
19299.8212.5627.7645.274.59100.00
193010.3610.9124.8450.373.52100.00
19317.727.7231.3949.423.75100.00
19327.587.6836.8444.912.99100.00

The proportions of the amount in force at the end of 1931 written off during 1932 on account of the four main causes give percentages of 0.66, 0.67, 3.19, and 3.89 for death, maturity, surrender, and lapse respectively.

A statement of the income and outgo of all the companies operating in the Dominion, so far as ordinary business only is concerned, further illustrates the progress of business during the last ten years. The ratio of management expenses to premium and total receipts is also given.

Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19233,003,1791,871,9711,131,208302,96015.1810.22
19243,115,1422,062,9611,052,181352,18016.3611.31
19253,275,6842,104,6091,171,075377,99416.4111.54
19263,472,5262,137,9451,334,581385,18715.7511.09
19273,616,3672,460,5221,155,845395,24015.3610.93
19283,855,1752,684,3441,170,831419,35815.2110.88
19294,139,9292,655,7671,484,162453,39615.3210.95
19304,495,0002,863,7061,631,234465,45614.7510.35
19314,943,2563,334,2501,609,006426,13613.338- 62
19324,726,9183,421,9711,304,947415,28913.128.79

The total income during 1932 was less than that of 1931 by £216,338, while expenditure was greater to the extent of £87,721. The excess of receipts over expenditure, which amounted to £1,304,947, is £304,059 less than the 1931 figure. With the exception of 1929, there has been a gradual decline in the management-expense ratio since 1925, although the proportion to total receipts for 1932 has been affected by the shrinkage in revenue from interest.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).

1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
Revenue.£££££
Renewal premiums2,397,3842,578,7202,773,7202,897,7872,899,216
New premiums359,761381,550381,815298,957266,857
Consideration for annuities32,35744,96745,71933,95431,865
Interest1,057,7401,118,8491,289,0491,687,1701,527,297
Other revenue7,93315,8434,69725,3881,683
Total revenue3,855,1754,139,9294,495,0004,943,2564,726,918
Expenditure.     
Claims by death896,226896,0761,040,3131,053,5951,102,661
Claims by maturity813,423729,892674,962652,979691,433
Annuities41,75839,00440,90441,96942,052
Surrenders375,489380,737428,907676,329790,030
Cash bonuses46,59150,57672,58199,300114,524
Management419,358453,396465,456426,136415,289
Taxes59,75761,53694,366125,160173,211
Depreciation in investments21,26519,21818,19432,40015,455
Other expenditure10,47725,33228,083226,38277,316
Total expenditure2,684,3442,655,7672,863,7663,334,2503,421,971

The decrease in the total income for 1932 mentioned above is due mainly to interest reductions imposed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act from 1st April, 1932. The item so affected was less than the corresponding figure for 1931 to the extent of £159,873. Premium income, owing to the decline in new assurances, showed a decrease of £30,671. With the exception of management expenses, the main items of expenditure are higher than those of the previous year, the principal increase (£113,701) being recorded by surrenders. Other items which show a large proportionate increase are cash bonuses and taxes. During the period covered by the table the amount paid out by way of taxation has increased by £122,254, or 240 per cent.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.

A summary of the progress of industrial assurance business is given in the following table:—

Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
192330,5161,659,39599,44219,820949,90561,193183,3417,266,823456,469
192436,7051,992,763120,27323,0191,129,37471,317197,0278,130,212505,425
192538,8822,120,066127,59724,9141,230,40977,782210,9959,019,869555,239
192642,9932,343,604141,17829,0051,396,63088,709224,9839,966,843607,708
192751,0592,746,990167,35434,1591,675,682106,804241,88311,038,151668,258
192851,1622,750,212168,40937,1331,826,187117,468255,91211,962,176719,199
192956,0603,051,937188,53038,2031,872,983120,455273,76913,141,130787,274
193053,6762,952,772182,30643,0392,162,979138,231284,40613,930,923831,349
193143,1732,243,771140,71151,3232,648,578167,169276,25613,526,116804,891
193246,0302,251,386137,73947,1482,389,636152,315275,13813,387,866790,815

The position in regard to this class of life insurance showed a slight improvement during 1932 when compared with the previous year, although the amount discontinued was again in excess of new assurances. A small increase of £7,615 was recorded in the amount of new business transacted, while the amount written off receded by £258,942. As a result of the year's transactions the amount force has decreased by £138,250. As in the case of the Ordinary Department, the average sum insured under each policy of new business has decreased considerably during the last two years, with a corresponding decrease in the average annual premium. The per-policy average in 1930 was £55 with an annual premium of £3 7s. lid., while the corresponding figures for 1931 and 1932 respectively were £52 and £49 for the sum insured and £3 5s. 2d. and £2 19s. 10d. for the annual premiums. Corresponding averages for the total policies in force at the end of the year are £49 and £2 17s. 5d. respectively.

A summary of the number of industrial policies and the sums assured written off according to the several causes is now given in the form of a five-years' table.

Year.Death.Maturity.Surrender.Lapse.Other Causes.Total.
Number of Policies.
19281,6067,3132,05025,67548937,133
19291,7297,8182,08326,24532838,203
19301,7228,7792,22930,11119843,039
19311,7578,6403,16837,55220651,323
19321,8468,5124,13332,36529247,148
Sum assured.
 ££££££
192853,102200,595113,5151,438,74620,2291,826,187
192961,095211,725117,4111,465,55717,1951,872,983
193062,574260,125117,2381,711,16511,8772,162,979
193166,899278,751171,6552,118,58912,6842,648,578
193268,839289,297218,7431,796,30716,4502,389,636

The amount written off in each year is considerably greater in proportion in the Industrial than in the Ordinary Branch. Whereas in the case of the latter 8.67 per cent, of the amount in force at the end of 1931 became void during 1932, the corresponding percentage for industrial insurance was 17–67. There was again a substantial increase in the amount surrendered during the year. The principal feature, however, was the decrease of .322,282 in the amount that was allowed to lapse.

The lapse rate in the Industrial Branch is very heavy when compared with the Ordinary Branch, the proportions of total discontinuances for the respective sections for 1932 being 75.17 per cent, and 44.91 per cent., and the percentages of the amount in force at the end of 1931 lapsing being 13.28 and 3.89 respectively. Surrenders on the other hand are considerably less in proportion in Industrial Insurance, the percentage of the amounts in force at the end of 1931 written off on this account being 1.62, as against 3.19 in the Ordinary Section.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—INCOME AND OUTGO.

Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
1923485,362253,101232,261148,30733.9330.56
1924539,409291,282248,127169,34735.3031.39
1925598,599322,156276,443186,76935.2331.20
1926655,244423,685231,559202,93335.0030.97
1927723,558503,165220,393229,12735.9731.67
1928797,797561,260236,537244,45734.9830.64
1929869,071603,228265,843264,31335.0330.41
1930944,406700,613243,793275,63633.9529.19
1931952,302767,129185,173261,46732.3427.46
19321,010,507771,068239,439257,72832.3825.50

Despite a decrease of £12,498 in premium receipts, the total income for 1932 exceeded that of the previous year by £58,205. This is accounted for by the transfer of certain investments to its New Zealand branch by an Australian office, resulting in an increase of £71,609 in the amount of revenue from interest. Although management expenses have fallen by £3,739, the decline in premium income has resulted in a slight increase in expense ratio for 1932, the figure being 32.38 per cent, of premium receipts. The corresponding ratio in the Ordinary Branch was 13.12 per cent. The difference is largely accounted for by the high cost of collection of premiums in the Industrial Branch, principally in the shape of renewal commission. In the Ordinary Branch commission (new and renewal) was equivalent to 5.81 per cent, of the premium income, and in the Industrial Branch to 21 per cent. Excluding commissions, the ratio of management expenses to total income works out at 8.96 per cent, in the Industrial Branch, as against 4.89 per cent, in the Ordinary.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS).

1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
Revenue.£££££
Premiums698,919754,478811,871808,394795,896
Interest96,085110,617128,168140,231211,840
Other revenue2,7933,9764,3673,6772,771
Total revenue797,797869,071944,406952,302l,010,507
Expenditure.     
Claims by death138,860152,598191,470211,396217,007
Claims by maturity132,484135,054162,270170,010178,401
Surrenders35,02438,15040,59462,55l62,219
Management244,457264,313275,636261,467257,728
Taxes4,7104,44111,63316,61921,579
Depreciation in investments1,65524113,52713,78414,950
Other payments4,0708,4315,48331,30219,184
Total expenditure561,260603,228700,613767,129771,068

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The balance-sheets of the companies transacting industrial business do not in every case apportion their liabilities and assets over ordinary and industrial business, for, although the legislation in force requires separate statements to be furnished for receipts and expenditure, policies issued and discontinued, &c, no such requirement exists in regard to balance-sheets. The figures presented below accordingly refer to both classes of insurance, and, as indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

The aggregate capital and liabilities at the end of 1932, as compared with the two preceding years, were as follows:—

 1930.1931.1932.
 £££
Paid-up capital165,128173,886174,231
Life assurance and annuity funds32,417,87335,169,50836,465,486
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds343,001398,038506,297
Claims admitted but not paid146,127163,375155,470
Other liabilities722,292749,891824,278
     Totals£33,794,421£36,654,698£38,125,762

The New Zealand assets at the end of each of the five years 1928–32 were as follows:—

Assets.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
 £££££
Mortgages on property6,633,7657,010,9397,449,3247,575,314;7,645,662
Loans on policies3,948,1144,121,0004,617,2735,343,6485,800,531
New Zealand Government securities5,904,9325,896,6226,153,3076,338,9746,949,968
Securities of other Governments40,00040,00040,00063,25569,744
Municipal and local bodies'securities3,483,4173,748,41911,454,73713,299,07413,525,790
Landed and house property1,401,0671,404,4441,451,8611,441,3761,428,225
Other investments5,95990,55791,715106,091128,188
Loans on personal security8,4746,0163,1473,8543,363
Agents' balancesl3,8127,7517,8109,0377,035
Outstanding premiums332,051345,969380,553393,747366,180
Interest accrued, &c.291,515295,631447,458539,812546,609
Cash182,604294,71076,204312,066367,014
Other assets1,799,1191,946,4421,621,0321,228,4501,287,453
     Totals24,044,82925,208,50033,794,42136,654,69838,125,762

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.

The Life Insurance Department of the Government of New Zealand was founded in 1869, at a time when New-Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities for the insurance of their lives. The institution possesses the unique advantage of being based on the solid principle of State security, payment of all policies being guaranteed by the Government of the Dominion. Industrial insurance is not transacted by the Department.

The following table gives a synopsis of the activities of the Department for the last ten years in so far as the amount of business transacted is concerned. The effect of the prevailing economic conditions is reflected in the substantially reduced amount of new business underwritten during the last three years, although in 1933 an improvement in this respect is recorded, the increase over 1932 amounting to £207,211. Compared with 1930 (a record year) the figures for 1933 show a decrease of £650,666.

Year.New Business.Policies In Force at End of Year.
Number of Policies.Premiums.Sum assured.Number of Policies.Premiums.Value of Business.
Sum assured.Bonuses.Total.
19245,14954,1971,718,84261,804522,39117,190,7831,696,38118,887,164
19255,83060,9511,910,01363,775549,95618,008,4021,584,92719,593,329
19265,71060,6091,883,70565,396575,42018,743,3971,475,00720,218,404
19275,57858,0061,791,84566,856595,78019,303,9161,973,43421,277,350
19285,80263,1381,915,46568,562617,64219,974,5812,109,89022,084,471
19295,73562,4141,918,60070,189642,14020,700,0692,265,53922,965,608
19305,78062,1371,946,32271,868665,44721,418,4132,426,62123,845,034
19314,03340,5291,506,44971,075660,39921,472,7612,580,58724,053,348
19322,97930,5201,088,44568,650638,42620,910,8112,708,94823,619,759
19333,57231,5791,295,65667,567625,90520,769,2922,805,17723,574,469

The total income of the Department for 1933 was £1,062,705—viz., premium income, £649,082; interest and rents (after payment of land and income tax), £383,481; annuity purchase money, £30,142. Corresponding figures for 1932 were: Total income, £1,040,421; premium income, £645,692; interest, &c, £384,352; and annuity purchase money, £10,377. The income from interest has been considerably affected during the last two years by the interest reductions imposed by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act from 1st April, 1932. The amount realized from this source in 1931 was £463,284.

During the year 1933 payments (including bonus additions) to the value of £295,330 were made on account of matured policies and £206,567 was paid out to representatives of deceased policyholders. Expenses of management totalled £51,113 and commission £25,836, making the total expenses £76,949, a reduction of £621 compared with 1932. The ratio of expenses to total income was 7.2 per cent., and to premium income 11.3 per cent.

The total assurance annuity and endowment funds, apart from special reserves of £396,121, amounted at the end of 1933 to £8,965,061, an increase of £220,512 during the year.

The Department's balance-sheet on the 31st December, 1933, showed that the total assets amounted to £9,807,254, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the four preceding years for purposes of comparison:—

Class of Investment.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
* Mainly due and overdue premiums and interest, and interest accrued.
 £££££
Mortgages on freehold property3,365,0333,677,9233,777,1093,744,4043,702,317
Loans on policies1,014,9211,073,3981,198,9591,269,7061,302,728
Government securities2,273,1602,198,1602,235,4602,385,3602,526,810
Rural advances bonds85,23085,39585,56985,752168,909
Local bodies' securities1,120,2511,167,6971,179,8641,201,4551,262,204
Landed and house property145,421150,017136,626147,727164,836
Miscellaneous assets*207,325203,966254,710240,172247,911
Cash in hand on current account and on deposit3,5842,00744,56177,69566,628
     Totals8,214,9258,558,5638,912,8589,152,2719,442,343

The rate of interest realized on the mean funds of the Department, after deduction of land and income tax from interest, was as follows:—

 £s.d.
1924577
1925591
19265111
192751010
1928599
192951010
19305117
19315134
193241010
1933486

SUBSECTION B.—ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident-insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal contingencies for which policies may be issued are in respect of—

  1. Accident, disease, or mental or physical disability;

  2. Employers’ liability under statutory or common law;

  3. Charges under the Workers’ Compensation Act taking precedence of encumbrances, mortgages, or charges lawfully existing.

With the huge increase in motor traffic an important class of policy—viz., motor-car comprehensive, has come into existence, and has increased rapidly. Compulsory insurance to cover third-party risks is an important new departure, which is referred to later on in this subsection. Other important classes of accident-insurance policies are in respect of plate-glass insurance and fidelity-guarantee insurance.

Information relating to cash deposits required from companies transacting accident-insurance business is contained in the next subsection, which deals with the cognate subject of fire insurance.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1932 was 53, the principal registered offices of the companies concerned being as follows: Great Britain, 20; Australia, 10; Hong Kong, 1; United States, 1; and New Zealand, 21.

Premium income, which reached its peak in 1930, decreased during 1931 by £217,806, and a further decline of £192,113 was recorded for 1932. This fall in revenue was not accompanied by a commensurate decrease in claims in so far as 1931 was concerned, the amount during that year being only £50,849 less than the 1930 figure. In 1932, however, expenditure on this account receded by a further £216,459, the year's total being the lowest recorded since 1926. The excess of income over expenditure during the last three years amounted to £196,474, £69,784, and £137,673 for 1930, 1931, and 1932 respectively.

Year.Number of Offices.Receipts.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other Receipts.Total.Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other Expenses.Total.
  ££££££££
192336752,99514,248767,243388,903118,37276,599123,594707,468
192436851,68217,248868,930440,759137,75185,902127,041791,453
1925401,116,46341,5051,157,968550,608188,879116,015124,381979,883
1926461,247,60183,0771,330,678674,133206,591139,502124,8911,145,117
1927471,279,31881,7351,361,053741,760199,743145,704136,4021,223,609
1928491,336,63386,4621,423,995810,277201,726155,400131,6081,299,011
1929511,560,241102,4791,662,720915,502222,260167,955143,4871,449,204
1930511,635,661109,788l,745,4491,008,493214,507174,461151,5141,548,975
1931521,417,855108,4151,526,270957,644181,099161,366156,3771,456,486
1932531,225,74293,3481,319,090741,185141,051154,554144,6271,181,417

An interesting review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of ten years are shown in percentages of outgo to income under various heads.

Year.Ratio per Cent. of
Claims to Premiums.Commission to Premiums.Salaries to Premiums.Other Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses (other than Claims) to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Premiums.Total Expenditure to Total Receipts.
192351.6515.7210.1716.4142.3093.9592.21
192451.7516.1710.0914.9241.1892.9391.08
192549.3216.9210.3911.1438.4587.7784.62
192654.0316.5611.1810.0137.7591.7886.06
192757.9815.6111.3910.6637.6695.6489.90
192860.6215.0911.639.8536.5797.1991.28
192958.6814.2410.769.2034.2092.8887.16
193061.6613.1110.679.2633.0494.7088.74
193167.5412.7711.3811.0335.18102.7295.43
193260.4711.5012.6111.8035.9196.3889.56

The increasing tendency in the ratio of claims to premiums, which has been very much in evidence during recent years, was arrested in 1932, the figure for that year (60.47) showing up very favourably when compared with that of 1931 (67.54). It should be noted, however, the 1931 ratio is the highest yet recorded, and was greater than the previous year (1930) by 5.88. The management expenses ratio, which for several years prior to 1931 had evinced a steadily declining tendency, would appear to be on the up-grade, increases of 2.14 and 2.88 over the 1930 figure being recorded for 1931 and 1932 respectively. A noteworthy feature is the decrease in the ratio of commission to premiums. This in 1925 was 10.92. but each succeeding year has seen a slight reduction, the 1932 figure being less by 5.42.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.

In the following table, particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last five years. It will be noticed that there is an apparent discrepancy between the totals of premiums and claims as shown herein and the figures already quoted. This is accounted for by the fact that, in order to arrive at the net financial results of the year's operations, it is necessary to take into account reinsurance transactions, and up to this stage of the discussion premiums and claims have been taken at the net figure.

Year.Employers’ Liability.Personal Accident.Motor-vehicle.Other Forms.Totals.
Premium
 £££££
1928590,799157,766570,85462,1301,381,549
1929635,657160,180852,63456,9121,705,383
1930629,099157,999890,71056,0411,733,849
1931522,018141,652751,75854,1641,469,592
1932446,086129,685649,44458,611 11,283,826
Claims.
1928411,75394,906314,58617,226838,471
1929443,96283,669447,11015,653990,394
1930452,87285,512570,45513,2241,122,063
1931373,91076,979508,25417,359976,502
1932319,05364,969364,73119,830767,683

Compared with 1931 gross premiums have declined to the extent of £185,766, the classes showing the largest decreases being motor-vehicle insurance with a reduction of £102,314, and employers’ liability with one of £75,932. Gross claims have decreased by £208,819, of which motor-vehicle insurance was responsible for £143,523, and employers’ liability insurance £54,857.

Reducing the figures for the last three years to a percentage basis, the following results are arrived at:—

Class of Insurance.Claims to Premiums.Premiums to Total Premiums.Claims to Total Claims.
1930.1931.1932.1930.1931.1932.1930.1931.1932.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Employers’ liability71.9971.6371.5236.2935.5234.7540.3638.2941.56
Personal accident54.1254.3449.409.119.6410.107.627.888.35
Motor-vehicle64.0467.6156.1651.3751.1550.5950.8452.0547.51
Other forms23.6032.0533.833.233.694.561.181.782.58
     Totals64.7166.4559.80l00.00100.00l00.00100.00100.00100.00

MORTGAGEES’ INDEMNITY INSURANCE.

The Mortgagees’ Indemnity (Workers’ Charges) Act, 1927, provides that when mortgages are presented for stamping an additional stamp duty of Is. is to be paid, known as a mortgagee's indemnity fee. The indemnity fees are paid into the Consolidated Fund (up to 1930 they were paid into the new defunct Land Assurance Fund), from which losses incurred by mortgagees through the enforcement of charges under the Workers’ Compensation Act are met. A section of the Act definitely absolves the mortgagor from any obligation to insure or keep insured the mortgagee against loss of this nature in respect of any mortgage under the Act.

MOTOR-VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS).

The Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act was passed in the session of 1928 for the purpose of compelling owners of motor-vehicles to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death of or bodily injury to another person.

The payment of the insurance premiums is made annually to Deputy Registrars of Motor-vehicles at the same time as the annual license fee is paid under the Motor-vehicles Act. Owners of motor-vehicles are required to nominate each year the insurance company with which the contract of insurance is to be made, and the contract is deemed to be complete on the payment of the premium.

Revised rates of premiums prescribed by regulations dated the 14th April, 1934, include the following: Trailers, 6s.; tractors, traction-engines, 10s.; motorcycles, £1; private motor-cars, 17s.; private motor-cars used wholly or in part for the purpose of trade or business, £2 1s.; motor-vehicles (other than trailers and motor-cycles) used by fire brigades, 18s; hearses, ambulances, &c., 18s.; trade motors, £1 7s.; manufacturers’ and dealers’ motor-vehicles, £1 16s.; public motor-vehicles, £6, with a varying scale upwards according to seating-capacity.

The liability of any insurance company under any contract under this Act is limited to £2,000 in respect of any passenger in the motor-vehicle concerned, and to £20,000 for all claims made by or in respect of passengers. Otherwise there is no limit as to amount.

The following particulars give the experience of the five years. It should be noted that the figures for claims do not represent the amount paid during each year, but refer to accidents happening during each particular period.

Registration Year ended 31st May,Total for Five Years.
1930.1931.1932.1033.1934.
 ££££££
Premiums received235,007242,864233,731229,133221,7341,162,469
Claims paid and estimated liability in respect of claims outstanding at 31st May, 1934202,380186,379161,352151,095198,614899,820
Ratio per cent, of claims paid and outstanding to premiums86.1276.7469.0365.9489.5777.41

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

In the year 1901 the Government (Life) Insurance Department opened an Accident Branch. On the 1st January, 1925, the accident business was transferred to the control of the State Fire Insurance Office. General accident business is undertaken, but the branch was opened more especially with a view to relieve employers of labour of the liability imposed upon them by the Workers’ Compensation Act.

A summary of income and expenditure is contained in the following table:—

Year.Income.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other.Total.Claims.Other.Total.
 ££££££
192439,6138,37347,98624,76413,77338,537
192549,9678,98358,95030,55320,00650,559
192658,34010,19968,53933,85420,35254,206
192765,56010,89576,45538,97221,22860,200
192871,73112,36884,09943,80722,70066,507
192981,35313,34394,69649,85326,77676,629
1930104,93514,861119,79661,04134,22495,265
1931102,06216,316118,37882,56227,211109,773
193287,06815,734102,80263,76026,34390,103
193380,20715,23995,44648,59329,09977,692

Premiums during the year 1933 show a further decrease, being £6,861 less than the amount received during 1932, which in turn was £14,994 less than the 1931 total. This is ascribed mainly to lack of employment and greatly reduced wage returns upon which premiums payable in respect of employers’ liability insurance are based. The reduction in premium income is, however, more than offset by the decrease in claims, the expenditure during 1933 in this connection being £15,167 and £33,969 less than the corresponding figures for 1932 and 1931 respectively. The net surplus for each of the three years mentioned amounted to—1931, £8,605; 1932, £12,699; and 1933, £17,754.

The ratio of claims to premiums for the year 1933 worked out at 60.58 per cent., as against the previous year's percentage of 73.23. The ratio of working-expenses to premiums for 1933 was 21.03 per cent., compared with 20.34 for 1932.

The total assets at the end of 1933 amounted to £401,987, compared with £376,708 at the end of 1932. New Zealand Government securities represent 41 per cent, of the total assets, and local-authority securities 28 per cent. Reserves and funds, which stood at £324,753 at the end of 1932, have been increased to £342,508.

SUBSECTION C—FIRE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN the Dominion's legislation four separate classes of fire-insurance offices are distinguished, namely:— (1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) British offices similarly established; and (4) mutual fire-insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

The Companies Act, 190S, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum incorporation can be effected only with unlimited liability. Insurance companies established or incorporated overseas require to have a like paid-up capital intact. The transaction of business by such companies is, however, subject to special legislation as set out below. Mutual associations are referred to specially at a later stage in this subsection.

Statistics of fire insurance are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Office. For 1932, statistics were collected from 42 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: Great Britain, 21; New Zealand, 13; Australia, 5; Hong Kong, 1; United States of America, 2.

INSURANCE COMPANIES' DEPOSITS.

Since the passing of the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act in 1922, and its amendment, also in 1922, deposits in cash must be made with the Public Trustee by fire and accident offices.

The actual amounts of the deposits under the principal Act were: British companies in respect of fire-insurance business, £15,000; employers liability business, £16,000; and all other classes of business (except life and marine), £5,000. Foreign companies were required to deposit a sum of £35,000, which covered all classes of business (except life and marine). Overseas companies becoming established in New Zealand after the passing of the principal Act are required to make deposits on a somewhat higher scale than the foregoing—viz., British offices £22,500 on account of fire business, the same for employers' liability insurance business, and £5,000 in respect of all other classes (other than life and marine). A newly established foreign company must deposit the sum of £50,000, and this covers all classes of business other than life and marine.

A further amendment was passed in 1927 requiring agents operating in New Zealand on behalf of underwriters established abroad to make deposits on the same scale as that ruling for companies.

The Finance Act, 1933 (No. 2), further provides that a company which was not already undertaking insurance business in terms of the Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act, 192S, must deposit the sum of £10,000 before it could commence to do so.

Except for the provision contained in the preceding paragraph, no deposit is required from a company constituted in New Zealand under the New Zealand laws.

The amount held by the Public Trustee on the 31st March, 1934, under the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act was £1,110,000, excluding interest accrued but not disbursed. These moneys are invested in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office, and interest is payable to the respective companies.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire-insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available to other phases of insurance transacted. The amount of funds (other than life) in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, in excess of 289 millions.

Liabilities.Total Assets.
Overseas Companies.Local Offices.Mutual Associations.*
* These figures in the case of mutual associations relate to premium-note capital.
 ££££
Paid-up capital28,986,2533,195,025228,11432,409,392
Reserves188,845,0674,971,05852,563193,868,688
Other liabilities62,443,702959,6801,23263,404,614
     Totals280,275,0229,125,763281,909289,682,694
Life funds449,051,493.. 449,551,493
Grand totals729,826,5159,125,763281,909739,234,187

In the following table the figures for the amount of assets in New Zealand under various heads are given as at the end of each of the last three years.

Assets in New Zealand.1930.1931.1932.
 £££
House and landed property1,001,5241,019,5191,037,820
Now Zealand Government securities4,358,7854,427,0015,026,165
New Zealand local-authority securities1 1,737,0961,698,9271,635,235
Mortgages, &c.311,183294,732315,226
Outstanding premiums387,718399,115374,001
Cash and other assets in New Zealand| 2,749,1911 2,793,1092,835,879
Total New Zealand assets10,545,49710,632,40311,224,326

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.

Looking new at the general progress of fire-insurance business in the Dominion, a comparison of recent operations is afforded by the table below.

The gross amount of insurance cover in force on the 31st December, 1932, was less than the corresponding figure for 1931 by £10,049,307, while the amount underwritten during the year was £13,153,237 less than the previous year's total. Premiums charged on insurances underwritten decreased by £86,714. Return premiums on account of cancellations, &c, totalled £170,386, leaving the net premium income on account of direct insurances at £1,908,810, a decrease of £76,565 compared with 1931.

1930.1931.1932.
* Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.
Offices in New Zealand.
Number of separate companies424242
Number of branches161164174
Number of agencies14,32113,60713,530
Amounts underwritten.
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£435,591,466£433,250,255£417,206,888
Number of policies representing the foregoing*732,748725,006717,731
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year*£473,538,428£470,650,401£457,497,224
Number of policies representing the foregoing*791,591787,545776,413
Premiums.
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year*£2,166,328£2,171,910£2,085,196
Percentage of gross premium to total amount of business underwritten9s. 2d. £2,006,9139s. 3d. £1,985,3759s. Id. £1,908,810
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£2,006,913£1,985,375£1,908,810
Losses.
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned6,6266,7615,824
Gross losses£1,077,951£1,073,842£814,551
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (now and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.230.18 
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)53.7154.0942.67
Average loss£163£159£140

The table set out below shows the premium income and the fire losses, together with the percentage of loss in each year.

Year.Premium Income.Fire Losses.Percentage of Loss.
 £££
19231,780,463796,28144.7
19241,772,9241,046,32859.0
19251,886,290876,35846.5
19261,903,6751,127,14059.2
19271,950,7361,257,51564.5
19281,951,0691,343,23368.8
19291,980,2121,122,30556.7
19302,006,9131,077,95153.7
19311,985,3751,073,84254.1
19321,908,810814,55142.7

The amount paid out during 1932 in respect of fire losses shows a reduction of £259,291 compared with 1931, while the loss ratio, which is 11.4 below that of the previous year, is the lowest, recorded since 1922. The number of separate claims with which the several offices were concerned showed a decrease of 937 during the year, while the average loss per fire was £19 less than in 1931.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

A statement of the total income and outgo, both gross and net, of all offices is new given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross reserve for unexpired risks, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

 1930.1931.1932.
Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.
* The gross figures are inclusive of reinsurance premiums from other offices.
Income.££££££
Reserve to meet. unexpired risks as at beginning of year977,789615,993954,308621,904885,702608,590
Amount of fire premiums receivable during yet.*2,279,7221,400,51211,220,6491,390,4632,180,9141,341,856
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c.114,301114,301124,773124,773121,930121,930
Rents32,14332,14332,05032,05027,23327,233
Other revenue5,8705,8704074071,9951,995
     Totals3,409,8252,168,8193,332,2472,175,0573,317,7742,101,604
Outgo.      
Amount of Ore losses incurred during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage and amounts covered by reinsurance1,077,951707,8131,073,842827,709814,551538,043
New Zealand Government taxes38,57338,01848,52547,17250,43649,427
Local-authority rates3,0812,0013,0752,6773,4302,927
License fees4,0544,3780,2035,8056,9226,606
Fire Board levies67,24052,77166,83152,12962,49448,400
Rents23,89521,85325,90324,04825,41123,915
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, sub-agents, and others259,703138,400240,928125,377234,551115,443
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses239,696221,085254,740229,919203,003240,075
Other expenses of management148,769,114,733148,949128,553152,247132,922
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year954,309621,412985,702614,271957,001600,118
Other expenditure4,9734,9688,1948,1947,9527,952
     Totals2,822,9101,928,0402,868,9582,005,9142,578,6581,765,888

The result of the year's operations was a surplus of net income over expenditure to the extent of £327,244, compared with similar balances of £102,050 and £246,192 for 1931 and 1930 respectively. The ratio of claims to premiums works out at 50.5 per cent., 59.3 per cent., and 40.10 per cent, for 1930, 1931, and 1932 respectively. Excluding fire losses, the net expenditure in 1932 was £3,793 greater than in 1931, while the net income was less to the extent of £60,679. It should be noted that these figures are exclusive of reserves to meet unexpired risks.

A summary of the net revenue and expenditure for 1932 of the three classes of offices operating in New Zealand is contained in the next table.

Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.*Claims.Salaries and Commissions.Total.*
* Excluding reserves to meet unexpired risks.
 £££££
Overseas companies721,821755,524302,032198,649646,134
Local companies601,613716,808229,065149,468501,392
Mutual associations18,42220,6826,9467,40118,244
     Total1,341,8561,493,014538,043355,5181,165,770

Under the various heads below will be found the percentage ratio of working-expenses to premium income for the years 1928.32.

Items.1928.1920.1930.1931.1932.
 Per Cent.Per CentPer Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income42.3040.9339.6940.7042.50
Net working expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to net premium income38.2336.9335.9236.9638.89
Gross working.expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)34.1033.2632.7732.9134.33
Gross working.expenses (excluding taxes and Fire Board levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)31.0930.2329.8230.0031.46

Excluding taxes, which in the true sense of the word cannot be termed a working-expense, the ratio of working-expenses to net premiums showed an increasing tendency during the three years 1926–28. A slight reduction in the principal expenditure items during 1929 and 1930 resulted in a decrease of 2.61 in the percentage ratio during those two years, but during 1931 an increase of 1.01 over 1930 was recorded, while the year 1932 has produced a further increase of 1.80 in this respect. This, of course, is the natural result of the substantially reduced premium income for the last two years. It is contended in some quarters that Fire Board levies are not a working-expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and it is interesting to note that their exclusion from working-expenses on the net figures reduces the. 1932 ratio from 42.50 to 38.89 per cent.

FIRES AND LOSSES.

The following table gives figures of fires and losses during each of the last ten years. It should be noted that from 1924 onwards these figures relate to calendar years, and the figures of losses thus differ slightly from those shown elsewhere, which refer to varying periods covered by the accounts of the different offices.

Year.Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings, &c, affectedGross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.

* Included in previous column. where three or more buildings are affected.

†For statistical purpose a conflagration is defined as a fire f On buildings affected.

    ££Per Cent.
19233,687513,9884,223,264796,28118.85
19244,124414,4054,368,6211,008,74623.09
19254,046284,3404,728,691861,97718.23
19264,628415,0146,249,0241,129,2571807
19275,029465,3666,555,9881,210,66118.47
19284,972445,2757,661,8931,454,32818.98
19295,064365,3127,060,1321,093,56815.49
19304,863545,1457,058,9181,013,05914.35
19314,820565,0865,732,2221,148,52820.04
19324,482294,6785,528,316771,30113.95

The decrease of £377,227 in the amount of insured fire losses suffered during 1932 is outstanding, while the preliminary figures for 1933 (£573,139) show a further reduction of £198,162, disclosing a welcome improvement during the last two years in the Dominion's fire-loss problem, which for some considerable time had occasioned no little concern. Incidentally the amount of loss in 1933 is the lowest recorded in any one year since 1920. The number of separate fires during 1932 was 338 less than in the previous year, conflagrations were down to the extent of twenty-seven, while the number of buildings, &c, affected, decreased by 408.

The next table shows for each of the four principal urban areas and the remainder of the Dominion the fires and losses for 1932:—

Separate Fires.Conflagrations.*Buildings affected.Gross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.

* Included in previous column.

† On buildings affected.

North Island.   ££Per Cent.
Auckland urban area44014581,035,54078,8567.61
Wellington urban area5824613993,00944,6254.49
Secondary urban areas4521463562,93575,58513.43
Rest of North Island1,109101,171847,654339,45040.05
Totals for North Island2,583162,7053,439,138538,51615.66
South Island.      
Christchurch urban area4951507720,65252,7007.31
Dunedin urban area40S1413520,14916,0273.08
Secondary urban areas2092215313,1199,9773.19
Rest of South Island7309787525,660151,39728.80
Totals for South Island1,848131,9222,079,580230,10111.06
Anywhere in New Zealand51..519,5982,68427.96
Totals for Dominion4,482294,6785,528.316771,30113.95

Substantial decreases, amounting to £85,029, £81,944, and £12,269 have taken place in the Auckland. Wellington, and Dunedin urban areas respectively when compared with 1931, while in Christchurch there was a small increase of £1,503.

Losses in the North Island during the year decreased by £313,510 and in the South Island by £60,104.

The lower loss ratio in the cases of the principal urban areas as compared with the rest of the Dominion is to be expected in view of the greater fire-brigade facilities for handling fires in the larger centres. Companies usually allow this factor to influence the premium required.

Provision exists for coronial inquiries into fires of suspicious origin, but, as will be seen from page 161, the yearly number of such inquests has been small. In 1932, however, a system was instituted whereby extended inquiries are made by the Police Department into all fires where the possibility of incendiarism is not eliminated or where the cause is obscure. The results of such inquiries are considered by a committee consisting of the Commissioner of Police, the General Manager of the State Fire Office, and the Inspector of Fire Brigades, and should the circumstances warrant it a coroner's inquiry is then recommended.

The following table shows the amount of fire-insurance claims paid per head of population during the period 1928.32, separate figures being given for the various provincial districts and urban areas, and for the North and South Islands:—

NORTH ISLAND.

District.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1928–32.
 s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
Auckland Provincial District23 1012 913 417 612 715 11
Auckland urban area25 87 810 211 07 313 1
Hamilton urban area13 115 118 13 67 57 9
Gisborne urban area23 99 312 8;42 313 120 3
Remainder22 918 916 1119 218 419 2
Hawke's Bay Provincial District20 1121 1125 238 815 124 4
Napier urban area24 1118 220 317 59 418 0
Hastings urban area11 435 724 311 920 420 8
Remainder23 017 928 263 015 829 6
Taranaki Provincial District21 316 013 915 110 1115 4
New Plymouth urban area19 38 812 314 011 013 0
Remainder21 1118 514 315 510 1016 2
Wellington Provincial District25 219 917 016 69 917 7
Wellington urban area34 1025 813 1017 76 219 4
Wanganui urban area8 715 89 77 07 99 9
Palmerston North urban area15 317 631 18 109 916 5
Remainder19 613 1020 019 314 1017 6
Totals, North Island23 1016 115 618 711 817 1
Urban areas25 75 013 115 57 1115 4
Remainder121 917 418 422 516 219 2

South Island.

District.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1928–32.
 s. d.s. d.s. d.s.d.s. d.s. d.
Marlborough Provincial District19 967 723 836 1020 333 7
Nelson Provincial District24 214 717 813 49 415 9
Nelson urban area45 107 518 119 103 316 10
Remainder17 616 1017 414 511 215 5
Westland Provincial District45 116 712 414 413 1020 4
Canterbury Provincial District12 1114 58 610 67 510 9
Christchurch urban area11 412 54 17 118 18 9
Timaru urban area8 934 57 226 03 1116 0
Remainder16 512 1115 1010 117 112 7
Otago Provincial District11 66 48 57 35 117 10
Dunedin urban area11 75 107 106 63 S7 1
Remainder11 57 09 28 38 108 11
Southland Provincial District11 511 1018 09 912 812 9
Invercargill urban area10 111 019 106 33 510 1
Remainder12 112 417 011 817 814 2
Totals, South Island14 813 911 310 98 611 9
Urban areas12 910 17 78 85 99 2
Remainder16 718 614 1112 1111 314 4
Grand totals, Dominion20 515 213 1115 910 615 3
Urban areas21 013 211 213 17 213 3
Remainder19 917 917 0IS 814 317 1

CAUSES OF FIRES.

From 1924 onwards particulars regarding causes of fires have been obtained from insurance offices, and the summarized results for the quinquennium 1928–32 are contained in the following table:—

Cause of Fire.Urban Areas.Remainder of Dominion.Total.
Number of Separate Fires.LossNumber of Separate Fires.LossNumber of Separate Fires.Loss
* Included in various causes from which spread.
 £ £ £ 
Electricity1,633189,813525146,2462,158336,059
Gas55820,068631,93462122,002
Naked lights48418,21952635,0071,01053,226
Defective chimneys and kindred causes793137,5301,034396,5151,827534,045
Smoking, and careless use of matches1,525127,67662262,0612,147189,737
Sparks from fireplaces4,535126,5392,147228,9876,682355,526
Heating, boiling-down27212,9039411,05336623,956
Use and misuse of highly inflammable spirits and materials31488,30616123,694475112,060
Incendiarism and arson16290,87S12531,611287122,489
Outside causes38951,76233656,876725108,638
Other causes1158,36S374,32615212,694
Totals, known causes10,780872,1225,670998,31016,4501,870,432
Fires spread from other buildings *544149,863584202,6521,128352,515
Floating, travelling, and transit risks..   66652,407
Unknown causes3,1051,626,7063,980931,2397,0853,557,945
     Totals13,8852,498,8289,6502,929,54924,2015,480,784

In all there were 24,201 separate fires during the period. This does not represent the number of buildings, &c, affected, as a fire spreading to other buildings has been counted as one only. Of the total, 666 were on account of floating risks such as motor-cars, &c, and have been excluded from the total of “known” causes. Of the remainder the cause was given in 16,450 cases, leaving 7,085, or 29 per cent, of cases, in which the insurance offices had no knowledge as to the cause of fire. It should also be remembered that in some instances, more especially where a total or semi - total loss was sustained, the actual cause was a matter of conjecture only. These cases, however, are few in number, as the vast majority of total losses are included in the total of unknown causes.

EXTENT OF LOSS.

The following table gives particulars of fire losses during the five years 1928–32 classified according to the amount of loss. It will be seen that the majority of claims are for small amounts, no less than 51 per cent, of the total number of fixes resulting in losses of less than £10, while in 71 per cent, of cases the amount involved was less than £100. The aggregate loss involved in these small fires is, however, comparatively small—those under £10 accounting for a little under ] per cent, of the total loss, and fires in which less than £100 was paid out were responsible for only 3.79 per cent, of the total.

Loss Category.Number of Separate Fires.Insurance Cover on Buildings, &c, affected.Amount of Loss.Average Amount of Loss per Fire.Proportion of Loss to Total Loss.
£££££Per Cent.
Under 1012,25610,200,67642,75430.78
10 and under 252,5443,840,47637,933150.69
25 and under 501,2902,248,77744,373340.81
50 and under 1001,1952,112,74282,986691.51
100 and under 2001,5071,375,692209,3341393.82
200 and under 3001,1111,198,623267,0532404.87
300 and under 4007801,008,912265,5483404.85
400 and under 5006981,110,772308,5874425.63
500 and under 7501,2081,560,059734,17460813.40
750 and under 1,0006311,224,154540,8258579.87
1,000 and under 2,0006352,274,518846,5971,33315.45
2,000 and under 3,000.154911,021370,4342,4056.76
3,000 and under 4,000.65496,452221,6483,4104.04
4,000 and under 5,000.35449,823155,1134,4322.83
5,000 and over923,028,7841,353,42514,71124.69
     Totals24,20133,041,4815,480,784226100.00

MUTUAL FIRE-INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

Mutual associations are dealt with by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows at least 100 owners of isolated or farm property to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Such associations effect insurance on the premium-note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

In addition to furnishing returns to the Census and Statistics Office, each mutual association (of which there are three in existence) is required to furnish to the Public Trustee a statement of the condition of the association as at the 31st March in each year. Policies in force as at 31st March, 1934, amounted in the aggregate to £6,457,753. Premiums collected during the year totalled £27,717, while the total income amounted to £30,921. Eire losses amounted to £10,021, and total expenditure to £27,668.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.

On the 4th January, 1905, the State Fire Insurance Office opened for public business with an advance (long since repaid) of £2,000 borrowed from the Treasury. At the end of the first year the Office showed an income of £13,135 and a net surplus of £481. From this the progress of the Office may be gauged from the figures for 1933, which show an income of £244,257. During the past ten years the total assets, which have new passed the £1,000,000 mark, have increased by £566,551, or 115 per cent. The reduction in premium income during 1933, which amounted to £7,142, was due mainly to the adjustment of amounts insured to a lower level in accordance with present-day values. A further contributing factor was the granting as from the 1st September, 1933, of an additional rebate of 121 per cent, on dwellings situated in areas where there is adequate fire protection, and an additional 7½ per cent, on dwellings and farm risks situated in other areas. It is estimated that the cost to the office for twelve months of this further concession will amount to £19,000, and as the other insurance offices have granted similar rebates the total saving to the insuring public will be in the vicinity of £100,000 per annum.

A further substantial decrease of £21,439 in the amount of fire losses has taken place during 1933, making a reduction of £63,927 when compared with 1931. The ratio of net claims to net premium income gives a percentage of 24.34. compared with 33.79 in 1932 and 52.28 in 1931.

Year.Net Premium Income.Total Net Income.Net Losses.Accumulated Funds.Assets.
 £££££
1924165,070190,30060,817499,007530,283
1925176,664207,41856,997568,061604,096
1926197,471233,54579,062623,622661,519
1927207,611243,49698,135670,061707,826
1928211,634252,09481,585744,271771,959
1929217,991258,99575,317821,091862,285
1930221,910272,21390,001889,494931,577
1931216,007265,503112,932918,182977,477
1932208,493255,24270,444952,2991,000,009
1933201,351244,25749,005991,0871,060,513

Exclusive of Government taxes, which amounted to 16.84 per cent., the working-expense ratio to premium income in 1933 was 29.46 per cent., and without Fire Board contributions 25.50 per cent. Comparative figures for 1932 were 13.52, 26.77, and 23.01 per cent, respectively.

FIRE BRIGADES.

The following table gives particulars of fire brigades (including branches) in the Dominion for each of the last five years:—

Year.Stations.Officers.Men.Total Personnel.
19291714532,0832,536
19301704512,0972,548
19311734492,1132,562
19321714602,1022,562
19331724462,1212,567

Chapter 28. SECTION XXVIII—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

The legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with a central Government officer entitled the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general oversight by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was introduced by the Finance Act, 1916, and is new embodied in the National Provident Fund Act, 1926. (Vide Section XXIII.)

LODGES AND MEMBERS.

The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, &c, registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31st December.

Name of Order.Registrations.Lodge Members.
1931.1932.1933.1931.1932.1933.
* Membership figures relates to “actuarial” societies only (7 in 1933)
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Odd-fellows25625625634,79434,24133,870
Independent Order of Odd-fellows20921021313,32212,51512,346
National Independent Order of Odd-fellows333230214202
British United Order of Odd-fellows111928887
Ancient Order of Foresters16416216219,74619,08318,878
Ancient Order of Shepherds111363532
United Ancient Order of Druids14514814722,70621,70321,018
Independent Order of Rechabites6868685,2395,1315,153
Order of Sons of Temperance101010537529525
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111159155156
Hibernian- Australasian6868713,8243,7373,705
Catholic Benefit Society Protestant Alliance Friendly141415984971933
Society of Australasia Grand United Order of Odd-fellows171614585488427
Isolated friendly societies6667683,406*3,162*3,105*
Working-men's clubs171513..  
International Order of Good Templars111111   
Specially authorized societies161617..  
     Totals1,0671,0671,071105,660102,052100,237

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c, of lodges are required by law. For the year 1933 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 918 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 100,237 at the end of the year, as compared with 912 lodges and 102,052 members for 1932. During the year 5,227 members were admitted by initiation, &c, and 849 by clearance; 852 died, 869 left by clearance, and 6,170 by arrears, &c. The aggregate membership of lodges has shown increasing totals, reaching a peak in 1930. The economic depression probably accounts for the subsequent fall.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the 918 lodges for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS.

In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence:—

Year.Deaths of Members.For 1,000 Members at Risk.Deaths of Members' Wives.Per 1,000 Members at Risk.
19298688.393633.51
19308217.70334313
19318748.183723.48
19328348.003933.77
1933852S.393633.57

The number of members sick during 1933 was 20,269, representing 21.3 percent, of members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1933 aggregated 243,312 six-day weeks, equal to 12 weeks per sick member, and 2 weeks 3 days for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

The total funds of the societies and branches as at the 31st December, 1933, amounted to £4,538,095, made up as follows:—

Funds.£Assets.£
Sick and Funeral Funds3,789,534Investments at interest3,880,301
Surplus Appropriation Funds, &c.410,040Value of land and buildings494,928
Management Funds, goods, &c.183,408Cash not bearing interest101,478
Widow and Orphans' Funds31,427Value of goods23,848
Distress, Benevolent Funds, &c.123,686Owing by Management Funds4,620
 Other assets 32,920
 £4,538,095 £4,538,095

Dividing the total funds by the number of members at the end of the year it is found that the average capital per member is £45 5s. 6d. There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last ten years amounting to 39 per cent in spite of an increase in membership of 19 per cent.

Year.Total Funds.Average Capital per Member.
 ££ s. d.
19242,955,34033 16 0
19253,136,23734 6 7
19263,337,68335 6 8
19273,526,71735 17 11
19283,728,08736 18 9

The funds of friendly societies are held chiefly in the form of mortgages on freehold property, as shown in the next table.

Year.Total Funds.Funds invested at Interest.Proportion of Funds invested at Interest.
Mortgages on Freehold Property.Government and Municipal Debentures.Deposited with Banks.Other Investments.Total.
 ££££££Per Cent.
19293,927,4333,002,848199,75996,12440,2533,338,98485.02
19304,130,1173,186,455220,72381,80451,3853,540,36785.72
19314,277,7153,275,007244,15989,83955,7713,664,77685.67
19324,398,1583,350,709262,15592,97164,1623,769,99785.72
19334,538,0953,424,616276,262114,34965,0743,880,30185.01

The figures of Sick and Funeral Funds and of interest earnings thereon during 1933 are given for each order in the following table:—

Order.Total Worth of Sick and Funeral Funds as atAverage Rate Per Cent, of Interest earned.
1st January, 1933.31st December, 1933.1932.1933.
 ££££
M.U.I.O.O.F.1,294,2871,314,1974.614.43
I.O.O.F.338,272356,3194.354.31
N.I.O.O.F.5,5385,4012.473.40
B.U.O.O.F.6,3696,5915.205.47
A.O.F.706,108718,0514.624.19
A.O.S.1,3451,2466.064.02
U.A.O.D.927,798956,4434.704.43
I.O.R.1,178,895184,3524.424.19
O.S.T.28,54329,3074.374.41
S.D.T.12,23012,5675.094.46
H.A.C.B.S.105,46299,5953.854.61
P.A.F.S.A.48,94450,1744.734.56
G.U.O.O.F.3,5263,4623.843.94
Other societies62,68951,8295.444.93
     Totals3,720,0063,789,5344.594.38

Receipts and expenditure of Sick and Funeral Funds for 1933 are quoted below. A surplus of £69,528 is recorded for the year.

Receipts.£Expenditure.£
Members'contributions180,114Sick pay to own members152,940
Interest and rent160,816Funeral donations39,313
Repayments by central body67,019Contributions and levies to central body76,683
Other receipts14,114Other expenditure83,599
 £422,063 £352,535

Members' contributions averaged £1 15s. 7d. per member, and interest and rent receipts amounted to £1 11s. l0d. per member, reckoned on the mean number of members for the year. Sickness benefits paid averaged £7 10s. 11d. per member sick, or £1 10s. 3d. when averaged over all members, while funeral benefits represented 7s. 9d. per member.

Chapter 29. SECTION XXIX.—BUILDING SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE law relating to building societies incorporated in the Dominion is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908, which is a consolidation of legislation most of which has been operative since 1880. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must before registration be certified to as conforming to legal requirements by a revising barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. No stamp duties are payable on any instruments or documents made under the Act.

Building societies are afforded all the powers of an ordinary mortgagee, and where a mortgagor makes default in payment of moneys the society may exercise the usual power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Office. The dates upon which the societies close their accounts vary considerably within the year, but the figures given below may be taken as corresponding approximately to the financial years ended on the 31st March.

Orders in Council of 7th June and 8th August, 1932, of 20th March, 1933, and of 31st July, 1934, made under section 51 of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, fixed the maximum interest payable on deposits with building societies. Present maxima are determined as 3 per cent, per annum from 1st August, 1934, for the savings-bank department (if any) and on other deposits, new or renewed (period 1st August, 1934, to 31st March, 1937), according to period of deposit, from 2 per cent, for deposits at call for less than three months) up to 4 per cent, for deposits of not less than three years.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES.

The number of societies in existence in 1933–34 was 97. Of these, 53 were permanent and 44 terminating, the latter being comprised of 194 groups. Of recent years there has been considerable growth in permanent building societies, which numbered 37 in 1923–24. For some years the number of terminating societies manifested decline, although, on the contrary, their activities as measured by the aggregate number of groups was increasing. In the last decade the number of terminating societies remained stationary, but the number of groups advanced from 140 to 194.

SHARES.

A synopsis of the extent to which investments have been made in building-society shares during the last five years is contained in the table next presented:—

1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Investing Shares.     
Number of shares296,669312,817290,562274,122253,547
Members holding57,17655,97050,61444,65543,642
Aggregate value£3,234,759£3,585,468£3,685,880£3,666,745£3,602,743
Capital Shares.     
Number of shares487,145513,094575,014539,299534,155
Members holding4,5764,7585,0365,0485,122
Aggregate value£1,175,249£1,243,846£1,272,951£1,283,103£1,300,313

The average value in 1933–34 of each investing share paying periodic subscription was £14 4s. 2d., as compared with £10 12s. 1ld. in 1928–29, and of each capital share £2 8s. 8d., as compared with £2 7s. 2d. five years earlier. The considerable decrease in the numbers of shares and shareholders, mainly confined to terminating societies, is due to withdrawals on account of adverse economic conditions. A comparison (1933–34) of the distribution of share-money and the number of holders of shares between permanent and terminating societies yields the following results:—

Permanent.Terminating.Total.
Investing Shares.   
Number of shares147,893105,654253,547
Members holding12,31031,33243,642
Aggregate value£1,475,474£2,127,209£3,602,743
Capital Shares.   
Number of shares534,155534,155
Members holding5,1225,122
Aggregate value£1,300,313£1,300,313

Of the total aggregate value of both investing and capital shares, amounting to £4,903,056,057 per cent, is held in permanent societies and 43 per cent, in terminating societies. On the other hand, the number of members holding shares in permanent societies is only 36 per cent, of the total, the terminating societies' shareholders representing 64 per cent. It should be pointed out, however, that one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.

For several years up to and including 1929–30 building societies experienced an increasing demand for money available for household property; since 1929–30, however, there has been a marked decline, due to economic stress.

1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Receipts.£££££
Investors' subscriptions and capital shares741,627766,364668,672609,401548,082
Advances repaid1,026,8661,063,098973,267870,377921,317
Deposits2,148,0342,234,0341,824,0861,653,9631,414,376
Interest299,711322,024288,799273,669234,331
Other receipts246,682222,950139,245244,555235,156
Total receipts4,462,9204,608,4703,894,0693,651,9653,353,262
Payments.     
Withdrawals455,842431,465561,367569,615592,889
Advances1,565,7721,452,108939,594848,539840,751
Expenses of management63,85165,91567,93867,34165,007
Deposits repaid1,916,0412,195,0801,850,2281,660,5611,368,505
Interest, dividends, &c.511,184473,496434,491463,685408,225
Total payments4,512,6904,618,0643,853,6183,609,7413,275,377

LOANS.

The numbers and amounts of loans at the end of each of the last five years, both of permanent and of terminating societies, were as follows:—

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £
1929–309,3634,948,2657,0962,382,64516,4597,330,910
1930–319,9995,528,8417,6532,523,35217,6528,052,193
1931–329,9535,404,8927,7202,631,86117,6738,036,753
1932–339,9285,290,9027,9682,586,55817,8967,877,460
1933–349,6745,202,0167,9832,633,19417,6577,835,210

Since 1928–29 there has been a net increase of 2,493 in the number of loans and of £1,132,770 in the amount owing. Permanent societies show the greater advance as regards amount. The average amount per loan current at the end of each of the last five years was:—

Class.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Permanent societies528910552189543010532186537148
Terminating societies335156329145340184324125329170
All societies4458045633454150440374431411

Particulars of loans granted during each of the last three years are as follows:—

Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.
By Ballot.By Auction.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.NumberAmount.Premiums.
  £ £ ££
1931–321,063480,354630225,200490201,53955,544
1932–33913431,598429214,700297158,15443,589
1933–34386223,764439213,783323155,81336,272

The premiums on loans auctioned gives an average of £23–3 per cent, for 1933–34, this, assuming the usual loan currency of twelve and a half years, being equivalent to a rate of interest a little below 3½ per cent. The average premium per cent, in both 1931–32 and 1932–33 was £276, the lower rate in 1933–34 being a reflection of the general downward trend in interest rates.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The liabilities and assets of building and investment societies for each of the last five years are as follows:—

LIABILITIES.

Year.To Shareholders (Including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits).Deposits.Appropriations not taken up or in Trust.To Bankers and other Creditors.Total Liabilities.
 £££££
1929–305,288,5572,104,003*439,727 7,832,287
1930–315,778,7382,296,376*484,1228,559,236
1931–325,971,6862,273,972151,918206,1078,603,683
1932–335,959,9022,234,658181,578199,4168,575,554
1933–345,923,3512,285,874184,621190,3048,584,150

* Included in bankers and other creditors.

† Including appropriations not taken up or in trust.

ASSETS.

Year.Advances on Mortgage.Other Investments and Assets.Cash in Hand and at Bank.Total Assets.
 ££££
1929–307,330,910323,069178,3087,832,287
1930–318,051,886314,824192,5268,559,236
1931–328,036,753330,589236,3418,603,683
1932–337,945,894356,324273,3368,575,554
1933–347,881,372429,619273,1598,584,150

DEPOSITS.

From April, 1932, figures of deposits with building societies have become available under section 44 of the Building Societies Act, 1908, as amended by the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932. Quarterly statements are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Investment societies are included with building societies in the following figures, as the two classes are not distinguished in the returns.

The average number of societies furnishing returns for the four quarters of the year ending 31st March, 1934, was 123. During the same fiscal year the amount borrowed (exclusive of renewals) was £1,178,894 and the amount repaid £1,323,210, the corresponding amounts for the previous year being £1,571,289 and £1,829,607 respectively.

The following were the deposits with building and investment societies at 31st March, 1934:—

Rate of Interest (Per Cent.).At Call.Three to Twelve Months (inclusive).Two Years or over.Total.
 ££££
Not fixed  65
Nil2,045 2,045
Under 4346,844470,549215,0841,032,477
 4 and under 4½38,058133,413755,709927,180
4½ and under 55,22928,311700,681734,221
5 and under 5½23,22624,818290,179338,223
5½ and under 6462,13367,13969,318
6 and under 6½8,40212,84891,802113,052
6½ and under 784064,0504,896
7 and under 1010,5105003,46614,476
10 and over2,0571002,157
     Total437,257672,5782,128,2753,238,110
Average rate of interest3.293.614.35..

Chapter 30. SECTION XXX.—MORTGAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

UNDER the Property Law Act a “ mortgage “ is defined as including a charge on any property for securing money or money's worth; and “ mortgage-money “ means money or money's worth secured by a mortgage. Under the Land Transfer Act “ mortgage “ means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing—

  • The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt;

  • The repayment of future advances, or repayment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise;

  • The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge;

  • The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent-charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, vide p. 302, the great majority of land titles new are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act, and take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property re-registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

PROPERTY THAT MAY BE MORTGAGED.

Any land covered by the definitions of “ land “ in the Property Law Act, 1908, and the Land Transfer Act, 1915, may be mortgaged. Where, however, property is subject to restrictions upon alienation, these restrictions usually apply to prevent such property being mortgaged. The following are the main instances in which mortgage of property is forbidden by law:—

  • Family homes registered under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Maintenance-moneys under the Family Protection Act, 1908.

  • Inalienable fife annuities (Inalienable Life Annuities Act, 1910).

  • Various pensions (Pensions Act, 1926).

  • Property subject to restraint upon anticipation, unless by consent of the Supreme Court.

  • Property subject to restraint upon alienation in accordance with section 24 of the Property Law Act, 1908.

  • An infant's property, by the infant (Infants Act, 1908, sections 12 and 13).

REDEMPTION.

A memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage debt and operates as a deed of reconveyance of the estate and interest of the mortgagee in the mortgaged property “ to the person for the time being entitled to the equity of redemption “; but the mortgagee may execute a deed of reconveyance “ if he thinks fit and the mortgagor s requires it.” The Public Trustee is empowered to receive mortgage-moneys on account of absentee mortgagees, and in the case of a deed of mortgage to execute the necessary memorandum of discharge. A mortgagor may redeem in the following cases:—

  • Before the due date, on payment of interest for the unexpired term of the mortgage.

  • At the due date, in accordance with the provisions of the mortgage.

  • After the due date, upon giving three months' notice in writing or paying three months' interest in lieu of notice, except where the mortgagee is or has been in possession or has taken steps to enforce his security, in which case the mortgagor may redeem at any time upon payment of all moneys due.

  • After default and before sale by the mortgagee. If the mortgagee has entered into possession of the mortgaged land or part of it, the mortgagor loses his right of redemption after twenty years from the date of the mortgagee's entering into possession, or after twenty years from the last written acknowledgment of the mortgagor's title or of his right to redeem.

The Property Law Act abolished what was formerly known as the doctrine of consolidation of mortgages. Where a mortgagor is liable under more than one mortgage, he may new pay off one mortgage without being called on to pay off any mortgage or mortgages on property not comprised in the mortgage he is paying off.

RIGHTS OF MORTGAGEE.

Under New Zealand law a mortgagee has no power of foreclosure in respect of realty. The following, however, represent his principal rights:—

  • He is entitled to the custody of the title-deeds of the property mortgaged.

  • He may sue on the personal covenant contained in the mortgage-deed.

  • He may enter and take possession. This right is exercisable either by actually entering upon the land or a part of it or by bringing an action for possession. If there is a tenant whose rights are binding on the mortgagee, the latter can give notice to the tenant to pay the rent to him, and this will be equivalent to taking possession.

  • He may assign his interest, either absolutely or by way of submortgage.

  • He may sell, either under the express powers (if any) in the mortgage-deed, or under powers implied by statute, if these have not been negatived in the deed.

  • Instead of selling, as above, a mortgagee entitled to exercise his power of sale may apply to the Registrar of the Supreme Court to conduct the sale. The mortgagee must state in his application the estimated value of the land, and the date of the sale must be not less than one month and not more than three months from the date of the application. He may bid at the sale and become the purchaser of the land, but in such case the amount paid for the land shall not be less than the value of the land as estimated. If it is, the mortgagor must be allowed in account the full amount of the estimate.

MORTGAGORS AND TENANTS RELIEF.

The economic conditions prevailing in New Zealand consequent upon the world-wide economic depression commencing in 1929 led to the enactment in the early months of 1931 of legislation designed for the relief of mortgagors. The complexity of the problem necessitated much further legislation, culminating in a consolidating Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act passed in December, 1933. The present position is that this Act remains operative until the end of 1935, when it is deemed to be repealed, though proceedings then pending may be continued or completed.

A mortgage includes a mortgage on land or chattels or any interest therein, an agreement for sale and purchase of land, and (with provisoes) instruments of security over life-insurance policies and annuities. A mortgagor includes a guarantor of any part of a mortgage. Subject to specific exemptions, mortgages within the Act are those either executed, operative, or designed to take effect before the 17th April, 1931; mortgages to which relief legislation has at any time applied and which have been varied by the parties; and mortgages executed since the 17th April, 1931, in substantial replacement of mortgages to which relief legislation has at any time applied.

Except in the case of a property abandoned by the mortgagor, a mortgagee is forbidden to exercise any power of sale, rescission, or entry into possession; to execute any judgment, decree, or order of the Court; or to file a bankruptcy or winding-up petition against the mortgagor otherwise then as laid down in the Act. The mortgagee must first give to the mortgagor written notice of his intention to exercise his powers, whereupon the latter has one month (in respect of chattels, fourteen days) to apply to the Court for relief. Applications are made to the Supreme Court, or (subject to certain exceptions) to a Magistrate's Court if the mortgage principal does not exceed £2,000 or the annual rental, in the case of a lease, does not exceed £210. The parties may consent to an extended jurisdiction of the Magistrate's Court.

If a mortgagor fails to apply for relief within the time specified (an extension may be granted by the Court if reasonable grounds for the delay are proved) the mortgagee may proceed to exercise his powers. A mortgagor may apply for relief even where the mortgagee has not given notice under the Act, in such a case the Court has power to make an order authorizing the mortgagee forthwith or at a future fixed date to exercise his powers. Applications for further relief or for varying or discharging orders may be made in prescribed circumstances.

In determining relief the Court must consider: (1) The effect of the continuance of the mortgage upon the security afforded the mortgagee; (2) the inability of the mortgagor to redeem the property; (3) the conduct of the mortgagor in respect of any breaches by him of the covenants of the mortgage; (4) hardship to either party; (5) the extent to which default is due to general economic conditions.

By way of relief the Court may order that the mortgagee shall not exercise any of the prescribed powers save by leave of Court consequent upon a mortgagor's breach of the conditions of the order. The due date for payment of interest or principal may be postponed, the rate of interest may be reduced, arrears of interest may be remitted, the period of table mortgages may be extended, and the right of action under personal or other covenants postponed. There are also special provisions bringing stock mortgages into the scope of applications for relief. No appeal lies from an order of the Court, nor is it permissible to contract out of the effects of relief legislation. The duration of an order must not exceed two years.

Leases within the Act are those executed before the 31st March, 1932, and the Act may also be extended to various forms of licenses and other instruments. Applications by lessees for relief must specify the nature of the relief sought, being reduction of rent, remission of arrears, or both; and the Court is empowered to make such order within these limits as it thinks fit.

To assist the Court, and to encourage voluntary settlements between mortgagors and mortgagees or between lessors and lessees, authority is given for the establishment of Adjustment Commissions, each of three members. A number of these, under the name of Mortgagors' Liabilities Adjustment Commissions, are functioning. Every application to the Court for relief is referred to one of these Commissions unless the parties agree to accept the Court's determination without reference to a Commission. The Commission investigates and reports to the Court. Where as a result of the investigation a voluntary settlement is arrived at the Court may dismiss or adjourn the application. In addition to the foregoing, an Adjustment Commission may, upon direct application to it by any one of the parties, endeavour to promote a voluntary settlement, and for that purpose has the same powers of investigation.

Up to 30th June, 1934, the following applications had been dealt with by Adjustment Commissions:—

Applications referred from Court for investigation9,620
New applications investigated7,751
Applications awaiting investigation551
     Total17,922

A résumé of applications under relief legislation dealt with by the Courts up to 31st May, 1934, follows:—

Magistrates' Court.Supreme Court.Total.
MORTGAGES.
Applications receivedNumber6,3685,01911,387
Applications grantedNumber1,8852,2924,177
Applications refusedNumber8775811,458
Total principal involved£4,637,48321,644,23326,281,716
Total interest in arrear£279,7161,353,0631,032,779
Total arrears remitted£20,824230,594251,418
Cases in which interest reducedNumber5381,0221,560
Applications for review, variation, or dischargeNumber347409756
LEASES.
Applications receivedNumber7578561,613
Total annual rent in respect of which relief applied for£75,596449,628525,224
Cases in which relief grantedNumber299358657
Cases in which relief declinedNumber96102198
Total arrears remitted£12,36245,42457,786
Cases in which rent reducedNumber175228403
Applications for review, variation, or dischargeNumber395392

REDUCTION OF INTEREST.

Part III of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act (passed 10th May, 1932) had as its purpose reductions in rates of interest payable by mortgagors and in rents and certain other fixed charges, commensurate with reductions in salaries and wages made by Part I of the Act and by the Finance Act of 1931. An amending Act, passed 9th December, 1932, made certain modifications and enacted some necessary changes in the machinery of legislation.

The term “ mortgage “ for the purpose of the Act has a wider meaning than in ordinary usage. It “ means any deed, memorandum of mortgage, instrument, or agreement whereby security for the payment of moneys or for the performance of any contract is granted over land or chattels or any interest therein respectively “; and includes company debentures, mortgages of life-insurance policies. agreements for the sale and purchase of land, and customary hire-purchase agreements within the meaning of the Chattels Transfer Act, 1924.

The Act does not apply to mortgages (not being for a fixed term, expired or unexpired) securing the repayment of principal moneys repayable on demand, nor to mortgages executed after 1st April, 1932. Under the amending Act a policy for securing a life insurance, endowment, or annuity is not a chattel within the Act, and is, therefore, not subject to its provisions.

The reduction in the rate of interest is 20 per centum, and it applies to all such interest accruing on or after 1st April, 1932, and before 1st April, 1935 (extended to 1st April. 1937, by the Finance Act, 1934). There is provision, however, that the rate of interest shall not be reduced below 6J per cent, in the case of chattel-mortgages, nor 5 per cent, in the case of other mortgages except in the case of income-tax free company debentures to which section 171 of the Land and Income Tax Act, 1923, is applicable, where the minimum is 4£ per cent.

Provision is made for an appeal for relief by an aggrieved mortgagee to the Supreme Court or to a Stipendiary Magistrate (if the annual interest docs not exceed £300) on the ground that the existing rate of interest was fair in the circumstances, or that adequate concessions had already been given, or that the reduction would cause undue hardship.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.

A table is given showing the amount represented by mortgages registered and discharged during each of the last twenty years.

Year ended 31st March,Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
 ££
191519,382,21311,276,289
191622,463,29712,802,549
191721,056,87412,994,003
191818,126,92411,614,517
191919,007,28611,040,897
192048,442,90023,086,746
192166,960,43429,464,132
192234,789,32413,234,365
192326,031,59614,579,767
192437,862,41922,246,512
192541,123,96629,733,883
192647,093,78033,958,144
192739,979,68129,233,329
192833,190,51923,998,840
192933,559,93225,269,613
193038,809,14428,328,993
193130,208,44720,056,691
193213,410,58110,036,385
19339,161,6638,149,355
19347,802,8539,086,847

The sum secured by mortgages registered in 1933–34 is the lowest since 1900–1.

Although affording a valuable index of the movement over the period, the figures cannot be accepted as recording the amount of indebtedness incurred by way of mortgage. Duplicate registrations are included prior to 1929–30; from 1929–30 the extent of duplication has been available and the net figures inserted after necessary deductions on that account. Furthermore, the figures include collateral and guarantee mortgages not representing money indebtedness. On the other hand no amount is shown as secured in a proportion of cases where a mortgage is given in anticipation of advances, &c. In addition there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not registered; and stock and crop lions, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the statistics.

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. Moreover, in the case of table mortgages, the whole amount remains on the register till the last instalment of principal is repaid.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.

The total amount for which mortgages were registered, both under the deeds-registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the last five years is given in the table on the next page.

In addition to a total of 10,524 mortgages which represent the net aggregate of £7,802,853 for 1933–34, there were 2,201 mortgages in which no amount was shown as secured.

Eight of the eleven registration districts show decreases in the value of mortgages registered during 1933–34, as compared with the previous year, the aggregate decrease in the net registrations for the whole Dominion being £1,358,810.

District.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
 £££££
Auckland10,752,2818,438,7223,834,2042,905,8722,397,781
Gisborne937,080628,197406,614189,826136,475
Hawke's Bay2,373,7751,976,284989,3411,048,971649,230
Taranaki2,334,1011,527,284638,822486,253430,757
Wellington11,401,8608,463,3593,356,8322,150,1861,542,479
Nelson609,512497,919322,408179,419195,112
Marlborough499,782479,637218,170102,87386,044
Canterbury6,161,2364,867,8891,967,2371,143,0961,303,782
Otago2,943,1902,261,4521,133,394673,796783,490
Southland1,598,6501,279,365507,889476,871473,139
Westland229,398189,55888,71792,25940,429
Gross totals39,841,76530,609,66613,463,6289,449,4228,038,727
Duplications972,621401,21953,047287,759235,874
Not totals38,869,14430,208,44713,410,5819,161,6637,802,853

Of the gross total of £8,038,727 registered in 1933–34, £7,652,993, or 95½ per cent., came under the Land Transfer Act. The proportion is new approaching 100 per cent., consequent on the passing of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, 1924 (vide Section XVA).

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.—CLASSIFIED BY AMOUNT.

Of the net total of £7,802,853 registered for the financial year 1933–34 mortgages up to £500 in value represented 22 per cent, of the total value registered, from £501 to £1,000 22 per cent., from £1,001 to £5,000 36 per cent., and above £5,000 20 per cent. The following table gives the number and amount in each registration district according to the sum secured:—

District.£500 and under.£501 to £1,000.£1,001 to £5,000.Over £5,000.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £ £
Auckland1,962534,270764568,800538988,45242306,259
Gisborne10628,4323326,1372140,640741,236
Hawke's Bay34693,564154109,72684192,02926253,911
Taranaki32794,77112289,97794181,370864,639
Wellington983255,959429315,328232466,90336504,229
Nelson26068,3066447,8313972,97516,000
Marlborough6115,5851713,0071841,4521116,000
Canterbury980243,758325234,137201430,17426395,713
Otago1,004242,839272198,849104209,44013132,371
Southland453116,357169118,87698205,206532,700
Westland10821,29213,90867,22918,000
Gross totals6,5901,715,1332,3541,726,5761,4352,835,9301601,761,088
Duplications2156865,113617,0307,213,163
Net totals6,5881,714,5652,3481,721,4031,4292,818,9001591,547,925

In addition to the foregoing, there were 2,201 mortgages registered for which no amount was shown. Excluding those, the average advance for each mortgage registered was £742, as compared with £804 in 1932–33.

MORTGAGES ON URBAN AND RURAL SECURITIES.

Figures are available in the case of Land Transfer registrations showing for each registration district the amount advanced on urban and rural properties. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages registered under the deeds system, but bearing in mind that the latter constituted in 1933–34 less than 5 per cent, of the total it will be evident that the figures given approximately indicate the character of the securities. The distinction, is between “ town and suburban “ and “ country “ holdings, but information is not always available to enable a strictly accurate classification to be made. Generally, however, town and suburban mortgages are regarded as such if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs and include also mortgages secured on small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. Mortgages classified as town and suburban are secured on areas averaging about two-fifths of an acre in extent, as compared with an average area, in 1933–34, of some 318 acres in the case of “ country “ securities.

The value of mortgages on town and suburban property registered in 1933–34 was £93,159 more than that on country property. In point of numbers 63 per cent, of the mortgages referred to town and suburban areas, and 37 per cent, to country properties. The average amount secured per acre on rural holdings was £2 12s. 9d., as against £1,409 in the case of town and suburban properties. The average amount of each mortgage on country property was £837, as compared with £504 on town and suburban holdings. The following table gives mortgages registered during the year 1933–34 under the Land Transfer Act.

District.Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount secured.Number.Area.Amount secured.
  Acres.£ Acres.£
Auckland1,821961870,1351,697325,1881,262,180
Gisborne1127843,2359570,36993,240
Hawke's Bay967239300,457245123,843348,773
Taranaki281109141,65439783,208289,103
Wellington1,407423970,885539265,739570,799
Nelson25562110,47916531,60883,633
Marlborough493315,9157189,42170,129
Canterbury1,117294726,060646196,653577,722
Otago1,059273450,050334147,326214,976
Southland504251215,94029392,620257,199
Westland1052628,266287,91712,163
     Totals7,6772,7493,873,0764,5151,433,8923,779,917

A decennial summary upon similar lines is also given. The decline of the last three years evidences the full force of the depression, and is approximately equally marked in urban as in rural districts.

Year ended 3lst March.Number.Area.Amount secured.
Town and Suburban.Country.Total.Town and Suburban.Country.Total.
  Acres.Acres.Acres.£££
192535,2178,1894,066,6904,074,87916,294,62917,778,01034,072,639
192640,418126,2204,302,6584,428,87818,033,25421,783,94239,817,196
192738,5577,9854,004,8564,012,84117,475,12717,290,50334,765,630
192834,3027,3413,626,9373,634,27815,633,14213,773,80529,406,947
192934,7967,4364,303,8584,311,29415,432,01115,026,60430,458,615
193038,8628,0524,206,5984,214,65018,936,21917,681,48836,617,707
193132,3296,6693,689,5113,696,18014,262,91914,203,28728,466,206
193217,7934,0462,276,9592,281,0055,771,3646,814,78312,586,147
193313,2573,2311,784,7811,788,0124,133,5074,806,4188,939,925
193412,1922,7491,433,8921,436,6413,873,0763,779,9177,652,993

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED.

Of the net total (i.e., deducting duplications) of mortgages released in 1933–34, £8,829,477 was under the Land Transfer Act and £257,370 under the deeds-registration system. The corresponding figures for the previous year were £7,799,594 and £349,761 respectively.

The total amount of mortgages discharged for the last three years is as follows:—

District.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £
Auckland4,2562,669,7653,4192,233,0323,5583,502,854
Gisborne252285,034228289,9221971,317,093
Hawke's Bay621532,786581562,282503464,398
Taranaki719522,159599401,380583407,313
Wellington3,6922,914,4052,6202,308,7652,4462,959,237
Nelson471247,423361184,279337183,501
Marlborough139190,016123124,308135154,187
Canterbury2,2481,432,8531,517894,8421,4851,997,707
Otago1,607853,4541,146588,3981,2401,616,128
Southland734419,485600504,154543451,424
Westland12556,11510957,9937733,005
Gross totals14,86410,123,49511,3038,149,38311,10413,086,847
Duplications487,110.. 44,000,000
Net totals14,86010,036,38511,3038,149,35511,1009,086,847

The unusually large figure of duplications in 1933–34 is due to the discharge of a mortgage of £1,000,000 having been registered in each of five districts.

MONTHLY REGISTRATIONS AND DISCHARGES.

Monthly figures of registrations and discharges are regularly published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. The gross totals for each of recent months are as follows:—

Month.Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
1933–34...£ £
April694396,085600378,808
May1,151649,135992751,975
June1,136568,245970624,606
July1,140646,865979668,057
August1,188750,3201,089905,644
September1,076725,746893633,849
October1,198747,6691,042780,363
November1,195915,7861,0055,640,555
December1,154689,127971628,706
January673414,087655503,250
February929707,958831737,109
March1,212827,7041,077833,925
1934–35.    
April883615,207820611,414
May1,279993,4861,1731,036,309
June1,192795,5771,125989,651
July1,268881,5181,242936,715
August1,3681,301,6521,3251,254,142
September1,1721 814,3221,244942,553

RATES OF INTEREST.

Classified according to the various rates of interest, and including duplicate registrations (to the extent of £235,874 in 1933–31, and £287,759 in 1932–33) the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered were:—

Rate per Cent.1932–33.1933–34.
* Including State Advances and Rural Intermediate Credits; for interest rates in these cases, sec Section XXII D.
 ££
01,1301,100
1200454
21,600300
2252,510
317,65026,821
..500
2,2077,752
1,000..
4111,602163,633
..40,700
4⅓..150
62,97343,609
8,40017,025
51,812,5652,356,660
5⅕12,68128.859
24,12337,690
5⅜..200
5⅗500..
952,423913,975
5⅗4,5002,925
5⅝..500
18,87212,925
62,4,43,5381,453,699
6⅕44..
103,34547,930
6⅖70100
809,139411,777
6⅔1,500..
9,250400
6⅘1,300..
7525,279224,263
7⅛300..
7⅕..250
300..
7⅖120..
150,47938,078
8161,66190,766
200..
14,34710,676
920,98216,296
75..
50..
1048,62921,189
12310..
12½..100
151,219..
20300100
Unspecified *2,124,3342,064,215
     Totals9,449,4228,038,727

Exclusive of cases where the rates of interest was not specified, some 5 per cent. of the money raised by way of mortgage during 1933–34 bears interest at rates below 5 per cent.; 56 per cent was at the rate of 5 and under 6 per cent.; 32 per cent, wad at 6 and under 7 cent.; and 7 per cent, was at rates of 7 per cent, or over. The average rate of interest on mortgages registered has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Average Rate per Cent.
19135.76
19145.82
19155.76
19165.74
19175.80
19185.84
19195.84
19205.75
19215.89
19226.42
19236.57
l9246.38
19256.30
19266.22
19276.47
19286.46
19296.46
19306.35
19316.25
19326.28
19335.88
19345.56

The year 1921–22 witnessed a jump from 5.89 per cent, to 6.42 per cent., coinciding with the financial stringency associated with the post-war trade depression. The peak of 6.57 per cent, was reached in the following year, after which there was a gradual downward trend to 1925.26. The rise after 1925.26 is more apparent than real, and is probably due mainly to the fact that commencing with 1926–27 State Advances mortgages are all treated as unspecified (the rate of interest is generally not shown in the mortgage registration), whereas formerly in some districts they were included as unspecified and in others according to the known interest-rate. There has been a definite fall in the average rate since 1928–29. The marked drop since 1931–32 is mainly a reflection of the interest-reducing legislation referred to earlier in this section.

ESTIMATE OF MORTGAGE INDEBTEDNESS.

The best foundation available for an estimate of the aggregate nominal value of outstanding mortgages on real estate is the data supplied in connection with land-tax returns. The latest tabulation of statistics from these returns covers the year 1928–29, and it is necessary to refer to the position as at 31st March, 1929, and to estimate the subsequent movement.

The land-tax returns cover only holdings of £500 unimproved value or over. For the residue recourse has been had to 192b' census data on mortgaged dwellings. After necessary adjustments were made, including an allowance for subsequent years, an arbitrary allowance (arrived at after consideration of relevant particulars from various sources) was applied to each mortgaged dwelling as representative of the average sum outstanding.

The combination of figures from these two sources enables it to be said that the total nominal amount of outstanding mortgages upon real estate at the 31st March, 1931, was probably not less than £225,000,000 nor more than £250,000,000.

To present a satisfactory estimate for a later date offers difficulties apparently insuperable. The mortgage situation has become exceedingly complicated, as will be realized from the relief legislation referred to earlier in this section. As an example, it may be said that no data are available concerning reductions in principal effected by voluntary agreements with or without the aid of Mortgagors' Liability Adjustment Commissions.

MORTGAGES AND LAND VALUES.

In the returns of land, which are required by law to be furnished annually to the Commissioner of Taxes by all owners of land of an aggregate unimproved value in excess of £500, provision is made for showing (for mortgage-exemption purposes) particulars of amounts owing by the taxpayer at noon on the 31st March, secured on the land either by registered mortgage or by agreement to purchase. Although this source of information does not cover all mortgages (owing to exemptions and to neglect to furnish returns in certain cases), nevertheless most informative figures on the question of the incidence of mortgages in conjunction with such matters as area, unimproved value, and location (i.e., urban or rural) are disclosed.

For the purposes of the mortgage statistics land is classified into three types— viz., rural, urban, and mixed. In practice it is necessary to subdivide each of these into two on account of the fact that in a proportion of cases returns are not furnished. The six types shown in the statistics are:—

  1. Cases where returns furnished—

    1. Country or farming lands;

    2. Town lands or business-sites;

    3. Partly country and partly town lands.

  1. Cases where returns not furnished—

    1. Country or farming lands;

    2. Town lands or business-sites;

    3. Partly country and partly town lands.

In the case of mixed country and town lands where 75 per cent, or over of the unimproved value is represented by country or town lands (as the case may be), the whole has been so classed. The group “ partly country and partly town lands “ covers only those cases where neither country nor town lands represent 75 per cent, or over of the unimproved value.

The statistics given are for the tar year 1929–30, the mortgages, area, and unimproved value relating to the position on 31st March, 1929. In succeeding years these statistics were not compiled.

The statistics are summarized according to each of the six types, distinguishing also between cases where the amount of unimproved value was under or over £15,000, the limit of the mortgage exemption.

MORTGAGES, 1929.—SUMMARY BY TYPE.

Type, and Amount of Unimproved Value.Number of Returns.Total Area.Unimproved Value.Total Mortgages.
  Acres.££
1. Under £15,00040,54718,022,535116,202,68098,505,054
Over £15,0001,3635,735,47337,031,31316,885,122
     Totals41,91023,758,008153,233,993115,390,176
2. Under£15,00020,410190,37636,336,82427,582,279
Over £15,000583102,35622,704,3199,850,983
     Totals20,993292,73259,041,14337,433,262
3. Under £15,000894327,6572,603,4581,817,946
Over £15,00053115,2871,953,405573,446
     Totals947442,9444,656,8632,391,392
4. Under £15,0005,8791,765,7099,894,4161,216,826
Over £15,000143534,9643,766,846234,601
     Totals6,0222,300,67313,661,2621,451,274
5. Under £15,0006,90037,6027,252,239596,151
Over £15,0003412,608899,33688,132
     Totals6,93450,2108,151,625684,283
6. Under £15,00016820,953334,10828,128
Over £15,00032,12477,47937,625
     Totals17123,077411,58765,753
Totals—    
Under £15,00074,79820,364,832172,623,775129,746,384
Over £15,0002,1796,502,81266,432,69827,669,909
Grand totals76,97726,867,644239,056,473157,416,293

The foregoing figures show the extent to which returns are not furnished. Out of 76,977 cases covered by the statistics, returns were not furnished in 13,127 instances, or 17 per cent, of the total. The unimproved value in these 13,127 cases aggregated £22,224,474, or 9 per cent, of the total unimproved value, but the mortgages covered (ascertained from other sources) amounted to only £2,201,463, or 1£ per cent, of the total. The discrepancies are due to the fact that those not furnishing returns include both owners of freehold unencumbered and owners with mortgages but with unimproved values in excess of £15,000, where the mortgage exemption ceases. Unfortunately the position is further complicated by neglect to furnish returns in a proportion of cases where the ordinary exemption equals or exceeds the mortgage exemption, and even in cases where it does not and where additional exemption would have been secured had the return been supplied. It seems, however, reasonable to assume that for holdings under £15,000 for which no returns were supplied the amount of mortgages will not be greatly in excess of that shown under the respective headings, having been ascertained from other sources.

If for holdings over £15,000 in types 4, 5, and 6, the proportions ruling between unimproved value and mortgages in the corresponding types 1, 2, and 3 respectively were applied, the total of mortgages would be increased on this account by only £1,700,000, making (as at 31st March, 1929) a total of £159,000,000 for lands covered by the land-tax requirements.

For a continuation of this summary vide the 1932 Year-Book; for a fully detailed statement vide Statistical Report on Prices, Wage-rates, &c., for 1929.

Chapter 31. SECTION XXXI—BANKRUPTCY.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Bankruptcy Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of previous enactments), and the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the liabilities do not exceed £300.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of £6 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in the case of a debtor's petition. Not less than £30 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

Immediately on a debtor's petition being filed or a creditor's petition being adjudicated on, the Registrar of the Court gives notice to the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy, in whom all the property of the bankrupt thereupon vests. The bankrupt must hand over his books to the Official Assignee, make out balance-sheets, give inventories of his property and debts, and generally assist in the realization of his property. The Assignee may summon the bankrupt before himself, or before a Magistrate, to be examined on oath. The Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, forbids (save with the consent of the Court, on the application of the Official Assignee) the publication of a report of any examination of a bankrupt before the Assignee or of any matter arising in the course of such an examination.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding-up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application, which must be made within four months after adjudication, may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee or a creditor.

Under the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act, 1933, a mortgagee, creditor, or other person on whom notice has been served under the Act may not, while an application for relief is pending or an order for relief is in force, file or proceed with (without leave of Court) a bankruptcy or winding-up petition against the mortgagor or lessee.

By the Trustee Amendment Act, 1933, protection is afforded to a trustee who pays trust-moneys to a bankrupt in good faith and without knowledge of the bankruptcy.

UNDISCHARGED BANKRUPTS.

Section 14 of the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, provides for the annual gazetting of the names, occupations, and other particulars of all persons who were adjudged bankrupt since 31st March, 1927, and who have not obtained an order of discharge, or whose order of discharge was suspended for a term, or was subject to conditions remaining unfulfilled. The number of undischarged bankrupts under this section at 31st March, 1933, was 3,082.

TRANSACTIONS IN BANKRUPTCY.

The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last five years is given below. A fifty-year record of certain principal figures will be found in the Statistical Summary, near the end of this volume.

Year.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by Creditors.Cases in which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Orders of Discharge were suspended.
1929579108128555
1930667113220842
1931723125226740
1932539122127960
193337179..21124

The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover private assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by Official Assignees. Certain statistics of private assignments are new available, and details of these appear at the end of this section.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities) and assets, but there is usually a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realized by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors. During the last decade the amounts actually realized by Official Assignees averaged 35 per cent. of assets according to debtors' statements, and 14 per cent. of debts proved.

It should be understood that in the following table the figures in each column refer to all transactions under the respective heads during the year, the amounts realized by Assignees and paid in dividends and preferential claims relating partly to the current year's bankruptcies (many of which, however, are not disposed of during the year) and partly to previous bankruptcies.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
1924670279,602118,641703,99574,878
1925653235,37798,648471,02880,187
1926752236,915102,899585,68771,515
1927867331,363108,850679,47372,388
1928806236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,66591,180502,11254,759
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657624,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884

A similar classification by districts for the year 1933 is given below:—

District or Sub-district.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
Whangarei192,1971,6367,3631,211
Auckland7235,49012,745104,47311,852
Hamilton6610,5506,27348,0513,716
Gisborne162,24369180,1001,339
Wairoa.. 26..40
Napier287,0091,88717,7933,732
Dannevirke875056144,493447
New Plymouth244,1841,2124,679992
Hawera128999003,676797
Wanganui106471,4632,9991,097
Taihape11007003,791464
Palmerston North234,6321,16814,1131,863
Pahiatua22312542,446215
Masterton61,1035922,043437
Wellington368,1084,04526,1152,808
Blenheim51,1462,0006,3991,649
Nelson62,6052,1025,3961,375
Westport83,0401,0814,540404
Reefton2585144..
Greymouth230098497..
Hokitika3656281,855..
Christchurch4114,3907,89251,4444,683
Ashburton41,6298271,845463
Timaru131,9961,6419,3181,258
Oamaru19628431..
Dunedin228,7006,43626,3424,322
Invercargill202,0585,43219,5492,720
        Totals450114,81701,723489,89547,884

The table following shows for each of the last ten years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the average dividend paid.

Year.Average Debts proved per Estate.Proportion of Dividends to Debts
 £Per Cent.
19241,05010.64
192572117.02
192677912.21
192778410.65
19289528.96
192973110.91
19301,0618.29
19311,2296.06
19329458.95
19331,0899.77

The total payments in 1933 made from assets realized were—

 £
Dividends to creditors (excluding preferential and secured claims)43,741
Preferential claims (rents, wages, &c.)4,143
Secured claims2,539
Government commission7,281
Costs of actions, solicitors' and supervisors' fees4,703
Expenses incurred in carrying on estates3,975
Other charges7,238
           Total£73,620

Balances in bank to the credit of estates aggregated £25,408 on 31st December, 1933, a decrease of £11,896 during the year.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the number of bankruptcies with various amounts of liabilities:—

Liabilities.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Under £502125213616
  £50 and under £1005890554335
 £100 and under £250203235185147100
 £250 and under £50015317019516695
 £500 and under £1,00012314717613698
£1,000 and under £2,00085801226953
£2,000 and under £5,0003324704535
£5,000 and over119241918
        Totals687780848661450

Liabilities in the bulk of failures do not exceed £1,000, the number under this amount in 1933 being 344, representing 76 per cent. of the total.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS.

The following table shows in summarized form the occupations of those adjudged bankrupt in the last four years:—

 1930.1931.1932.1933.
Fishing and trapping434 
Agricultural and pastoral12616012899
Forestry1295 
Mining and quarrying643 
Processes relating to minerals1..5 
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products426 
Processes relating to metals, tools, jewellery, &c.1824158
Makers of ships, boats, conveyances, &c.1620148
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress6129 
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco715259
Processes relating to wood, &c., n.e.i.105131
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography1613
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals1081238136
Transport and communication62594930
Commerce and finance16419915695
Public administration, clerical, and professional26282016
Entertainment, sport, and recreation12783
Personal or domestic service27415132
Dependent on public or private support14222018
Indefinite occupations1561065760
            Totals780848661450

Of the 1933 total, 140 were employers of labour, 189 were working on their own account but not employing labour, and 121 were working for wages.

PRIVATE ASSIGNMENTS.

Official bankruptcies, as explained earlier, do not comprise all financial failures. In order to present a more complete picture of this phase of economic life, the bankruptcy statistics have been supplemented since 1928 by the collection of data relating to private assignments. The statistics cover all operations arising out of deeds of assignment made under section 167 (2) of the Stamp Duties Act, 1923.

If private assignments be added to bankruptcies, the total number of failures in 1933 was 616, made up of 450 bankruptcies and 166 assignments (excluding one case where the assignor subsequently became bankrupt). The corresponding total for 1932 was 897.

The number of bankruptcies in 1933 was the lowest since 1921, and the number of assignments the lowest since such statistics have been available (1928).

The table following shows private assignments during 1933. The column for assets realized covers only the proceeds of realization in respect of 1933 assignments fully realized.

District or Sub-district.Number.Assets.Liabilities.Assets realized (Completed Estates).
Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.Completed Estates.Incomplete Estates.
* Includes fifteen estates for which no returns received.
 £      
Whangarei141753,3777574,470175
Auckland182214,05345,59313,37557,7115,514
Hamilton5194,29926,3907,97022,0512,678
Gisborne1..1,326..1,486..831
Wairoa..      
Napier323,2056312,9679512,010
Dannevirke..      
New Plymouth123402,0386911,801278
Hawera161,5243,8461,6353,784681
Wanganui2..1,184..1,090..444
Taihape..1..3,693..21,385..
Palmerston North22,4306503,5462,1711,253 
Pahiatua128053,3779655,335222
Masterton138886,2088135,034484
Wellington239212,4518892,934611
Blenheim..1..424..1,490..
Nelson313,8465,3164,0082,160342
Grey mouth15864,0221,3343,067216 
Christchurch720,76711,30714,7859,9187,387 
Ashburton3116,295..21,020..13,714
Timaru41,4046,1551,9897,229711 
Oamaru214,620504,8051402,745
Dunedin81310,90016,12512,85018,4147,170
Invercargill231,0782,8111,4642,864902
       Totals6898*90,646144,46498,439153,90948,368

Assets of the 151 estates for which returns were received were valued at £235,110, and the liabilities were estimated at £252,348. Assets realized in completed estates represented 49 per cent. of liabilities.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.

The following table classifies estates assigned during the last five years according to the amount of liabilities:—

     Liabilities.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
    £   £     
  50 and under  10031   
  100 and under  2509131511 
  250 and under  5001839383927
  500 and under1,0002648685338
1,000 and under2,0003253784938
2,000 and under5,0003942684730
5,000 and over..112327176
Unspecified..3424231915
         Total172243318236166

Forty-six per cent. of the specified estates in 1933 show liabilities below £1,000. In the case of official bankruptcies the corresponding figure was 76 per cent.

OCCUPATIONS OF ASSIGNORS.

The occupations of assignors in broad classes were as follows:—

 1930.1931.1932.1933.
Agricultural and pastoral11161016
Forestry..321
Mining and quarrying..   
Processes relating to minerals..1.. 
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products63  
Processes relating to metals, tools, jewellery, &c.3824
Makers of ships, boats, conveyances, &c.2651
Processes relating to fibrous materials, textiles, and dress1113218
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco6963
Processes relating to wood, &c., n.e.i.76101
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, photography32..2
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals34482314
Transport and communication1210  
Commerce and finance12616413190
Public administration, clerical, and professional111246
Entertainment, sport, and recreation..3.. 
Personal or domestic service796 
Dependent on public or private support..2.. 
Indefinite occupations451 
         Total243318236166

No fewer than 100 of the assignors in 1933 were employers of labour, 59 were working on their own account, and 7 only were working for wages.

Chapter 32. SECTION XXXII—WEALTH.

STATE ASSETS.

Included in the Financial Statement of the 23rd August. 1034, is a State balance-sheet which is compiled by the Treasury from details recorded in departmental balance-sheets, and from which the following statement of assets and liabilities as at the 3Jst March, 1033, has been extracted:—

Assets.£
*Differs from figure shown in Section XXIIc by £2,250,000, representing hypothecation of securities of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account.
land and buildings, including Crown, settlement, and endowment land, departmental land and buildings41,864,000
State forests, nurseries, and plantations37,967,000
Railways, including permanent-way and works, rolling-stock, and unopened lines58,843,000
Telegraphs, telephones, and wireless systems10,030,000
Electrical schemes12,110,000
Drainage and irrigation schemes3,908,000
Collieries, sawmills, quarries, &c.403,000
Armament and military stores, aviation equipment2,903,000
Oyster-beds, fish-hatcheries, equipment, &c.124,000
Wharves, bridges, harbour - works, lighthouses, &c.828,000
Plant, material, and furniture3,294,000
libraries, books, museum exhibits, stationery, stamps, &c.372,000
Live and dead stock, farm crops, &c.177,000
Government steamers, 1aunches, motor-cars, &c.573,000
Advances on loan or mortgage58,054,000
Debtors— 
Sundry2,556,000
Unpaid purchase-price of land and buildings1,466,000
Postponed rents, &c.373,000
Interest and rent, due and unpaid, and due and accrued3,002,000
Principal and interest708,000
Special investments— 
Nauru phosphate rights565,000
Bank of New Zealand shares2,109,000
Public Trust Office (Public Debt Redemption Fund)7,967,000
Special assets of various accounts— 
Native land schemes, &C.850,000
Unallocated loan charges578,000
Earthquake expenditure54,000
Payments in advance224,000
Properties acquired by Crown and properties in course of realization855,000
Investments— 
Reserve Fund378,000
Sinking funds348,000
Miscellaneous, including Investment of Treasury accounts8,693,000
National Development Account (£41,339,000)— 
Expenditure on— 
Main highways, roads, &c.27,246,000
Development of mining868,000
Education8,073,000
Immigration3,320,000
Harbour-works1,034,000
Land-development637,000
Cost of raising loans42,000
Settlement of unemployed workers119,000
Other loan expenditure (£77,308,000)— 
War expenditure66,535,000
Naval defence1,390,000
Local bodies3,037,000
Maori-land settlement247,000
Miscellaneous6,159,000
Cash— 
New Zealand Government Indemnity Exchange Account1,530,000
Public Account1,335,000
Receiver-General13,000
State Advances Office Account104,000
Post Office or Post Office Savings bank299,000
Deposit accounts20,000
In hand and in transit41,000
Miscellaneous assets10,000
 £386,035,000
Liabilities.£
Capital— 
Public debt*284,873,000
Rural Advances bonds4,213,000
Public Debt Redemption Fund19,226,000
Creditors— 
Sundry1,698,000
Interest on debentures and stock due and unpaid16,000
Interest accrued but not due833,000
Wages and other payments accrued8,000
Payments in advance, &c.424,000
Reserves— 
General3,846,000
Sinking fund and reserves for loan redemption3,516,000
Depreciation7,287,000
Eire, accident, and marine Insurance, bad debts, &c.749,000
Amount held on deposit473,000
Suspense123,000
Post Office investment and war-loan certificates2,003,000
Miscellaneous liabilities26,000
Excess of assets over liabilities56,721,000
 £380,035,000

Contingent liabilities in addition to the above are estimated at £0,973,000, of which £4,088,000 is in respect of State Superannuation Funds, and £2,88/5,000 represents State-guaranteed local-body loans, less accumulated sinking funds.

In connection with the above balance-sheet, it is to be remembered that many of the assets and liabilities of a State cannot be expressed financially in the manner in which the goodwill of a business concern is assessed, and a State balance-sheet, or even in many cases a departmental balance-Sheet, on strictly commercial lines is a practical impossibility.

It is necessary to note that, in order that the public debt may be fully accounted for, nominal assets have been inserted for outstanding loan expenditure on war and other purposes in respect of which no material asset now exists. These are grouped under the heading of “Other loan expenditure.” Again, as noted in the report of the Controller and Auditor-General, the National Development Account appearing in the assets statement represents the total expenditure of loan-money on the items enumerated therein, and these are not wholly represented by tangible assets. Even in those cases where items are represented in whole or in part by tangible assets the valuation is more or less arbitrary, and it is doubtful whether such valuations could be sustained at the present day. For instance, the item “Main highways, roads, &c.,” represents the total expenditure on roads, and includes in many cases improvements, &c., of the same road on more than one occasion. The same remark applies to the asset “Harbour-works.” Similar considerations apply to other assets shown, such as land and buildings, State forests, railways, &c., the values of which have probably depreciated owing to the economic conditions ruling. In an occasional instance the market value represents an appreciation on the figure shown.

Partly for the reasons just indicated, and partly because certain State expenditure is already reflected in the value of property (public or private), it is necessary to make certain deductions from the “assets” total in order to obtain a figure to be used as a component unit of an estimate of the value of property or wealth in New Zealand. The following items have been omitted: Drainage and irrigation schemes; main highways, roads, &c.; development of mining; harbour-works; land-development; cost of raising loans; and “other loan expenditure.” Amounts due to “creditors” as shown under liabilities have also been regarded as a deduction from cash assets. From the residue after these omissions and deductions a further arbitrary deduction of 5 per cent, has been made by way of allowance for depreciation. The result is a figure of £256,000,000, which may be accepted as a rough approximation of the value of State property at the 31st March, 1933

ASSETS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The form of return in use for the collection of statistics of local governing authorities provides for particulars of cash assets and an estimate of other assets being supplied. The figures in respect of the latter are far from complete, no assets apart from cash assets being included by some local authorities, while in other cases no value is assigned to reserves. Nevertheless the following total as at 31st March, 1933, may be taken as an approximate though somewhat conservative estimate of the position:—

Class of Local Authority.Cash Assets.Other Assets (estimated).
 £ 
Counties1,643,0781,841,000
Boroughs3,784,92829,873,000
Town districts97,529576,000
Road districts36,702193,000
River districts59,143263,000
Land-drainage districts73,86569,000
Electric-power districts3,144,61713,000,000
Water-supply districts1,0192,000
Urban drainage districts173,4071,106,000
Urban transport districts237,1353,838,000
Local railway district908177,000
Gas-lighting district8,651167,000
Rabbit districts24,88916,000
Fire districts23,675561,000
Harbour Boards1,336,79015,641,000
     Totals10,646,33667,323,000

It may be stated that, although much of the expenditure of counties, boroughs, town districts, and road districts has been in respect of the construction of streets, roads, and bridges, these items are not included as assets of the respective bodies.

The foregoing figures are exclusive of sinking funds, which at 31st March, 1933, amounted to £10,368,491. The inclusion of sinking funds, as in the following table, which shows the nature of the assets, brings the total assets of these classes of local authorities to £88,338,000.

 £
Cash assets10,646,000
Sinking funds10,368,000
Halls, libraries, offices, sundry premises, furniture, &c.3,700,000
Electrical-works17,758,000
Gasworks1,399,000
Tram way -works5,747,000
Railway-works152,000
Wharves, quays, slips, docks, dredges, boats, tugs, sheds, &c9,997,000
Drainage, sewerage, and water-supply systems11,906,000
Reserves, parks, gardens, recreation-grounds, cemeteries, &c3,062,000
Endowments3,743,000
Reclaimed land4,041,000
Workers’ dwellings, roadmen’s cottages, &c.525,000
Sundry plant, tools, stocks, and materials2,506,000
Other and unspecified2,788,000
     Total£8S,338,000

Hospital Boards, which are not included in the foregoing figures, had assets (excluding outstanding fees and subsidies) of a little over £5,000,000 at 31st March, 1933, bringing the total for all local bodies to £93,000,000.

PUBLIC WEALTH.

In arriving at the aggregate public wealth of the Dominion, as distinct from private wealth, it is necessary to take into account the fact that of the total indebtedness of local bodies at the 31st March, 1933, £6,000,000 was owing to the General Government. The approximate public wealth of the Dominion based on the foregoing statements of assets would thus be £256,000,000, plus £93,000,000, minus £6,000,000, making a net total of £343,000,000.

PRIVATE WEALTH.

Estimates of the private wealth of the Dominion are arrived at on the assumption that the wealth per head of the living is approximately equal to that left by the average person dying. The fact that the younger and more numerous members of the population do not possess as much accumulated wealth as the older members, taken in conjunction with the fact that the death-rate varies with age, renders it necessary for this purpose to divide the population into quinquennial age-groups. The average wealth of persons dying within any one age-group being known, the average wealth of living persons belonging to that age-group is assumed to be identical, and an estimate of the total private wealth of the Dominion is arrived at by weighting the average wealth of persons in each age-group by the number of persons in that group.

The average wealth of deceased persons is obtained by a consideration of the estates certified for stamp duty. The number of estates dealt with in any period, however, is usually equal to about one-third only of the total deaths registered during that period; and as most persons leave some estate, however small, it is necessary to make some allowance for estates which have not passed through the Stamp Duties Office. It should be noted in tins connection that estates under £1,000 escape estate duty, and if under £500, succession duty, though many estates of a lower value than the figures indicated are passed for probate or letters of administration. A fixed allowance is made for unrecorded estates, ranging, for the years 1931–33, from £20 for males and £10 for females for the age-group 15 to 20 years to £100 for males and £35 for females at ages 35 and over. No allowance at all is made for estates of persons under 15.

To obviate fictitious results due to the infrequency of very large estates in the returns, combined with the lapse of time between death and the certification of the estate, it is necessary to base the estimate on the experience of a series of years. On the other hand, movements in values render it undesirable to take a very long period, and the New Zealand estimate is usually based on the average of the last five years available.

In a time of rapidly moving values, even a five-year uncorrected average will give incorrect results. An estimate based on the five years 1929–33, for instance, would tend to overstate the private wealth as at 31st December, 1933, and in the circumstances an estimate has been made from the data of the three years 1931–33 only.

Based on the estate and death figures for the triennium 1931–33, the aggregate private wealth estimate for the Dominion at the end of 1933 is £016,000,000, of which £420,000,000 represents the wealth of- men and £190,000,000 that of women. The total is equal to £420 per head of all population, excluding Maoris, and £605 per head of adult population (aged twenty-one and over).

It is obvious that estimates of private wealth based on the probate system are approximate only, owing to the various factors involved. For example, part of the wealth of deceased estates consists of insurance policies. In the probate returns the maturity value of the policy is taken, whereas among the living the average surrender value of policies in force is much below the maturity value. Against this, however, is the fact that pensions and annuities enjoyed by the living do not enter into deceased estates, while there is also a pronounced tendency towards conservatism in the valuation of personal property for death duty purposes. Further, a not inconsiderable amount of property is disposed of before death by way of gift and does not appear in the probate returns.

Any attempt to allow further for the effect of the various items referred to would probably only result in a spurious accuracy on a subject in regard to which all that is possible or even desired is a reasonably close approximation. The inevitable shortcomings of the system should not be overlooked, however, particularly in making comparisons between New Zealand and other countries.

It should be explained that the computation of private wealth relates to the population exclusive of Maoris. The inclusion of Maoris would not affect the per caput rate to any extent, but would involve an addition of less than 5 per cent, to the total. An addition for Maoris of 4 per cent, to the aggregate figure previously given for 1933 would bring the estimated private wealth of the Dominion to £641,000,000.

ESTATES PASSED FOR PROBATE.

A table is now given showing the number of estates finally passed during 1932 and 1933, classified according to amount. Estates of Maoris are here included.

Amount. Number of Estates.Aggregate Net Value of Estates.
1932.1933.1932.1933.
£ £  
Under 5001,9781,840395,059386,415
500 and under 1,0009881,013725,566750,982
1,000 and under 2,0008228631,193,2111,246,715
2,000 and under 3,0004103911,008,367971,790
3,000 and under 4,000208239724,503833,307
4,000 and under 5,000170151761,639676,484
5,000 and under 7,5002091981,255,9621,202,639
7,500 and under 10,0001231361,062,0801,170,340
10,000 and under 15,000112981,382,2941,204,778
15,000 and under 20,0005250903,722846,044
20,000 and over99984,300,0915,438,890
     Totals5,1715,07713,712,49414,728,384

The table below shows for the period 1929 to 1933 the total number of estates, classified according to age of deceased and amount of estate.

Age.Under £500£500 to £999.£1000 to £1,999£2000 to £2,999£3000 to £3,999£4000 to £4,999£5000 to £7,499£7,500 to £9,999£10,000 to £14,999£15,000 to £19,999£20,000 to £0verTotals.
Under 51..1         
5 and under 104..4         
10 and under 151021..1..14     
15 and under 205381..1..1..64   
20 and under 251964419431272     
25 and under 3023383444612312380 
30 and under 352568750131074121..431
35 and under 403331338922157623619  
40 and under 454091901085813162312735844
45 and under 50543300235110453538161771,353 
50 and under 5567838630813475546521269211,777
55 and under 607674384181741126281514517292,194
60 and under 6582553148522113083130665831552,615
65 and under 70875570483312152119145796937732,914
70 and under 759105996082911961191681118642953,225
75 and under 8095961056029916811317110489541083,235
80 and under 85695480403196128991447638912,426 
85 and under 9040825S240136805274484921451,411
90 and under 951568292432117352715818514
95 and over37141810482415113 
Unspecified27512297412716331812620667
     Totals8,6234,9374,2592,0681,1928051,12864356028057825,073
Per cent.34.419.717.08.24.83.24.52.62.21.12.3100.0

AN ESTIMATE OF NATIONAL WEALTH.

The public wealth of the Dominion has been estimated (supra) at approximately £343,000,000, and the private wealth, including that of Maoris, at approximately £641,000,000. In the probate figures used as the basis of computation of private wealth, deductions are made on account of debts, mortgages, and other charges against property. As, however, these in general will rank as assets when estates to which the charges are owing are in their turn passed for probate, the general effect is negligible, except in so far as such items as State advances and debts owing overseas are concerned. The State advances outstanding are included in the public-wealth figure.

In the case of the public wealth the figure given practically represents gross assets, no deduction having, of course, been made on account of indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing bodies. Were the whole of this indebtedness owing outside the Dominion, no deduction on this account would be necessary for the purpose of the present computation, which is merely to ascertain an approximation of the wealth of the Dominion, without taking account of the fact that there are external charges against that wealth. In arriving at the sum of public and private wealth, however, it is necessary to make allowance for the indebtedness of the General Government and of local governing bodies within the Dominion, this being included in the private-wealth estimate.

Of the gross public debt at the 31st March, 1933, £119,000,000 was domiciled in New Zealand, and of the gross debt of local governing bodies (other than Hospital Boards), at the same date, £43,000,000 was domiciled in the Dominion, exclusive of the £6,000,000 borrowed from the General Government, allowance for which has already been made in the estimation of the approximate public wealth. Of the Hospital Boards’ debt of £1,436,000 (less £320,000 accrued sinking funds) it may be assumed that £1,000,000 was domiciled in New Zealand.

To arrive at an estimate of the national wealth in 1933 the sum of £163,000,000 requires to be deducted from the aggregate of the public and private wealth figures previously given, the result in round numbers being:— n

 £
Approximate public wealth340,000,000
Estimated private wealth640,000,000
     Total980,000,000
Less public and local-body debt domiciled in Dominion160,000,000
Estimated national wealth, 1933£820,000,000

It appears scarcely necessary to recapitulate reasons why the estimate given can be regarded at best as a rough approximation only. No practicable system has yet been devised that will permit of a reliably close estimation of national wealth being arrived at, and the difficulties in this respect are enormously increased during a period of changing values, such as have been experienced during recent years.

VALUE OF LAND HOLDINGS.

The balk of the wealth of the Dominion is represented by land and improvements thereon, particulars of the valuation of which are given in Section XXV of this book. Further information concerning the value of land, with particular reference to its utilization and its relative distribution among the population, is obtainable from the annual returns of land which are furnished to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose of land-tax assessment. Statistics compiled from these returns are available for the five years 1924–25, 1925–26, 1926–27, 1928–29, and 1929–30, and afford valuable information not only as to the distribution of land on a value basis, but also as to the incidence of land taxation. For a detailed discussion of the statistics compiled from the land-tax returns reference should be made to the 1932 Year-Book; it is possible to repeat here only three concise tables.

It should be explained that in the statistical tabulation it has not been found possible to cover each year the whole of the returns for that year, returns under query or not to hand at the time of tabulation being of necessity omitted. Apart from the fact that the actual totals would be somewhat in excess of those shown, the omission of a small percentage does not impair the statistical value of the tables or invalidate conclusions drawn from the figures.

The following table summarizes the principal heads of information from the 1929–30 tabulation. In connection with the division into country, town, and mixed lands, it should be noted that the last-mentioned includes only those cases where less than 75 per cent, (on an unimproved-value basis) is urban or rural respectively. In cases where 75 per cent, or over is urban or rural, as the case may be, the whole has been so classed.

 Country or Farming Lands.Town Lands or Business Sites.Partly Country and partly Town Lands.Total.
Number of returns..47,93227,9271,11876,977
Number of taxpayers..30,44820,10883551,391
AreaAcres26,058,681342,942466,02126,867,644
Unimproved value of land£166,895,25567,192,7684,968,450239,056,473
Total mortgages£116,841,60338,117,5452,457,145157,416,293
Exemptions—     
Ordinary£6,303,9696,949,499178,68413,432,152
Mortgage£62,770,79215,918,7671,057,68179,747,240
Hardship£151,417111,6386,237269,292
Total exemptions£69,226,17822,979,9041,242,60293,448,684
Taxable balance£97,669,07744,212,8643,725,848145,607,789
Tax assessed£700,804440,82137,3401,178,965

The following table shows the distribution of holdings according to unimproved value for 1928–29 and 1929–30. The insignificant totals for holdings under £500 are due to toe fact that, with few exceptions, such are entirely exempt from land-tax. It should be understood that the classification by amount is on the basis of the unimproved value of the land, and not, in the case of taxpayers, on the basis of taxable balance.

Amount.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Unimproved Value.
1928–29.1929–30.1928–29.1929–30.1928–29.1929–30.
£ £    
Under 5007801,17232378175,306294,772
500– 99923,73226,10615,06717,37917,016,70818,869,506
1,000– 2,49925,66927,20415,54817,04239,756,31942,324,231
2,500– 4,99911,94511,8217,4817,41441,727,35342,548,770
5,000– 7,4996,3764,4474,3293,0392,05644,045,310
7,500– 9,9996,3762,1444,3292,05644,045,31018,455,059
10,000– 14,9991,8271,9041,8181,90922,060,93423,071,659
15,000– 19,99978881378781313,552,30413,946,956
20,000– 29,99966171465971416,007,53317,244,468
30,000– 39,9992632772632778,992,1049,482,113
40,000– 49,9991111391111394,890,1006,109,294
50,000– 99,99915619515619510,250,62312,936,622
100,000 and over 254125413,799,6066,713,24527,059,748
     Totals72,33376,97746,27651,391222,274,200239,056,473

Area figures are of little value in the case of urban and mixed lands, on account of eighth- and quarter-acre sections being treated in the statistics as having no area at all. The following summary (1929–30), which gives valuable information as to area and value in conjunction, accordingly relates only to lands classified as rural:—

Area, in Acres.Number of Returns.Number of Taxpayers.Total Area.Unimproved Value.
Total.Per Return.Per Acre.
 Acres£s.d.£s.d.   
Under 57784861,4211,029,3591,32318724710
5 and under 101,0426897,1391,008,1069679514143
10 and under 201,8301,22525,4331,955,6271,068130761710
20 and under 504,2752,818144,6795,455,9481,27641137143
60 and under 1006,9744,013503,97811,487,8661,647410221511
100 and under 2009,8875,7771,393,75022,166,1412,24119015181
200 and under 3206,6114,0711,661,89318,884,5992,856101173 
320 and under 6407,8045,1283,551,88029,762,7813,81315987 
640 and under 1,0003,2952,1772,626,10616,996,4775,15853695
1,000 and under 2,0003,1002,1734,274,39922,943,9807,40158574
2,000 and under 5,0001,5601,2054,663,06619,374,24512,41979431
5,000 and under 10,0003683332,502,7987,961,89621,63511937 
10,000 and under 30,0001871642,924,1515,869,76431,38928202
30,000 and under 50,0002119783,158573,54327,3111150148
50,000 and under 100,0008604,582124,31315,53926041 
100,000 and over3390,24861,29520,431134032 
Not stated189159..1,239,3156,55745..  
     Totals47,93230,44826,058,681166,895,2553,481184681

Chapter 33. SECTION XXXIII.—INCOMES.

INTRODUCTORY.

No complete statistics of annual income are available for New Zealand, but valuable data exist in regard to incomes of those furnishing returns to the Commissioner of Taxes for the purpose, of income-tax assessment. In 1923 a system of annual statistics from the particulars on the income-tax returns was inaugurated, and the detailed results up to 1931–32 have been published by the Census and Statistics Office in successive issues of the Annual Statistical Report on Prices, Wage-rates. &c. For reasons of economy income-tax statistics have not been compiled subsequently.

With certain exceptions, the annual returns of income are not required where the income is less than £200. Prior to 1932 this figure stood at £250, but returns were not generally furnished where the income lay between £250 and £300. Consequently, income-tax returns are confined to a minority of the population, and do not permit of statistics being compiled covering the majority of incomes. This deficiency was partly remedied by the inclusion of a question in the schedule used at the census of 1926, referred to later in this section.

Information concerning the system of income-tax in New Zealand is given earlier under the heading of Taxation (vide pp. 425–8). To permit of a proper understanding of the statistics given in the present section it is advisable to peruse the observations under the reference given. In this section certain recent changes which exercise no retrospective effect on the statistics quoted have not been referred to.

Part of the statistical information given in this section (that relating to income-tax) more properly belongs to Section XXIIB (Taxation), but it is preferable to treat the figures relating to incidence of tax with those showing the distribution of the incomes on which the tax is assessed.

It should be explained that the incomes returned in any year are those received during the previous year. The figures given throughout this section in respect of 1931–32 returns, for instance, relate approximately to incomes received during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1931.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX.

The following table briefly summarizes the main items of information for each of the last five years available:—

Item.1927–28.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
Number of returns104,581108,286113,838118,757130,704
Number of taxpayers51,93152,84655,23558,99480,245
 £    
Earned income34,752,10536,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,802
Assessable income58,651,56161,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,392
Exemptions—     
  5 per cent, of capital value2,895,1603,042,3443,464,4232,378,960*
  Ordinary (under section 74)23,206,85924,739,01625,631,88126,879,17223,322,337
  Children, &c.2,597,6212,686,7592,798,5782,938,1983,889,584
  Life-insurance premiums, &c.936,0981,022,4041,140,7751,221,6011,473,320
Taxable balance29,015,82329,535,98432,344,56032,800,13131,483,151
Tax assessed3,104,8693,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,757

* Five per cent, of unimproved value.

† Abolished in 1931–32.

The preceding table reflects both changes in the aggregate income and alterations in the incidence and degree of taxation. This is particularly noticeable in the latest year given, increases having taken place in the number of taxpayers in the groups below the £500 level and decreases in all groups above it.

INCOMES BY CLASSES.

Of 125,974 persons in the general class, which includes absentees other than non-resident traders, dealt with in 1931–32, no fewer than 51,668 had an income of less than £300, and 13,171 of these—absentees or trustees, or otherwise not entitled to exemption under section 74—were assessed for tax. Of the 74,306 with incomes of £300 or over, 62,344 were assessed as having to pay income-tax, the remaining 11,962 having no taxable balance left after the various exemptions and deductions had been taken into account.

A classification of returns and taxpayers on the basis of class is given in the following table for each of the last four years available:—

Class.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.
I.Individuals103,61448,330108,74250,330113,34953,626125,97475,515
II.Companies3,2623,1063,5973,4063,7243,6843,2871 3,287
III.Agents for debenture holders97963423    
IV.Non-resident traders1,3131,4031,6501,420    
      Totals108,28652,846113,83855,235118,75758,994130,70480,245

The general class represents throughout the period the great majority of the returns, and it occupies a similar position in regard to taxpayers, though in this respect its proportion of the total is somewhat less—viz. (in 1931–32), 94 per cent., as compared with the 96 per cent, shown previously as its proportion of the returns. When attention is turned to aggregate assessable income, the percentage of this class to the total is still further reduced, being in 1931–32 only 82 per cent., aggregating £49,611,556. Companies account for the greater portion of the remainder with £9,960,799, while non-resident traders and agents for debenture-holders follow with £447,481 and £148,556 respectively.

SOURCE OF INCOME.

In the compilation of the statistics a distinction is made as to the source from which the income is derived, incomes being divided into ten groups according to source, as follows:—

Group No.Source.
0Salary or wages.
1Professional occupations (on own account).
2Commerce, trade, or business.
3Industry or manufacture.
4Farming.
5Provision of transport or communication.
6Building and construction.
7Mining or extraction.
8Investments and the like.
9Provision of or engaging in entertainment, sport, or recreation.

Actual figures as to the amount of income derived from the various sources are not available on account of the fact that in a considerable proportion of cases income has been obtained from more than one source. The rule followed in such cases in compiling the statistics is to include the whole income under the principal source from which it was derived. As an indication of the extent to which the figures are affected, attention may be drawn to the inclusion of approximately 4 per cent, of earned income in the total assessable income of the source “Investments and the like.”

Of the ten classes of source from which income is derived, source 0, “ Salary or wages,” is the most important as regards number of income, number of taxpayers, amount of assessable income, and amount of earned income. It may be added that this source also leads in the matter of exemptions—so much so, in fact, that its total of £29,089,491 assessable income in 1931–32 shrank to a comparatively low taxable balance of £9,027,175, which yielded £660,574 of tax.

The following table shows the number of returns and of taxpayers classified according to source for each of the last four years available:—

 1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
Source.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.
062,20325,44664,82426,66167,92228,40576,69647,094
13,4812,6723,5122,8953,4742,7463,4992,721
218,0429,73919,0519,99319,81510,43118,9009,414
31,6331,2641,5971,1911,3871,1081,120925
47034121,5989182,5401,0851,458585
51,0564721,1194741,1347851,183484
61,5888581,5887761,5248011,338626
7132741136813790172124
819,38111,87120,32812,37320,48213,23126,11518,060
9673810886342312223212
     Totals108,28652,846113,83855,235118,75758,994130,70480,245

Source 4 (farming) ranked second to source 0 in 1922–23 as regards number of returns. For the year 1923–24 income derived from the direct use or cultivation of land was wholly exempted from income-tax, but the tax was reimposed in the following year in the case of Crown lands held as small grazing-runs or on pastoral lease, which would otherwise have escaped both land and income tax. For 1929–30 income-tax was placed on income from farm-lands in excess of £14,000 unimproved value (altered for 1930–31 to £7,500, and from 1st April, 1932, to £3,000).

A classification of assessable income on the foregoing basis is next given, the average assessable income being also shown for each source:—

 Aggregate.Average.
Source.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1028–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
 £       
025,276,53326,389,58927,587,26529,089,491406407406379
12,945,5043,031,2632,995,9502,550,768846863862729
214,776,77815,665,89215,493,44111,784,388819822782624
33,501,7663,233,1593,913,1732,674,4442,1442,0252,8212,388
4540,0932,722,0242,101,776572,7337681,703827393
51,122,5771,087,945984,122674,5141,063972868570
6943,763904,421833,642534,228594570547399
7212,898176,795228,070296,2991,6131,5651,6651,723
811,631,22712,060,65911,934,20511,839,824600593583453
975,368108,470146,418151,7031,1251,004428680
     Totals61,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,392564574558460

SIZE OF INCOMES.

A third principle of classification followed in the compilation of the statistics of incomes and income-tax is according to size of income. An annual report (data from returns since 1931–32 have not been compiled) published by the Census and Statistics Office gives full details of incomes of the various sizes in conjunction with source of income and class of taxpayer. These details cannot be repeated here, but the following table showing the number of returns and of taxpayers according to size of income gives a good indication of the relative distribution of incomes over £300 per annum throughout the community.

  1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.
Size of Income.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.Returns.Taxpayers.
£         
Under30035,8343,48237,3543,79838,8674,83654,16015,663
300–39930,76112,00532,64012,52734,88313,78437,78826,881
400–49915,05311,57015,73611,95316,57812,77115,31114,497
500–5997,5707,1397,9317,4408,2017,7787,4557,356
600–6994,6894,5514,7674,6174,9674,8314,4504,397
700–7992,9392,8503,0352,9363,1643,1002,6492,616
800–8992,1472,1062,1532,0962,2152,1511,7441,727
900–9991,4191,3811,5351,5071,5121,4831,289,1,273
1,000–1,9995,4106,3195,7875,5435,7925,6954,246;4,226
2,000–4,9991,9551,9352,2222,1492,0362,0231,2731,271
5,000–9,999291290428421296185  
10,000–19,9991131281261326867  
20,000–49,99970807052>52   
50,000–99,99922282623    
100,000and over13141811    
      Totals108,28652,846113,83855,235118,75758,994130,70480,245

The reduction of the general exemption from £300 to £260 in 1931–32 has had the effect of increasing the proportion which the number of taxpayers bears to the number of returns in each income group up to £800, at which amount this exemption ceased to operate.

Of the 130,704 persons, companies, &c, dealt with in 1931–32, 54,160, or 41 per cent., had incomes of less than £300, their aggregate incomes being £11,452,875, or only 19 per cent, of the total. Incomes under £1,000 aggregated £42,327,505, or 70 per cent, of the total, but represented 96 per cent, of the returns. Only 154 (less than £ per cent, of those who furnished returns) showed incomes of £10,000 or over, but their total incomes amounted to £7,364,750, or approximately 12 per cent, of the grand total of £60,168,392.

Information as to aggregate incomes within the various categories is given in the next table. A column is added showing for 1931–32 separate figures for the general class of taxpayers (Class I).

Size of Income.Aggregate Assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1931–32.     TotalClass I.
£     
Under 3007,935,9378,150,5308,413,04411,452,87511,214,311
300– 39910,626,72411,175,57111,938,48612,547,94512,439,911
400– 4996,795,1766,927,2917,304,2406,765,7596,671,487
500– 5994,102,4214,299,0444,446,0204,040,1123,932,820
600– 6993,014,4283,062,4593,196,1842,856,4812,741,929
700– 7992,192,5662,262,7222,356,5461,972,5991,882,148
800– 8991,811,0951,816,7531,869,4381,472,6561,392,522
900– 9991,343,1061,453,9851,428,5671,219,0781,138,292
1,000– 1,9997,242,7547,811,2707,720,3435,651,1505,009,116
2,000– 4,9995,606,3396,510,5775,843,6513,603,4572,632,574
5,000– 9,9991,991,3422,898,4161,946,0971,221,530461,350
10,000– 19,9991,556,8171,723,0331,806,735944,970..
20,000– 49,9992,247,8452,374,6282,088,2481,617,44595,096
50,000– 99,9991,616,1071,944,4041,882,9441,739,810
100,000 and over2,943,8502,969,5343,977,5193,062,525
     Totals61,026,50765,380,21766,218,06260,168,39249,611,556

Class I represents 98 per cent, of aggregate assessable income in cases where the income is under £1,000, but only 1¼ per cent, among incomes of £10,000 or over.

EARNED INCOME.

Of the gross assessable income of £60,168,392 in 1931–32 £37,279,802, or nearly 62 per cent, of the total, ranked as earned income, and as such became entitled to a reduction of 10 per cent, in taxation prior to 1931–32, when for the 10 per cent, reduction there was substituted a 33⅓ per cent, surtax on unearned income. Earned income is, of course, practically confined to the general class of taxpayers, no part of the income of companies and of agents for debenture-holders, and only a very small proportion of that of non-resident traders (including theatrical artists), coming within the definition of earned income. A comparison of aggregate assessable income and earned income for ten years is here given:—

 Individuals.Non-resident Traders.Totals of all Classes.
Year.Assessable Income.Earned Income.Assessable Income.Earned Income.Assessable Income.Earned Income.
 £     
1922–2337,522,86728,648,205471,25919,69346,353,94128,667,898
1923–2433,612,63224,410,999313,9539,87144,738,06424,420,870
1924–2537,201,59627,017,388519,92417,95649,947,00927,035,344
1925–2039,270,53428,376,760520,71725,40252,632,48828,402,162
1926–2741,327,01930,306,769680,84256,66854,804,29330,303,437
1927–2846,286,85234,698,604609,90753,50158,051,56134,752,105
1928–2948,372,18236,347,872501,92215,50361,026,50736,363,375
1929–3051,947,72539,099,513525,41165,380,21739,099,513
1930–3152,329,79139,620,423519,26245,43866,218,06239,665,861
1931–3249,611,55637,261,742447,48118,06060,168,39237,279,802

The distribution of earned income over the various sources, both absolutely and in proportion to assessable income, is shown in the next table for the last four years. More than half of the total increase in 1929–30 is due to the re-imposition of income-tax in the case of farm-lands over £14,000 in unimproved value. The reduction of the limit to £7,500 in 1930–31 was insufficient to balance the effect of the fall in farm incomes generally.

 Earned Income.Proportion of Assessable Income.
Source1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301030–311931–32
 £Per Cent.      
024,226,64825,218,62126,513,45027,914,38896   
12,703,7442,779,6082,755,0592,384,9899294  
27,011,6526,886,2816,787,1005,076,549474443 
3321,723320,624247,726105,36791064
4461,5942,150,0481,722,011470,983857982 
5342,331366,934376,356307,11630343846
6775,515703,440666,295442,17282788083
743,09835,77743,02651,053201917 
8436,541621,591490,504492,513454 
940,52916,58963,73434,07254154422
     Totals36,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,8026062  

The next table shows the amount of earned income included in the total assessable income for the various categories according to amount of assessable income.

Amount of Assessable Income. Earned Income.Proportion of Assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
£Per Cent.       
Under 3006,460,3846,650,5066,840,1259,195,10981828180
300– 3999,211,04819,665,39010,436,68510,680,70587868785
400– 4995,484,6455,580,7065,916,9075,277,0048178  
500– 5993,057,1803,164,2343,317,6232,878,00875747571
600– 6992,094,6942,126,9942,273,6711,906,026697167 
700– 7991,460,6231,502,3801,575,2741,272,60467666765
800– 8991,172,3551,155,3221,206,930859,40365646558
900– 999800,479909,511875,435707,48760636158
1,000– 1,9993,968,1044,359,5304,270,2232,999,57355565553
2,000– 4,9992,215,5712,828,7662,393,7781,300,79340434136
5,000– 9,999317,702,831,385378,687182,78816291915
10,000– 19,99997,184297,093161,75520,30261792
20,000 and over23,40627,69618,7680   
Totals 36,363,37539,099,51339,665,86137,279,8026062   

EXEMPTIONS.

As explained earlier in this section, non-resident traders and agents for debenture-holders are not entitled to any exemptions. In the following table the aggregate exemptions to each of the other two classes of taxpayers (I, Individuals, and II, Companies), are shown for four years:—

 Aggregate Exemptions.Proportion of assessable Income.
Class.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
 £Per Cent.      
I30,146,08231,521,57932,855,83028,685,24162616358
II1,344,4411,514,078562,10111124
     Totals31,490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

The whole of the exemption shown in the case of companies was in respect of the unimproved-value provision which was repealed in 1931–32. Of the £28,685,241 exemptions in Class I in 1931–32, £23,322,337 was allowed as ordinary exemption (£260), £3,889,584 on account of allowances for children and widowed mothers, and £1,473,320 on account of life-insurance premiums, payments to superannuation funds, &c.

The exemptions are next shown spread over incomes derived from the various sources set out earlier in this section:—

 Aggregate Exemptions.Proportion of assessable Income.
Source.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
 £Per Cent.      
019,218,23920,022,14920,985,50120,062,3167669  
1887,565912,248872,803730,5693029  
24,850,4354,972,2584,461,3063,263,99133322928
3572,113617,487226,47471,477161963
4186,120370,3571,165,155257,44134145545
5292,430308,853274,444230,933262834 
6413,422419,653392,669279,52644464752
735,49528,90128,79032,28517161311
85,017,8425,365,1224,986,2753,751,90143444232
916,86218,62924,5144,80222173 
     Totals31,490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

The highest percentage of exemptions is recorded for source 0, which, as previously demonstrated, has the lowest average income.

As a percentage of assessable income, exemptions naturally show a decrease as income increases, as is well brought out in the proportion columns of the next table.

 Aggregate Exemptions.Proportion of assessable Income.
Size of Income.1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
£Per Cent.       
Under 3007,585,4967,792,5157,984,10110,634,514969593 
300– 39910,018,18510,540,33411,251,04210,282,6619482  
400– 4995,456,9635,619,3545,893,0234,067,569808160 
500– 5992,539,5592,679,9382,720,1801,701,729626142 
600– 0991,399,3681,425,2761,455,260758,53146474627
700– 799772,085808,162792,556323,25535363416
800– 899413,910413,214415,797167,904232211 
900– 999226,604254,053232,639131,482171611 
1,000– 1,9991,170,9441,309,9241,225,956438,0051617168
2,000– 4,999844,390961,351858,455144,102154  
5,000– 9,999352,919357,026218,16922,7271812112
10,000–19,999165,721217,782120,58512,762111371
20,000–49,999330,877335,798133,00815146
50,000–99,999121,415196,57467,3858104
100,000 and over92,087124,35649,775341
     Totals31,490,52333,035,65733,417,93128,685,24152515048

There has been a decided movement over the period, incomes generally showing a fall in the percentage of exemption to assessed income. The substitution of an unimproved-value exemption for the former capital-value exemption is largely responsible for the differences between 1929–30 and 1930–31, while the repealing of the unimproved-value exemption and the reduction in the general exemption accounts for the differences between the percentages for the two latter years.

Figures for the three classes of exemptions for the year 1931–32 are given in the next table, which also shows the average exemption per return:—

Size of Income.Section 74* (£260).Total Exemptions.Average Exemptions per Income returned.
Children, &c.Life Insurance, &c.Section 74* (£260).Children, &c.Life Insurance, Arc.
£      
Under 30010,187,340354,18292,99218872
300– 3998,392,8291,513,707376,1252224010
400– 4992,938,144856,721272,7042575618
500– 5991,126,711404,992170,0261515423
600– 699419,845229,608109,078945225
700– 799105,340139,59178,324405330
800– 89926,83786,84554,222155031
900– 99920,84662,79047,846164937
1,000– 1,99953,597193,372191,036134645
2,000– 4,99926,50644,36073,236213558
5,000– 9,99912,5313,1167,080681738
10,000– 19,99911,811300651174410
     Totals23,322,3373,889,5841,473,3201783011

* As amended by the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 1931.

The general (£260) exemption, which is reduced on incomes above that amount and does not apply at all to those above £800, averaged in 1931–32 £222 for incomes between £300 and £400, £257 for incomes between £400 and £500, and £151 between £500 and £600. Thereafter the average diminishes rapidly, but does not altogether disappear until the £10,000 class is reached, this being due to the inclusion in large trust returns of small amounts the recipients of which come within the provisions of the £260 exemption.

TAXABLE BALANCE.

After all exemptions have been deducted from the assessable income the balance of income (if any) is taxed in accordance with the schedule in force at the time. Figures of taxable balance are readily ascertained from a study of the corresponding totals of assessable income and of exemptions, and will be given here under one system of classification only—viz., that on the basis of amount of assessable income.

Size of Income.Aggregate Exemptions.Proportion of assessable Income.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1928–291929–301930–311931–32
£Per Cent.        
Under300350,441358,015428,943818,361457 
300–399608,539635,237687,4442,265,284618  
400–4991,338,2131,307,9371,411,2172,698,190201940 
500–5991,662,8621,619,1061,725,8402,338,383383958 
600–6991,616,0601,637,1831,740,9242,097,95054535473
700–7991,420,4811,454,5601,563,9901,649,34465646684
800–8991,397,1851,403,5391,453,6411,304,752777889 
900–9991,116,5021,199,9321,195,9281,087,596838489 
1,000–1,9996,071,8106,501,3466,494,3875,213,14584838492
2,000–4,9994,761,9495,549,2264,985,1963,459,3558596  
5,000–9,9991,638,4232,541,3901,727,9281,198,80382888998
10,000–19,9991,391,0961,505,2511,686,150932,20889879399
20,000–49,9991,916,9682,038,8301,955,2401,617,445858694100
50,000–99,9991,494,6921,747,8301,815,5591,739,810929096100
100,000and over2,851,7632,845,1783,927,7443,062,525979699100
Totals29,535,98432,344,56032,800,13131,483,15148495052

TAX ASSESSED.

The revenue from income-tax during the financial year ended the 31st March, 1932, was £4,447,814. This amount is £81,057 in excess of the total tax shown in the statistical tables as having been assessed for the same year (£4,366,757), the difference being due partly to the imposition of an additional 5 per cent, in the event of late payment, partly to the inclusion of arrears in the total of tax collected, and partly to the omission of a few returns from the statistical tables.

A summary of assessments of income-tax during each of ten years gives the following results:—

Year.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed.
Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per£l of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable Balance.
 £s.d.£s.d.s.d.s.d. 
1922–233,639,6033910494731735
1923–243,335,20544124928316211
1924–253,173,0853917976271320
1925–263,190,27739131172160132 
1926–273,235,6993847663512  
1927–283,104,869291465917412  
1928–293,166,008294959182102 
1929–303,322,67229396031021 
1930–313,949,558335266190125 
1931–324,366,757338254841529

It should be noted that the maximum tax in the years under discussion fell from 7s. 4d. in the £1 in 1922–23 to 4s. 6d. in the £1 in 1925–26 and subsequent years and rose to 4s. ll⅖d in 1930–31 and to a figure slightly in excess of 8s. in 1931–32.

In 1931–32 the 3,287 taxpaying companies were assessed for £2,311,214 income-tax, the 23 agents for debenture-holders for £12,595, and the 1,420 non-resident traders for £28,406. The remaining £2,014,542 was divided among 75,515 taxpayers in the general class. The following table shows the tax assessed in the case of each of the four classes during four years, and also contrasts the incidence of the assessment between the classes in 1931–32:—

Class.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1931–32.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable Balance.
 £s.d.s.d.     
I1,126,2381,207,3221,349,8532,014,5421627010111
II1,979,6422,061,8602,563,6482,311,2147034848 
III31,57421,5552,70812,5955481818 
IV28,55431,93533,34928,406201313 
     Totals3,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,75733541529

A table on the same lines as the foregoing is now given showing the figures for each of the ten groups of sources:—

Source.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1931–32.
1928–29.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable Balance.
 £s.d.s.d.     
0303,919325,934365,382660,5749140516
1141,864151,220164,348195,5635672162 
21,391,1721,556,8571,685,4131,589,805841692839
3527,562466,103781,415639,66857169249..11
428,584110,73196,68439,005276714..6
5153,606142,855129,29995,954811982104 
646,69343,42136,69625,120194001120
734,13127,91541,22966,9933895404651
8529,853485,548634,2421,029,01939571927
98,62412,08814,85025,0561121183435
     Totals3,166,0083,322,6723,949,5584,366,75733541529

The effect of the progressive rates of income-tax can be better seen from the next table, which gives information according to size of assessable income.

Size of Income.Total Tax assessed.Average Tax assessed, 1931–32.
1930–31.1931–32.Per Income.Per Taxpayer.Per £1 of Assessable Income.Per £1 of Taxable Balance.  
££ s. d.s. d.     
Under30014,27239,1160 14 52 9 110 10 11
300–39921,46499,0372 12 53 13 80 20 10
400–49943,709119,1017 15 78 4 40 40 11
500–59954,090119,59216 0 1016 5 20 71 0
600–69960,996128,99428 19 929 6 90 111 3
700–79963,364118,65844 15 1045 7 21 21 5
800–89969,009107,47361 12 662 4 71 61 8
900–99962,87095,19073 17 074 15 61 71 9
1,000–1,999451,634624,099146 19 8147 13 72 32 5
 £      
2,000–4,999599,537687,8565405413 104 0
5,000–9,999349,026335,4221,8135 65 7 
10,000–19,999441,873268.2433,9454,0045 85 9
20,000–49,999460,030434,1548,3495 4  
50,000–99,999390,539426,21918,5314 11  
100,000and over867,145763,60369,4185 0  
Totals3,949,5584,368,75733541 52 9

The wide range between the different sources is due to the great variation in the average income derived from the respective sources, combined with the fact that the rate of taxation in the £1 increases with increasing taxable balance, the minimum rate during 1931–32 being 9⅟10d. in the £1, and the maximum slightly in excess of 8s.

The average income between £300 and £400 paid in 1931–32 only £2 12s. 5d., or just under 2d. in the £1 of total assessable income returned, as compared with £147, or 2s. 3d. in the £1, for incomes between £1,000 and £2,000.

CENSUS STATISTICS OF INCOME CATEGORIES.

As mentioned in the introductory portion of this section, an attempt was made at the population census of 1926 (vide Vol. XI of Census Results) to obtain some approximate information as to the incomes of the people. Although by no means free from defects, interesting information was obtained and tabulated according to age, occupation, &c.

The income distribution is given briefly below, according to the income categories of the census questionnaire. The figures are exclusive of Maoris and of children under 16 years without occupation.

 Males.Females.
income (exclusive of Non-monetary Allowances, e.g., Free Housing).Adults.Total.Adults.Total.
No income13,20826,649258,667290,210
Under £5213,84824,83927,07638,366
£52 and under £15674,061111,76363,10785,602
£156 and under £20880,13985,23915,92516,584
£208 and under £312139,466141,55511,16411,254
£312 and under £36424,42924,4842,0172,029
£364 or over43,08343,1244,4524,465
Not specified17,88720,4376,5438,047
     Totals406,121478,090388,951456,557

AGGREGATE PRIVATE INCOME.

It is advisable at the outset to stress the point that the use of figures given hereunder as figures of “National Income” is an illegitimate one. Concepts of “national” income are both numerous and widely divergent, but the term “national” is here inapplicable, if only for the reason that all forms of public income are excluded.

The concept of “ aggregate private income “ is also by no means devoid of divergent interpretations. However, as used here, a definition roughly correct is that it comprises the sum total of the incomes! of all the individuals of the population, plus the undistributed portion (inclusive of State taxation) of company profits. Under “incomes” are included monetary payments from all sources, such as salaries, wages, revenue from investments, gratuities, pensions, superannuation, &c. In the two later estimates, although not in that derived chiefly from the 1926 census records, certain non-monetary emoluments—e.g., free housing, free fuel and lighting, &c., where such are in reality part-payments for services—are given a monetary equivalent and treated as income. Where an individual owns and occupies a dwelling the rental value is not assessed as income.

It is essential that the composition of the estimates be studied in detail, so that there be acquired a knowledge of the possibilities and of the limitations of the data. As estimates at a given date the data quoted possess recognized limitations, but when derived from the same sources the movement from year to year is of fairly reliable accuracy.

From the 1926 census statistics of income categories, taken in conjunction with the statistics compiled from the income-tax returns for the income year ended 31st March, 1926, an approximate estimate of the aggregate income of individual members of the community was compiled for the year 1925–26. Allowing for the effect of approximations and arbitrary allocations, the estimated sum total of the income of all individuals for 1925–26 may be set down as lying between £130 m. and £140 m. In such a computation certain weaknesses exist, reducing any estimate to a rough approximation only. The compilation is discussed at greater length in the 1932 Year-Book.

A useful basis for the estimation of the aggregate private income of New Zealand is now provided by the figures of receipts from the emergency unemployment charge imposed for the raising of funds for the relief of unemployment.

The charge on income other than salaries or wages is necessarily made on the income of the preceding year, so that the figure from Which to estimate “other” income is that of taxation receipts from this source in the succeeding year. In other instances it has been necessary to make allowances and adjustments. As these were chiefly of a minor character, details appear unnecessary.

But certain types of income were not subject to the charge, exemptions including (1) company income not distributed to shareholders, &c.; (2) income of pensioners under the Pensions Act; (3) the first £20 of income (other than wages) of women; (4) income (other than wages) of male Maoris.

Apart from the number of women, no data exist from which to compute the aggregate amount represented by the first £20 of income other than wages or by such incomes which do not amount to £20, and an arbitrary method of estimation has to be resorted to. Excluding Maoris, the total number of women aged fifteen or over is approximately 500,000; and if it be reckoned that 50 per cent, of these have less than £1 of income other than from wages (average, say, 5s.), and that the remaining 50 per cent, are divided into five groups of 10 per cent, each, with incomes from £1 to £5, £5 to £10, £10 to £1.5, £15 to £20, and over £20, a weighted average of £6–2 emerges, giving an aggregate of £3.1 m.

In the case of Maoris, a basis of calculations lies in the fact that the Maori population is nearly 5 per cent, of the non-Maori. But it is probable that the revenue-producing wealth of Maoris is proportionately less than that of Europeans, and 3½ per cent, seems a fair allowance, income of Maoris other than from wages being thus estimated at £1 m.

The figures for undistributed company income have been obtained by estimating the reduction since 1930–31, amount paid in income-tax. and payments to reserves, &c.

Other evidence—e.g., company balance-sheets, income-tax receipts, unemployment statistics—supports the conclusion that the aggregate income in 1932–33 was definitely lower than in 1931–32. An estimate cannot be compiled for 1933–34 until the 1934—35 receipts from the charge on income other than salaries and wages are available, but it may be expected that aggregate incomes (in terms of New Zealand currency) will prove to have been higher in 1933–34 than in 1932–33. Unemployment has been at a somewhat lower level, exports have been considerably higher in aggregate value, company balance-sheets in general present a more favourable appearance, and the receipts (£2,865,000) from the charge on wages indicate that salaries and wages subject to the charge were £2,300,000 more in 1933—34 than has been estimated for 1932–33.

There are other minor classes of exemptions from the charge on incomes other than wages, including such incomes of males under twenty years of age. If £0.5 m. be allowed for these, the aggregate estimates would come to:—

 1931–32.1932–33.
Subject to emergency charge—£ m.£m.
   Wages60.555.0
   Other income25.022.3
Wages of exempt relief workers2.02.9
Wages of domestic servants1.0 
“Other” incomes under £20 of women3.1 
“Other” incomes of Maoris1.0 
Undistributed company income (including income tax payments)3.02.5
Pensions under Pensions Act1.7 
Other exempt income0.5 
 £97.8£90.0

It need scarcely be stressed that the estimates are merely fairly rough approximations.

Chapter 34. SECTION XXXIV.—PRICES.

RETAIL PRICES.—INTRODUCTORY.

RETAIL-Price quotations, from which index numbers are regularly calculated, are collected each month in twenty-five towns of the Dominion, selected as being representative of New Zealand as a whole. These twenty-five towns are distributed over both Islands, from Whangarei in the North to Invercargill in the South, and are representative of both coastal and inland districts, and of both large and small centres. Returns of prices are collected by local Inspectors of Factories, for the most part from representative retailers, and from these data index numbers are computed in the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. Those index numbers are published each month in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The commodities for which monthly index numbers are compiled are foodstuffs and fuel and lighting, foodstuffs being divided into three groups—groceries, dairy-produce, and meat. House-rents have been collected at six-monthly intervals since the inauguration of price statistics in 1914, and later the inquiry was extended to cover clothing and miscellaneous items, figures for which are collected at quarterly intervals.

Separate series of index numbers of retail prices are compiled and published for the following groups:—

  1. Group L—Groceries.

  2. Group II.—Dairy-produce.

  3. Group III.—Meat.

  4. Group IV.—Housing.

  5. Group V.—Fuel and light.

  6. Group VI.—Clothing (including drapery and footwear).

  7. Group VII.—Miscellaneous items.

In addition, index numbers are compiled and published for the food (that is, the first three) groups combined, and also for all groups combined.

Prior to the year 1931 the retail-price index numbers were compiled on a pre-war base; but during 1931 a series of index numbers was initiated based on the average of prices ruling during the five years 1926–30. In order to permit of the revision being carried out, a collection of household budgets was made in 1930, so that an estimate of the proportionate distribution of expenditure in the various main groups of household expenditure might be made. These data are used in combining the group index numbers in order to arrive at a single figure representing all groups combined. The results of the budget collection were published in some detail in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 793–795).

In the compilation of the index numbers for the food groups, rent, and fuel and light, the aggregate expenditure method is used—that is, the retail price of each individual item in these groups is “weighted” according to its average annual consumption in the Dominion during the years 1926 to 1930. In the clothing and drapery and miscellaneous groups the unweighted geometric average of price ratios is used for most subgroups, no reliable data being available as to the consumption of individual items in these groups, except in the case of two subgroups in the miscellaneous group (fares and cleaning supplies), where the aggregate expenditure method is adopted.

RETAIL FOOD-PRICES.

The following table shows the annual average index numbers for the three food groups combined, for each of the four chief centres and for the Dominion as a whole during the past ten years. In the compilation of these indexes each item and separate group (groceries, dairy-produce, and meat) is accorded its proper relative importance in the combined food-groups index number. The average of annual Dominion index numbers for the years 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

THREE FOOD GROUPS.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.DunedinAverage of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
19241,0151,0069971,0101,0071,005
19251,0461,02010081,0301,0261,030
19261,0271,0151,0101,0471,0251,026
1927976978982986981983
192810099809901,0069961,004
1929103O98499510091,0051,013
1930983959946966964974
1931848827843829837845
1932773761770751764775
1933724719732700719732

The index numbers in the table are comparable both horizontally and vertically, since each column has the same base.

To obtain a general estimate of the course of prices for the whole Dominion it has been necessary to obtain a weighted average of the index numbers for each of the twenty-five representative towns. Price-indexes for each town have been weighted in accordance with the number of people in the respective centres, and a composite index number has been obtained, which, though necessarily artificial, represents accurately enough the average level of retail prices in the Dominion.

The twenty-five towns considered have a total population of approximately half that of New Zealand, and they are therefore more or less completely representative of the Dominion. The four chief centres, which include well over a third of the Dominion's population, account for about 70 per cent. of the population of the twenty-five towns, so that their influence in the Dominion index number is naturally predominating. However, the chief centres not only comprise a great part of the people of the Dominion, but also set the standard which is generally followed throughout the country.

The 1933 index numbers for each of the four cities and the Dominion are the lowest recorded during the last decade, a substantial fall occurring between 1929 and 1933. The Dominion annual average index (732) for 1933 was only 4.1 per cent. above July, 1914, prices. For the most recent index numbers refer to “Latest Statistical Information” in the forefront of this volume.

Attention may be drawn in passing to the comparatively small differences recorded between the average figures for the four chief centres and the Dominion weighted averages. In this respect, as will be shown later on in this section, the average of the three food groups combined stands in marked contrast to the rent group.

RETAIL PRICES OF GROCERIES.

Index numbers of retail prices of groceries in each of the four chief centres are given in the following table, which also shows the unweighted average of the four centres and the Dominion weighted average. The average of the Dominion annual index numbers for 1926 to 1930 equals 1000.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
19241,0471,0621,0341,0611,0511,060
19251,0471,0429841,04410291,044
192610381,0331,0211,06510391,047
19271,0219959891,0061,0031,015
19281,0421,0079891,0201,0151,033
1929985953932958957973
1930928922883924914932
1931899876842887876891
1932856837804863840857
1933813780787832803819

Prices in the groceries group have fallen steadily, though slowly, during the last ten years, the 1933 Dominion index number being the lowest recorded during that period.

The factors underlying the fluctuations in the groceries group will be more clearly understood when it is remembered that the items comprising the group are varied in nature, and may be treated in three subgroups as shown below. The fundamental distinction is that the items comprising Group 1A are almost wholly imported from overseas, while those in Group 1B are almost wholly produced in the country. Sugar is not wholly a product of New Zealand, the raw material being imported and refined at Auckland. The Dominion weighted average index number, 1926–30, equals 1000 in each ease.

GROCERIES SUBGROUPS.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.ChristchurchDunedin.Average of Four Centres.
Group Ia.General Groceries.
1929986915902965942
1930965919881956930
1931901847815865857
1932872786787841822
1933842782777849813
Group lb.Bread, Flour, Oatmeal, Potatoes, and Onions.
19291,002985963954976
1930931943893922 
1931941940839846892
1932833853783845829
1933734709725760732
Group Ic.Sugar.
1929903897861957905
1930825831836850836
1931779772796779782
1932896890907918903
19331,11311O81,1141,1231,115

It is noteworthy that, despite the further depreciation of New Zealand currency on sterling in January, 1933, the Dominion index number for Group 1A (which is comprised almost wholly of imported foodstuffs) is slightly lower in 1933 than in 1932. Reference to the table on page 580 giving quarterly index numbers for the whole groceries group shows, however, that, while the annual average for 1933 is lower than the corresponding figure for 1932, the quarterly index numbers for the third and fourth quarters of 1933 are higher than those recorded in the first and second quarters of that year.

The index number for Group 1B shows a substantial decrease in 1933, owing to the effect of lower wheat prices and lower potato prices.

The retail prices index numbers for Group lc (sugar) fell considerably for some years prior to 1932, when a sharp rise was recorded, the effect of the imposition of an increased duty on sugar. The further rise in 1933 synchronized with the raising of the exchange rate.

RETAIL PRICES OF DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The next table shows annual average retail price index numbers for the dairy-produce group. The Dominion weighted average index number for 1926–1930 equals 1000.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
192410581,1041,01010941,0671,053
192510591,0701,0101,0611,0501,043
19261,0651,07210091,0621,0521,045
19271,0361,0329681,0221,0151,010
19281,0321,0259581,0251,0101,006
19291,0051,0319431,0241,001999
1930942954905954939 
1931819836766778800807
1932742761667680713722
1933652708617625651661

Between 1922 and 1929 dairy-produce prices did not fluctuate to any marked extent, the lowest Dominion annual index number during that period being 985 (in 1922) and the highest 1053 (in 1924). Between 1929 and 1933 a marked downward trend in dairy-produce prices is apparent. The 1933 annual average index (661) is considerably below that for any other year during the past decade. It is interesting to note that the 1933 index represents a decrease of fifty-eight points, or 8.1 per cent., as compared with the July, 1914, figure, while the decrease since the peak year (1921) is as much as 47.4 per cent.

RETAIL PRICES OF MEAT.

Between the years 1922 and 1929 the general trend of meat prices was upward, the lowest Dominion index number recorded during that period being 813 (in 1922) and the highest 1052 (in 1929). A slight falling-off in meat prices in 1930 was followed by a collapse in 1931, the index number for the latter year (834) representing a fall of 199 points, or 19.3 per cent., as compared with the 1930 figure. Retail prices of meat in 1931 were still slightly higher than in the year 1922; but, during 1932 and 1933 prices fell to a lower level than was recorded during the slump of 1922, the annual average index number for 1933 (714) representing a considerable decrease on the 1922 annual average index number. It is noteworthy that the 1933 index number is 5.9 per cent. below the 1914 level.

MEAT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average. (1920–30 = 1,000.)
1924953879954901922920
19251,03596110289931,0041008
19269909591,0011,021993994
1927896924985941937 
19289669261,012980971979
1929108097310791,0361,0421,052
19301,0529901,0231,00510181,033
1931829781897815831834
1932729702817714741747
1933705678769650701714

FOOD-PRICES—COMPARISON WITH JULY, 1914.

For purpose of all the foregoing tables the base period has been taken as the average of the years 1920–30. For some purposes, however, interest centres on the comparison between present prices and those prevailing immediately prior to the outbreak of the Great War. One of the advantages of the aggregate expenditure method is that it enables index numbers computed on one base to be converted by a simple application of the rule of proportion to another base regarded as desirable for some special purpose. The following table relates to the Dominion weighted average for the respective groups:—

 First Quarter, 1033.Second Quarter, 1933.Third Quarter, 1933.Fourth Quarter, 1933.Average for Year 1933.
Group.Index Number.Percentage Increase*Index Number.Percentage Increase*Index Number.Percentage Increase*Index Number.Percentage Increase*Index Number.Percentage Increase*

* Over July, 1914.

†Decrease.

Groceries (index number, July, 1914:624)79928.080829.582031.485036.281931.3
Dairy-produce (index number, July, 1914:719)6539.26716.76746.364710.06618.1
Meat (index number, July, 1914:759)6948.66899.27224.97491.37145.9
Three food groups (index number, July, 1914:703)7151.77212.67405.37527.07324.1

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL FOOD-PRICES.

Using the weights used in the compilation of the New Zealand food price-index, attempts have been made to determine the relation between food-prices in New Zealand and in other countries, experiments having shown that the use of the weights employed in the computation of the index numbers of the other countries respectively does not greatly affect the result in the case of comparisons between countries with not essentially dissimilar standards of living. The commodities included, though comparatively few, cover the most important foodstuffs. The percentages shown in the second column of figures in the table following are the results, taking food-prices in New Zealand (Dominion weighted average) in February, 1934, as 100.

 Percentage of Food Prices to New Zealand Food Prices.
Country.July, 1914.February, 1934.
South Africa141135
United States129121
Canada125118
Australia1,051115

HOUSE-RENT.

In investigating changes in the cost of housing the Census and Statistics Office has traced the movements of house-rent over a series of years. Such normally provide a reasonably accurate indication (and, in effect, the only practical means available) of movements in housing-costs in general, not only for those paying rent, but also for those who own or partially own the dwellings they occupy. It is probable that this latter assumption is less valid in the abnormal conditions existing since 1930.

By reason of the fact that leases, infrequent changes of residence, and the difficulty of departing from customary rents all tend to make the movement of the general level of rents comparatively slow, it has not been deemed necessary to attempt to measure the changes over short periods. The data from which the rent figures are compiled are therefore collected semi-annually only, in the months of Februaryand August. Annual index numbers for rent are computed on the assumption that the February index number represents conditions prevailing during the first four and a half months of the year, the August number conditions prevailing during the next six months, and the number for February of the following year conditions prevailing during the last one and a half months of the year.

HOUSE-RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average (1926–30 = 1000).
1924863986884689856859
19259341038947751918912
19269901,111977808972962
1927101911911,0108801,0251,000
19281,0041,2611,0049091,0451,014
19299851,3369909371,0621019
19309531,3269739581,0531,007
19318761,241926936995953
19327631,063823846874844
1933693937748799794766

It is advisable to stress that the index numbers in respect of rent indicate the movement in the average rentals of a large number of houses already let, in many cases for some time, and that they do not purport to convey any statement as to the price at which housing accommodation has been obtainable from time to time by would-be occupants of houses then being relet.

The index numbers for each of the twenty-five towns at each of the last five collections are appended, together with yearly index numbers for 1932 and 1933.

HOUSE-RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS FOR TWENTY-FIVE TOWNS.

Town.Yearly Average 1932.Yearly Average 1933.August, 1932.February, 1933.August, 1933.February, 1934.August, 1934.
Auckland763693745693694688700
Wellington1,0639371,013946933927923
Christchurch823748795749746752743
Dunedin846799820812791793789
Whangarei885778875832763679709
Hamilton897794851813787762761
Rotorua900834864863817811753
Waihi445450444459437478485
Gisborne786741765753738713689
Napier888838865869826792770
Dannevirke714604711642579591559
New Plymouth882822857830818810793
Wanganui686611653630603588589
Taihape762674739715653638648
Palmerston North9118ll912819809791773
Masterton818775784781768787766
Blenheim680602667626585597599
Nelson823756782776739766770
Greymouth736666723658627742639
Ashburton778733759733734726718
Timaru790698773713690681694
Oamaru739695706703689691692
Alexandra585569574577571535586
Gore640620599620623620 
Invercargill728686711694683674659
Dominion weighted average (1926–30 = 1000)844766816774762759756

House-rents reached a peak level in 1929, since which year the Dominion rent-index number has fallen at each successive collection. The August, 1932, index numbers are of special interest, in view of the fact that the effect of the rent-reductions (speaking generally, 20 per cent. of existing rents) of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, operating from 1st April, 1932, is apparent in the August figures for that year.

FOOD AND RENT.

Generally speaking, apart from the consideration of different rates of population-increase, the chief centres have higher rentals than the minor centres. As, however, the four largest centres have lower indexes for food than the majority of the smaller towns, the combination of these two groups presents quite a different picture from that displayed by either group individually. The following figures represent yearly averages for 1933:—

Group.Weighted Average of Four Chief Centres. (a.)Weighted Average of Twenty-one Smaller Centres. (b.)Excess of (6) over (a).Dominion Weighted Average.
* Excess of (a) over (b).
Groceries80286159819
Dairy-produce65467723661
Meat70473632714
Three food groups72175938732
House-rent78273052*766

The following table shows the index numbers for the various groups for each of the twenty-five towns on the base: Dominion weighted average expenditure, 1926–30, equals 1000:—

FOOD GROUPS AND RENT.—INDEX NUMBERS FOR TWENTY-FIVE TOWNS, 1933.

Town.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.
Auckland813652705724693
Wellington780708678719937
Christchurch787617769732748
Dunedin832625650700799
Whangarei873653672729778
Hamilton879726715770794
Rotorua970728791830834
Waihi905687746779450
Gisborne925687542709741
Napier828749653735838
Dannevirke845659684728604
New Plymouth833648792764822
Wanganui889713740779611
Taihape952750719801674
Palmerston North865630735746811
Masterton882699669745775
Blenheim896654886823602
Nelson865706897832756
Greymouth809704810779666
Ashburton758664814753733
Timaru796615794744698
Oamaru793663737733695
Alexandra916720809817569
Gore853663729749620
Invercargill870625750752686
Weighted average for Dominion819661714732766

Ashburton, Wellington, and Christchurch are the cheapest in respect of prices of groceries, while Rotorua has the highest index for this group. Taihape is dearest in respect of prices of dairy-produce, while the Nelson index for meat is highest, closely followed by Blenheim. Timaru and Christchurch show the lowest prices for dairy-produce, while meat is exceptionally cheap in Gisborne.

RETAIL PRICES OF FUEL AND LIGHT.

For the purposes of tracing the course of prices in the fuel and light group, a small group of seven items—coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas for lighting, electricity for lighting, and candles—is taken into account for the four chief centres. It is not feasible to extend this index to the remaining twenty-one centres covered by the food and rent indexes.

FUEL AND LIGHT.—INDEX NUMBERS.

Period.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres (1926–30 = 1000.)
Year.     
192410499661,051873985
192510599801,041893993
19261,0779771,0578971,002
192710789791,0619011,005
19281,1159741,0548991,011
19291,114968986898992
19301,112968988897991
19311108951995892987
19321,020925993894958
1933860931987781890
Quarter.     
First, 1933984939995900956
Second, 1933885936994790901
Third, 1933789928982719855
Fourth, 1933780921978715849
First, 1934776917978714846
Second, 1934804899978703846
Third, 1934824864975682837

The average index number for this group for the four chief centres fell sharply between 1922 and 1923, remained practically stationary between 1923 and 1931, and fell in 1932 and 1933. Fuel and lighting prices are, on the average, cheaper in Dunedin than in any of the other centres. The increase in the index number for Auckland between the first and second quarters of 1934 was due to a rise in prices of household coal, which had been falling steadily in price for some time previously.

RETAIL PRICES OF CLOTHING AND OF MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS.

In regard to the method of treatment of the clothing and miscellaneous groups, it is to be explained that, as in the case of fuel and light, the inquiry is in general restricted to the four chief centres; further, except as regards fares, in respect of which accurate weights based on usage in the base period are available, enabling the aggregate-expenditure method to be employed, no satisfactory information is available or procurable which would enable individual weights to be allotted to each item. For this reason the same measure of precision is not possible in the treatment of these groups, but by selective balancing of representative items and arranging them in representative subgroups a measure of weighting is secured, each subgroup being Heated as a separate unit. The ratios of prices at the date under investigation, to the average of prices in1926–30 for the various items comprising the different subgroups are first averaged (employing geometric averages), and the results so obtained are then combined in order to arrive at the price ratio for the group.

The movement of prices of clothing and miscellaneous items from year to year may be traced in the table under the next heading.

RETAIL PRICES.—ALL GROUPS.

From the collection of household budgets in 1930, the average household expenditure under various heads was found to be as follows:—

 Per Cent.
Food29.52
Housing21.93
Clothing, drapery, and footwear12.61
Fuel and light6.17
Miscellaneous29.77
 100.00

These weights are applied to the index numbers of the different groups in the process of arriving at the “all groups” retail price-index, with the exception that the weight applied to the miscellaneous group is 11.08 and not 29.77. Thus 81 per cent. of household expenditure is covered by the index number. The remaining 19 per cent. represents miscellaneous items for which it has been found impossible to obtain reliable price-quotations. Their omission has the effect of giving them the same general average price-movement as the 81 per cent. covered.

The following table shows the index numbers for all groups for each of the last ten years. It should be noted that the annual index numbers given represent the average price-level during each year, not at any of the particular points during the year at which the prices for the respective groups were collected:—

ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS.

(Base: Dominion weighted average of prices in 1926–30 in twenty-five centres in case of Groups I to IV, and average of prices in 1926–30 in four chief centres in case of Groups V, VI. and VII = 1000.)

Food Groups.
Year.Groceries. (I.)Dairy-produce. (II.)Meat. (III.)Three Food Groups. (I-III.)Rent. (IV.)Fuel and Light. (V.)Clothing, Drapery, and Footwear. (VI.)Miscellaneous. (VII.)All Groups combined. (I-VII.)Increase per Cent. over July, 1914.
* Month of July.
1914*624718759703535585686601628..
19241,0601,0539201,00585998511391,033984527
19251,0441,04310081,0309129931,1111,0151,00459.9
19261,0471,0459941,0269621,0021,0601,0131,01060.8
19271,0151,0109379831,0001,0051,0171,0331,00159.4
19281,0331,0069791,0041,0141,0119951,0021,00660.2
19299739991,0521,01310199929809861,00459.9
19309329391,0339741,00799194798698156.2
193189180783484595398786998690644.3
193285772274777584495881497383833.4
193381966171473276689081697679526.6

The index numbers for all groups combined had not fluctuated to any great extent between 1923 and 1930, but since the latter year a considerable fall has taken place. The 1933 annual average index number (795) showed a fall of 5.1 per cent. when compared with the 1932 figure, and an increase of 26.6 per cent. over the July, 1914, level of retail prices.

WHOLESALE PRICES.

In most countries index numbers of wholesale prices are compiled from the price data available in trade journals or from the published reports of wholesale markets. In New Zealand wholesale markets scarcely exist, and consequently price data for the wholesale-prices investigation have been collected from wholesale merchants and traders, who from the volume of the business they transact are able to supply representative information.

Since 1917 such wholesale-price quotations have been collected monthly, the inquiry being for the most part confined to the four chief centres. In the case of a few commodities (e.g., newsprint), of which there is a local consumption so large that the article can scarcely be omitted from the price-index, yet for which no actual local market exists, the inclusion of the commodity in the index number has been rendered possible by ascertaining movements of prices from the import statistics. Statistics of imports and exports as a source of price data have, however, been avoided as far as possible, on the ground that where quotations are obtained from traders care can be taken to ensure that the grade, &c., quoted for is kept constant. A considerable volume of data as to wholesale prices was secured from merchants and traders (and in a few cases from import figures) by means of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information was secured to permit of the compilation for each year from 1891 onwards of a “general” wholesale-price index number based on the prices of 106 commodities.

During 1920 a revision of the wholesale price-index was effected specially designed, inter alia, to permit of the inclusion in the index number of several such items as motor-spirit, &c., the importance of which had increased enormously since the index was originally instituted. The list of commodities represents a wide range, covering articles of home production and of foreign production, of farm, mine, marine, factory, &c., origin, and representing all stages of production.

Index numbers under the revised system have been compiled only from 1913 onwards, the indexes shown for years prior to 1913 in the following table having been recomputed from the former indexes on the basis of the relationship of the old and new figures for 1913.

The base adopted for purposes of the wholesale-price inquiry is the average of the wholesale prices in the four chief centres during 1909 to 1913, the price quotations from the various merchants being so combined that each return from any given town has the same weight in the averaging process as any other return from that town, while in obtaining Dominion average prices for any given commodity each of the four centres is given the same weight.

WHOLESALE PRICES.—GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS.

Year.Index Number.
18911,016
1892993
1893994
1894947
1895940
1896964
1897963
1898993
1899913
1900937
1901951
1902996
1903975
1904942
19051,016
19061038
19071038
19081028
1909970
19101,005
19111,016
19121,064
19131,012
19141,053
19151184
19161,273
19171449
19181,705
19191782
19202,092
19211942
19221,665
19231598
19241,634
19251,627
19261,553
19271478
19281492
19291488
19301449
19311,346
19321297
19331308

Full details of the revised system were given in the 1927 number of this book. A schedule of the various commodities covered by the inquiry, classified by groups and with the class indicated in each case, was published in the 1925 number of the “Annual Statistical Report on Prices, &c.”

The wholesale-price index is purely a commodity index, no attempt having been made to cover the wholesale prices of services such as the supply of electric power, transportation, &c.

For purposes of the wholesale inquiry recourse is had to a modification of the method of the retail-prices investigation—the aggregate expenditure method. The 1927 year-Book gives a detailed account of this also.

The following table shows annual wholesale index numbers by groups.

WHOLESALE PRICES.— INDEX NUMBERS BY GROUPS.

Group.1913.1928.1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
1. Foodstuffs, &c, of vegetable origin—       
A. Agricultural produce9671,63115841,5371,2751,3361080
B. Fresh fruit and vegetables1,0311,24714081,2151,1049141,050
C. Milled agricultural products9821,713169617181,6451,4361,341
D. Other vegetable foodstuffs and groceries1,01016821,6421,6231,67017831893
A-D. Four subgroups combined9911,6361,6121,57614791,5041,451
2. Textile manufactures1,02019991956186216811,5601,543
3. Wood and wood products1,072195419741998189818431858
4. Animal products—       
A. Meats1,1111,3701,45014491,037815941
B. Raw animal products (not foods)10851,6631,341840649596760
C. Leather1,126188917181,5021,24412691,334
D. Manufactured foodstuffs and groceries of animal origin1,0301,453148112821,1121,016946
A-D. Four subgroups combined1088144914851,3531,035877950
5. Metals and their products9329519689891,0611008101)9
6. Non-metallic minerals and their products—       
A. Mineral oils1,004762803802785834903
B. Coals1,037190318911868184818241,701
C. Other non-metallic minerals and their products1,0261,7111,7021,6721,6611,6661,717
A-C. Three subgroups combined1,0221,4061,4171,401138413951380
7. Chemicals and manures1,0301,1671,1631,1551,1011,0631,047
All groups combined1,0121492148814491,34612971308

In the next table index numbers are given by classes from 1924 to 1933. The table also shows the separate index number for such imported items as are included in the wholesale-price investigation; alongside which, for purposes of convenience of comparison, are set the index numbers of locally produced items included in the wholesale-price series. The export price index number is also included for purposes of comparison, but it should be noted that this index is computed by a different method from that adopted in connection with the computing of the wholesale-price index.

These index numbers should be taken for no more than they purport to represent, viz., the movement in wholesale prices of those commodities covered by the wholesale prices inquiry which belong to the respective classes. The figure for Class HI, for instance, does not purport to show the movement in building costs, nor does that for imported items purport to be an index number of import prices.

 Consumers' Goods.Producers' Materials, &c.Imported CommoditiesLocally Produced CommoditiesAll classes combinedIndex Number of Export Prices
YearClass I:Foodstuff.Class II:Foodstuff.Class III:Materials for building and constitution.Class IV: Materials for other industrials.
Average 1009–131,000       
19241592168019851,5731,5341,7141,6341788
19251,6111,63419631,5751,5161,7201,6271893
192614961,55018771,5351,43716491,5531,540
192714591489179514281,3761,56214781,525
19281,5151,4661,7441,4441,3461,61314921683
192915191,4561,7511,4351,342160814881,623
19301,4301,4331,7641,4121,3321,54514491283
19311,243140816911,322132913591,346984
1932118013791,6551,273129612981297892
19331,221139017181,2531,3611,2651308896

Of the total base aggregate expenditure, Class I represented 30.1 per cent., Class II 20.5 per cent., Class III 7.4 per cent., and Class IV 420 per cent., while the imported items aggregated 42.8 per cent, of the total.

The all-groups index fell in each successive year from 1928 to 1032. In 1933 a slight rise is recorded, caused fay an increase in prices of imported commodities of sufficient magnitude to more than counteract a further fall in the index number for locally produced commodities.

EXPORT PRICES.

For some years past index numbers have been compiled and published at monthly intervals, indicating the direction and extent of fluctuation in the level of prices in New Zealand produce exported. These index numbers are based on the declared values for export as recorded by the Customs Department.

Formerly each commodity included in the compilation was accorded an importance corresponding to the quantity of that commodity exported during the particular month or year under investigation. For example, the annual index number for the year 1931 indicated the relationship between the total value in that year of experts of items included in the index numbers and the value of the quantities of the various commodities exported in 1931 at the average prices ruling during the years 1909–13, the base period of the investigation. Thus the “weight” or importance of each item in the regimen of the index number varied according to fluctuations in the quantities exported from month to month and from year to year.

During the last three years, however, the collapse in prices has not distributed itself evenly over the whole field of commodities exported. As a consequence, material fluctuations were caused in the monthly index numbers, which were not due to price-movements alone, but rather to fluctuations in the relative quantities of commodities exported from month to month.

In order to remedy this weakness in the index number, the system of compilation has Leon modified; the “weight” allotted to each item included in the new series now introduced being the average quantity of that item exported during the previous five exporting seasons—i.e., years ended 30th June. In the revision of the export-price index numbers also the opportunity has been taken of revising the grouping of commodities somewhat in order to permit of a closer analysis of the effect of price-movements on different sections of the producing community.

The revised index numbers for all groups combined and for all pastoral produce are shown in the next table, compiled on the base: 1909–13 = 1000.

EXPORT PRICES.—INDEX NUMBERS (REVISED SERIES).

YearGroup I: Dairy-produce.Group II: Meat.Group III:Wool.Group IV Other Pastoral Produce.Groups I-IV: All Pastoral and Dairy ProduceGroup V: Agricultural Produce.Group IV TimberGroup VII: MineralsGroups I-VII: All Groups Combined
19141,031119610991,10010959881,00010091089
19151,20613921,2221,1471,2511,0421,02310391239
19161,3641,4341,72513801478123810901,0631,460
19171,5361,6571,77319651,6631943118710951,655
19181,5521,6731,7772,171169118751,6021,1621684
19191,7161,66518022,47117871797192811991,776
19201819169618002,318182414182,25213381806
19212,273190983512971,72513292,43713911,713
192214951,6159241,2401,3521,4512,3331,3711,363
192316482,0091,2741429161913382,1391,3301,610
19241,6612,0151902159518061,3772,3831,3041788
19251,5202,2182,234195119141,4762,4721,2501893
1926140918551,4271,6431,54114492,51511821,540
19271,3751,7631,5261,61715291,4172,40911291,525
19281,4761801192418051,7001,3502,33810811683
19291,45718271,7101,7031,6341,4242,38010781,623
19301,2061,7121,0031,24312791,2672,4471,0621283
19319891,3016797679651,1552,1911,177984
193293411096256228701,1022,0731,162892
19338391,1656717558671,1572,1101,416896

Export prices collapsed in the later months of 1930, the annual average index number for that year (1283) representing a fall of 340 points as compared with the 1929 figure. This rapid downward movement in export prices continued during 1931 and 1932, the annual average figure for the latter year reaching the extremely low level of 892—10.8 per cent, below 1909.13 export prices. Each individual group shared in this collapse with the exception of the minerals group; while the index numbers for wool (625) and “other” pastoral produce (622) were considerably lower than those recorded for any of the other groups. Although the 1933 annual average index is only 4 points above the low figure recorded in 1932, a definite and sustained improvement in the monthly index numbers took place during the latter half of the year. The extremely low prices received during 1933 for dairy-produce hail a depressing effect on the export - price index numbers, all other groups showing higher annual average index numbers than in 1932.

The index number for the group “All pastoral and dairy produce” has fallen from the comparatively high level of 1700 in 1928 to 867 in 1933—a decrease of almost 50 per cent, during the last five years.

IMPORT PRICES.

The export-prices index is in itself a valuable indicator of the trend of business conditions in the Dominion, since it provides a measure of the extent to which the monetary value of New Zealand's export trade is affected by fluctuations in the prices received for exported produce in overseas markets. In times of rising prices, however, the enhanced money return consequent on higher export prices is at least partly counteracted by the necessity of paying higher prices for commodities for importation; while, on the other hand, a period of falling prices generally denotes both a lowered per-unit money return for commodities sold abroad and lowered costs for commodities purchased overseas. A complete review of the effect of overseas price-movements on the value of the external commodity trade of the Dominion can be made only by comparing fluctuations in the prices of commodities exported with, the corresponding movements in the prices of commodities for importation.

The nature of our external trade is such that the export-price index numbers may be derived from only a relatively small number of homogeneous primary products and yet represent practically the whole of the export trade of the Dominion. On the contrary, imports consist in the main of manufactured products individually representing only a small proportion of total imports. Moreover, the heterogeneous nature of many of the main import items—e.g., drapery—renders it difficult to obtain a selection of standard items which will adequately represent imports as a whole.

In view of the importance of external trade in the economy of New Zealand, and the desirability of making the statistics dealing with this aspect of the economic life of the Dominion as complete as possible, efforts have been made for some time past to collect the data necessary to enable an index number of import prices to be compiled. Where data have not been obtainable from the import statistics, or otherwise available locally, information as to wholesale or export prices in Great Britain or in other countries has been recorded for inclusion in an import-prices index.

Sufficient information is now available to warrant the compilation and publication of an import-prices index with a reasonable degree of confidence. At the same time, the relatively high degree of accuracy in an export-prices or a wholesale-prices index cannot be hoped for in the case of import prices, index numbers of which are for this reason compiled on a three-figure base (100).

The import-prices index, like other series of New Zealand price-index numbers, is compiled by the aggregate expenditure method, the weight allotted to each individual item in the regimen of the import-prices series representing the average quantity of that commodity imported during the calendar years 1026 to 1930. Owing to the relative rapidity of the changes in the nature of import trade, a series of import-price index numbers tends to lose its representative virtue more speedily thar is the case with most other series. The present series was continued back to 1920 only, since sufficient data uniformly comparable with that collected in respect of more recent years were not available beyond that year. While the export-prices index is compiled for monthly as well as for annual periods, only annual index numbers have been compiled in the case of import juices.

In order to avoid any possible confusion between the import-prices index number and the wholesale-prices index number for imported commodities, it seems desirable to draw attention to the fact that the price quotations on which the import-prices index is based are: («) Declared value of commodities for import— i.e., prices in the exporting country plus 10 per cent, to cover freight, &c.; or (b) wholesale-price quotations (plus allowance for freight, &c.) of suitable representative items in Great Britain and other overseas countries in cases where no data are available as to declared values. These price quotations are converted to a New-Zealand-currency basis, so that the index numbers will be comparable with other series.

It will be noticed that the wholesale-price index number for imported commodities, which is based on wholesale-price quotations in the four chief centres, has been substantially higher than the import-prices index since 1929. Increases in Customs duties and the relative stability of handling-costs, overhead charges, and other expenses of marketing imported goods have contributed to this widening of the gap between import prices and wholesale prices of imported commodities. It is desirable to draw attention to the fact that the number of items included in the import-prices index (220) is considerably greater than the number included in the wholesale-prices index for imported commodities (112).

The import-prices index has moved in fairly dose sympathy with wholesale-prices index mini hers for similar groups of commodities in Great Britain. A gradual fall between 1020 and 1930 was followed by a sharp drop between ]930 and 1931. Since the import-prices index number is expressed in New Zealand currency, the fall in overseas wholesale prices has been recently counteracted to a large extent in its effect on this index by the decline of New Zealand currency in relation to sterling. For example, the British Board of Trade's index number of wholesale prices of non-foods in Great Britain fell by 14 per cent, between 1930 and 1933 as compared with a fall of 7 per cent, in the import-prices index in New Zealand currency.

Between 1926 and 1929 the per-unit purchasing-power of New Zealand's exports in terms of imported commodities rose considerably, the export-prices index increasing by 0 per cent, during that period, while the import-prices index fell by 14 per cent. This relatively favourable situation was reversed in 1930, a sharp drop in export prices being accompanied by only a slight fall in import prices. Although import prices fell considerably between 1930 and 1933, the fall in export prices was even greater, so that the gap between the import-prices index and the export-prices index has widened considerably.

The following table shows index numbers of import, export, wholesale, and retail prices on base 1920 = 100., Each series of index numbers is compiled on a New-Zealand-currency basis. Index numbers are, of course, comparable vertically, but not horizontally.

YearRetailExport Prices.Wholesale PricesRetail Prices (All Groups).
Import PricesPastoral and Dairy Produce.All Groups.Locally produced Commodities.Imported Commodities.All Groups.
1926100      
1927949995969599 
192890110109989496100
19298610010598939699
19308483949397  
193177636482938790
193275565879908483
193378505877958479

EFFECT OF PRICE MOVEMENTS ON FARM EXPENDITURE.

Prices of a large selection of farm-products are included in the official wholesale and export price index numbers. Many of the principal items of farm expenditure, however, are not covered by the wholesale price index, which is purely a commodity index. A special index number has now been constructed in which such items as interest-payments, rates and taxes, wages, freight, and commission are included in addition to the material commodities which are bought for use in farm production. Statistics of prices of farm-implements, saddlery, harness, and sundry other commodities not covered by the wholesale prices inquiry have also been obtained from merchants and manufacturers of farm machinery, and included in this index, so that practically the whole of the working-expenses of the average farm are now represented. A full description of the method of compilation of this index number is contained in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book.

While the farm-expenditure index indicates the effect of price movements on farm expenditure generally, it is not intended to apply to particular types of farming or to particular localities. Again, the weights used in compiling the index are fixed, so that is assumed that expenditure is distributed in the same proportions during the year under review.

Indexes for the years 1924 to 1933 (on base 1914 = 1000) are given below. For purposes of comparison the general indexes of wholesale and retail prices, and the export index number for all pastoral and dairy produce combined, are also included on the same base year.

Year.Farm Expenditure Index.Pastoral and Dairy Produce Export PriceGeneral Wholesale Price Index.All Groups Retail Price index.
* Approximate. Recent changes in certain items are incapable of exact measurement.
19141,000   
1924158616491,5521,567
1925158217481,5451599
19261,5551,4071,4751608
19271,57413961,4041594
19281,6421,5531,4171,602
19291,63614921,4131599
1930162811681,3761,562
1931149088112781,447
19321250*7951,2321,334
19331150*7921,2421,266

The peak year for the farm-expenditure and wholesale-price index numbers was the year 1920; for retail prices, the year 1921; and for export prices, the year 1925. Although the farm-expenditure index had a relatively low peak-level (1661) this index has not fallen to the same extent as the other indexes, the 1933 figure (1150) being still above the 1914 level of prices—in marked contrast to the export-price index number for pastoral and dairy produce, which was, in 1933, 20.8 per cent, below the corresponding figure for the year 1914. The monthly export-prices index for pastoral and dairy produce has recovered considerably from the low level recorded during the early months of 1933, the latest available index number (963, in August, 1934) being substantially above the average index for the year 1933.

It is interesting to compare the farm-expenditure index with the export-price index. From 1915 to 1921 the export-price index was the higher—the difference being 235 points in 1917. In 1921 the position was reversed, the farm-expenditure index in that year being 31 points above the export price-level. By the year 1922 the export index had dropped to 1235, the farm-expenditure index for this year (1543) being 308 points above that figure. A recovery in export prices during the two succeeding years once more brought this index to a higher level than the farm-expenditure index, the 1924 index being 63 points and the 1925 index 166 points higher. Export prices again fell away; and since 1925 the export index has remained below the farm-expenditure index, the difference in 1933 being 358 points.

SHARE PRICES.

The fluctuations in the market value of shares listed on the Stock Exchange form a very sensitive indication of changes in business conditions generally, and an index number of ordinary share prices is thus a valuable complement to other business indicators—such as trade and production statistics, wholesale and export price index numbers, &c. Index numbers of share prices, based on the market prices of forty-nine leading shares on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges, are now compiled by the Census and Statistics Office. The selection of the shares for inclusion in the index number was made with the object of reflecting New Zealand economic conditions; and, consequently, only companies whose business is conducted largely or wholly in New Zealand are included. Again, only ordinary shares—the return on which varies directly with the profits of the company in which shares are taken—are considered; preference shares and other investments normally bearing a fixed return being excluded.

The market prices on which the index numbers are based have been extracted from Stock Exchange lists of individual exchanges prior to September, 1929, and from the list of share prices included in the Stock Exchange Gazelle and its successor, the Official Record of the Stock Exchanges of New Zealand, since that month. The prices quoted relate to the last trading day in each month; so that the “monthly” index numbers compiled from this data relate to that day only, while the annual averages represent the average of the monthly index numbers. The base adopted is the average price ruling during the year 1926 (= 1000). For further observations on the methods employed, refer to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for August, 1932.

Following are annual index numbers for various groups and all groups combined.

SHARE-PRICE INDEX NUMBERS, INDIVIDUAL GROUPS.

Group.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Banks1,0241029883718677742
Insurance1,0741,1431,0239219191190
Loan and agency .9561,032763517470545
Frozen meat1,0451,041835646701835
Woollens1,0431180977792778923
Breweries..8791,3201,201773602753
Gas1,01210971,06010089691,053
Timber675603480323348411
Minerals9971058991859700753
Miscellaneous1,0431,052855678715889
All groups combined1,0021,061913739703822

NOTE.—These index numbers are comparable horizontally hut not vertically.

In the following table index numbers of market prices of ordinary shares on the last trading-day of each month are shown. This index indicates the average movement in prices of forty-nine ordinary shares in companies operating in New Zealand; each individual share and group of shares included being “weighted“ according to its importance in the investment market of the Dominion.

SHARE-PRICE INDEX NUMBERS, ALL GROUPS COMBINED.

 1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
* No lists issued for these months.
January9711,05695774S715722922
February9711058964751680730915
March9791059956779671753921
April9841,050945781666773933
May9911,067950755669795962
June9801079948742674821930
July9971084916738708849935
August1,0211091892697738862952
September1,0351083834687760885985
October1,0371,052858728745883..
November1,0421038830734725893..
December*1,012*729683900..
Annual average1,0021,061913739703822..

International comparisons of price indexes can be made only with considerable caution; but, in the case of the indexes of share prices selected for inclusion in the table following, many of the difficulties attendant on such comparisons are lessened by the facts that all series are compiled on the same base year (1926 and that the method of compilation of each of the indexes is substantially comparable in each case. Naturally enough, the indexes for England, United States, and Canada are based on a much wider selection of shares than the New Zealand or the Australian figures; and, moreover, the volume of transactions on the exchanges in these countries is such that a finer market price can be arrived at than is possible in the Dominion.

The following table shows the highest and lowest monthly indexes for 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, and the month of May, 1934:—

MonthNew Zealand (Official).Australia* (Melbourne Stock Exchange Record).England (Bankers* Magazine).Canada (Official).United State* (Standard Statistics Company).
* May, 1926 = 1O0.
1929 —Highest .108124209225 
Lowest10192110157151
1930— Highest9683111167181
Lowest835389103109
1931— Highest786590112122
Lowest6950676558
1932— Highest7682736558
Lowest6662594334
1933—Highest.9096858780
Lowest7281724943
1934— May961008772 

While the index numbers in the above table show the movement in ordinary share prices in each country covered, comparisons of recent index numbers for one country with those for another country should not be made without taking into account the relative exchange value of the various local currencies. For example, the index numbers quoted for New Zealand express the movement in share prices in New Zealand currency, the exchange value of which has depreciated since the beginning of 1930—a factor which should be borne in mind when comparing New Zealand indexes with figures for countries with currencies of higher or lower exchange value than the New Zealand pound. The following table is interesting in this connection, in that it shows the relative values in June, 1933, of an investment of £100 sterling made in 1926 in representative shares on each of the different stock exchanges.

Country.Month of May, 1034.
Index Number of Share Prices (1926 = 100).Average Kate of Exchange on London,Present Value of Shares bought in 1926 for £100 Sterling.In Local Currency,In Sterling
*Per £100 sterling.
 £   
England87..£8787
Canada87$5.0968,42383
Australia100£125.25*£10080
New Zealand96£124.75*£9677
United States7285.107$35069

Chapter 35. SECTION XXXV.—WAGE-RATES AND HOURS OF LABOUR.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE material used in the compilation of statistics of wages-rates in New Zealand is, with certain exceptions, taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court. It is recognized that the rates specified in such awards are minimum rates, and that wages may in some cases be above the prescribed minima, so that a rise or fall in the award rates does not necessarily connote an immediate change in the wage-rates of workers being paid more than these rates. Nevertheless, for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage-rates over any considerable space of time, the award rates form a more reliable basis than any information which could be collected directly from employers or trade-union secretaries as to the ruling or predominant rates in any industry. In the case of two important classes of workers—agricultural and pastoral employees and railway employees—no awards exist. Information has been obtained from the Labour Department as to the ruling rates of wages in the former case, and from the Railways Department in the latter case.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, contains, inter alia, a provision that, in the case of parties to an industrial dispute being unable to come to agreement before the Conciliation Council, the award lapses. In cases where awards have lapsed under this provision, information has been collected as to the ruling rates of wages paid by the majority of employers.

The award rates for the four principal districts—Northern, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland—have in general been taken as representative of the ruling wages throughout the Dominion. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in cases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts the award rates for that centre have been used. For instance, the rates used for coal-mining and sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

The system of compilation of wage-rate index numbers was revised some years ago, separate index numbers now being compiled for men and women workers.

WAGE-RATES OF MALE EMPLOYEES.

METHOD OF WEIGHTING.

The wage-rates used in the compilation of the index numbers for male workers are those paid to adult workers only. In weighting these rates three sources of information as to the numbers engaged in the various occupations have been drawn on—viz., (1) the occupations statistics of the 1926 census, (2) the annual factory production statistics, and (3) the membership rolls of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. It is possible to allocate weights to the individual occupations included in these computations. Although in some few cases absolute accuracy in weighting cannot be hoped for, the data are sufficiently accurate for the purpose in view, since minor differences in weighting do not affect the accuracy of the index number. Occupations are grouped into industries, with an appropriate weight for each occupation and each industry; while industries are grouped into fourteen principal industrial groups. The weights for the individual occupations and industries have been devised from the census or the factory production statistics; while the industrial-group weighting has been taken from the membership, as at 31st December, 1926, of trade-unions registered under the Arbitration Act. except in the case of agricultural and pastoral workers, the weights for which industrial group have been interpolated, using the 1926 census figures as a basis. Trade-union membership is relatively very low for this type of worker. For full detail of weighting refer to the “ Statistical Report on Prices, Wages, &c., ” for the year 1928.

NOMINAL WAGE-RATE INDEX NUMBERS.

The following table shows the index numbers of nominal wage-rates of males for each industrial group and all groups combined. The base is the Dominion weighted average wage-rate for all groups combined, 1909-13 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Food, drink, and tobacco1798184018621875188318821885179416841619
Clothing, boots, &c.16191,6551,67716981,7301,7321,7331,6331,5551,561
Textiles and weaving1,571162816961,6771,53314811,472   
Building and construction1,7231,737178418041810181518191,7151,6341,615
Wood-manufacture17391,7561,7661792183418411,7251,6411,553 
Printing, &c.19132,0032,0122,0132,014189017911719  
Metal-working and engineering1,77118121822188218851,7571,6631,571  
Other manufactures16931,7071,75517691,773178017791,67215981588
Mining17901840184918621849182218311,7241,6211583
Agricultural and pastoral1,3071,3051,3311378158115841,57613791,1071,013
Land transport1,6441,7121,714173917481,751163915191,465 
Shipping and cargo-working18041835184218491867192118181,7221,670 
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal Service1,5071,5751,6021,6261,6311,5371,4541,376  
Miscellaneous1,6241,65016851,7101,73717381,6351,5631,551 
All industrial groups combined1,634165916831,7101,7651,7671,7721,6441,5121,453

NOTE.—The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally. Where board and (or) lodging is a usual perquisite attached to any occupation, an allowance estimated to cover the value of such has been added to the money wage-rate.

The highest index numbers are recorded in the group “ printing, &c, ” the 1933 index in this industry being 1719 and representing an increase of 71.9 per cent, above the “ all groups ” level in 1909–13. It is worthy of note that this group is consistently high, due, no doubt, to the preponderance of highly skilled tradesmen.

The 1933 index for the group “ agricultural and pastoral ” (1013) is the lowest, followed by “ hotels and restaurants ” (1376), and “ land transport ” (1465). In the “ agricultural and pastoral, ” “ hotels and restaurants, ” and “ shipping and cargo-working ” groups the estimated value of board and lodging is added to the money wage-rate in order to make a legitimate comparison with other industries. In the case of waterside workers (an important subgroup of the shipping group) this allowance is, of course, omitted.

Wage-rates rose steadily and in fairly regular gradations from year to year from 1914 to 1918. When the provisions of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act providing for the regulation of wages in accordance with movements in the cost of living came into effect the lag between prices and wage-rates was partially eliminated: consequently sharp increases took place—160 points between 1919 and 1920, and 116 points between 1920 and 1921. The effect of the post-war slump thereafter became apparent, decreases being recorded in the two subsequent years (1922 and 1923), the nominal wage-rate index for all groups of industries falling from 1666 in 1921 to 1612 in 1923. Following the recovery from the slump, the index number rose year by year until in 1929 it reached 1767, and, in 1930, 1772, the highest level yet recorded. A general order of the Arbitration Court, dated 29th May, 1931, reduced all rates of pay and allowances prescribed by awards and industrial agreements by 10 per cent. The rates of remuneration of apprentices are exempt from this order; and, in addition, flax-mill employees in the Wellington Industrial District, who had already suffered a substantial cut in wages, were exempted. The average rates of pay of agricultural and pastoral workers, although not subject to the Court's order, were considerably below those ruling during previous years. As a consequence of these reductions a substantial fall occurred in the 1931 annual average index numbers for all groups. This reduction in wage-rates, being on a strictly percentage basis, caused a levelling-up in the group indexes, the relatively higher-paid groups of workers suffering the largest reduction in rates. The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, made provision for the review of existing awards, and for the cancellation of registration under the Act in the event of the parties failing to agree as to wages, working-conditions, &c, at Conciliation Council proceedings, unless the dispute is referred, by mutual consent, to the Arbitration Court for its decision. Consequently a number of awards have been cancelled; and in such cases data as to ruling rates of wages have been collected and used in the compilation of index numbers of wage-rates.

During 1932 and 1933 the rates of pay prescribed in several awards were reduced in new awards; and, again, wage-rates of two classes of labour not covered by awards (railway employees and permanent farm hands) suffered further reductions—in 1932 in the former case and in 1932 and 1933 in the latter case. Also in most instances the ruling rates of pay in cases where previously existing awards have been cancelled are below the former award rates. Consequently the general index number of wage-rates has fallen substantially, the 1933 index (1453, on the base: 1909–13 = 1000) being 3.9 per cent, below the 1932 figure, and 18.0 per cent, below the peak level of 1772 recorded in 1930. The 1933 index is the lowest annual average index since 1919.

The following table shows the index numbers of male wage-rates for all groups combined for each industrial district and the Dominion weighted average. From this table comparisons may be made between the index numbers for the four principal industrial districts. The base is the Dominion weighted average of wage-rates for all industrial groups combined, 1909–13 (= 1000).

Year.Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Dominion.
19241,6221,6211,6711,6321,634
19251,6471,63416981,6701659
19261,6651658172916991683
1927168716801,7771,7201,710
19281,752175917841,7671,765
19291,7551,76217881,7701,767
193017591,765178817991,772
19311,6451,6361,66416291,644
19321,5021496154915091,512
193314481,43414841,4541,453

NOTE.—The indexes in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

It will be noted that throughout the decennial period covered by this table wage-rates moved in close harmony as between the four districts.

EFFECTIVE WAGE-RATES.

The index numbers quoted in the foregoing pages relate to nominal wage-rates—that is, they are based on actual money rates without any allowance being made for changes in the purchasing - power of the monetary unit during the period under review. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance; for a rise in wage-rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing-power of the monetary unit. Changes in the index numbers of retail prices are inversely proportional to changes in the purchasing-power of the pound; and index numbers of effective (or “ real ”) wage-rates can be arrived at by dividing the index numbers for nominal wage-rates by the corresponding index numbers for retail prices covering all groups of domestic expenditure. To this end the index numbers of nominal wage-rates on the base 1909–13 = 1000 are first converted to the base 1914 by dividing them by the correction factor 1.066, the 1914 index number of nominal wage-rates of males on the former base being 1066. The resulting nominal wage-rate index numbers on the new base are then divided by the retail price indexes (all groups) on base July, 1914 = 1000, and the resulting quotient multiplied by 1000 yields the effective wage-rate indexes for the years concerned.

These index numbers afford a measure of the fluctuations in the “ real ” wage-rates of those in full-time employment; and in normal times this is a reasonably accurate basis of comparison of the relative earning-power from year to year of wage-earners covered by these index numbers.

At the present time, however, with unemployment and short-time rife, it appears necessary to stress that the index number of effective wage-rates (in common, of course, with that of nominal wage-rates) is applicable only to wage earners in full-time employment on standard rates of pay, and not to the average of all wage-earners, inclusive of those unemployed or working short time.

The following table compares nominal and effective wage-rates of male workers in each of the last ten years. The base of the index-numbers is in each case the year 1914 (=1000):—

Year.Retail Prices.Nominal Wage-rates.Effective Wage-rates.
19241,5671,533978
192515991,556973
192616081579982
192715941,6041,006
19281,6021,6561,034
1929159916581,037
19301,5621,6651,066
19311,4431,5421069
19321,33414181,063
19331,2661,3631,077

It should be noted that an unemployment-relief wages-tax (Id. for every 6s. 8d. of wages from August, 1931, to April. 1932, Id. for every Is. 8d. from May, 1932, to September, 1934, and Id. for every 2s. from October, 1934) is now in operation. This has not been taken into account in the compilation of index numbers of effective wage-rates.

MOVEMENT IN INDIVIDUAL GROUPS.

The index numbers in the preceding tables being all on a common base, comparisons between movements in the various groups cannot be readily made; an increase of (say) 10 per cent, in the group “ clothing and boots, ” in which the index numbers are consistently low, being considerably smaller numerically than an increase of the same percentage in (say) the printing trade, where the index numbers are considerably higher. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly. The bases are the Dominion average wage-rates for each industrial group respectively, 1914 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WAGE-RATE INDEX NUMBERS (MALES).

Industrial Group.1914.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Food, drink, and tobacco1,0001,6131,6151,5371,4421387
Clothing, boots, &c.1,0001683168415871,5111,516
Textiles and weaving1,0001768174815981,5441,535
Building and construction1,0001,565156914791,4101393
Wood-manufacture1,0001,7531,6431,5631479 
Printing, &c.1,0001,563146813911,335 
Metal-working and engineering1,000158315821,47613961,320
Other manufactures1,0001,7301,7311,6271,5551,545
Mining1,00015941,603150914191385
Agricultural and pastoral1,000179417851,5621,2531,147
Land transport1,000168316811,5751,4601,407
Shipping and cargo-working1,0001,6661,7141,6221,5361490
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1,00014581,3751,3001,230 
Miscellaneous..17381,6361,5631,551 
All industrial groups combined1,00016581,6651,54214181,363

NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative percentage increases of wage-rates in the different industrial groups since 1914, not of the actual relative levels of wage-rates in the different industries.

Care must be exercised in drawing inferences from this table, for, while horizontal comparisons are quite valid, the vertical comparison between the various groups is valid only in so far as it shows in which groups the greater or the smaller increases have been observed since the base period (1914 in this case). For example, nominal wage-rates of males in the “ textile and weaving ” group show in 1933 an increase of 53.5 per cent, since 1914, while those in the group “ mining ” have increased by only 38.5 per cent.; nevertheless wage-rates were higher in the latter group in 1933, having been considerably higher in 1914—the base year.

WAGE-RATES OF WOMEN WORKERS.

Index numbers showing movements in the wage-rates paid to women workers have been compiled, using the award rates of the Arbitration Court as representative of the ruling rates of wages. A much smaller list of occupations is used than is the case in computing index numbers of wage-movements for male workers. Although only fourteen occupations are taken into consideration in the case of women workers, it has been ascertained that these occupations cover a large proportion of the total women in industry—more than sufficient to be a representative sample for measuring movements in wages. The weights used have been computed from the data as to occupations made available by the 1926 census results. In order to arrive at district weights the Dominion totals were split up in proportion to the numbers of women registered in the various unions in the different industrial districts.

The table following shows index numbers for women divided into the principal industries in which women workers are engaged. It should be remembered that domestic servants (numerically a very important branch of women workers) are not represented in the compilation of these indexes.

The highest index numbers are recorded in the “ hotel and restaurant workers ” group. The comparatively high figure for this industry is, no doubt, accounted for by the fact that board and lodging is a usual perquisite of hotel workers, while meals are usually provided for restaurant employees. The estimated value of these additions has been added to the money wage-rates in this industry. Women, in general, receive lower money wages than men, so that the addition of board and lodging has the effect of raising wage-rates for women in a much greater proportion than the addition of the same perquisite does in the case of men. Indeed, wages for men in this group are low as compared with most other industries.

In the Printing trades the next highest level of wage-rates is recorded, followed closely by shop-assistants. Wage-rates in the clothing and textiles trades are at a lower level than those in the other industries under review.

In the table following the base is the Dominion “ all groups ” weighted average of wage-rates, 1909–13 (= 1000).

NOMINAL WAGE-RATE INDEX NUMBERS (WOMEN).

Year.Clothing-trade Workers.Textile Workers.Printing-trade Workers.Hotel and Restaurant Workers.Shop Assistants.All Groups combined.
19241,4361,36417282,06715591,723
19251,4441,36418002,08715871,740
19261,5141,44518062,10415871780
19271,5141,50318082,1091,6421790
192815191,50318092,1131,7541803
192915191,50318092,1131,7541803
193015191,50318152,1131,7541804
19311,4311,4151,71019891,6511698
193213831,3531,626187115781,616
1,0331,3641,353150817851,5631,566

The all-groups index for 1933 shows a decrease of 3.1 per cent, since 1932, and of 13.2 per cent, from the peak level recorded in 1930. Each group shares in this downward movement. The greatest decrease since 1930 (16.9 per cent.) is recorded in the case of employees in the printing trade, while the lowest decrease (10.0 per cent.) is observed among clothing-trade employees;

AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES.

The following table shows the unweighted averages of award rates for the four principal districts. In cases where awards have been allowed to lapse under the provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act, 1932, the ruling rates of wages are quoted. The estimated value of board and lodging has been added to the wages in those occupations where it is a usual perquisite of employment.

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY ADULT WAGE-RATES.

Occupation.Average Wage-rate (Four Principal Districts).
At 31st March,
1914.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.p.d.s.d.
Bakers—Journeymen550100010009008610894
Labourers4808068067267110744
Butchers—First shopmen72611610½11610½210521041 
Second shopmen62610501050946946940
Butter-factory employees—            
Churning and buttermaking—            
General hands526819819739729727
Flour-milling—Kilnmen480960960865865865
Assistant smuttermen480880880792792792
Rollermen50010001000900900900
Meat-freezing—            
Slaughtermen (per 100 sheep)276400400360300306
General hands540918918826799799
Meat-preserving—            
Boners62010371037923909909
Meat-preservers—Second men5969549548510826826
Sausage - casing making—General hands5889549548510826826
Aerated-waters and cordial making—            
Cordial-makers589930930839839839
Bottle-washers450830830749749749
Brewing—Labourers47836836749749749
Tailors—Journeymen53995095085686086O
Factory hands560876876789789789
Tailoresses (factory)—Journey women276450450406406406
Boot operatives—            
Male520881188118O0799799
Female journeywomen276500500450440440
Woollen-mills—            
Males—Spinners510939939845845845
General hands466826826743743743
Females—All adults263450450406406406
Building and construction—            
Bricklayers6810461046941931931
Carpenters6410191019917880880
Joiners (outside work)6410191019917880880
Plasterers6710231041938927927
Plumbers (competent)660990990891893893
Builders' labourers52826826743743743
Sawmilling, bush—            
Engine-drivers, first class54010461046941822822
Sawyers531034103493084118411
Tailers-out439891089108011749749
Yardmen5510021009902824824
General hands510869869781706706
Boatbuilding—Shipwrights62810461046941880880
Metal-works &c.—            
Blacksmiths, doormen6179909908O1823823
Boilermaking—Journeymen628990990891823823
Iron and brass moulders64990990891823823
Tinsmiths—Journeymen628990990891891856
Engineering—            
Fitters, &c.64990990891823823
Electrical workers6110½990990891852852
Motor mechanics6411½990990891808808
Skin and leather workers—s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Curriers58010201020919919900
General hands496858858771771754
Mineral and stone workers—            
Brickmakers5311½10421042939939939
General hands46874874787787787
Mining (gold)—            
Surface—Tippers538778777810746733
Labourers548778777810756733
Engine-drivers, first class6761176117610591020990
Miners on day wages6331061010610952998891
Truckers55119369368428168O2
Mining (gold)—            
Miners in rises or winzes with machines646942942849809809
Quarry men5285857697697611
Agricultural and pastoral workers—            
General farm hands (agricultural)420690690455413424
Threshing-mill hands60011109911970840840
Ploughmen484700700488454469
Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)230340300260226230
Shepherds4928008004911489493
Wool-pressers300946826750640650
Dairy-farm hands444690690435413374
Railways—            
Engine-drivers (average grade 1 and grade 2)75011241124101190119011
Firemen (average grade 1 and grade 2)6009459458411766766
Guards (average grade 1 and grade 2)63011001100990890892
Tramways—Motormen536950950856860874
Conductors47906906816816829
Shipping and cargo-working—            
Assistant stewards, first class435933933831181117911
Assistant stewards, second class36690119011811079107710
Chief cooks780125612561121111101090
Second cooks541110711071964945925
A.B. seamen54111002992972880860
Ordinary seamen, first class458783773753686666
Waterside workers—Ordinary cargo62410281028925880880
Hotel workers—Chefs (male)112613201320118911101110
Waiters (male)530870870783729729
Cooks (female)526796796717663663
Housemaids326626626563519519
Waitresses431626626563519519
Miscellaneous—            
Soft-goods assistants (male)550950950856856852
Warehouse storemen51850850766766762
Grocers' assistants500950950856847847

The wage-rates published above are, with certain exceptions, minimum rates of pay as prescribed in awards of the Arbitration Court. No awards exist for general farm hands, information as to wages for these wage-earners being collected from Inspectors of Factories in the principal industrial districts. A special inquiry as to rates of pay in this industry was made by the Census and Statistics Office in 1929 to ascertain how closely the wage-rates offered for labour engaged through the Employment Bureaux corresponded to the actual ruling rates for farm labour. The results of this inquiry are contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 813–815). The rates of wages quoted for railway employees are also actual ruling rates, and not award minima.

HOURS OF LABOUR.

The following table shows index numbers of the number of hours constituting a full week's work in the various industrial groups for 1914 and for each year from 1924 to 1933. The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court in most cases; but where hours are not prescribed in the awards reference has been made to the Factories Act and the Shops and Offices Act. The agricultural and pastoral workers group has been omitted from the computations, which cover both male and female employees. The base is the Dominion weighted average for all industrial groups combined, 1909–13 (= 1000).

Industrial Group.1914.1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Food, drink, and tobacco993945         
Clothing, boots, &c.928901         
Textiles and weaving970934         
Building and construction910901         
Wood-manufacture951917         
Printing, &c.978890         
Metal-working and engineering958908         
Other manufactures973945         
Mining958920918        
Land transport1,002952         
Shipping and cargo-working1,05410981,043        
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service1,203982932982       
Miscellaneous955890         
All Industrial groups combined995940941        

NOTE.—The Index numbers in the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

The index numbers in the above table being all on a common base, comparisons between movements in the different groups cannot be readily made. The following table brings out the movements in the various groups more clearly, the 1909–13 average in the case of each group being taken as the base (= 1000) in each case for that group. Care must be exercised in drawing inferences from this table; for while horizontal comparisons can be rigorously effected vertical comparisons are of value only for the purpose of indicating which groups have shown the greatest and which the smallest decreases since the base period.

Industrial Group.1914.1924.1925.1926.1927.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Food, drink, and tobacco..995947         
clothing, boots, &c.997968         
Textiles and weaving1,000957         
Building and construction993984         
Wood-manufacture1,000964         
printing, &c.1,000910         
Metal-working and engineering997915945        
Other manufactures999970         
Mining1,000960958        
Land transport999949         
Shipping and cargo working9801,020969        
Hotel, restaurant, and other personal service990808         
Miscellaneous962896         
All industrial groups combined995946941        

NOTE.—Vertical comparisons are indicative merely of the relative percentage changes in the length of the working week in the different industries since the base period, not of the actual respective number of hours for the different industrial groups.

The following table shows the index numbers for the various districts. In spite of the fact that certain industries are more or less confined to certain districts and that, consequently, fluctuations arise from this fact alone, the index numbers show remarkably little variation as between district and district. The base is the Dominion weighted average for all industrial groups combined, 1909–13 (= 1000).

Year.Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Dominion.
19141,004973987995 
1924940958933951946
1925940958933951946
1926934951931946941
1927934951930946941
1928934951930946941
1929934951930946941
1930934951930946941
1931934951930946941
1932934951930946941
1934934951930946941

NOTE.—The index numbers in the above table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

As indicated by the foregoing tables, changes in the length of the full working week have been relatively few in recent years. The greatest number of hours in the normal working week is found in the case of workers aboard ship, the hours prescribed by award for cooks and stewards while at sea being nine hours per day for a seven-day working week. In butter and cheese factories also the nature of the work involves a seven-day week, the working week in butter-factories being 56 hours for six months of the year and 44 hours for the remainder of the year. In the case of cheese-factories some awards specify 60 hours per week at the height of the season, 48 hours for another portion of the year, and 38 hours in the slack season. It is interesting to note that in a recent award for cheese-factories in one district the principle of set hours has been partially abandoned, the hours prescribed being as follows: “ During eight months of the year the time to be worked in cheese-factories each day shall be the time required to complete the manufacture of cheese, having due regard to all the technicalities of the process. During two months of the year the time to be worked shall be 48 hours per week, and during the remaining two months the time to be worked shall be 44 hours per week.”

The hours of labour prescribed by awards for hotel and restaurant workers and shop-assistants are 48 per week, while in the engineering, building, and clothing trades a 44-hour week is normal. In coal-mines an eight-hour day is usual with no work on alternate Saturdays. The lowest hours per week among occupations coming within the scope of these index numbers is recorded in certain branches of the printing trade— e.g., typographers—where a 42-hour working week is prescribed by award.

Chapter 36. SECTION XXXVI.—LEGISLATION SPECIALLY AFFECTING LABOUR.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

AT a very early stage in the economic history of New Zealand, legislative enactments designed for the protection of the wage-earner and the amelioration of social conditions generally were placed on the statute-book. It is not surprising that such Acts as the Trade-unions Act of 1878 and the Master and Apprentices Act of 1865 found places among the laws of this country so early in its history, since experience in the older countries in a more advanced state of economic development had proved the necessity for a certain amount of State regulation of the terms of the wage contract. But legislators of New Zealand were not content merely to follow in the wake of their brethren overseas; and we find the State, in its endeavour to improve social conditions generally, not only regulating industry by a rapidly growing code of labour laws but also venturing into the economic field itself when it considered such participation in the public interest. The establishment of a Government Life Insurance Department in 1869 and of a Public Trust Office in 1873, and in later years the establishment of a State Fire Insurance Office, are examples of this.

In addition to the Master and Apprentices Act and the Trade-unions Act, certain sections of other early Acts deal with labour conditions. Section 23 of the Offences against the Person Act of 1867 protected servants and apprentices from ill treatment by their employers, while a considerable portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act of 1877 regulated conditions of life aboard ship, payment of wages, &c. The Inspection of Machinery Act of 1882 provided for the inspection or machinery in factories, &c., and required that persons in charge of boilers should be properly qualified. An Employers' Liability Act was passed in 1882, this Act legislating in the matter of industrial accidents with the object of mitigating the consequences to the worker without recourse to expensive litigation at common law.

Until more recent times factory production was of very minor importance in New Zealand when compared with that of the agricultural and pastoral industries; nevertheless, even in the “eighties” and early “nineties” it was apparent that some of the evils experienced in the early stages of the development of factory production in the older countries already existed in New Zealand. In 1889 it was alleged that “sweating” existed in New Zealand, especially in the clothing trades; and although a Commission set up to inquire into the matter declared it could find no traces of this evil, a minority report did not fully agree with this view, and it was admitted that conditions were unsatisfactory in various respects.

An important measure indirectly affecting labour passed during this period of stress was the Electoral Act of 1889, which established the principle of “one man one vote.” This enactment prevented property-owners with holdings in several electorates from voting in each electorate. The extension of the franchise to women followed four years later.

The maritime strike of 1890, which caused great distress throughout the country, proved to the trade-unions that they were not sufficiently strong to obtain their demands by direct action; and, at the same time, aroused public interest and caused the Legislature to frame measures designed to prevent the recurrence of such industrial strife in the future. A brief résumé of the enactments affecting labour passed during the period 1890–98 is here given.

The Truck Act of 1891 ensured to the worker the payment of his wages in full in coin of the realm; the Wages Attachment Act of 1895 limited a creditor's right to obtain orders of Court attaching forthcoming earnings; the Factories Act of 1891 provided for the inspection of factories and the regulation of conditions of employment therein; and the Shops and Shop-assistants Act of 1892 provided similarly for the benefit of workers in shops. Trade-unionists, who were protected by an Act passed in 1878 from prosecution for conspiracy by reason merely that they were in restraint of trade, were still further protected by the Conspiracy Law Amendment Act of 1894, which laid down that any act by a union in furtherance of a trade dispute should not be deemed unlawful so as to render such persons liable to criminal prosecution for conspiracy, if such act committed by one person would not be deemed unlawful. This removed a very serious handicap under which unionists up to this time had suffered. The Servants Registry Act of 1895 provided for the inspection of servants registry-offices and regulated the fees charged therein. The Shipping and Seamen Act Amendment Act, 1894, contained, inter alia, sections improving conditions aboard ship. The Coal-mines Act of 1891 contained, in addition to sections aiming at the improvement of working-conditions, provision for a fund—to be established by a levy on all coal sold—for the relief of the families of miners killed or injured during the course of their employment. The inspection of accommodation provided for shearers was dealt with in the Shearers' Accommodation Act of 1898, which also gave the Inspectors authority to demand that, where necessary, improvements should be made. The scope of this Act was extended in 1907 to include agricultural labourers and flax-mill and sawmill hands. Other important measures, though not strictly labour legislation, passed during those years were the Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, which provided for the payment of a yearly pension to every person (with only a limited number of exceptions) over sixty-five years of age with twenty-five years' residence in the country; and the State Advances to Settlors Act of 1894, which, by providing for the advancing of money to settlers on the land, gave the poorer classes an opportunity of acquiring rural holdings.

The most important of the labour laws passed during this period was the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act of 1894, which was designed for the peaceful settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. This Act is dealt with in some detail in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 707–710).

Another interesting experiment brought into operation at this time was the construction of public works under the co-operative system, which was adopted by the Government in 1891. Works such as road and railway formation have been carried out by this system, the plant, explosives, &c., being supplied to the men by the State at cost price or at low hire. A modified form of the system then adopted is still followed in public works construction.

The enactments passed during the period 1890–98 form the nucleus of the labour code at present in force in this country, although in some cases administrative experience has found defects in the working of certain sections of these Acts and rendered subsequent amendments necessary; while the rapid economic development of the country and the growth of new ideas on the subject of labour legislation has led to many additions to the enactments passed during that period. The passing of the Labour Department Act in 1903, giving statutory recognition and powers to the Department of Labour, which had been formed in 1891, was an important milestone in the progress of labour legislation in New Zealand. The duties of the Department are to administer the labour laws and to furnish information in all industrial matters, while power is given to collect statistics with the authority wherewith a commission of inquiry is invested.

In 1905 a Workers' Dwellings Act was passed authorizing the Minister of Labour to erect dwellings to be let to bona fide workers at a rental of 5 per cent. per annum of the capital value of such dwellings, and in the following year a system of advances to workers for the purpose of acquiring homes was instituted. Later statutes dealing with the same subject followed (vide Section XXIID). Certain sections of the War Legislation Amendment Act of 1916 dealt with house rents; the maximum rent being fixed by statute at 8 per cent, per annum of the capital value of the dwelling, except in cases where the dwelling had been erected, improved, or structurally altered since the commencement of the Great War. Material alterations in the law from 1st August, 1927, were made by the Rent Restriction Act, 1926, which also enacted a repeal of the whole legislation on the subject as from 1st January, 1928. A postponement of the changes to 1st May, 1928, was made by the Rent Restriction Continuance Act, 1927, which kept the rent-restriction provisions in force till 1st January, 1929. Further postponements in respect of the latter have since been made, the date of expiry now standing at 31st October, 1935.

In order to encourage the principle of profit-sharing among workers the Companies Empowering Act was passed in 1924 (now embodied in the consolidating and amending Companies Act, 1933) empowering any company registered under the Companies Act, 1908, to issue labour shares to its employees. Such shares, which are not transferable, have no nominal value, and do not form part of the ordinary capital of the company. Except as otherwise provided, these shares entitle the holders to the same privileges as the ordinary shareholders. In the event of an employee leaving his employment or dying, the shares must be surrendered in cash or capital shares to him or to his heirs. The Act of 1924 required the Arbitration Court to inquire into the merits of each scheme before such scheme could be validated, but this requirement was repealed in 1931.

In 1910 an Act was passed establishing a National Provident Fund subsidized by the State; and in the following year the Widows' Pensions Act was placed on the statute-book. In 1926 a scheme of allowances to parents (in poor circumstances) of three or more children was provided for by the Family Allowances Act. These Acts are referred to in detail in Section XXIII of this book.

An important addition to the labour laws of New Zealand was made in 1930 by the passing of the Unemployment Act. Details of this enactment and of its amendments are given later on in this section.

With but few exceptions, the labour legislation on the New Zealand statute-book is designed for the protection of individual sections of workers.; for example, the Factories Act applies to factory workers, the Shops and Offices Act to employees in shops and offices, the labour sections of the Shipping and Seamen Act to seamen, and the Coal-mines Act to miners, &c. The Arbitration Act has a wider scope in that awards are made under it covering almost every type of industry carried on in the country. From another point of view, however, it is specific in application, in that only unions registered under the Act come under its provisions, and that each award applies to a particular body of workers in a particular trade and usually in a definite district or locality. Acts like the Workers' Compensation Act are more general in their application, but it is only such enactments as the Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act (which has replaced the old Wages Protection Act), as well as other statutes on cognate subjects, which are general in application. Certain sections of the Bankruptcy Act, which give priority of payment for wages or salaries of workers (with certain limitations as to amount and period) in preference to certain other debts in the case of the bankruptcy of an employer, fall in the same category. Under the Bankruptcy Amendment Act, 1927, wages now take precedence over rents. Under the Companies' Act wages (with the same limitations as under the Bankruptcy Act) are a first claim on the assets of a company being wound up.

In no case do the provisions laid down by any particular labour law cancel the worker's rights at common law; but since, naturally enough, better conditions are laid down by statute than the worker is entitled to at common law, it is unusual to find in these days litigation under the common law affecting master and servant. It sometimes happens, however, notably in workers' compensation cases, that appeal is made at common law instead of under the Act, since there are no statutory limits to the damages which may be obtained at common law.

Since, with the exception of such of the labour statutes as are of general application, no labour legislation exists affecting certain classes of workers—e.g., domestic servants —their relations with their employers are still governed mainly by the common law affecting master and servant.

PRINCIPAL LABOUR LAWS.

Following is a list of the more important Acts dealing partially or exclusively with the regulation of conditions of employment and cognate subjects:—

  • Factories Act, 1921–22.

  • Shops and Offices Act, 1921–22.

  • Workers' Compensation Act, 1922.

  • Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act, 1908.

  • Scaffolding and Excavation Act, 1922.

  • Apprentices Act, 1923.

  • Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925.

  • Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1913.

  • Unemployment Act, 1930.

  • Shipping and Seamen Act (certain sections), 1908.

  • Mining Act (certain sections), 1926.

  • Coal-mines Act (certain sections), 1925.

Each of the Acts listed above is reviewed in some detail in the 1932 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 705–716).

RECENT AMENDMENTS TO LABOUR LEGISLATION.

During the past two years several laws designed to mitigate the severity of the economic depression have been enacted. Certain of these laws formulate definite amendments to the previously existing code of labour legislation, while other enactments which cannot, however, be classed as labour laws, affect wage-earners in common with other sections of the community. Among the latter, the following emergency measures may be cited: The Mortgagors Relief Act, 1933, a consolidation and amendment of legislation for the relief of mortgagors and tenants first passed in 1931. which, inter alia, empowers the Courts to vary the terms of a mortgage; and the Immigration Restriction Act, 1931, which empowers the Governor-General to make regulations restricting the number of immigrants entering the country. Both these statutes lapse (under provisions existing at present— October, 1934) on the 31st December, 1935. Again, certain sections of the National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932, continued by the Finance Act, 1934, enforce a temporary reduction in rents and interest on mortgages and reductions in old-age and other pensions, also in family allowances paid under the Family-Allowances Act.

Recent amendments to laws directly regulating wages and working-conditions are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs:—

Finance Act, 1931.—Part I of this Act reduced salaries, wages, &c., of person in the Public Service by 10 per cent. In Part II of the Act the Arbitration Court is empowered to amend, by general order, awards or industrial agreements with respect to rates of remuneration. The Court is also empowered to amend apprenticeship orders in respect of rates of wages.

National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1932.—This Act included provision for a further reduction in salaries, &c., of persons in the Public Service; salaries and wages not exceeding £225 per annum being reduced by 5 per cent., while those of £225 to £720 were reduced by 10 per cent.; those exceeding £720 by 12½ percent.; and, in addition, certain specific reductions of 15 per cent, were made. A restoration of 5 per cent, of the (reduced) salaries of persons in the Public Service and in old-age pensions was made by the Finance Act (No. 2). 1934.

Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment, 1932.—This Act amends the law in two important respects.

In the first place, the Act as now amended provides for compulsory conciliation but voluntary arbitration among unions registered. If an agreement is made between employers' and workers' representatives at Conciliation Council proceedings, such agreement is registered under the Act and becomes binding on both parties. In the event of no agreement being arrived at, the dispute may be forwarded by mutual consent to the Arbitration Court for decision; but if the parties fail to agree to either of these courses, the award lapses thirty days after the breakdown of conciliation proceedings. An exception is made, however, in the case of female workers. Upon application by an industrial union the Court will issue an order fixing minimum rates of wages that may be paid to female workers, notwithstanding the fact that the award covering these workers has been cancelled.

Secondly, the Act now makes provision for the review of existing awards. Any union (of employers or workers) may apply for the review of an existing award in force not less than six months, and with an unexpired term of not less than three months. Such an application is to be set down for hearing by the Conciliation Council as an industrial dispute.

Unemployment Act, 1930, and Amendments of 1931, 1932, and 1934.—Particulars of the taxation provisions of the Unemployment Act, 1930, as amended in 1931, 1932, and 1934, are given in Section XXIIB of this volume. One-half of the total expenditure from the Unemployment Fund was originally borne by the Consolidated Fund by way of subsidy, but this provision in the Act was repealed in an amending Act in 1932.

An Unemployment Board is established to assist in the administration of the Act. An outline of its relief measures appears in Section XXXVIII of this volume.

The Act of 1930 authorizes the payment of sustenance allowances out of the Unemployment Fund, but the activities of the Board have been directed towards the placing of men in employment in preference to the payment of sustenance, the funds being mainly devoted to the subsidizing (or refunding in full) of wages of men for whom work has been provided under various relief schemes. The 1932 amendment authorizes the Unemployment Board to expend moneys in the purchase of food, clothing, or other necessities; and since the passing of this amendment ration-cards have been issued in necessitous cases as a supplement to payment for relief work. Sustenance allowances are, however, now paid to men over fifty who elect to receive sustenance (at a considerably lower rate of payment than is made to relief workers); while, in a limited number of other cases, sustenance payments are made where it has been found impossible to provide relief employment for men able to take such employment if it were offering. A 1934 amendment to the Act, inter alia, repeals a subsection to the original Act which, in effect, limited to a maximum of thirteen weeks, the unbroken period during which sustenance might be paid to any one individual.

The employment of an unregistered person or of a person who is more than one month in arrears with any instalment of levy is an offence under the Act.

Finance Act, 1932.—Section 56 of this Act makes provision for the amendment, suspension, or cancellation of contracts of apprenticeship entered into under the Apprentices Act, 1923. On application of any party a Stipendary Magistrate may vary the terms of, suspend, or cancel such a contract; provided the Magistrate is satisfied that, owing to the economic conditions affecting the industry, the employer cannot be reasonably expected to carry out the terms of the contract.

Chapter 37. SECTION XXXVII.—TRADE-UNIONS.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN New Zealand dual provision for the registration and protection of unions of workers and employers exists in the Trade-unions Act and the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

Provision was made under section 7, subsection (17), of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1900 (now section 17 of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1925), for the furnishing of an annual return showing the number and membership of unions registered under the Act. It is from this return (vide Parliamentary Paper H.–ll) that the tables in this section have been compiled. Very little data are available as to registration of unions under the Trade-unions Act, which is now practically inoperative. Several of the few unions still registered under this Act are also registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS.

The numbers and membership of industrial unions of employers registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act as at the end of each of the last five years are shown in the following table.

As at 31st December,Industrial District.Total.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.
Number of Unions.
19293233302972137  
19303133312872136  
193130322928721131 
193228312927721127 
1933283230277231130
Membership.
19291,2131,1931,5411,717178651665,929
19301,1601,1871,4781,787173611635,865
19311,1301,0571,1591,268176751234,880
19329679411,239840172801234,254
19331,0028031,116764159842833,959

The number of unions of employers and their membership rose gradually to 149 unions, with 5,819 members, in 1914, the year following that of the prolonged waterside workers' strike. Since that year there have been many slight variations, and considerable decreases were recorded in 1931, 1932, and 1933.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS OF WORKERS.

Industrial unions of workers and their membership are shown in the following table as at the end of each of the last five years. It should be noted that the statistics cover only unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, and that all unions are not so registered.

In drawing inferences from the table allowance must be made for the fact that, since these figures represent the numbers on the rolls of the various unions, a certain amount of duplication takes place, as it is possible for a worker to be a member of two or more unions at the one time, especially in the case of a casual occupation such as waterside working. It is impossible to form any idea as to the extent to which such duplication takes place; but it is very unlikely that it occurs to such an extent as to affect materially the total figures.

The membership of workers' unions rose year by year, without exception, from 17,989 in 1900 to 73,991 in 1914. It fell off during the war years, but a phenomenal rise was recorded in 1919, the year immediately following the cessation of hostilities. The total for 1928 (103,980) is the highest so far recorded. Decreases in membership have been recorded annually since 1928. The last three years in particular reflect the economic depression. Cancellations of registration are responsible for only a small portion of the decline.

As at 31st December,Industrial District.Total.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.

* Including unions of railway employees—not included in figures for any district.

192910078701001881517409
193010180711001991716416
19311007769961991715405
1932977767962071815400
19331008470961771815407
Membership.         
192925,68025,75117,81914,2861,7255986962,827102,646
193026,01225,46316,86614,5571,8305967812,581101,526
193123,23822,48415,65112,4731,7955757621,94690,526
193219,80019,06813,24711,9891,6844676241,62779,283
193318,75226,56011,86310,5641,2794965841,79071,888

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership:—

Year.Under 50.50 and under 100.100 and under 200.200 and under 300.300 and under 500.500 and under 1,000.1,000 and under 2,000.2,000 and under 3,000.3,000 and over.Totals.
Number of Unions.
190199433019541..202 
192914182722932281951409
193014984722734262031416
193116277583130291431405
193216974583129251121400
1933168855241282471407 
Membership.
19012,7593,0184,0324,8152,0732,5201,6512,900..23,768
19293,8135,85610,1707,02912,10618,62124,47311,4159,163102,646
19303,9916,0719,9736,72613,36018,99126,6326,8578,925101,526
19314,3045,6657,9667,57811,24420,60218,5666,7447,85790,526
19324,2645,2107,7497,62211,14316,84814,2874,6607,50079,283
19334,1885,9706,7689,97710,20616,2779,6432,0866,77371,888
Percentage of Total Membership.
190111.6112.7016.9620.268.7210.606.9512.20..100.00
19293.715.719.916.8511.7918.1423.8411.128.93100.00
19303.945.989.826.6213.1618.7126.236.758.79100.00
19314.756.268.808.3712.4222.7620.517.458.08100.00
19325.386.579.779.6114.0521.2518.025.889.47100.00
19335.838.309.4113.8814.2022.6413.412.909.43100.00

The steady growth in the average size of industrial unions of workers is brought out in the above table. It is noteworthy that while the actual number of unions has increased from 202 in 1901 to 407 in 1933, an increase of 101 per cent., the membership has increased from 23,708 to 71,888, an increase of 202 per cent. The increase in membership in unions containing 300 members and over is particularly marked. It will be noticed that between 1932 and 1933 a decrease of 4,644 is shown in the membership of unions containing one thousand to two thousand members, the number of such unions falling from eleven to seven. This decrease is accounted for by the cancellation of registration by certain large unions. There was no serious loss in membership of industrial unions as a whole owing to this cause, however, for several new unions were registered in individual localities carrying workers previously included in the wider organizations. This is reflected in the increase in membership of unions containing between two hundred and three hundred members.

INDUSTRIAL AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

In the next table industrial unions of employers as at the end of 1933 are shown according to industry, and membership according to district.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.WestlandTotals.
Food, drink, &c.236203151ll460..76417  
Clothing, boots, &c.14372912..6..1109 
Building and construction8318223513112..64325  
Wood-manufacture383437..1099    
Paper- manufacture and printing704727386..18812  
Metal-working and engineering48141227..1015   
other manufactures40..10..502    
Mining, &c.1..5..63    
Agricultural and pastoral179207431292..70..1,17910 
Land transport8734127..16..1565 
Shipping and cargo-working132526138146310813
Hotels, restaurants, &c.160..133..11..3044  
Miscellaneous33201312550..24116  
     Totals1,0028031,116764159842833,959130

The most noteworthy feature of this table is the extremely high membership of unions of agricultural and pastoral employers. As will be seen from the table immediately following, this is in marked contrast to the position respecting unions of workers, a position due no doubt to the fact that many small farmers belong to the employers' unions. The workers, on the other band, are almost entirely seasonal workers, especially in the case of the majority of those unionized—viz., the shearers and the threshing-mill employees. In these cases the workers travel round and work for several employers in the one season.

Similar information to that given for industrial unions of employers is now given for workers' unions, as at the end of 1933.

Industrial Group.Membership—Industrial Districts.Number of Unions.
Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Taranaki.Marlborough.Nelson.WestlandTotals.

#9830;Including three unions of railway employees, with a total membership of 10,051.

Food, drink, &c.2,6261,9681,0201,0955037021..7,30362
Clothing, boots. &c.1,3983821,314895..103,99919  
Textiles and weaving67272314 1554..1,2076   
Building and construction1,7452,7371,4231,208137..197637,51065
Wood-manufacture75447023843714..188252,75622
Paper - manufacture and printing741762501526..7132,55019 
Metal - working and engineering9201,1311,01678342..40283,96029
Other manufactures44815123729247..33..1,20830
Mining, &c.1,662..364..4042,43017   
Agricultural and pastoral6897182,7961,104..205..5,51210 
Land transport1,1161,166714534688541..13,775**22
Shipping and cargo-working.2,3734,0048111,137247501122749,00845
Hotels, restaurants, &c.2,1448509516921326893805,01213
Miscellaneous2,0691,898528943891820935,05348
     Totals18,75210,50011,86310,5641,2794965841,79071,888**407

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS.

At 31st December, 1933, there were 13 industrial associations of employers and 33 of workers, the former having 66 affiliated unions and the latter 211. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case.

Industrial Group.Employers.Workers.
Associations.Affiliated Unions.Associations.Affiliated Unions.
 1932.1933.1932.1933.1932.1933.1932.1933.
Food, drink, &c.1242186  
Clothing, boots, &c.14212    
Textiles and weaving..154    
Building and construction32722654845 
Wood-manufacture297211   
Paper-manufacture and printing212313    
Metal-working and engineering14351725  
Other manufactures..1..3    
Mining, &c...1..2    
Agricultural and pastoral143..    
Land transport..21159   
Shipping and cargo-working11043738   
Hotels, restaurants, &c...19     
Miscellaneous12653634  
     Totals1373663433221211 

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an analysis of the proportion of workers belonging to unions registered under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act to the total number of wage-earners in the country (from Census returns). The percentages at five-yearly intervals 1900–25 were: 8, 11, 19, 24, 26, 24. Considering the proportions at the end of 1925, the lowest ratio of unionists was amongst agricultural and pastoral workers (6 per cent.), and the highest, shipping and cargo-working (67 per cent.), building and construction (65 per cent.), and food and drink, &c. (61 per cent.).

Chapter 38. SECTION XXXVIII.—EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT.

INTRODUCTORY

EXCEPT for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available.

Unemployment was well known to have been acute in the middle and late “sixties,” owing to the paralysing effect of the Maori wars in the North Island and to the collapse of the alluvial-gold booms in Otago and Westland. At no time, however, during the depression of the late “sixties ” does there appear to have been any unemployment among females. With the inauguration at the beginning of the “ seventies ”of the Vogel policy of public works and assisted immigration, employment was available for large numbers of new arrivals. At the beginning of the “eighties” scarcity of funds for the prosecution of public works necessitated, along with other considerations, the checking for a space of the stream of assisted immigrants. By 1883 the position had materially improved; but unemployment once more became serious in the late “ eighties ” and early “ nineties,” mainly owing to the fall in the prices that New Zealand's products (notably wool) were fetching in the World's markets, and to a further slackening of the rate of prosecution of public works. During both of these periods the unemployment position was so acute as to be responsible for a considerable exodus of male population to Australia and elsewhere.

Direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand is available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Labour Department (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade-unionists (from trade-union secretaries), and of monthly employment in factories and works, have been collected in recent years by the Census and Statistics Office — the former from 1925 to 1930 and the latter from 1926.

CENSUS DATA ON UNEMPLOYMENT.

The great disadvantage of the Census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only.

Census.Number of Males Unemployed.Proportion per Thousand Male Wage-earners.
12 April, 189614,759100
31 March, 19018,46748
12 April, 19068,18939
2 April, 19117,15230
15 October, 19165,92026
17 April, 192111,06139
20 April, 192610,69434

A more comprehensive survey of unemployment than had previously been attempted was made at the 1926 census: a concise description of the results is contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 850–56), while full statistics are published in Volume X of the results of the 1926 census.

EMPLOYMENT BUREAUX OF LABOUR DEPARTMENT.

The creation of the Labour Department in 1891 has not only assisted to deal directly with the problem of unemployment, but has been the means of useful statistical data being obtained and recorded. The figures relating to the activities of the employment bureaux of the Department do not show the full volume of unemployment, but they may safely be regarded as roughly symptomatic of the general situation.

The following table shows the numbers of the unemployed assisted to employment from year to year by the Labour Department. The figures exclude the operations of the Women's Employment Branch of the Department, which was twice created (not under identical names) on occasions when there was a dearth of employment for women, and twice discontinued as urgency passed:—

Year ended 31st March,Number assisted.
* Excluding those engaged under Unemployment Board's No. 5 scheme.
18922,593
18933,874
18943,371
18953,030
18962,871
18971,718
18982,035
18992,115
19002,147
19013,124
19021,830
19033,704
19042,860
19053,130
19066,712
19077,393
19086,305
190910,391
19108,506
19117,102
19125,735
19135,848
19145,645
19157,515
19165,978
19172,966
19182,952
19193,199
19204,205
19213,364
19224,989
19233,987
19243,877
19253,890
19263,397
192710,268
192815,246
192916,363
193021,890
193130,223
1932*18,328
1933*29,942
1934*24,343

UNEMPLOYMENT IN RECENT YEARS.

Commencing with 1926, unemployment, particularly during the winter months, assumed substantial proportions, in spite of steps taken by the Government, local bodies, and private organizations to provide work. In 1929 and 1930 matters reached a stage which led to the passing of the Unemployment Act, 1930, the main provisions of which are given elsewhere in this book.

The slackness in industry and trade already evident when the Unemployment Act came into force intensified greatly during 1931, 1932, and the earlier portion of 1933. During 1931', indeed, the number of applicants on the registers totally unprovided for increased steadily, despite the fact that increasing numbers were being engaged under the various schemes of the Unemployment Hoard. In 1932 and 1933 the placements of men on relief work more than offset the number of new registrations, so that the number of men unprovided for fell considerably. The improvement in business conditions late in 1933 and during the current year (1934) is reflected in lower registered unemployment than at corresponding periods last year. The winter maximum in 1933 was reached on the 20th July, when 57,352 men were registered. The highest figure yet recorded in the current year is 50,711 on the 1st September.

Date.Number of Registered Unemployed.
1929. 
18th February2,429
20th May3,388
19th August.2,941
14th October6,264
18th November2,624
1930 
17th February2,449
20th May3,388
18th August5,639
17th November6,768
15th December11,442
1931 
16th February22,842
18th May17,698
17th August49,132
5th October51,408
18th November48,795
1932. 
15th February45,071
16th May52,451
15th August56,402
12th September56,498
19th November52,899
1933. 
18th February50,356
20th May54,998
22nd July57,352
19th August56,914
18th November51,175
1934. 
17th February45,217
19th May45,851
18th August50,532
1st September50,711

The preceding table shows the position at quarterly intervals since the first quarter of 1929. It should be noted that men receiving relief under Scheme 5 of the Unemployment Board— the major individual scheme in point of numbers engaged— still remain on the unemployment registers, and are included in the figures shown. The highest level for each year is also shown (in heavy type).

In the compilation of the statistics care is taken to exclude from the figures of applications remaining on the books all cases of applicants for employment from whom the Department of Labour has not heard for fourteen days, on the assumption that such applicants have obtained employment through other means.

The movement in unemployment during 1932, 1933, and during the first nine months of 1934, is illustrated in the following table, which shows new applications, placements, and total number of registered unemployed at monthly intervals. The numbers of men placed on Scheme 5 of the Unemployment Board are shown separately. They cannot be regarded as “placements” each week, nor are they wholly unemployed.

Week endedNew and Renewed Applications for Employment during Week.Placements through Bureaux during Week.Registered Unemployed at End of Week.Registered Unemployed obtaining Relief-work under Scheme 5 of Unemployment Board.Totally Unemployed.
1932.      
January41,02812344,56122,26822,293
February12,03440045,65430,44715,207
March72,47923344,36832,39311,975
April42,27129145,79933,33312,466
May23,44236250,09334,98015,113
June62,59643954,02740,87413,153
July42,43177654,32842,97511,353
August12,69868355,83745,51510,322
September52,21557156,45649,3807,076
October12,33170155,72849,1896,539
November52,22066354,18248,5195,663
December32,80365352,78547,4715,314
1933.      
January71,70735252,65847,4655,193
February42,01043151,25044,9336,317
March42,26251550,15544,3445,811
April12,43949751,52946,2905,239
May62,25837053,85148,2285,623
June32,42256855,96549,8176,148
July12,08147956,81351,4415,372
August51,81949557,31352,1885,125
September21,82948256,90152,3844,517
October71,58057155,65251,6134,039
November41,31952652,97349,2423,731
December21,50745349,50646,2283,278
1934.      
January61,06822548,16044,6113,549
February31,57346746,09741,8504,247
March31,94851845,19340,5154,678
April71,66729344,58539,9264,659
May51,88035645,38840,2835,105
June21,85832246,32941,0035,326
July72,14441048,99144,6854,306
August41,90237050,27346,4223,851
September11,61239450,71147,0323,679

During the last twelve months a weekly average of upwards of 40,000 registered unemployed have been provided with partial employment under Scheme 5 of the Unemployment Board. These men are still included on the unemployment registers. Men employed on the more permanent relief schemes of the Unemployment Board.

however, are withdrawn from the unemployment registers. It should be explained that the numbers shown as totally unemployed include men ordinarily engaged on Scheme 5, but standing down during the week shown in accordance with the system still in operation in country districts and formerly throughout the Dominion.

In making comparisons between registrations since the beginning of 1931 and in previous years several important reservations must be borne in mind. In the first place, the passing of the Unemployment Act provided the unemployed with a definite incentive to register, since the Unemployment Board made it clear that all workers engaged under its schemes for relief would be recruited from the ranks of the registered unemployed only. Consequently, the statistics of registered unemployed from 1931 onwards, when considered in conjunction with the statistics of numbers engaged on the various relief schemes (shown in a later paragraph in this section) afford a more comprehensive survey of the total extent of unemployment than is available for the years immediately preceding 1931.

An analysis of registered unemployed into the principal occupational groupings during the first complete week in each quarter is set out below.

Date.Building Tradesmen.Engineering Tradesmen.Other Skilled Tradesmen.Labourers and Quarry-men.Farm Hands.Hotel and Restaurant workers and Cooks.Others.Total.*
* Includes cases unspecified as to classification.
1932.        
Mar. 75,7732,0085,24919,9742,0307108,17944,368
June 136,5892,1646,33625,3653,1498329,68754,122
Sept, 127,3752,2236,20125,0863,29985111,46356,498
Dec. 106,4211,9755,73122,1462,58481711,24352,510
1933.        
Mar. 116,3651,8736,14621,0522,44178110,94950,409
June 106,6051,9676,57723,9373,38895510,88455,993
Sept. 96,4901,8546,61224,9613,30192712,73656,881
Dec. 95,1771,5195,34721,4052,76987611,61048,703
1934.        
Mar. 105,0531,3175,11019,6882,22985410,64244,893
June 95,1251,2304,74021,2202,63087810,85246,675
Sept. 85,2141,2655,44923,1532,73094711,69150,449

The seasonal variation in unemployment is illustrated below. The average number of unemployed on the register during each month of the years 1929 to 1933 is expressed as a percentage of the average number so registered during these five years.

Month.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
January842147170 
February869145164 
March9106145164 
April1011122155169
May1115128170177
June1117144175182
July1218153178185
August1018159182185
September819166182183
October1720164179178
November922158172167
December631149170157
Average for year1016131170173

During the years 1928 and 1929 the maximum monthly numbers of registered unemployed were recorded between May and August, while in December of both 1928 and 1929 the lowest numbers were recorded. During 1929 the normal seasonal fluctuation occurred, except for the sudden increase in October of that year consequent on the announcement by the Government that work should be found for registered unemployed. In 1930. 1931, and 1932, however, the seasonal fluctuation was largely lost sight of in the increase in registrations due to the economic depression, while the fluctuations in registered unemployment in 1933 followed the normal seasonal course.

The increase in registrations during 1931 and 1932 is well illustrated by this table. It will be noted, however, that during October, November, and December of those years a slight recession from the peak figures established in August and September took place, consequent, on the seasonal increase in employment, normal in the later months of the year.

Considerable interest attaches to the relative extent of unemployment in the major centres of population. In view of the fact that the areas served by the city bureaux vary considerably as between the four chief centres, the next table has been compiled on an urban-area basis, the figures quoted representing in each case the aggregate of unfilled applications for employment at all bureaux or post-offices within the boundaries of the urban area.

NUMBER OF REGISTERED UNEMPLOYED.

Week endedUrban Areas.Rest of Dominion.Total.
Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.
1932.
Jan. 48,6377,1315,4513,34719,99544,561
Feb. 18,9607,6075,4833,34720,25745,654
Mar. 78,8176,7324,6313,48320,70544,368
April 48,8346,8294,4193,57522,14245,799
May 29,3887,2044,7343,91024,85750,093
June 69,6097,1765,1973,67728,36854,027
July 49,7106,5175,1063,77329,22254,328
Aug 19,9446,4765,2903,77330,35455,837
Sept. 510,1796,8735,5123,82430,06856,456
Oct. 110,2806,6105,3263,79429,71855,728
Nov. 59,9786,5415,2963,75128,61654,182
Dec. 39,7906,5725,7043,63927,08052,785
1933.
Jan. 79,7106,6785,8323,65626,78252,658
Feb. 410,2646,1745,6773,41425,72151,250
Mar. 410,2646,2505,5613,29124,78950,155
April. 110,3076,4595,5353,22526,00351,529
May. 610,7016,6825,6003,26127,60753,851
June. 310,9066,9415,7843,40628,92855,965
July. 111,1007,0545,8243,43729,39856,813
Aug. 511,2507,0146,1963,44429,40957,333
Sept. 211,3667,1116,1703,37428,88056,901
Oct. 711,2696,9306,0873,30328,06355,652
Nov. 410,8956,8426,0063,19326,03752,973
Dec. 210,2396,5425,8302,94723,94849,506
1934.
Jan. 69,9486,3375,7882,89523,19248,160
Feb. 310,0696,2905,6392,79921,30046,097
Mar. 39,9386,1995,3842,67420,99845,193
April. 79,5946,0285,3562,53821,06944,585
May. 59,6236,2055,5012,53921,52045,388
June. 29,7266,2865,6202,40922,28846,329
July. 710,4716,4505,8872,50323,68048,991
Aug. 410,6976,6906,1132,50024,27350,273
Sept. 110,9056,7436,1602,48124,42250,711

An interesting aspect of the geographical distribution of registered unemployed during the last three years is the number of registrations in the secondary centres and country districts. Prior to the year 1931 registered unemployed in the four chief centres accounted for the vast majority of registrations throughout the Dominion. In making comparisons between individual centres, it is necessary to take cognizance of relative populations. The following table is of interest in this connection:—

  Number of Registered Unemployed.
Urban Area.Estimated Population, 1st April, 1934.4th August, 1034.Peak Level.
 Number.Per 1000 Inhabitants.Number.Per 1000 Inhabitants. 
Auckland219,95010,6974911,41052
Wellington146,3006,690467,61053
Christchurch130,9506,113476,19648
Dunedin88,3902,500283,95245

The peak level up to the present time (September, 1934) was reached in Auckland on 30th September, 1933, with 11,410 registered unemployed; in Wellington on 11th January, 1932, with 7,610 registered unemployed; in Christchurch on 5th August, 1933 (6,196); and in Dunedin on 16th May, 1932 (3,952).

It should be remembered that only males are registered at the Employment Bureaux of the Labour Department, so that the figures quoted in the preceding pages do not take account of unemployment among women. Although no recent data are available as to the number of women and girls unemployed, this aspect of the unemployment problem is also serious, and a special committee was set up by the Unemployment Board in 1931 to co-operate with voluntary organizations in the relief of unemployment among women; and grants have been since made from the Board's funds for this purpose.

The major relief scheme— in point of numbers engaged— administered by the Unemployment Board is the provision of part-time work by the payment of wages of men employed on relief works by local bodies (Scheme 5). Men provided with relief work under this scheme remain on the unemployment registers of the Labour Department, while men engaged in other employment where their wages are paid wholly or in part from the Unemployment Fund are removed from the registers. Periodical statements as to the number of men engaged under the various schemes, are, therefore, necessary to a clear understanding of the extent of unemployment. The Board has devoted considerable attention to the transfer of men from relatively unproductive part-time relief to more directly productive subsidized employment schemes; and, as a consequence, the total number of men in receipt of unemployment relief has recently been considerably in excess of the number registered as unemployed. The total number of men employed under the Board's schemes, together with those registered but unplaced or ineligible for employment, therefore provides in some respects a more complete indication of the extent of unemployment than can be obtained from the statistics of registered unemployment. The statistics of the employment bureaux form, however, the only available data as to the geographical distribution of unemployment for periods later than the 1926 census inquiry; and. again, the statements prepared by the Unemployment Board in respect of the Dominion as a whole are not available prior to 30th June. 1931.

 Engaged under Board's Relief Schemes.Registered Unemployed unplaced or Ineligible for Relief. (c.)Total of (a), (b), and (c).Total Remaining on Register as “Unemployed.”
Date.In Full-time Employment. (a.)On Scheme 5 (mostly Part-time Employment). (b.)
* Approximate,
1931.     
30th June5,80038,600*6,700*51,10045,264
30th September3,19043,800*7,600*54,59051,375
31st December6,98540,300*4,800*52,08545,140
1932.     
31st March9,12038,400*7,000*54,52045,383
30th June14,35046,850*7,450*68,65054,342
30th September17,92049,190*6,540*73,65055,728
29th October17,42248,3436,20671,97154,549
26th November16,83447,1295,34869,31152,477
24th December16,65747,4255,19969,28152,624
1933.     
21st January15,16246,4316,27267,86552,703
18th February15,42644,9625,39465,78250,356
18th March15,93145,1365,58566,65250,721
l5th April16,15946,7845,31268,25552,096
13th May15,95048,7225,83070,50254,552
10th June16,92550,1915,80272,91855,993
8th July18,00151,5225,51175,03457,033
5th August20,77852,1885,12578,09157,313
2nd September21,72652,3844,51778,62756,901
30th September23,26251,8724,30179,43556,173
28th October24,69950,5472,91178,15754,105
25th November25,53146,7752,67174,97750,140
23rd December22,77344,9672,53370,27348,114
1934     
20th January21,12443,7323,63568,49147,854
17th February22,37341,6073,20867,18845,217
17th March20,82341,2913,27365,38744,831
14th April19,70741,0953,37764,17944,726
12th May20,01941,8653,65665,54045,697
9th June16,13443,0963,40762,63746,675
7th July15,87144,7624,17864,81148,991
4th August16,00146,4503,84066,29150,273
1st September15,80547,2073,50466,51650,711

In utilizing the data in the above table as an indication of the extent of unemployment in the Dominion, the following considerations must be borne in mind:—

1. The provision of employment for women and juveniles is outside the scope of the relief schemes of the Unemployment Board. While the farm employment subsidy schemes contain certain limited provision for the employment of youths, registration and employment under these schemes are, in the main, confined to adult males only.

2. The Board has been forced by considerations of finance to limit assistance to the more urgently necessitous cases. Consequently, it is probable that a considerable number of unemployed men whose present financial position would debar them from receiving relief would not trouble to register as unemployed.

3. The total shown above (penultimate column) includes men hi employment where their wages are paid wholly or in part out of the Unemployment Fund. While these men remain a charge on the fund, and as such are regarded as “unemployed, ” it should be noted that they are in employment in some cases— e.g.. the building subsidy scheme— at standard rates of pay. Again, men employed on farms under the farm wages subsidy schemes— numbering some thousands— are in continuous employment on work of a definitely useful character. The cost of the subsidy paid to these men must be offset to a very large extent by the benefits accruing to the Dominion as a primary-producing country from the assistance thus granted to the farming industry.

UNEMPLOYMENT RELIEF.

Immediately unemployment began to be seriously felt in the winter of 1926, steps were taken by the State and by local authorities to absorb as much labour as possible on ordinary public works and on relief works. One of the first enactments of the 1926 session of Parliament was the Local Authorities Empowering (Relief of Unemployment) Act (repealed in 1932) which empowered local authorities, without taking a poll of the ratepayers, to borrow moneys for the purpose of providing relief works for unemployed men.

In addition to providing direct employment as far as possible, the State further assisted by subsidizing expenditure by local authorities. In spite of the efforts of the general and local governments, however, unemployment continued in evidence; and, with a view to remedying the situation, the Government undertook, in September, 1929, to find employment within a specified time for all genuinely unemployed men, provided that they registered at the Government labour bureaux and were willing and able to accept the work offered.

As will be realized from a survey of the recent statistics included in the immediately preceding pages, the magnitude of unemployment has grown very considerably since the beginning of 1930. The question of providing some permanent solution of the problem has received a good deal of attention, and in 1928, arising out of a recommendation of the National Industrial Conference of that year, a committee was set up to go fully into the matter. Following on the report of this committee, an Unemployment Act was passed in the 1930 session of Parliament. References to this enactment and its amendments are contained elsewhere in this book.

UNEMPLOYMENT BOARD'S RELIEF OPERATIONS.

The Unemployment Board under the Act of 1930 and subsequent amendments comprises the Minister of Employment (Chairman), the Commissioner of Unemployment, and three other members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is Deputy Chairman of the Board. Details of the operations of the Board will be found in its annual reports to Parliament. The following is a synopsis of relief schemes at present (September, 1934) in operation.

Scheme No. 4A.— Farmers willing to employ labour for developmental work additional to the labour usually or necessarily employed in routine operations may apply to any labour bureau for a man or men, who will receive a subsidy from the unemployment Fund at the rate of 10s. per week per man if single, or, if married, 15s. per week, plus an additional 2s. 6d. per week for each dependent child under sixteen years up to a maximum subsidy of £1 5s. per week. The employment of youths of eighteen or nineteen years of age may also be approved if there are no eligible men on the register, but in such cases the subsidy will be not more than 5s. per week. The farmer is also required to find board and lodging for the employee and means or cost of transport to the job, and to supplement the subsidy from the Unemployment Fund by at least 5s. per week according to his means. The period of engagement is limited to twenty-six weeks, although a further term may be approved after a stand-down period of fourteen days.

Scheme No. 4B— This provides for a subsidy of 50 per cent, of labour cost (with a maximum subsidy of £75 on any one application) of co-operative contracts for work of a developmental character on farms, such as scrub-cutting, drainage, gorse-grubbing, fencing, eradication of noxious weeds, &c. Applications for subsidies are reported on by Fields Inspectors of the Department of Lands and Survey or supervising officers appointed for the purpose, who again report on the conclusion of the work. Workers, who must be genuinely unemployed and registered as such, must be obtained through a labour bureau, and after completion of a contract must re-register and stand down for fourteen days before they are again deemed to be eligible for relief.

Scheme No. 4c.— This was instituted for the purpose of rehabilitating abandoned farms, and provided for the selection of an occupier, who would be granted an allowance of £1 15s. per week for a period, together with assistance in the shape of unemployed labour necessary to bring the farm buck to a state of production. Half of the subsidy under this scheme is recoverable from the Lands Development Board. Only a very few farms, however, were found suitable for reoccupation.

Farm Camp Scheme.— This scheme is an offshoot of 4A, and provides that if not less than four single men are employed and circumstances justify it, an allowance not exceeding 7s. G'd. per man per week may be paid to the farmer towards the cost of such food provided as is not obtained from the farm.

The main conditions of employment of subsidized labour on farms are that the labour must be additional to that necessary for the routine operation of the farm, and that the work must he developmental. If the farmer is at any time able to pay a wage over and above the subsidy, the men are transferred to Scheme No. 4A, and the ration allowance cancelled.

Small-farm plan.— Operations under this scheme do not now come under the Unemployment Board, and are referred to later in this section.

Scheme No. 5.— Under this scheme local bodies may employ men (obtained through labour bureaux) on a rationed basis on work other than that which would ordinarily be performed by the usual employees, and the whole amount of wager,, not exceeding certain rates, is refunded from the Unemployment Fund. The rates at present are 1 Os. per day for married men and 7s. 6d. per day for single men; the rationing scale outside the four main centres and their contiguous boroughs being: Single men— Two and three-eighth days per week, three weeks out of four; married men with not more than two children, three and three-quarter days per week, three weeks out of four; married men with three or more children, five days per week, three weeks out of four.

In the case of the four main centres of population, there is no stand-down week, and the rationing scale is—

Days per Week.Rate per Day.Weekly Amount.
 S.d.£s.d. 
Single men2760150
Married men with—      
Wife only100150
Wife and one child31001100
Wife and two children1001150
Wife and three or more children410020 

The above rationing scales are, of course, the maxima for the classes referred to.

Work under the scheme was originally limited to work on roads, reserves, and other public areas: but work “over the fence”— that is, on private property— is now permitted on condition that the work is of a developmental nature and the relief labour is additional to and not displacing labour ordinarily employed. A condition pertaining to the placement of relief labour on private property is that the property-owner undertakes to contribute at least 25 per cent, of the relief-wages cost. Section 2l> of the Finance Act, 1931 (No. 4). authorizes local bodies to employ relief labour in this manner.

Camp Schemes.— Under No. 6Acamps of single men may be formed to undertake roadwork on secondary highways under the Public Works Department. The cost of transport, accommodation, food, and allowance for pocket-money (given on the basis of work performed, and approximating 10s. per week) is borne by the Unemployment Fund.

Scheme 6B is similar to Scheme 6A, but the employing authority is a local body.

Scheme 6c also is a camp scheme for development by clearing, drainage, afforestation, &c., of (principally) Crown lands. It has been availed of to some extent by private individuals and companies, but most of the men employed are under the control of either Government Departments or local authorities.

In some districts, principally in Auckland Province, camps have been set up through local bodies on a wages basis at present of £1 per week for single men, £1 17s. 6d. per week for married men with not more than two children, and £2 10s. per week for married men with three or more children: but. as a matter of convenience of arrangement, these camps are a charge on Scheme No. 5. Generally speaking, the cost of accommodation is met by the local bodies, and the men are required to provide themselves with food out of the weekly wages quoted above.

Supplementary to these schemes is the employment of men (principally married men) on road-metalling and other works being undertaken by the Public Works Department. The Department pays the men standard rates of 10s. per day for full-time employment, the Unemployment Board contributing towards the cost of camps to the extent of £1 10s. per man per week.

Scheme No. 7.— Youths aged sixteen to twenty years are placed on large stations or runs for training in farm-work. Farmers are required to take two or more youths and to undertake to give them a thorough training. Although required to conform to the discipline of the farm, the youths are not to be regarded as ordinary farm labourers. It was originally intended to provide these youths with pocket-money at the rate of 5s. per week, but the rate was subsequently reduced to 2s. 6d.

Gold-prospecting Schemes 8Aand 5 (Special).— Subsidies of 15s. per week for single men and £1 10s. per week for married men are paid to unemployed relief workers prospecting in approved areas in parties of two or more. At least one of the party must be an experienced miner or prospector. Ten per cent, of all gold won during the term of the subsidy must be refunded up to the full amount of subsidy granted. * Provision is made for advancing the cost of fares and equipment in certain cases. this cost to be deducted from the. value of gold sold. In Central Otago, Thames, and Coromandel districts, and on the West Coast of the South Island, prospecting is carried out under a special division of Scheme No. 5, although payment to the men is on the same basis as subsidies under Scheme No. 8A— viz., 15s. and £1 10s.— with no stand-down week. County Councils act as the nominal employing authorities, and with the co-operation of specially appointed Mining Executive Committees (fifteen in number) they are empowered to advance certain equipment, tools, clothing, &c, to unemployed men desirous of taking on this work with the object of ultimately making themselves independent of unemployment relief. The cost of such advances is recoverable from the men if and when they reach the gold-winning stage. The cost of expert supervision by mining engineers and other experienced men is also met from the Unemployment Fund.

In specially selected areas where intensive effort will possibly lead to important new discoveries, parties of men under proper supervision and with suitable equipment are being sent out to improve access to auriferous areas and to prospect for new reefs. In co-operation with the Mines Department and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Board is arranging for the testing by geophysical survey, boring, &c, of areas where extensive alluvial deposits may be profitably worked, and thus absorb large numbers of men in ordinary industry.

Scheme No. 8B.— This scheme provides for a subsidy from the Unemployment Fund towards the wages cost of men removed from the Board's schemes and engaged by a company or syndicate in gold-prospecting operations, and paid a definite wage by the company or syndicate.

The subsidy offered by the Board is usually on a basis of 15s. and £1 10s. per week for single and married men respectively.

The main conditions are that 10 per cent, of the gold won by the. company from the date subsidies are granted must be refunded up to the full amount of the subsidy, and that no dividends shall lie paid to the shareholders until the full subsidy is repaid.

Scheme No. 10.— The object of this scheme was to revive the building industry. Under it persons putting in hand the erection, repair, alteration, &c, of buildings were given the opportunity of obtaining a subsidy on the wages of the labour employed.

The original scheme was in operation from June, 1932, to 31st December, 1932. It was reinstituted as from the 1st June, 1933, under amended conditions. Under the revised scheme the subsidy is 33J per cent, of the labour cost, up to award rates, in respect of labour actually performed on the premises; except that in the case of the erection of a new dwelling not exceeding £650 total cost, the subsidy will be at the rate of 50 per cent, on all wages up to award rates in respect of labour actually performed on the premises. A subsidy amounting to 8 per cent, of the factory cost of joinery used on approved jobs may also be obtained. It is provided that work on approved jobs be rationed to forty hours per week and that no overtime may be worked, except in particular cases where there are strong economic reasons for the contrary. The foregoing restrictive conditions do not, however, apply to work coming within the scope of country

* This requirement was discontinued from 15th October, 1934.

work outlined in clause 6 of Book of Awards, Vol. 32, but hours of work must not in these eases exceed forty-eight hours per week. No applications have been accepted since the 12th September, 1933, and, except for commitments, this scheme is suspended for the present. (See Scheme No. 12, below.)

Scheme No. 11.— The Unemployment Hoard, with the co-operation of the Departments of Lands and Survey and of Agriculture, has introduced this scheme to provide for the utilization of unemployed labour to combat the rabbit pest. Owners or occupiers of rabbit-infested lands may apply through a labour bureau, after approval by an officer of the Department of Agriculture, for eligible workers. Generally speaking, professional rabbiters are not deemed eligible, as the object of the scheme is to induce farmers to employ additional rabbiters. All rabbit-skins obtained are the property of the workers. The Unemployment Board pays 15s. per week in respect of each single man, and £1 10s. per week to each married man so employed. Of the £1 10s. per week payable to a married man. £5s is paid direct to his wife. In the case of unoccupied Crown lands, men may be similarly engaged by the Stock Inspector for the district in which the land is situated. The men are required to keep themselves in food, and the rates of pay are: Single men, .£1 5s. per week (l5s. from Unemployment Fund and 10s. from Department of Lands and Survey): married men £2 per week (£1 10s. from Unemployment Fund and Ids. from Department of Lands and Survey). In the case of a married man, £1 per week from the above amount is paid direct to his wife. This scheme is suspended from time to time when the market for skins is good.

House-building Subsidy Scheme (No. 12).— This scheme has the object of again giving the building trade a necessary stimulus and thereby creating work. Under the scheme persons considering the erection of new dwellings, or additions to existing dwellings, are encouraged to proceed with the work immediately by the offer of a subsidy. Applications in respect of residential flats (irrespective of capital cost) and applications in respect of dwellinghouses, the estimated capital cost of which is over £1,000, are considered on their merits. The Board is prepared to negotiate with local authorities with a view to the elimination of slum areas and rebuilding on modern lines. The method of apportioning the subsidy is different from that adopted under the previous building scheme, and is based upon the rate of Is. per square foot of all new and totally enclosed floor-space, computed on overall measurement over external walls. In the case of any building, the subsidy payable must not exceed 8 per cent, of the contract price, with a maximum subsidy for a single dwelling of £80.

One of the conditions of this scheme ensures the use of New Zealand materials wherever practicable, and following the procedure adopted under Scheme No. 10, the approved subsidy may be reduced subsequently, or even cancelled, if certain imported materials are used.

NUMBERS ON RELIEF SCHEMES.

The following analysis shows the nature of the work on which men in receipt of wages subsidy from the Unemployment Fund are engaged:—

Nature of Relief Employment.Dec, 1932.March, 1933.June, 1933.Sept, 1933.Dec, 1933.March, 1934.June, 1934.Sept, 1934.
* Excluding men engaged in gold-prospecting.
Scheme 5* (see letterpress, ante)46,15143,37447,33748,74342,17438,13439,83343,674
Farm schemes9,2098,4509,97710,1108,2638,2157,4268,207
Land improvement and development, &c.3,8094,8483,5103,8532,8462,5842,9273,251
Gold-prospecting1,5062,2173,5953,9083,7603,5723,6083,677
Building - subsidy scheme3,2431,8084776,3607,4285,8922 2721,499
Subsidized employment by Public Works Department. .2,1252,0633,1223,6473,0922,570 
Miscellaneous16437095971477072134
     Totals64,08261,06767,11675,13467,74062,11459,23063,012

The policy of the Unemployment Board in regard to men placed on rationed employment under Scheme 5 has been aimed at removing as many men as possible from this type of employment. For example, a considerable number of men engaged in gold-prospecting were formerly employed in part-time relief work. Again, an increasing number of the men still receiving payment under the conditions drawn up under Scheme 5 are employed for full-time work in various undertakings, their wages being subsidized to the extent provided for under Scheme 5. Between October, 1933, and June, 1934, over three thousand men classified under the heading Scheme 5 in the above table were engaged in full-time work, while in September, 1934, over four thousand were so employed.

While the general policy of the Unemployment Board aims at employment in preference to the payment of sustenance, the Board has recently made provision for the payment of sustenance in lieu of relief employment to certain of the older men engaged under Scheme 5. In September. 1934. 5,748 men classified above under Scheme 5 were in receipt of sustenance without work.

SMALL-FARM SETTLEMENT.

Under the original Small-farms Scheme the Unemployment Board aimed at placing unemployed workers on small rural holdings of about 5 or It) acres as a means of affording a partial livelihood which could be supplemented by seasonal and other work obtained from neighbouring farmers. Up to the 31st March, 1933, 488 individual settlers had been placed, together with 2G5 share milkers. The total expenditure to that date was £142,000.

In 1933–34 the administration was taken over by the Small-farms Board, constituted under the Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Act of March, 1933. The Small-farms Board operates through the Department of Lands and Survey. and the only connection of the Unemployment Board (the Commissioner of Unemployment is a member of both Boards) is in the matter of sustenance payments, such payments being made (where circumstances warrant) at the rate of £1 per week for thirteen weeks, when the position is reviewed.

The Small-farms Board initiated a wider policy of rural settlement, and decided to combine the actual settlement of unemployed men with, the provision of work for as many more men as possible. To carry out this policy it was necessary that properties should be acquired, which called for a large amount of developmental work of a manual nature. Crown land capable of economic development was not available in many districts, and private lands had to be purchased or leased. At the 31st March, 1934, there were 570 men engaged on development blocks, totalling 37,451 acres, and estimated to provide 347 farms. The principal line adopted has been dairying, as it is endeavoured to keep the establishment-cost below £1,200 per settler, and this would have been insufficient, for example, to establish a settler as a sheep-farmer upon a self-supporting scale. No actual restriction is put upon the settlers, who are free to develop side-lines. In other cases mixed farming or lamb-fattening upon a small scale, but under intensive conditions, has been encouraged, and also small holdings of about 5 acres in localities where settlers could grow fruit, market garden, or keep poultry, &c., and in other districts where seasonal work is procurable.

At the 31st March, 1934, the Small-farms Board had not been in operation for a full year, but had issued authorities totalling £282,732. In addition to the development blocks noted above, 229 holdings of a total of 11,507 acres had been settled, and fifty-four share milkers established.

Where necessary cottages are erected by the Public Works Department: figures under this head will be found in the section “Building and Construction.”

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN EMPLOYMENT.

The growth of unemployment throughout the world in recent years has prompted in most countries statistical examination of the fluctuations or periodicity of employment. Until recent years the statistics available on this phenomenon in New Zealand have been somewhat scanty, being restricted to employment on public works. In addition to the material quoted in the earlier portion of this section data are now available on some of the avenues of industrial employment (including building and construction, but excluding transport and mining) as well as that contracted with local authorities.

FACTORY AND BUILDING INDUSTRIES.

The following table shows, by industrial groups, the maximum and minimum monthly numbers of male and female wage-earners (excluding proprietors actively engaged, managers, overseers, accountants, clerks, &c.) engaged in factories, mills, works, &c, and in the building industry, during the calendar year 1932, together with the monthly average for the year:—

 Maximum for Year.Maximum for Year.Average of Twelve Months.
Industry.Number.Month.Number.Month.
 Males.   
Animal foodll,493Jan.5,545Aug.8,344
Vegetable food2,030Mar.1,901Jan.1,960
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants1,369Dec.1,161Sept.1,251
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)715Feb.472Sept.581
Working in wood5,035Dec.4,349June4,657
Paper-manufactures212Dec.200Various204
Heat, light, and power3,739Feb.3,552June3,617
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.1,376Nov.1,159June1,293
Metals other than gold or silver3,845Dec.3,447April3,606
Precious metals117Dec.113Various114
Books and publications3,413Jan.3,285July3,325
Ornaments and minor art products115Nov.90June100
Designs, medals, type, and dies94April87July, Sept.91
Machines, tools, and implements690Oct.596Jan.630
Carriages and vehicles3,437Jan.3,144Sept.3,267
Harness, saddlery, and leathers arc976Mar.719Aug.834
Ships, boats, and their equipment624June313Aug.464
House-furnishings1,245Mar.1,167Aug.1,204
Chemicals and by-products899NOV.781Jan.856
Textile fabrics936Nov.879Jan.905
Apparel2,270Nov.1,996Jan.2,160
Fibrous materials429Dec.276June367
Building and construction3,043Nov.2,319April2,597
 Females.   
Animal food139April111Aug.124
Vegetable food1,551Mar.1,330April1,427
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants563Feb.491Sept514
Paper-manufactures276Dec.155April236
Metals other than gold or silver128Dec.100Jan.110
Books and publications915Dec.848June872
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware125Nov., Dec.100Jan., Mar.118
House-furnishings185Nov., Dec.162May177
Chemicals and by-products275Dec.229Mar.247
Textile fabrics1,370Dec.1,259Jan.1,317
Apparel8,317Nov.7,021Jan.7,617

Due allowance should be made for the inclusion of male wage-earners in establishments operated by local authorities (other than Electric-power Boards) both under factories, mills, works, &c., and under local authorities, when those two branches of employment are being considered together.

The tables following give for all factory industries and building and construction a monthly comparison for 1931 and 1932, together with the monthly deviations from the means of the respective years.

Month.1931.1932.Differences, 1931 and 1932Deviation from Mean.
1931.1932.
 Factories, Mills, Works, &c. 
 MALES...  
January47,08343,301−3,782−5,143+3,321
February46,37843,369−3,009+4,438+3,389
March45,28942,326−2,963+3,349+2,346
April43,8O141,343−2,458+1,861+1,363
May42,87740,059−2,818+ 937+ 79
June40,48138,400−2,081−1,459−1,580
July38,35536,581−1,774−3,585−3,399
August37,84136,373−1,468−4,099−3,607
September38,29137,298− 993−3,649−2,682
October38,89038,269− 621−3,050−1,711
November40,07839,734− 344−1,862− 246
December43,92142,714−1,207+ 1,981+ 2,734
Averages41,94039,980−1,9602,9512,205
 FEMALES.    
January12,35812,441+ 83− 297− 839
February12,36313,090− 727− 292− 190
March12,60913,300+ 691− 46+ 20
April12,41513,122+ 707− 240− 158
May12,45912,887+ 428− 196− 393
June12,16312,740+ 577− 492− 540
July12,14312,789+ 646− 512− 491
August12,41513,252+ 837−240− 28
September12,83813,584+ 746+ 183+ 304
October13,14914,040+ 891+ 494+ 760
November13,41814,225+ 807+ 763+ 945
December13,52813,904+ 376+ 873+ 624
Averages12,65513,280+ 625386441
 Building and Construction.  
 MALES.    
January4,1402,423− 1,717+ 384− 174
February4,0312,435− 1,596+ 275− 162
March4,0652,416− 1,649+ 309− 181
April4,1012,319− 1,782+ 345− 278
May4,1232,426− 1,697+ 367− 171
June3,7722,454− 1,318+ 16− 143
July3,5272,520−1,007− 229− 77
August3,5432,433−1,110− 213− 164
September3,5382,748− 790− 218+ 151
October3,5942,945− 649− 162+ 348
November3,4303,043− 387− 326+ 446
December3,2103,007− 203− 546+ 410
Averages3,7562,597−1,159282226

PUBLIC WORKS.

Seasonal unemployment has to a certain extent been coped with by the institution of relief works by the Public Works Department, which has tended to swell the numbers engaged on public works. This employment on public works may be classified according to the authority meeting the cost of the works:—

  1. Public Works Department.

  2. Public Works Department and local authorities.

  3. Local authorities only.

  4. Unemployment Fund.

Unfortunately, complete statistics covering all phases of this employment are not extant. Those available for past years relate to class (a), and part of class (6) to the extent to which the cost is met by the Public Works Department; furthermore, they do not include the employees of contractors. The statistics are entirely exclusive of workmen engaged by local authorities, and are calculated by dividing the total amount paid as wages during each month by the sum which would represent the full-time earnings of one worker during each particular period. The statistics cover those workers who are employed on “time ” as well as “piece” rates. Class (d) in 1932–315 and 1933–34 represents several thousand men, all of whom are also included in figures relating to the Unemployment Board's operations.

Even with the deficiencies referred to the available figures are not without interest, and afford some measure of the additional work provided by the State in periods of unemployment. The following figures show the monthly average number of men employed on public works over a range of years:—

Year ended 31st March,Roads.Railways, Buildings, &c.Total.Year ended 31st March,Roads.Railways, Buildings, &c.Total.
18951,1039622,06519283,0435,0448,087
19001,8251,2433,06819294,6434,1098,752
19051,4072,1193,52619305,3805,48710,867
19101,7623,9295,69119316,3656,05712,422
19152,4942,2344,72819325,2554,1829,437
19201,4952,4983,99319333,2133,5206,733
19251,6145,1516,76519343,9684,6138,581

Figures for each month of the last five years are next given, in such form as readily to permit of a comparison between corresponding months, as well as showing the movement from month to month:—

Month.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
January11,14012,0618,2646,8808,911
February12,01012,0008,8748,0008,977
March12,03411,5808,9408,3109,253
April11,97611,5436,5208,0669,352
May12,43610,2136,4278,1539,467
June12,81510,1836,2478,3509,330
July13,0399,8976,5428,3449,043
August13,0159,5336,4898,3218,929
September12,5929,4456,2568,1528,923
October12,5129,1556,2498,599. .
November12,7168,6056,4058,943. .
December12,3278,5916,4658,897. .

Figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics showing each month the number engaged on the various public works throughout the Dominion.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

Employment by local authorities comprises principally the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, and the operation. and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric supply, and tramways) and social services.

Particulars relating to wage-earning employees engaged by the various classes of local authorities during the local-body year ended March, 1933, are presented in the following table. The statistics do not cover Hospital Boards, Fire Boards, or Electric-power Boards. Employees of Electric-power Boards are included in the figures already given for manufacturing industries.

 Maximum for Year.Minimum for Year.Average of Twelve Months.
Class of Local District.Number.Month.Number.Month.
Boroughs26,670Sept.21,824April25,267
Counties18,082Oct.13,165Aprill6,626
Harbour Boards2,420Nov.2,065July2,235
Urban transport districts1,777May1,432Jan.1,517
Town districts1,315Sept.1,036April1,195
Urban drainage districts611Sept.244April511
River districts1,633July760Feb;1,129
Road districts596Oct.447April. Jan.512
Rabbit districts116July85Nov., Jan.99
Land-drainage districts789May601Oct.707
Gas-lighting district45Feb.37April41
Railway district17July, Aug.12Various14
Water-supply districts40May11Feb.30
All Districts53,012Sept,42,650April49,883

The figures in the above table include, besides permanent, temporary, and casual employees, a very large number of relief workers (vide earlier portion of this section). The inclusion of relief workers has somewhat obscured the normal characteristics of local-body employment, as exemplified in this way.

Chapter 39. SECTION XXXIX.—INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE collection of information regarding industrial disputes was initiated by the Census and Statistics Office at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year was obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department.

Under the system originated in 1920 returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the statistics based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if parties to the dispute or other private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to demand information from the parties concerned in the dispute, and by exercising this power when necessary they can obtain complete information.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute” refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

Reference to enactments framed to mitigate the severity of industrial disputes will be found in the section on labour legislation.

NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE.

From the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 till the end of 1905 there were no industrial disputes between employers and workers coming within the scope of the Act; indeed, New Zealand may be said to have been almost entirely free from industrial disputes during that period. The greatest number of disputes in any one year since 1894 was recorded in 1025, when there were eighty-three disputes—mostly, however, of trivial importance. Other years in which the number of disputes was relatively high were 1920 and 1921, with seventy-seven disputes for each year, and 1913 with seventy-three disputes. The number of workers concerned was greatest in 1920, when 15,13S workers were involved in industrial disputes. Of this number, 5,880 were accounted for by a strike among railway employees, and 7,221 were accounted for by mining disputes. The next highest number (14,815) was recorded in 1924— a strike among railway employees accounting for the relatively high number of workers involved in disputes in that year. Other years in which the number of workers involved in industrial disputes has exceeded 10,000 were 1913 (13,400) and 1921 (10,433).

Year.Disputes.Firms affected.Workers involved.Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £    
1924345814,81589,10562,732
192583939,90574,55249,149
192659676,26447,81132,355
192738404,47612,48511,819
192839569,25821,99722,304
192947607,15125,88926,940
193038445,46731,66937,299
193124376,35648,48644,544
193223679,355108,605105,715
193315433,55865,09959,334

The number of working-days lost is calculated by multiplying the number of workers involved by the number of days lost (exclusive of Sundays and public holidays). It is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place, and no allowance is made for loss of work from unemployment or other causes which might have occurred even if there had been no dispute. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of work done, but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

PRINCIPAL DISPUTES IN 1933.

The number of disputes occurring during 1033 was fifteen— an exceptionally low figure. In the majority of instances these disputes were of relatively short duration, only two strikes lasting for more than two weeks.

The most serious industrial disturbance recorded during 1933 was a strike among the coal-miners in the Nightcaps district. This dispute, which began in August, 1932, continued until March, 1033. In all, 399 men were involved, the working-days lost being 44,086, and the loss in wages approximately £ 42,000. The miners, who refused to agree to a reduction in wages proposed by the coal companies, eventually returned to work, accepting the employers’ terms.

In May, 1933, a Dominion-wide strike of seamen and firemen took place, the crews refusing to accept the terms of a new agreement proposed by the shipping companies. The dispute was, however, of short duration, lasting from eight to ten days at various ports. A compromise was effected, the workers agreeing to accept a 21 per cent, reduction in wages in lieu of the 5 per cent, originally proposed by the companies. In all, 564 seamen and firemen were directly involved in -the dispute, while 453 waterside workers were indirectly affected owing to the hold-up of shipping. The Cooks and Stewards’ Union supported the seamen and firemen, its members refusing to sail in ships with non-union seamen on board, and 432 cooks and stewards being on strike during the period of the dispute.

NATURE AND DURATION.

The next table shows the nature of disputes and the number of workers involved during the last ten years.

 Nature of Dispute.Number of Workers involved
Year.Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lockout.Total.Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lockout.Total.
192433..1..3414,79124..14,815..
19257362837,6941,229479359,905 
19264991..594,4371,78839..6,264
192735..3..384,389..87..4,476
192832412394,4473,864859889,258
192940241475,1141,837185157,151
19303413..385,170140157..5,467
19311931245,42935057256,356 
1932185..237,9451,410..9,355  
1933132..152,728830..3,558  

It will be seen that the vast majority of disputes are in the nature of direct strikes, although in some years “sympathetic” strikes (when the workers go on strike in sympathy with the claims of other workers, and not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions) attain serious proportions. The table following illustrates the duration of disputes during 1933:—

Duration.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £   
1 day and less5948905830
2 days and more than 1 day1104208150
3 days and more than 2 days1319342
Over 3 days and less than 1 week266294578
1 week and less than 2 weeks41,61213,9418,540
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks13985,5727,561
8 weeks and over139944,08641,633
     Totals153,55865,09959,334

The loss in wages occasioned by industrial disputes in 1933 was considerably lower than in 1932. One dispute in 1933 was. however, of prolonged duration; and, consequently, the working-days lost and the loss in wages were higher than were recorded for several years prior to 1932.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

The following table shows the number of disputes in each industrial district for the last five years and also the number of workers involved. The position of the Westland District is outstanding.

Year.Northern.Taranaki.WellingtonMarlboroughNelsonWestland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
   Number of Disputes.   
19291312..232647
19308..3..184538
19314..4..13124* 
19325..4..8223 
1933414..21215
   Number of Workers involved.  
192952219138..5,9381153477,151
1930877..65..4,0921642695,467..
19311,798..739..3,54127356,356 
19321,70878855..5,8153045959,355 
19331,085601,032..3132887803,558 

* Includes one partial strike which involved workers in Canterbury, Wellington, and Northern districts.

† Includes two strikes involving workers in various districts.

‡ Includes one strike involving workers in various districts.

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION OF DISPUTES.

In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industries in which disputes took place. The classification into industrial groups is the same at that used in the compilation of wage and trade-union statistics. In seven of the fourteen groups of the classification there were no disputes, and such groups have been omitted.

Industrial Group.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Number of Disputes.     
Food, drink, &c.6312..
Wood-manufacture1..1  
Metal-working and engineering..2..  
Mining242316136
Agricultural and pastoral..1..  
Shipping and cargo-working151168 
Miscellaneous1..   
     Totals4738242315
Number of Workers involved.     
Food, drink, &c.326205481260..
Wood-manufacture1812..33 
Metal-working and engineering..182..  
Mining6,2374,9155,1447,8331,618
Agricultural and pastoral..5..  
Shipping and cargo-working5553357261,0801,907
Miscellaneous15..   
     Totals7,1515,4676,3569,3553,558

Out of a total of 147 disputes during the five years, eighty-two occurred in the mining industry. Of the 31,887 workers involved in disputes during the five years, 25,747 were engaged in this industry. The great majority of these disputes were. however, of very short duration. It is noteworthy that in 1933 only six disputes occurred in this industry, the lowest number for many years past. A more detailed analysis of disputes occurring during 1933 is given below.

Industrial Group.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Directly.IndirectlyTotal.
 £      
Wood manufacture133..33231156 
Mining6161,553651,61851,36351,767
Shipping and cargo-working8261,2336741,90713,5057,411
     Totals15432,8197393,55865,09959,334

The greatest number of disputes in any one industry during 1933 was recorded in the shipping industry, where eight strikes took place. The disputes in the shipping industry were only of short duration, the longest duration in any one case being ten working-days. One strike in the mining industry was, however, of 140 working-days’ duration.

CAUSES OF DISPUTES.

In the next table the causes of disputes occurring during the years 1929–33 are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included disputes concerning a reduction or increase in the rates of wages in industries where time rates are paid, or concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for piecework in industries where piece rates are paid. Disputes concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for overtime are also included in this class.

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment.” This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs—the employment of non-unionists, or the dismissal of men when, in the opinion of the other workers, their dismissal is due solely or mainly to the fact that they are prominent in union activities.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all disputes caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance with their own particular employer, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

Cause.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Number of Disputes.    
Wages36105 
Hours..    
Employment111025 
Other working-conditions27191151
Sympathy21352
Other causes4212 
     Totals4738242315
Number of Workers involved.   
Wages3371,1871,4826,1301,833
Hours..    
Employment1,1681,554573406372
Other working-conditions3,2362,5673,4911,39386
Sympathy1,8371403501,410830
Other causes5731946016437
     Totals7,1515,4676,3569,3553,558

The following table classifies disputes for the year 1933 according to cause, and shows for each group of causes the number of disputes, the number of workers involved, the time lost, and the estimated loss in wages.

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £   
Wages51,83354,14946,570
Employment5372662796
Other working-conditions1864326
Sympathy28309,0289,819
Other causes24371,2172,123
     Totals153,55865,09959,334

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT.

Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes during the last five years. “Negotiations under Act” covers negotiations under both the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act.

Method of Settlement.1929.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Number of Disputes.   
Negotiations under Act86121
Private negotiations between parties1185127
Substitution1321..
Otherwise27211687
     Totals4738242315
Number of Workers involved.    
Negotiations under Act4088801,12027986
Private negotiations between parties1,8688941,4927,0302,043
Substitution23781415..
Otherwise4,8523,6153,7302,0311,429
     Totals7,1515,4676,3569,3553,558

Further information for the year 1933 is given in the next table.

Method of Settlement.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lostEstimated Loss In Wages.
 £   
Negotiations under Act1864326
Private negotiations between parties72,04360,22755,522
Otherwise71,4294,8293,786
     Totals153,55865,09959,334

RESULTS OF DISPUTES.

The results of all industrial disputes are classified under one of the four heads used in the next table.

Result.1920.1930.1931.1932.1933.
Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers1514341
In favour of employers1181046
Compromise1510392
Indeterminate686  
     Totals4738242315
Number of Workers involved.
In favour of workers3,9322,8091,18664831
In favour of employers1,1559062,268898896
Compromise1,6581,0937406,3681,077
Indeterminate4066592,1621,4411,554
     Totals7,1515,4676,3569,3553,558
In favour of workers14,43617,9678,5662,91493
In favour of employers3,0822,22721,42146,93045,548
Compromise7,9778,82412,84352,6179,404
Indeterminate3942,6515,6566,14410,054
     Totals25,88931,66948,486108,60565,099

An “indeterminate” result is recorded in a. considerable proportion of cases. This is only natural since many disputes—notably “sympathetic” strikes—cannot by their very nature have a definite settlement one way or the other. Again, considerable care has been taken in assigning disputes to the various classes, no dispute being classified as ending in favour of either the workers or the employers unless the result is quite clear. Of disputes ending definitely in favour of one party or the other during the five years, workers won in 37 instances and employers in 39.

In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1933 are shown in conjunction:—

 Cause.
Result.Wages.Employment.Other Working conditions.Sympathy.Other Causes.Totals.
 Number of Disputes.   
In favour of workers..1..1  
In favour of employers131..16
Compromise1..2   
Indeterminate3..216 
     Totals51215  
 Number of Workers involved.   
In favour of workers..31..31  
In favour of employers39928186..130896
Compromise1,01760..1,077  
Indeterminate417..8303071,554 
     Totals1,833372868304373,558
 Number of Working-days lost.   
In favour of workers..93..93  
In favour of employers44,08650943..91045,548
Compromise9,34460..9,404  
Indeterminate719..9,02830710,054 
     Totals54,149662439,0281,21765,099

Chapter 40. SECTION XL.—INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS.

INTRODUCTORY.

As a result of an international conference of official statisticians held at Geneva in 1923, under the auspices of the International Labour Office set up by the League of Nations, the collection and compilation of statistics of industrial accidents on substantially uniform lines is now being undertaken in virtually all of the principal countries. From the administrative standpoint, the principal types of industrial accidents occurring in New Zealand may be classified as follows:—

Factory Accidents.—Section 41 of the Factories Act requires the reporting to Inspectors of Factories of all accidents likely to incapacitate the injured person for at east forty-eight hours. Reports are compiled by Inspectors of Factories in connection with each such accident causing loss of work amounting to three days or upwards. These are ultimately forwarded to the Census and Statistics Office for statistical analysis.

Scaffolding Accidents.—The procedure adopted in connection with the compilation of statistics of scaffolding accidents is identical with that in connection with factory accidents.

Accidents to Railway, Public Works, and Post and Telegraph Employees.— Individual reports of all accidents involving loss of work for three days or upwards are supplied by the respective Departments to the Census and Statistics Office for more detailed analysis and tabulation.

Accidents to Employees in Mines and Quarries.—Particulars of accidents to employees in metalliferous mines, in coalmines, and in quarries and other places under the Stone-quarries Act, are given in successive numbers of the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C.-2.

Other Industrial Accidents.—There are numerous types of industrial accidents for which it has not as yet been found practicable to collect and compile statistics. The principal classes of such accidents are those occurring to persons engaged in land transport (other than railway operation), in “watersiding,” in bushfelling, and in marine navigation. Accidents of the last-mentioned type are reportable to the Marine Department under the Shipping and Seamen Act.

HAWKE'S BAY EARTHQUAKE ACCIDENTS.

The statistics of industrial accidents for the year 1931 do not include accidents caused by the Hawke's Bay earthquake to employees working at the time the earthquake took place. The total number of these accidents is not known; but in twenty-nine cases an appeal was made to the Court to decide whether there was any liability on the part of the employers to pay compensation in respect of such accidents. Ultimately, a decision of the Privy Council favoured the workers' claims, and compensation amounting to £2,902 was paid in respect of the twenty-nine cases cited. Of these twenty-nine accidents, twenty-seven were caused by the collapse of walls, two cases resulting in death and two cases in permanent partial disablement of the victims.

FREQUENCY RATES.

For the purpose of computing frequency rates in respect of industrial accidents in New Zealand, data as to the number of employees in establishments coming under the heading of various industries have been compiled in the Census and Statistics Office from returns furnished for the purpose by the Labour Department's Inspectors of Factories; while information as to the hours worked has been ascertained from awards, and supplemented by the statistics of short time and overtime compiled from data collected with the annual census of factory production. Similar data have been obtained from the records of the Post and Telegraph, Public Works, and Railways Departments. One hour's work performed by one man is taken as a unit. Data as to man-hours are not available in the case of scaffolding operations.

Year.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.*Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* Excluding scaffolding accidents.

† Includes medical expenses.

 £    
19286,3442.2136,333120,47819.0
19297,2182.5037,164136,48619.1
19307,1282.5577,099130,26818.4
19315,7932.5445,777103,13917.9
19324,7302.1954,71580,45317.1

The distribution of industrial accidents in 1932 among the classes of industries covered by the statistics is indicated in the following table:—

Class.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* No Information available.

† Excluding scaffolding accidents.

 £    
Factory2,4141.6132,40036,56815.2
Public Works1,0676,5621,06719,97218.7
Scaffolding150*1493,79025.4
Railways9683.48296817,70518.3
Post and telegraph1310.8771312,41818.5
Grand totals4,7302,1954,71580,45317.1

Scaffolding accidents involved the highest compensation payment per accident in 1932, a high proportion of fatal accidents (four out of a total of 150 accidents) occurring in this group.

The number of accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked was highest in the case of accidents to Public Works employees.

In the table on the page following industrial accidents during the year 1932 are classified into certain important industrial groups. Details for individual industries, under this and other headings, are published in an annual report (Statistical Report on Prices, Wage-rates, &c.) issued by the Census and Statistics Office.

The average amount of compensation per case in respect of all accidents classified was lower in 1932 than in any of the previous four years—partly, no doubt, a reflection of the lower wage rates ruling in that year.

Industrial Group.Total Accidents.Accidents per 100,000 Man-hours worked.Accidents where Particulars of Compensation available.Total Compensation or Damages paid in such Cases.Compensation per Case where known.

* Data on which to compute not available.

† Excluding Scaffolding accident.

 £    
Food, drink, and tobacco1,8254.5551,81725,41614.0
Clothing, boots, and shoes270.091271776.6
Textiles and weaving260.3502633312.8
Public Works1,0676.5621,06719,97218.7
Scaffolding150*1493,79025.4
Woodworking1300.8371264,18033.2
Paper-manufacture and printing360.361362587.2
Metal-working and engineering2230.8852222,1479.7
Other manufactures1150.7351142,79124.5
Transport and communication—     
 Railways9683.48296817,70518.3
 Post and Telegraph1310.8771312,41818.5
 Tram-car construction and repair61.57961,066177.7
Personal service20.0792157.3
Miscellaneous240.459241857.8
     Total4,7302,1954,71580,45317.1

The average compensation paid in respect of industrial accidents naturally varies considerably in different industries and years according to the proportion of serious accidents occurring.

The following table shows for each year the average compensation paid in conjunction with the extent of disability:—

 Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
Year.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.Number of Cases.*Average Amount of Compensation.
* Where amount of compensation known.
 £ £ £ £ 
19286,1059.3188197.040669.86,33319.0
19296,8889.5241194.235698.47,16419.1
19306,8209.0242189.537627.17,09918.4
19315,5889.2163203.426707.05,77717.9
19324,5649.3128161.523752.44,71517.1

The average amount of compensation paid in respect of fatalities is normally considerably below the maximum amount which may be paid under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of such accidents. This is due mainly to the facts that in cases where the deceased worker had no dependants only medical and funeral expenses are paid; and that in cases of partial dependency the amount paid as compensation may be considerably less than the maximum.

CAUSE OF ACCIDENT AND EXTENT OF INJURY SUSTAINED.

With regard to the extent and degree of the disability sustained, it is usual to distinguish fatal accidents, accidents causing temporary disability, accidents causing permanent partial disability, and accidents causing permanent total disability. In the actual compilation of the statistics difficulty occasionally arises as to whether a particular injury should be regarded as temporary or permanent; and in cases of doubt the conservative practice has been adopted, of classifying the injury in the temporary-disability class. The following table relates to the five-years period, 1928–32.

CauseTemporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.Percentage of Total Accidents.
Machinery—     
 Prime movers6841730.2
 Transmission1021031150.4
 Lifting-machinery65536147052.3
 Power-working machines2,37242462,8029.0
Vehicles1,79044411,8756.0
Explosions and fires1813292220.7
Poisonous, hot, and corrosive substances795568062.6
Electricity71511870.3
Falls of persons—     
 From elevations1,54756301,6335.2
 Into excavations2151..2160.7
 Slipping and stumbling on the level2,46020..2,4807.9
Stepping on or striking against fixed objects—     
 Stepping on391..13921.3
 Striking against1,431811,4404.6
Falling objects, not being handled by the person injured78027138202.6
Falls of earth1,03929181,0863.5
Handling of objects—     
 Heavy5,64810065,75418.4
 Sharp2,00729..2,0366.5
 Hand-trucks, &c.4601014711.5
Hand-tools—     
 In hands of person injured—     
  Glancing of tool4,3877814,46614.3
  Breaking of tool77..770.2 
  Flying particles58738..6252.0
  Other88314..8972.9
 In hands of other than person injured3941014051.3
Animals3083..3111.0
Miscellaneous—     
 Strains, sprains, and septic wounds while slaughtering)5132..5151.7
 Doors, windows, covers, gates (excluding elevators)3155..3201.0
 Other5641465841.9
Summary.     
Factories12,5005804013,12042.0
Public Works8,202233538,48827.2
Scaffolding1,63479301,7435.6
Railways6,833104366,97322.4
Post and Telegraph8718108892.8
     Totals30,0401,00416931,213100.0

NATURE OF INJURY.

A classification of accidents according to the nature of the injuries sustained gives the following results for the last five years:—

Nature of Injury.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.Totals, 1928–32.
Contusions and abrasions1,5161,9621,9881,4369827,884
Burns and scalds217247202162163991
Concussions2240453627170
Cuts and lacerations2,0082,2612,1671,9031,6489,987
Punctures4154214103113011,858
Amputations1521821399175639
Dislocations3942342728170
Fractures2432862381941561,117
Sprains and strains1,3541,4941,6001,3219826,751
Other and ill-defined3782833053123681,646
     Totals6,3447,2187,1285,7934,73031,213
Number of cases where septic poisoning followed9231,0029769308794,710
Percentage of all accidents14.513.913.716.118.615.1

A feature of special interest brought out by this table is the relatively high percentage of accidents in which septic poisoning followed.

PART OF BODY AFFECTED.

Informative figures showing the number of cases in which the different parts of the body were affected by industrial accidents occurring in 1928–32 are given in the following table:—

Part of Body affected.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.Totals, 1928–32.
Head12413813712782608
Eyes2022862492201781,135
Rest of face81961019558431
Neck112820181491
Back4906076485243662,635
Thorax and contents2472932902471831,260
Abdomen and contents9612113686102541
External genitals15182220883
Upper limbs—      
 Collarbone and shoulder134148145128105660
 Arm3564474082872691,767
 Hand and wrist9161,0121,0417657574,491
 Finger and thumb1,8902,0491,9781,6991,4239,039
Lower limbs—      
 Pelvis, hip, and thigh11413414011173572
 Leg5896756445023902,800
 Ankle and foot8629599647555934,133
Undefined or multiple217207205209129967
     Totals6,3447,2187,1285,7934,73031,213

Accidents to the fingers and hands form a large proportion of total accidents. Out of a total of 31,213 accidents classified during 1928 to 1932, 13,530 oases were recorded where fingers or hands were affected.

A tabulation made for 1932 correlating nature of injury with part of body affected showed that the most common type of accident was to the fingers and thumbs, resulting in cute or lacerations: of the 4,730 accidents tabulated, 910 came under this category; of the 75 cases of amputations also, 69 resulted in loss of some part of the fingers or thumbs; contusions of the feet numbered 159, and cuts and lacerations of the hands 315; of the 982 sprains, 302 resulted in injury to the back, while sprained ankles, &c., accounted for a further 261.

DURATION OF INCAPACITY.

A further measure of the extent of disability is furnished in the cases of temporary disability by data as to duration of absence from work as the result of the accident. A summary of this aspect of the matter 13 given below.

 1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.Totals, 1928 to 1932.
Duration.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.  
1 week or under1,4181,5861,54921.71,26221.898320.86.79821.8
1 week to 2 weeks1,8672,1972,21731.11,81131.31,44230.59,53430.5
2 weeks to 4 weeks1,6511,8281,83625.81,49025.71,23126.08,03625.8
4 weeks to 6 weeks5605885708.05118.83958.42,6248.4
6 weeks to 13 weeks4585315087.13906.73757.92,2627.2
13 weeks to 6 months1171251211.71041.81172.56112.0
Over 6 months3035210.3270.5230.41090.3
Total specified cases of temporary disability6,1016,8906,82295.75,59596.64,56696.529,97496.0
Cases where employee did not return or duration not stated53590.270.1100.2660.2
Permanent partial disability1982542583.61642.81302.81,0043.2
Fatally40390.5270.5240.51690.6 
     Totals6,3447,2187,128100.05,793100.04,730100.031,213100.0

In many cases the injured employee did not cease work immediately, in some instances a considerable period intervening. The following table shows for such cases occurring during the year 1932 the length of time elapsing before the employee left work, and the final cause of cessation of work.

Factories.Public Works.Scaffolding.Railways.Post and Telegraph.
Period elapsing.     
Under 1 week11977925728
Over 1 week and under 2 weeks26121211
Over 2 weeks1591142
Final Cause.     
Incipient septic poisoning1024656712
Strains193877 
Other causes3933313812
     Totals160981129231
Percentage of all accidents6.69.27.330.223.7

This table indicates that many employees suffering from minor injuries pay no immediate attention, especially in the case of small cuts, strains, or abrasions. The neglect may cause more severe pain (with abrasions, septic poisoning), and the absence then enforced is likely to be longer than if the first injury had immediate attention. Lost time means lost wages, especially if the injury results in under three days' absence, in which case no compensation is payable. Further, in the case of apprentices, lost time has to be made up at the termination of the period of apprenticeship, and these two considerations are likely to militate against the worker ceasing work immediately on account of a minor injury.

In order to render the statistics of time lost and compensation paid as complete as possible supplementary reports on cases outstanding at the following 31st January are prepared by Inspectors of Factories for the Census and Statistics Office in the following June. By June most outstanding cases can be cleared up, although there remains a not altogether inconsiderable residuum of cases where employees fail to return to their former work—especially through having taken up other employment or through the seasonal closing - down of the industry (e.g., freezing) in connection with which the accident occurred, so that they cannot be traced. The cases still outstanding at the end of January must naturally be the severer cases, and, as the severest cases of all may still be outstanding in June, the toll of time lost as a result of factory accidents tends to be slightly underestimated in the statistics. The June clearing-up accounts for a few minor discrepancies between the statistics of factory accidents published in this volume and those published in the Annual Report of the Department of Labour.

ACCIDENT SEVERITIES.

In view of the fact that the age of the individual is not particularly relevant to the character of the hazard from which the injury has occurred, it is assumed for the purpose of calculating accident-severity rates that a constant loss of 60,000 working-hours is occasioned by each fatality irrespective of the age of the person at the time of death. In respect of permanent partial disablement an international scheme for the apportionment of loss of earning-power caused by this type of accident has been drawn up by the International Labour Office.

Under this scheme, which has been adopted with some slight modifications in the treatment of New Zealand statistics, time lost on account of permanent partial disability is assessed on the basis of a proportionate part of the time lost in connection with injuries resulting in death. For example, dismemberment or loss of use of hand is regarded as a 50-per-cent. disability—that is, the time lost on account of an injury of this type is assessed as 50 percent, of 60,000 working-hours—i.e., 30,000 working-hours.

1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.
* Excluding scaffolding accidents.
Total cases resulting in—     
 Temporary disability6,1066,9256,8315,6024,576
 Permanent partial disability198254258164130
 Fatality40392724 
     Total6,3447,2187,1285,7934,730
Calendar days lost per accident127124125112109
Hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked (i.e., severity rate)*1,5481,9111,8741,5271,413

A more detailed explanation of the method of compilation of accident severities is contained in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book.

The severity rate for all accidents during the period 1928–32 has varied between 1,413 (in 1932) and 1,911 (in 1929). The extent of the toll on industry exacted by industrial accidents is realized when it is considered that during the five years 1928–32 one hour was lost as a result of such accidents out of every sixty hours worked in the industries covered by these statistics.

Comparison of the severity rates as between different industrial groups is affected by the varying proportions of serious accidents and fatalities in different industries. In the main groups covered by the cumulative table for the five years 1928–32 shown below the effect of this factor is minimized by the relatively large number of accidents classified.

 Total Cases of Accidents resulting inCalendar Days lost per Accident.Hours lost per 100,000 Man - hours worked (Severity Rate).
Industrial Group.Temporary Disability.Permanent Partial Disability.Fatality.Total.
* Excluding scaffolding accidents.
Food, drink, &c.7,871186138,070601,486
Clothing, boots, &c.19511..2066448
Textiles and weaving235191255148600
Public Works8,202233538,4881306,086
Scaffolding1,63479301,743264..
Woodworking1,08419171,2822531,775
Paper-manufacturers and printing308243335224806
Metal-working and engineering1,7299481,831131955
Other manufactures8034278521881,059
Transport and communication—
 (1) Railways6,833104366,973992,845
 (2) Post and Telegraph871810889139955
 (3) Tram-car construction241264273,756 
Personal services373..40101197
Miscellaneous2149..223105528
     Totals30,0401,00416931,2131201,679*

LOSS OF EARNING-POWER INVOLVED.

Provision is made in certain cases for the actual impairment of wage-earning capacity to be stated. Of the 130 cases of permanent partial incapacity in 1932, 69 answered the question as to what wages the employee would earn on resumption. In 53 cases it was reported that, though dismemberment or disablement had occurred, no diminution of earning-power had taken place. In 16 cases, however, definite impairment eventuated, in most cases to a serious extent.

HOUR OF OCCURRENCE.

The following tabulation of industrial accidents, according to the hour of occurrence, shows the effects of fatigue during the working day:—

 Year.Causes, 1928–32.
Time of Occurrence, to nearest Hour.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.MachineryFalls of Persons.Handling Objects.Hand Tools.Other.
8 a.m.223260291227204135176296246352
9 a.m.548638670550407371336685738683
10 a.m.9331,1681,0048206615535831,3391,0121,099
11 a.m.9621,0621,0908286395815881,2729791,161
12 noon526644577462423313401659567692
1 p.m.175199177172123132197152242 
2 p.m.553567569473372323335671576629
3 p.m.8188568446675464384861,000831976
4 p.m.724830747596472406498888690887
5 p.m.368387417321386166265485392571
Other hours354463610594401247469544195967
Not stated12692625787285314269132
Not applicable345270269117832268
     Totals6,3447,2187,1285,7934,7303,6954,3298,2616,4698,459

This table shows the latter part of the morning—10 a.m. and 11 a.m. being almost equal in incidence—as the time when most accidents occur; but it is apparent that the Saturday half-holiday reduces materially the number of accidents occurring in the late afternoon, and this should be considered in its interpretation. Finally, most establishments are idle between noon and 1 p.m. When these facts are allowed for, it would appear that for most classes of accidents there is a tendency for the risk to increase (in sympathy with increasing fatigue) with each additional hour of the working half-day, the midday and the night-time rest eliminating the cumulated effects of such fatigue. In the case of some causes of accidents, the increased risk with the number of hours continuously worked is much greater than in other cases: the increase, as the working half-day progresses, in the number of accidents caused by falls of persons in particular is exceptionally marked.

A more definite indication is given by considering the length of time the employee had worked when the accident occurred.

Number of Hours already worked.1928.1929.1930.1931.1932.Totals, 1928–32.
* Excluding accidents to Post and Telegraph employees.
Under 13434094183592711,800
1 and under 26337127446405183,247
2 and under 31,0121,2021,0719166824,883
3 and under 41,0041,1361,0819056524,778
4 and under 55316196215023872,660
5 and under 65565705584824192,585
6 and under 77688698496675583,711
7 and under 87518388636395703,661
8 or over3534504423433231,911
Not stated3623602031832141,322
Not applicable315357235169
     Totals6,3447,2186,907*5,659*4,599*30,727

The foregoing tabulation shows that the greatest number of accidents occurred during the third, and to a lesser extent during the fourth, hour worked in the day.

Chapter 41. SECTION XLI.—ELECTRIC POWER.

STATE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER-POWER.

ALTHOUGH abundant water-power is available throughout New Zealand, comparatively little use was made of it before 1900, but since then the development has been extensive. In 1903 water-power to the extent of 9,911 horse-power was actually in use. By 1913 this amount had risen to 34,956 horse-power, by 1923 to 54,244, and by 1934 to 329,174.

The Public Works Act vests the sole right to use the water-power of the Dominion in the Crown, subject to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right to develop such power, or to delegate it to any local authority, or, outside a mining district, to any person or company, subject to conditions.

The regulations covering the delegation of this right, which were amended in June, 1934, make it essential for persons desiring to obtain a license to generate power by this means to obtain permission from the Minister of Public Works. The regulations provide for an annual rental to be paid to the Crown by the licensee, such rental to be paid, except in special cases, at the rate of £1 per kv.a. of maximum demand per annum, and to be not less than £10. A number of local authorities and private concerns have taken advantage of this provision of the Act.

Persistent demands were made for some years that the Government should itself develop the power resources of the Dominion for the benefit of the people generally, and in 1910 the Aid to Water-power Works Act was passed, and the Lake Coleridge scheme for the supply of Christchurch City and Canterbury Provincial District was selected for development. Operations were commenced on these works in 1911 and completed in 1915, with a capacity of 4,500 kw., which was extended to 27,000 kw. in 1926, and further extended to 34,500 kw. in 1930. After the successful inauguration of the Lake Coleridge scheme a complete system was drawn up of interconnected power systems in both the North and South Islands.

For the North Island the scheme embraces three main stations—viz., Mangahao (24,000 h.p.), Lake Waikaremoana (40,000 h.p., capable of extension to 140,000 h.p.), and the Arapuni Rapids, on the Waikato River (60,000 h.p., capable of extension to 120,000 h.p.). The Mangahao and Waikaremoana Stations have been linked up, and it is intended later to extend the linking-up to include Arapuni also.

In the South Island developments are in hand for an ultimate capacity as follows:—

 Horse-power.
Lake Coleridge (Public Works Department)46,000
Waitaki River, Kurow (Public Works Department)40,000
Waipori Falls (Dunedin City Council)28,000
Lake Monowai (Southland Electric-power Board)16,000
 130,000

As in the North Island, the two Government stations will be interconnected. It is proposed that the other two stations will be linked up also, making a complete system covering the major portion of the South Island.

A commencement with the first of the major generating stations in the North Island was made at Mangahao in 1922, the full development of 24,000 kw. being undertaken. Mangahao was completed in 1925.

A start was made almost immediately with the Waikaremoana station of 40,000 kw., and power was turned on to full capacity in November, 1929. These two stations are now working as a single system.

In November, 1920, the Waihi Gold-mining Company's electric-power plant of 6,300 kw. at Horahora. was acquired by the State. Considerable extension, to 10,300 kw., was made in 1925. The requirements of the whole of the Auckland District were in time to be supplied from Arapuni (60,000 kw.), and a commencement with this huge development was made in 1925. The first unit of 15,000 kw. was brought into operation in June, 1929, and the station linked up with Horahora. Two further units were in use by March, 1930, and the fourth and final unit of the present development went into commission in 1932. Unfortunately, in June, 1930, an earth movement occurred, necessitating the temporary closing-down of the station. Remedial measures to recondition the headworks were made, and the station resumed operation in 1932.

The Waitaki River was selected as the next source of power for the South Island system. During the past six years this scheme has been undergoing construction, and at the end of 1934 will commence commercial operations.

The following table for the last five years covers those State systems in actual operation in each year:—

1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–31.
* Amount very small (see units); precise data lacking.
 £    
Capital outlay8,700,5279,150,51710,149,13710,500,15210,584,348
Total revenue681,792685,242680,003864,746901,383
Power purchased8,18155,61925,3896,543*
Working-costs150,606162,779178,372229,249137,995
Interest403,264358,821339,619512,872537,861
Sinking fund23,78317,12618,06220,53929,812
Depreciation137,778110,149103,08382,19798,097
Total costs723,672704,494664,525851,400869,591
 Number.    
Units generated489,540,987405,928,407462,081,037652,858,396683,128,000
Units purchased7,772,88811,553,58016,295,2356,544,56734,000
Totals497,319,875477,481,987478,376,872659,402,963683,162,000
Units sold444,617,054427,138,304428,104,585583,903,603615,887,000

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.

The policy of the Government generally is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of the local authorities. Formerly the only local authorities available wore the cities, boroughs, counties, and town districts, but with the extension of electric supply into the country areas a wider organization became necessary, and this was first provided under the Electric-power Boards Act of 1918. This Act provides for several local districts to combine for the purpose of electric-power distribution, and to set up a special Electric-power Board to carry out the work, with rating-powers over the district concerned. The legislation was consolidated and amended in the Electric-power Boards Act, 1925, amendments to which were enacted in 1927 and 1928. An Act of 1930 established an Association of Electric-power Boards and municipal electric-lighting authorities.

So far only one of the four main cities—viz., Auckland—has been included in the inner area of a power district, but of the secondary centres the cities of Wanganui, Palmerston North, and Invercargill, and the boroughs of Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, Masterton, Lower Hutt, Petone, Blenheim, Greymouth, Timaru, and Oamaru are included.

Twenty - seven Boards—viz., Waitemata, Franklin, Cambridge, Central, Te Awamutu, Waitomo, Thames Valley, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Central Hawke's Bay, Dannevirke, South Taranaki, Wanganui-Rangitikei, Manawatu-Oroua, Horowhenua, Tararua, Wairarapa, Hutt Valley, North Canterbury, Malvern, Banks Peninsula, Springs-Ellesmere, Ashburton, South Canterbury, and Waitaki—have carried out fairly complete reticulation of their areas, and are distributing power taken in bulk from the systems of Horahora-Arapuni, Mangahao-Waikaremoana, and Lake Coleridge. The Auckland Board, which took over the city electric-power station and has provided large extensions of both plant and mains, is now taking its supply from the Horahora-Arapuni scheme. Nine Boards—viz., Wairere, Opunake, Taranaki, Marlborough, Waimea, Golden Bay, Grey, Teviot, and Southland—have local water-power stations in operation. The Westland Board has delegated its license to a private company for a term of years. The Tauranga, Otago, and Otago Central Boards have arranged to purchase power in bulk from other authorities. The other five—viz., North Auckland, Lake Wakatipu, Buller, Reefton, and Hurunui— were not actually functioning during 1933–34.

The following is a summary of actively functioning Electric-power Boards:—

  RevenueExpenditure.
Year ended 3lat March,Capital Outlay as at End of Year.Sale of Electricity (Gross).Sale of Material (Profit).Total.*capital Charges.Power.Total.*
* Includes other items.
 £      
19255,993,028538,61518,469577,684337,621222,830619,513
19267,350,516855,43215,900898,008375,806245,144802,970
19279,411,5921,243,52816,1191,312,212673,163488,5961,323,883
192811,078,6701,553,62715,3871,628,191720,388609,0031,520,489
192912,009,8911,788,71915,2981,850,453797,205735,7731,749,991
193012,920,1502,030,23912,1502,092,169859,262786,1471,887,500
193113,637,1772,157,22810,9762,223,879905,479667,5272,044,457
193213,847,7602,129,1924,5552,203,485944,868908,1162,076,822
193314,026,3202,120,6975,2092,248,6631,095,826896,3282,199,841
193414,226,2592,098,0884,5622,154,188981,196884,4602,066,683

Revenue in the foregoing table is exclusive of moneys derived from rates. Rates, inclusive of arrears, brought in £67,213 in 1933–34. Capital charges are inclusive of interest, sinking-fund, and depreciation payments, while power charges include wages, stores, fuel, distribution, and street-lighting expenses.

ALL STATIONS.

In addition to the Government undertakings controlled by the Public Works Department and those undertakings operated by Electric-power Boards, there are fifty-three establishments which are operated by other organizations, six of which represent private enterprise, the rest being local bodies of various classes. A general summary covering all stations in operation for the last three years is given hereunder:—

Year ended 31st March,
1932.1933.1934.
StationsNo.10099 
Persons engaged (both sexes)No.2,7262,6192,803
Salaries and wages£666,585609,311041,959
ConsumersNo.309,726323,243334,792
Generators (capacity)— MainKw.222,879254,442245,630
StandbyKw.33,51477,08485,583
Route-miles of linesMiles20,29820,62220,996
Revenue—    
Current—    
Retail£3,443,6283,397,1973,374,578
Bulk£736,891911,610944,652
Other£181,948232,728166,053
Total£4,362,4674,541,5354,485,283
Expenditure— Working expenses£2,035,1842,024,9321,917,735
Capital charges£1,943,5252,152,7222,008,374
Total£3,978,7094,177,6543,926,109
Appropriations£404,591354,397416,256
Capital outlay— Total expenditure£29,802,39730,506,39630,709,054
Depreciation£2,661,6273,403,7063,957,163
Book-value at 31st March£27,140,77027,102,69026,751,891
Units— GeneratedThou'ds787,650831,697857,806
Per head of mean populationUnits519544556
Sold (retail)Thou'ds614,525635,260667,289
Bulk salesThou'ds457,821607,014633,902
Capacity of plant (main and standby) —GeneratorsKv.a.256,393331,526331,213
Miles of lines—Transmission, distribution, and underground cables 20,29720,62220,996
Number of— Ranges 31,97333,99836,081
Milking-machines 14,16315,91316,992
Water-heaters 45,79648,07050,272

The figures given in respect of employees and salaries and wages are those which are met out of revenue.

CLASSIFICATION OF STATIONS.

In former issues of the Year-Book electric-supply stations were classified in two groups, one group being termed generating stations and the other distributing stations. Stations which were solely engaged in generating or generated more units than they purchased were classified as generating, while those which purchased all their energy or purchased more than they generated were classed as distributing stations.

The classification now adopted is a quadripartite one, as follows:—

  1. Generating stations:—

    1. Generating solely.

    2. Generating and purchasing, but generating bulk of supplies of power.

  2. Distributing stations:—

    1. Generating and purchasing, but purchasing bulk of supplies of power.

    2. Purchasing solely.

The following table sets out the main particulars of all stations classified in this manner for the year ended 31st March, 1934:—

  Both Generating and Purchasing.Purchasing only.Total.
 Generating only.Mainly Generating.Mainly Purchasing.
*000 omitted.
StationsNo.2513184399
Capital outlay to date£9,986,4276,483,2637,330,8396,908,52530,709,054
Present book value£8,799,6215,837,7356,270,0515,844,48426,751,891
Revenue£981,430672,7771,435,7531,395,3234,485,283
Working-expenses£216,610158,874739,729802,5221,917,735
Capital charges and appropriations£803,579404,317655,876560,8582,424,630
Units generated *544,026307,4356,345..857,806 
Units purchased *..5,176298,701326,838630,715..
Units sold— Bulk sales *372,145219,1076,27936,371633,902..
Retail sales*116,00648,160254,024249,099667,289..

EMPLOYEES AND WAGES.

The following summary, covering all stations, shows for 1933–34 the principal details for employees and for salaries and wages paid:—

 Persons engaged.Salaries and Wages paid
Class of Employment.Males.Females.Total.To Males.To Females.Total.
(a) Salaries or Wages paid out of Revenue from Sale of Energy.
 £     
Secretaries, managers, engineers2611262100,769262101,031
Clerical staff37325963275,58531,147106,732
Wage-earning employees1,893161,909432,9091,287434,196
Total2,5272762,803609,26332,696641,959
(b) Salaries or Wages not paid directly out of Revenue from Sale of Energy
 £     
House-wiring9319416,55124716,798
Trading departments425478,4534228,875
New construction-works307..30762,851..62,851
Total442644887,85566988,524
Grand totals2,9692823,251697,11833,365730,483

CAPITAL OUTLAY.

The following is a summary of the data collected for 1933–34:—

Class of Expenditure.Expenditure during Year ended 31st March, 1934.Total Expenditure up to 31st March, 1934.
 £ 
Land in connection with power - house, headworks, cottages, &c.Cr. 961280,619
Power-house buildings, cottages, &c.3,1851,447,057
Generating plant, headworks, &c.23,2587,975,818
Special standby plant.15403,783
Main transmission-line and main substations79,5174,982,347
Distribution system, substations, land, cottages &c.167,49711,411,007
Public (street) lighting4,305416,379
Interest during construction10,8931,675,615
Motors and other apparatus on hire1,390108,722
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, law-costs, &c, and other capital expenditure)39,3562,007,707
Totals328,45530,709,054

It should be noted that the capital-outlay figures no longer include the outlay in stocks of materials and capital invested in trading departments.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The following statement of assets and liabilities summarizes the financial position of the industry, in addition to setting out fully the state of reserves and invested funds:—

Assets.
 £ 
Capital expenditure30,709,054 
Less amounts written off, &c1,450,482 
 20,258,572 
Stocks, trading departments, and rolling-stock 713,809
Reserve funds accrued (invested out-side the undertakings)—  
Sinking funds 2,821,099
Depreciation funds 661,864
Renewal funds 389,719
Other funds 184,848
Cash in hand and hank, sundry debtors, &C. 1,937,822
 £35,967,823 
Liabilities, &c.
 £
Capital raised27,868,150
Less repaid786,093
Balance owing27,082,057
Other liabilities (including sundry creditors)874,047
Reserves— Sinking fund reserve2,958,184
Depreciation reserve2,506,681
Renewal fund reserve453,801
Accident fund reserve34,903
Other special reserves622,328
General reserve1,289,754
Credit balance, Revenue Account146,068
 £35,967,823

POWER PLANT.

Particulars relating to the power plant in use during the year ended 31st March, 1934, are set out hereunder:—

Source of Power.Main Plant.Standby Plant.Total.
 No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.No.B.H.P.
Boilers41,2004174,7004575,900
Steam-engines21,2493577,1523778,401
Water-turbines96322,109143,290110325,399
Gas-engines216091,911112,071
Oil-engines69063822,2434423,149

UNITS.

The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. It should be noted that the figures are inclusive of bulk sales.

Year ended 31st March,Units (000 omitted).
Generated.Purchased.Total.Sold.Lost in Transmission, &c.
1930709,683459,8341,169,5171,000,081169,436
1931759,827453,1081,212,9351,039,358173,577
1932787,650455,3191,242,9691,072,346170,623
1933831,697602,6331,434,3301,242,274192,056
1934857,806630,7151,488,5211,301,191187,330

REVENUE.

Revenue is derived chiefly from sale of energy, and in 1933–34 this source was responsible for 96 per cent, of the total. Some local authorities supplement revenue by the levying of rates, and in 1933–34 this policy resulted in £69,915 being added to revenue. The following table sets out the revenue of all stations:—

Year ended 31st March,Sale of Energy.Profits, Sale of Apparatus.Miscellaneous.Interest.Bates.Total.
 £     
19304,109,69418,74954,51532,23693,0614,308,255
19314,261,54117,66759,40130,53077,0014,446,140
19324,180,5197,53277,44527,52669,4454,362,467
19334,308,8079,077139,32023,93060,4014,541,535
19344,319,2309,12867,25819,75269,9154,485,283

EXPENDITURE.

A study of the expenditure figures immediately reveals that overhead costs, comprising management expenses and capital charges, are considerably greater than prime costs, which may be taken as the operating-expenses. During the year ended 31st March, 1934, of the total expenditure recorded (£3,926,109), approximately 60 per cent, represented overhead expenses, while operating-expenses or prime costs stood at 40 per cent. It is apparent from these figures that the actual output of electrical energy can be greatly increased for a relatively small additional per-unit cost.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure:—

 Year ended 31st March,
Item.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Operating Expenditure.
 £    
Cost of power721,291777,627734,845907,264942,536
Cost of generation116,423121,633102,00777,78885,496
Fuel89,593231,469216,11626,33815,746
Fuel8,79610,24613,2454,2423,751
Repairs54,85959,04169,71255,25231,485
Standby plant18,58120,17455,587131,64621,497
Cost of transmission66,48568,63860,22757,75667,491
Cost of distribution375,095387,222394,573388,389369,057
Public (street) lighting19,32520,81721,82521,53827,265
Totals1,470,4481,696,8671,668,1371,670,2131,564,324
 Year ended 31st March,
Item.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Miscellaneous Expenditure,
 £    
Cost of management270,521281,032254,158250,500253,479
Insurance42,77849,80148,79239,30919,530
Losses from trading3,9984,3762,7153,5553,086
Other expenditure86,49062,66061,38261,35577,316
Totals403,787397,869367,047354,719353,411
Capital Charges.
Interest1,313,4561,311,9371,324,5041,456,2571,366,825
Sinking fund265,367270,562284,827271,166261,692
Depreciative reserve367,358345,568334,194322,591289,229
Loan repayment..65,40631,738  
Exchange..37,30258,890  
Totals1,946,1811,928,0671,943,5252,152,7222,008,374
Grand totals3,820,4104,022,8033,978,7094,177,6543,926,109

The expression of the expenditure per unit sold is given hereunder:—

 Year ended 31st March,
1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 d.    
Operating-expenses0.350.390.370.320.29
Capital charges and miscellaneous expenses0.570.540.520.490.43
Totals0.020.930.890.810.72

APPROPRIATION OF SURPLUS.

The following table shows the appropriations of net surplus for years ended 31st March:—

1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
 £    
Renewal Fund57,55866,37665,17359,48875,113
Reserve Fund109,722108,649128,19456,510101,689
Other249,605242,992211,224238,399239,454
Totals416,885418,017404,591354,397416,256

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER IN USE.

The following table shows the hydro-electric horse-power actually in use in the various districts at the 31st March in each of the last five years:—

District.1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
* Due to exclusion of Arapuni plant during temporary close-down.
 H.P.    
Auckland North2,7942,7992,8393,188 
Auckland6,7937,1207,1043493,188
Auckland South66,477½16,447½*118,452118,445 
Gisborne56,01256,32946,33146,306 
Hawke's Bay349½56,32946,33146,306 
Taranaki North10,4309,815½10,880½10,46210,439
Taranaki1,6681,572½1,3001,485 
Wellington North1,16632,85343,08643,073 
Wellington34,421½35,396½1,5471,540 
Nelson and Marlborough1,718½9212,4732,471½ 
Westland3,3743,3975,2568,9069,110
Canterbury40,50651,349½51 37749,34449,317
Canterbury South17751 37749,34449,317 
Otago19,744½27,169½26,065½31,169½31,342
Southland14,802½14,753½12,45012,457½ 
Totals260,433½278,471229,185328,708½329,174

The following table gives an analysis of the purposes for which hydro-electric power was employed as at the 31st March, 1934:—

District.Mining.Electric Supply.Flax-mills.Sawmills.Flour-mills.Dairying.Construction Works.Freezing-works.Paper-mills.Miscellaneous.Totals.
 H.P.          
Auckland N.1492,920..24..50..453,188  
Auckland1492,920..24..50..453,188  
Auckland South1,013117,403..17..12118,445    
Gisborne..46,294..1246,306      
Hawke's Bay..46,294..1246,306      
Taranaki North..10,165..24211..20..1910,439 
Taranaki..1,415..40..301,485    
Wellington N...43,030..4343,073      
Wellington..1,523..7..101,540    
Nelson..2,2894565..27½..452,471½  
Marlborough..2,2894565..27½..452,471½  
Westland2908,59836156..18..129,110  
Canterbury..49,13420..1175..4149,317  
Canterbury S...49,13420..1175..4149,317  
Otago1,13928,740..7124..1,33231,342   
Southland..10,800..1,20045012,457½    
Totals2,591322,3111O1285265292½..1,2704501,608½1329,174

Chapter 42. SECTION XLII.—MISCELLANEOUS.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

THE Public Trust Office is designed mainly to afford, at low rates of commission, a secure and convenient recourse in any case where a person residing either in New Zealand or abroad desires to draw a will, form a trust, or appoint an executor, trustee, agent, or attorney in the Dominion. The Office aims also to relieve those who for various reasons may be unable or unwilling to commence or continue the administration of trust property to which they may have been appointed.

The Public Trust Office commenced operations in 1873, at the end of which year 257 estates, of a total value of £17,500, were being administered by the Office. Since then there has been a progressive increase in both number and value of estates administered, the records at 31st March, 1934, showing 21,058 estates of a value of £60,760,493.

Year ended 31st March.Total Value of Estates in Office, Including Unrealized Assets.Funds at Credit of Estates and Accounts.
 £ 
192535,570,64220,109,822
192638,009,48024,426,009
192741,043,52326,485,917
192844,155,54828,485,442
192948,334,79031,043,172
193053,049,43734,049,290
193157,527,26336,488,434
193259,132,51236,859,518
193359,757,44936,815,941
193460,760,49337,155,883

New estates which came into the Office during the year ended 31st March, 1934, numbered 2,637, and represented a value of £5,468,643. The classification of these and of the estates under administration at 31st March, 1934, is as follows:—

 New Estates during 1933–34.Estates under Administration at 31st March, 1034.
Number.Value.Number.Value.
 £ £ 
Wills estates1,2382,885,8676,07518,113,393
Trust estates187617,1102,5008,730,523
Intestate estates380245,2962,4091,060,891
Mental patients' estates396452,5592,0392,362,663
Miscellaneous estates4361,267,8118,03529,893,023
     Totals2,0375,468,64321,05860,760,493

Testators and other clients appointing the Public Trustee their executor or trustee may direct investment of their funds either in the Common Fund of the Office or outside of the Common Fund. In the former case the investments are not earmarked to the estate, but capital and interest are guaranteed by the State. Interest, which is at such rate as is fixed from time to time by the Governor-General, accrues from the date the moneys reach the Office, and is free of all commission and other charges.

In the case of special investment outside of the Common Fund, the investments belong to the estate, but there is no State guarantee, and (subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee) any loss falls on the estate. Commission is charged on the interest collected.

In general, investment in the Common Fund is preferred by clients, the safety of such investment being an important consideration. The Common Fund at 31st March, 1934, held moneys to the total of £25,557,892.

The total amount invested by the Public Trust Office as at 31st March, 1934, on behalf of the estates and funds under administration was £36,468,207.

During the year ended 31st March, 1934, 3,651 wills were deposited with the Public Trustee, and 1,783 were withdrawn on account of the death of the testator or for other reasons, the net increase for the year being 1,868. The number of wills on deposit at the 31st March, 1914, was 6,427; by 1920 it had increased to 25,792; while at 31st March, 1934, it had risen to 81,403.

In addition to preparing wills in the first instance, the office affords its clients special facilities for the revision of existing wills to provide for changes desired by them. During the past year 3,522 wills held by the office on behalf of testators were so revised.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

Since the Companies Act of 1903, no comprehensive revision of statute law relating to companies was made in New Zealand, and the essential provisions of company law remained substantially unaltered. In 1930 the Attorney-General appointed an advisory committee, including representatives of the business community, and of the professions of law and accountancy, to act with the Law Draftsman in framing a new measure, which, in the form of the Companies Act, 1933, came into force on 1st April, 1934. In great part the measure is an adaptation of the Imperial Act of 1929 to suit the special conditions of New Zealand, and harmonizes also with similar measures already passed or in hand in Australian States. A brief account of the Act will be found in the Review of Legislation later in this section.

During the year ended 31st December, 1933, 830 joint-stock companies were registered, with a total nominal capital of £7,300,999. In the following table companies registered in 1933 are classified according to the amount of their nominal capital.

 Private. Companies.Public Companies.Overseas Companies.
Amount.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.   
 £ £ £ 
No fixed capital..5..1.. 
Under £1,000325124,85521,115.. 
£1,000 and under £2,000163193,95489,950.. 
£2,000 and under £3,00079172,238817,60024,000
£3,000 and under £4,00040124,65013,000.. 
£4,000 and under £5,0002081,172312,000.. 
£5,000 and under £6,00025125,0001260,50015,000
£6,000 and under £7,000742,325530,500.. 
£7,000 and under £8,000428,500214,200.. 
£8,000 and under £9,00018,000216,000.. 
£9,000 and under £10,000436,50019,000.. 
£10,000 and under £15,00019192,90019208,000..20,000
£15,000 and under £20,000461,00011176,500.. 
£20,000 and under £50,0006148,79031864,150.. 
£50,000 and over..9975,00083,534,600 
     Totals6971,339,8841192,397,515143,563,600

The next table gives figures of total registrations during each of the last three years, classified according to amount of nominal capital.

 1931.1932.1933.
Amount.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
* Includes one company, capital not known.
 £ £ £ 
No fixed capital..6..   
Under £1,000269110,080338140,499327125,970
 £1,000 and under £2,000171209,722186220,209171203,904
 £2,000 and under £3,000104223,92494205,95089193,838
 £3,000 and under £4,00056175,91634104,26041127,650
 £4,000 and under £5,00026109,2502395,4202393,172
 £5,000 and under £6,00043217,60530151,50038190,500
£6,000 and under £7,0001591,0001167,5001272,825
£7,000 and under £8,000750,25014100,500642,700
£8,000 and under £9,0001188,600540,800324,000
£9,000 and under £10,000218,00019,000545,500
£10,000 and under £15,00037392,05323247,89940420,900
£15,000 and under £20,00010155,5158122,85015237,500
£20,000 and under £50,00023579,50028749,382371,012,940
£50,000 and over215,862,166164,610,000174,509,600
  Totals7958,283,581812*6,865,7698307,300,999

In comparing one year with another, as in the following table, it should not be overlooked that re-registrations on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons are included. Such re-registrations may have a considerable effect on the year's total, when large companies are concerned.

Year.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
 £ 
19142264,087,526
19153044,431,830
19162584,072,803
19172615,367,201
19182003,055,351
19193285,942,605
19205019,563,933
19213373,498,208
192241713,125,494
192350213,006,085
192456521,367,310
192562114,760,398
192665510,748,231
19276988,701,808
192873610,984,907
192990312,472,057
19308936,702,675
19317958,283,581
19328126,865,769
19338307,300,999

TOTAL COMPANIES ON REGISTER.

The tables which follow, the result of a special compilation, show the number and capital of all companies on the register at 31st December, 1932. In the case of public companies, the information was obtained from the statutory returns furnished annually by each public company to the Registrar of Companies, and includes details of the nominal, subscribed, and paid-up capital, and also of the amount of mortgages registered under the Companies Act. As regards private companies, the information is less complete, there being no annual return as in the case of public companies. On the registration of a private company, however, it is necessary that all the capital be subscribed for in accordance with the Act, so that, except in cases where the capital has been subsequently increased by resolution, the subscribed capital is identical with the nominal capital. The paid-up and loan capital, as explained later, is capable of approximate estimation.

PUBLIC COMPANIES ON REGISTER, 31ST DECEMBER, 1932.

Amount of Nominal Capital.Number.Nominal Capital.Subscribed Capital.Paid-up Capital.Mortgages under Companies Act.
 £    
Under £1,0008639,86730,86927,21736,484
  £1,000 and under 2,00083101,37968,32657,53628,852
  £2,000 and under £3,000127271,351192,028163,18863,969
  £3,000 and under £4,00084258,275185,874152,90050,264
  £4,000 and under £5,00045185,521133,652108,71467,605
  £5,000 and under £6,000117587,900379,013318,181158,155
  £6,000 and under £7,00040241,777172,595141,466166,265
  £7,000 and under £8,00034244,500172,210137,05519,637
  £8,000 and under £9,00042339,450263,677216,253101,250
  £9,000 and under £10,000654,00044,92134,2616,000
 £10,000 and under £15,0001962,094,3211,445,7131,174,715472,406
 £15,000 and under £20,000821,268,422960,580828,330259,712
 £20,000 and under £50,0003599,916,3127,280,0376,117,0712,238,446
 £50,000 and under £100,00019911,711,9598,614,2297,315,9552,564,822
£100,000 and over23270,238,54451,078,01242,314,0609,219,297
Totals, 31st December, 19321,73297,553,57871,021,73659,106,90215,453,164
Totals, 31st December, 19261,63089,544,85858,807,51949,982,59316,181,126

The total capital employed by the 1,732 public companies on the register at the 31st December, 1932, amounted to £74,560,066, as compared with £66,163,719 for 1,630 companies at the date of the previous tabulation (31st December, 1926). In regard to the mortgages included in the foregoing amounts, it should be noted that complete accuracy is impossible, owing to the fact that many of the mortgages are to secure current accounts which vary from time to time, Moreover, information regarding bank overdrafts and other accommodation not requiring registration is not available.

PRIVATE COMPANIES ON REGISTER, 31ST DECEMBER, 1932.

Amount of Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
 £ 
Under £1,0001,129488,590
 £1,000 and under £2,0001,0211,250,409
 £2,000 and under £3,0007361,594,938
 £3,000 and under £4,0004951,556,926
 £4,000 and under £5,0003141,307,221
 £5,000 and under £6,0004592,319,577
 £6,000 and under £7,0002541,558,212
 £7,000 and under £8,0001501,081,421
 £8,000 and under £9,000121982,854
 £9,000 and under £10,00071647,080
£10,000 and under £15,0005515,974,744
£15,000 and under £20,0002013,194,469
£20,000 and under £50,00044711,783,657
£50,000 and under £100,000845,074,298
£100,000 and over509,548,710
Totals, 31st December, 19326,08348,363,106
Totals, 31st December, 19263,43936,060,343

There has been a greater relative growth in private companies than in public companies in the six years' interval since the preceding compilation.

Assuming that the subscribed capital of private companies is equivalent to the nominal capital, and that the ratio of subscribed capital to paid-up capital obtaining in the case of private companies engaged in manufacturing industries (this information being available from the annual returns of factory production) is constant throughout all private companies, the total paid-up capital of all private companies may be put down as approximately £44,800,000. Making a similar assumption in regard to the ratio of mortgages to paid-up capital, the mortgages of all private companies total about £9,800,000, which, added to the paid-up capital, gives a total working capital of £54,600,000, compared with £41,600,000 in 1926. For both public and private companies the total working capital is thus estimated at approximately £129,000,000, the corresponding figure for 1926 being £108,000,000.

The figures given above in respect of companies on the register in December, 1932, do not include foreign companies, regarding which information is extremely scanty, only the total nominal capital being recorded with the Registrar of Companies. At the end of 1932 there were 203 foreign companies on the register, with a total nominal capital of £143,800,000, this being a small decrease on the 1926 total of £145,300,000 (205 companies). This capital, however, gives no indication whatever as to the amount of overseas capital employed in the Dominion, which, nevertheless, must be only a small proportion of the totals shown.

In addition to the foregoing there were at the end of 1932 41 companies limited by guarantee, 16 unlimited companies, 33 rural intermediate credit associations, and 11 companies of a miscellaneous character.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.

There were 1,762 applications for letters patent during 1933, 978 of these being filed with provisional specifications, and 784 with complete specifications. Patent fees for the year amounted to £8,261.

The total number of applications received up to the 31st December, 1933, was 71,906, and the patents in force in New Zealand at that date numbered 7,567. The number of patent agents on the register was 18.

In the following table are shown the countries of residence of persons who applied for patents in New Zealand during the last three years. Owing to applications being received from joint applicants resident in different countries, also from applicants giving two addresses, the figures usually total more than the actual number of applications received.

Country.1931.1932.1933.
New Zealand1,3251,2111,009
Great Britain273267320
Australia215182 
United States1228270
Germany4551124
France121012
Netherlands1017
Italy1054
Canada96 
Sweden9310
Austria714
Switzerland643
Union of South Africa35..
Denmark154
All other countries201310
     Totals2,0671,8461,765

The total number of applications during 1933 in respect of trade-marks was 814, and the fees received totalled £3,212. Of the total applications (remarks above regarding joint applicants are applicable here also), 453 were made by residents of New Zealand, 179 came from Great Britain, 92 from Australia, 58 from the United States, 5 from Germany, and 10 from Canada.

The number of applications for registration of designs totalled 143, and the fees received for the year, £141.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade-marks and designs in each of the last ten years: —

Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.
19242,0851,338185
19252,0461,332203
19262,1371,143204
19272,0521,325145
19282,0701,201163
19292,2511,359125
19302,1031,265169
19312,065999151
19321,846925164
19331,762814143

For the year 1933 the total receipts of the Patent Office were £11,695 and the payments £4,379, leaving a surplus of £7,316, compared with £7,253 in 1932.

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.

The Inspection of Machinery Act makes provision for the inspection of all steam boilers, digesters, and other steam-pressure vessels, of air-receivers, hydraulic, electric, and other lifts, all types of power-driven cranes and power-driven machinery on land, also of machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled.

Boilers, pressure-vessels, air-receivers, lifts, and cranes are required to be of approved design and workmanship, and the moving parts of machinery to be adequately guarded.

The Act also provides for the issue of certificates to these who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Working Railways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up by the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Inspector of Machinery.

Annual inspections of machinery during the year ended 31st March, 1934, numbered 26,025, and of boilers, 7,922. The following figures cover inspections during the last five years:—

 Year ended 31st March,
Number Inspected.1930.1931.1932.1933.1934.
Boilers—     
 Stationary, portable, traction5,0054,9894,7284,5014,582
 Digesters, vulcanizers, &c.2,5322,6132,5312,5222,649
 Air-receivers388543655635691
Machinery—     
 Electric motors24,96128,37223,42917,21718,318
 Internal - combustion engines12,76414,5109,1572,5232,662
 Water-power engines465597457270278
 Lifts2,6133,0962,9882,9403,009
 Cranes273287310303334
 Hoists1,1881,3231,3511,3061,424
     Total50,18956,33045,60632,21733,947

By the Inspection of Machinery Amendment Act, 1931, farm machinery of not more than 6 horse-power was exempted from annual inspection, and this is the reason for the marked decrease in the number of inspections.

New boilers to the number of 345, representing an aggregate of 1,821 horsepower, were inspected and tested before being used. Of these, 168, of a total horse-power of 1,297, had been made in New Zealand, the others being imported.

During the year ended 31st March, 1934, 252 certificates were issued to land engineers, engine-drivers, and electric-tram drivers. At examinations during the year 311 candidates sat, 216 being successful.

Revenue and expenditure in connection with inspection of machinery have been as follows:—

1929–30.1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–34.
Revenue—£    
 Inspection fees, &c.20,79122,53622,80218,98119,530
 Examination fees, &c369385384401313
  Total21,16022,92123,18619,38219,843
Expenditure24,99328,31926,14117,14416,933

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

Complete statistics covering all phases of production are not available; and, in compiling the following statistics of value of production, estimates of production have been made in several cases where direct data are not available. Since statistical information as to production in each of the major productive activities is collected by the Census and Statistics Office, the items for which estimates must be made arc, with the exception of one group of commodities, relatively unimportant. Although the value of products made in the home—e.g., home-made clothing, jams, kitchen-garden products, &c.—must, in the aggregate, account for a considerable annual value, it is quite impossible to estimate with any reasonable degree of accuracy the value of such production; which is. on this account, omitted from the value of production statistics.

The general principle followed in assessing values has been to value products as near as possible to the actual point of production. For example, live-stock is valued at saleyard prices, while values at the factory are used in the case of factory products. In some cases, however, reliable data as to values at or near the point of production cannot be obtained; and in these cases export valuations or wholesale price quotations have been used in assessing values. Although absolute uniformity of treatment in the basis of valuation as between different commodities has not been possible, the method of valuation of each individual item has been the same for each year throughout the period covered. The statistics thus afford a fairly accurate indication of the extent of fluctuations in the value of production from year to year, although the absolute figures for any individual year must be regarded as approximate only.

Since the basis of valuation is (as far as possible) at the point of production, transport costs are only partly represented in the values shown, while the accretions to the value of commodities caused by the services of retailers and other distributors of finished products are not included in the statistics.

In classifying the value of production into the principal groups care has been taken to avoid duplication, products of one group which constitute the raw material of another group being excluded from the statistics. For example, the gross value of agricultural products in 1932–33 is estimated at £28.6 millions; but, as the major part of this was utilized for the purpose of adding value to live-stock, the net value only (£8–9 million) is classified under the heading “Agricultural”; since live-stock and live-stock products are included in Groups II and III.

Products have been classified into the groups to which they most logically belong from a production point of view; butter and cheese, for example, being classified under Group III—Dairying, Poultry, and Bees—and not as factory products. The figure shown under the heading “Factory Production” is the aggregate value added to materials by the process of manufacture, excluding industries which are already included in other groups (e.g., butter and cheese-making, meat-freezing, fish-curing, and sawmilling). The total output of factory industries is included in cases where the materials are produced in New Zealand and are not already included as production in some other group.

The series of annual estimates of value of production were revised back to the year 1900–01, the revised figures being first published in the 1934 issue. The figures published below for 1925–26 to 1932–33 differ slightly from these published in the 1934 issue, owing to an alteration in the method of assessing the value of dairy-produce. The dairying group and the total for all groups are affected by this alteration. It should be understood that all values are in terms of New Zealand currency, which since the latter portion of 1929–30 has depreciated in terms of sterling.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.

Year.Agricultural.Pastoral.Dairying, Poultry, and Bees.Mining.Fisheries.Forestry.Factory.Building and Miscellaneous.Total.
 £m.        
1900–014.112.23.72.90.12.05.43.533.9
1905–064.317.35.34.00.12.66.85.245.6
1910–114.020.57.44.00.22.88.15.852.8
1915–167.631.211.53.70.31.99.75.371.2
1916–176.331.412.73.30.22.410.65.272.1
1917–187.332.913.82.80.22.611.55.376.4
1918–198.037.614.83.80.32.612.65.985.6
1919–208.837.218.04.10.43.115.16.493.1
1920–218.830.226.23.00.44.618.67.699.4
1921–229.528.821.83.20.54.517.28.293.7
1922–238.131.425.23.10.44.518.09.7100.4
1923–247.133.224.63.40.54.719.211.4104.1
1924–258.l44.126.23.50.54.820.811.9119.9
1925–268.432.925.23.60.64.722.313.1110.8
1926–278.832.724.73.90.54.023.013.9111.5
1927–289.639.327.24.10.53.522.813.1120.1
1928–299.943.129.34.00.53.424.012.4126.6
1929–309.136.128.44.10.63.625.613.4120.9
1930–318.824.622.24.00.52.923.311.397.6
1931–328.019.321.93.70.41.718.610.083.6
1932–338.920.421.23.50.41.717.710.083.8

From the figures of total value of production it is possible, by taking into account the increase of population and the movement of prices, to compile a series of index numbers showing the relative volume of production. The index number of producers' prices used in this compilation is obtained by combining the index number of wholesale prices of locally produced commodities with the index number of export prices. The figures are given in detail in the next table.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION.

Year.Mean Population, Year ended 30th June.Value of Production.Index Numbers of Value of Production (1928–29 = 1000).Index Number of Producers' Prices (1928–29 = 1000).Index Numbers of Volume of Production (1928–29 = 1000).
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 £m.£      
1900–01812,01033.941.72684824675741,032
1905–06929,06645.649.1360568605595939
1910.111,050,01452.850.3417582604690964
1915–161,150,37271.261.9562716827680866
1916–171,148,57872.162.8570726913624795
1917–181,151,23576.466.4603768984613780
1918–191,174,62885.672.96768431,032655817
1919–201,217,15093.176.57358841093672809
1920–211,259,86999.478.97859121,110707822
1921–221,291,41393.772.67408391,002739837
1922–231,317,154100.476.2793881953832924
1923–241,339,786104.177.78228981,034795868
1924–251,367,978119.987.69471,0131090869929
1925–261,399,578110.880.08759161,042840879
1926–271,427,455111.578.8881903962916939
1927–281,447,391120.183.7949960978970982
1928–291,464,164126.687.21,000    
1929–301,482,235120.982.495594392810291,016
1930–311,503,29997.665.9771750792974947
1931–321,520,35783.655.8660636695950915
1932–331,532,22683.854.76626326541,012966

The value of agricultural production shows an increase of £0.9 in. or approximately 11 per cent., as compared with 1931–32. The wheat harvest of 1932–33 totalled 11 million bushels, as compared with the abnormally low figure of 6½ million bushels in the previous season; so that, notwithstanding a decrease in prices, the total value of the wheat crop increased. Increases in the yield of other crops, notably oats, Were also recorded.

Pastoral production during the 1932–33 season is valued at £20.4 m.. an increase of 5.7 per cent, over the exceptionally low figure recorded in 1931–32. The volume of wool production increased from 282.8 million lb. in 1931–32 to 288.4 million lb. in 1932–33, while production and exports of beef, lamb, and pork were in excess of the totals for the preceding year. Prices of both wool and meat remained at extremely low levels during the season, the recovery in prices at present in progress commencing practically at the close of the 1932–33 production year.

The value of dairy production was slightly lower than in the previous year, the effect of a considerably increased volume of butter and cheese production being counteracted by a fall in prices as compared with 1931–32.

The total value represented by the three groups of farm production was £50.5 m., as compared with £49.2 m. in 1931–32 and £82.3 m. in the peak year (1928–29). A slight decrease is recorded in the value of mining products, an increased production of gold being insufficient to counteract the fall in coal production. Factory production, excluding these important factory industries included in other groups in the table, shows a decrease of £0.9 m. as compared with 1931–32.

The index number of the volume of production for the year 1932–33 was 1012 on the base 1928–29 = 1000, an increase of 6.5 per cent, over the 1931–32 figure.

PRODUCE CONSUMED LOCALLY.

Under the immediately preceding title estimates are given of the annual value, within defined limits, of the total production of New Zealand. From this basis it is possible to compute the ratio of local consumption to exports, a feature which is of peculiar significance to New Zealand in view of its high per caput overseas trade and debt.

It is first necessary to deduct from the production totals (miscellaneous group) the value represented by buildings and by road and railway construction, &c, for these items are not possible of export. In order to avoid such fluctuations as are caused by the unequal incidence of price-changes or by the holding of wool stocks, &c., the aggregate of five years has been adopted. For production, figures have been taken for the production years (terminating at varying dates for different commodities) 1928–29 to 1932–33; for exports, partly as naturally later in point of time, the calendar years 1929–33 are adopted.

Produce.Consumed locally. Per Cent.Exported. Per Cent.
Agricultural and pastoral3664
Forest8317
Mining7525
Factory and other982
     Total5644

The term “Factory and other” includes fisheries, factory (added value), and other industrial production; but it should be noted that the output of butter and cheese factories and of meat-freezing works is treated herein under agricultural and pastoral, and not under factory production. Similarly, sawmill output is included with forestry.

An important qualification of the above figures lies in the fact that production values are computed as close to the point of production as possible, while export values are f.o.b. at the point of shipment, and consequently include transport and accessory charges. The effect is to understate slightly local consumption, which may be taken as approximately 60 per cent, of the total production of commodities.

References will be found in other parts of tins volume to production and local consumption of specific commodities—e.g., wool (page 334), timber (page 356), coal (pages 368 and 386), and wheat (page 324). Foodstuffs are dealt with below.

CONSUMPTION OF FOODSTUFFS.

In the following table an attempt has been made, by taking the total production figures of a commodity and adding or subtracting the net imports or exports, to gauge the extent to which certain foodstuffs are consumed in New Zealand. In order to eliminate the fluctuations which would naturally occur if a single year were taken—this is especially noticeable in the case of imports and exports—the figures relate to an average of the three years 1931–33. In some instances the production year is used, in others the calendar year. It should be mentioned here that in the case of potatoes, onions, and fresh fruits no attempt has been made to estimate the total quantity raised in home gardens for local consumption, and the figures for these commodities are deficient to that extent. Figures for meat (which include considerable bone) are based on arbitrarily selected average weights of dressed carcasses, and are therefore approximate only. Further details will be found on pages 343—46. Figures for fruit production are approximations only.

The figures showing production, imports, exports, amount available for home consumption, and consumption per head for the principal items of foodstuffs are given in the table following. In studying the figures for the amount available for local consumption, attention is drawn to the fact that in the case of the first six items listed hereunder adjustments have been made for stocks held at the beginning and end of the three-yearly period.

AVERAGE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF FOODSTUFFS.

Article.Production.Imports.Exports.Excess of Imports over Exports.Amount available for Local Consumption.
Total.Per Head.

* Excess of exports over imports.

† Other than rock-salt

‡ On refined basis.

 000 lb.lb.    
Butter296,878..240,374240,374*56,50437
Cheese213,204..204,852204,852*8,3526
Fresh meat—      
 Beef214,046..49,58449,584*164,462109
 Mutton277,073..140,878140,878*136,19590
 Lamb322,549..297,832297,832*24,71716
 Pork28,663..17,88017,880*10,7837
 Bacon and ham17,1741185184*16,99011
Potatoes296,6868852,4121,527*295,159195
Onions16,5047,8942,0265,86822,37215
Flour264,03722,91233122,581286,618189
Oatmeal, rolled oats, &c.15,92332934415*15,90810
Maizena and cornflour..3,12543,1212.0 
Macaroni and vermicelli..613..6130.4 
Sago and tapioca..3,00643,0022.0 
rice..7,574737,5014.9 
Salt..71,6444171,60346.9 
Sugar..166,4582,433164,025104,025107.5
Tea..11,3779611,2817.4 
Dried apricots..643..6430.4 
Currants..1,419..1,4190.9 
Dates..4,591..4,5913.0 
Figs..554..5540.4 
Prunes..1,684..1,6841.1 
Raisins and sultanas..9,479..9,4796.2 
Apples95,00070754,61653,909*41,09126.9
Pears12,00082,0412,033*9,9676.5
Lemons1,833952..9522,7851.8
Oranges33315,371..15,37115,70410.3
Bananas..23,517..23,51715.4 
Tobacco1,3833,878243,8545,2373.4
 000 Gallons.Gals.    
Vinegar649191186670.4
Beer10,02840162410,0526.6
Spirits..36433610.2 
Wine"5614411431990.1

From various sources it is estimated that the average daily consumption of milk in New Zealand is ½ pint per head of population. Over the five years ending at the close of the 1933 production season, it is estimated that the average annual milk production is a little in excess of 760,000,000 gallons, and that 4.5 per cent of this represents domestic consumption, 25.0 per cent, is used in cheese-manufacture, and 70.5 per cent, in the manufacture of butter, and dried or condensed, &c, milk. No allowance has been made for whole milk fed to calves, and skim-milk has been treated as a by-product and omitted from consideration.

The four staple products of New Zealand are wool, meat, butter, and cheese. The relative local consumption of wool has been dealt with in Section XVIc: percentages for the other staples are given below, covering the period of the preceding table.

APPROXIMATE PROPORTION PER CENT. OF TOTAL PRODUCTION.

 Consumed locally. Per Cent.Exported. Per Cent.
Butter19.081.0
Cheese3.996.1
Fresh meat—  
 Beef76.823.2
 Mutton49.250.8
 Lamb7.792.3
 Pork37.662.4
Bacon and ham98.91.1

GENERAL ELECTIONS.

The 1931 general election of parliamentary representatives was held in December of that year—for Maori electorates on the 1st, and for European electorates on the 2nd. Dealing with the latter only, it is found that out of a total roll number of 838,344 (exclusive of the Bay of Plenty, Oroua, Pahiatua, and Waitomo districts, where no contests were held) some 698,027 (83–26 per cent.) exercised their votes. A summary for the general elections of 1925, 1928, and 1931, is as follows:—

 1925.1928.1931.
Number of votes recorded for candidates elected380,231365,116382,562
Number of votes recorded for candidates defeated291,740370,275310,510
Number of informal votes6,9068,3004,955
Total number of electors who voted at the election678,877743,691698,027
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total valid votes recorded57.1749.6555.20
Total number of electors on roll (where contest)754,113844,633838,344
Number of districts where no contest1..4
Percentage of electors on roll who voted90.9288.0583.26
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total number of electors on roll50.4243.2245.63
Number of seamen's rights exercised1,5731,771837
Number of electors voting as absent voters37,22338,88731,160
Number of electors exercising postal votes..7,9776,956
Total population of Dominion at last census (excluding Maoris)1,218,9131,344,469 

The relative interest in the poll evinced by men and women may be measured by the percentage of votes recorded to the number on the roll—viz., men 84.51 per cent., women 81.99 per cent, in 1931, the 1928 figures being 89.03 and 87.03 respectively.

A statement of the voting in individual electorates in 1931 is given in 1932 parliamentary papers H.-33 and H.-33A.

In the four Maori electorates 21,439 votes were recorded in 1931, viz.: Northern Maori, 5,630; Southern Maori, 917; Eastern Maori, 7,099; Western Maori, 7,793. Votes cast for elected candidates numbered 12,889, and for defeated candidates 8,550. There are no rolls in the case of Maori elections.

BY-ELECTIONS.

Since the general election of 1931, four by-elections have been necessary, owing to the death of sitting members. On the 3rd August, 1932, Mr. E. T. Tirikatene was elected for Southern Maori; Mr. K. J. Holyoake for Motueka on the 1st December, 1932; Mrs. E. R. McCombs (the first woman member of a New Zealand Parliament) for Lyttelton on the 13th September, 1933: and Mr. P. C. Webb for Buller on the 22nd November, 1933.

LICENSING.

According to a return compiled by the Department of Justice, the following are the licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors:—

Publican's licenses1,032
Accommodation licenses192
Wholesale licenses145
Packet licenses19
New Zealand wine licenses4
     Total1,392

The date of the return is nominally 1st September, 1929, hut the above numbers cannot be increased and the figures may be accepted as correct to the end of December, 1933. In addition, there were (October, 1934) 46 club charters, and (October, 1934) 82 wine-maker's licenses. A further 412 conditional licenses (temporary licenses for race meetings, agricultural shows, &c.) were granted during 1929–30.

The proportion of licensed houses to population is steadily declining. The average number of persons to each licensed (i.e., publican's or accommodation license) house at the end of 1933 may be taken as 1,263, as compared with 1,125 in 1923, 852 in 1913, and 529 in 1903.

The annual fees payable for licenses are,—

(1) For a publicans' license—
(a) Within the limits of a borough or town district40
(6) Outside the aforesaid limits25
(2) For a Now Zealand wine license1
(3) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding20
(4) For a packet license— 
(a) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register10
(b) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register5
(5) For a wholesale license20
(6) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding30

Fees form part of the revenue of the local body of the district in which the license was issued.

NATIONAL LICENSING POLLS.

The licensing poll of the 14th November, 1928, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the fourth at which the three issues—national continuance. State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. The votes recorded for the various issues at each of the four polls referred to are as follows:—

 1919.1922.1925.1928.
For national continuance241,251282,669299,590373,692
For State purchase and control32,26135,72756,03764,276
For national prohibition270,250300,791319,450294,453

In the no-license districts an additional issue is submitted—viz., local restoration— three-fifths of the valid votes cast being required for the carrying of the proposal. The voting figures for each of the twelve districts affected, and the votes recorded for the three national issues for each licensing district, in 1928, are given on pp. 985–986 of the 1930 Year-Book.

The Licensing Poll Postponement Act, 1931, relegated the date of the next licensing poll to that of the second general election after the passing of the Act. The postponement of the poll which in the ordinary course would have fallen in 1931 was enacted on grounds of economy.

LOTTERIES.

Under section 42 of the Gaming Act, 1908. the Minister of Internal Affairs may grant permission (subject to such conditions as he thinks fit) for the disposing by raffle or chance of any painting, drawing, sculpture, or other work of art, or literature, or mineral specimens, or mechanical models. By the Stamp Duties Amendment Act, 1931, any such licenses granted for the raffling of mineral specimens in excess of £100 value are subject to a lottery duty of 10 per cent, of the nominal value of all tickets represented in the drawing of the lottery, whether such tickets have been disposed of by. way of sale or otherwise. Receipts from this source will lie found in Section XXIIB—Taxation.

The Gaming Act permits sweepstakes and art-unions (as defined) under certain specified conditions.

During the year ended 31st March, 1934, 486 licenses were issued under the authority of section 42 (above), of which seven were for large (each £4,000) and sixty-three for small alluvial-gold lotteries, and 416 were for works of art.

The following is a summary of large alluvial-gold lotteries during the last four years:—

 1930–31.1931–32.1932–33.1933–31.
* Proceeds, sale of tickets, less commission, which was approximately 20 per cent.
Number of lotteries..767 
Gross sales£191,080*189,420*154,789149,365
Commission on sales£ 23,21822,405 
Expenses£60,64853,82918,46719,964
Prizes£28,00024,00028,000 
Net proceeds£103,032107,59189,10478,996
Lottery duty£..13,86815,47914,937
Net profit£103,03293,72373,62564,059

The profits are now mainly distributed to officially recognized central funds for the relief of distress or to organizations rendering social relief or performing some service of community value.

REVIEW OF LEGISLATION FOR 1933.

[By J. CHRISTIE, C.M.G., LL.M., Parliamentary Law Draftsman.]

Acts passed: Public Acts, 52; Local Acts, 19; Private Act, 1.

Introductory.—Most of the legislation passed by the New Zealand Parliament in 1931 and 1932 had reference to the special conditions created by the fall in the overseas prices of our primary products. Though those conditions persisted throughout 1933, if somewhat less acutely, the legislation of that year is of a more general and permanent character. The Companies Act is a measure of outstanding importance; it is based on the Companies Act, 1929 (Imperial), and, in most of its material particulars, follows closely the Imperial model.

Another important measure is that which deals with the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. A complementary measure is the Coinage Act, which provides for the issue of a distinctive New Zealand coinage. Trade agreements made between the Governments of Australia and New Zealand, and Governments of Belgium and New Zealand, respectively, were ratified and confirmed.

Consolidating measures (with amendments in each case) comprise the Municipal Corporations Act (with 393 sections and thirteen schedules) and the Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act. Somewhat novel provisions are included in the Motor-spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act, which empowers the Governor-General in Council to fix both the maximum and the minimum prices at which motor-spirits may be sold. No special mention of the remaining legislation is called for here, but the more important measures are dealt with in the following survey. In some instances where Acts have already been referred to in detail elsewhere in this volume, remarks in this review have been curtailed or deleted.

The Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act (1933, No. 4).—This Act is substantially in the same terms as the Imperial Acts 10 & 11 Geo. 5, c. 81, and 20 Geo. 5, c. 15.

Both the protocol on arbitration clauses (signed at Geneva on 24th September, 1923) and the convention relating to foreign arbitral awards (signed at Geneva on 26th September, 1927) have been ratified in respect of New Zealand. The purpose of the present Act is to implement by the necessary legislation the obligations accepted by New Zealand by the act of becoming a party to the protocol and convention respectively.

The Marriage Amendment Act (1933, No. 5).—This Act declares to be void any marriage to which either of the parties is under the age of sixteen years. Prior to the passing of this Act, the age of marriage was not directly fixed by statute. Provision is also made by the present Act to enable women to act as Officiating Ministers for the solemnization of marriages.

The. Rent Restriction Act (1933, No.7).—The duration of the law imposing restrictions on the rents that may be charged for dwellings (originally passed in 1910 as a war measure) has been extended for a further period of one year. The present law has a very limited actual application.

The Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act (1933, No. 10) ratifies an agreement for Customs reciprocity made between the Governments of Australia and New Zealand. The Trade Arrangement (New Zealand and Belgium) Act (1933, No. 21) similarly confirms an arrangement for Customs reciprocity contained in letters passed between the Prime Minister of New Zealand and the Consul of Belgium in New Zealand, acting on behalf of the Economic Union of Belgium and Luxemburg. Further particulars of these Acts will be found in Section IXD.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act (1933, No. 11) is one of the most important measures passed in the 1933 session. An account of the formation, organization, and duties of the Reserve Bank, with certain statistics, will be found in Section XXVI.

The Coinage Act (1933, No. 12) makes provision for the minting of a special coinage for New Zealand. Hitherto the Imperial Coinage Acts, 1870 to 1920, have been in force in New Zealand, but the present Act replaces the Imperial legislation. Further reference to this Act will be found in Section XXVI.

Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loan Conversion Amendment Act (1933, No. 14).—Section 3 removes certain difficulties that have arisen under the Act passed in the preceding session (1932–33, No. 41) for effecting a reduction in the rate of interest payable by local authorities on their existing debt, and excludes from the operation of Part I of the previous Act those securities which confer on the holders an option to demand payment of interest in the United Kingdom or in New Zealand unless the interest is in fact paid in New Zealand.

The Weights and Measures Amendment Act (1933, No. 15) provides for the periodical verification with the corresponding imperial standards of the New Zealand standard yard and the New Zealand standard pound, and amends in other minor particulars the principal Act of 1925. The amending Act has been passed to give effect to certain recommendations adopted at the Imperial Conference of 1930, on the recommendation of the Sub-Conference on Standards and Standardization.

The Poultry-runs Registration Act (1933, No. 20) is complementary to the Poultry Act, 1924. That Act was concerned with the avoidance of disease and the marketing of produce; the later Act provides for the registration of all commercial poultry-runs where more than twenty-five head of poultry are kept, and for the constitution of an elective Board whose general function is to organize and develop the poultry industry.

The Money-lenders Amendment Act (1933, No. 21) requires that money-lenders shall be registered annually, after application made to a Stipendiary Magistrate, who has authority to make inquiries as to character and other relevant matters, and to refuse registration unless satisfied. The amending Act also adopts in effect the provisions of the Money-lenders Act, 1927 (Imperial), relating to (a) restrictions on advertisements; (b) the form of contracts; (c) prohibition of charging compound interest; (d) imposing obligation on money-lenders, on request of borrowers, to furnish signed statements of account with prescribed particulars; (e) reopening of harsh and unconscionable agreements.

The Summer Time Amendment Act (1933, No. 22) extends by a period of seven weeks the period of “summer time,” by providing that it shall commence on the last Sunday of September in each year (instead of the second Sunday of October) and shall continue until the last Sunday in April (instead of the third Sunday in March).

The Transport Law Amendment Act (1933, No. 2o) establishes a Transport Co-ordination Board (vide, p. 284), and makes various amendments of the Transport Licensing Act, 1931.

The Companies Act (1933, No. 29) adopts, with modifications to suit local conditions, the Companies Act, 1929 (Imperial). As far as possible the language and arrangement of the Imperial Act have been adhered to. Following the conventional arrangement of New Zealand statutes, the interpretation section and the administrative provisions come at the beginning of the Act instead of, as in England, at the end. The provisions relating to private companies are collected in a separate Part, which is based upon the former provisions of the New Zealand law rather upon, the English law. This departure from the English Act is consequent on the material differences in nature between the English private company and the private company as known in New Zealand. These differences may be generally stated as follows: In England a private company is one that by its articles—(1) restricts the right to transfer its shares; (2) limits the number of its members to fifty; and (II) prohibits any invitation to the public to subscribe for its shares or debentures.

If such a company alters its articles so that they do not comply with the foregoing requirements of a private company it automatically ceases to be a private company and becomes a public company. In New Zealand, however, a private company is a company that is registered as such, and it remains a private company unless and until it is dissolved or is registered as a public company. A private company cannot be registered with less than two or more than twenty-five members; if a private company reduces its membership below two it loses the benefits of limited liability, and if it increases its membership above twenty-five its members become liable to heavy penalties. The provisions of the Act that are not applicable to private companies are enumerated in the Seventh Schedule, except as specified in that Schedule or is specially provided in Part VIII of the Act the general provisions of the Act apply to private companies in the same way as they apply to public companies.

The provisions of Part XIV (Insurance Companies) and of Part XV (Mining Coin-panics) have no counterpart in the Imperial Act, and are based on the corresponding provisions of the New Zealand Act of 1908. The provisions as to the so-called “labour shares” and the special provisions as to dairy companies are peculiar to New Zealand. In all other respects the Act follows as closely as possible the provisions of the Imperial Act.

In the preparation of the Bill the Government was ably assisted by a honorary Advisory Committee, which included among its members representatives of the business community and the professions of accountancy and law.

The Municipal Corporal ions Act (J933, No. 30) is a consolidation, with extensive amendments, of the Municipal Corporations Act, 1920, and the several amendments of that Act. The new Act contains the general law as to the constitution and administration of boroughs (including the eight larger boroughs which are known as cities).

In addition to the provisions of this Act (which fire common to all borough councils), many local empowering Acts are on the statute-book, conferring particular powers on the respective councils by which they have from time to time been promoted.

The Trustee Amendment Act (1933, No.32).—Sections 2 and 3 of this Act re-enact provisions originally enacted in Finance Acts. Section 2 protects a trustee from liability for continuing to hold an investment which has ceased to be an authorized investment. Section 3 empowers trustees in certain eases, and with the consent of the Court, to borrow on the security of the trust estate for the advancement or maintenance of any persons for whose benefit the capital or portion of the capital of the trust estate is held. Section 4 defines the (lowers of trustees in relation to company securities or shares held by them. It in effect enacts the provisions of section 10 of the Trustee Act, 1925 (Imperial), which defines the powers of trustees to concur in schemes of company reconstruction and kindred matters. Section 5 is a modification of the general provisions of the Bankruptcy Act by virtue of which all the property and rights of the bankrupt vest in the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy; it protects from the operation of those general provisions a trustee who in good faith pays or transfers to or to the order of a bankrupt any money or other property which the bankrupt would have been personally entitled to receive if he had not become bankrupt.

The Finance Act (1933, No.33).—The most important provisions, from the point of view of governmental policy, are those contained in section 12. When the Bill containing this clause was introduced, it was thought (on the authority of Broken Hill Proprietary Co. v. Latham ([1933] Ch. 669) that local bodies in Dominions having depreciated currency could discharge their legal obligations in respect of their London loans by payment in their local currency. This view, as a general proposition, has since been overruled, but the purpose of section 12 was briefly to ensure that, irrespective of any technical rights, New Zealand local authorities would be required to satisfy their London obligations as if in the debentures or other securities issued by them they had expressly stipulated that payment of interest and repayment of principal would be made in sterling.

The Valuation of Land Amendment Act (1933, No. 35).—This Act reflects the fall in land-values consequent on the fall in the prices of primary products. Under the Act of 1925 (re-enacting provisions which have been in force for thirty years or more) an owner who is dissatisfied with the Government valuation of his land (which is adopted as the basis for the levying of local rates and of land-tax) could demand either a reduced valuation or that the land be acquired by the Crown at the Government valuation. This afforded a too-easy method of securing reductions in valuation and consequent reductions in taxation, for it was impracticable for the Government to purchase, even at a reasonable price, all the land that might be offered to it under present abnormal conditions. This provision has now been amended by requiring a dissatisfied owner to offer the land for sale either to the Government or to any purchaser approved by the Government. Another section enables a local authority to fix as a basis for rates a proportion of the Government valuation. The purpose of this provision is to adjust inequalities caused by the action of certain owners in securing special valuations of their land, since the fall of values set in, to the detriment of those owners whose earlier valuations subsist.

The Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act (1933, No. 34).—This Act consolidates no fewer than five separate Acts and three sections in various Finance Acts, the first of the consolidated Acts being passed in the emergency session of 1931. The only new provisions of material importance are those contained in section 11. Stock mortgages— that is, chattel mortgages securing the current accounts of farmers—have been a source of difficulty, the position being that while a mortgagee of the land on which farming operations are carried on was in effect prevented by the legislation from pursuing his legal rights, there was no corresponding restriction on the mortgagee whose interests were secured by a mortgage over the stock and produce of the farm. The difficulty was overcome to a considerable extent by mutual agreement between the interests affected (principally the land mortgagee and the stock mortgagee). But it was said that some stock mortgagees showed an unreasonable disregard for the interests of the land mortgagee, and refused to enter into agreement to protect their mutual interests. In such, cases the Supreme Court, by section 11 of the new Act, is empowered to formulate a scheme for the distribution of the proceeds of the farming operations, and for the guidance of the Court agreements that have been entered into by the parties and are actually operating are set out in a schedule to the Act.

The Motor-spirits (Regulation of Prices) Art(1933, No. 36).—This Act was passed to confer express power on the Governor-General with respect to the fixing of maximum and minimum selling-prices of motor-spirits. The machinery provisions of the Act follow closely the corresponding provisions of the Board of Trade Act, 1919, and of the Regulation of Trade and Commerce Act of 1914, passed during the war and repealed in 1921. By the last-named Act provision was made to the effect that contracts made in contravention of the Act should be null and void, but this provision has not been adopted in the Act now under review, penalties for offences being fixed at £200 in the case of an individual and £1,000 in the case of offences committed by corporations.

The Card Tournament Regulation Act (1933, No. 38) regularizes the holding of card tournaments for religious, charitable, educational, or other approved purposes where a charge for admission is made and prizes are awarded to winners. The promoters of any such tournament are relieved from liability to prosecution under the Gaming Act if notice of intention to hold the tournament is duly given to the police, and if an audited statement of receipts and payments is supplied within fourteen days after request by an Inspector of Police.

The Poor Prisoners Defence Act (1933, No. 40).— This Act in effect adopts the provisions of the Poor Prisoners" Defence Act, 1930 (Imperial), and repeals the former provisions of the law which were an adaptation of the Imperial Act of 1903. The new Act has a wider scope than the former law in that it provides for legal aid in respect of offences punishable summarily, and, further, that it gives to any person accused of murder an unconditional right to legal aid if his means are insufficient to enable him to obtain such aid.

The Sales Tax Amendment Act (1933, No. 42) is mainly concerned with the removal of anomalies or administrative difficulties. It was suggested, for example, that because the taxpayer has authority to add the amount of tax to the price of goods sold by him the tax becomes in reality a tax payable by the purchaser; and, further, that, because of the Crown's general exemption from tax, sales tax was accordingly not payable on goods sold to the Crown. The language of the principal Act does not support such a contention, but to satisfy the requirements of the Audit Office the matter was dealt with explicitly in section 2 of the amending Act. A more important amendment, bringing the law into conformity with the administrative practice, is contained in section 3, which makes tax payable for services performed by a contractor on materials provided by the person for whom work is done. For example, sales tax is payable on the price charged by a tailor who makes a suit from cloth supplied by his customer.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act (1933, No. 43).—By the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1932–33, taxpayers, being married men, were allowed a special exemption of £50 for income-tax purposes. The present amendment makes a complementary provision for the benefit of taxpayers, being married women, who support their husbands. A somewhat similar provision is made in favour of widowed taxpayers (either men or women) in eases where the taxpayer employs a housekeeper to have control over a child or children in respect of whom the taxpayer is entitled to a special exemption under the principal Act. The exemption provided for by the principal Act in respect of premiums on life-insurance policies is modified by excluding premiums paid in respect of pure endowment policies—that is, policies that do not provide for the payment of a specified capital sum on the death of the assured.

The Small Farms (Relief of Unemployment) Amendment Act (1933, No. 44) extends the Act of 1932, which converted the original scheme for a somewhat informal occupation of unused lands into a typical land-settlement scheme. Express authority is given to the Minister to expend money for the purchase of stock, implements, manures, &c, in connection with the small-farms scheme. Lands vested as endowments in local authorities, but immediately required for other purposes, may be leased as small farms, but in such eases the tenant is not given a right to acquire the fee-simple. By section S of the amending Act certain concessions in respect of liability to land-tax and the capacity to hold land are granted to incorporated “land-settlement” societies, whose objects include the relief of unemployment by means of land-settlement, and whose rules do not allow of any pecuniary gain being derived by members from the operations of the society.

The Law of Libel Amendment Act (1933, No. 47) confers qualified privilege— that is. privilege in the absence of proof of malice—in respect of the publication of a fair and accurate report of the proceedings in any inquiry held in accordance with the rules of an association controlling the sport of horse-racing, or of a fair and accurate report of the result of any such proceedings.

The Co-operative Pig-marketing Companies Act (1933, No. 49).—By the Co-operative Dairy Companies Act, 1907, provision was first made for the registration of co-operative companies having for their principal object the manufacture of by-produce from milk supplied by shareholders. One of the special features of these co-operative companies is the statutory right to require the surrender of shares and the power to reissue surrendered shares. In recent years there has been a considerable development in the pig industry, and the present Act is an adaptation to meet the requirements of the newer industry of the special provisions of the earlier Act relating to co-operative dairy companies.

The Dairy Industry Amendment Act (1933, No. 51).—Purporting to act under the authority conferred by the Dairy Industry' Act, 1908, the Governor-General in Council recently made regulations known as the Dairy-produce General Regulations, 1933. These regulations included a provision in the following terms:—

“No owner or manager of any cheese-factory, creamery, or skimming-station shall at any time during the period of ten months extending from the 1st day of August in any year till the 31st day of May in the next succeeding year purchase milk or cream produced in any supplying dairy if at any time previously during the same period milk or cream produced in such supplying dairy has been supplied to the owner or any other cheese-factory, creamery, or skimming-station.”

Proceedings to test the validity of this regulation wore taken on originating summons under the Declaratory Judgments Act, 1908, and because of the importance of the subject-matter the proceedings were moved into the Court of Appeal for argument and determination. The Court of Appeal unanimously held that the regulation in dispute was ultra vires.

It being the policy of the Government that the Governor-General in Council should have that very authority denied to him by the Court of Appeal, in its construction of the existing law, express authority to make regulations controlling the supply of milk and cream to dairy-factories has now been conferred by the present Act. The qualifications and appointment of dairy-factory managers have also by the same Act been made the subject-matter of regulations.

Chapter 43. SECTION XLIII.—DEPENDENCIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

ON page 1 of this book the islands comprising the Dominion of New Zealand are divided into three groups, viz.:—

Islands forming the Dominion proper for statistical and general practical purposes.

Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847.

Annexed islands.

Only the first of these groups has been covered by the preceding sections of this book. The present section deals briefly with the second and third groups, and also with the mandated territories of Western Samoa and Nauru, the Ross Dependency, and the Tokelau or Union Group.

Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands, although coming within the first group for general purposes, are given brief mention.

STEWART ISLAND, which, with its small adjacent islands, has an area of some 070 square miles, is separated from the South Island by the waters of Foveaux Strait. Stewart Island has several good harbours, is well wooded, and mountainous, the highest peak being the extinct volcano, Mount Anglem (3,200 ft.). The principal industry is sea-fishing, and the island is also a noted holiday resort. Stewart Island is a county, and for broad comparisons is treated as part of the South Island. The estimated population in April, 1934, was 530, including 180 Maoris.

The CHATHAM ISLANDS consist of two inhabited islands and several unimportant islets of a total area of some 372 square miles. The islands contain no high country, and the larger has a central lagoon of about 72 square miles. The chief industries are sheep-farming and sea-fishing. Although about 480 miles eastward of Banks Peninsula, the group was constituted a county in 1901, and is not classed with the outlying islands. Before 1927 the islands were not included in any electoral district, and thus had no parliamentary representation, but from 1927 have been included in the Lyttelton Electoral District, and in the Western Maori Electoral District for the election of Maori representatives. In view of the special circumstances of the Chathams, certain laws are modified in their case—e.g., the Unemployment Act does not apply to the Chatham Islands, nor do the provisions of the petrol-tax imposed for road purposes. The Chatham Islands are for most purposes grouped with the South Island, and are also treated for statistical purposes as part of Canterbury Provincial District, although the fatter is not strictly correct in point of law. The islands are included within the Wellington Deeds, Lands Transfer, and Land Districts, but within the North Canterbury Hospital District and the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. The estimated population in April, 1934, was 640, including 400 Maoris.

OUTLYING ISLANDS.

The outlying islands (total area, 307 square miles) included within the geographical boundaries as proclaimed in 1847 are—

  • Three Kings Islands.

  • Bounty Islands.

  • Auckland Islands.

  • Snares Islands.

  • Campbell Island.

  • Solander Island.

  • Antipodes Islands.

The THREE KINGS ISLANDS (SO named by Tasman on account of his having discovered them on the anniversary of the Feast of the Epiphany) are a group of uninhabited islets (area, about three square miles) extending about seven miles in an east-north-east direction, and situated about thirty-eight miles west-north-west of Cape Maria van Diemen, at the northern extremity of the North Island. It was here that the s.s. “Elingamite” was wrecked on the 9th November, 1902, with heavy loss of life.

The AUCKLAND ISLANDS were discovered on the 18th August, 1806, by Captain Abraham Bristow, in the ship “Ocean.” They lie about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their accepted position being given as latitude 50° 32' south and longitude 166° 13' east. They have several good harbours. The largest of the islands is about twenty-seven miles by about fifteen miles, and is. very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000 ft. above the sea. The total area is about 234 square miles.

CAMPBELL ISLAND, which lies about 150 miles south-east of the Auckland Islands, was discovered in 1810 by Frederick Hazelburgh, master of the brig “Perseverance,” owned by Mr. Robert Campbell, of Sydney. It is mountainous, and of a circumference of about thirty miles. There are several good harbours. The area is approximately forty-four square miles.

The ANTIPODES ISLANDS are an isolated group, consisting of several detached rocky islands (aggregating about twenty-four square miles) lying nearly north and south over a space of four to five miles; accepted position, 49° 41' 15” south, and longitude 178° 43' east.

The BOUNTY ISLANDS, a little cluster of islets, thirteen in number, and without, verdure, were discovered in 1788 by Captain Bligh, R.N., of H.M.S. “Bounty”; position verified by observation, 47° 43' south, longitude 179° 0½' east. The total area is probably less than one square mile.

The SNARES ISLANDS are situated about fifty-six miles to the south-west of Stewart Island, and comprise six islets of a total area of about 600 acres.

SOLANDER ISLAND, which lies about forty miles to the north-west of Stewart Island, was discovered by Captain Cook in 1770. It is a bare rock, one mile in length and approximately half a square mile in area.

None of the outlying islands is at present inhabited.

KERMADEC ISLANDS.

The KERMADEC ISLANDS, four in number, with some outlying islets, rank as “annexed islands,” having been annexed to New Zealand by Proclamation dated the 2lst July, 1887. The islands are situated between the parallels of 29° 10' and 31° 30' south latitude, and between the meridians of 177° 45' and 179° west longitude. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland, and lies a little more than half-way to Tonga, but 100 miles to the eastward of the direct steam route to that place. It is 300 miles eastward of the steam route to Fiji, and 150 miles westward of that from Auckland to Rarotonga. Macaulay Island (named after the father of Lord Macaulay) and Curtis Islands were discovered in May, 1788, by Lieutenant Watts, in the “Penrhyn,” a transport ship. The remainder of the group was discovered in 1793 by Rear-Admiral de Bruni, Chevalier d'Entrecasteaux.

The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than that of the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Espérance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723 ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, winch is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but are so difficult of approach as to be practically useless.

Several attempts have been made, to settle on the islands, which are at present uninhabited.

COOK AND OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS ANNEXED IN 1901.

The COOK ISLANDS, with others included within the extended boundaries of the Dominion as from the 11th June, 1901, are as under. The total area is some 150 square miles.

RAROTONGA (1,638 miles from Auckland), the most fertile and valuable of the Cook Group, is a magnificent island, rising to a height of 2,100 ft. It is clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation, and has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The two harbours are poor.

MANGAIA, the south-easternmost of the Cook Group, is of volcanic origin, and about eighteen miles in circumference. It produces large quantities of coconuts, bananas, oranges, limes, citrons, and other fruits.

ATIU resembles Mangaia in appearance and extent. It is a raised mass of coral, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts, where the ascent is gradual. On the highest point of the central ridge coconuts, bananas, oranges, and coffee grow with the utmost luxuriance; and the kumara, one of the most valuable of South Sea vegetables, yields large crops.

MAUKE is a low circular island about two miles across, lying to the north-east of Rarotonga. Like Mangaia and Atiu, it is surrounded by an unbroken fringing reef. Mauke is very fertile.

MITIARO is a low-lying island, from three to four miles long and one mile wide.

MANUAE and TE AU-O- TU (Hervey Islands) are surrounded by a reef which is about 10½ miles in circumference.

TAKOTEA is a small coral island, about half a square mile in area, some 120 miles distant from Rarotonga.

AITUTAKI is probably the most fertile of all the islands forming the Lower Group. It is capable of exporting large quantities of tropical fruits and vegetables, but exports are restricted owing to irregular and infrequent shipping calls. The island is eighteen miles in circuit.

NIUE was one of the islands annexed to New Zealand in 1901. By an Act of the New Zealand Legislature passed in 1932, its administration was transferred from the Minister for the Cook Islands to the Minister of External Affairs as from the 1st October. 1932. Separate reference to Niue appears later.

PALMERSTON is an atoll lying about 450 miles east of Niue and about 220 miles from the nearest island of the Cook Group (Aitutaki), and is remarkable as the “San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Sea. It has no harbour. The soil is fairly fertile.

SUWARROW lies about 500 miles east of Apia, the capital of Western Samoa. It is a coral atoll, of a triangular form, fifty miles in circumference, the reef having an average width of half a mile across, enclosing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The island is at present uninhabited, although visited periodically.

PUKAPUKA (Danger): Next to the 10th parallel, but rather north of the latitude of the Samoan Group and east of it, are a number of small atolls. Of these, the nearest to the Samoan Group—about 500 miles—is Pukapuka, bearing-north-west of Suwarrow about 250 miles.

NASSAU is a fine island of about 360 acres, and lies about 45 miles to the south-east of Pukapuka or Danger Island. The area under cultivation (well-planted coconuts) is about 300 acres.

RAKAHANGA is an atoll, three miles in length and of equal broadth.

MANIHIKI, lying about 400 miles eastward of Danger Island, is an atoll, about thirty miles in circumference, valuable from the extent of the coconut-groves. The interior lagoon contains a vast deposit of pearl-shell.

PENRHYN (Tongareva) lies about 300 miles north-east of Manihiki. It is one of the most famous pearl-islands in the Pacific, and there is a lagoon (with two entrances) capable of being made into a harbour fit for a large number of vessels. The island grows large quantities of coconuts.

CONSTITUTION AND LAWS.

Government is by Island Councils consisting of ex officio, elected, or nominated members. Generally, European officials and Arikis or Native chiefs are Councillors ex officio, and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General or for a fixed period not exceeding five years. Women are eligible both as members and as electors of Island Councils. The Cook Islands Amendment Act, 1921, provided for the election of a European member of the Island Council of Rarotonga as a representative of the European population.

Each Council is empowered to make laws for the good government of the island, with the proviso that such laws must not be repugnant to Acts of the New Zealand Parliament or regulations made thereunder. The maximum penalties imposed by the Ordinance of an Island Council must not exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine of £50. The Council has no power to deal with Customs duties, to borrow money, to establish Courts of Justice, or to appropriate expenditure of revenue other than that raised under authority of their Ordinance. No Ordinance has effect until it has received the assent of the Resident Commissioner or the Governor-General. The Governor-General may, by notice in the Gazelle, disallow any Ordinance within one year after the Commissioner has given his assent.

Laws are enforced through the High Court, which has all jurisdiction, civil or criminal, necessary for the administration of justice. The Chief Judge resides at Rarotonga. A Commissioner may, with some exceptions, exercise the full powers and functions of a Judge. A judgment obtained in a civil proceeding in the High Court may be enforced in the Supreme Court of New Zealand. From any decision in the former Court an appeal lies to the Supreme Court in the Dominion.

The manufacture or importation of intoxicating liquor is prohibited absolutely, except for medicinal, sacramental, or industrial purposes.

POPULATION AND VITAL STATISTICS.

At the census of the 20th April, 192G, the islands had a population of 10,082 (males 5,260, females 4,816), all but 169 males and 112 females being Natives.

Island.Population 1920 Census.Estimated Population, April, 1934.
* Uninhabited at census.
Aitutaki1,4311,685
Atiu9331,090
Mangaia1,2491,475
Manihiki416475
Manuae and Te Au-o-Tu2325
Mauke511590
Mitiaro238290
Palmerston97110
Penrhyn395470
Pukapuka526620
Rakahanga327375
Rarotonga3,9364,698
Suwarrow*..
Takutea*..
Nassau*..
     Totals10,08211,903

Each of the five censuses taken since 1906 has shown a small but consistent increase. In the eight years since the last census the estimated gain in population has been 1,821, equivalent to 2–1 per cent, per annum. A system of compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages is in force in the islands, but in view of the irregularity and in frequency of communication with some of the islands it is impossible to give precise figures for a given period. In 1933 registered births for the island of Rarotonga numbered 174 (males 88, females 86); deaths, 60 (males 29, females 31); and marriages, 63. Equivalent rates per 1,000 of mean population are: Births, 37; deaths, 13; and marriages, 14.

EDUCATION.

In 1916 education in the Cook Islands was placed under the control of the Minister for the Cook Islands, and Government schools in charge of certificated European teachers from New Zealand have since that date been established on all the principal islands of the Lower Cook Group.

Including seven subsidized mission schools in the northern islands, there are now eighteen schools under the jurisdiction of the Administration in the Cook Islands and the northern islands, with a total of 2,356 pupils on the rolls in 1933. In addition, 327 children attend Roman Catholic Mission schools in various islands of the group.

A technical school has been established at Avarua (Rarotonga), with classes in agriculture, drawing, and woodwork, and an advanced class in carpentry. In most of the schools classes for simple cookery and for mat and basket weaving are held. Agriculture and wood-work are also taught in all schools.

Classes for Native teachers are conducted by the European headmasters of Government schools. In 1930 a special class was established at the Normal School, Avarua, to enable the most promising pupils from all Cook Islands schools to reach proficiency standard without the necessity of going to New Zealand.

RADIO COMMUNICATION.

Radio communication with New Zealand is maintained by the station at Rarotonga. Subsidiary stations have been established at the islands of Atiu, Aitutaki, Mangaia, and Mauke. There are also a number of stations engaged exclusively in point-to-point communication.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Including grants totalling £11,013 from the New Zealand Government, the revenue of the Cook Islands Administration in 1933–34 was £36,531, other principal items being: Customs duties, £11,222; copra export duty, £719; fruit-inspection fees, &c, £2,400; wireless telegraph, £1,156; and stamp-sales, £1,009. The total expenditure was £38,714.

TRADE.

The figures for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Exports to New Zealand.Total Exports.Imports from New Zealand.Total Imports.
 £   
1924108,352154,554101,727138,202
192595,362151,93991,506130,609
1926101,752138,58895,531134,473
192799,106138,35787,773116,606
192896,470133,05181,511117,639
192993,066124,48673,565106,835
193085,965109,43869,976103,408
193166,93279,94549,22369,260
193259,88073,40948,26363,585
193359,26273,98354,02276,716

From the above table it is apparent that the bulk of the trade is with New Zealand. In 1933 other countries of export included France, £2,572; the United States £8,797; the United Kingdom, £1,574; and Tahiti, £1,035. Imports in 1933, exclusive of imports from New Zealand, came chiefly from the United Kingdom, ©8,762; the United States, £6,667; and Australia, £4,401.

Exports of principal items during 1933 were—

 Quantity.Value.
 £  
Copra1,545 tons13,513
Oranges91,864 cases33,980
Bananas47,494 cases15,959
Tomatoes17,737 cases6,579
Orange-juice1,297 packages1,460
Coconuts1,708 sacks513
Pearls..1,035

NIUE.

Niue (or Savage Island), lying about 300 miles to the cast of Tonga, is a coral island, thirty-six miles in circumference and 64,028 acres in area, rising to a height of 200 ft. It is fertile and has the usual tropical productions. Niue is included within the boundaries of the Cook and other islands annexed in 1901, but has a separate Administration.

By the Cook Islands, Amendment Act, 1932, the control of Niue Island was transferred from the Minister for the Cook Islands to the Minister of External Affairs. The constitution and laws (vide observations under “Cook Islands,” immediately preceding) otherwise remain unaltered. A Resident Commissioner, who is also Judge, is stationed on the island.

POPULATION.

Since the inclusion of Niue within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901 there have been six censuses, the population fluctuating between 4,079 in 1902 and 3,750 in 1921. At the census of 1926 the population consisted of 3,763 Natives and half-castes (1,763 males, 2,000 females), and 32 (18 males, 14 females) Europeans. The total estimated population at the 1st April, 1934, was 3,949, and the mean population for 1933 3,868.

EDUCATION.

There are two Government schools where agriculture, handicraft, domestic art, and woodwork form part of the curriculum. The average roll number of these two schools was 260 in 1933. In addition, there are ten schools under the control of the London Missionary Society, which are subsidized by the Administration. The average roll-number for these schools during 1933 was 260.

HEALTH AND VITAL STATISTICS.

A Government hospital is established in Niue, the staff consisting of a European matron and a number of Native nurses. The medical work of the island is under the control of a European medical officer, assisted by several Native trainees. Medical and surgical aid and attendance are given free of charge to all Natives.

During 1933 births registered in Niue numbered 144 (80 males, 64 females); deaths, 44 (18 males, 26 females); and marriages, 58. Equivalent rates per 1,000 of mean population were: Births, 37; deaths, 11; and marriages, 15.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

Revenue of the Niue Island Administration for the year ended 31st March, 1934, was £13,972, the principal item in this case also being grants from the New Zealand Government (£3,520). Customs duties brought in £1,672, copra export duty £168, sale of fruit-cases £2,308, and landing and shipping charges £720. Expenditure aggregated £13,840.

COMMUNICATIONS.

There is no intercommunication between the Cook Group and Nine, which lies 600 miles west of Rarotonga. Great difficulty was experienced in the past in providing a satisfactory subsidized service with New Zealand until the advent of the Government motor-vessel “Maui Pomare.” The “Maui Pomare” maintains a regular four-weekly service from Lyttelton, Wellington, and Apia to Niue, and this service adequately caters for the needs of the island.

Radio communication is maintained through Apia Radio-station. Direct communication between Niue and New Zealand has recently been made possible, but in practice this is confined to night schedules.

TRADE.

Exports and imports for the last ten years are given below. The greater part of the trade is with New Zealand.

Year.Exports to New Zealand.Total Exports.Imports from New Zealand.Total Imports.
 £   
192414,60314,16916,798 
192517,32017,42914,95318,747
192617,65514,10517,563 
192714,29014,35010,89614,006
192816,34720,93814,40318,637
192913,44922,20614,68819,107
193013,32315,87714,86318,630
19315,1867,1918,95811,507
193210,82013,98711,56814,756
193310,22511,54210,40013,123

The principal items of export are bananas and copra. Other items include fungus, fancy baskets, and kumaras. With a view to improving the marketing of bananas in New Zealand, grading and packing for export are now done under the control and supervision of the Resident Commissioner and his inspectors. The export of fruit from Niue was hampered until 1925 by the difficulty and irregularity of communication with New Zealand, but the provision of a Government vessel has been reflected in increased exports of bananas.

Exports of principal items during 1933 were—

 Quantity.Value.
 £ 
Copra190 tons1,760
Bananas24,596 cases8,542
Fancy baskets670 dozen320
Hats1,222 dozen729

WESTERN SAMOA.

The Native race inhabiting Samoa is of typical Polynesian character, with straight hair, brown colouring, good physique, and mild and hospitable disposition.

The first known visit of Europeans to the islands was that of a Dutch expedition, under Jacob Roggeveen, in its voyage around the world in 1721–22. In 1768 De Bougainville called at the islands, and in 1787 La Perouse, who named them “Navigators Islands,” a name which the French retain. The first British vessel to pay a visit was H.M.S. “Pandora,” in 1790. Missionaries, who were to play an important part in the development of the country, made their advent in the person of two members of the London Missionary Society, arriving at Savai'i in 1830.

The first formal recognition of “whites” took place some eight years later, when Captain Bethune, of the British Navy, concluded a commercial treaty with the Native chiefs, by which harbour dues were to be paid and security to European interests guaranteed in return. Next year (1839) Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, in command of a United States exploring expedition, completed a similar treaty.

Three great nations were to have control of the destinies of the Samoans. Great Britain appointed a Consular Agent in 1847, the United States a Commercial Agent in 1853, and Germany her first representative in 1801.

In 1869 one of the frequent internecine wars of the Natives broke out, a war that was to have far-reaching consequences, for the foreign authorities took for the first time direct measures to ensure peace. The trouble arose over rival claimants to the Native chieftainship, and continued, despite several patched-up truces, for some years.

At a conference in Berlin in 1889, an Act was signed by the representatives of Great Britain, the United States, and Germany declaring the neutrality and independence of the islands, providing for equal rights therein of the nationals of the three signatory Powers and other matters affecting the government of the islands. This arrangement was never free from trouble, and when, on the death of King Malietoa Laupepa in 1898, disturbances again arose over the succession, in accordance with the recommendation of a joint Commission the kingship was abolished. By the Anglo-German agreement of the 14th December, 1899, accepted by the United States in January, 1900, Great Britain renounced in favour of Germany all rights over Western Samoa, and similarly in favour of the United States all rights over Tutuila and the other islands of Eastern Samoa.

On the outbreak of war in 1914 between the United Kingdom and Germany a New Zealand Expeditionary Force took possession of Western Samoa, landing unopposed at Apia on the 29th August, and remained in occupation until the establishment of Civil Government under the aegis of the Dominion.

The islands are now administered under mandate of the League of Nations, the Administrator being appointed by the Governor-General of New Zealand and responsible to the Minister of External Affairs. There is a Legislative Council, consisting of not less than four nor more than six official members appointed by the Governor-General, and four unofficial members, two of whom are Europeans elected triennially by the European residents, the remaining two being Native Samoans, appointed by the Governor-General. The Administrator, acting with the advice and consent of this Council, is empowered to make Ordinances for the peace, order, and good government of the Territory, subject to disallowance by the Governor-General. A High Court is established, and the Supreme Court of New Zealand is given jurisdiction over Western Samoa.

Under the present system of administration the mandated territory has progressed steadily, particularly in the realms of health, public works, and education; and there was considerable expansion, prior to the current depression, in production and commerce.

Normally, the Samoan Natives have to a large extent domestic self-government, the Fono of Faipules (Native Parliament, chiefs elected by every district), meeting twice yearly to consider matters affecting the welfare of the Samoan people, and submitting recommendations thereon to the Administrator (the present holder of the office being Brigadier-General H. E. Hart, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., V.D.).

GEOGRAPHICAL.

Western Samoa includes the Islands of Upolu, Savai'i, Apolima, and Manono, together with several small islets, lying between the 13th and 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st and 173rd degrees of longitude west of Greenwich.

The principal islands are Savai'i and Upolu. Savai'i is the larger of the two, with a length of 48 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 703 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of over 6,000 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures about 430 square miles in area. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains the port and capital of Apia. Rainfall is plentiful throughout the Group.

POPULATION.

At the 1st April, 1934, the population* of western Samoa as estimated by the Administration was 52,487, made up as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
Native Samoan population24,88723,91148,798
European and half-caste population1,5581,4012,959
Chinese labourers (and dependants)632..632
Melanesian labourers (and dependants)98..98
     Totals27,17525,31252,487

The following figures of the recorded movement of the population relate to the twelve months ended the 31st December, 1933:—

Births.Deaths.Marriages.Immigration.Emigration.
Native Samoans1,481486130719694
Europeans and half-castes801719465481
Chinese labourers (and dependants)..6..  
Melanesian labourers (and dependants)..1..20 
     Totals1,5615101491,1841,195

HEALTH AND HOSPITALS.

The Samoa Health Ordinance, 1921, is on the lines of the New Zealand Health Act, 1920, but remodelled to suit local conditions. A Government hospital is maintained at Apia, district hospitals have been established at Tuasivi (Savai`i) and Aleipata (Upolu). and there are three dispensaries in out-districts and at mission-stations.

Of the more important tropical diseases only three are prevalent in Western Samoa—viz., ankylostomiasis (or hookworm), framboesia (yaws), and filariasis (elephantiasis).

Every effort has been made to stamp out these diseases, particularly hookworm and yaws, and systematic campaigns to this end have been in progress since 1923. These have resulted in a marked improvement in the general health of the Natives.

The sanitation of Apia has been considerably improved in recent years.

The reticulation of Apia with a high-pressure water-supply system has been completed. Water has been piped into several villages from springs in the hills. In other villages where this is not possible large reinforced-concrete tanks are erected to receive the rain-water from church buildings.

EDUCATION.

Education in Samoa had until recent years been almost entirely in the hands of the missions. Formerly higher education was not attempted except for the training of pastors, whose duty included that of teaching in the village schools connected with their respective churches. But latterly higher education in the English language has been carried out by the Administration schools at Ifi Ifi, Malifa, Vaipouli, and Avele, by the London Missionary Society at Papauta, by the Methodist Mission at Faleula, and by the Marist Brothers and Sisters at Apia. These schools are frequently inspected by one of the Senior Inspectors of the New Zealand Education Department.

* These figures differ considerably from those quoted on p. 43, due to revisions subsequent to the printing-off of the earlier portion of this book. Estimates for some years have lacked precision owing to the incompleteness of vital statistics arising from the Native attitude towards registration. The estimate now quoted is derived partly from a quasi-census taken in connection with the campaign against yaws.

A count taken in 1934 showed that 15,577 children were attending the various Government and mission schools. The great bulk of the pupils are at village mission schools, where the instruction is in the hands of Native pastors. Second-grade or district schools, where the Government and the missions co-operate, the teachers being paid by the Government, number 39, with an aggregate roll number of 2,830 at 31st March, 1934. The Government schools had an average attendance of 798 during the year ended 31st March, 1934.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The revenue for the financial year ended 31st March, 1934, was £90,613, of which Customs duties and taxation contributed £67,167, other principal items being—fees and charges (Court, hospital, &c), £10,445; and post-office and wireless-telegraph receipts, £5,270. Native taxes, which showed a total of £17,849 in 1926–27, yielded only £468 in 1933–34. No subsidy from the New Zealand Government has been paid since 1930–31. The expenditure for the year totalled £89,955. The figures of revenue and expenditure for each of the last five years are—

Year ended 31st March,Revenue.Expenditure.
 £ 
1930151,416131,280
1931151,385140,288
1932109,040128,936
1933105,92098,166
193490,61389,955

The cost of the Samoa Military Police and Constabulary during 1929–30 was borne by the New Zealand Government, and is not included in the figure given above for that year. The public debt of the Territory at 31st March, 1934, was £136,045. The money has been provided by the New Zealand Government, a further £25,000 of that expended on public works having been donated as a gift free of charge. During 1933–34 the public debt was reduced by repayment of principal amounting to £3,000.

TRADE.

The exports and imports of Western Samoa for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Exports.Imports.
 £ 
1924361,418274,803
1925379,388345,989
1926320,783324,940
1927335,978304,369
1928422,175326,553
1929293,938288,849
1930284,515275,355
1931194,447164,950
1932183,028150,902
1933173,837150,856

The principal item of export is copra, exports of which in 1933 totalled 11,526 tons, of a value of £101,347. Up to about 1923 the bulk of the copra went to the United States, but, with the exception of 1,000 tons, the whole export in 1933 wont to the United Kingdom and the Continent of Europe, the exact destination not generally being declared at time of shipment. Cocoa-beans of a value of £41,813. representing 899 tons, and bananas £26,999 (81,983 cases), constituted the only other items of any importance.

Of the exports in 1933, £170,749 was the produce of Western Samoa, the remaining £3,088 being re-exports. Total exports in 1933 included £37,839 to the United Kingdom, £28,125 to New Zealand, £27,638 to the United States, and £76,290 to the Continent of Europe (exact destination unknown). The imports in 1933 came principally from New Zealand (£51,034), United Kingdom (£30,702), Australia (£33,643), the United States (£12,117), Fiji (£6,802), Canada (£4,515). Japan (£3,613), and Dutch East Indies (£3,497).

The decline in trade during the last three years is due to the world-wide depression, and especially the low price of copra. Trade values are computed on similar lines to those of New Zealand trade statistics (vide Section IX).

In addition to a scale of import duties, there are export duties, of which the chief are: Copra (£1 10s. per ton from 6th May, 1929—formerly £1 per ton), cocoa-beans (£2 per ton), and bananas (3d. per case net). In order to assist growers the tax on cacao was temporarily remitted from November, 1933, and at the same time the tax on copra reduced by 10s. per ton with a subsequent further reduction of 10s. per ton. The net import duty collected in 1933 was £34,743, export duties collected totalling £29,333.

Vessels entered inwards at the Port of Apia during 1933 numbered 122 (all steam or oil-engined vessels), and represented an aggregate tonnage of 98,330. The tonnage of cargo brought by these vessels was 10,527, while cargo entered outwards totalled 21,185 tons.

NAURU.

Barely one-third of a degree south of the Equator, and lying 166° 56' east of Greenwich, is the little phosphate island known as Nauru or Pleasant Island. Prior to the world - wide war of 1914–19 this rich though little-known island was a German possession. It was surrendered to H.M.A.S. “Melbourne” on the 9th September, 1914, and was included with the German New Guinea possessions in the capitulation of Herbertshohe. The island was garrisoned with Australian troops on the 6th November, 1914, and a Civil administration was established on the 1st January, 1915. A mandate for the administration of the island was conferred by the Allied and Associated Powers upon the British Empire, to come into operation at the same date as the Treaty of Peace with Germany. The mandate is held jointly by the Imperial Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

An agreement between the three parties to the mandate was drawn up and completed on the 2nd July, 1919. The administrative control of the island is vested in an Administrator, whose term, of appointment is five years.

Under the concession granted by the German Government to the Jaluit Gesellschaft, and transferred by that company to the Pacific Phosphate Company, the rights of which were purchased by the Governments of Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand for £3,500,000 (including the company's interests in the nearby Ocean Island), and vested by these Governments in the British Phosphate Commission, the Commission holds the exclusive right to work the phosphate-deposits on the island. The Natives are paid £40 per acre (prior to 1st July, 1927, this was £20) for all phosphate-bearing lands, with an annual rental of £3 per acre for all non-phosphate lands leased, and are compensated for trees destroyed. A royalty of 7⅞d. (prior to 1st July, 1932, 7½d.) per ton of phosphate shipped is paid, 4⅜d. going to the Native landowner, 1½d. being used by the Administrator solely for the benefit of the Nauruan people, and the remaining 2d. held in trust by the Administrator for the benefit of the landowner.

The yearly production of phosphates was for the five years ended the 30th June, 1925, to be allocated between the three Governments in the following proportions, which coincide with the proportion of capital supplied by each towards the undertaking: Great Britain, 42 per cent.; Australia, 42 per cent.; New Zealand, 16 per cent. Any portion of its share not required by any Government may be disposed of either to the other Governments pro rata, or, if they do not require it, to other countries. The partner countries receive interest at 6 per cent, on their capital invested, and redemption of capital within fifty years is provided for by a sinking fund. At the end of the first quinquennial period the allocation of phosphates was to have boon readjusted on the basis of actual requirements, similar readjustments to be made every five years in future. The re-allocation was, however, deferred at the instance of Great Britain, which has hitherto taken very little of its quota, being at present able to obtain phosphates to better advantage from North African sources of supply. The total shipments from Nauru and Ocean Islands, with deliveries to New Zealand, during each of the last five years have been as follows:—

  Shipments to New Zealand.
Year ended 30th June,Total Shipments.Quantity.Per Cent. of Total.
 Tons.  
1930504,173127,10025.21
1931385,977122,93031.35
1932431,540146,27033.89
1933660,300177,77026.92
1934556,589148,95026.76
Totals to 30th June, 19346,564,4951,484,48522.61

At the present time the Commonwealth and Dominion take practically the whole output, leaving very little for export to other countries.

Nauru, which is encircled by a road ten miles long, has an area of only 5,396 acres. The island is surrounded by a wide reef. Near the coast is a belt of flat land, covered with coconut-trees, and behind this rises higher land covering about three-quarters of the total area, and enclosing a lagoon of almost fresh water. The phosphate deposits, which are of enormous extent and of very high quality, cover this higher country, overlying a bedrock of coralliferous limestone.

At the 1st April, 1934, there were 1,567 Native inhabitants, who speak a language akin to that of the Gilbert-Islanders. In addition there were 14 Natives of other Pacific Islands, and 933 Chinese, who have been introduced for the working of the phosphate-deposits. Europeans numbered 163, the total population being thus 2,677.

Imports consist almost entirely of food-supplies, and of machinery for the working of the phosphate.

Nauru possesses wireless communication.

Revenue and expenditure and trade of the Nauru Administration for each of the last five years available are—

Year.Revenue.Expenditure.Exports.Imports.
 £   
192919,93617,860346,052101,691
193018,99215,532270,091143,416
193116,44016,903239,777108,729
193220,23515,435466,42395,739
193319,77918,748436,78797,084

The New Zealand Government has received from the British Phosphate Commission an annual contribution of £35,849 towards interest on and amortization of loan-money raised to meet the Dominion's share of the purchase-money of the Pacific Phosphate Company's rights. The indebtedness of the New Zealand Government on account of Nauru and Ocean Islands, originally £600,000, had been reduced to £479,200 at 31st March, 1934.

ROSS DEPENDENCY.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude, were proclaimed a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, under the name of the Ross Dependency. The dependency was placed under the jurisdiction of the Governor - General of New Zealand. There is no permanent population, and the only industry engaged in is whaling.

Regulations dated the 24th October, 1929, which supersede those of 1st November, 1926, prohibit the carrying-on of whaling operations within the boundaries of the Ross Dependency without a license, the annual fee payable for which is £200, in addition to which the Government receives a royalty of 2s. 6d. per barrel (40 gallons). The owner or master of a vessel engaged in whaling or used as a floating whale-factory is liable to a fine not exceeding £1,000 for each day on which operations are carried on without a license. A penalty not exceeding £100 per day is provided for in cases of non-compliance with the terms of the license granted in respect of any vessel used for whaling or as a floating factory and a similar penalty for failure to equip a floating factory in accordance with the requirements of the regulations or to convert a whale into commercial products within 48 hours after delivery at the factory. Provision is made for the arrest on warrant of any vessel in respect of which an offence against the regulations is committed.

The regulations apply, of course, only to territorial waters, and operations are carried on outside territorial waters by unlicensed expeditions. The great majority of whales are taken outside territorial waters.

Receipts from whaling-industry license fees, &c, have been as follows:—

 £
1926–272,921
1927–287,177
1928–2913,962
1929–307,871
1930–31Dr. 70
1931–32614
1932–33..
1933–341,000

The whale-oil taken by New Zealand licensed expeditions in each of the last ten seasons is as follows:—

Season.Barrels.*

* Of 40 imperial gallons.

† Not available.

1924–2532,165
1925–2637,700
1926–2770,300
1927–28124,000
1928–29122,000
1929–30169,190
1930–31272,500
1931–32
1932–33
1933–34

For the 1933–34 season two licenses were issued by the High Commissioner for Now Zealand.

TOKELAU OR UNION GROUP.

The latest addition to New Zealand's dependencies is the Tokelau or Union Group), which consists of three islands, or groups of islets (Atafu, Nukunono, and Fakaofo), of a total area of 2,550 acres. They are situated between 8° and 10° of south latitude and between 171° and 173° of west longitude, and are distant about 270 miles from Apia, Samoa, which has since 1923 been the port of entry for the group.

These islands were ceded to Great Britain in 1916, from which year up to 1925 they formed part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. They were transferred to the jurisdiction of New Zealand as from the 11th February, 1926, and are now-administered by the Administrator of Western Samoa on behalf of the New Zealand Government. The Secretary of Native Affairs in Western Samoa is District Officer for the Tokelau Islands, the latter having no local European officials or residents.

The population of the islands at the census of 1926 was 1,033. A return by the local Native officials in June, 1934, gives a total of 1,179, the figures for the three islands being—Atafu, 408; Nukunono, 257; Fakaofo, 514.

Education is entirely in the hands of the missions, which maintain Native teachers in the islands.

The Natives are Polynesians, and the language is allied to that of Samoa. The islanders are ruled by their own chiefs with the assistance of Native Councils.

The only exportable product of the islands is copra. The total amount of copra available for export in a normal year is estimated to be 365 tons—viz., 65 from Atafu, 210 from Nukunono, and 90 from Fakaofo.

There is a wireless station on Fakaofo Island.

Chapter 44. SECTION XLIV.—STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

POPULATION AND MIGRATION (INCLUDING MAORIS).

 Estimated Population.Estimated Mean Population.Overseas Passenger Arrivals.Overseas Passenger Departures.
Year.At 31st December.At 31st March.Year ended 31st December.Year ended 31st March.
1883584,974566,655573,389557,85119,2159,186
1884608,401591,797596,688579,22620,02110,700
1885619,323613,200613,862602,49916,19911,695
1886631,355620,565624,275615,81916,10115,037
1887645,330635,347638,343627,95613,68912,712
1888649,349646,914647,340641,13113,60622,781
1889658,021652,128653,685649,52115,39215,178
1890667,477664,853662,749658,49115,02816,810
1891676,051668,594671,776666,72414,43117,629
1892692,426679,465684,239674,04218,12213,164
1893714,258698,182703,342688,82426,13515,723
1894728,121718,740721,190708,46125,23722,984
1895740,699731,468734,410725,10421,86220,967
1896754,016743,376746,288737,42217,23615,764
1897768,910757,503761,463749,37018,59215,840
1898783,317771,568776,114764,53618,85516,159
1899796,359786,530789,838779,04918,50616,619
1900808,132798,471802,246792,50118,07416,243
1901830,800815,862821,111808,81125,08618,564
1902851,072833,139840,936824,50130,29322,301
1903875,648857,993863,360845,56630,88319,608
1904900,682882,100888,165870,04732,63222,277
1905925,605908,116913,144895,10832,68523,383
1906956,457933,114943,325920,61539,23326,385
1907977,215961,598966,836949,65036,10830,378
19081,008,373985,320992,794973,45944,97030,709
19091,030,6571,016,0631,019,5151,000,69238,65033,931
19101,050,4101,035,2121,040,5341,025,63835,76932,361
19111,075,2501,056,1991,063,8871,045,70641,38937,189
19121,102,4711,081,3441,088,8611,069,82844,66035,733
19131,134,5061,111,5891,118,4881,096,46744,58830,369
19141,145,8381,139,6681,140,1721,125,62837,64632,506
19151,152,6381,150,3861,149,2381,145,02725,55122,476
19161,150,3391,150,2501,149,2251,150,31821,79921,163
19171,147,4481,150,9381,148,8931,149,22515,64913,869
19181,158,1491,154,5591,152,7981,152,74811,90611,660
19191,227,1811,178,4061,192,6651,166,48220,93119,877
19201,257,6111,236,9151,242,3961,207,66044,06232,924
19211,292,7171,267,4981,276,6521,252,20641,88228,559
19221,318,8841,301,2511,305,1261,285,71135,23328,389
19231,343,0211,325,3011,328,1931,311,38136,48829,668
19241,370,4031,347,8531,352,6181,334,02939,81530,593
19251,401,2301,379,4871,384,4281,359,99541,84629,172
19261,429,5551,409,8121,413,7001,392,07345,68533,825
19271,450,0901,437,9801,438,8141,420,76238,67636,248
19281,466,9521,453,5171,455,7341,443,32335,47835,035
19291,485,5641,470,6541,472,9251,459,98334,43931,643
19301,506,0871,488,5951,492,3761,477,49432,55928,321
19311,521,8881,510,9401,513,4161,497,73220,22521,634
19321,533,7091,524,6331,526,1151,517,10317,87921,210
19331,545,9461,536,9641,538,4901,529,13318,82621,217
1934..1,548,909..1,541,511.. 

VITAL STATISTICS

 Numbers.Rates per 1,000 of Mean Population.Deaths under 1 Year per 1,000 Births.
Year.Births.Marriages.Deaths.Deaths. under 1 Year.Births.Marriages.Deaths.
188319,2023,6126,0611,99536.286.8211.45103.90
188419,8463,8005,7401,57335.916.8710.3979.26
188519,6933,8136,0811,75634.356.6510.6189.17
188619,2993,4886,1351,89933.155.9910.5498.40
188719,1353,5636,1371,79532.095.9710.2993.81
188818,9023,6175,7081,33631.225.979.4370.68
188918,4573,6325,7721,45630.175.949.4478.89
189018,2783,7975,9941,43829.446.129.6678.67
189118,2733,8056,5181,66729.016.0410.3591.23
189217,8764,0026,4591,59427.836.2310.0689.17
189318,1874,1156,7671,60027.506.2210.2387.97
189418,5284,1786,9181,50727.286.1510.1981.34
189518,5464,1106,8631,63726.785.949.9188.27
189618,6124,8436,4321,43926.336.859.1077.32
189718,7374,9286,5951,35425.966.839.1472.26
189818,9555,0917,2441,51025.746.919.8479.66
189918,8355,4617,6801,80625.127.2810.2495.89
190019,5465,8607,2001,46925.607.679.4375.16
190120,4916,0957,6341,46326.347.839.8171.40
190220,6556,3948,3751,71225.898.0110.5082.89
190321,8296,7488,5281,77026.618.2310.4081.08
190422,7666,9838,0871,61626.948.269.5770.98
190523,6827,2008,0611,59927.228.289.2767.52
190624,2527,5928,3391,50627.088.489.3162.10
190725,0948,19210,0662,22827.308.9110.9588.70
190825,9408,3399,0431,76127.458.829.5767.89
190926,5248,0948,9591,63427.298.339.2261.60
191025,9848,2369,6391,76026.178.309.7167.73
191126,3548,8259,5341,48425.978.709.3956.31
191227,5089,1499,2141,40926.488.818.8751.22
191327,9358,81310,1191,65326.148.259.4759.17
191428,3389,28010,1481,45625.998.519.3151.38
191527,85010,0289,9651,39425.339.129.0650.05
191628,5098,21310,5961,44625.947.479.6450.72
191728,2396,41710,5281,36025.695.849.5848.16
191825,8606,22716,3641,25223.445.1514.8448.41
191924,4839,51910,8081,10821.428.339.4645.26
192029,92112,17512,1091,51325.0910.2110.1550.57
192128,56710,63510,6821,36623.348.698.7347.82
192229,0069,55610,9771,21523.177.638.7741.89
192327,96710,07011,5111,22521.947.909.0343.80
192428,01410,25910,7671,12721.577.908.2940.23
192528,15310,41911,0261,12521.177.848.2939.96
192628,47310,68011,8191,13221.057.908.7439.76
192727,88110,47811,6131,08020.297.628.4538.74
192827,20010,53711,81198419.567.588.4936.18
192926,74710,96712,31491219.017.788.7534.10
193026,79711,07512,19992418.807.778.5634.48
193126,6229,81712,04785618.426.798.3432.15
193224,8849,89611,68377717.096.808.0231.22
193324,33410,51011,70177016.597.167.9831.64

EDUCATION.

Year.Number of Scholars receivingUniversity Students (excluding affiliated Agricultural Colleges).
Primary Education atSecondary Education at
Public Schools.Registered Private Schools.Native Village Schools.Secondary* (including Endowed) Schools.District High Schools.Technical* Schools.Registered Private Schools.
* Combined secondary and technical high schools, Instituted in 1031, included with secondary schools.
188392,47611,2551,9232,384..361  
188497,23812,2032,2262,642..419  
1885102,40711,9892,1612,659..442  
1886106,32812,4972,3462,358..490  
1887110,91913,4172,6312,242..588  
1888112,68513,8932,5122,120..662  
1889115,45613,5162,4622,147..588  
1890117,91213,691 i2,2592,117..596  
1891119,52314,1762,2312,205..705  
1892122,62014,4672,1332,262..695  
1893124,69014,9312,1342,251..680  
1894127,30014,6492,4182,454..680  
1895129,85614,7042,6752,525..742  
1896131,03713,9792,8622,614..677  
1897132,19714,5242,8642,709..653  
1898131,62114,8572,9722,706..667  
1899131,31515,3803,0652,723..766  
1900130,72415,6023,1092,792..805  
1901131,35115,3973,2732,899662..783 
1902132,26215,6673,7423,0721,479..864 
1903133,56815,6873,6933,7222,096..862 
1904135,47516,4453,7544,0382,330..971 
1905137,62316,7383,8634,0602,872..1,153 
1906139,30217,2174,1744,2702,594..1,332 
1907141,21618,1744,1834,1962,452..1,325 
1908147,57516,2444,2174,3272,142699..1,634
1909152,60517,9894,1214,8561,891846. .1,846
1910156,59419,0524,2805,1761,9161,253..1,862
1911161,90419,9674,5575,4651,7771,3418311,900
1912166,55320,3504,6945,8311,8151,5268832,228
1913172,51921,2514,6476,1541,8371,6645452,318
1914178,87122,2475,0726,4181,8961,8398502,257
1915183,63122,4775,1916,4882,1021,9559922,039
1916186,35023,6355,1327,0522,1152,1051,0041,985
1917188,75425,6855,1737,5902,1802,3471,2061,977
1918193,34526,3715,0648,3842,2832,7471,3662,226
1919194,58620,9775,1989,0682,1592,9261,4973,060
1920198,46022,1935,5089,1962,1572,7661,4393,822
1921205,95523,9245,82210,0302,1763,3491,6344,123
1922211,08124,8616,16110,7362,6064,2021,9983,958
1923212,46020,0106,18611,6192,8185,0542,1344,202
1924213,76826,3026,31012,0102,9005,3692,4734,236
1925215,06325,9336,38612,5143,1365,1322,5114,442
1926219,01726,7786,59113,6513,2995,7002,7944,653
1927221,15727,3586,62014,1903,5815,7032,9324,878
1928219,95026,5966,67115,0383,8806,0613,4304,802
1929219,16626,9776,97915,4984,0006,1143,6984,623
1930219,23526,4517,07016,1494,2406,9533,8254,801
1931218,68926,7267,50316,3444,9447,3973,6734,869
1932207,48926,4107,31315,9484,4867,1063,5264,912
1933200,81926,4287,34015,7154,5117,1493,5864,806

JUSTICE.

Year.Summary Convictions in Magistrates Courts.Total Convictions and Sentences in Superior Courts.Total Distinct Persons sentenced In Superior Courts.Prisoners in Gaol at End of Year (undergoing Sentence).
Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.Number.Rate per 10,000 of Population.
188316,94429.552580.452310.405679.69
188417,96830.112870.482410.405609.20
188517,80429.002660.432360.385318.57
188616,70526.763060.492860.465588.84
188715,55724.373860.6O3470.546339.81
188814,47222.363080.482650.416059.32
188914,08221.542760.422280.356119.29
189014,12821.322700.412270.345177.75
189113,34919.872830.422210.334947.31
189213,58319.852410.351950.294336.25
189313,71019.493040.432720.394636.48
189412,93417.933710.513240.454836.63
189513,38318.224070.553590.495317.17
189614,48119.403550.483110.424936.54
189715,32520.133660.483150.416238.10
189816,99121.893910.5O3860.505336.80
189917,58622.274050.513830.485086.38
190019,24223.994270.533910.495276.52
190120,72425.243610.443540.436618.39
190222,45526.703490.423390.406027.45
190325,18629.173980.463800.446888.26
190425,67228.905270.595190.587017.78
190525,37127.784490.494330.477608.21
190627,67029.334450.474330.468338.71
190730,90131.964900.514810.507918.09
190830,85231.085430.555320.548158.08
190931,15130.555520.545440.538778.51
191032,43531.174950.484940.478438.01
191133,02931.054530.434270.408027.46
191236,19133.244800.444280.398217.45
191339,68535.484460.404090.378347.35
191441,72336.595220.464830.429818.56
191539,67534.525090.444410.389418.16
191635,45930.854480.394010.358347.25
191734,18929.766230.543770.339548.31
191829,25225.376320.553550.311,0058.68
191932,69227.418080.684610.398526.94
192035,51728.591,0110.814590.379967.92
192137,12429.081,4751.166160.481,0448.08
192234,51326.441,4171.096010.461,0528.32
192337,10427.941,6631.256250.471,1418.50
192439,59429.271,3881.035550.411,1978.73
192544,01731.791,4651.065110.371,2849.16
192646,20532.681,5621.105690.401,3889.71
192745,93031.921,7391.215690.401,48310.23
192845,13930.781,3680.944780.331,4359.78
192946,30931.441,3450.914730.321,3429.04
193047,24731.661,5241.025380.361,52310.11
193142,09227.811,6241.076000.401,61410.61
193242,36627.761,7101.126360.421,5229.92
193337,67124.491,5130.985300.341,4109.12

AGRICULTURE.

Season.Wheat for Threshing.Oats for Threshing.
Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.
* Yield probably overstated for these four seasons, due to total being obtained by applying ascertained averages to areas returned by farmers as sown for threshing. Areas returned in these years as intended for threshing would appear, in many cases, to have eventually utilized for other purposes.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1883–84377,7069,827,13626.02262,9549,231,33935.11
1884–85270,0436,866,77725.43354,79412,360,44934.84
1885–86173,8914,242,28524.40329,4888,603,70226.11
1886–87253,0256,297,63824.89387,22811,973,29530.92
1887–88357,3599,424,05926.37336,47410,512,11931.24
1888–89362,1538,770,246 i24.22367,22510,977,06529.89
1889–90335,8618,448,50625.15426,07113,673,58432.10
1890–91301,4605,723,61018.99346,2249,947,03628.73
1891–92402,27310,257,73825.50323,50811,009,02034.03
1892–93381,2458,378,21721.98326,5319,893,98930.30
1893–94242,7374,891,69520.15376,64612,153,06832.27
1894–95148,5753,613,03724.32351,85210,221,39329.05
1895–96245,4416,843,76827.88364,78812,263,54033.62
1896–97258,6085,926,52322.92372,59711,232,80330.15
1897–98315,8015,670,01717.95354,8199,738,39127.44
1898–99399,03413,073,41632.70417,32016,511,38839.56
1899–1900269,7498,581,89831.81398,24316,325,83240.99
1900–1206,4656,527,15431.61449,53419,085,83742.45
1901–2163,4624,046,58924.76405,92415,045,23337.06
1902–3194,3557,457,91538.37483,65921,766,70845.00
1903–4230,3467,891,65434.26409,39015,107,23738.57
1904–5258,0159,123,67335.36342,18914,553,61142.53
1905–6222,1836,798,93430.60354,29112,707,98235.86
1906–7206,1855,605,25227.18351,92911,201,78931.83
1907–8193,0315,567,13928.84386,88515,021,86138.82
1908–9252,3918,772,79034.75406,90818,906,78846.46
1909–10311,0008,661,10028.00377,00013,804,00037.00
1910–11322,1678,290,22125.73302,82710,118,91733.41
1911–12215,5287,261,13833.69403,66819,662,608*48.71
1912–13189,8695,179,62627.28386,78613,583,924*35.12
1913–14166,7745,231,70031.37361,74114,740,946*40.75
1914–15229,6006,644,33628.94287,56111,436,301*39.77
1915–16329,2077,108,36021.59212,6887,653,20835.98
1916–17217,7435,051,22723.19177,5245,371,43630.29
1917–18280,9786,807,53624.23156,2024,942,75931.64
1918–19208,0306,567,62931.57172,6866,884,60939.87
1919–20139,6114,559,93432.66179,8006,967,86238.75
1920–21219,9856,872,26231.24147,5595,225,11535.41
1921–22352,91810,565,27529.94170,6556,752,66339.56
1922–23275,7758,395,02330.44143,0905,688,15739.75
1923–24173,8644,174,53724.0163,8421,964,51130.77
1924–25166,9645,447,75832.62147,3875,707,17438.72
1925–26151,6734,617,04130.44102,4854,115,60640.14
1926–27220,0837,952,44236.13117,3264,997,53542.58
1927–28260,9879,541,44436.5688,2233,852,68743.66
1928–29255,3128,832,86434.6073,1013,065,11341.93
1929–30235,9427,239,55630.6867,7223,002,28844.33
1930–31249,0147,579,15330.4487,1523,376,60938.74
1931–32268,7566,582,69824.4968,6902,818,15241.03
1932–33302,53111,054,97236.54116,2065,132,18344.16
1933–34286,2719,036,01731.5678,3433,242,50041.39

LIVE-STOCK.

Year.Horses.Total Cattle.Dairy Cows.Sheep.Pigs.Goats.
* Not enumerated.
1884*13,978,520*   
1885*14,546,801*   
1886187,382853,358*15,174,263277,90110,220
1887*15,155,626*   
1888*15,042,198*   
1889*15,423,328*   
1890*16,116,113*   
1891211,040788,919*17,865,423222,5539,055
1892*18,570,752*   
1893*19,380,369*   
1894*885,305*20,230,829* 
1895*964,034257,14019,826,604* 
1896237,4181,047,901276,21719,138,493239,778*
1897249,8131,138,067300,21919,687,954209,834*
1898252,8341,209,165324,48519,673,725186,027*
1899258,1151,203,024333,53619,348,506193,512*
1900261,9311,222,139355,25619,355,195249,751*
1901266,2451,256,680372,41620,233,099250,975*
1902279,6721,361,784381,49220,342,727224,024*
1903280,9551,460,663428,77318,954,553193,740*
1904298,7141,593,547468,12518,280,806226,591*
1905314,3221,736,850498,24119,130,875255,320*
1906326,5371,810,936517,72020,108,471249,727*
1907342,6081,851,750543,92720,983,772242,273*
1908352,8321,816,299541,36322,449,053241,128*
1909363,2591,773,326536,62923,480,707245,092*
1910*24,269,620*   
1911404,2842,020,171633,73323,996,126348,754*
1912*23,750,153*   
1913*24,191,810*   
1914*24,798,763*   
1915*24,901,421*   
1916371,3312,417,491750,32324,788,150297,50117,601
1917373,6002,575,230777,43925,270,386283,77018,235
1918378,0502,869,465793,21226,538,302258,69417,730
1919363,1883,035,478826,13525,828,554235,34710,924
1920346,4073,101,945893,45423,919,970266,82914,534
1921337,2593,139,2231,004,66623,285,031349,89217,367
1922332,1053,323,2231,137,05522,222,259384,33317,480
1923330,8183,480,6941,248,64323,081,439400,88917,071
1924330,4303,563,4971,312,58823,775,776414,27118,196
1925326,8303,503,7441,323,43224,547,955440,11518,975
1926314,8673,452,4861,303,85624,904,993472,53421,761
1927303,7133,257,7291,303,22525,649,016520,14326,099
1928307,1603,273,7691,352,39827,133,810586,89824,251
1929298,9863,445,7901,371,06329,051,382556,73234,226
1930297,1953,770,2231,441,41030,841,287487,79339,127
1931295,7434,080,5251,601,63329,792,516476,194*
1932280,9944,072,3831,702,07028,691,788513,416*
1933276,8974,192,0231,845,97227,755,966591,582*
1934273,9064,301,1281,932,51128,649,038660,393*

TRADE.

 Excluding Specie.Specie.
Year.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
* Figures for first four columns are in terms of New Zealand currency: specie exports and imports represent (gold) face value.
 ££s.d.££s.d.££
18837,012,02812477,773,9661311283,971200,072
18847,090,227111787,326,20812571,440337,680
18856,738,862101977,278,1011117281,077201,820
18866,534,51310946,319,2231025138,278439,790
18876,680,77210946,064,2819100185,397181,234
18887,403,20611895,430,050879364,119511,850
18899,183,95414105,980,583930157,910328,280
18909,569,31614895,928,89581811242,404331,630
18919,560,85914486,431,10191165,53872,748
18929,490,920131756,742,544917143,931200,512
18938,680,845126106,494,279948304,519417,236
18949,221,550121595,990,1778619,497797,843
18958,518,119111206,115,95386732,105284,176
18969,299,90712937,035,37998721,198101,941
18979,741,2221215107,994,20110100275,77161,022
189810,449,83813938,211,4091011768,11719,191
189911,923,422151118,613,6561018114,913125,977
190013,223,258169810,207,3261214622,903438,770
190112,869,8101513611,353,4161316611,614464,499
190213,635,459164410,958,03813079,518368,685
190314,971,9261761012,075,9591319938,452712,716
190414,738,75016111112,900,030141069,598391,664
190515,642,069172712,481,1781313413,878347,679
190617,992,480191614,303,1701533102,657908,233
190720,001,6412015016,539,70717227,316703,154
190816,075,2051631017,247,1621775242,289224,122
190919,636,151195214,817,4621410825,845857,257
191022,152,4732151016,748,2231611127,736303,360
191118,980,18517161018,782,6081713148,305763,271
191221,511,6261915120,576,579181711258,955399,995
191322,810,3632071121,653,6321972176,359634,670
191426,253,925230621,144,2271810117,522711,869
191531,430,822277020,658,72017196318,0901,070,114
191633,281,0572819225,045,4032115105,8801,293,880
191731,517,072278820,742,130181170,475177,135
191828,480,5782414124,131,7922018835,610102,215
191953,907,925454030,309,167258362,150362,531
192046,405,366377061,553,85349101130,58041,975
192144,828,460352342,744,1223398367198,321
192242,725,9493214934,826,07426138300186,487
192345,939,7933411943,363,9833213027,37214,510
192452,509,2233816548,527,60335170103,488..
192555,243,0473918152,425,7573717419,22530,650
192645,268,924320649,811,76335486,65177,800
192748,496,3543314144,782,6663126..280
192855,570,3813812544,844,1023134618,10042,164
192954,930,0033751048,734,4723319649,00063,505
1930*44,940,517302344,340,00029143175363,087
1931*34,950,0982311126,498,00017102202,33056,155
1932*35,609,919236824,646,00016301,355,86155,310
1933*41,005,9192613125,581,00016127296,032424,704
YearExports of New Zealand Produce.
Wool.Frozen Meat.Tallow.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 lb.£Cwt.£Cwt.£
188368,149,4303,014,211087,975118,328141,185233,557
188481,139,0283,205,527254,069345,090150,770234,829
188586,507,4313,205,275296,473373,857138,600176,962
188690,853,7443,072,971346,055427,193129,700119,619
188788,824,3823,321,074402,107455,870455,720147,233
1888102,225,7333,115,008552,298628,800136,460124,950
1889102,227,3543,976,375656,822783,374159,020159,460
1890102,817,0774,150,599898,8941,087,617173,300162,471
1891106,187,1144,129,6861,000,3071,194,724175,580173,257
1892118,180,9124,313,307869,6001,033,377165,220165,513
1893109,719,6843,774,738903,8361,085,167170,060183,588
1894144,295,1544,827,0161,025,2431,194,545199,400204,499
1895116,015,1703,662,1311,134,0971,262,711263,560260,999
1896129,151,6244,391,8481,103,3621,251,993222,540208,821
1897135,835,1174,443,1441,407,9211,566,286310,200259,964
1898149,385,8154,645,8041,551,7731,698,750347,160302,141
1899147,169,4974,324,6271,865,8272,088,856338,620311,649
1900140,706,4864,749,1961,844,8312,123,881367,780368,473
1901146,820,0793,699,1031,857,5472,253,262335,360351,710
1902160,419,0233,354,5632,138,5572,718,763424,060550,131
1903155,128,3814,041,2742,378,6503,197,043396,940517,871
1904144,647,3764,673,8261,912,9792,793,599322,480357,974
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,690,4322,694,432318,942347,888
1906154,384,5686,765,6552,025,5072,877,031378,400455,026
1907171,635,5957,657,2782,354,8083,420,664414,880560,965
1908162,518,4815,332,7812,120,3033,188,515372,520481,335
1909189,683,7036,305,8882,572,6043,601,093484,160648,452
1910204,368,9578,308,4102,654,1963,850,777520,180756,841
1911169,424,8116,491,7072,250,5653,503,400413,120607,257
1912188,361,7907,105,4832,573,2383,909,569470,900684,739
1913186,533,0368,057,6202,578,6934,449,933454,860663,088
1914220,472,8989,318,1143,229,9695,863,062490,300964,348
1915196,570,11410,387,8753,591,2607,794,395535,260780,828
1916185,506,85912,386,0743,326,0457,271,318449,440785,339
1917178,274,48612,175,3662,446,9455,982,404251,980553,016
1918108,724,5757,527,2662,036,9044,957,576328,420847,618
1919247,246,61319,559,5373,822,6839,628,292937,4802,680,006
1920162,327,17611,863,8274,629,28211,673,696540,8201,748,773
1921158,714,8285,221,4794,332,75411,164,345554,240867,298
1922321,525,56211,882,4633,518,0048,387,461529,900750,574
1923217,566,09110,904,6583,043,9109,012,627504,860785,668
1924206,189,91115,267,5443,213,5749,499,877479,760799,230
1925205,726,85617,739,7363,414,20511,174,567500,760895,061
1926213,154,39911,830,1903,034,3568,656,213422,560741,045
1927220,500,72012,961,7443,364,9659,104,621477,500714,441
1928226,804,54416,679,0983,793,82810,309,662514,960804,271
1929234,955,97815,359,2063,336,2009,883,277416,640693,614
1930197,239,6147,664,3624,036,63910,937,382492,560683,571
1931211,718,8685,515,3764,138,8068,892,555465,280413,080
1932238,179,0625,742,8214,645,4808,436,306507,540462,081
1933286,307,4417,422,2665,203,1139,845,627560,400516,063
YearExports of New Zealand Produce.
Butter.Cheese.Gold.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Cwt.£Cwt.£Oz.£
18838,86942,0202,5196,892222,899892,445
188415,76666,59310,34225,074246,392988,953
188524,923102,38715,24535,742222,732890,056
188623,175105,53716,42945,657235,578939,648
188717,01854,92123,91354,562187,938747,878
188829,995118,25236,68278,918229,608914,309
188937,955146,84026,55867,105197,492785,490
189034,816122,70140,45184,986187,641751,360
189139,430150,25839,77086,675251,1611,007,172
189253,930227,16241,49391,042237,393951,963
189358,149254,61546,20199,626227,502915,921
189460,771251,28055,655115,203221,614887,865
189557,964227,60176,743150,909293,4931,162,181
189671,353281,71671,372130,166263,6941,041,428
189799,002402,60577,683150,517251,647980,204
189896,801403,69068,711135,776280,1751,080,691
1899136,086571,79969,440141,818389,5701,513,180
1900172,583740,620102,849229,111373,6141,439,602
1901201,591882,406104,294238,685455,5581,753,784
1902253,9981,205,80274,746163,539507,8521,951,426
1903285,1061,318,06774,780194,998533,3142,037,832
1904314,3601,380,46084,526185,486520,3231,987,501
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,171520,4852,093,936
1906320,2251,560,235131,206341,002563,8432,270,904
1907328,4411,615,345236,833662,355508,2102,027,490
1908229,9711,171,182280,798783,419506,3812,004,799
1909321,1081,639,380400,6071,105,390506,3712,006,900
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,373478,2861,896,318
1911302,3871,576,917439,1741,192,057454,8371,815,251
1912378,1172,088,809577,0701,680,393343,1631,345,131
1913372,2582,061,651611,6631,770,297376,1611,459,499
1914434,0672,338,576863,7762,564,125227,954895,367
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,211422,8251,694,553
1916358,0322,632,293949,4163,514,310292,6201,199,212
1917254,3972,031,551885,7433,949,251218,624903,888
1918431,0233,402,223883,4304,087,27811,98742,391
1919345,8183,080,1281,572,3117,790,990320,2071,334,405
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0506,160,840212,973883,748
1921898,47811,169,5301,368,7868,199,183149,595612,168
19221,120,2009,041,5541,161,1964,686,850131,848540,182
19231,250,14010,689,2001,441,4606,870,397169,512698,583
19241,269,45511,641,6681,594,4867,023,297133,631551,788
19251,245,32410,240,1321,376,7545,800,808114,696472,364
19261,168,0408,695,1881,461,5485,939,359125,777516,207
19271,455,53910,915,2331,492,7925,582,546130,171534,639
19281,449,57011,302,6671,567,2726,693,951118,722489,584
19291,653,80713,228,0271,779,0937,017,463119,379480,212
19301,884,23711,854,0561,812,9816,438,438133,749550,678
19311,988,56610,649,5271,636,3474,461,293140,970581,032
19322,185,54510,639,0531,790,4314,951,268200,0481,092,288
19332,635,24711,648,6991,982,9424,766,351177,2411,281,612
Exports of New Zealand Produce.
Year.Kauri-gum.PhormiumTimber (sawn and hewn)
Quantity.ValueQuantity.ValueQuantity.Value
 Tons£Tons£Sup.ft£
18836,518336,6062,01336,76123,783,521124,898
18846,393342,1511,52523,47524,767,156128,924
18855,876299,7621,06316,31628,439,013141,355
18864,920257,6531,11215,92229,349,789127,905
18876,790362,4341,57825,09430,919,464127,108
18888,482380,9334,04275,26943,474,434177,877
18897,519329,59017,084361,18242,568,600176,608
18907,438378,56321,158381,78942,098,86181,689
18918,388437,05615,809281,51442,824,365182,431
18928,705517,67812,793214,54222,860,55187,581
18938,317510,77512,587219,37526,718,046101,082
18948,338404,5674,67766,25631,901,415116,116
18957,425418,7661,80621,04038,297,905141,892
18967,126431,3232,96832,98534,984,414133,511
18976,641398,0102,76930,67439,326,396154,169
18989,905586,7674,85074,55640,721,632164,723
189911,116007,91910,371184,41150,425,741196,749
190010,159622,29315,906332,18257,517,085232,174
19017,541446,11410,171195,72871,822,369294,699
19027,430450,22320,852534,03149,251,549208,005
19039,357631,10222,652595,68457,097,990240,713
19049,203501,81726,936710,28160,326,992254,021
190510,883561,44427,877696,46775,370,136318,895
19069,154522,48627,779776,10675,528,899304,941
19078,708579,88828,547832,06872,154,417311,862
19085,530372,79817,403396,28884,554,414375,235
19098,250552,69814,318306,97371,599,318337,740
19108,693465,04420,645448,41481,940,062407,658
19117,587395,70717,366300,20986,309,570439,353
19127,968401,30518,641376,26494,454,491490,508
19138,780549,10628,092721,92463,469,105319,055
19148,473497,44419,702455,21483,342,949422,864
19154,575279,13323,220571,62176,797,161383,883
19165,456339,88227,6741,001,72571,503,154381,488
19174,594291,91723,5161,197,39671,338,174408,121
19182,419157,31325,1671,387,76374,932,815556,309
19194,128255,81222,347866,93049,726,670439,935
19206,481556,75618,949647,54569,664,014697,608
19213,901367,1979,643293,77545,902,627603,785
19226,391563,2709,727265,08044,186,848479,447
19236,598596,22210,612284,89747,570,490473,752
19245,261443,57612,982388,88742,928,726472,120
19255,370414,90116,408516,46649,204,676573,882
19264,877332,76517,238526,31140,465,221475,627
19274,674278,63216,189473,22137,147,798425,453
19284,394240,13912,932352,15234,970,773376,967
19294,937267,61012,317340,58839,102,831439,342
19303,818189,6358,009198,21326,676,131300,582
19313,058128,0951,78430,93017,532,304172,633
19322,06862,1373,37542,48827,286,884253,883
19333,08977,9733,82842,77025,829,404237,528

INDEBTEDNESS OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT

As at 31st March,Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Gross Indebteness per Head of PopulationAmount of Sinking Fund accrued.Net Indebtedness.Net Indebtedness Per Head of Population

* In 1925-26 the sinking funds accrued were, with certain exceptions transferred to the Public Debt Redemption Fund.

†Increase mainly to floating debt under Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act,1932–33, which was paid off in 1934–35

 ££s.d.£££s.d.
188431,071,582521011,434,94929,636,6335017
188532,195,422521011,531,88430,663,5385001
188633,880,7225411111,617,16632,263,556511910
188735,741,65356511,427,19934,314,4545402
188836,758,437561651,344,42735,414,010541410
188938,375,0505816111,390,91536,984,13556143
189038,667,95058321,386,18637,281,7645616
189138,830,35058171,487,04237,343,30855171
189238,713,068661961,037,86237,675,2065590
189339,257,84056471,113,77038,144,07054128
189439,826,4155583951,92438,874,4915419
189540,386,9645543751,93239,035,0325439
189643,050,78057183778,89142,271,88956174
189744,366,61858115814,29443,552,32457911
189844,963,4245856881,90344,081,5215728
189946,938,00659137857,27946,080,72758119
190047,874,45259192944,37546,930,07758156
190149,591,245601581,033,49448,557,75159104
190252,966,447631161,128,81651,837,6316245
190355,899,01965301,357,73954,541,28063114
190457,522,21565431,500,68756,021,52863102
190559,912,000651971,650,71858,261,2826433
190662,191,040661301,661,51960,529,52164174
190764,179,0406614102,042,06862,136,97264124
190866,453,897678111,268,36165,185,5366632
190970,938,334691641,479,22469,459,3106873
191074,890,645726101,503,22573,387,420701710
191181,078,122761531,754,48679,323,6367520
191284,353,91378032,160,60382,193,3107603
191390,060,76381052,603,64287,457,12178137
191499,730,427871023,063,99291,689,8358091
1915100,059,910861973,178,05596,644,4558403
1916109,637,39795643,679,964105,957,4339224
1917129,830,1051121624,263,590125,572,51510921
1918150,840,05513012114,971,605145,868,450126610
1919176,076,260149855,951,056170,125,20414476
1920201,170,7551621297,257,564193,913,191156155
1921206,324,3191621578,763,072197,561,222155174
1922219,054,38516861010,655,394208,241,12116008
1923218,953,3241654211,879,256207,024,04815642
1924221,616,3611648512,974,028208,595,743154153
1925227,814,64716521113,402,839214,287,12815569
1926238,855,478169862,274,262*230,581,216167163
1927245,850,8891701952,443,540243,407,34916955
1928251,396,2521721922,635,766248,740,73617127
1929264,191,98317912102,156,561256,652,371174104
1930267,383,3431791252,331,423265,051,92017811
1931276,033,35818213102,313,673273,715,7101813.1
1932281,942,8001841862,435,117279,507,68318367
1933282,622,9581831782,509,545280,113,41318250
1934302,791,996195992,647,985300,144,011193157

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

Year ended 31st March,Consolidated Fund.Public Works Fund.
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
From Taxation.From other Sources.Total.Total.
 ££££££
18841,957,0801,914,1873,871,2673,924,005945,7761,409,589
18851,815,6742,139,5143,955,1884,101,3182,504,1131,336,727
18862,016,7302,080,2664,096,9964,282,901198,8671,475,386
18871,882,0501,946,4123,828,4624,310,8751,499,5001,333,484
18881,876,2351,845,4443,721,6794,212,474500,00090li, 159
18892,031,6582,341,3574,373,0154,226,1121,503,000613,939
18902,090,4052,176,7144,267,1194,250,92183,142482,464
18912,173,9852,322,0434,496,0284,369,5664,262334,756
18922,179,7392,248,7914,428,5304,417,843216,533391,501
18932,339,5112,330,0404,669,5514,324,990215,765402,506
18942,353,2502,339,2134,692,4634,455,116418,323400,797
18952,300,3502,147,5494,447,8994,352,185353,000504,486
18962,335,7602,220,2554,556,0154,370,481102,272575,087
18972,521,9112,270,7974,798,7084,509,981540,275601,343
18982,678, 5762,400,0545,079,2304,602,372759,673865,543
18992,707,0992,551,1295,258,2284,858,511935,691916,327
19002,891,1262,808,4925,699,6185,140,1271,062,116993,223
19013,042,8902,864,0265,906,9105,479,7041,401,7881,309,021
19023,113,0793,039,7606,152,8395,914,9152,364,7962,143,252
19033,277,9643,169,4716,447,4356,214,0191,398,9501,514,445
19043,649,6013,480,5167,130,1176,434,2811,875,6141,796,841
19053,754,3793,592,8187,347,1976,635,9021,908,6831,354,158
19063,841,5963,808,5027,650,0987,122,3401,555,7681,811,819
19074,264,5554,214,4018,478,9567,774,9261,918,0812,168,894
19084,645,7544,418,2359,063,9898,213,9651,846,0542,109,882
19094,377,7614,623,4249,001,1858,785,5133,628,2703,363,895
19104,180,5165,058,4019,238,9178,990,9222,093,6972,216,397
19114,837,3225,459,95110,297,2739,343,1063,396,6482,058,691
19125,296,5905,764,57111,061,16110,340,3681,256,4562,340,380
19135,606,8296,127,44211,734,27111,082,0383,300,7292,548,918
19145,918,0346,311,62712,229,66111,825,8643,478,7512,760,798
19155,880,8116,571,13412,451,94512,379,8032,224,4912,737,364
19167,266,9667,240,56414,507,53012,943,1073,187,1542,583,212
191710,549,6547,805,54018,355,19414,058,:701,105,8371,775,513
191812,340,8537,865,36920,206,22215,120,2881,091,1951,401,837
191913,801,6438,550,72922,352,37218,673,5991,240,6801,387,601
192016,251,7699,829,57126,081,34023,781,5242,243,3892,232,815
192122,184^41412,076,54734,260,96128,068,7305,012,1503,058,240
192216,370,51611,756,49128,127,00728,466,8389,792,9166,875,630
192315,594,28811,985,15527,579,44326,263,7603,968,5654,729,679
192416,416,87011,543,50027,960,37026,148,0054,275,9144,658,272
192516,172,30612,470,69428,643,00027,399,2004,833,2805,482,069
192616,978,4967,747,26624,785,76223,570,0835,956,8785,874,313
192716,899,5568,043,55124,943,10724,355,9655,931,1705,505,897
192816,848,7548,275,22625,123,98024,944,9055,404,2255,212,032
192917,832,0335,767,64323,599,67624,176,9289,028,9945,696,161
193019,471,1315,878,73025,340,86125,200,8822,339,3586,237,585
193118,597,4564,471,47523,068,93124,708,0427,356,0506,547,883
193216,188,1716,531,56222,719,73324,800,5525,179,8984,895,861
193315,604,0416,964,48022,568,52122,528,3791,958,3862,277,336
193417,057,6066,435,14323,492,74024,202,0272,303,7752,572,415

NOTE.—Commencing with 1925–20 railway revenue and expenditure, and with 1928–29 post and telegraph revenue and expenditure, were removed from the transactions of the Consolidated Fund, Revenue of the Consolidated Fund, however, now includes interest In respect of railway and post and telegraph capita) liability, while the expenditure for the years 1925–26 lo 1028–29 covers payment to the Working Railways Account in respect of losses on non-paying branch lines and Isolated sections. From 1931–32, also, post and telegraph net profits were paid Into the Consolidated Fund. Unemployment taxation receipts (commencing 1930–31) are not paid into the Consolidated Fund.

LOCAL BODIES*

Year ended 31st March,Receipts.Payments.Total Gross Indebtedness.
Revenue.Other ReceiptsTotal.
From Rates.From other Sources.
Exclusive of Hospital Boards.
 ££££££
1883327,128600,450311,4661,239,0441,397,8033,540,046
1884398,659744,527331,9941,475,1801,499,1174,039,769
1885401,393841,895430,5611,673,8491,653,7064,436,309
1886410,639882,618514,7281,807,9851,644,7005,086,044
1887434,237790,063992,6332,216,9331,885,0015,825,683
1888433,832795,067511,5941,740,4931,819,7876,015,354
1889445,929676,428316,1391,438,4961,560,6056,164,901
1890460,303707,725206,6881,374,7161,476,5406,316,716
1891463,581662,765236,9021,363,2481,381,3206,427,473
1892488,824693,296214,1241,396,2441,400,4676,550,183
1893508,157709,076340,5381,558,3711,482,5486,750,698
1894551,412681,831623,0381,856,2811,589,1247,253,072
1895581,868683,857328,7981,594,5231,584,5187,422,306
1896592,903738,146269,1451,600,1941,627,0797,547,511
1897598,526765,047246,9191,610,4921,630,7167,675,814
1898644,552790,602304,6451,739,7991,733,0107,783,445
1899685,769820,727385,3681,891,8641,778,5747,995,400
1900714,151848,032372,0281,934,2111,060,0738,149,272
1901734,023919,831825,0392,478,8932,250,5728,785,303
1902800,4711,019,024775,4322,594,9272,528,0929,245,364
1903846,7161,053,582966,0872,866,3852,807,5069,886,676
1904950,1501,206,0691,142,5953,298,8143,230,71210,756,062
19051,019,4311,255,2221,350,6313,625,2843,497,32112,056,736
19061,151,2191,392,1481,326,5973,869,9643,601,50012,873,165
19071,233,0491,579,3911,227,4734,039,9133,897,51513,903,153
19081,356,2571,750,0651,410,9944,517,9164,491,11314,931,351
19091,390,6981,934,1221,440,7464,765,5664,800,71115,920,757
19101,526,3171,934,0342,362,1715,822,5224,898,48217,809,917
19111,592,6012,171,7251,776,9585,541,2845,360,26119,104,571
19121,677,8772,298,9342,425,2586,402,0696,074,37220,763,486
19131,799,2992,531,6862,383,1236,714,1086,537,76922,183,427
19142,005,6382,719,1122,411,5757,136,3256,796,31423,773,429
19152,140,0862,861,2972,595,7067,597,0896,806,56724,538,721
19162,355,1552,967,6452,469,2757,792,0756,920,73626,045,312
19172,534,5393,243,9421,411,4227,189,9036,758,59326,799,586
19182,674,5413,283,7491,250,0477,208,3377,103,07327,653,681
19192,939,6063,452,071942,7807,334,4577,320,27728,074,950
19203,144,2134,486,5823,329,00310,959,79810,883,58030,187,942
19213,549,5905,330,3743,429,66212,315,62612,761,69032,104,957
19223,779,8956,074,7825,486,91215,341,58915,091,87536,745,089
19234,277,7816,243,9517,399,67417,921,40615,695,50743,191,184
19244,445,6276,704,1445,685,10716,834,87816,520,95046,537,833
19254,668,8847,512,0807,613,39919,794,36319,422,83353,353,466
19265,039,6458,333,9217,505,70220,879,26320,915,64559,419,754
19275,311,2608,954,6856,680,17620,946,12121,747,55764,012,247
19285,615,6729,786,2715,667,65121,069,59422,423,16766,404,172
19295,844,4959,583,5766,042,00721,470,07821,300,02469,294,619
19306,010,98710,746,7315,495,42722,253,14522,061,08871,207,539
19315,637,25410,627,3914,432,95620,697,60122,174,52472,686,036
19325,511,8189,682,2514,374,25119,568,32020,087,38172,402,282
19335,237,6888,913,2854,433,29418,584,26718,885,17372,476,056

LOCAL BODIES.* —LOAN INDEBTEDNESS.

As at 31st March,Counties.Boroughs.Harbour Boards.Electric-power District.Other.Total.
* Exclusive of Hospital Boards
 ££££££
18837,8001,958,5461,508,900..64,8003,540,046
18848,1102,107,3001,575,200..271,7203,962,330
18857,8002,156,4551,872,100..276,8684,313,223
18863,5102,257,7752,414,945..275,2804,951,510
18878,7002,452,5852,887,700..271,7625,620,747
188814,2822,527,3533,006,900..264,2685,812,803
188923,5232,534,5563,057,118..276,8535,892,050
18908,5052,541,4533,155,600. .272,5015,978,059
18918,0102,540,3903,226,000. .268,2936,042,693
18929,6602,539,4453,276,300..256,5296,081,934
189311,6602,567,0953,369,410..255,7046,203,869
189411,0102,738,1843,610,450..255,1806,614,824
189510,5102,757,3953,652,350..265,2556,685,510
189610,5102,777,4953,686,959..262,6146,737,578
189710,5102,817,3783,703,561..261,9496,793,398
189811,7102,834,3063,723,380..264,9656,834,361
189910,5002,881,5673,804,187..207,0006,963,254
19006,9002,939,0253,845,881..265,5447,057,350
19016,7143,251,8174,035,331..269,2077,563,069
19026,7143,435,8844,123,631..273,4667,839,695
19036,6143,655,4364,256,481..298,6658,217,196
19046,2144,226,8004,308,851..357,0458,898,910
19057,8004,863,9864,382,551..763,90510,018,242
190615,2285,314,1734,554,151. .834,49910,718,051
190731,6785,920,3054,676,551. .987,51411,616,048
190837,1386,540,0714,877,676..1,077,44912,532,334
190956,5347,016,9265,052,845..1,177,31713,303,622
191070,8777,687,2095,788,400..1,385,19914,937,685
191199,0388,159,9866,001,650..1,466,93915,727,613
1912122,4188,507,4866,235,978..1,724,99516,590,877
1913121,9119,084,2056,371,636. .1,905,58017,483,332
1914183,93010,083,8106,608,700..2,047,03618,923,482
1915247,69410,206,3536,869,500..2,121,92819,445,475
1916265,09111,086,7197,014,390..2,387,96820,754,168
1917286,67911,606,4857,151,743..2,387,86021,432,767
1918421,21412,150,3847,268,993..2,419,94622,260,537
1919537,41512,365,9587,301,143. .2,469,19622,673,712
1920752,17613,944,5077,377,142. .2,534,46824,608,293
19211,046,37814,575,8257,528,288147,7502,888,71926,186,960
19221,328,29716,282,9608,110,9111,480,0003,064,03630,266,204
19231,802,03319,501,9888,437,9873,052,3003,284,47436,079,382
19241,870,07819,819,4979,020,1884,740,8653,659,37239,110,000
19252,332,46123,483,0579,600,2036,514,7573,790,31645,720,794
19263,054,13125,607,4399,845,7668,745,7534,473,80651,726,897
19273,658,23827,662,02710,113,44110,113,4004,865,65356,412,759
19283,882,47129,277,77210,335,69910,175,3645,277,72258,949,028
19294,044,66629,973,85710,636,36811,986,7075,362,18862,003,786
19304,242,99229,307,00610,326,34612,636,3517,539,32664,052,021
19314,373,78629,966,12710,378,50913,011,5297,962,65565,692,606
19324,443,67429,505,95510,422,12113,121,9607,974,00865,467,718
19334,426,11329,621,49010,465,43013,031,930S,097,57865,642,541

NOTE.—Loans from Government—i.e., Inscribed Debt Advances office and Main Highways Board—have not been included.

BANKS OF ISSUE (AVERAGE OF FOUR QUARTERS).

Year.Assets.Liabilities.
Advances.Coin and Bullion.Total (including other Items).Notes in Circulation.Deposits.Total (including other Items).
 ££££££
188314,821,7801,881,67517,794,761968,5208,659,4779,706,700
188414,947,0912,023,08818,442,139971,9039,643,21410,691,599
188515,470,2752,101,78418,811,567968,48110,083,29611,130,244
188615,834,8772,177,54419,041,827943,07510,579,71111,603,194
188715,310,0502,342,05218,799,847896,51711,031,61411,995,495
188815,041,8972,319,32518,709,444873,04511,155,77812,108,353
188914,272,4812,217,83317,652,915879,44011,528,42412,486,717
189013,996,0862,536,52917,735,259903,01012,368,61013,356,598
189111,448,7452,405,09916,814,518937,30912,796,09813,820,458
189212,128,0652,450,71217,558,168959,94313,587,06214,623,335
189312,688,3032,627,36718,255,534973,89414,433,77715,489,633
189411,897,7402,896,56217,746,421901,52613,927,21714,930,791
189511,600,0803,310,94318,159,781897,91913,544,41514,491,627
189610,972,2263,308,39216,900,199946,36614,490,82715,520,431
189710,020,6403,093,29517,276,7711,009,03814,290,51215,380,248
189810,564,2662,791,08117,013,4041,070,13314,143,22915,299,058
189910,954,4352,675,36117,190,4331,163,75914,591,22315,834,858
190011,343,4112,739,19717,314,5351,299,82515,570,61016,964,582
190112,148,3352,996,34518,422,2741,361,35516,034,84817,490,035
190212,747,7733,201,82418,999,1801,375,78817,231,76818,701,033
190313,435,9933,608,94119,913,5461,450,26719,011,11420,563,879
190414,651,1983,896,19520,893,0961,468,16119,074,96020,643,359
190515,496,3954,006,10821,770,5251,468,97720,545,60122,144,186
190616,649,3294,593,95423,829,9331,574,25422,422,24324,143,008
190718,514,0454,836,71826,584,2391,644,64523,517,11125,334,348
190821,172,8084,840,94229,098,5671,615,10921,821,75323,611,903
190919,078,0324,947,09626,937,2651,577,55821,996,62123,728,326
191018,439,9995,035,76426,398,9271,626,09424,968,76126,742,081
191121,259,7275,195,333"29,433,6141,677,84226,765,12228,625,803
191222,907,6565,338,29531,196,4001,714,66725,622,08327,508,348
191322,902,2985,204,26630,708,9321,674,33325,733,18727,591,099
191424,250,2465,712,75132,502,3121,998,38827,640,50729,808,349
191523,638,9706,781,00633,209,4832,846,27531,433,65334,448,270
191624,911,7067,393,91737,015,48614,049,52937,507,91741,977,619
191728,847,7498,072,27944,979,6155,410,95742,930,71348,541,961
191831,711,3508,088,96148,570,1266,266,76845,562,93952,048,732
191931,717,7208,017,15948,615,2097,087,54550,489,44457,861,393
192038,241,9327,728,94256,111,4337,890,41859,405,34167,818,469
192150,607,5417,660,53268,701,2827,569,31949,397,41158,808,439
192244,768,1787,822,56261,779,5707,019,22045,913,39453,868,834
192343,322,2427,900,59459,641,2356,593,06849,039,48256,204,292
192444,537,1617,816,14561,325,8656,587,54649,502,49957,131,235
192545,298,9557,722,91762,128,8086,775,47052,207,20260,219,697
192649,149,2607,797,31965,765,2971 6,730,42150,135,11458,008,161
192750,032,2037,874,97166,626,6761 6,510,01848,294,09656,321,397
192846,179,4637,511,83362,819,4856,374,04353,799,22161,850,595
192949,278,1947,051,39165,475,5296,433,91157,609,74665,232,866
193053,657,3976,798,55669,748,0716,255,71756,425,01463,984,419
193152,419,5276,917,89768,557,1205,782,35453,645,01861,463,034
193250,255,6745,957,94469,015,2095,958,26852,851,73660,649,208
193345,705,0445,105,84669,656,700i 6,205,42957,620,23365,281,375

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

Year.Number of Deposit ors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest Credited to Depositors.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Fifteen months, 1st January, 1920, to 31st March, 1921.

† Year ended 31st March following.

‡ Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

  £££££
188361,9361,178,4741,295,720−117,24656,0471,409,752
188465,7171,227,9101,195,93131,97957,3821,499,112
188569,9571,341,0011,264,30576,69662,2281,638,036
188674,8711,248,4051,336,287−87,88265,8251,615,979
188779,7241,312,1511,182,409129,74267,3641,813,085
188884,4881,544,7471,387,471157,27678,0802,048,442
188990,7451,515,2821,457,08158,20184,8102,191,452
189097,2081,658,5431,500,437158,10692,3192,441,876
1891104,4671,842,9881,693,515149,473104,0992,695,448
1892112,5281,878,2701,821,34956,921111,3022,863,671
1893122,6842,386,0902,122,522263,568114,7603,241,998
1894129,4232,252,8622,268,624−15,762114,6433,340,880
1895137,6832,794,5072,369,333425,174129,4903,895,543
1896147,7582,881,1532,591,559289,594126,4984,311,635
1897159,3313,187,2192,891,169296,050137,2404,744,925
1898169,9683,279,6113,194,89484,717128,1294,957,771
1899183,0463,644,9803,417,299227,681134,9185,320,371
1900197,4084,170,4293,827,416343,013146,1695,809,552
1901212,4364,611,4564,230,193381,263159,1986,350,013
1902227,4655,069,6194,708,772360,847172,9266,883,787
1903243,6755,661,5935,343,828317,765187,1307,388,682
1904259,1645,836,5405,664,770171,770200,9307,761,382
1905276,0666,625,7445,984,185641,559259,0818,662,023
1906298,7467,907,1556,907,1041,000,051291,1929,953,266
1907319,7739,351,6648,125,1231,226,541343,42411,523,231
1908342,0779,674,0759,417,820256,255379,80812,159,294
1909359,7149,611,1209,499,320111,800395,80412,666,898
1910380,58510,708,9399,695,5151,013,424424,66814,104,990
1911405,56611,627,36810,662,046965,322472,87515,543,187
1912432,19911,725,18311,449,711275,472511,59916,330,257
1913458,59411,286,70211,041,454245,248555,90817,131,414
1914483,26211,904,32310,003,0181,301,305615,31019,048,029
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1916538,07215,576,40812,957,4202,618,988817,85625,603,209
1917566,35117,106,52914,461,1692,645,360947,82129,196,390
1918590,20518,101,10514,938,8423,162,2631,059,47233,418,125
1910630,78329,758,44725,962,3773,796,0701,178,93538,393,130
1920*664,81944,302,85241,162,4863,140,3661,818,53543,352,031
1921678,93029,125,99730,236,231−1,110,2341,599,90743,841,704
1922690,79020,682,42727,709,263−1,086,8361,605,52544,360,393
1923710,15729,598,37229,510,32188,0511,649,97646,098,421
1924735,14829,582,89730,413,609−830,7121,080,92046,948,628
1925758,15531,833,62232,602,506−768,8841,731,57847,911,322
1926783,82729,456,38330,149,629−693,2461,767,42648,985,502
1927804,72527,611,06630,584,997−2,973,9311,747,15647,758,726
1928828,29627,252,38128,111,940−859,5591,745,05048,644,217
1929852,75728,561,85429,575,994−1,014,1401,806,41449,436,491
1930878,04324,531,56928,063,338−3,531,7691,763,82547,668,547
1931877,09019,463,98525,488,081−6,024,0961,611,04843,255,499
1932797,09716,933,17619,635,928−2,702,7521,475,87442,028,621
1933798,26219,428,85317,818,1721,610,6811,231,08944,870,391

POSTAL.

Year.Letters posted and delivered.Newspapers posted and delivered.Money-orders Issued.Postal Notes Issued.Postal Revenue.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.

* Received and despatched.

† Counted once only.

‡ Year ended 31st March following.

    £ ££
188333,588,408*13,030,563*172,556541,133.. 172,665
188435,257,846*14,093,742*186,052572,666.. 188,772
188535,829,855*14,233,878*188,622581,39516,4426,771197,456
188638,084,592*14,324,047*155,680547,75592,54637,019206,029
188739,377,774*15,381,323*159,579555,744122,25546,973213,355
188840,398,020*16,202,849*162,387555,996149,87955,785212,247
188942,301,233*16,721,016*172,076589,545175,02364,244222,978
189043,917,200*17,912,734*176,427602,077189,91568,395229,867
189147,612,864*18,501,912*195,239651,990220,68377,808245,395
189250,610,742*18,557,565*199,438694,847247,90286,176252,494
189352,085,449*19,556,030*210,957750,929285,38999,073253,457
189452,168,336*19,271,590*222,678776,783319,368110,142254,800
189529,586,94912,675,973243,497812,604349,627120,957242,615
189630,442,05313,216,521269,566902,160376,796126,448262,482
189733,030,09514,261,345293,659970,831409,866131,643272,163
189835,654,94715,095,487318,3701,029,241431,449137,085304,947
189938,484,37115,717,388344,6641,118,808461,447144,631325,301
190039,898,47917,045,715369,8341,214,853490,506151,180316,858
190152,567,56018,973,632405,9671,286,508556,316169,527281,097
190257,714,63118,517,276367,2071,277,059616,264l87,709302,604
190361,687,45719,696,434396,3121,416,225707,044215,275343,207
190466,501,43421,500,744407,7831,476,887785,347244,719383,243
190571,116,26123,626,362417,4411,541,712875,324270,300410,967
190679,084,56623,716,431439,0201,686,231981,642307,323438,729
1907159,680,65438,862,863441,4871,773,5911,092,631340,436478,388
1908>175,440,11141,358,913488,0842,050,6841,222,280383,472544,642
1909186,926,33742,561,641538,7402,307,5931,414,752441,099566,990
1910196,708,90842,305,554569,6572,457,5231,666,959517,315603,150
1911205,450,62743,801,719607,7642,759,3931,821,566566,650613,252
1912214,184,11943,460,016666,4253,231,3501,970,643627,443644,637
1913223,961,20043,572,759690,7453,357,7742,238,842711,518695,136
1914233,901,32043,779,983691,5183,427,5052,314,327714,683698,898
1915242,547,85941,311,535664,8603,471,8182,370,079712,753858,583
1916242,121,36141,807,999669,3553,607,0872,286,463685,708964,793
1917245,796,94540,366,792642,6833,476,6452,166,597628,920976,027
1918242,527,36935,476,212638,5003,649,3712,091,051610,591983,585
1919247,143,18335,498,263690,2914,604,0592,197,520646,4111,068,489
1920259,743,23437,859,247699,6745,276,7702,280,219691,2011,352,677
1921253,767,13138,680,982669,3834,850,8202,377,622723,2541,499,304
1922239,997,08135,635,219659,9434,278,5292,434,506730,2321,378,421
1923252,021,95938,138,697684,9794,390,1592,652,777786,1461,146,588
1924272,311,92541,602,497731,5114,692,9292,846,333840,5591,257,942
1925294,630,76044,717,406766,6894,977,2303,040,722902,1191,320,277
1926298,617,08945,364,274793,1105,033,1273,329,638965,2701,400,886
1927297,478,29447,089,652803,5354,995,0903,614,2171,015,2131,439,587
1928298,548,36448,257,194807,8854,977,5223,575,9841,057,6241,441,794
1929309,162,10348,658,470835,3585,187,5533,816,6351,123,4461,498,684
1930313,148,05847,644,098833,5055,069,6293,907,2881,128,8071,582,550
1931263,633,95239,454,971714,4783,993,0352,884,654952,4441,744,553
1932246,395,13033,410,372648,9513,335,5522,686,648958,3731,393,655
1933261,979,31233,775,389635,6743,112,7292,883,0701,061,9461,294,757

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS.

Year ended 31st March,Miles Open for Traffic.Capital Cost of Open Lines.Train-mileage.Passengers carried, excluding Season-ticket Holders.Goods and Live-stock.*Revenue.Expenditure.

* Equivalent tonnage of live-stock.

† From 1925.26 figures relate to railway operation only.

‡ Capital cost written down by £10,400,000.

  £  Tons.££
18841,40411,251,6332,841,7453,272,6441,726,471961,304655,990
18851,47911,810,1942,882,4223,232,8861,778,1401,045,712690,026
18861,61312,472,8143,020,5503,362,2661,856,7331,047,418690,340
18871,72113,017,5673,008,9493,426,4031,783,524998,768699,072
18881,75313,352,9782,944,7863,451,8501,770,638994,843687,328
18891,77713,472,8372,796,0073,132,8031,954,126997,615647,045
18901,80913,899,9552,868,2033,376,4592,112,7341,095,569682,787
18911,84214,278,5862,894,7763,433,6292,134,0231,121,701700,703
18921,86914,656,6913,010,4893,555,7642,122,9871,115,432706,517
18931,88614,733,1203,002,1743,759,0442,258,2351,181,522732,142
18941,94815,137,0363,113,2313,972,7012,128,7091,172,792735,359
18951,99315,352,6133,221,6203,905,5782,123,3431,150,851732,160
18962,01415,425,5323,307,2264,162,4262,175,9431,183,041751,368
18972,01815,577,3923,409,2184,439,3872,461,1271,286,158789,054
18982,05515,993,9033,666,4834,672,2642,628,7461,376,008857,191
18992,09016,404,0763,968,7084,955,5532,744,4411,469,665929,737
19002,10416,703,8874,187,8935,468,2843,251,7101,623,8911,052,358
19012,21217,207,3284,620,9716,243,5933,461,3311,727,2361,127,848
19022,23518,170,7225,066,3607,356,1363,667,0391,874,5861,252,237
19032,29119,081,7355,443,3337,575,3903,918,2611,974,0381,343,415
19042,32820,692,9115,685,3998,306,3834,259,2172,180,6411,438,724
19052,37421,701,5726,107,0798,514,1124,185,4672,209,2311,492,900
19062,40722,498,9726,413,5738,826,3824,415,1662,349,7041,621,239
19072,45823,504,2726,755,4549,600,7864,824,5032,024,6001,812,482
19082,47424,365,6477,051,2749,756,7165,070,1702,761,9381,949,759
19092,67427,762,5927,458,23610,457,1445,135,4082,929,5262,114,815
19102,71728,513,4767,889,16611,141,1425,490,0183,249,7902,169,474
19112,75329,606,5468,141,07511,200,6135,863,6743,494,1822,303,272
19122,79830,506,0898,371,68711,891,1345,887,9083,676,5092,465,896
19132,85131,611,2209,016,22413,123,8796,246,1283,971,0022,705,609
19142,85432,355,0879,319,26813,355,8936,019,6334,043,3282,880,323
19152,94534,133,8259,383,42013,565,7726,453,4724,105,4572,920,455
19162,96034,857,8829,356,52214,201,5066,370,9454,548,3562,910,883
19172,96035,378,6649,146,33114,173,1156,239,1734,800,8102,926,864
19182,98336,001,4327,468,64611,408,1565,742,9684,687,7003,042,907
19192,98336,167,6817,477,58311,374,5215,611,7384,988,6323,308,576
19202,99636,390,1157,408,60812,760,8146,000,2795,752,4874,105,067
19213,009379,303,39215,315,6406,487,2706,908,5315,636,601
19223,02139,309,0978,717,26514,262,4406,321,3516,643,5916,237,727
19233,02840,275,1618,346,73114,256,6106,618,5886,727,8025,502,497
19243,05341,399,4279,024,50313,817,3786,918,3496,984,2115,403,766
19253,08544,570,7469,083,62312,397,0797,025,3167,112,5245,545,416
19263,13847,608,67610,319,40711,787,7237,246,6927,589,2746,164,570
19273,16449,183,91610,723,86410,274,8787,299,7527,423,4726,158,283
19283,18051,187,37610,838,5949,272,5477,358,3887,343,8456,302,119
19293,28756,568,59811,113,4829,046,2677,613,4457,524,8646,374,579
19303,28757,787,67112,022,0438,469,0387,788,9737,473,9936,848,026
19313,32260,545,15411,281,8987,265,9126,957,7096,781,3886,406,143
19323,31551,424,88310,168,7206,503,5665,824,8115,788,9655,301,653
19333,31551,480,9499,828,8536,870,5705,490,6865,339,0754,833,754
19343,32053,909,34710,163,4747,511,3465,642,1995,628,8354,877,146

BANKRUPTCY.

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amount realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amount paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.

* Not available.

 £££££
18831,6561,320,943*  
1884846801,150112,539481,22244,118
1885984297,306109,862332,88794,188
18861,089415,953128,370566,291102,966
18871,036311,745135,633503,759109,255
1888881252,32298,213571,74179,843
1889724441,874187,048755,16595,032
1890652262,733112,951381,124122,276
1891605141,97184,341302,71272,572
1892507122,05066,497238,95343,662
1893484111,48368,844464,27437,721
1894626187,78585,538310,07870,889
1895485133,60388,684239,56270,018
1896412115,45571,712256,87037,492
189741973,46040,942133,34545,015
189840790,06845,474285,15530,994
189938959,43634,269158,93230,084
190030477,68953,415141,80037,411
190122258,65849,78184,45230,358
190220561,60439,386110,99529,406
190320446,76723,76188,01917,618
190425786,09443,514125,39228,103
1905304100,81347,798146,33228,150
1906347106,37650,761192,92735,448
190735077,69859,849158,66342,459
1908406200,44767,018199,06947,800
1909471204,18771,351259,01744,110
1910393127,63479,100176,00147,796
191134488,59240,009133,51728,757
191231204,39839,965120,32526,825
1913343155,58242,735228,82925,813
1914391174,41064,153199,25133,910
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
1916304123,44156,416172,77429,223
1917265138,69663,645178,24427,405
191816450,35667,72988,60733,176
191914143,62754,66259,76724,980
192014544,02647,89777,75245,227
1921336362,60178,271558,50438,646
1922690344,861126,145834,35663,009
1923674368,673124,641668,92565,667
1924670279,602118,641703,99574,878
1925653235,37798,648471,02880,187
1926752236,915102,899585,08771,515
1927867331,363108,850679,47372,388
1928806236,264116,613767,32768,763
1929687233,05591,180502,11254,759
1930780471,50283,308827,34568,611
1931848401,649108,8091,042,18763,185
1932661252,34875,657024,89255,940
1933450114,81761,723489,89547,884

Chapter 45. SECTION XLV.—OFFICIAL.

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND.

His Excellency, the Right Honourable Lord Bledisloe, P.C., G.C.M.G., K.B.E., D.Sc.

Official Secretary and Private Secretary—Sir Cecil Day, C.M.G., C.B.E.

Assistant Private Secretary—Lieutenant J. C. Elworthy, R.N. (Retired).

Aide-de-Camp—Captain J. W. Tweedie.

Honorary Aides-de-Camp—Naval: Captain L. V. Morgan, M.V.O., D.Sc., R.N.. Captain Cosmo M. Graham, R.N. Military: Colonel J. H. Whyte, D.S.O., D.C.M.; Colonel .J. E. Duigan, D.S.O.; Colonel H. C. Hurst, D.S.O., V.D.: Colonel W. H. Cunningham, D.S.O., V.D.; Lieutenant-Colonel R. G. Milligan, D.S.O., V.D.; Colonel J. N. Mccarroll, C.M.G., D.S.O., V.D).

Honorary Physician—Colonel .J. L. Frazerhurst, V.D., M.A., .M.D.. F.R.I.P.H.

Honorary Surgeon—Colonel Sir H. T. D. Acland, Kt., C.M.G., C.B.E., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

His Excellency assumed office on the 19th March, 1930, and his term of office expires early in 1935. The Governor-General Designate is the Viscount Galway, D.S.O., O.B.E. A complete list of successive vice-regal representatives since 1840 will be found in the 1931 issue (pp. 59–60) of the Year-Book.

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS.

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856.

Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May, 18562 June, 1856.
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 July, 18616 Aug., 1862.
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug., 186230 Oct., 1863.
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct., 186324 Nov., 1864.
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov., 186416 Oct., 1865.
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct., 186528 June, 1869.
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 June, 186910 Sept., 1872.
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sept., 187211 Oct., 1872.
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct., 18723 Mar., 1873.
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar., 18738 April, 1873.
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 April, 18736 July, 1875.
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 July, 187,515 Feb., 1876.
16. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb., 18761 Sept., 1876.
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sept., 187613 Sept., 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sept., 187613 Oct., 1877.
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct., 18778 Oct., 1879.
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct., 187921 April, 1882.
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 April, 188225 Sept., 1883.
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sept., 188316 Aug., 1884.
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug., 188428 Aug., 1884.
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug., 18843 Sept., 1884.
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sept., 18848 Oct., 1887.
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct., 188724 Jan., 1891.
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan., 18911 May, 1893.
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.1 May, 189321 June, 1906.
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 June, 19066 Aug., 1906.
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph Georgo Ward, Bart., P.C., K.C.M.G.6 Aug., 190628 Mar., 1912.

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS

Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar., 191210 July, 1912.
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.10 July, 191212 Aug., 1915.
32. NationalRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.12 Aug., 191525 Aug., 1919.
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.25 Aug., 191914 May, 1925.
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May, 192530 May, 1925.
35. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, P.C, M.C.30 May, 192510 Dec, 1928.
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C, G.C.M.G.10 Dec., 192828 May, 1930.
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.28 May, 193022 Sept. 1931.
38. CoalitionRt. Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.22 Sept., 1931..

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1934.

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL.

Rt. Hon. G. W. FORBES, P.C., Prime Minister, Minister of Railways, Minister of External Affairs, Native Minister, Minister for the Cook Islands, Attorney-General, and Minister in Charge of Scientific and Industrial Research, Public Trust, Electoral, High Commissioner's, Native Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Fire Insurance, Legislative, Public Service Superannuation, Friendly Societies, and National Provident Fund Departments.

Rt. Hon. J. G. COATES, P.C., M.C., Minister of Finance, Minister of Customs, Minister of Stamp Duties, Minister of Transport, and Minister in Charge of State Advances and Land and Income Tax Departments.

Hon. E. A. RANSOM, Minister of Lands, Commissioner of State Forests, and Minister in Charge of Land for Settlements, Scenery Preservation, Discharged Soldiers’ Settlement, and Valuation Departments.

Hon. J. A. YOUNG, Minister of Health, Minister of Immigration, Minister of Internal Affairs, and Minister in Charge of Mental Hospitals, Printing and Stationery, Audit, Museum, and Advertising Departments.

Hon. ROBERT MASTERS, M.L.C., Minister of Industries and Commerce.

Hon. J. G. COBBE, Minister of Defence, Minister of Justice, Minister of Marine, and Minister in Charge of Pensions, Police, Prisons, Registrar-General's, and Inspection of Machinery Departments.

Hon. ADAM HAMILTON, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, Minister of Labour, Minister of Employment, and Minister in Charge of Tourist and Health Resorts, Publicity, and Census and Statistics Departments.

Hon. C. E. MACMILLAN, Minister of Agriculture and Minister of Mines.

Hon. JOHN BITCHENER, Minister of Public Works and Minister in Charge of Roads and Public Buildings.

Hon. S. G. SMITH, Minister of Education.

Clerk of the Executive Council—F. D. Thomson, C.M.G., B.A.

COALITION MINISTRY.

(Assumed Office, 22nd September, 1931.)

Name and Office.FromTo

* Resigned from Ministry 28th January, 1933.

† Resigned from Ministry 1st November, 1934.

‡ Not returned at General Election of 2nd December, 1931; resigned from Ministry 8th January, 1932.

Right Hon. George William Forbes, P.C.—
  Prime Minister22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of Railways22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of External Affairs22 Sept., 1931..
  Attorney-General28 Jan., 1933..
Native Minister1 Nov., 1934..
  Minister of Cook Islands1 Nov., 1934..
Right Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, P.C., M.C.—
  Minister of Public Works22 Sept., 193110 April, 1933.
  Minister of Transport22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of Finance28 Jan., 1933..
  Minister of Customs28 Jan., 1933..
  Minister of Stamp Duties28 Jan.. 1933..
Ethelbert Alfred Ransom—
  Minister of Lands22 Sept., 1931..
  Commissioner of State Forests22 Sept., 1931..
William Downie Stewart*
  Minister of Finance22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
  Minister of Customs22 Sept., 193128 Jan.. 1933.
  Minister of Stamp Duties22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
  Attorney-General22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
Sir Apirana Turupa Ngata, Kt.
  Native Minister22 Sept., 19311 Nov., 1934.
  Minister for the Cook Islands22 Sept., 19311 Nov., 1934.
James Alexander Young—
  Minister of Health22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of Immigration22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of Internal Affairs28 Jan., 1933..
Robert Masters, M.L.C.—
  Minister of Education22 Sept., 193122 Nov., 1934.
  Minister of Industries and Commerce22 Sept., 1931..
David Jones
  Minister of Agriculture22 Sept., 19318 Jan., 1932.
  Minister of Mines22 Sept., 19318 Jan.. 1932.
John George Cobbe—
  Minister of Defence22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of Justice22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of Marine22 Sept., 1931..
Adam Hamilton—
  Minister of Labour22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of Internal Affairs22 Sept., 193128 Jan., 1933.
  Postmaster-General22 Sept., 1931..
  Minister of Telegraphs22 Sept., 1931..
Charles Edward de la Barca Macmillan—
  Minister of Agriculture13 Feb., 1932..
  Minister of Mines13 Feb., 1932..
John Bitchener—
  Minister of Public Works10 April, 1933..
Sydney George Smith—
  Minister of Education22 Nov., 1934..

SUPREME COURT.

Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal, November, 1934.—Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Michael Myers, P.C., K.C.M.G. Puisne Judges: Hon. Sir Alexander Herdman, Kt.; Hon. J. R. Reed, C.B.E.: Hon. H. H. Ostler; Hon. A. W. Blair; Hon. D. S. Smith; Hon. Robert Kennedy; Hon. H. F. Johnston; Hon. A. Fair.

Judge of the Arbitration Court.—Hon. F. V. Frazer.

HONOURS.

Since the preceding issue of the Year-Book the following honours have been conferred by His Majesty the King for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:—

(a) Signifies conferred in January, 1934; (b) in June, 1934.

Knights Bachelor: R. A. Anderson (b), C.M.G.; J. T. Grose (a); Major-General W. L. H. Sinclair-Burgess (a), C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.; G. H. Wilson (b). Companions of St. Michael and St. George: R. E. Alexander (a), J. Christie (b), G. W. Hutchison (b). Commanders of the British Empire: C. A. Knowles (a), R. P. Ward (b). Officers of the British Empire: Miss S. E. Maude (a), Miss J. A. Mowbray (a). Imperial Service Order: W. G. Wohlmann (b).

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS.

[For earlier Parliaments and sessions refer to pp. 59–60 of the 1930 edition of the Year-Book. On some occasions there have been long adjournments during sessions, without Parliament being prorogued.]

Parliament.Dates of Opening of Sessions.Dates of Prorogation.Dates of Dissolution.
Nineteenth24 June,191515 Oct.,191527 Nov., 1919.
9 May,19169 Aug.,1916
28 June,19172 Nov.,1917
9 April,191817 April,1918
24 Oct.,191812 Dec.,1918
28 Aug.,19197 Nov.,1919
Twentieth24 June,192012 Nov.,192015 Nov., 1922.
10 Mar.,192124 Mar.,1921
22 Sept.,192113 Feb.,1922
28 June,19221 Nov.,1922
Twenty-first8 Feb.,192319 Feb.,192314 Oct., 1925.
14 June,192330 Aug.,1923
26 June,19247 Nov.,1924
25 June,19253 Oct.,1925
Twenty-second16 June,192614 Sept.,192618 Oct., 1928.
23 June,19277 Dec.,1927
28 June,192811 Oct.,1928
Twenty-third4 Dec.,192819 Dec.,192812 Nov., 1931.
27 June,192911 Nov.,1929
26 June,19305 Nov.,1930
11 Mar.,19317 May,1931
25 June,193111 Nov.,1931
Twenty-fourth23 Feb.,193211 May,1932..
22 Sept.,193221 Mar.,1933
21 Sept.,193322 Dec.,1933
28 June,1934.. 

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND, NOVEMBER, 1934.

Speaker—Hon. Sir W. C. F. CARNCROSS, Kt. Chairman of Committees—Hon. J. A. HANAN. Clerk of the Legislative Council—C. M. BOTHAMLEY.

Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.
Alexander. Hon. John, C.M.G.Auckland22 June, 1934.
Allen, Colonel the Hon. Sir James, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.Otago1 June, 1934.
Anderson, Hon. George JamesWellington22 June, 1934.
Bell, Right Hon. Sir Henry Francis Dillon, P.C., G.C.M.G.. K.C.Wellington20 May, 1933.

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.
Bloodworth, Hon. ThomasAuckland22 June, 1934.
Buddo, Hon. DavidCanterbury11 June, 1930.
Burns, Hon. ArchibaldAuckland22 June, 1934.
Carncross, Hon. Sir Walter Charles Frederick, Kt.Taranaki17 March, 1931.
Carrington, Hon. Carey JohnAuckland17 June, 1933.
Davis, Hon. Eliot RypinskiAuckland22 June, 1934.
Fagan, Hon. MarkWellington11 June, 1930.
Hall-Jones, Hon. Sir William, K.C.M.G.Wellington6 October, 1934.
Hanan, Hon. Josiah AlfredOtago17 June, 1933.
Hayward, Hon. WilliamCanterbury22 June, 1934.
Isitt, Hon. Leonard MonkCanterbury22 June, 1934.
McCallum, Hon. RichardMarlborough11 June, 1930.
Macgregor, Hon. JohnOtago14 July, 1928.
McIntyre, Hon. William HendersonNelson3 September, 1928.
Mcleod, Hon. JamesTaranaki22 June, 1934.
Masters, Hon. RobertTaranaki11 June, 1930.
Moore, Hon. RichardCanterbury14 July, 1928.
O'Byrne, Hon. Thomas FrancisSouthland22 June, 1934.
Perry, Hon. WilliamWellington22 June, 1934.
Rhodes, Hon. Sir Robert Heaton, K.C.V.O., K.B.E.Canterbury22 June, 1934.
Russell, Hon. Harold ArthurHawke's Bay22 June, 1934.
Snodgrass, Hon. William Wallace, M.B.E.Nelson3 September, 1928.
Stevenson, Hon. WilliamOtago11 June, 1930.
Trevethick, Hon. JonathanAuckland11 June, 1930.
Waite, Hon. FredOtago22 June, 1934.
Ward, Hon. Vincent AubreyWellington22nd June, 1934.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, NOVEMBER, 1934.

Speaker—Hon. Sir C. E. STATHAM, Kt. Chairman of Committees—(Vacant). Clerk of the House—T. D. H. HALL, LL.B.

Name.Electoral District.
For European Electorates. 
Ansell, Alfred EdwardChalmers.
Armstrong, Hubert ThomasChristchurch East.
Atmore, HarryNelson.
Barnard, William EdwardNapier.
Bitchener, Hon. JohnWaitaki.
Bodkin, William AlexanderCentral Otago.
Broadfoot, Walter JamesWaitomo.
Burnett, Thomas DavidTemuka.
Campbell, Hugh McleanHawke's Bay.
Carr, Rev. Clyde LeonardTimaru.
Chapman, Charles HenryWellington North.
Clinkard, Cecil HenryRotorua.
Coates, Right. Hon. Joseph Gordon, P.C., M.C.Kaipara.
Cobbe, Hon. John GeorgeOroua.
Coleman, David WilliamGisborne.
Connolly, JeremiahMid - Canterbury.
de la Perrelle, Philip AldboroughAwarua.
Dickie, Harold GaltPatea.
Endean, William PhillipsParnell.
Field, William HughesOtaki.
Forbes, Right Hon. George William, P.C.Hurunui.
Fraser, PeterWellington Central.
Hamilton, Hon. AdamWallace.
Hargest, JamesInvercargill.
Harris, AlexanderWaitemata.
Hawke, Richard WilsonKaiapoi.
Healy, Edward FrancisWairau.
Holland, HenryChristchurch North.
Holyoake, Keith JackaMotueka.
Howard, Edwin JohnChristchurch South.
Jones, FrederickDunedin South.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Name.Electoral District.
For European Electorates 
Jordan, William JosephManukau.
Jull, Albert EdwardWaipawa.
Kyle, Herbert Seton StewartRiccarton.
Langstone, FrankWaimarino.
Lee, John AlexanderGrey Lynn.
Linklater, JosephManawatu.
Lye, FrederickWaikato.
McCombs, Mrs. Elizabeth ReidLyttelton.
McDougall, DavidMataura.
McKee, RobertWellington South.
Mcleod, Hon. Alexander DonaldWairarapa.
Macmillan, Hon. Charles Edward de la BarcaTauranga.
Macpherson, John AndrewOamaru.
Mcskimming, PeterClutha.
Mason, Henry Greathead RexAuckland Suburbs.
Massey, John NormanFranklin.
Massey, Walter WilliamHauraki.
Munro, James WrightDunedin North.
Murdoch, Alfred JamesMarsden.
Nash, James AlfredPalmerston.
Nash, WalterHutt.
O'Brien, JamesWestland.
Parry, William EdwardAuckland Central.
Polson, William JohnStratford.
Ransom, Hon. Ethelbert AlfredPahiatua.
Reid, Daniel StewartRaglan.
Richards, Arthur ShaptonRoskill.
Rushworth, Harold MontagueBay of Islands.
Samuel, Albert MoellerThames.
Savage, Michael JosephAuckland West.
Schramm, Frederick WilliamAuckland East.
Semple, RobertWellington East.
Smith, Sydney GeorgeNew Ply-mouth.
Stallworthy, Arthur JohnEden.
Statham, Hon. Sir Charles Ernest, Kt.Dunedin Central.
Stewart, Hon. William DownieDunedin West.
Stuart, AlexanderRangitikei.
Sullivan, Daniel GilesAvon.
Sykes, George RobertMasterton.
Veitch, William AndrewWanganui.
Webb, Patrick CharlesBuller.
Wilkinson, Charles AndersonEgmont.
Williams, Kenneth StewartBay of Plenty.
Wright, Robert AlexanderWellington Suburbs.
Young, Hon. James AlexanderHamilton.
For Maori Electorates. 
Henare, TauNorthern Maori.
Ngata, Hon. Sir Apirana Turupa, Kt.Eastern Maori.
Te Tomo, TaiteWestern Maori.
Tirikatene, Eruern TihemaSouthern Maori.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND NAMES OF PERMANENT HEADS, NOVEMBER, 1934.

Department.Permanent Head.
Title.Name.
AgricultureDirector-GeneralC. J. Reakes, C.B.E., M.R.C.V.S., D.V.Sc. Melb.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralG. F. C. Campbell, C.M.G.
Cook IslandsSecretaryS. J. Smith.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralH. H. Cornish, K.C., M.A., LL.M.
CustomsComptrollerG. Craig, C.M.G., LL.D.
DefenceCommandant, N.Z. Military ForcesMajor - General Sir W. L. H. Sinclair-Burgess, Kt., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., A.D.C.
 Under-SecretaryH. Turner.
EducationDirectorN. T. Lam bourne, M.A.
Department.Permanent Head.
Title.Name.
External AffairsSecretaryC. A. Berendsen, LL.M.
Friendly Societies and National ProvidentRegistrar and SuperintendentR. Witheford.
Government InsuranceCommissionerW. E. Arnold.
HealthDirector-GeneralM. H. Watt, M.D., D.P.H.
Industries and Commerce, Tourist and PublicitySecretary for Industries and Commerce, General Manager for Tourist and Health ResortsG. W. Clinkard, M.Com.
Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. W. Butcher.
Internal AffairsUnder-SecretaryM. Eraser. O.B.E.
  Dominion MuseumDirectorW. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc.
  Government Actuary'sGovernment ActuaryC. Gostelow, F.I.A. Lond.
Justice and PrisonsUnder-Secretary of Justice, Controller-General of Prisons, and Registrar-General, Births, Deaths, and MarriagesB. L. Dallard.
ElectoralChief Electoral OfficerG. G. Hodgkins.
LabourSecretary, and Commissioner of UnemploymentG. C. Godfrey.
Lands and Deeds and Stamp DutiesSecretary for Land and Deeds and Commissioner of Stamp DutiesJ. Murray.
Land and Income TaxCommissioner of TaxesC. E. J. Dowland.
Lands and SurveyUnder-Secretary and Land Purchase ControllerW. Robertson.
Law DraftingLaw DraftsmanJ. Christie, C.M.G., LL.M.
MarineSecretaryL. B. Campbell, A.M.I.C.E.
Mental HospitalsDirector-GeneralT. G. Gray, M.B., Bac. Surg.
MinesUnder-SecretaryA. Tyndall, A.M.I.C.E.
NativeUnder-SecretaryP. G. Pearce.
Native TrustNative Trustee 
NavalFirst Naval MemberRear-Admiral F. B urges Watson, D.S.O., R.N.
PensionsCommissionerJ. H. Boyes.
PoliceCommissionerW. G. Wohlmann, I.S.O.
Post and TelegraphDirector-GeneralG. Mcnamara, C.B.E.
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadF. D. Thomson, C.M.G., B.A.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterG. H. Loney.
Public Service SuperannuationSecretaryR. S. Wogan.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeE. O. Hales.
Public WorksUnder-Secretary and Engineer-in-ChiefC. J. Mckenzie, A.M.I.C.E.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerG. H. Mackley.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchSecretaryE. Marsden, D.Sc.
  Dominion LaboratoryDominion AnalystW.Donovan, M.Sc., F.I.C.
  Dominion ObservatoryDominion Astronomer and SeismologistC. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S., A.T.A. (Lond.).
  Geological SurveyDirectorJ. Henderson. M.A., D.Sc, B.E., A.O.S.M.
  MeteorologicalDirectorE. Kidson, M.A., D.Sc.
State AdvancesSuperintendentG. E. Miller.
State Fire and Accident InsuranceGeneral ManagerJ. H. Jerram.
State Forest ServiceDirectorA. D. Mcgavock.
TransportCommissionerJ. S. Hunter.
TreasurySecretaryA. D. Park, C.M.G.
ValuationValuer-GeneralW. Stewart.

By an Act passed during the year 1912, and intituled the Public Service Act, 1912, the Public Service of Now Zealand was placed under the direct and sole control of a Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners, who are appointed for a term of seven years, are responsible only to Parliament, and can be dismissed from office only for misbehaviour or incompetence.

The Act, which became operative on the 1st April, 1913, applies to all members of the Public Service with the exception of the Controller and Auditor-General, officers of the Railways Department, members of the Police and Defence Forces, Judges and Magistrates, officers of the House, certain officers of the Legislative Departments, and persons paid only by fees or commission, as well as any officer to whom the Governor-General in Council declares the Act shall not apply.

By the Post and Telegraph Department Act of 1918 the Post and Telegraph Department was exempted from the control of the Commissioner, with the exception that the Commissioner makes all appointments other than to positions carrying a salary of over £650 13s. per annum.

Public Service Commissioner: P. D. N. VERSCHAFFELT, C.M.G., LL.B.

Assistant Public Service Commissioner: B. L. DALLARD.

PUBLIC SERVANTS.

In Departments under the control of the Public Service Commissioner the number of permanent officers at 1st April, 1934, was 7,418, and the aggregate of annual salaries at that date was £1,983,661, inclusive of the 5 per cent, (i.e., 5 per cent. of reduced salaries) restoration of salary deductions which was granted by the Finance Act (No. 2), 1934. The number of temporary employees, other than workmen. &c., in these Departments at 1st April, 1933, was 1,783, of whom 697 were shorthand-typists or machinists.

Staffs of the Railways, Post and Telegraph, Police, and Defence (military personnel; civil personnel are included above) Departments will be found in appropriate sections elsewhere in this volume (as also the numbers of school-teachers). The number of workmen in the employ of the Public Works Department will be found in the section on Employment and Unemployment, and of miners. &c, in State coalmines in the Mining Section. While not exhaustive, the above covers substantially the whole of the employees of the State.

HIGH COMMISSIONER'S OFFICE, LONDON.

High Commissioner for New Zealand—Sir C. James Parr, K.C.M.G.

Secretary, and Loan and Stock Agent—F. T. Sandford.

Publicity and Exhibition Officer—H. T. B. Drew.

Stores, Indent, and Trade Officer—S. C. Manhire.

Finance Officer, Accountant, and Loan and Stock Agent—A. R. F. Mackay, M.Com.

Audit Officer—J. P. Rutherford.

Customs Department Representative—F. W. Lawrence.

Dairy Produce Officer—F. W. Taylor.

Liaison Officer, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research—N. L. Wright, F.I.C., D.I.C.

Offices—New Zealand Government Offices, 415 Strand, London, W.C. 2. Code address—Deputy, Rand, London.

OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES IN DOMINIONS AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

New Zealand Tourist and Trade Commissioner in the Commonwealth of Australia—L. J. Schmitt, Martin Place (G.P.O. Box 365F), Sydney; code address, Zealandia, Sydney. District Manager—New Zealand Government Offices, Collins House, 360 Collins Street (P.O. Box 2136), Melbourne; code address— Aotearoa, Melbourne.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Brisbane—Messrs. Dewar and Jones, King's Building, 79 Queen Street, Brisbane.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Adelaide—South Australian Intelligence and Tourist Bureau (P.O. Box 664G), Adelaide.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agents, Perth—Western Australian Government Tourist Bureau, 62 Barrack Street, Perth. Code address—Tourist.

Commissioner for New Zealand in Canada and United States—J. W. Collins, Canada Permanent Building, 320 Bay Street, Toronto, 2. Code address—Maoriland.

New Zealand Government Agent, Vancouver—W. A. James, 1017 Metropolitan Building, 837 Hastings Street West (P.O. Box 747), Vancouver. Code address—Wajames.

Official Representative of Customs Department in Canada and United States—W. J. Stevenson, 44 Whitehall Street, New York. Code address—Depcustoms.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent in India—New Zealand Insurance Co., Ltd., 26 Dalhousie Square West, Calcutta. Code address—Newzico.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Colomho—A. R. Hughes, Hong Kong Bank Buildings (P.O. Box 328), Colombo.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, North China—C. G. Davis, care of Messrs. Hatch, Carter, and Co., 131 Devonport Road, Tientsin. Code address— Court.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Shanghai—S. Hutchison. 381 Embankment Building, North Soochow Road, Shanghai, (P.O. Box 2113).

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Hong Kong—S. T. Williamson, care of Williamson and Co.. Ship-owners and Agents, P. and 0. Building (P.O. Box 615), Hong Kong. Code address—Williamson, Hong Kong.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Johannesburg—H. J. Constable (P.O. Box 1909), Johannesburg.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Durban—H. Middlebrook, 3 Natal Bank Buildings, West Street (P.O. Box 1822), Durban. Code address— Midstream.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agent, Honolulu—H. C. Tennent, First National Bank Building (P.O. Box 44), Honolulu.

Honorary New Zealand Government Agents, Fiji—Messrs. Brown and Joske, Suva. Code address—Joske, Suva.

Honorary New Zealand Representative, Marseilles—The Secretary, British Chamber of Commerce, 2 Rue Beauvau, Marseilles. Code address—Britcom.

TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF OVERSEAS COUNTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND.

United Kingdom.—H.M. Trade Commissioner: R. Boulter, C.M.G., T. and G. Buildings, Grey Street (P.O. Box 369), Wellington.

Australia.—Trade Commissioner: R. H. Nesbitt, D.I.C. Building, Wellington.

Canada.—Trade Commissioner: C. M. Croft, Yorkshire House, Shortland Street, Auckland.

FOREIGN CONSULS.

CONSULS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OK WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, NOVEMBER, 1934.

Argentine, Republic.—Vice-Consuls: F. S. Battley, Auckland; E. S. Baldwin, Wellington.

Belgium.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Armand Nihotte, Wellington. Consuls: A. M. Ferguson, Auckland; Sir J. .J. Kinsey, Christchurch. Vice-Consuls: Sir C. R. J. Ward, Bart., Christchurch; Sir R. A. Anderson, C.M.G., Invercargill.

Brazil.—Consul: George Robertson, Wellington. Vice-Consul: C. A. L. Treadwell, O.B.E., Wellington.

Chile.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: R. Dundus Smith, Sydney. Consuls: J. M. Wilson. Auckland; William Taylor, Dunedin.

China.—Consul: Chunhow H. Pao, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Yue H. Jackson. Wellington; Cheng Fu Pan, Western Samoa.

Czechoslovakia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Dr. R. Kuraz, Sydney. Honorary Consul: E. J. Hyams, Wellington.

FOREIGN CONSULS

Denmark.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Georg Lyngbye Host, Sydney. Consul for South Island: H. D. Acland, Christchurch. Honorary Consul: Stronach Paterson, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: S. P. Anderson, Auckland; W. Perry, Hokitika.

Ecuador.—Consul: William Birss, Auckland.

Finland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Harald Tanner, Sydney. Vice-Consuls (honorary): C. E. Tudehope, Auckland; Vaino Sarelius, Christchurch.

France.—Consul for New Zealand and Western Samoa: E. M. V. M. Joubert, Auckland. Consular Agents: G. E. F. Kingscote, Christchurch; O. R. Bendall, Wellington; S. E. D. Neill, Dunedin.

Germany.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies other than Western Samoa): Dr. Rudolf Asmis, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, also Western and American Samoa): W. Penseler, Wellington.

Greece.—Honorary Consul for New Zealand: J. F. Dyer, Wellington. Honorary Deputy Consul: G. T. Dawson.

Italy.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, and New Guinea: Commendatore Nob. A. Grossardi, Melbourne. Consul: Signor Giovanni Formichella, Wellington. Consular Agents: P. P. J. Amodeo (Acting), Christchurch; .J. A. Roberts, Dunedin: M. .J. Sheahan, Auckland (temporarily in charge).

Japan.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, excluding Western Samoa). Kuramatsu Murai, Sydney. Honorary Consul; N. S. Falla, C.M.G., D.S.O., Wellington.

Latvia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): C. Zarine, London. Honorary Consul: N. E. Heath, Auckland.

Mexico.—Honorary Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Senor Carlos Zalapa, Sydney.

Netherlands.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: P. Staal, Sydney. Honorary Consul: C. H. Weston, K.C., Wellington; Honorary Vice-Consuls: George Ritchie, Dunedin; H. H. F. Bauer, Auckland; N. Francis, C.M.G., Christchurch.

Norway.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: H. H. T. Fay, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over Western Samoa also): A. W. Newton, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Robert Millar, Auckland; V. E. Hamilton, Christchurch (honorary); M. E. Wiig, Invercargill; J. H. Enright, W. F. Edmond, Dunedin (honorary).

Panama.—Honorary Consul: Quiros y Quiros, Auckland.

Peru.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: J. M. Paxton, Sydney. Consul: G. H. Baker, Auckland.

Poland.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Western Samoa): Dr. Karol Poznanski, London. Honorary Consul, W. Noskowski, Sydney.

Portugal.—Consul: David L. Nathan, Auckland. Honorary Vice-Consul: Alfred Nathan, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: A. D. S. Duncan, Wellington; C. W. Rattray, Dunedin.

Spain.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand and Dependencies, excluding Western Samoa): Senor Don Mariano Amoedo y Galarmendi, Sydney. Honorary Vice-Consul: A. K. S. Mackenzie, Wellington.

Sweden.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: C. O. D. von Dardel, Sydney. Consul: J. T. Martin, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: J. T. F. Mitchell, Auckland; W. Machin, Christchurch; J. S. Ross, C.M.G., Dunedin.

Switzerland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): M. Stahel, Sydney, Gérant of the Consulate: Dr. Albert Blau, Auckland.

United States of America.—Consul-General: Geo. A. Bucklin, Wellington. Consul: W. F. Boyle, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: L. A. Bachelder (honorary), Auckland; L. W. Johnson, Walter W. Hoffmann, Walter W. Orebaugk, Wellington; Q. F. Roberts, Apia (in charge). Consular Agents: H. P. Bridge, Christchurch; H. Reeves, Dunedin.

Yugoslavia.—Honorary Consul: John Totich, Dargaville.

Appendix A. APPENDICES.

(a) PRINCIPAL EVENTS.

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

1642.  Discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769.  Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1788.  Discovery of Macaulay and Curtis Islands (Kermadec Group), and of Bounty Islands.

1791.  Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792.  First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1793.  Discovery of Raoul or Sunday Island (Kermadec Group). Visit of Lieutenant-Governor King, of Norfolk Island, to Doubtless Bay.

1800.  Discovery of Antipodes Islands.

1806.  Discovery of Auckland Islands.

1807.  Defeat of Hongi and the Ngapuhi Tribe.

1810.  Discovery of Campbell Island.

1814.  Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1818.  Hongi's and Te Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.

1819–20. Raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson by Patuone, Nene, and To Rauparaha.

1820.  Hongi's visit to England. Rev. S. Marsden travelled from Waitemata, via Kaipara, to Bay of Islands—the first white man to do so. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.

1821.  Hongi's capture of Mauinaina and Te Totara Pas. Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki.

1822.  Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.

1823.  Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, to Hongi.

1823–28. Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1824.  Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa to Pomare.

1825.  First attempt at colonization, by an expedition under Captain Herd. Great defeat of Ngati-Whatau by Hongi.

1827.  Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1828.  Death of Hongi.

1829.  Brig “Hawes” captured by Maoris.

1830.  Battles of Taumata-wiwi and Kororareka. Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury, to Te Rauparaha.

1831.  Tory Channel whaling-station established. Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William IV. Capture of Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, by Waikato.

1832.  Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa.

1833.  Mr. Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834.  Bishop Williams' first visit to East Cape. Battle near Otaki. Waimate Pa shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which H.M. troops employed in New Zealand.

1835.  Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand.” Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1836.  Battles between Waikato and Te Arawa.

1838.  Pelorus Sound discovered. Arrival of Roman Catholic mission under Bishop Pornpallier.

1839.  Governor of New South Wales authorized to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of Now Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840.  Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841.  Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842.  Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843.  Affray with Natives at the Wairau, and massacre of persons who had surrendered.

1844.  Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845.  Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846.  Arrival of first steam vessel (H.M.S. “Driver”) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Native hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. Now Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847.  Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848.  Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Severe earthquake at Wellington. Otago founded.

1850.  Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852.  Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing county into six provinces.

1854.  Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855.  First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856.  Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857.  Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858.  New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.

1859.  Establishment of Marlborough Province.

1860.  Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861.  Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862.  Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. “White Swan,” with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863.  Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus” on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Contre.’ of Native affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand opened.

1864.  Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including Battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. Gold discovered on west coast of South Island.

1865.  Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Natives defeated at Wairoa.

1866.  Further defeats of rebel Natives. Commencement of Panama steam mail-service. Cook Strait submarine telegraph-cable laid.

1867.  Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct, representatives of Maori people.

1868.  Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner “Rifleman” and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans and were engaged in a series of fights with European forces and friendly Natives. Considerable fighting also with other rebel Natives.

1869.  Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit after Te Kooti. Termination of Panama mail-service. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870.  Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail-service. Bounty Island taken possession of. Inauguration of Vogel public-works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.

1871.  Commencement of railway-construction under public-works policy.

1872.  Resumption of friendly relations With Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873.  Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Company.

1874.  In pursuance of immigration and public-works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants introduced. Westland Province established.

1875.  Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

1876.  New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877.  Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education.

1879.  Trouble with Parihaka Natives, under Te Whiti, and imprisonment of 180 of these. Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata Coal-mine explosion, whereby thirty-four lives lost.

1880.  Release of Parihaka prisoners.

1881.  Wreck of s.s. “Tararua,” with loss of 130 lives. Severe earthquakes in Wellington. Arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu.

1882.  First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883.  Amnesty to Maori political offenders proclaimed. Te Whiti and Tohu released. Direct steam communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885.  New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886.  Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887.  Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris. Australian Naval Defence Act passed, providing for additional naval force on the Australian Station.

1888.  British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889.  South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890.  Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891.  Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr. Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.

1892.  Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure.

1893.  Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894.  Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa,” with loss of 135 lives. First ascent of Mount Cook.

1895.  Government assumed management of Midland Railway.

1896.  Brunner Mine explosion, causing sixty-seven deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898.  Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899.  Labour Day instituted. New Zealand Contingent (the first of ten) sent to South Africa.

1900.  Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to seventy-six.

1901.  T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Universal penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902.  Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. “Elingamite” with loss of forty-three lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London, at which New Zealand was represented by Right Hon. R. J. Seddon.

1903.  Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1904.  New Zealand rifle team competed at Bisley, and won Kolapore Cup.

1905.  Workers Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner.” “All Black” Rugby football team visited United Kingdom.

1906.  Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Government Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christ- church.

1907.  New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908.  Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu Railway purchased by Government. American Fleet visited Auckland. New Zealand's subsidy to British Navy increased to £100,000 per annum. Second Ballot Act passed.

1909.  S.s. “Penguin” wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of seventy-five lives. Battle-cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910.  Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener's visit to New Zealand to report and advise on defences. Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911.  Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912.  Foundation-stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913.  Visit of Dominions Royal Commission. Visit of gift ship H.M.S. “New Zealand” to Dominion. Aeroplane presented to New Zealand as nucleus of proposed air fleet. Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.

1914.  Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal-mine disaster, whereby forty-three lives lost.

1915.  New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled.

1916.  New Zealand Division transferred to western front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918.  S.s. “Wimmera” sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast. Otira Tunnel pierced. Great influenza epidemic, causing over five thousand deaths.

1919.  Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister.

1920.  Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921.  Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington, by Hon. Sir John Salmond.

1922.  Meat export trade placed under control of a Board.

1923.  Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General of New Zealand. Reintroduction of penny postage. Dairy-produce Export Control Act passed, and adopted by dairy producers.

1924.  “All Black” Rugby football team visited Great Britain and Ireland. Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected between New Zealand and England. Motor-vehicles Act passed, providing for registration and annual licensing of motor-vehicles. Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act passed.

1925.  Social Hygiene Regulations made, to provide means of coping with spread of venereal disease. Repayment of the Public Debt Act passed. New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin.

1926.  Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand. Webster claims against New Zealand finally rejected. Absolute control adopted by Dairy-produce Control Board. Family Allowances Act passed.

1927.  Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. New Zealand cricket team toured England. Summer Time Act passed. Limited control substituted for absolute control by Dairy-produce Control Board. Petrol-tax imposed.

1928.  Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman. “All Black” Rugby football team visited South Africa. Compulsory insurance of motor-vehicles provided for by Motor-vehicles Insurance (Third-party Risks) Act. Coates Ministry defeated and succeeded by United Ministry.

1929.  Severe earthquakes at Arthur's Pass (March), in Rangitikei (May), and in Murchison-Karamea district (June), the last mentioned causing seventeen deaths. Daylight saving (half-hour) permanently adopted for summer months. Visit of English cricket team. Fatal clash between police and Man at Apia.

1930.  Resignation of Sir Joseph Ward and formation of Forbes Ministry. Visit of British Rugby football team. Unemployment Art passed and unemployment levy instituted.

1931.  First solo trans-Tasman flight. Worst earthquake in history of Now Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of at least 255 lives. New Zealand cricket team visits England. Special session of Parliament. Quinquennial population census and triennial licensing poll postponed. General reduction of 10 per cent, in wages and salaries. Railways transferred to control of Board. Unemployment reaches unprecedented levels, and legislation imposes a tax on wages, salary, and other income to augment Unemployment Fund. Resolution by Parliament approving draft Statute of Westminster. Penny postage discontinued. Coalition Government formed. Graduated land-tax replaced by income-tax. Mortgagors Relief Act and amendment thereto passed. M.V. Kotiti foundered with loss of 7 lives. Arrival of Wellington floating-dock.

1932.  Principal broadcasting stations taken over by New Zealand Broadcasting Board. System of export-licenses operates for first six months of year. National Expenditure Commission appointed. Special session of Parliament. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act makes important changes in industrial legislation. Mortgagors and Tenants Relief Act extends principles of relief. National Expenditure Adjustment Act makes reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rent, interest rates, and other fixed charges. Arapuni electric-power works resume functioning. The historic Waitangi estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. Canadian Trade Agreement ratified. Penny postage reinstated. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference. Surtax abolished on goods of United Kingdom or British Crown colonies, &c. Severe earthquakes at Wairoa and Gisborne. Stratford-Main Trunk railway opened.

1933.  Wheat-purchase Board created, 7th January, to regulate prices and control disposal of wheat, including the exportable surplus. Exchange raised, 20th January, at instance of Government to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraph transfers); and Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act passed, 1st March, providing for Government purchase of surplus exchange. Sales-tax of 5 per cent, on wholesale sales instituted from 9th February. An export duty (additional) of 12s. 6d. per ounce placed on uncoined gold exported from 9th February. New Zealand Debt Conversion Act passed, 4th March, reducing interest on internal public debt; a complementary Local Authorities Interest Reduction and Loans Conversion Act passed 9th March. Land and Income Tax Amendment Act of 9th March reduces maximum of general exemption from £260 to £210, but allows £50 exemption for a dependent wife. Finance Act of 10th March authorizes issue of distinctive silver and bronze coinage for New Zealand; a representative Coinage Committee reports, 1st July, against adoption of metric system; Coinage Act passed 27th November. Small Farms Board constituted, 10th March, to aid in relief of unemployment. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England. Dairy Produce Board takes over marketing of all whey and secondary butters graded on or after 1st May. Australian trade delegation arrives, 20th March; a tariff agreement. Australia - New Zealand, is signed 7th April. and becomes operative from 1st December. Customs Tariff Commission appointed, 9th May. New Zealand delegates leave, 12th May, for the World Monetary and Economic Conference convened at London by League of Nations. Serious outbreak of swine fever in May in Wellington District. Government purchases three “B” radio-stations, September-October. First woman (Mrs. E. R. McCombs) elected to Parliament. Lyttelton by-election, 13th September. Representative of National Farmers' Union of England and Wales arrives, 21st September, to discuss with New Zealand farmers the English quota proposals. A conversion loan of £5,000,000 underwritten on 5th October in London. Mr. H. E. Holland. Leader of Opposition, died. 8th October. Buller by-election, 22nd November. Reserve Hank of New Zealand Act, constituting a central reserve bank, passed 27th November. First New Zealand silver coins in circulation, November. Period of summer time (daylight-saving) extended.

1934.  Commission appointed, 17th January, to inquire into company-promotion methods, &c. Wool-sales record best prices since 1929–30. Wooden-match industry established. Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire into monetary system. Festival at Waitangi to celebrate Treaty anniversary commences 5th February. First official trans-Tasman Sea air-mail, 17th February. Commission appointed, 28th February, to inquire into Native Affairs. Violent earthquake on 5th March does considerable damage in Wellington Provincial District, and causes two deaths from shock. Poultry hoard appointed, 26th March. Transport Co-ordination Board appointed, 31st March/ Reserve Bank incorporated from 1st April: commences business, 1st August. Partial restoration (5 per cent, of reduced rates) of cuts operates from 1st April: affects public servants and old-age and South-African-War pensioners. New telegraph rates on sliding scale according to distance, effective from 3rd April. Commission appointed, 27th April, to inquire into dairy industry. Meat-export Restriction Order restricts export of frozen be 1 or veal from 12th July. Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act repealed as from 1st August. Dairy Board marketing regulations, effective from 1st August, place under control all butter and cheese exported to United Kingdom. Storm of cyclonic nature causes widespread damage in Wairarapa, 1st October. Consequent upon report of Dairy Industry Commission, the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act passed 13th November, providing drastic powers for control of dairying industry. Opening of Waitaki hydro-electric works, 27th October.

(b) STATISTICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The current publications of the Census and Statistics Office are listed at the beginning of this volume (facing pago 1). In addition, the following are issued in the New Zealand Gazette:—

  • Population of New Zealand and of North and South Islands (Quarterly).

  • Estimated Yields of Wheat, Oats, and Barley (Annual).

  • Estimated Spring Areas under Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Potatoes (Annual).

  • Stocks of Wheat, Oats, and Flour (Annual).

There are also occasional publications of the Census and Statistics Office (none of which are of recent date), while certain others formerly published regularly have now been discontinued.

Much statistical information, often of a detailed nature, is contained in the various departmental reports presented to Parliament. These are published separately, while collectively they comprise the annual Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives. Those more important from a statistical point of view are listed below:—

Subject.Number.Report.
Title.
Meteorology, seismology, geological survey, &c.H.−34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
PopulationD.−9Report of Department of Immigration.
Public health, hospitals, &c.H.−31Report on Public Health, Hospitals, and Charitable Aid.
 H.−7Report on Mental Hospitals.
EducationE.−lReport of Minister of Education.
 E.−2Report on Primary and Post-primary Education.
 E.−3Report on Education of Native Children.
 E.−4Report on Child Welfare, State Care of Children, Special Schools, and Infant-life Protection.
 E.−7Report on Higher Education.
JusticeH.−16Report on Police Force.
 H.−20Prisons Report.
 H.−20AReport of Prisons Board.
 H.−20BReport on Offenders' Probation.
DefenceH.−19Report of General Officer Commanding.
 H.−5Report on New Zealand Naval Forces.
External TradeH.−44Report of Department of Industries and Commerce.
ShippingH.−15Report of Marine Department.
RailwaysD.−2Railways Statement.
 D.−lPublic Works Statement.
Roads and TransportD.−lPublic Works Statement.
 H.−40Report of Transport Department.
Postal and telegraphicF.−lReport of Post and Telegraph Department.
 F−3Report of Broadcasting Board.
LandsH.−3Report of Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Department.
Crown landsC.−lReport on Settlement of Crown Lands.
 C.−5Report on Land for Settlements Act.
 C.−9Report on Discharged Soldiers' Settlement.
 C.−l4Report on National Endowments.
Native landsG.−9Report on Native Land Courts, Maori Land Boards, and Native Land Purchase Board.
 G.−3, 4Accounts of East Coast, Native Trust Lands.
SurveysC.−lAReport on Surveys.
Agricultural and pastoralH.−29Report of Department of Agriculture.
productionH.−23Annual Sheep Returns.
 H.−34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
ForestryC.−3Report of State Forest Service.
FisheriesH.−15Report of Marine Department.
 H.−22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
MiningC.−2Mines Statement.
 C−2aReport on State Coal-mines.
 C.−12Report on Kauri-gum Industry.
 H.−34Report of Scientific and Industrial Research Department.
Factory productionH.−14Report of Department of Industries and Commerce.
Public financeB.−l*Public Accounts.
 B.−2Report and Accounts of Public Debt Commission.
 B.−6Financial Statement (Budget).
Public finance—continued.B.−7Appropriations chargeable on Consolidated Fund and other Accounts.
 B.−7AAppropriations chargeable on Public Works Fund.
 D.—1Public Works Statement.
State advancesB.−13Report of State Advances Office.
 B.−14Report of Rural Intermediate Credit Board.
PensionsH.−18Report of Pensions Department.
SuperannuationH.−26Report of Public Service Superannuation Board.
 E.−8Report on Teachers' Superannuation Fund.
 D.−5Report on Government Railways Superannuation Fund.
National Provident Fund.H.−17Report of National Provident Fund Board.
Local bodiesH.−22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
BankingB.−15Balance-sheet of Bank of New Zealand.
 F.−lReport of Post and Telegraph Department.
 F.−4Report on Post-Office Savings-bank.
InsuranceH.−8Report of Government Insurance Commissioner.
 H.−66aReport of State Fire Insurance Office.
 H.−12Report on Fire Brigades.
Friendly societies..H.−lReport of Registrar of Friendly Societies.
Trade-unionsH.−llReport of Labour Department.
UnemploymentH.−35Report of Unemployment Board.
Industrial disputesH.−llReport of Labour Department.
Industrial accidentsH.−11Report of Labour Department.
 D.−2Railways Statement.
 C.−2Mines Statement.
Electric-powerD.−IPublic Works Statement.
Public Trust OfficeB.−9,9AReport and Accounts of the Public Trust Office.
Patents, designs, and trademarksH.−IOReport of Commissioner.
Inspection of machineryH.−15Report of Marine Department.
DependenciesA.−3Report on Cook and other Islands.
 A.−4Report on Western Samoa.
 A.−6Report on Niue.
Public ServiceH.−14Report of Public Service Commissioner.

The foregoing list relates, as stated, to annual reports. Special reports on subjects of general interest which have been presented to Parliament during 1933 and 1934 include the following:—

1933.

A.−6 .. Statement on the (World) Monetary and Economic Conference. London, 1933.

G.−10 .. Statement on Native Land Development.

G.−11 .. Report of Committee on Rating of Native Land.

H.−34−A .. Statement on Wool-improvement in the Dominion.

H.−3-in .. Statement on Production of Oil in New Zealand.

1934.

B.−6 .. Report of the Monetary Committee.

(NOTE.—A separate appendix contains evidence heard by, and statements presented to, the Committee.)

G.−ll .. Report of Native Affairs Commission.

H.−25, 25A,.. Interim and Final Reports of Commission of Inquiry into Company and 2ois Promotion Methods. &c.

H.−28 .. Report of Tariff Commission.

H.−28A .. Statement on Customs Tariff.

H.−30 .. Report of Dairy Industry Commission.

H.−44A .. Report of Committee of Inquiry into Motion-picture Industry.

The above list of officially presented statistics is, of course, far from exhaustive, while a very largo body of statistical data receives publication through non-official or semi-official channels. A complete annual statistical bibliography is not at present practicable.

(c) GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following list, by Mr. Johannes C. Andersen, F.R.S.N.Z. (Librarian of the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington), contains the names of some of the principal works dealing with New Zealand, Samoa, and the Cook Islands.

Considerations of space preclude the inclusion of a complete list and make it necessary in this issue to omit works which have not been published or republished since 1912. Earlier works are listed in the 1932 number of the Year-Book.

New Zealand.

1912.  The Geology of New Zealand. By P. Marshall, D.Sc, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Wellington—Government Printer.

1913.  New Zealand: its History, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. By S. Playne. London.

1913.  Social Welfare in New Zealand. By H. H. Lusk. London.

1913.  The Lore of the Whare Wananga. Third Volume of Memoirs of Polynesian Society. On Maori Religion, Myths, Cosmogony, &c. (Part 2, 1915.)

1914.  The Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand. By J. Hight, Litt.D., and H. D. Bamford, LL.D. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1914.  Oxford Survey of the British Empire. Vol. 5. Australasian Territories. London.

1914.  Early Rangitikei. By Sir Jame3 G. Wilson, Kt. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1914.  Mutton Birds and Other Birds. By H. Guthrie-Smith. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1916.  Jubilee History of South Canterbury. By Johannes C. Andersen. Christchurch— Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1916.  The “Socialism” of New Zealand. By R. H. Hutchinson. New York—New Review Publishing Association.

1917.  A National History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Adjacent Islands. By R. P. Thomson. London.

1917.  A Dictionary of the Maori Language. By Herbert L. Williams. Wellington- Government Printer.

1921.  Maori and Pakeha: a History of New Zealand. By A. W. Shrimpton, M.A., and A. E. Mulgan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd. (second edition, 1930).

1921.  Hawaiki: the Whence of the Maori. By S. Percy Smith. Christchurch— Whitcombe and Tombs. (Ed. 1, 1898; ed. 2, 1904; ed. 3, 1910.)

1921.  The Hot Springs of Now Zealand. By Arthur Stanley Herbert, M.D. London— H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd.

1921.  Tutira: the Story of a New Zealand Sheep-station. By H. Guthrie-Smith. London—Blackwood and Sons.

1922.  The Naturalization of Animals and Plants in New Zealand. By Hon. George M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst., M.L.C. Cambridge University Press.

1922.  The Geomorphology of New Zealand. By C. A. Cotton, D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Wellington—Government Printer.

1922.  Maori Myth and Religion. Spiritual and Mental Concepts of the Maori. Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori. Maori Division of Time. By Elsdon Best, F.N.Z.Inst. Dominion Museum Monographs 1–4. Wellington—Government Printer.

1922.  The New Zealand Wars: a History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol. 1, 1845–64. By James Cowan. Wellington—Government Printer. Vol. 2, 1864–72, issued 1923.

1922.  Medical Practice in Otago and Southland in the Early Days. By Robert Valpy Fulton, M.D. Edin. Dunedin— Otago Daily Times.

1922.  Phormium tenax. By E. H. Atkinson. Wellington—Government Printer.

1923.  The Waikato War, together with some Account of Te Kooti Rikirangi. By John Featon (new edition revised by Captain Mair). Auckland—Brett Printing and Publishing Co.

1923.  The Animals of New Zealand. Fourth edition. By Captain F. W. Hutton and James Drummond. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs. (Ed. 1, 1904; ed. 2,1905; ed. 3, 1909.)

1923.  Polynesian Voyagers. Maori Schools of Learning. (Dominion Museum Bulletins Nos. 5 and 6.) By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Printer.

1923.  Cultivation of New Zealand Plants. By L. Cockayne. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1924.  Dominion Civics. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1924.  The Maori. By Elsdon Best. Published by the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. 2 vols. Wellington—H. Tombs.

1924.  Maori Religion and Mythology. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 10.) By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Printer.

1924.  The Long White Cloud (Aotearoa). By W. P. Reeves. Third edition (to which is added a sketch of recent events in New Zealand by C. J. Wray). London— Allen and Umvin. (First edition in 1898.)

1924.  White Wings (on early shipping). By H. Brett. (Vol. 2, 1928.) Auckland- Brett Co.

1925.  The Maori as He Was. By Elsdon Best. Wellington—Government Prirter.

1925.  Bird Life on Island and Shore. By H. Guthrie - Smith. Edinburgh—Wm. Blackwood and Sons.

1925.  Bibliography of Australasian Poetry and Verse. By P. Serle. Melbourne University Press.

1925.  Fungous Diseases of Fruit-trees in New Zealand. By G. H. Cunningham. Auckland—New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation.

1925.  The Maori Canoe. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 7.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Government Printer.

1925.  Games and Pastimes of the Maori. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 8.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925.  Maori Agriculture. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 9.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925.  Land Legislation and Settlement in New Zealand. By W. R. Jourdain. Wellington—Lands and Survey Department.

1925.  Manual of New Zealand Flora. Second edition. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Edited by W. R. B. Oliver. Wellington—Government Printer. (First edition, 1906.)

1925.  New Zealand Birds and how to Identify Them. By Mrs. P. Moncrieff. Auckland —Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1925.  Short History of New Zealand. By J. B. Condliffe. Christchurch—L. M. Isitt.

1926.  Geography of the Pacific. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington—New Zealand Book Depot.

1926.  History of the Pacific. By Miss N. E. Coad. Wellington—New Zealand Book Depot.

1926.  New Zealand: its Political Connection with Great Britain. Vol. 1. By J. I. Hetherington. Vol. 2, 1927. Dunedin—Coulls, Somerville, Wilkie, Ltd.

1926.  Treasury of New Zealand Verse: New Edition of New Zealand Verse. By W. F-Alexander and A. E. Currie. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926.  New Zealand's First War. By T. Lindsay Buick. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Government Printer.

1926.  Bird-song and New Zealand Song-birds. By J. C. Andersen. Christchurch— Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926.  Travel in New Zealand. 2 vols. By James Cowan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1926.  The Insects of Australia and New Zealand. By R. J. Tillyard. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1926.  Tales of the Angler's Eldorado, New Zealand. By Zane Grey. London—Hodder and Stoughton.

1926.  England and New Zealand. By J. A. Harrop. London—Methuen and Co., Ltd.

1927.  The Pa Maori. (Dominion Museum Bulletin No. 6.) By Elsdon Best. Published under the direction of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1927.  Plants of New Zealand. By R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd. (First ed., 1906; second ed., 1907.)

1927.  Colonization of New Zealand. By J. S. Marais. London—Oxford University Press.

1927.  New Zealand. By W. P. Reeves. Illustrations by F. and W. Wright. Second edition, with thirty-two illustrations. London—A. and C. Black. (First edition, 1908.)

1927.  Place Names of Banks Peninsula. By J. C. Andersen. Published by the Board of Science and Art. Wellington—Government Printer.

1927.  Maori String Figures. By J. C. Andersen. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research, Vol. 2. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn.

1927.  The Evolution of Maori Clothing. By P. H. Buck. The Board of Maori Ethnological Research. New Plymouth—Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1927.  Peoples and Problems of the Pacific. By J. Macmillan Brown. London— T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd., Bouverie House, Fleet Street, E.C.

1927.  Earliest New Zealand. The Journals and Correspondence of the Rev. John Butler. Compiled by R. J. Barton. Masterton—Palamontain and Petherick.

1927.  Rod-fishing in New Zealand Waters. By T. E. Bonne, C.M.G. With illustrations and map. London—Seeley, Service, and Co., Ltd.

1927.  Natural History of Canterbury. Issued by the Philosophical Institute of Canter- bury (R. Speight, Arnold Wall, and R. M. Laing, Honorary Editors). Christchurch—Simpson and Williams, Ltd.

1927.  New Zealand Plants and their Story. Third edition. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S. Wellington—Government Printer. (First ed., 1910; seconded., 1913.)

1927.  Trees from Other Lands for Shelter and Timber in New Zealand— Eucalypts. By J. H. Simmonds. Illustrated with seventy-six botanic plates and twenty- eight scenic plates. Auckland—The Brett Printing and Publishing Company.

1928.  The Vegetation of New Zealand. Second edition. By Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Leipzig—W. Engelmann. (First ed., 1921.)

1928.  Cheerful Yesterdays. By the Hon. O. T. J. Alpers. With a Preface by the Ear] of Birkenhead, P.C. London—John Murray.

1928.  New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. By H. H. Allan, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1928.  A Pioneer Missionary among the Maoris, 1850–1879. Being Letters and Journals of Thomas Samuel Grace. Edited jointly by S. J. Brittan, G. F., C. W., and A. V. Grace. Palmerston North—G. H. Bennett and Co., Ltd.

1928.  The Amazing Career of Edward Gibbon Wakefield. By A. J. Harrop, M.A. (N.Z.), Ph.D. (Canterbury). With extracts from “A Letter from Sydney” (1829). London—George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.

1928.  Maori Artistry. By W. Page Rowe. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 3. New Plymouth—Thomas Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1928.  The Changing Maori. By Felix M. Keesing, M.A. Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Vol. 4. New Plymouth—Thomas Avery and Sons, Ltd.

1928.  Captain Hobson and the New Zealand Company: A Study in Colonial Administration. By J. C. Beaglehole, M.A. Vol. 13, Nos. 1–3, October, 1927 - April, ' 1928, Smith College Studies in History, Northampton, Mass.—Department of History of Smith College.

1928.  Myths and Legends of the Polynesians. By J. C. Andersen. London—Harrap and Co., Ltd.

1928.  The French at Akaroa. By T. Lindsay Buick, F.R.Hist.S. Wellington—Government Printer.

1928.  Pioneering in Poverty Bay (N.Z.). By Philip T. Kenway. London—John Murray.

1928.  The Butterflies and Moths of New Zealand. With fifty-two coloured plates. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn, Ltd.

1928.  Pulping and Paper-making Properties of Selected New Zealand Woods. By C. E. Curran and others. Wellington—Government Printer.

1929.  Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori. By Raymond Firth, M.A. (New Zealand), Ph.D. (London). London—George Routledge and Song, Ltd.

1929.  Young New Zealand. By A. G. Butchers, M.A., M.Ed. (Melb.), LL.B. (N.Z.)— Part 2, Education in New Zealand, 1930.

1929.  Early Wellington. Compiled by Louis E. Ward. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1929.  Te Hekenga. Early Days in Horowhenua. Being the Reminiscences of Mr. Rod McDonald. Compiled and written by E. O Donnoll. Palmerston North— G. H. Bennett and Co., Ltd.

1929.  Edward Gibbon Wakefield. By Irma O'Connor. London—Selwyn and Blount.

1929.  The New Zealand Nature Book. By W. Martin, B.Sc., F.R.G.S. Vol. 1, The Fauna; Vol. 2, The Flora. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1929.  The Pioneer Explorers of New Zealand. By John Rawson Elder, M.A., D.Litt. (Abdn.). London and Glasgow—Blackie and Son, Ltd.

1929.  A Great Colonizer: the Rev. Dr. Thomas Burns. By E. N. Merrington. Dunedin—The Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Co., Ltd.

1929.  Kohikohinga. Reminiscences and Reflections of “Ropata.” By Vernon Roberts. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1930.  New Zealand Birds. By W. R. B. Oliver, M.Sc, F.N.Z.Inst., C.F.A.O.U., R.A.O.U. Wellington—Fine Arts (N.Z.), Ltd.

1930.  Pictures of Old Now Zealand: the Partridge Collection of Maori Paintings by Gottfried Lindauer. Described by James Cowan. Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1930.  New Zealand in the Making. By Professor J. B. Condliffe, D.Sc. London— Allen and Unwin.

1930.  Yesterdays in Maoriland: New Zealand in the Eighties. By Andreas Reischek. Translated and edited by H. E. L. Priday. London—Jonathan Cape. (A German edition published in 1924.)

1930.  Legends of the Maori. By Sir Maui Pomare, K.B.E., C.M.G., M.D., M.P., and James Cowan. Wellington—Fine Arts (N.Z.), Ltd. Vol. 2, London— H. R. Tombs, 1934.

1930.  The Maori Yesterday and To-day. By James Cowan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1930.  Old New Zealand. By F. Maning (Pakeha Maori). Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs. (Earlier editions: 1863, Auckland—Creighton and Scales; also London—Smith, Elder, and Co.; 1876, 1884, 1887, London—Bentley and Co.; 1900, London—Macmillan; 1906, 1912, 1922, Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs.)

1930.  Early Days in Central Otago. By Robert Gilkison. Dunedin—Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Co., Ltd.

1930.  Tales of the Maori Coast. By James Cowan. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons.

1931.  The Mystery of the Moa. By T. Lindsay Buiok. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons.

1931.  Maori and Education. By Patrick M. Jackson. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn. (A collection of essays by various New Zealand writers, including Elsdon Best, Bishop Williams, Professor Sutherland, and others).

1931.  Industrial Situation in New Zealand. By Fortesoue W. Rowley, I.S.O. Welling- ton—H. H. Tombs.

1931.  Songs from the Forests of Tane. By T. Chamberlin Chamberlin. Wellington— Fine Arts Co. (First ed., 1912.)

1931.  Illustrated and Priced Catalogue of the Stamps of New Zealand. By Verne, Collins and Co. Christchurch—Simpson and Williams.

1931.  Pictures of Old New Zealand. By James Cowan. Auckland—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1931.  New Zealand Ferns. By H. B. Dobbie. Wellington—Third ed., Whitcombe and Tombs. (First ed., 1880; second ed., 1921.)

1931.  Old Coaching Days in Otago and Southland. By E. M. Lovell-Smith. Christ- church—Lovell-Smith and Venner,

1931.  Mining Laws of the British Empire, Vol. 10, New Zealand. London—Imperial Institute.

1931.  The New Zealanders in England. By 0. S. Hinz. London, Dent.

1932.  Pasture Plants and Pastures of New Zealand. By F. W. Hilgendorf. Christ-church—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1932.  Legends and Mysteries of the Maori. By Chas. A. Wilson. London—Harrap.

1932.  Pioneering Days of Southern Maoriland. By M. A. Rugby Pratt. London— J. A. Sharp.

1932.  Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden. By J. R. Elder. Dunedin—Coulls Somerville, and Co.

1932.  Samuel Marsden. By S. M. Johnstone. Sydney—Angus and Robertson.

1932.  Who's Who in New Zealand. By G. H. Scholefield. Ed. 3. First ed., 1908; second ed., 1924.) Wellington—Rangatira Press.

1933.  Cambridge History of the British Empire, Vol. 7, Part 2, New Zealand. Cambridge University Press.

1933.  The Treaty of Waitangi. By T. Lindsay Buick, C.M.G. Second ed. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons. (First ed., 1914.)

1933.  Report of the Hawke's Bay Earthquake. Published by the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Bulletin No. 43. Wellington— Government Printer.

1933.  Pages from the Past. By C. A. Macdonald. Blenheim—H. Duckworth (E. N. Penny and Co.).

1933.  Pioneer Medical Men of Taranaki, 1834–1880. By W. H. Skinner and H. B. Leatham. New Plymouth—Thos. Avery and Sons.

1933.  The New Zealand Dairy Industry. By G. A. Duncan. Palmerston North—H. L. Young.

1934.  New Zealand from Tasman to Massey. By N. E. Coad. Wellington—H. H. Tombs.

1934.  Samuel Marsden and his Lieutenants. By J. R. Elder. Dunedin—A. H. Reed.

1934.  Beetles of New Zealand. By G. V. Hudson. Wellington—Ferguson and Osborn.

SAMOA.

1918.  History of Samoa. By R. M. Watson. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd.

1918.  Grammar and Vocabulary of the Samoan Language. By H. Neffgen. London— Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co.

1925.  Handbook of Western Samoa. New Zealand External Affairs Department. Wellington—Government Printer.

1926.  A New Samoan Grammar. By Spencer Churchward, M.A. Melbourne— Spectator Publishing Company Proprietary, Ltd.

1930.  Samoa under the Sailing Gods. By N. A. Rowe. London—Putnam.

1931.  Material Culture of Samoa. By Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr. P. H. Buck). Honolulu— Bishop Museum.

COOK ISLANDS.

1916.  Rarotongan Records. By Rev. W. W. Gill. (From the Journal of the Polynesian Society). New Plymouth.

1927.  Material Culture of the Cook Islands. By Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr. P. H. Buck). Memoirs of the Board of Maori Ethnologioal Research. Vol. 2. New Ply- mouth—Avery and Sons.

ROSS DEPENDENCY.

No book has been written dealing exclusively with the Ross Dependency, but a list of books dealing with this region incidentally may be found in the 1929 number of the Year-Book. A recent book containing a good deal of information regarding the area is “Antarctica—a Treatise on the Southern Continent,” by J. Gordon Hayes: London—The Richards Press, 1928.

(d) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK.

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time in the Year-Book of
Year.Page.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.) .1912809
“Britomart,” Mission of, at Akaroa in August, 1840 .19271,012
Building-stones1892194
Cancer in New Zealand—a statistical study1926889
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot Estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Education system of New Zealand, the1925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1925835
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Forest-trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Gold-dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship “Amokura”1913942
Hanmer Thermal Springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. “New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Lakes of New Zealand193211
Land and income tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Live-stock production—A review baaed on standard values and units1929990
Local Government in New Zealand1925845
Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time in the Year-Book of
Year.Page.
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &c.1907707
Maori ancient, his clothing1908734
Maori chant (tangi)1907711
Maori colour-sense of the1905637
Maori marriage customs1906638
Maori mythology1900536
Maori neolithic, the1902578
Maori place-names1919936
Maori religion1901530
Maori sociology1903641
Maori songs1908739
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland Railway, the1894386
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mortality rates, New Zealand1927995
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
Mount district, the.1899554
Mount its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand Contingents for South Africa1900449
Mount International Exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress .1894377
Rivers of New Zealand19326
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies—  
New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney Pageant, the1901527
Terman intelligence tests in Now Zealand schools1925823
Thermal-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
Topographical nomenclature of the Maori1919936
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zealand1919860
Waihi Gold-mining Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington-Manawatu Railway, the1895381
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
White Island, a day on1906637

INDEX

A.

Abattoirs, 318, 343–346.
Aborigines (see Maoris).
Absolute Decrees in Divorce, 160.
Accident Funds, 263, 270, 378.
Accident Insurance, 519–522.
State, 522.
Accidents—
Automobile, 106, 176, 287.
Deaths from, 105, 114, 117, 161, 287.
Industrial, 635–643.
Mining, 373, 378.
Railway, 106, 263, 635–643.
Time lost through, 640.
Tramway, 106, 287.
Wellington Traffic, 287.
Acclimatization of Fishes, 366.
Accommodation Licenses, 664.
Accounts, Public, 410.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 321—331, 688.
Acreage of Holdings, 299.
Acts passed in 1933, 666.
Actuarial Valuation—
National Provident Fund. 466.
Superannuation Funds, 462–464.
Ad valorem Duties, 235.
Added Value in Manufacturing, 387.
Adjacent Islands, Population of, 61.
Administration, 37–41.
Adoptions, 75.
Adult Population, 62.
Adult Suffrage, 40.
Adult Wage-rates, 599.
Adulteration of Food, 122.
Advances—
Bank. 494. 698.
Building Societies, 537.
By State (see State Advances and State Aid).
Aerated-water Factories, 399.
Aero Clubs, 182.
Aerodromes, 181, 182.
Afforestation, 358–362.
After-lifetime, Average, 89.
Age, Mean—
At Death, 89.
At Marriage, 83.
Agents Overseas,. 710.
Ages—
Of Cancer Decedents, 103.
Of Fathers, 71.
Of Hospital Patients, 114.
Of Industries, 392.
Of Infants dying, 96.
Of Inmates of Charitable Institutions, 134.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 137.
Of Issue left, 91.
Of Maoris dying, 107.
Of Maoris in Prison, 169.
Of Migrants, 48.
Of Mothers, 71, 74, 76.
Of Offenders probationer!, 172.
Of Parents, 71.
Of Persons dying, 87.
Of Persons married, 82.
Of Population, 62.
Of Prisoners, 169.
Of Public-school Pupils, 144.
Of Tubercular Decedents, 100.
Aggregate Private Income, 574.
Aggregate Wealth, 561.
Aggregation of Land, 305, 309.
Tax against, 425.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 316–348, 688.
Value of, 660.
Agricultural Bursaries, 155.
Agricultural Colleges, 142, 154, 319.
Agricultural Machinery, 320, 402.
Agricultural Produce—
Consumed Locally, 662.
Exported, 195, 198, 662.
Price Index Numbers, 588.
Agriculture, 316–331, 688.
Department of, 318.
Research in, 319.
Aides-de-Camp, 703.
Air Force, 181.
Air Mails, 290.
Air Navigation, 182.
Aitutaki Island, 1, 673.
Alcoholic Liquors—
Consumption of, 175, 663.
Duty on, 229, 232.
Sale of, 664.
Ale brewed, 398.
Alienation of Land, 299, 305, 308, 312.
Aliens—
Migrants, 49, 52.
Naturalization and Status of, 52.
Race, 50.
All-groups Index Numbers, 584.
Allowances, Family, 459.
Allowances, Sustenance, 422, 607, 623.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 369.
Alps, 3.
Amortization of Debt, 422, 438, 441, 477, 481.
Amusements-tax, 432.
Anglers' Licenses, 367.
Angora Goats, 332.
Animal Life, 33–35.
Animals, Domestic, 332–347, 689.
Annexed Islands, 1, 672–677.
Annual Value Rating-system, 470.
Annuities, 460, 465.
Ante-natal Clinics, 133.
Anthracite, 372.
Anti-dumping Duty, 232.
Antipodes Islands. 1, 32, 672.
Apia, 681.
Apiaries, Registration of, 348.
Apiculture, 347.
Apolima Island, 678.
Appeal Court (see Courts).
Apples, 329.
Exported, 196–213.
Apprentices Act, 607.
Appropriations, Expenditure under, 415.
Arapuni Power Scheme, 644.
Arbitration Act, 604, 606, 628.
Unions registered under, 608–611.
Arbitration Court, 594, 607.
Award Wage-rates, 594, 599.
Area—
Of Indigenous Forests, 301, 349.
Of Lakes, 8.
Of Land Holdings, 299, 549, 562.
Of New Zealand, 1,298.
Of Provincial Districts, 55.
Under Crops, 301, 321, 688.
Under Cultivation, 301, 321–331.
Army, 178–184.
Arrivals, 46–50, 684.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 727.
Artillery, Permanent, 179.
Art-unions, 430. 665.
Asiatics, 49.
Assembly, General, 38.
Asses and Mules, 332.
Assessable Income, 564–573.
Assessment Court, 484.
Assessment of Land and Income Tax, 425, 549, 562.
Assets—
Of Afforestation Companies, 360.
Of Bankrupts, 552, 555, 702.
Of Banks, 493, 499, 698.
Of Building Societies, 539.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 649.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 524.
Of Friendly Societies, 534.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 517.
Of Local Bodies, 476, 558.
Of Manufacturing Industries, 390.
State, 557.
Assigned Estates, 551–556.
Assisted Immigration, 50.
Associations. Industrial, 611.
Assurance, Life, 511–518.
Asylums. 136–139.
Benevolent and Orphan, 133.
Atafu Island, 2, 683.
Atiu Island, 1, 673.
Atlantic Salmon, 367.
Auckland Islands, 1, 32, 672.
Audit of Expenditure, 410.
Auriferous Mining, 369.
Australia—
New Zealand Tourist and Trade Commissioner in, 710.
Railway Revenue of, 250.
Reciprocal Trade with New Zealand. 235, 238.
Trade Commissioner in New Zealand, 711.
Automatic Telephones, 292.
Automobiles (see Motor-vehicles).
Aviation, 182.
Air Mails, 290.
Avifauna, 34.
Award Rates of Wages, 594–601, 606.

B.

“Bachelor-tax,” 426, 670.
Backward Children, 153.
Bacon produced, 397, 663.
Balance of Overseas Payments. 191.
Balance of Trade, 187, 189, 191.
Balances of Accounts, 411.
Balance-sheet, State, 557.
Banking and Currency, 490–510, 698.
Bank-notes, 505.
In Circulation, 492, 499, 608.
Tax on, 430.
Bankruptcy, 551–556, 702.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 439, 509.
Banks, Savings—
Post Office, 500, 699.
Trustee, 500.
Barley, 322.
Barren Land, 299, 301.
Baths, Medicinal, 3.
Beans, 322.
Beds, Hospital, 131.
Beef consumed and exported, 343, 663.
Beer, Consumption of, 176. 663.
Beer Duty, 229, 232.
Beer produced, 398, 663.
Bees, 347.
Belgium, Trade Arrangement with, 240.
Benefit Societies, 533.
Benevolent Asylums, 133.
Bertillon Classification of Diseases, 98.
Bibliography—
General, 721.
New Zealand Flora. 33.
.Statistical, 718.
Bills, Treasury, 439, 506, 510.
Birds, Native, 34.
Birthday Honours, 706.
Birthplaces of Persons naturalized, 53.
Births, 65–77, 685.
Biscuit-factories, 398.
Bitumen-surfaced Roads, 272.
Blind, Pensions for the, 459.
Blind. School for the, 154.
Board of School-children, 145.
Boatbuilding-works, 403.
Boats, Fishing, 365.
Boer War Pensions, 458.
Boilers, Inspection of, 608.
Bookstalls, Railway, 258.
Boot and Shoe Factories, 400.
Boroughs, 41, 467–479.
Capita! and Unimproved Values, 488.
Debt, 478, 697.
Population of. 55, 59.
Borrowers from Building Societies, 538.
Borrowing-powers of Local Bodies, 468.
Borstal Institutions, 170.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1.
Bounty Islands, 1, 672.
Brass-foundries, 402.
Bread, Law re Sale of, 122.
Breeding-ewes, 333.
Breeds of Cattle, 337.
Breeds of Sheep, 334.
Breweries, 398.
Brickworks, 401.
Brides and Grooms, 81–84.
Bridges, 272.
Bridle-tracks, 272.
Brigades, Fire, 532.
British Nationality, 52, 53.
British Preference, 226, 235–240.
British Sovereignty, 2, 37.
British Trade Representatives, 711.
Broadcast Time-signals, 24.
Broadcasting, 295.
Budgets, Household, 576, 584.
Building and Construction, 404–409, 624.
Building Costs, 406.
Building Permits, 404, 407.
Building Societies, 536–539.
Building Subsidy, 621.
Buildings, 406–409.
Building-stones, 375.
Bullion, Exports of, 194–213, 368, 692.
Bullion held by Banks, 493, 498, 698.
Bullion Production, 369.
Bulls, 336.
Bursaries, 150, 155.
Bush, Virgin, 26–33, 301, 349.
Business Failures, 551–556, 702.
Business Premises erected, 406–408.
Butter (sec Dairy-produce).
Butterfat Yields, 339.
Butterflies, 35.
By-elections, 664.

C.

Cabinet, 38
Members of, 705.
Cabinetmaking, 403.
Cable Tramways, 270.
Cables, Ocean, 296.
Cadets. Senior, 178, 181.
Calf-skins exported, 206.
Call, Deposits at, 495, 500, 539.
Campbell Island, 1, 32, 672.
Camps, Unemployment Relief, 620.
Canada, Reciprocity with, 240.
Canadian Trade Commissioner, 711.
Cancer, 99–103, 108, 116.
Candle-factories, 399.
Capital—
Expenditure of Government, 417.
Invested in Electric - power Under-takings, 649.
Invested in Factories, 391.
Invested in Railways, 255, 701.
Invested in Tramways, 269, 271.
Of Banks, 491, 497.
Of Joint-stock Companies, 654.
Capital Punishment, 161.
Capital Value of Land, 484–489.
Rating on, 470.
Card Tournaments, 669.
Cargo handled at Ports, 243–246.
Car-miles run by Trams, 266.
Carrots, 326.
Carry-over of Wheat, 324.
Carry-over of Wool, 335.
Cassiterite, 372.
Casualties in the War, 183.
Casualties. Shipping, 253.
Cattle. 332, 336, 689.
Causes of Death, 96, 98, 108, 138.
Causes of Fires, 530.
Causes of Industrial Accidents, 638.
Causes of Industrial Disputes, 631.
Cement-works, 401.
Cemeteries, 124.
Census, 42.
Income Statistics, 573.
Unemployment Statistics, 612.
Central Reserve Bank, 497, 506.
Cereals, 322–326.
Certificated Teachers, 141, 146.
Certificates, Engine-drivers’, 659.
Certificates, Marine Officers’, 252.
Certificates of Title, 303.
Chaff, 321–328.
Chaffcutters, 320.
Charges before Magistrates, 162.
Charitable Aid, 129.
Charitable Institutions, 126, 133.
Chatham Islands, 1, 671.
Flora, 32.
Cheese (sec Dairy-produce).
Chemists, Registration of, 123.
Cheque-paying Banks, 190, 500.
Chewings Fescue, 327.
Chief Justice, 705.
Child Welfare, 152.
Institutions, 153, 172.
Childbirth, Deaths in, 103, 132.
Children adopted, 75.
Children born, Sexes of, 68.
Children, Dependent, Care of, 152.
Children, Numbers of, 62.
Children, Offences by, 152, 172.
Children under One, Deaths of, 92, 685.
Children's Courts, 152, 172.
Children's Homes, 133, 153, 173.
Chilled Beef Exports, 343.
Chinese, 49.
In Samoa, 679.
Chronological List of Events, 713.
Cinematograph Film-hire Tax, 432.
Cinnabar, 372.
Cities, Population of, 57, 59.
Civic Planning, 468.
Civil Aviation, 182.
Civil Law Cases, 158.
Civil Marriages, 78, 84.
Civil Service (see Public Service).
Claims, Insurance, 511–532.
Clearings, Bank, 497.
Clergy of each Denomination, 85.
Marriages by, 84.
Climate, 14–23.
Clinics, Ante-natal, 133.
Clinics, School Dental, 125.
Clothing-factories, 399.
Clothing-prices, 583.
Clover-seed (see Grass-seed).
Club Charters, 665.
Clubs, Working-mens’, 533.
Coachbuilding-works, 402.
Coal exported, 196–210, 368.
Coal used in Factories, 386.
Coalition Ministry, 705.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 378.
Coal-mining, 372.
Coal-resources, 372.
Coastal Trade, 243–246.
Coastal Vessels registered, 248.
Coastwise Shipping, 250.
Cocksfoot, 327.
Coin held by Banks, 493, 498, 698.
Coin imported and exported, 192, 504, 690.
Coinage, 502.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 293.
Cold-storage Advances, 452.
Coleridge, Lake, Water-power, 644.
Colleges, University, 142, 154.
Collieries, 373.
Colonization, 37.
Combined Schools, 142, 148.
Commerce, Overseas, 186–246, 690.
Commercial Failures, 551–556, 702.
Commissions, Mortgagors’ Liabilities Adjustment, 542.
Companies, Co-operative Dairy, 338.
Companies, Co-operative Pig-marketing, 670.
Companies, Joint-stock, 654, 667.
In Manufacturing Industries, 391, 393.
Companies, Share Price Indexes, 591.
Companies, Taxation of, 427, 430, 565.
Compensation, Workers’, 520. 603,606,636.
Conciliation Councils, 606.
Concrete-surfaced roads, 272.
Condensed-milk Factories, 397.
Conditional Licenses, 665.
Confectionery-factories, 398.
Conference at Ottawa, 226.
Confinement—
Deaths in, 103.
Maternity Hospital Cases, 132.
Conjugal Condition of Persons marrying, 81
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 159.
Consent to Marriage, 78.
Conservation of Forests, 349.
Consolidated Fund, 413, 695.
Constabulary, 161.
Constitution, 37.
Of Cook Islands, 674.
Of Western Samoa, 678.
Construction and Building, 404–409, 624.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 255, 701.
Construction of Roods', 272–281.
Consuls, Foreign, 711.
Consumption of—
Alcoholic Liquors, 176, 663.
Coal, 368, 373, 386.
Electricity, 265, 401, 644.
Foodstuffs, 662.
Meat, 343–346, 663.
Produce, 662.
Timber, 356.
Wheat and Flour, 324, 663.
Wool, 335, 403.
Contagious Diseases, 110, 118.
Conversion of Internal Debt, 438, 482.
Conveyance of Children to School, 145.
Conveyancing, 302.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 165, 687.
Convictions, Summary, 163, 687.
For Drunkenness, 174.
For Traffic Offences, 176.
Of Juveniles, 172.
Of Maoris, 174.
Of Women, 173.
Cook and other Pacific Islands. 1, 673–677.
Bibliography, 726.
Exports to, 214.
Imports from, 225.
Population. 43, 674, 676.
Radio-stations, 294, 675, 677.
Cook's Visits to New Zealand, 36.
Co-operative Dairy Companies, 338.
Co-operative Pig - marketing Companies, 670.
Co-operative Public Works, 604.
Copper, 371.
Cordial-factories. 399.
Corn Crops, Acreage and Yield of, 322–326.
Coroners’ Inquests, 161.
Correspondence Classes, 144.
Corriedale Sheep, 332, 334.
Cost of Living, 576–584.
Cost of Railway-construction, 255, 701.
Council, Executive, 38.
Members of, 704.
Council. Legislative, 38.
Members of, 706.
Counties. 41, 467–478.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 487.
Debt. 478, 697.
Population of, 55, 57.
Country Lands, Mortgages on, 546, 549,562.
Country Quota, 39.
Courts—
Appeal. 167.
Arbitration, 594, 607.
Assessment, 484.
Bankruptcy, 551.
Children's, 152, 172.
Divorce, 159.
Judges of, 705.
Magistrates', 158, 162, 543, 687.
Native Appellate, 313.
Native Land, 313.
Supreme, 158, 165, 543, 687.
Cow-testing, 318, 336.
Crayfish, 366.
Creameries, 338.
Cream-separators on Farms, 320.
Credit, Rural Intermediate, 449.
Creditors' Petitions, 552.
Credits-in-aid, 411–413.
Crematoria, 124.
Crime, Law and, 158–177, 687.
Criminals, Habitual, 170.
Crops, 301, 321–331, 688.
Crown Lands, 299, 305–311.
Crown Tenants, 308.
Advances to, 307–310.
Cultivation, Area in, 301, 321–331.
Currency and Banking, 490–510.
Curriculum, School, 141.
Curtis Islands, 672.
Customary Land, 312.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 220–241.
Customs Taxation, 230, 424.
Cycle-works, 402.

D.

Dairy Industry, 338, 397.
Dairying Machinery, 320, 402.
Dairy-produce, 338–343, 670.
Export Control, 340.
Export of, 196–213, 340, 663, 692.
Export Price Indexes, 588.
Grading of, 318,338.
Local Consumption of, 663.
Production of, 339, 397, 663.
Retail Price Indexes, 579.
Dates of Principal Events, 713.
Daylight Saving, 24, 667.
Dead-births, 75, 97.
Deaf, School for the, 154.
Death Duties, 428.
Estates certified for, 560.
Deaths, 66,86–109,685.
Due to Earthquakes, 14.
From Accidents, 105, 114, 117, 161, 287, 637.
From Puerperal Causes, 103, 132.
From Violence, 105, 161.
In Hospitals, 113, 117, 132.
In Mental Hospitals, 138.
Of Friendly Society Members, 534.
Of Infants, 92, 109, 685.
Debentures, General and Local Government, 435, 477, 694.
Debenture-tax, 428.
Debits, Bank, 497.
Debt, Conversion of, 438, 482.
Debt of Local Bodies, 130, 468, 477–482, 696.
Debt, Public, 435–145, 694.
Debtors’ Petitions, 552.
Deceased, Estates of, 560.
Decrees in Divorce, 159.
Deeds Registration, 302.
Defectives, Mental, 136–139.
Defence, 178–185.
Pensions, 458.
Deferred-payment Lands, 306, 307, 308.
Deficits, 414.
Degrees, University, 120, 154.
Demography, 42–64.
Denominational Schools, 147.
Density of Population, 61.
Dental Treatment of School-children, 125.
Dentists, Registration of, 120.
Departments, Government, 708.
Reports of, 718.
Departures, 46–50, 684.
Dependencies, 1, 671–683.
Dependent Children, Care of, 152.
Deposits, 494, 500, 698.
By Insurance Companies, 511, 523.
Interest-rates, Fixed Deposits, 502, 536.
With Building Societies, 495, 536, 539.
With Trading Companies, 495.
Depreciation Allowance, 427.
Depreciation of New Zealand Currency, 507.
Designs, Registration of, 657.
Destination—
Of Emigrants, 49.
Of Exports, 200–208.
Of Shipping, 249.
Detention, Reformative, 153, 170.
Development of Land, 307.
Diamond Drills, 377.
Diphtheria. 99, 108, 110, 115.
Diplomas, 120, 154.
Disabilities from Industrial Accidents, 637.
Discharged Mortgages, 544.
Discharged Soldiers (see Soldiers).
Discount Rates, 501.
Discovery of New Zealand, 36.
Diseases, Notification of, 110, 118.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 98, 108.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 114.
Disputes, Industrial, 628–634.
Dissolution of Marriage, 159.
Dissolution of Parliament, Dates of, 706.
District High Schools, 142, 149.
District Nurses, 133.
Dividend (Totalizator) Duty, 431.
Dividends, Bank, 491.
Dividends, Bankrupts', 552, 555, 702.
Divorce, 159.
Divorced Persons re-marrying, 81.
Domains, Public, 301.
Domestic-science Bursaries, 155.
Domicile of Debt, 438, 479.
Dominion of New Zealand, 1, 38.
Drainage Districts, 467–476.
Dredging, Gold, 369.
Drilling for Oil, 374.
Drills, Prospecting, 377.
Drowning Accidents, 105, 161.
Drugs, Sale of, 122, 123.
Drunkenness, 174.
Ducks, 347.
Dumping Duty, 232.
Dutiable Imports, 228, 233.
Duties—
Customs and Excise, 226–241. 424.
Death, 428.
Export, 230, 423, 675, 681.
On Interest Receipts, 433.
On Lottery Tickets, 430, 665.
On Overseas Passenger-tickets, 430.
Stamp, 430, 433.
Dwellings—
Advances for, 446–452, 537,
Erected, 406–409.
Rents, 543, 580, 605, 667.
Soldiers', 311.
Workers', 451, 452, 604.

E.

Early History, 36.
Earned Income, 568.
Reduced Tax on, 426, 568.
Earthquakes, 11–14.
Compensation to Injured Workers, 635.
Rehabilitation Advances, 451.
Economic Pensions, 458.
Education, 140–157, 686.
Education Endowments, 306.
Education Gazette, 145.
Educational Association, Workers', 156.
Effective Wage-rates, 596.
Eggs, 347.
Elections, General, 664.
Electoral Districts, 39.
Electoral Qualifications, 40.
Electors, Compulsory Registration of, 40.
Electric—
Current, 401, 644–652.
Power Boards, 467–478, 645, 697.
Power in Factories, 384.
Power on Farms, 320.
Railway, 254.
Telegraph, 292.
Tramways, 265–271.
Emergency Unemployment Charge, 422. 432.
Emigration, 46’19, 684.
Employees—
Afforestation Companies, 361.
Building and Construction, 405, 624.
Electric-supply, 648.
Factory, 381, 395, 624.
Fishing Industry, 365.
Local Body, 627.
Mining, 369, 373, 376.
Postal, 296.
Public Service, 710.
Public Works, 626.
Railway, 262.
Tramway, 266, 270.
Unions of. 604, 608–611.
Wage-rates of, 594–601.
Employers’ Liability, 603, 606, 636.
Insurance, 520.
Employers' Unions, 608–611.
Employment and Unemployment, 612–627.
Employment Bureaux, 612.
Enactments affecting Labour, 603–607.
Enactments of 1933, 666.
Endowments, Education, 306.
Endowments, National, 306, 349.
Engine-drivers' Certificates, 659.
Engineering-works, 402.
Engines—
Employed in Factories, 384.
Employed on Farms, 320.
Inspection of, 658.
Railway, 256.
Ensilage, 316, 321, 326, 328.
Entertainments-tax, 432.
Entrepot Trade, 210.
Entry, Ports of, 242.
Epidemic Pensions, 459.
Estate Duty, 428.
Estates—
Acquired for Settlement, 309.
Administered by Public Trust Office, 653.
Assigned, 551–556.
Passed for Probate, 560.
Ewes, 333.
Examinations—
Chemists, 123.
Dentists, 120.
Education Department, 152, 156.
Engine-drivers, 659.
Marine Officers, 252.
Masseurs, 122.
Medical Practitioners, 120.
Mining, 378.
Nurses, Midwives, Maternity Nurses, 121.
Opticians, 121.
Plumbers, 122.
University, 120, 154.
Excess-profits Tax, 426.
Exchange, Currency, 507.
Australia-London, 509.
Banks Indemnity (Exchange) Act, 509.
Effect on Trade Statistics, 187–190.
Exchange Pool, 509.
Expenditure on, 415, 510.
Exchanges, Telephone, 292.
Excise Duties, 229.
Taxation by Means of, 232, 424.
Executions, 161.
Executive Council, 38.
Members of, 704.
Exemptions from Taxation—
Income-tax, 426, 427, 569.
Land-tax, 427, 549, 562.
Unemployment tax, 432.
Ex-nuptial Births, 73.
Exotic Trees, Planting of, 349, 359.
Expectation of Life, 89.
Expeditionary Forces, 183.
Expenditure,'Local Body, 127, 474, 696.
Expenditure, Public, 410–422, 695.
Experimental Farms, 318.
Explorers, 36.
Export Control—
Dairy-produce, 340.
Export Licenses, 345, 509.
Fruit, 330.
Honey, 348.
Kauri-gum, 375.
Meat, 341.
Export Duties, 230, 423, 675, 681.
Export Licenses, 509.
Export Prices, 211, 587.
Export Surplus, 186–193, 662.
Exports, 194–214, 690.
Minerals, 196–213, 368, 692.
Of Ports, 242–246.
Timber, 196–213, 357, 693.
Value in British Currency, 187.
Values, Gold Basis, Index Numbers, 189.
Volume, Index Numbers, 189, 211.
External Migration, 44, 46–52, 684.
External Trade, 186–246, 690.
Extra-marital Conceptions, 73.

F.

Factories, 379–403.
Accidents in, 635–643.
Act, 604.
Dairy, 338, 397.
Employees, 381, 395, 624.
Fakaofu Island, 2, 683.
Fallow Land, 301.
Family Allowances, 459.
Family Budgets, 576, 584.
Farm Employees, Wages of, 595, 600.
Farm Expenditure Indexes, 590.
Farm Holdings, 299, 549, 562.
Farm Implements, 320.
Advances on, 448.
Manufacture of, 402.
Farmers—
Advice for, 318.
Financial Assistance to, 307, 310, 448.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 531.
Taxation of, 423, 425, 562.
Tree-planting by, 362.
Farming, 316–348.
Farming Lands, Mortgages on, 549, 562.
Fauna, 33–35.
Feeble-minded, Schools for, 153.
Fellmongering-works, 402.
Female Suffrage, 40.
Fern Lands, 301.
Fertilizer used, 331.
Fibre, Phormium (see Phormium).
Fidelity -guarantee Insurance, 519.
Film-hire Tax, 432.
Finance, Public, 410–452, 694.
Finances of Local Bodies, 471–482.
Hospital Boards, 127.
Fire Brigades, 532.
Fire Districts, 352, 467–476.
Fire Inquests. 161.
Fire Insurance, 523, 532.
State, 531.
Fire Losses, 527.
Fireblight, 330.
Fire-protection in Forests. 352.
Fires on Vessels, 253.
First Births, 69, 72, 76.
First Offenders' Probation, 177.
Fish, 35, 363.
Exported, 198, 209, 365.
Fisheries, 363–367.
Fish-hatcheries, 366, 367.
Fishing Industry Advances, 452.
Fishing-boats, 365.
Fixed Deposits, 495, 539.
Flax (see Phormium).
Floating Debt, 439.
Flocks—
Fowls, 347.
Sheep. 332.
Flora, 26–33.
Flotation of Loans, 435.
Flour, Customs Duty on, 228.
Flour-mills, 398.
Flying, 182, 290.
Fodder Crops, 321, 326.
Fog, 20.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 122.
Food, Retail Prices of, 577–584.
Foodstuffs, Consumption of, 662.
Foreign Consuls, 711.
Foreign Immigrants, 49.
Foreign Vessels entered and cleared, 248.
Foreigners naturalized, 52.
Forest Trees, 26–33, 352–356.
Forestation Companies, 359.
Forest-produce exported, 195–213. 357.
Forestry, 349–362.
Value of Production, 662.
Forwarding Trade, 210.
Foster-homes for Children, 153.
Foundries, 402.
Fovcaux Strait Oysters, 365.
Fowls, 347.
Fowl-wheat, 324.
Fractions, Totalizator, 431.
Franchise, 40.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 227, 233.
Free Deposits, 495, 500, 539.
Free Education, 140, 148, 151, 155.
Freehold, Crown Land made, 308.
Freehold Land, 299, 308.
Freezing-works, 396.
Freight—
Carried by Motor-transport, 286.
Carried by Shipping, 243–246.
Carried by Trains, 260–262, 701.
Train-mileage, 262.
Freshwater Fisheries, 366.
Friendly Societies, 533–535.
Frosts, 19.
Frozen Meat exported, 196–213, 343, 691.
Fruit Export Control, 330.
Fruit Industry, The, 329.
Fruit-preserving—
Advances, 452.
Factories, 398.
Fuel and Light, Retail Prices of, 583.
Funded Debt, 443.
Funds of Public Account, 410.
Funeral Funds, 534.
Furniture-making Works, 403.

G.

Gales, 21.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 167–171, 687.
Gardens, Acreage in, 328.
Gas-lighting District, 467–476.
Gasworks, 400.
Gauge, Railway, 255.
Geese, 347.
General Assembly, 38.
General Elections, 664.
Generating Stations, 648.
Geological Survey; 8, 376.
Geology, 8.
Geysers, 3.
Gift Duty, 428, 430.
Glaciers, 3.
Goats, 332, 689.
Gold Coin, Export of. 193, 504, 690.
Gold Bullion exported, 196–213, 368, 692.
Duty on, 230, 423.
Goldfields, Subsidized Roads on, 377.
Gold-mining, 369, 377.
Gonorrhoea, 119.
Goods carried on Railways, 260, 701.
Goods-service Licenses, 286.
Government Agents abroad, 710.
Government Departments, 708.
Reports of, 718.
Government Insurance, 517, 522, 531.
Government Railways, 254–204, 701.
Superannuation Fund, 464.
Government Roads, 274.
Government, System of, 37.
Government Valuations, 483–489, 668.
Governor-General, 703.
Powers, Duties, 'c, 38.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 318, 338.
Of Fruit, 329.
Of Honey, 348.
Of Phormium-fibre, 318.
Of School-teachers, 141.
Graduated Land-tax, 425.
Grain Crops, 322.
Grain-mills, 398.
Granite, 375.
Grapes, 330.
Graphs—
Births, Deaths, Natural Increase, and Marriages, 66.
Exports as affected by Prices, 212.
Infant Death-rates, 95
Tuberculosis and Cancer Death-rates, 101.
Grass Lands, 301, 327.
Grass-seed, 327.
Certification of, 318.
Exported, 198–210.
Green Fodder, 326.
Greenstone, 375.
Greenwich Mean Time, 24.
Groceries, Retail Prices of, 577.
Gross Indebtedness, 435, 695.
Mortgage Indebtedness, 549.
Of Local Bodies, 477, 696.
Grounds for Divorce, 159.
Growth of Population, 43, 67, 684.
Gum, Kauri, 374.
Exported, 196–213, 368, 693.

H.

Habitual Criminals, 170.
Habitual Drunkards, 175.
Hail, 20.
Half-castes, 42, 63.
Ham and Bacon Curing, 397.
Harbour Boards, 467–478, 697.
Harbours (see Ports).
Hardwood Trees, 355.
Harvests, 321–327.
Hatcheries, Fish, 366.
Hawaiki. 36.
Hay, 326, 328.
Heads of Government Departments, 708.
Health Camps, 124.
Health, Public, 118–125.
Herd-book Societies, 336.
Herd-testing, 318, 336.
Hides exported, 196–213.
High Commissioner 's Office, 710.
High Schools, 142, 148, 686.
Technical, 142, 149, 151.
Higher Education, 154, 686.
Highway Districts, 41, 274.
Highways, 274–279.
Taxation, 280. 422. 424.
Hindus, 49.
History, 36, 713.
Hives of Bees, 348.
Hobson 's Proclamation, 37.
Hogs, 346, 689.
Holdings (see Land Holdings).
Homes, Benevolent, 133.
Homes, Children 's, 133, 153, 173.
Home-science Bursaries, 155
Homicide, 105, 161.
Honey, 347.
Export Control, 348.
Honours to New-Zealanders, 706.
Hops, 322.
Horahora Electric Supply, 645.
Horse-racing Taxation, 431.
Horses, 345, 689.
Horticultural Station, 318.
Horticulture, 329.
Hosiery-factories, 399.
Hospitals—
Maternity, 132.
Mental, 136–139.
Private, 131.
Private Mental, 139.
Public, 111–117, 126–133.
St. Helens, 132.
Hot Springs, 3.
Hotels, Licensed, 664.
Hours of Labour, 601.
In Factories, 395.
House of Representatives, 39.
Members of, 707.
Household Budgets, 576, 584.
Houses (see Dwellings).
Husbands' Petitions in Divorce, 160.
Hydraulic Sluicing, 369.
Hydro-electric Power, 644–652.
Hygiene, Public, 118.
Social Regulations, 119.

I.

Illegitimate Infants—
Births of, 73.
Deaths of, 93.
In Benevolent Institutions, 135.
Immigration, 44, 46–51, 684.
Assisted, 50.
Early, 37.
Restriction on, 51.
Implements, Farm, 320.
Advances on, 448.
Manufacture of, 402.
Import Price Indexes, 588.
Imported Commodities, Price Indexes, 587.
Imports, 215–225, 663, 690.
Excess of Exports over Imports, 187.
Free and Dutiable, 227, 233.
Of Ports, 242–246.
Value in British Currency, 187.
Value, Gold Basis, Index Numbers, 189.
Value in New Zealand Currency, 187.
Volume, Index Numbers, 189.
Improved-farm Settlements, 306, 309.
Improvements, Value of, 483–489.
Incapacity from Industrial Accidents, 635–643.
Incomes, 564–575.
Income-tax, 423, 425, 427, 564–575, 670.
Increase in Population, 43, 66, 67, 684.
Indebtedness, Mortgage, 549.
Indebtedness of Local Bodies, 477–482, 696.
Indebtedness, Public, 435–445, 694.
Index Numbers—
Deaths, Sex-ratio, 87.
Export Prices, 587.
Farm Expenditure, 590.
Hours of Labour, 601.
House-rent, 580–584.
Marriage-rates, 79.
Population, 64.
Prices, Import, 588.
Prices, Imported Commodities, 587.
Prices, Locally produced Commodities, 587.
Producers' Prices, 661.
Production, 660.
Ratio of Customs Revenue to Imports, 232.
Retail Prices, 576–584.
Share Prices, 591.
Volume of Exports, 189, 211.
Volume of Imports, 189.
Volume of Total Trade, 189.
Wage-rates, 594–600.
Wholesale Prices, 585.
Indians, 49.
Indigenous Forest, 26–33, 301, 349–356.
Individualization of Native Land, 312.
Industrial Accidents, 635–643.
Industrial Associations, 611.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 604, 606.
Industrial Disputes, 628–634.
Industrial Life Insurance, 515.
Industrial Unions .608–611.
Industries, Manufacturing, 379–403, 624.
Inebriates, 174.
Infancy, Diseases of, 97, 109.
Infant Mortality, 92–98, 685.
Maori, 109.
Infant-life Protection, 93, 153.
Infectious Diseases—
Control of, in Schools, 125.
Hospital Cases, 114.
Notification of. 110, 118.
Injuries (see Accidents).
Inland Fisheries, 366.
Inmates—
Of Charitable Institutions, 134.
Of Gaols, 167, 687.
Of Hospitals, 111–117, 131.
Of Mental Hospitals, 136.
Inquests, 161.
Insanity, 136–139.
Insolvency, 551–556, 702.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools. 124.
Inspection of Dairies and Dairy Factories, 338.
Inspection of Machinery, 658.
Instruction. Military, 178.
Instruction, Public,’ 140–157. 686.
Instruments, Registration of. 302.
Insurance, 511–532.
State, 517, 522, 531.
Intercensal Population, 42, 45, 56, 684.
Interest—
Credited by Savings-banks, 500. 699.
On Local Bodies’ Debt, 481.
On Mortgages, 548.
On Public Debt, 440.
Payments Overseas, 191, 440, 481.
Rates (see Bates of Interest).
Recouped to Consolidated Fund. 414.
Reduction of, 433, 438, 482, 543.
Tax on, 433.
Inter-Island Passengers, 54.
Intermediate Credit, 449.
Intermediate Schools, 142, 148.
International Payments, 191, 440, 481.
Intestate Estates, 650.
Intoxicating Liquor—
Consumption of, 176, 663.
Sale of, 664.
Investment Certificates, 435.
Investment Societies, Deposits with, 531
Investments, State, 437, 557.
Investments, Totalizator, 431.
Invisible Imports and Exports, 191.
Iron-foundries, 402.
Iron-ores, 371.
Islands—
Adjacent, Population of, 61.
Administered on Mandate, 2, 677–682
Annexed, 1, 672–677.
Outlying, 1, 671.
Issue of Bank-notes, 430, 492, 499, 505.
Issue of Deceased Males, 91.
Issue, Previous, of Parents, 71.

J.

Jam-factories, 398
Joint-stock Banks, 490.
Joint-stock Companies, 654, 667.
In Manufacturing Industries, 391, 393
Journal of Agriculture. 318.
Journal, School, 145.
Judicial Separation, 159.
Judiciary, Members of, 705.
Justice, 158–177, 687.
Juvenile Offenders, 153, 172.

K.

Kaingaroa Plantation, 359.
Kauri-gum, 374.
Exported, 196–213, 368, 693.
Kermadec Islands. 1, 672.
Flora, 32.

L.

Labour Department Employment Bureaux, 612.
Labour Disputes, 628–634.
Labour, Hours of, 601.
In Factories, 395.
Labour Laws, 603–607.
Labour Shares, 605.
Lake Coleridge Works, 644.
Lake Wakatipu Steamer Service, 256, 258.
Lakes, 8.
Lamb consumed and exported, 343, 663.
Lambs, 332, 333.
Land and Income Tax, 423, 425, 562, 564.
Land Boards, 305.
Maori, 313.
Land Development, 307.
Land Districts, 305.
Land Drainage Districts, 467–476.
Land for Discharged Soldiers, 310.
Land for Settlements, 309.
Land, Government Valuation of, 483–489, 668.
Land Holdings, 299.
Mortgages on, 549, 562.
Value of, 549, 562.
Land, Occupation of, 298, 301.
Land Offices, 305.
Land, Purchase of, 309, 310, 314.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 298–315.
Land Titles, Registration of, 302.
Land Transfer System, 302–304.
Land, Valuation of, 483–489.
Lands open for Selection, 307.
Land-settlement Accounts, 419.
Land-settlement Finance Associations, 310.
Land-tax, 423, 425, 562.
Lapsed Insurance Policies, 513, 515.
Latest Statistical Information [see Fore-front of Book].
Law and Crime, 158–177.
Laws affecting Labour, 603–607.
Laws enacted 1933, 666.
Lease, Renewable, 306, 308.
Legacy Duty, 429.
Legal Education, 154.
Legal-tender, 505.
Legislation—
Affecting Labour, 603–607.
Passed in 1933, 666.
Legislative Council, 38.
Members of, 706.
Legitimation Act, 74.
Legumes, 322.
Letters of Naturalization, 52.
Letters Patent, 657.
Letters Posted, 289, 700.
Letter-telegrams, 292.
Levies by Hospital Boards, 126–130, 474.
Levy, Unemployment, 422, 432.
Levy, Wheat, 319.
Liabilities—
Of Afforestation Companies, 360.
Of Bankrupts, 552, 555, 702.
Of Banks, 492, 499, 698.
Of Building Societies, 538.
Of Electric-power Undertakings, 649.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 524.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 517.
Of Local Bodies, 476.
State, 557.
Licensed Houses, 664.
Licenses by Local Bodies, 473, 665.
Licenses—
Air Pilots, 183.
Export, 345, 509.
Motor-vehicle, 281, 285.
Radio, 295.
Ross Seas Whaling, 682.
Share brokers, 430.
Transport, 283.
Licensing, 664.
Poll, 665.
Life, Expectation of, 89.
Life Insurance, 511–518.
State, 517.
Life Table, 89.
Light and Fuel, Retail Prices of, 583.
Lighthouses, 253.
Lignite, 373.
Lime and Cement Works, 401.
Limestone, 375.
Limonite, 371.
Lincoln Agricultural College, 142, 154, 319.
Linseed, 322.
Live-stock, 332–348, 689.
Advances on, 448.
Carried on Railways, 261.
Loans—
Allocation of, 437.
By Building Societies, 538.
Conversion of, 438, 482.
Dates of Maturity of, 439, 482.
Domicile of, 438, 479.
Of Hospital Boards, 130.
Of Local Bodies, 130, 445, 468, 477–482, 668, 696.
Receipts from, 437.
Redemption of, 422, 438, 441, 477, 481.
Local Bodies, 467–482, 696.
Advances to, 451.
Assets of, 476, 558.
Debt of (see Loans of).
Employees of, 627.
History of, 40.
Levies on, by Hospital Boards, 126–130, 474.
Superannuation, 465.
Taxation by, 434,472.
Local Consumption of Produce, 662.
Local Government, 40. (See also Local Bodies.)
Local Option, 665.
Local Railway District, 467–476.
Local Taxation, 434, 472.
Location of Debt, 438, 479.
Location of New Zealand, 1.
Lockouts, 628–634.
Locomotives, 256.
Lodges, Friendly Societies, 533–535.
London, Exchange on (see Exchange).
London Prices of New Zealand Stock, 440.
Losses from Fires, 527.
In Forests, 352.
Lotteries, 665.
Duty on, 430, 665.
Lucerne, 322, 326.
Lunacy, 136–139.

M.

Macaulay Island, 672.
Machinery—
Accidents, 638.
Factory, 384, 391.
Farm, 320, 402.
Inspection of, 658.
Macquarie Island Flora, 32.
Magistrates’ Court (see Courts).
Magistrates, Superannuation of, 464.
Mails, 289.
Main Highways, 274–279.
Revenue Fund, 422, 474.
Taxation, 280, 422, 424.
Maize, 322, 326.
Makes of Motor-vehicles, 282.
Malnutrition of School-children, 124.
Malthouses, 398.
Mammalia, 33.
Mandated Territories, 2, 677–682.
Mangahao Hydro-electric Scheme, 644.
Mangaia Island, 1, 673.
Manganese-ore. 371.
Mangolds, 322, 326.
Manihiki Island, 1, 674.
Manono Island, 678.
Manuae Island, 1, 673.
Manual Education, 144.
Manufacturing Production, 379–403.
Manures used for Top-dressing, 331.
Maori Land Boards, 313.
Maori War Pensions, 453, 456.
Maoris, 36.
Births of, 65, 77.
Children attending Schools, 147.
Deaths of, 65, 107.
Half-castes, 42, 63.
In Mental Hospitals, 139.
In Prisons, 169.
Infant Mortality of, 109.
Lands, 312–315.
Marriages of, 85.
Members of Parliament, 39, 708.
Offences by, 174.
Population, 62.
School., for, 147.
Map of New Zealand [End of Volume].
Marble, New Zealand, 375.
Marine Fish-hatchery, 360.
Marine Officers' Certificates, 252.
Market Gardens, 328.
Marriages, 66, 78–85, 685.
Dissolution of, 159.
Marriage Amendment Act, 1933, 666.
Masculinity (see Sex Proportions).
Masseurs, Registration of, 122 .
Massey Agricultural College, 142, 154, 319.
Maternity Mortality, 103, 132.
Maternity Allowances, 465.
Maternity Hospitals, 132.
Maternity Nurses, District, 133.
Maternity Nurses, Registration of, 121.
Maturity of Loans, Dates of, 439, 482.
Mauke Island, 1, 673.
Mean Population, 46, 684.
Mean Time, 24.
Measures and Weights, 123, 298, 607.
Meat—
Consumption of, 343–346, 603.
Export Control, 344.
Export of, 196–213, 343–346, 691.
Freezing-works, 396.
Retail Prices, 579.
Medical Inspection of Schools, 124.
Medical Practitioners, 120.
Medical Services in Samoa, 679.
Medicinal Waters, 3.
Members of Parliament, 39, 707.
Mental Hospitals, J. 36–139.
Mentally Backward Children, 153.
Mercantile Marine, 247.
Mercury-mines, 372.
Merino Sheep, 332–334.
Metal Reserves of Banks, 493, 498, 499, 698.
Meteorology, 14–23.
Midwives, District, 133.
Midwives, Registration of, 121.
Migration, External, 44, 46–52, 684.
Migration. Internal, 54.
Mileage of—
Main Highways, 275.
Railways, 25o", 263, 701.
Roads, 272.
Telegraph Lines and Wire, 292.
Telephone Lines and Wire, 293.
Tramway Routes, 265, 270.
Mileage-tax, 425.
Military Forces, 178–184.
Military Pensions, 453, 456.
Milk, Adulterated, 123.
Milk-products (see Dairy-produce).
Milk used in Dairy Factories, 397, 663.
Milking-machines, 320.
Milk-testing, 318, 338.
Milling-wheat, 324.
Mills, 379–403, 624.
Mineral Waters, 3.
Minerals, 368–378.
Miners' Pensions, 453, 456.
Minimum Wage-rates, 594–601, 606.
Mining, 368–378.
Accidents, 373, 378.
Act, Examinations under, 378.
Advances, 377.
Produce exported, 195–213, 368.
Value of Production, 368, 660.
Ministers of each Denomination, 85.
Marriages by, 84.
Ministries; Successive, 703.
Ministry, Coalition, 705.
Minors, Marriages of, 78, 84.
Minors, Numbers of, 62.
Mission Schools, 140, 675, 677, 679.
Missionaries, Arrival of, 37.
Mitiaro Island, 1, 673.
Money-orders issued and paid, 291, 700.
Morbidity, 110–117, 534.
Mortality (see Deaths).
Mortgage Exemption, 427, 549, 562.
Mortgage Indebtedness, 549.
Mortgagees' Indemnity Insurance, 430, 521.
Mortgages, 540–550, 562.
Mortgages, Companies', 657.
Mortgage-tax, 425.
Mortgagors Liabilities Adjustment Commissions, 542.
Mortgagors Relief, 541, 669.
Mothers, Ages of, 71.
In Illegitimate Cases, 74.
In Still-born Cases, 76.
Moths, 35.
Motion-picture Film-tax, 432.
Motive-power in Factories, 384.
Motor Accidents, 106, 176, 287.
Motor Transport, 258, 260, 270, 283–287.
Motor-engineering Works, 402.
Motor-omnibus Traffic, 258, 260, 270, 283.
Motor-spirits, Regulation of Prices, 669.
Motor-spirits Taxation, 229, 276, 425.
Motor-vehicles—
Accidents, 106, 176, 287.
Duty on, 229, 234, 240.
Insurance, 520, 521.
Licensed for Goods-services, 286.
Licensed for Passenger-services, 285.
Makes of, 282.
Registration of, 281.
Taxation, 280, 424.
Motor-vessels registered, 247.
Motor-works, 402.
Mountains, 2.
Mud Baths, 5.
Mules, 332.
Multiple Births, 70.
Municipal Debt, 478.
Municipal Tramways, 265—271.
Mutton consumed and exported, 343, 603.
Mutual Fire Insurance, 531.

N.

Nassau Island, 1, 673.
National Endowments, 306, 349.
National Expenditure Adjustment Act, 453, 482, 543, 606.
National Income, 574.
National Parks, 301.
National Prohibition, 665.
National Provident Fund, 465.
National Scholarships, 150.
National Wealth, 561.
Nationality, 53.
Of Migrants, 49.
Of Naturalized Persons, 53.
Of Vessels, 248.
Native Appellate Court, 313.
Native Bush, 26–33, 301, 349–356.
Native Grasses, 301, 328.
Native Land Court, 313.
Native Lands, 312–315.
Purchase of, 314.
Native Population, 62.
Native Schools, 147, 686.
Native Succession Duty, 430.
Native Trust Office, 314.
Native-land Purchase, 314.
Nativity Order, 69, 76.
Natural Increase of Population, 44, 66, 67.
Naturalization, 52.
Nauru Island, 2, 681.
Naval Defence, 184.
Naval Reserve, 185.
Navigators Islands (see Western Samoa).
Navy, 184.
Neo-natal Deaths, 96, 109.
Nephrite, 375.
Net State Indebtedness, 444, 694.
New Year Honours, 706.
“New Zealand,” H.M.S., 184–185.
New Zealand Mean Time, 24.
New Zealand Coinage and Currency, 502–510.
New Zealand Produce exported, 195–213, 662, 691.
New Zealand Representatives Abroad, 710.
New Zealand University, 142, 154.
Newspapers—
Posted, 289, 700.
Registered, 291.
Night Letter-telegrams, 292.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 160.
Niue Island, 1, 676.
No-license Issue, 665.
Nominal Wage-rates, 595–601.
Nomination of Assisted Immigrants,[50.
Note-issue, 505.
Notes in Circulation, 492, 499, 698.
Tax on, 430.
Notification of Births, 65.
Notification of Diseases, 110, 118.
Nukunono Island, 2, 683.
Nullity of Marriage, 159.
Nurseries and Plantations, 328, 358–362.
State, 358.
Nurses—
District, 133.
Registration of, 121.
Retiring-allowances to, 466.

0.

Oats, 322, 325, 326, 688.
Exported, 198, 209.
Observatory, Time Signals from, 24.
Occupation of Land, 298, 301.
Occupation with Right of Purchase, 306, 308.
Occupations—
Of Bankrupts, 554, 556.
Of Taxpayers, 565.
Ocean Cables, 296.
Ocean Island, 681.
Offences, 162–177.
Offenders Probation Act, 177.
Official Assignees, 551.
Official Representatives Abroad, 710.
Officiating Ministers, 85.
Oil-wells, 374.
Old-age Pensions, 453, 454.
Omnibus Traffic, 258, 260, 270, 283.
Onakaka Iron-ore, 371.
Onions, 322.
Opium, Prohibition of, 123.
Opossum-skins exported, 206.
Opticians, Registration of, 121.
Orchards, 329.
Orchard-tax, 330.
Origin of Immigrants, 48.
Origin of Imports, 217–225.
Ornamental Stones, 375.
Orphanages, 133.
Orphanhood, 91.
Otekaike Special School, 153.
Ottawa Conference, 226.
Outlying Islands, 1, 671.
Out-patients, 112, 131.
Maternity Hospitals, 132.
Overdraft Rates, 501.
Oversea Shipping, 248–252.
Oversea Trade, 186–246, 690.
Overseas Representatives, 710.
0verseas-passenger Duty, 430.
Overtime in Factories, 305.
Oyster-beds, 365.

P.

Pacific Cable, 296.
Pacific Islands, Annexed, 1, 673–677.
Packet Licenses, 664.
Palmerston Island, 1, 673.
Parapara Iron-ore Deposit, 371.
Parcel-post, 289, 290.
Parents, Ages of, 71, 74, 76.
Parks, National, 301.
Parliament, 38.
Members of, 707.
Parliamentary Elections, 39, 664.
Parliaments, Successive, 706.
Party-line Telephones, 293;
Passenger Tickets, Duty on, 430.
Passengers—
Inter-island, 54.
Motor-vehicle, 260, 270, 285.
Overseas, 46, 684.
Railway, 260, 701.
Tramway, 266.
Passenger-service Licenses, 285.
Passports, 51.
Pastoral Produce exported, 195–213.
Price Indexes, 211, 587.
Pastoral Production, 332–348.
Value of, 660.
Pasture Grasses, 327.
Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks, 657.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 136.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 111, 131.
Payments by, 127, 130.
Payments Overseas, Balance of, 191.
Peaks, Altitude of, 3.
Pears, 330.
Peas, 322.
Export of, 198–210.
“Pelorus Jack,” 34.
Pelts, Export of, 196–213.
Penal Institutions, 167–171.
Penrhyn Island, 1, 674.
Pensions, 453–466.
Permanent Building Societies, 536.
Permanent Heads of Departments, 708.
Permanent Military Forces, 178.
Permits and Passports, 51.
Permits, Building, 404, 407.
Petitions—
Bankruptcy, 551.
Divorce, 159.
Petrol, Regulation of Prices, 669.
Petroleum, 374.
Petrological Laboratory, 279.
Petrol-tax, 229, 276, 425.
Pharmacy, 123.
Phormium, 301. 328.
Fibre exported. 196–213, 693.
Grading of Fibre, 318.
Mills, 400.
Phosphate Rock, 375.
From Nauru Island. 681.
Phthisis, 99, 100. 115, 118.
Maori Deaths from. 108.
Miner S, 456.
Physical Education, 145.
Physicians, Registration of, 120.
Physiography, 1–8.
Pickle-factories, 399.
Pig-iron Production, 37.
Pigs, 346. 689.
Pilots, Air, 181, 183;
Pisciculture, 366.
Plaints, 158.
Plant Research, 318, 319, 351.
Plants, New Zealand. 26–33.
Plantations, 329, 359.
State, 358.
Plate-glass Insurance. 519.
Platinum. 372.
Pleasant Island (Nauru), 681.
Plumbers Registration, 122.
Plunket System, 93, 133.
Plural Births, 70.
Pneumoconiosis, Pensions for, 456.
Police, 161.
Superannuation, 460.
Policies, Insurance, 511–532.
Polling—
At By-elections, 664.
At General Elections, 064.
At Licensing Polls, 665.
Poll-tax on Chinese, 50.
Population. 42–64. 684.
Of Cook Islands, 43, 674.
Of Nauru Island. 43, 682.
Of Niue Island, 676.
Of Tokelau Islands, 43, 683.
Of Various Countries, 64.
Of Western Samoa, 679.
Of World, 63.
Pork consumed and exported, 346, 663.
Portfolios of Ministers, 704.
Portobello Marine Fish-hatchery, 366.
Ports—
Of Entry, 242.
Of Registry, 247.
Shipping of, 250.
Trade of, 242–246.
Post Office Employees, 296.
Accidents to, 635–643.
Superannuation of, 460.
Post Office Investment Certificates, 435.
Post Office Savings-bank, 500, 699.
Postal and Telegraphic. 289–297, 700.
Postal Notes. 291, 700.
Post-primary Education, 148.
Potatoes, 322, 325, 663.
Pottery-works, 401.
Poultry, 347, 667.
Pounamu, 375.
Power Boards, 467–478, 645, 697.
Power, Electric (see Electric).
Power used in Factories, 384.
Power used on Farms, 320.
Preferential Tariff, 226, 235–240.
Pregnancy, Diseases, &c., of, 103, 114.
Premiers, Successive, 703.
Premium Income. 511—532:
Prevention of Crime Act. 170.
Previous Convictions of Prisoners, 170.
Previous Issue of Parents, 71.
Prices, 576–593.
Effect on Exports, 189, 211.
Effect on Imports, 189.
Effect on Farm Expenditure, 590.
Of Stock, 440.
Producers', 661.
Primage Duty, 227, 232.
Primary Schools, 140–147, 157, 686.
Principal Events, 713.
Printing Establishments, 402.
Prisons and Prisoners, 167–171, 687.
Prisons Board, 171.
Private Assignments, 554.
Private Companies, 656, 667.
Private Hospitals, 131.
Private Income, Aggregate, 574.
Private Mental Hospital, 139.
Private Radio-stations, 294.
Private Railways, 263.
Private Savings-banks, 500.
Private Schools, 142, 147, 686.
Private Wealth, 559.
Probate, Estates passed for, 560.
Probation, 171.
Probationer Teachers, 146.
Proclamation of British Sovereignty, 2, 37.
Production—
Agricultural and Pastoral, 316–348, 660.
Dairy, 338, 397.
Factory, 379–403.
Local Consumption of, 662.
Mineral, 368–378.
Timber, 356.
Value of, 659.
Volume of, 661.
Production Districts, Exports of, 244.
Butter and Cheese, 339.
Profit-sharing, 605.
Prohibited Immigrants, 51.
Prohibition Issue, 665.
Prohibition Orders, 174.
Prorogation of Parliament, Dates of, 706.
Prospecting, State Aid to, 377.
Prospecting-drills, Government, 377.
Provident Fund, National, 465.
Provincial Districts, 40.
Area of, 55.
Building and Construction in, 407.
Fire Losses in, 529.
Industries in, 380.
Population of, 55.
Provisional State Forests, 349.
Public Debt, 435–445, 694.
Repayment of, 422, 438, 441.
Public Domains, 301.
Public Finance, 410–452, 694.
Public Health, 118–125.
Public Hospitals (see Hospitals).
Public Instruction, 140–157, 686.
Public Reserves, 299, 301, 306.
Public Schools, 140–157, 686.
Public Service, 708.
Civil Service Act Pensions, 460.
Employees, 710.
Superannuation, 460.
Public Trust Office, 653.
Public Wealth, 559.
Public Works—
Accidents, 635–643.
Employees, 626.
Fund, 416, 695.
Road Construction, 272.
Publicans' Licenses, 664.
Publications—
Education Department, 145.
General Bibliography, 721.
Of Census and Statistics Office [facing page 1].
Statistical Bibliography, 718.
Puerperal Accidents and Diseases, 103, 114, 132.
Puisne Judges, 705.
Pukapuka Island, 1, 673.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis (see Phthisis).
Pulse Crops, 322.
Pumpkins, 326.
Punishments by Courts, 164–177.
Pupils, School, 142–155, 686.
Purchase of Land for Settlement, 309, 310.
Pure Food Laws, 122.

Q

Quackery-prevention, 123.
Quarries, 376.
Quartz-mining, 369.
Quicksilver-mining, 372.
Quinnat Salmon, 367.
Quinquennial Census, 42.
Quorum—
Executive Council, 38.
House of Representatives, 40.
Quota, Country, 39.
Quotations, New Zealand Stock, 440.

R.

Rabbit Districts, 467–476.
Rabbit-skins exported, 198–213.
Race Aliens, 49.
Racing, Tax on, 431.
Radio Time-signals, 24.
Radio-broadcasting, 295.
Radio-telegraph, 294.
Raffle-tickets, Duty on, 430, 665.
Railway Accidents', 106, 263, 635–643.
Railway District, 467–476.
Railways, 254–264, 701.
Private, 263.
Revenue and Expenditure, 257, 413, 701.
Superannuation Fund, 464.
Rain Forests, 28, 352.
Rainfall, 15 23.
Rakahanga Island, 1, 673.
Rams, 333.
Rarotonga Island, 673.
Rateable Value of Land, 486.
Rates collected by Local Bodies. 434. 473, 696.
Rates of Exchange, 507.
Rates of Interest—
On Building Societies' Deposits, 536, 539.
On Fixed Deposits, 502, 536.
On Local Bodies' Debt, 469, 480.
On Mortgages, 548.
On Public Debt, 438, 440.
Paid by Post Office Savings-bank, 500.
Reduction of, 433, 438, 482, 543.
Rating by Local Bodies, 469.
On Unimproved Value, 470.
On Urban Farm Lands, 483.
Reapers-and-binders, 320.
Rebate of Rates, 474.
Receiving-homes, 153.
Recidivism, 170.
Reciprocal Tariff and Trade, 235–240.
Redemption of Loans, 422, 438, 441, 477, 481.
Redemption of Mortgages, 540.
Reduction of Interest, 433, 438, 482, 543.
Reduction of Rent, 541, 543.
Reduction of Wages, 595, 606.
Re-exports, 210.
From United Kingdom, 201.
Reformative Detention, 153, 170.
Regional Planning, 468.
Registered Companies, 654, 667.
Registered Mortgages, 540.
Registered Vessels, 247.
Registrars, Marriages before, 78, 84.
Registration—
Of Adopted Children, 75.
Of Apiaries, 348.
Of Applicants for Employment, 612.
Of Births, 65.
Of Che. lists, 123.
Of Companies, 654, 667.
Of Dairies, 338.
Of Dairy Companies, 338,
Of Deaths, 86.
Of Deeds, 302.
Of Dentists, 120.
Of Designs, 657.
Of Electors, 40.
Of Friendly Societies, 533.
Of Industrial Unions, 608.
Of Marriages, 78.
Of Masseurs, 122.
Of Maternity Nurses, 121.
Of Medical Practitioners, 120.
Of Midwives, 121.
Of Money-lenders, 667.
Of Mortgages, 540.
Of Motor-vehicles, 281.
Of Newspapers, 291.
Of Nurses and Mid wives, 121.
Of Opticians, 121.
Of Orchards; 330.
Of Patents, 657.
Of Pharmaceutical Chemists, 123.
Of Physicians, 120.
Of Plumbers, 122.
Of Poultry-runs, 347, 667.
Of Private Schools, 147.
Of Still-births, 75.
Of Titles, 302.
Of Trade-marks, 657.
Of Trade-unions, 608.
Of Vessels, 247.
Under Unemployment Act, 613–619.
Registry, Ports of, 247.
Relief Fund, Coal-miners', 378.
Relief Mortgagors, 541, 669.
Relief of Unemployed, 422, 613–623, 626, 670.
Religious Denominations—
Marriages by Ministers of, 84.
Ministers on Marriage List, 85.
Renewable Leases. 306, 308.
Rent Reduction, 541, 543.
Rent Restriction, 605, 667.
Renters, Film, Taxation of, 432.
Rents, House, 543, 580, 605.
Repatriation Advances, 310, 452.
Repayment of Public Debt, 422, 438, 441.
Reports, Departmental, 718.
Representatives Abroad, 710.
Representatives, House of, 39.
Members of, 707.
Reptiles, 35.
Research, Agricultural; 319.
Research. Coal, 373.
Research Institute, Wheat, 319.
Research Scholarships, 155.
Research, Silvicultural, 351.
Reserve Bank, 497–499, 506.
Reserved Profits of Banks, 491.
Reserves, Public, 299, 301, 306.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights, 159.
Restriction, Immigration, 51.
Retail Prices, 576–584.
Retardate Children, 153.
Revaluations, 484.
Of Soldier Properties, 311.
Revenue, Local Body, 127, 472, 696.
Revenue, Public, 410–422, 695.
Review of Legislation, 666.
Rhodes Scholarships, 155.
Richmond Special School, 153.
Rifle Clubs. 181.
River Districts. 467–486.
Rivers, 7.
Road Districts. 41. 407–478.
Road Transport, 270, 281–288.
Roads, 272–281.
On Goldfields, Subsidized, 377.
Taxation, 280. 422, 424.
Rock Oysters, 365.
Rocks, 8.
Rolling-stock—
Railway, 256.
Tramway, 265, 270.
Roman Catholic Schools, 147.
Root Crops, 301, 322, 326.
Ross Dependency, 2, 682.
Bibliography, 726.
Rotorua Nursery, 359.
Rotorua Thermal Springs, 3–7.
Rural Advances, 449.
Rural Intermediate Credit, 449.
Rural Mail Deliveries, 289.
Rural Mortgages, 546, 549, 562.
Rural Population, 39, 55–61.
Rye-grass, 327.

S.

Sailing-vessels registered, 247.
St. Helens Hospitals, 132.
Salary Cuts, 600.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 122.
Sales Tax, 433, 669.
Salmon, Acclimatization of, 367.
Samoa (sec Western Samoa).
San Pablo (Palmerston) Island, 673.
Sanatoria, 4, 111, 131.
Sanitary Plumbing, 122.
Sanitation, 118.
Sauce-factories, 399.
Sausage-casings, Export of, 196–2'3.
Savai'i Island, 678.
Savings-banks, 500, 699.
Sawmills, 356, 400.
Scaffolding Accidents, 635–643.
Scenic Reserves, 301.
Scheelite, 371.
Schemes, Unemployment Relief, 619–622.
Scholarships, 150, 155, 377.
School Committees, 140.
School Journal, 145.
School-children, 142–154, 686.
Dental Treatment for, 125.
Medical Inspection of, 124.
Schools, 140–157.
Dental Clinics, 125.
Of Mines, 377.
School-teachers, 141, 146–151.
Superannuation, 463.
Scrub Lands. 301.
Sea-fisheries, 363.
Seals, 34, 366.
Season Tickets, Railway, 261.
Secondary Education, 142, 148, 680.
Secondary Industries, 379–403.
Second-growth Land, 301.
Secular System of Education, 140.
Securities, Mortgage, 546.
Seed-gardens, 328.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 327.
Certification of, 318.
Exported, 198–210.
Seismology, 11–14.
Selections of Lands, 305, 307.
Senior Cadets, 178, 181.
Sentences on Criminals, 164–177. 687.
Separate Rates. 469.
Separation, Judicial, 159.
Separators, Cream, 320.
Service, Public (see Public Service).
Service-car licenses, 285.
Services, Army, Navy, and Air, 178–185.
Sessions, Parliamentary, Successive, 706.
Settlement Accounts, 419.
Settlement and Colonization, 37.
Settlement Conditions, Selections under, 307.
Settlement of Industrial Disputes, 632.
Settlement of Undeveloped Lands, 307.
Settlement, Small-farm, 407, 623.
Settlement Surveys, 298.
Settlements, Land for, 309.
Settlers, Advances to, 446–450.
Sex Proportions, 45.
Of Children born, 68.
Of Children dying. 94.
Of First-born, 69.
Of Hospital Patients, 113.
Of Illegitimate Infants, 70
Of Persons dying, 87.
Of Prisoners, 169.
Of School-children, 144–151.
Of School-teachers, 146–151.
Of Still-born Infants, 76.
Share Prices, Index Numbers, 591.
Sharebrokers' Licenses, 430.
Shares in Building Societies, 536.
Shares, Labour, 605.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 320.
Sheep, 332, 689.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 198–213.
Sheet-metal Works, 401.
Shipbuilding-works, 403.
Shipping, 247–253.
Ships, Registration of, 247.
Ships, Survey of, 253.
Shoe-factories, 400.
Short-time in Factories, 395.
Sick Funds, 263, 378, 534.
Sickness, 110–117, 534.
Signals, Time, 24.
Silver, 371.
Exported, 198–210, 368.
Silver Coins, New Zealand, 502.
Silviculture, 349, 358.
Singapore Naval Base. 185.
Sinking Funds, State, 443, 694.
Skins, Export of, 196–213.
Slaughter of Animals for Food. 343–346.
Slaughterhouses, 318, 343–346.
Slot Telephones, 293.
Sluicing, 369.
Small Farms for Unemployment Relief, 623.
Buildings constructed on, 407.
Snares Islands, 1, 32, 672.
Snowfall, 20.
Soap-factories, 399.
Social Hygiene Regulations, 119.
Social Welfare, 129.
Softwood Trees, 353.
Solander Island, 1, 672.
Soldiers, 178–184.
Acquisition of Land by, 310.
Dwellings, 311.
Financial Assistance to, 310, 452.
Pensions, 457.
War Bursaries for Dependants, 150.
Source of Income, 565.
South Africa, Reciprocity with, 237.
South African War Pensions, 458.
Southern Alps, 3.
Sown Grasses, Extent of, 301, 321–328.
Spas, 3.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 727.
Special Rates, 469.
Special Schools, 152.
Specie, Movement of, 193, 690.
Specific Duties, 235.
Spirits, Consumption of, ] 76, 663.
Springs, Hot, 3.
Staff Corps, 179.
Stakes, Tax on. 431.
Stamp Duties, 430, 433.
Estates certified for, 560.
Standardized Death-rates, 90.
Cancer, 101.
Standardized Marriage-rates, 79.
Standards, Administration of—
Length, 298, 667.
Weights and Measures, 123. 667.
State Accident Insurance, 522.
State Advances, 446–452.
State Afforestation, 358.
State Aid to—
Afforestation, 362.
Cold Storage, 452.
Crown Tenants, 307.
Discharged Soldiers, 310, 452.
Fishing Industry, 452.
Fruit-preserving Industry, 452.
Housing, 448, 451, 452.
Immigrants, 50.
Kauri-gum Industry, 375.
Local Authorities, 451.
Mining, 376.
Purchasers of Private Land, 310.
Settlers, 446–450.
Unemployed, 613–623, 626.
Water-power Development, 644.
Workers, 447, 451.
State Assets and Liabilities, 557.
State Coal-mines, 374.
State Finance, 410–452, 694.
State Fire Insurance, 531.
State Forests, 349.
State Indebtedness, 435–445, 694.
State Instruction, 140–157, 686.
State Insurance—
Accident, 522.
Fire, 531.
Life, 517.
State Maternity Hospitals, 132.
State Railways, 254–263, 701.
State Schools, 140–157, 686.
State Water-power Supply, 644.
Statistical Information, Latest [see Fore-front of Book].
Statistical Publications—
Bibliography, 718.
Of Census and Statistics Office [facing page 1].
Statistical Summary, 684–702.
Status of Aliens, 52.
Statutes of 1933, 006.
Steam-vessels registered, 247.
Sterling Values of New Zealand Currency. 607–509.
Sterling Values of Trade, 187.
Stewart Island, 1, 671.
Oysters, 365.
Population. 58.
Still-births, 75, 97.
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts (see Courts).
Stock, Lave (see Live-stock).
Stock, Quotations for. 440.
Stone-quarries, 370.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 375.
Strandings of Vessels. 253.
Street-lighting, 649. 650.
Streets and Roads. Length of. 272.
Strikes, 628–634.
Stud Sheep, 333.
Students, University, 142, 154. 686.
Subdivision of Land, 309, 425.
Submarine Cable, 296.
Subsidies for Building, 021.
Subsidies, Main Highways, 270.
Subsidies to Aero Clubs, 182.
Subsidies to Hospital Boards, 120.
Subsidized Prospecting, 377.
Subsidized Roads on Goldfields, 377.
Subsidy to County Councils and Road Boards, 474.
Succession Duty, 428, 429.
Suffrage, 40.
Sugar, Duty on, 228, 232.
Sugar-prices, 578.
Suicide, 106, 161.
Sulphur, 372.
Baths. 5.
Summary Convictions. 103, 687.
Summer Time (Daylight Saving), 24, 007.
Sumner School for Deaf, 154.
Sunday Island, 672.
Sunshine, 20.
Superannuation, 400–465.
Supreme Court (see Courts).
Surpluses, 414.
Surrenders. Life Insurance, 513. 515.
Surtax, 227. 232.
Preferential, 220, 235.
Surveys, 298.
Geological, 376.
Of Ships. 253.
Sustenance Allowances, 422, 607, 623,.;,
Suwarrow Island, 1, 673.
Sweepstakes, 666.
Sympathetic Strikes, 629–034.
Syphilis, 119.
Syrians, 49.

T.

Table Mortgages, 544.
State Advances, 448.
Takutea Island, 1, 673.
Tallow exported, 196–213, 691.
Tanneries, 402.
Taranaki Scholarships, 155.
Tariff Commission, 220.
Tariff, Customs, 226–241.
Tasman's Discovery of New Zealand, 36.
Tax, Land and Income. 423, 425, 502, 564.
Taxation, 423–434, 695.
Customs, 230. 424.
Local, 434, 472.
Motor-spirits, 229, 276, 425.
Orchards, 330.
Sales, 433, 669.
Unemployment, 421, 432.
Taxpayers, Land and Income. 502, 504–575.
Te Au-o-Tu Island, 1, 073.
Tea, Duty on, 228, 232, 230.
Teachers, Public-school, 141, 140–151.
Superannuation Fund, 463.
Technical Education, 142, 151, 686.
Telegraph Services, 292.
Telephones, 292.
Temperature, 17–23.
Tenants, Relief of, 541, 669.
Tenure of Occupied Lands, 300.
Tenures, Selection Lands, 306–310.
Terminating Building Societies, 530.
Territorial Forces, 178.
Thermal Regions, 3.
Third-party Risks, 521.
Three Kings Islands, 1, 671.
Threshing-machines, 320.
Thunder, 21.
Tile-making, 401.
Timber—
Carried on Railways, 261.
Export, 196–213, 357, 693.
Export Duty, 230.
Import Duty on, 229, 238.
Output, 356, 400.
Plantations, 349. 358–362.
Resources, 349.
Sales, 357.
Trees, 353.
Time lost—
In Factories, 395.
Through Industrial Accidents, 640.
Through Industrial Disputes, 628.
Time Service and Mean Time, 24.
Time Signals, 24.
Tin, 372.
Tinware-works, 401.
Tire-tax, 229, 280, 425.
Title, Certificates of. issued, 303.
Titles, Compulsory Registration of, 302.
Tobacco, 330.
Duty on, 228, 232.
Excise Duty on 230, 232.
Imports of,'210, 217. 221.
Tokelau Islands, 2, 683.
Toll Communications, 292.
Tolls by Local Bodies, 473.
Ton-miles, Railway, 262.
Tonnage of Registered Vessels, 247.
Tonnage of Shipping, 248–252.
Tonnage of Trade, 243.
Tonnage Statistics, Port, 243.
Top-dressing, 331.
Totalizator Taxation, 431.
Tourist Agents Abroad. 710.
Tourists, 48.
Tourists Rail Rickets issued, 261.
Tournaments, Card. 669
Town Districts, 41, 407–178.
Capital and Unimproved Values. 489.
Debt, 478.
Population, 60.
Town Land, Mortgages on, 546, 549.
Town-planning, 468.
Townships, Population of, 61.
Tractors on Farms, 320.
Trade, 186–246, 690.
Balance of 187, 189, 191.
Cook Islands, 675.
Niuo Island, 677.
Representatives, 710.
Western Samoa, 680.
Trade-marks, 657.
Trade-unions, 604. 608–611.
Trading Accounts, 420.
Trading Banks, 490.
Trading Companies' Deposits, 495.
Traffic-
Accidents, 106, 176, 287.
Motor, 260, 270, 283–288.
Offences, 176.
Railway, 260.
Tramway, 266.
Training of Defence Forces, 178–185.
Training of Teachers, 146.
Training-farm, Reformative, 153.
Train-miles run, 262, 701.
Tramway District, 467.
Tramways, 265–271.
Accidents, 106, 287.
Transfer, Land, 302.
Transfers between Accounts, 411.
Transhipments of Cargo. 243–246.
Transit Trade. 210.
Transport, 247–288.
Co-ordination Board, 284.
District, Urban, 467–476.
Licensing Act, 283.
Travelling Scholarships, 155.
Trawlers, 365.
Treasury Bills, 439, 506, 510.
Treaty of Waitangi, 37, 312.
Tree-planting, 358–362.
Trees, Indigenous, 26–33, 352–356.
Triennial Parliaments, 39.
Triplets, 70.
Tropical Diseases in Samoa, 679.
Trout, Acclimatization of, 366.
Truck Act, 604.
Trustee Amendment Act, 1933, 668.
Trustee, Native, 314.
Trustee, Public, 653.
Trustee Savings-banks, 500.
Tuberculosis, 99–101, 111. 115.
Maori Deaths from, 108.
Tungsten-ore, 371.
Turkeys, 347.
Turnips, 322, 326.
Tussock Land, 301, 328.
Twins and Triplets born, 70.

U.

Unclaimed Moneys of Insurance Offices, 511.
Undergraduates, 142, 154.
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion, 51.
Undeveloped Land, Settlement of, 307.
Undischarged Bankrupts, 552.
unemployment, 612–627.
Buildings on Small Farms. 407.
Fund, 421.
Taxation, 422. 432.
Unimproved Occupied Land, 301.
Unimproved Value of Land, 483–480.
Holdings, 549, 562.
Land-tax assessed on, 423, 425, 562.
Rating on, 470.
Union (Tokelau) Inlands, 2, 653.
Unions, Trade. 604, 608–611.
University Education. 142. 154, 686.
Unproductive Land, 299. 301.
Unproductive Island, 299. 301
Urban Areas, 57.
Fire Losses, 528.
Population, 57.
Unemployed registered in, 616.
Urban Drainage Districts, 467–476.
Urban Drift, 56.
Urban Farm Lands, Rating on, 483.
Urban Population, 55.
Urban Security, Mortgages on, 546, 549.

V.

Valuation of Land, 483–489, 668.
Value added in Manufacturing, 380–395.
Value, in Sterling, of Dominion Trade, 187.
Value of Exports affected by Prices, 211.
Value of Land Holdings, 549. 562.
Value of Production, 659.
Veal slaughtered and exported, 344.
Vegetation, 26–33, 352–356.
Vehicles—
Motor (see Motor-vehicles).
Railway, 256.
Tramway, 265, 270.
Venereal Diseases, Control of, 119.
Vessels—
Employed in Fishing Industry, 365.
Entered and cleared, 248.
Nationality of, 248.
Registered, 247.
Survey of, 253.
War, 184.
Wrecked, 253.
Village-settlements Tenures, 306.
Villages, Population of, 61.
Vinegar-factories, 399.
Vineyards, 301, 330.
Violent Deaths, 105, 161.
(See also Accidents.)
Virgin Bush, Area of, 301, 340.
Visible Trade balance, 187, 189, 191.
Visitors to New Zealand, 47.
Vital Statistics, 65–117, 685.
Cook Islands, 674.
Nine Island, 670.
Western Samoa, 679.
Viticulture, 330.
Volcanoes, 2, 10.
Voluntary Contributions to Hospitals, 127
Voluntary Mental Patients, 137.
Voting—
At General Elections, 664.
At Licensing Polls, 665.
Qualifications, 40.
Vouchers, Audit of, 410.

W.

Wage-rates, 594–602.
Wages—
Lost through Industrial Accidents, 64:
Lost through Industrial Disputes, 628.
Of Afforestation Employees, 361.
Of Building Employees, 405.
Of Electric-supply Employees, 648.
Of Factory Employees, 382.
Reduction of, 595, 606.
Waikaremoana Power-supply, 644.
Waikato Power-supply, 644.
Waipori Power-supply, 644.
Waitaki Power-supply, 644.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 37, 312.
Waitangi Treaty Site, Gift of, 37.
Wakari Private Mental Hospital, 139.
War, 178, 183.
Bursaries, 150.
Expenditure, 437.
Increases in Food-prices, 580.
Indebtedness, 437.
Pensions, 457.
Taxation, 425.
Warships, 184.
Water-power, 644–652.
On Farms, 320.
Waterproof-material Factories, 399.
Waters, Mineral, 3.
Water-supply Districts, 467–476.
Wealth, 557–563.
Weather, 14–23.
Weights and Measures, 123, 298, 667.
Wellington Traffic Accidents, 287.
Weraroa Training-farm, 153.
Western Samoa, 2, 677–681.
Bibliography of, 725.
Naturalization, 53.
Population of, 679.
Radio-communications, 294.
Wethers, 333.
Whales, 34.
Whaling, 34, 37, 366, 682.
Wheat, 322–325, 688.
Consumption of, 324, 662.
Duty on, 228.
Export of, 198, 209.
Levy on, 319.
Research Institute, 319.
Whey Butter, 340.
White Island Sulphur, 372.
Wholesale Licenses, 664.
Wholesale Prices, 585.
Widows—
Left by Married Men, 92.
Pensions for, 453, 455.
Re-marriages of, 81.
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 653.
Wind, 14, 21.
Wine, Consumption of, 176, 603.
Wine Licenses, 664. »
Wine-makers' Licenses, 665.
Wire (Telegraph), Miles of, 292.
Wireless (see Radio).
Withdrawals from Savings-banks, 500, 699.
Wives' Petitions in Divorce, 160.
Women—
Deaths of, in Childbirth, 103, 132.
Offences by, 173.
Suffrage for, 40.
Wage-rates of, 598.
Working-hours of, 601.
Wool, 334.
Exported, 196–213, 335, 691.
Stocks of, 335.
Used at Local Mills, 335, 403.
Woollen-mills, 403.
Wool purchased by, 335, 403.
Wool-presses on Farms, 320.
Wool-scouring Works, 402.
Workers, Advances to, 451.
Workers' Compensation, 603, 606, 036.
Insurance, 520.
Workers' Dwellings, 451, 452, 604.
Workers' Educational Association, 156.
Workers' Unions, 604, 608–611.
Workers' Weekly Railway Tickets, 201.
Working Railways Account, 257, 413.
Working-days lost through Industrial Disputes, 628–634.
Working-hours, 601.
Working-men's Clubs, 533.
World's Gold-production, 371.
World's Population, 63.
Wrecks, 253.

Y.

Yaws in Samoa, 679.
Yields of Crops, 323–327, 688.

Z.

Zoology, 33–35.