THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1929.

THE Dominion of New Zealand consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. These may be classified as follows:—

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30' S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Royal Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of cast longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then Colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Group of islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned in the following schedule, were included as from the 11th June, 1901:—

A line commencing at a point at the intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and proceeding due north to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; and thence due east to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich.

By mandate of the League of Nations the New Zealand Government also now administers the former German possession of Western Samoa; and, jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, holds the League's mandate over the Island of Nauru.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, and named the Ross Dependency. The Governor-General of New Zealand is Governor of the Ross Dependency, and is vested with the administration of the dependency.

By Imperial Orders in Council of the 4th November, 1925, the Union or Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofu, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and powers in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of the 8th March, 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand, which does not include the territories administered under mandate, the Ross Dependency, and the Tokelau Islands, is 103,862 square miles. The areas of the principal islands are as follows:—

The mountainous character of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Other dormant volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, both of which have, in recent years, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island contains much more mountainous country than is to be found in the North. Along almost its entire length runs the mighty chain known as the Southern Alps, rising to its culmination in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.). No fewer than sixteen peaks of the Southern Alps attain a height of over 10,000 ft. Owing to the snow-line being low in New Zealand, many large and beautiful glaciers exist. The Tasman Glacier (Southern Alps), which has a total length of over eighteen miles and an average width of one mile and a quarter, is the largest. On the west coast the terminal face of the Franz Josef Glacier is but a few hundred feet above sea level.

The following list of named peaks over 7,000 ft. in height has been compiled from various sources. It does not purport to cover all such peaks, nor is exactitude claimed in respect of the elevations shown, many of which are known to be only approximate.

The hot springs of the North Island form one of the most remarkable features of New Zealand. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some three hundred miles; but the principal seat of hydrothermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces at Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood was deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints—are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognized by the Government, and it is dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

There are also several small hot springs in the South Island, the best-known being those at Hanmer.

The following article on the mineral waters and spas of New Zealand is by the Government Balneologist, Dr. J. D. C. Duncan, M.B., Ch.B. (Edin.), Member of the International Society of Medical Hydrology, Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society:-

The following account of the rivers of New Zealand has been written by Professor R. Speight, M.Sc., F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum:—

In a country like New Zealand, with marked variations in topographic relief and with a plentiful and well-distributed rainfall, the rivers must necessarily form characteristic features of the landscape. Mountains, however, exert an important influence on their adaptability to the necessities of commerce, reducing their value on the one hand while increasing it on the other. Owing to the steep grades of their channels few of the rivers are fitted for navigation except near their months, but to compensate for this disability they furnish in many places ideal sites for power plants, which will in all probability be so utilized in the near future that New Zealand may become the manufacturing centre of the Southern Hemisphere. No country south of the Equator, except Chile and Patagonia, possesses such stores of energy conveniently placed, which cannot become exhausted until the sun fails to raise vapour from the neighbouring seas—a contingency to be realized only when life on the earth is becoming extinct.

The only part of the country which possesses rivers capable of being used for navigation is the North Island. The relief is not so marked as in the South, and many streams flow in deep beds, with somewhat sluggish current. There are flowing into the Tasman Sea rivers like the Waikato, Wairoa, Mokau, and Wanganui, which served the Maoris as important means of communication, and which are decidedly useful for the purposes of modern transport. The first-mentioned of these is by far the most important. Rising in the snows of Ruapehu, and receiving numerous affluents from the western slopes of the Kaimanawa Range, it pursues a northerly course for twenty miles with all the features of a mountain torrent till it enters Lake Taupo. Almost immediately on leaving this it plunges over the Huka Falls, formed by a hard ledge of volcanic rock, and then runs first north-east and then north-west till it reaches the sea, the amount of water discharged exceeding 800,000 cubic feet per minute. In certain parts of its course the valley is gorge-like in character and picturesque rapids obstruct its navigation, but in its lower reaches it widens out and flows for long distances through marshes and shallow lakes, and empties into the sea by a wide estuary, which is unfortunately blocked by a bad bar. It receives on the west a large tributary, the Waipa—itself also navigable for small steamers, and a river which may ultimately play no small part in the development of the south-western portion of the Auckland Province.

The Northern Wairoa shows features which resemble those of the Waikato. It rises in the hilly land of the North Auckland Peninsula, and flows south as a noble stream till it enters Kaipara Harbour, a magnificent sheet of water with many winding and far-reaching arms, but with its utility greatly discounted by the presence of a bar which, though with sufficient depth of water for vessels of moderate size, is frequently impracticable. The total estimated discharge from the streams running into the Kaipara Harbour is about 500,000 cubic feet per minute, of which the Wairoa certainly contributes one-half.

The Mokau River, which enters the sea about sixty miles north-east of New Plymouth, is navigable for a considerable distance in its lower reaches. Here it is flanked by limestone bluffs, clad with a wealth of ferns and other native vegetation, forming one of the most picturesque rivers of the county. Higher up, as in the Waikato, there are fine falls, which may ultimately be used for power purposes owing to their proximity to one of the important agricultural districts of the North Island.

The last of the four principal navigable rivers on the west coast is the Wanganui. This river gathers its initial supplies from the western flanks of the volcanic ridge of the centre of the Island, from which numerous streams run west over the Waimarino Plain in somewhat open channels till they coalesce and form the main river. Other tributaries, such as the Tangarakau and the Maunganui-te-ao, subsequently add their quota, and the river then flows in a southerly direction in loops and windings depressed far below the level of the coastal plain, between high papa bluffs clad with rich vegetation, till it reaches the sea as a deep tidal stream, the amount of its discharge being estimated at over 500,000 cubic feet per minute. Through the greater part of its course it has a characteristic trench-like channel, with a fairly even gradient, and with only slight interruptions from rapids. At low water these are most troublesome, but at times of high river-level they are passed without serious difficulty. This fine stream affords communication into a country difficult of access by road or railway, and it may be taken as typical of other smaller streams to the west, such as the Waitotara, the Patea, and the Waitara, which are navigable to a less extent, principally owing to the obstructions of timber in their channels; while the rivers lying more to the east and with courses parallel to the Wanganui—e.g., the Rangitikei and the Wangaehu—are more rapid and have little adaptability to the needs of transport. Further east still, in the neighbourhood of the Ruahine Mountains, the rivers become true mountain torrents, with steep grades and rapid currents.

On the other coast of the North Island the only streams capable of being used for navigation except just at their mouths are those running into the Firth of Thames—the Piako and the Waihou. But no account of our navigable rivers would be complete without a reference to the “drowned rivers” which characterize the northern parts of the Island. The Kaipara may be taken as a typical case of such, for the harbour merely represents the depressed and sunken lower reaches of the Wairoa and other streams. A further notable case is the Hokianga River, which runs for twenty miles between wooded hills and receives numerous tributaries from them, tidal for a considerable part of their courses, and allowing water communication to be used for at least fifteen miles from the point where actual discharge into the open sea takes place.

The remaining rivers of the North Island of any importance rise in the mountain axis that stretches from near Wellington towards the eastern margin of the Bay of Plenty. Towards the southern end, where it lies close to the shore of Cook Strait, the rivers from it are short and swift, the only exception being the Manawatu, which has cut a deep gorge in the mountain barrier and drains an extensive basin lying on the eastern flanks of the Ruahine Range to the north, and of the Tararua Range to the south, as well as a considerable area of country on the slopes of the Puketoi Range, its headwaters in this direction reaching nearly to the east coast of the Island. The Manawatu has an estimated discharge of over 600,000 cubic feet per minute, and judging by this it must be considered the second-largest river in the North Island. Although the Manawatu is the only stream which has succeeded up to the present in cutting through the range at its head, several of the rivers flowing west have eaten their way far back, and in future ages will no doubt struggle with the Manawatu for the supremacy of that tract of land lying to the cast of the range. Remarkable changes are likely to occur in the direction of drainage, especially if the earth-movements now in progress in the neighbourhood of Cook Strait continue for any lengthy period.

The central and southern parts of the Tararua and Rimutaka Ranges are drained by the Ohau, Otaki, Waikanae, and other streams flowing into Cook Strait; by the Hutt River, which flows into Wellington Harbour; and by the Ruamahanga and its tributaries, flowing through the Wairarapa Plain. These last include within their basins some amount of papa-country as well as steep mountain-slopes. While in the former they run in deep narrow channels, but when free from it they spread at times over wide shingly beds in a manner more characteristic of the streams of the South Island.

Several large rivers rise in the Ruahine Mountains and their northerly extensions. The chief of these flowing into Hawke Bay are the Ngaururoro, Tukituki, Mohaka, and Wairoa, the first being noteworthy for the enormous amount of shingle it has brought down; while farther north the Waipaoa runs into Poverty Bay and the Waiapu into the open sea, both draining an extensive area of rich papa land. From the north-western side of the range the Whakatane and the Rangitaiki, two considerable streams, flow into the Bay of Plenty.

The chief factor which determines the characters of the rivers of the South Island is the great mountain mass of the Southern Alps, with its extensions and semi-detached fragments. Its general direction is parallel to the west coast of the Island, and nearer to this coast than to the eastern one; it also lies right athwart the path of the wet westerly winds which prevail in these latitudes. The moisture collected during their passage across the Tasman Sea is precipitated in the form of rain on the coastal plain and the hills behind it, while the mountain-tops intercept it chiefly in the form of snow, the amount of annual rainfall varying from about 100 in. at sea-level up to over 200 in. near the main divide. The eastern slopes of the range receive less rain, and are increasingly drier as the coast is approached, but there the amount is slightly augmented by moist winds coming from the open ocean to the east. In the higher mountain valleys on both sides of the range lie numerous glaciers, either of the small cliff type or large ones of the first order, the most notable being the Tasman, Hooker, Mueller, Godley, Rangitata, Lyell, and Ramsay on the east, and the Franz Josef and Fox on the west. The chief large rivers of the central district of the Island rise from the terminals of the glaciers and issue from the ice as streams of considerable volume. They reach their highest level in spring and summer, for not only does the heavier rainfall of that time of the year serve to swell them inordinately, but the snow and ice are melted under the combined influence of the rain itself and of the strong sun-heat. Although they are almost always more or less turbulent and dangerous to the traveller who attempts to ford them—in the warm months of the year they are liable to sudden and serious floods, and formerly they frequently blocked communication for weeks at a stretch—now, however, many of the worst streams have been bridged, and communication is thus easier and less precarious.

The general form of these valleys is of a fairly uniform type. Their heads are usually amphitheatre-like in shape, and for some distance they are occasionally covered by old moraines, and the course of the stream is impeded by huge angular blocks washed out of these or shed from the steep slopes; at times, too, the rivers flow through deep and somewhat narrow gorges. Lower down the valleys open out, with even steep sides, nearly perpendicular at times, and with flat floors covered by a waste of shingle, over which the rivers wander in braided streams. The sides are clad with dense bush for a height of approximately 2,500 ft., that merges into a tangle of subalpine scrub, to be succeeded after another 1.000 ft. by open alpine meadow, gradually passing upward into bare rock and perpetual snow.

After leaving the mountains the streams flowing to the West Coast cross the narrow fringe of aggraded coastal plain, and cut down their channels through old glacial drifts which furnished in former times rich leads of alluvial gold. The mouths of these rivers are usually blocked by shallow bars, but after heavy floods a channel may be scoured out, only to be closed, when the river falls, by the vast quantities of drift material moved along the beach by the heavy seas and the strong shore currents which sweep the open coast. It is only where it is possible to confine the river-mouths and direct their scour that open channels can be permanently maintained, and even these entrances are at times extremely dangerous to shipping.

The chief rivers which flow from the central portion of the Southern Alps to the Tasman Sea are the Taramakau, Hokitika, Wanganui, Wataroa, Waihao, Karangarua, Haast, and Arawata. All rise in glaciers, and their valleys are remarkable for their magnificently diversified bush and mountain scenery. Occasionally lakes, ponded back behind old moraines or lying in rock-bound basins and fringed with primeval forest, lend charm to the landscape, and make a journey along the Westland Plain one of the most delightful in New Zealand from the scenic point of view.

Farther north glaciers are absent, but the heavy rain feeds numerous large streams and rivers, the most notable being the Grey and the Buller, the latter being in all probability the largest on the west coast, the amount of its discharge being estimated at nearly 1,000,000 cubic feet per minute.

The general features of the rivers which flow into the West Coast Sounds are somewhat similar, except that few rise in glaciers, and there is no fringe of plain to the mountains. The valleys have steeper sides, waterfalls and lakes are more common, and are ideally situated for power installations. One of the large rivers of this area is the Hollyford, which flows into Martin's Bay; but the largest of all is the Waiau, which drains the eastern side of the Sounds region, receives the waters of Lakes Te Anau, Manapouri, and Monowai, and enters the sea on the south coast of the Island.

The rivers on the eastern slope of the Alps present features similar to those of the west coast in their upper courses, but the valleys are broader and flatter, floored from wall to wall with shingle and frequently containing large lakes of glacial origin. In those cases where lakes do not now exist there are undoubted signs that they occurred formerly, having been emptied by the erosion of the rock-bars across their lower extremities and filled at the same time by detrital matter poured in at their heads.

The largest of all these rivers is the Clutha; in fact, it discharges the greatest volume of water of any river in New Zealand, the amount being estimated at over 2,000,000 cubic feet per minute. The main streams which give rise to this river flow into Lakes Wanaka and Hawea, and have their sources in the main divide to the north of the ice-clad peak of Mount Aspiring and in the neighbourhood of the Haast Pass. After flowing as a united stream for nearly thirty miles it receives from the west a tributary nearly as large as itself called the Kawarau, whose discharge has been accurately gauged by Professor Park at 800,000 cubic feet per minute. This great volume of water is due to the fact that the Kawarau drains Lake Wakatipu, which serves as a vast reservoir for the drainage of a considerable area of mountain country, including snow-clad peaks at the head of the lake. The united streams continue in a south-easterly direction, and their volume is substantially increased by the Manuherikia on the east bank as well as by the Pomahaka on the west. The course of the Clutha lies through the somewhat arid schist region of Central Otago, gorge alternating with open valley and river-flats; but some ten miles or so before it reaches the sea it divides, only to reunite lower down and thus include the island known as Inch-Clutha. It almost immediately afterwards enters the sea, but its outlet is of little use as a harbour owing to a shifting and dangerous bar. Portions of its course are navigable to a very limited extent, but it is more important commercially, since it has yielded by means of dredging operations great quantities of gold; in fact, it may be regarded as a huge natural sluice-box, in which the gold disseminated through the schists of Central Otago has been concentrated through geological ages into highly payable alluvial leads.

The following large rivers belong to the Southland and Otago District, but do not reach back to the main divide—the Jacobs, Oreti, Mataura, and Taieri; and forming the northern boundary of the Otago Provincial District is the Waitaki, which drains a great area of alpine country, and includes in its basin Lakes Tekapo, Pukaki, and Ohau. Its main affluents are the Tasman and the Godley, rising in glaciers of the same names near the axis of the range where it is at its highest. As the river approaches the sea it crosses shingle-plains, through which it has cut a deep channel flanked by terraces, which rise bench-like for some hundreds of feet above the present level of the river. Its general features are similar to those of the rivers of Canterbury farther north, except that a larger proportion of the course of the latter lies across the plains and uninterfered with in any way by the underlying harder and more consolidated rocks. The four principal rivers which rise in glaciers are the Rangitata, Ashburton, Rakaia, and Waimakariri; while farther north are the Hurunui and Waiau, snow- and rain-fed rivers rising in the main range beyond the northerly limit of glaciers; and there are other streams—such as the Waihao, Pareora, Opihi, Selwyn, Ashley, and Waipara—which do not reach beyond the outer flanking ranges, and are almost entirely rain-supplied.

According to recent investigations the low-water discharge of the Waimakariri is approximately 80,000 cubic feet per minute, but it frequently rises in normal flood to 500,000 cubic feet per minute.

The rivers flowing to the East all carry down enormous quantities of shingle, but in former times they carried down even more, and built up the wide expanse of the Canterbury Plains by the coalescing and overlapping of their fans of detritus, the depth of shingle certainly exceeding 1,000 ft. Subsequently, when conditions, climatic or otherwise, slightly altered, they cut down deep through this incoherent mass of material, forming high and continuous terraces. Nowhere is the terrace system more completely developed than at the point where the rivers enter on the plains, for there the solid rock that underlies the gravels is exposed, and by the protection that it affords to the bases of old river flood-plains or former terraces it contributes materially to their preservation in a comparatively uninjured condition. The valleys of all these rivers are now almost treeless except in their higher parts, but there the mixed bush of Westland is replaced by the sombre beech forest; it is only in exceptional cases that the totara, which forms an important element of the bush on the hills to the west, crosses the range and covers portions of the sides of the valleys on the east.

Both the Hurunui and the Waiau have cut down gorges through semidetached mountain masses of older Mesozoic rock, a result probably accelerated by the movements of the earth's crust; and farther north, in Marlborough, the Clarence, Awatere, and Wairau have their directions almost entirely determined by a system of huge parallel earth-fractures, running north-east and south-west, and the rivers are walled in on either side by steep mountains for the greater part of their length. The Clarence Valley is the most gorge-like, since it lies between the great ridges known as the Seaward and Inland Kaikouras, which reach a height of about 9,000 ft. The last river of the three, the Wairau, flows for a considerable distance through a rich alluvial plain, and enters Cloudy Bay by an estuary which is practicable for small steamers as far as the Town of Blenheim. The most important of the streams on the southern shores of Cook Strait are the Pelorus, Motueka, Takaka, and Aorere, great structural faults being chiefly responsible for the position and characteristic features of the valleys of the last two.

An important commercial aspect of our rivers is their use not only as drainage channels, but as a source of water for pastoral purposes. Hardly any area is without water for stock or with a subsoil wanting in moisture necessary for successful cultivation. Only in Central Otago and on the Canterbury Plains were there formerly wide stretches of arid country, but the deficiency in the water-supply has been remedied by well-engineered systems of races, tapping unfailing streams at higher levels, and distributing a portion of their contents far and wide, so that the districts mentioned are rendered highly productive and absolutely protected from the serious effects of drought. It is, however, the rich alluvial flats and well-drained terrace lands bordering on the rivers that contribute specially to the high average yield per acre year after year for which this country has such a world-wide reputation.

From the brief summary given above it will be evident also that in her rivers the country possesses enormous stores of energy awaiting exploitation. A beginning has been made in some places, such as at Waipori in Otago, at Lake Coleridge in Canterbury, at the Horohoro Falls and at Arapuni on the Waikato River in Auckland, at Mangahae in Wellington, and at a few other places where there are minor installations. These owe their development to their comparative nearness to centres of industry; but they represent an infinitesimal portion of the energy available, and the value of our vast store will be more truly appreciated when our somewhat limited reserves of coal show signs of failure or become difficult to work—unless, indeed, some new form of power is disclosed by the researches of science in the near future.

A list of the more important rivers of New Zealand is given, with their approximate lengths, the latter being supplied by the Department of Lands and Survey.

The following article on the lakes of New Zealand is also by Professor R. Speight:—

Lakes are features of the landscape which are usually attributable to the filling-up of hollows formed by faulting or warping, or by volcanic explosions, or by the irregular accumulation of material round volcanic vents, or to the interference with river-valleys by glaciers. Seeing that all these agencies have operated on an extensive scale in New Zealand in comparatively recent geological times, it is not surprising that its lake systems are well developed. The remarkable group of lakes lying in the middle of the North Island, as well as isolated enclosed sheets of water in other parts of the Auckland Provincial District, are due to volcanic action in its various forms, while those in the South Island are to be credited to the operations of glaciers. We have therefore two distinct types of lake scenery, one for each Island. The relief of the land near the volcanic lakes is not by any means marked, and they therefore rarely have bold and precipitous shores, and their scenic interest depends partly on the patches of subtropical bush which grows luxuriantly in places on the weathered igneous material, and partly on their desolate and forbidding surroundings, everywhere reminiscent of volcanic action, where the softening hand of time has not reduced the outpourings of the eruptive centres to a condition favourable for the establishment of vegetation. The thermal activity which is manifested in numerous places on their shores adds to their interest. In the South Island the lakes lie in the midst of splendid mountain scenery, with amphitheatres of noble peaks at their heads, crowned with perpetual snow, and clad at lower levels with dark primeval beech forest, which affords an appropriate setting for the waters at their base, rendered milky-white at times with the finest of sediment worn from solid rocks by powerful glaciers, and swept down to the quiet waters of the lake by turbulent glacial torrents.

The following article on the geology of New Zealand was prepared by the late Mr. P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.S. (Director), and other members of the Geological Survey:—

The geological history of New Zealand is long and complicated, and is as yet by no means clearly deciphered. Since the beginning of the Palæozoic era that portion of the earth's crust where New Zealand is shown on the map has many times been elevated and depressed. Sometimes the land and the neighbouring ocean-floor as a whole have risen or fallen; at other times movement has been more or less local. Thus from age to age the land has greatly varied in outline, and whilst in one period it becomes a continent, in another it nearly or quite disappears beneath the ocean. The actual surface has been almost equally variable, for the mountain-chains of early periods have been planed down by denudation, and new mountains have risen to take their places. In short, the story of the land has been one of incessant, though as a rule slow-moving, change, and if the student would rightly interpret that story he must ever bear in mind that New Zealand in the past has never been quite or even nearly the same as we see it now. With the scanty materials at hand he must endeavour to reconstruct the land as it existed during past ages. A rich field for original research is open to the New Zealand geologist. Little has yet been accomplished in comparison with what remains to be done. There are many absorbing problems—some of great economic importance, some of world-wide interest—awaiting solution by the patient scientific worker.

The following article on earthquakes in New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. C. E. Adams, D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer and Seismologist, with the assistance of Dr. J. Henderson, D.Sc., Director of the Geological Survey:—

The Wellington earthquake of 23rd January, 1855, received a full notice in Sir Charles Lyell's classic work “The Principles of Geology,”^* and probably largely on that account the attention of the scientific world was attracted to this feature of the natural phenomena of New Zealand. But since that earthquake, during which the level of the land in the neighbourhood of Wellington Harbour was raised about 5 ft., there has been no shock in the New Zealand region proper which has at all approached the destructive phase. Indeed, of about 2,370 earthquakes recorded as having origins in or near New Zealand, that of 1848^° is the only other earthquake comparable in intensity to that of 1855; and the average intensity of all the earthquakes thus recorded is between III and IV on the Rossi-Forel scale—or, in other words, just sufficient to make pictures hung on walls move a little, and to cause doors and windows to creak or rattle slightly. In about twenty instances the force has been sufficient near the origin to overturn some chimneys (for the most part badly constructed ones), and in a very few buildings to crack walls or ceilings of faulty design. In about fifty other earthquakes such phenomena have been noted as the stopping of clocks, without any damage. The great majority of shocks have passed unperceived by the ordinary observer, and have been recorded only by means of instruments.

Earthquakes are usually divided into the two classes of volcanic and tectonic earthquakes. The former are those that precede, accompany, or follow a volcanic eruption, whereas tectonic earthquakes are caused by deformation of the earth's crust. The latter are of far greater general importance than those due to volcanic action, which may, indeed, be considered an effect of the same stresses that produce tectonic earthquakes.

A volcanic eruption is in almost all cases preceded by earthquakes, which, although they may be extremely violent, are characterized by the sharpness and brevity of the shock and by the smallness of the disturbed area. The after-shocks of a severe earthquake of the so-called volcanic type continue for a relatively short period. Successive earthquakes of a series have nearly the same place of origin.

Volcanic earthquakes in the past were usually considered to be due to explosions within the mass of the mountain. This hypothesis has been discarded, or at least much modified, by most modern authorities. They are considered rather to arise from the formation of new fractures, from the reopening or extension of old fractures, from the sudden injection of lava into cavities or fissures, and from the displacement of rock-masses adjoining a fracture. Thus they are essentially of the same nature as “tectonic” earthquakes.

Tectonic earthquakes are caused by the deformations of the earth's crust, to which surface features are ultimately due. These deformations arise from the gradual shrinking of the central core or from changes in the load on the crust through denudation and sedimentation. Stresses accumulate in the solid rock until relieved by the formation of fissures, along which movements of adjacent earth-blocks take place. These earth-blocks may be of vast size, and fractures or faults separating them are rarely single planes of rupture, but consist of numerous subparallel breaks extending more or less continuously along elongated belts. Such fault-zones may be hundreds of miles long and many miles wide.

The connection between earthquakes and the formation, extension, or growth of faults is evident in the somewhat rare cases in which the displacement reaches the surface. It is also indicated by the elongated form of the area over which the shock is equally felt, and by the association of these areas with faults traceable on the surface by geological and topographical data. When movement occurs considerable areas of the fracture-plane must be affected, and, since shocks may originate from any part of this area, the seismic focus may be of large size. Again, the foci of successive shocks of a series may migrate to and fro along the fracture or shift to adjacent fractures. Similarly, earthquake series may migrate along a fault-zone.

* Tenth edition, 1868, vol. 2, p. 82. London: John Murray; New Zealand Government Gazette, Wellington, vol. 2, No. 14, 17th October, 1855, p. 116.

^°Westminster Review, vol. 51, 1849; Mr. Justice H. S. Chapman, “Earthquakes in New Zealand,” Trans. Aus'. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. 3, 1891; G. Hogben, “The Earthquakes of New Zealand” p. 37; “Report of Seismological Committee,” p. 505; New Zealand Government Gazette, Auckland, vol. 1, No. 27, 13th November, 1848, and vol. 1, No. 29, 20th November, 1848.

In New Zealand many great faults and fault-zones have been traced for long distances on geological and topographical evidence, but of these a few only have been active since European occupation. A notable zone extends north-east through the centre of the North Island from Mount Ruapehu to White Island. South of Ruapehu it has not been definitely traced on the surface, although from the positions of the foci of the groups of earthquakes it probably extends past Wanganui, across Cook Strait, and along the south-east shore of Tasman Bay to the South Island. The volcanic phenomena of the Rotorua-Taupo region, together with the recent remarkable earthquakes at Taupo, indicate that earth-stresses are still accumulating along this great fracture-zone.

Another important fault-system extends through North Canterbury, Marlborough, East Wellington, and Hawke's Bay. Its general course is north-east, parallel with the Taupo belt and the principal mountain-ranges of New Zealand. The Marlborough valleys, as well as the lowlands of the Hutt and Wairarapa districts, are directly controlled by fractures of this great system. In addition to many less severe shocks, the Wellington earthquake of 1855 was due to displacement along one of the major fissures. The southern end of the known active portion of the great fracture-belt is crossed by several important east-and-west faults; and the Hanmer earthquake of 1888 was due to the reopening of a fault extending in this direction along the upper valley of the Waiau-ua River.

The edge of the submarine plateau of which New Zealand is the most elevated portion lies about two hundred miles east of the North Island. Thence it extends north-eastward for hundreds of miles in a nearly straight line. The sea-floor to the east is several thousand feet lower, and the precipitous edge of the plateau probably is the scarp of a great fracture-belt. The most active seismic region of New Zealand is at or near the southern end of this submarine scarp, and here have originated several severe earthquakes.

Another submarine earthquake-zone, presumably also a fracture-zone, extends parallel with and some fifty miles from the east coast of the South Island, from opposite Christchurch to south-east of Dunedin. Numerous unimportant earthquakes have originated from this zone.

Another group of earthquake-foci occurs off the west coast of the North Island, opposite Raglan and Kawhia. This, like the other seismic zones, extends in a north-easterly direction parallel with the main mountain-axis of the Dominion. Few earthquakes have been recorded from this locality, the principal being in 1882 and 1891.

The origins of the New Zealand seismic region will be seen to arrange themselves in groups as follows:—

Group I.—Earthquakes felt most strongly on south-east coast of North Island; the origins form a strip 180 miles from the coast, parallel to the axis of New Zealand, and to axis of folding of older rocks in Hawke's Bay. Chief shocks: 17th August, 1868; 7th March, 1890; 23rd and 29th July, 1904; 9th August, 1904 (intensity IX on R.-E. scale); 8th September, 1904; prob. 23rd February, 1863 (IX, R.-F.); &c.

According to the late Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., the geological evidence shows that New Zealand rose considerably in the older Pliocene period, and was then probably joined to the Chatham Islands. At a later period subsidence occurred, followed again by elevation in the Pleistocene period, with oscillations of level since. The seismic origins of this group are at the foot of a sloping submarine plateau, about two hundred miles wide, which culminates to the east-south-east in the Chatham Islands. This elevation is separated from the New Zealand coast by a trough from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms in depth, which is widest and deepest between these origins and the mainland.

Group II.—

These origins form a line parallel to the general axis of the land. It is possible that the loading of the sea-floor by the detritus brought down by the rivers of Canterbury and Otago is a contributing cause of the earthquakes of this group.

Group III.—Wellington earthquakes of January, 1855, and Cheviot earthquakes of 16th November, 1901, and of 25th December, 1922 (VIII, R.-F.).

The origin of the earthquake of 1855 was probably the fault that forms the eastern boundary of the Rimutaka Range and the western boundary of the Wairarapa Valley.

The origin of the Cheviot earthquake of 1901 was probably in or near the southern continuation of this fault.

The great earthquakes of October, 1848, probably came from the same region as those of January, 1855. The chief shocks of both series did extensive damage to property, and caused the formation of large rifts in the earth's surface; they are the only seismic disturbances since the settlement of the Dominion that can be assigned to degree X on the Rossi-Forel scale.

Group IV.—

* P. G. Morgan: N.Z. Geological Survey Annual Report for the year 1923, p. 10.

These origins of Group IV are nearly in a straight line on the map; on or near the same line are the origins of earthquakes felt in the Southern Lake District (15th December, 1883, &c.), the volcanoes Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, Tongariro, Tarawera, and White Island. It is evident that this line, which, like the rest, is parallel or nearly so to the general axis, is a line of weakness or of unstable equilibrium. Hence the adjusting movements that have caused earthquakes may have from time to time relieved the pressure of the rocks that restrained overheated steam and other volcanic agents from bursting out, and so may have led to volcanic eruptions; just as the series of earthquakes in Guatemala and in the Caribbean Sea in April and May, 1902, were the signs of movements in the great folds of that part of the earth's crust, in the course of which, the pressure in the Antillean Ridge being relieved, the volcanic forces below Mount Pelée in Martinique, and Mount Souffrière in St. Vincent, caused the disastrous eruptions of that year.

Group V.—Off the west coast of the North Island near Raglan and Kawhia. Chief shock: 24th June, 1891 (VII to VIII, R.-F.). The line joining this origin to that of the earthquake of 1st February, 1882, is parallel to the other lines of origins (Groups I to IV); but we have no data to establish any connection between them.

EARTHQUAKES, 1922-1927.

The accompanying diagram illustrates graphically the number and intensities of the earthquakes reported to the Seismologist in the years 1922 to 1927. These reports were supplied by officers of the Post and Telegraph Department, by private observers, and by the newspapers. Each vertical line represents the maximum effect of an earthquake, with the intensities according to the Rossi-Forel scale shown at the sides of the figure. It will be seen that three earthquakes in 1922, one in 1925, one in 1926, and one in 1927, reached intensity VIII.

The following table gives particulars of the earthquakes felt in New Zealand in 1927:—

—	Jan.	Feb.	Mar.	April.	May.	June.	July.	Aug.	Sept.	Oct.	Nov.	Doc.	Total.
Felt in North Island only	4	21	2	4	17	6	2	4	6	9	6	3	84
Felt in South Island only	2	1	1		1	1	4	2		2		2	16
Felt in both Islands	1		2		1			3		3			10
Totals	7	22	5	4	19	7	6	9	6	14	6	5	110

The following are the more severe earthquakes felt in 1927:—

On 26th February, 1927, R.-F. VI, at Opotiki. This was felt from Hick's Bay to Napier, but most strongly north of Gisborne.

An earthquake at Bainham, Nelson, on 18th May, 1927, is reported to have thrown down logs and rocks from the mountain, and was classed as R.-F. VIII.

At Hick's Bay on 20th May, 1927, there was a local shock of intensity VII.

On 30th May, 1927, an earthquake, felt in the Hauraki Plains from Auckland to Raurimu, reached intensity VI at Cambridge.

An earthquake on 7th August, 1927, at Dannevirke, was of intensity VI.

On 8th August, 1927, an earthquake widely felt in Wellington, Taranaki, and Hawke's Bay, reached intensity VI at Castlepoint and Waipawa.

At Morrinsville on 5th September, 1927, R.-F. VI.

At Hick's Bay on 12th October, 1927, R.-F. VI.

At New Plymouth on 15th October, 1927, R.-F. VII.

At Morrinsville on 7th November, 1927, R.-F. VII. This was R.-F. VI at Hamilton and Cambridge, and was felt all over the Hauraki Plains.

The following article on the climate of New Zealand has been prepared by Dr. E. Kidson, M.A., D.Sc., Director of Meteorological Services:—

The problem of the classification of the climate of a country may be regarded from various aspects. First of all, there is its solar climate, which depends on the amount of heat it receives from the sun and the variations of this amount with the seasons, and which is determined solely by the latitude of the country. New Zealand lies wholly within the Temperate Zone, and on the equatorial, or warmer, side of it. The amount of heat received from the sun is therefore never excessive even in the far north, while even in the middle of winter and in the southernmost portions, on the other hand, the sun rises high enough to give considerable warmth during the day. The difference in length between the longest and the shortest days in the year is about four and two-thirds hours in the northernmost and seven and one-third hours in the southernmost extremity of the Dominion. The day has never so short a length as eight hours.

If the surface of the globe were homogeneous—if, for instance, it were all ocean—all places on the same parallel would have the same climate, and there would be no need for any other classification than according to solar climate. Instead of this, however, we have a varying surface, some of it being land and some water, while the land surface varies in nature and in elevation. Solar radiation has very varying effects on these different types of surface, and these in turn react in different ways on the atmosphere. Based on these physical conditions, then, we have two main types of climate—viz., continental and marine. A marine climate is controlled to a large extent by the waters of the surrounding ocean areas, and, since New Zealand nowhere has any great breadth, its climate is of the marine type. The distinctive feature of such a climate is its sluggishness as regards temperature changes when compared with a continental one. When sunshine falls on a land surface most of it is absorbed in a very shallow layer and converted into heat. The surface, therefore, tends to become very hot. Water, on the other hand, reflects a large portion of the sun's heat back through the atmosphere, whence it is lost. Such radiation as is absorbed penetrates to a considerable depth, so that the rise of temperature at the surface is slight. Even then a good deal of the heat thus accumulated is expended in evaporating water. Over the ocean, therefore, there is very little difference in temperature between the coldest part of the day, just before sunrise, and the hottest, in the early afternoon. Over the land the difference is considerable, and increases, generally speaking, with the distance from the shore. Similarly, in a marine climate the difference between summer and winter is relatively small. Another effect of the sluggishness in temperature changes is that the seasons lag behind the movement of the sun. The spring is cold, although the days are getting longer and the sun higher and stronger. It is common knowledge in New Zealand that we are liable to cold snaps practically up to Christmas. Frosts damaging to vegetation are not rare in November, and snow storms occasionally affect comparatively low-lying country even later in the year. On the other hand, the autumn is warm. In New Zealand mild temperatures may be experienced well into April. A marine climate is generally characterized by high average rainfall, its atmosphere being abundantly charged with moisture evaporated from the sea.

Generally speaking, then, the climate of New Zealand is equable, with an abundant precipitation, which is spread fairly uniformly over the different months. Not only is this so, but the difference in climate between the northern and southern extremities is comparatively slight in view of the fact that the Dominion covers a range of nearly 13 degrees, or about 900 miles, in latitude. The mean temperature at sea-level falls from about 62° F. in the far north to about 50° F. in the far south.

Another aspect from which there is an increasing tendency for geographers and meteorologists to classify climates is that of the vegetation produced by the soil. There are many plants which are able to live only within certain definite climatic limits, and others require certain restricted conditions to produce satisfactory growth. Since man depends so much for his livelihood on the products of the soil, the classification of climates on this basis is a logical and very useful one. From this point of view New Zealand has a warm-temperate and humid climate. The rainfall is almost everywhere sufficient for plant requirements all the year round. The temperature of 50° F. is an important one from the biological point of view, since many plants of the temperate region do not grow well unless the air rises above this temperature for considerable periods. Nowhere in New Zealand are there more than five months with a temperature lower than 50° F. In the Auckland Peninsula and coastal places a little farther south, mean temperatures do not fall below 50° F. in any month. As regards the settled portions of the Dominion, it is only in the elevated regions of Otago and Southland that the mean temperature falls slightly below 40° F. in some of the coldest months, or that the mean minimum for any month falls below freezing-point; consequently the ground is nowhere continuously frozen for long periods. Owing to these mild temperatures, there is some growth of herbage practically the whole year round. Vegetation has no long period of rest, and deciduous trees are practically unknown.

Since temperatures are everywhere warm enough to promote growth and nowhere excessively hot (the mean maximum for any month probably nowhere reaches as high as 80° F. or the mean temperature as high as 70° F.), there is comparatively little difference between the North and South as regards the nature of the things grown. Grapes, for instance, can be grown successfully out-of-doors in parts of all provinces of the Dominion. Certainly, in the North such semitropical products as citrus fruits can be grown successfully, whereas in the South this is not possible.

As regards human occupation, New Zealand lies in the zone of the Southern Hemisphere which is subject at all times of year to frequent moving barometric depressions, with all their accompanying weather-changes. Some experts consider this an important condition for the development of civilization in its highest form. Cloudiness is nowhere excessive, so that there is plenty of sunshine, and a considerable range between day and night temperatures, which again tends to produce bracing conditions. Indeed, there can be few countries so admirably adapted for the production of a high yield from the soil and the maintenance of a high standard of comfort and civilization as New Zealand.

The Dominion is in the region of prevailing westerly winds. North of about New Plymouth and Napier these westerlies are not, in the main, strong, and, in fact, in summer there is a prevalence of south-easterlies. Though these can scarcely be classed as trade-winds, even in the far north, they are to a large extent part of the same system. South from the 39th parallel of latitude the westerlies prevail, and although, in the free air at least, their mean strength increases the farther south we go, they are of considerable average force even in Taranaki and Hawke's Bay.

We next have to consider the feature that exercises the most potent influence in modifying climate in New Zealand—that is, its mountain-ranges. Such variations of climate as are encountered in the different parts of the Dominion are produced mainly by these ranges. Their effect is closely associated with the prevalence of westerly winds. A range of mountains presents an obstacle to a wind which meets it. To force the air up and over it requires a great deal of energy. Wherever possible the wind will flow round rather than over. The most notable instances of this effect in New Zealand are found in the Cook and Foveaux Straits regions. Air in a westerly wind is forced round and over the lower portions of the northern part of the South Island into Cook Strait. Some of the air thus entering the strait possibly comes from as far south as Westport when the general wind is from due west. At the same time, the ranges in the North Island deflect into a southerly direction all winds which strike south of Cape Egmont. Some of the air is forced through the comparatively low gap in the neighbourhood of the Manawatu Gorge, while the greater part goes on down to Cook Strait. Similarly, in the south-west corner of the Dominion, a westerly wind is deflected into a north-westerly and flows round Puysegur Point into Foveaux Strait. A south-westerly wind is deflected into a westerly through the strait. The two regions mentioned are ones through which winds from a considerable area are forced to converge, and the consequence is that they are subject to an unusual proportion of strong winds. Through such channels it is practically only possible for winds to have one or two directions—i.e., they must blow through the straits from one direction or the other. Owing to the great preponderance of winds from a westerly quarter, the prevailing direction in Cook Strait is from the north-west. This wind may correspond with any direction between north-west and south-west in the open ocean waters where winds are unimpeded. More rarely there are strong winds from an easterly direction, which produce south-easterlies in the strait. These may correspond with any wind between north-east and south over the open waters to the east. In the South the predominance of westerlies is greater than at Wellington, but there are at times strong easterlies through Foveaux Strait. Though not on the same scale, effects of a similar kind are noticeable in other parts. Round East Cape, for instance, there is a tendency for winds to be deflected along the coast-line, and easterly winds are likely to be specially strong there. At Nelson there is a different effect, and westerly winds tend to be deflected down Tasman Bay as south-westerlies, but at the head of the bay meet the winds which have come round Cape Farewell and are checked. If the general wind, therefore, is between north-west and west-south-west about, the winds are usually light at Nelson.

When the general wind is almost due south-west, or practically parallel to the main range in both Islands, many parts of the Dominion are protected. Strong south-westerly winds may be blowing and wet weather prevail in the southern parts of Otago and Southland, and also in Taranaki and the northern parts of the Auckland Provincial District, while much of the rest of the country, including the inland portions of Otago, Canterbury, and Marlborough, the east coast of the North Island, and especially Cook Strait, experience unusually fine yet bracing weather and comparatively little wind. A slight deviation of this wind to one side or the other means bringing unsettled weather to the west coast of the South Island or to the eastern districts from East Cape southwards.

The checking of the westerly winds by the Southern Alps results in a large proportion of variable winds on the west coast of the South Island.

Although it is true that wind will flow round an obstacle in preference to climbing over it, yet when a broad belt of winds meets a mountain barrier lying across its path much of the air must be forced over the range. This happens when the prevailing winds, which are from between north-west and west, strike the Southern Alps, and, to a less extent, the ranges of the North Island. The distribution of rainfall over New Zealand is greatly influenced by this fact, as can be seen from the accompanying rainfall map. Most of our rain is produced from moisture carried from warmer latitudes by north-westerly winds. The rain falls either in the north-westerlies or when the latter are forced up by colder south-westerly winds. When the westerly or north-westerly winds are driven over the mountain-ranges they rise into regions in which the air-pressure is much reduced. They are, in consequence, cooled. The colder the air is, the less uncondensed water-vapour can it contain. Moisture is therefore condensed, and falls as rain on the mountain-tops and their western slopes. Generally speaking, therefore, districts with a westerly aspect have the heaviest rainfall. This is especially noticeable in the South Island, where the west coast opposite the Southern Alps has an excessive rainfall, while in their lee we have the driest areas in New Zealand, that in Central Otago being the most notable. Round Mount Egmont is another area of heavy precipitation. The East Cape district has a high rainfall because it gets a good deal of the northwesterly rain, and is also subject to very heavy falls in easterly winds which occur in connection with cyclones in the neighbourhood of the North Island.

When the westerly winds blow over the mountains they sometimes shoot down them again on the opposite side. Falling into levels where the pressure is higher, they are heated, just as the air compressed in a bicycle-pump is heated and warms the pump. Having lost a good deal of their moisture, they are very dry, and the energy gained by falling down the mountain-slopes adds to their speed. We therefore have the gusty, hot, dry wind which is characteristic of mountain regions and is called the “Föhn” wind. The Canterbury Plains, especially the portions near the foothills of the Alps, are one of the regions of the world where the Föhn effect is most notably developed. The characteristics of the north-west wind are well known to the dwellers in those parts. During the Föhn wind a band of clear sky is produced on the leeward side of the mountains, while farther away cloud often forms again at a considerable height. This gives the characteristic appearance of the “Föhn arch.” Though most strongly developed in Canterbury, Föhn winds are experienced also in Otago, parts of Marlborough, and from the Wairarapa to Hawke's Bay.

Föhn winds, owing to their high temperature and to the fact that relatively high pressure tends to be produced in them on the west side of the ranges and relatively low on the east side, are often underrun by east or north-east, winds on the east coast. These are especially prevalent in Canterbury, and the north-easter is a persistent and humid wind of an unpleasant type.

The shelter given from the ocean-winds, and the clear dry atmosphere produced by the mountains, causes a nearer approach to continental conditions in their lee than in other parts of the country. The greatest extremes of temperatures are found in these regions.

In addition to the climatic effects above described, there are others produced by mountains and due directly to the elevation. Other things being equal, the amount of precipitation increases with elevation, until about 5,000 ft. or 6,000 ft. is reached. Higher than that, it falls off again owing to the fact that the cold air above those levels is able to hold little moisture. Again, the greater the height above mean sea-level, the lower the mean temperature, the difference being about 3.5° F. per 1,000 ft. There are no closely settled areas in New Zealand sufficiently high for the elevation to produce any very marked influence on the climate. The effect is to some extent counterbalanced, too, in most places by the facts (1) that the sloping ground prevents the accumulation of cold air on the surface, so that night temperatures are less extreme than they might otherwise have been, and (2) that the atmosphere is more transparent, owing to the reduced amount of vapour it contains and the absence of dust, so that the sun seems to give more heat.

Above about 5,000 ft. snow frequently lies for long periods and the climate is severe. Forest-trees become more and more stunted as this height is approached, and finally are unable to survive. Beyond it we have a mountain climate and characteristically alpine flora. The latter is adapted for resistance to drought, although actually the rainfall is usually heavy. The adaptation is necessary because of the rapid drainage, the intense heat produced on still clear days by the sun's rays, and the cutting-off of water-supplies from the roots for long periods owing to the freezing of the ground. Even in these high regions, however, conditions are not extreme. It is probably very rarely indeed that the temperature falls as low as 0° F., except perhaps for short intervals and in sheltered basins. The mountain region of the Southern Alps is, nevertheless, of great interest on account of its large and characteristic glaciers. The Franz Josef Glacier is especially famous, owing to the fact that it descends almost to sea-level, although the latitude is comparatively low. No doubt the very heavy rainfall on the mountains in this district and the rapid fall to sea-level are chiefly responsible for this effect.

The tables which follow, giving average values of various meteorological quantities for a number of typical stations, will serve to indicate the variation of climate in the different parts of New Zealand.

For comparisons with New Zealand conditions, data are given for Kew Observatory, near London, and for Aberdeen. It will be seen that even at Kew the mean temperature is lower than at Queenstown or Invercargill, while at Aberdeen the mean maximum is less than 2° F. higher than the mean temperature at these stations. Again, the number of days with rain is much higher at the British stations than in New Zealand for rainfall totals of corresponding amount. The Dominion also has a much larger average amount of bright sunshine. These advantages of increased warmth and sunshine, combined with an abundant supply of water, account for the wonderful fertility of our soil.

MONTHLY MEANS OF TEMPERATURE, ETC.

Auckland.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 74 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	73.6	59.0	66.5	2.67	10.4	220
February	74.1	62.6	67.0	3.05	9.7	187
March	71.9	57.7	64.9	3.02	11.2	173
April	67.7	54.6	61.2	3.43	13.9	142
May	62.6	50.7	56.8	4.63	18.5	128
June	59.1	47.8	53.5	4.92	19.4	114
July	57.5	46.0	51.7	4.95	20.8	121
August	58.1	46,1	52.2	4.22	19.4	150
September	60.7	48.5	54.6	3.64	17.5	149
October	63.5	50.9	57.2	3.69	16.5	169
November	66.9	53.5	60.3	3.32	15.9	192
December	70.8	56.9	63.9	2.90	11.6	209
Year	65.5	52.9	59.1	44.44	184.8	1,954

Tauranga.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 24 Years.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.
January	73.8	54.9	54.3	4.34	10.4
February	74.4	54.9	64.6	3.58	9.0
March	72.3	52.2	62.2	4.16	11.0
April	67.8	48.1	57.9	5.08	11.1
May	62.8	44.6	53.7	5.16	13.2
June	59.1	41.1	50.1	5.42	13.2
July	58.0	40.1	49.0	4.86	14.8
August	58.9	40.3	49.6	4.08	13.7
September	62.3	43.4	52.8	4.41	13.4
October	65.4	47.3	56.3	5.25	14.3
November	68.1	49.1	58.6	3.29	11.7
December	71.7	51.4	61.5	3.47	11.1
Year	66.2	47.3	56.7	53.10	146.9

Rotorua.
Month	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 40 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	75.1	52.4	63.7	4.36	10.0	232
February	74.9	52.6	63.6	3.76	8.7	192
March	71.7	49.6	60.6	3.51	9.7	184
April	66.1	45.4	55.7	4.35	10.8	153
May	60.4	40.9	50.6	5.72	12.7	135
June	55.9	38.5	47.1	5.24	13.2	116
July	54.5	37.0	45.6	1.88	13.5	127
August	56.3	37.6	46.9	4.95	13.4	141
September	60.0	40.9	50.4	5.16	14.4	151
October	64.0	44.3	54.2	5.25	14.3	175
November	68.4	46.9	57.7	4.10	12.6	216
December	72.8	49.9	61.2	3.83	10.0	222
Year	65.0	44.7	54.8	55.11	143.3	2,044

Napier.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 48 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	75.5	56.8	66.1	3.14	7.8	259
February	74.3	56.7	65.5	2.89	7.3	211
March	71.3	54.7	63.0	3.26	7.4	216
April	67.2	50.2	58.7	2.87	7.5	195
May	61.5	46.1	53.8	3.73	9.9	154
June	57.9	42.3	50.1	3.54	10.8	150
July	56.4	41.5	48.9	3.87	11.5	147
August	57.8	42.0	49.9	3.56	11.7	183
September	62.2	45.1	53.6	2.16	9.4	216
October	66.3	45.7	57.5	2.29	8.6	229
November	69.7	51.8	60.7	2.48	8.3	245
December	73.1	55.3	64.1	2.32	7.3	267
Year	66.1	49.0	57.7	36.11	107.5	2,472

New Plymouth.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 50 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	73.1	55.2	61.6	4.42	12.8	260
February	73.8	55.5	64.6	4.00	10.5	224
March	71.9	54.0	62.9	3.62	12.1	219
April	67.9	50.7	59.3	4.51	14.2	170
May	63.1	47.6	55.3	6.23	18.1	153
June	59.4	44.7	52.0	6.14	17.5	134
July	57.8	43.2	50.5	6.29	18.7	147
August	58.8	42.8	50.8	5.33	18.5	172
September	61.3	45.6	53.4	5.22	17.5	161
October	63.4	48.1	55.7	5.61	18.7	168
November	66.3	50.3	58.3	4.65	16.2	209
December	70.1	53.4	51.7	4.33	14.5	243
Year	65.6	49.3	57.2	60.35	189.3	2,260

Wellington.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 60 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	69.4	55.7	62.5	3.30	10.5	224
February	69.3	55.8	62.5	3.19	9.6	209
March	66.9	54.2	60.5	3.29	11.2	185
April	62.8	51.2	57.0	3.80	12.9	156
May	58.3	47.2	52.7	4.76	16.6	126
June	54.7	44.2	49.4	4.87	17.3	106
July	53.1	42.3	47.7	5.55	18.1	107
August	54.4	42.8	48.6	4.43	17.0	142
September	57.5	45.7	51.6	3.99	14.9	164
October	60.4	48.4	54.4	4.19	14.2	174
November	63.4	50.5	56.9	3.44	12.9	201
December	66.9	53.9	60.4	3.30	12.1	228
Year	61.4	49.3	55.4	48.11	166.7	2,022

Nelson.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 44 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	74.9	53.9	64.3	2.85	8.4	267
February	74.2	54.0	64.0	2.73	9.4	235
March	71.0	51.4	61.1	3.09	9.0	204
April	66.2	47.5	56.9	2.90	9.5	194
May	60.0	42.5	51.2	3.13	10.5	165
June	56.1	38.8	47.4	3.64	10.1	151
July	54.6	37.6	46.1	3.41	11.0	153
August	56.5	38.5	47.5	3.02	10.6	195
September	60.6	42.3	51.4	3.72	12.2	200
October	64.7	45.4	55.0	3.61	12.1	212
November	68.6	48.4	58.5	2.95	11.3	246
December	71.9	51.6	61.7	2.72	8.8	260
Year	64.9	46.0	55.4	37.77	122.9	2,482

Hokitika.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 48 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	67.4	53.2	60.3	9.92	12.8	215
February	68.0	53.1	60.6	7.37	11.3	191
March	66.0	51.1	58.5	9.75	14.4	178
April	62.4	47.2	54.7	9.39	15.1	139
May	57.9	42.1	49.9	9.82	15.6	136
June	54.4	38.7	46.4	9.55	15.3	114
July	53.0	36.7	44.8	8.99	16.1	128
August	54.5	38.0	46.3	9.28	16.0	158
September	57.6	42.5	50.0	9.32	16.8	144
October	59.6	45.7	52.7	11.81	19.0	160
November	61.7	48.1	54.9	10.78	17.6	173
December	65.3	51.4	58.4	10.62	16.4	208
Year	60.7	45.7	53.1	116.60	186.4	1,944

Hanmer.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 21 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	71.9	49.5	60.7	3.74	11.0	207
February	71.2	48.9	59.9	3.04	8.5	191
March	67.7	46.8	57.2	2.89	9.7	191
April	62.9	41.7	52.3	2.99	10.4	159
May	55.4	36.2	45.7	4.51	11.6	125
June	50.7	32.0	41.4	3.11	11.5	109
July	49.1	32.0	40.2	4.59	11.7	110
August	51.7	32.6	42.2	2.52	10.2	146
September	57.7	37.7	47.7	4.10	10.6	172
October	62.1	41.9	52.0	3.31	12.0	179
November	64.9	43.8	54.3	2.93	10.5	199
December	69.1	47.0	58.2	3.28	9.3	216
Year	61.2	40.8	51.0	41.01	127.0	2,004

Lincoln.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 46 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	71.9	51.3	61.6	2.23	9.4	212
February	71.3	51.7	61.5	1.66	7.7	201
March	68.4	49.0	58.7	2.27	10.0	182
April	63.6	44.3	54.0	1.98	9.4	159
May	57.4	39.8	48.5	2.31	11.2	136
June	52.9	36.3	44.6	2.43	11.7	118
July	51.1	35.2	43.1	2.71	13.0	117
August	53.5	36.5	45.0	2.03	11.2	153
September	58.4	40.3	49.4	1.91	9.7	178
October	63.2	43.9	53.6	1.72	9.3	204
November	66.2	46.2	56.2	1.97	10.4	218
December	70.1	49.3	59.7	2.12	10.0	209
Year	62.3	43.7	53.0	25.34	123.0	2,087

Dunedin.
Month.	Mean Temperatures for 59 Years.			Mean Rainfall for 70 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	66.3	49.6	58.0	3.34	14.2	184
February	65.8	49.5	57.7	2.75	11.2	156
March	63.0	47.9	55.4	2.96	13.0	144
April	58.7	44.8	51.7	2.78	12.8	120
May	53.2	41.1	47.1	3.26	13.6	99
June	49.4	38.4	43.8	3.15	12.8	93
July	47.7	37.1	42.4	2.99	12.9	97
August	50.2	37.9	44.0	3.14	12.8	110
September	55.0	40.9	47.9	2.75	12.8	142
October	59.2	42.9	51.0	3.13	14.3	157
November	61.6	45.0	53.3	3.28	14.2	164
December	64.6	48.0	56.3	3.53	14.5	175
Year	57.9	43.6	50.7	37.06	159.1	1,641

Queenstown.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 36 Years.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.
January	70.4	49.9	60.1	2.72	8.8
February	70.2	49.6	59.9	1.98	5.9
March	66.4	47.9	57.1	2.60	7.6
April	59.1	43.8	51.5	3.00	8.0
May	51.8	38.6	45.2	2.63	7.6
June	45.9	33.7	39.7	2.46	6.8
July	43.3	31.8	37.5	2.04	6.1
August	47.3	33.8	40.6	1.93	6.5
September	54.3	38.7	46.5	2.47	7.7
October	59.8	42.1	50.9	3.48	9.3
November	63.2	44.5	53.8	2.74	8.7
December	68.0	49.2	58.6	2.59	8.2
Year	58.3	42.0	50.1	30.64	91.2

Gore.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 20 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	69.3	46.7	58.0	3.09	15.7	226
February	68.6	46.0	57.3	2.65	11.6	182
March	65.9	43.8	54.9	3.27	13.0	168
April	59.9	40.3	50.2	3.15	15.0	127
May	53.7	35.6	45.1	2.71	15.7	116
June	47.7	32.5	40.1	2.82	15.6	103
July	47.2	31.6	39.3	1.94	14.0	116
August	51.4	33.4	42.5	2.31	14.3	141
September	57.2	37.5	47.3	2.65	14.8	159
October	60.9	40.8	50.6	3.26	15.7	179
November	62.9	42.2	52.5	3.23	16.5	203
December	66.2	44.8	55.5	3.33	14.8	210
Year	59.2	39.6	49.4	34.41	176.7	1,930

Invercargill.
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall for 33 Years.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	66.5	48.0	57.2	3.97	15.4	199
February	66.1	47.4	56.8	2.97	12.3	151
March	63.8	45.7	54.7	3.85	14.9	116
April	59.2	42.4	50.8	4.34	16.9	111
May	53.7	37.7	45.8	4.49	17.7	89
June	49.8	35.4	42.7	3.59	16.2	89
July	48.8	33.9	41.4	3.24	15.8	89
August	52.0	35.5	43.8	3.38	15.2	121
September	57.0	39.0	48.1	3.18	14.2	129
October	60.0	42.5	51.3	4.44	17.2	145
November	61.6	43.9	52.8	4.39	18.0	165
December	64.1	46.1	55.2	4.20	16.3	164
Year	58.6	41.5	50.0	46.04	190.1	1,568

Kew Observatory. (Richmond, Surrey, England.)
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	43.1	34.6	38.9	1.76	16	43
February	45.0	35.1	40.1	1.54	13	60
March	48.7	36.0	42.4	1.69	14	105
April	55.0	39.5	47.3	1.45	13	157
May	61.7	45.0	53.4	1.72	12	201
June	67.6	50.8	59.2	2.15	12	197
July	71.0	54.3	62.7	2.17	12	201
August	69.7	53.5	61.6	2.24	13	187
September	64.9	49.3	57.1	1.87	12	145
October	56.2	43.5	49.9	2.70	17	92
November	49.1	38.8	44.0	2.22	16	52
December	44.7	35.9	40.3	2.29	17	37
Year	56.4	43.0	49.7	23.80	167	1,477

Aberdeen.(Scotland.)
Month.	Mean Temperatures.			Mean Rainfall.		Bright Sunshine.
	Maximum.	Minimum.	Mean.
	°F.	°F.	°F.	Inches.	Days.	Hours.
January	42.3	33.4	37.9	2.18	18	48
February	43.2	33.4	38.3	2.05	17	73
March	45.7	34.4	40.1	2.41	20	117
April	49.8	37.6	43.7	1.87	17	158
May	54.5	41.8	48.2	2.33	17	187
June	59.9	47.0	53.5	1.71	15	184
July	62.8	50.3	56.6	2.81	17	159
August	62.4	49.9	56.2	2.74	18	150
September	59.2	46.7	53.0	2.22	17	124
October	52.8	41.7	47.3	3.00	20	95
November	46.8	37.4	42.1	2.95	19	55
December	42.9	34.2	38.6	3.22	19	36
Year	51.9	40.7	46.3	29.49	214	1,386

SUMMARY TO THE WEATHER FOR 1927.

January.—The latter half of the month was hot and dry. Rainfall was below normal over most of the Dominion.

February.—The heat-wave of the latter half of January continued until the third week of this month. Some very high temperatures were recorded. A cold snap was experienced on the 22nd. Rainfall was above the average in most of Otago and the northern parts of the North Island, but below it elsewhere.

March.—The first half was mild and summery, but by contrast the second was cold, boisterous, and unsettled. A deep depression of the westerly type passed south of the Dominion on the 20th, and was followed by an intense cyclonic disturbance. The barometer fell to 28.65 in, at Christchurch at 7 p.m. on the 23rd. Another westerly depression passed on the 28th, and was followed by a cold snap. Some frosts were recorded, and snow lay heavily on the southern mountains at the close of the month. There was an excess of rainfall, except in parts of the eastern districts of both Islands. Some very heavy falls were recorded in the high country of the South Island, 10.35 in, falling at Arthur's Pass on the 23rd. Floods occurred in the Waimakariri and in some of the Marlborough rivers.

April.—The month was cool and with precipitation below normal in most parts. High westerly winds prevailed on a number of days over the South Island.

May.—A cool and changeable month. Some severe frosts were recorded. Rainfall was below the normal in Otago, South Canterbury, and the Hawke's Bay region, but in excess of it in most other districts. The heaviest rain fell in connection with a westerly disturbance between the 26th and 28th.

June.—Precipitation was in excess of the average in the northern and east coast districts of both Islands, but below it in other parts. Falls were especially heavy in the Poverty and Hawke's Bay districts and North Canterbury, and were highly beneficial to the agricultural community. Snow fell at many places between the 11th and 13th. Many frosts were recorded, all parts suffering to some extent. Between the 19th and 21st exceptionally heavy frosts, said to be the severest for over forty years, were experienced in Otago. The effects of these frosts were remarkable. Eucalypts of considerable age and great height were killed in large numbers, and many other trees, including fruit-trees, suffered severely.

July.—The duration of sunshine was below the average, but temperatures about normal. Rainfall was above the average in most places, but below it on the west coast of the South Island and in parts of the Cook Strait region. There were three outstanding disturbances during the month, two being cyclonic and one of the westerly type. These storms were responsible for serious floods in many parts of the North Island. Much snow fell on the high country on the 13th.

August.—The month was remarkable for the number of cyclonic disturbances which crossed the New Zealand area. The weather was, in consequence, very dull and moist. An excess of rainfall was recorded over most of the North Island, but over the South conditions were more varied.

September.—Dull and moist weather again predominated. Rainfall was below normal in the Wellington district and thence southward through Canterbury; elsewhere there was an excess. Some flooding was experienced in Otago. Snow fell in some low-lying parts of the South Island on the 25th.

October.—Very mild and pleasant weather ruled during the first half of the month. A severe cold spell, associated with strong southerly winds and light falls of snow, occurred, however, between the 23rd and 25th. A cyclone which became deep when to the eastward of New Zealand was the cause. Except in scattered parts of the South Island, rainfall was below normal.

November.—Pressure systems moved rapidly during the month, and the weather was very changeable. Several of the storm systems were of the cyclonic type. Southerly gales were recorded on the 28th and 29th between East Cape and Lyttelton and in the central provinces, accompanied by low temperatures and some snowfall. In places it was the severest southerly experienced for many years, and cold and wind combined to cause considerable damage. Rainfall was below normal in the northern portions of the North Island, but elsewhere mainly above it.

December.—Another changeable month, with low temperatures during the first two-thirds. Cyclonic storms were again of frequent occurrence. From the 12th to the 19th pressure was continuously low to the eastward of the Dominion, and cold, strong southerly winds and wet weather were the rule. Some snow fell on the elevated portions of the North Island. Subsequently there commenced a spell of fine and dry weather, which was to continue far into the new year. Except in eastern districts, mainly in the North Island, rainfall was below normal.

NOTE.—Over the shaded areas the rainfall during 1927 was above the average.

Year.—The year was remarkable for the rapid movement of pressure systems and for the large number of cyclones which appeared on our weather charts. The prevailing westerly winds were very much below average strength, a feature most probably associated with the approach of a maximum of solar activity. The absence of westerly wind affected the climate in many ways, some of which might easily be unsuspected.

Rainfall was above normal over most of the North Island, and, although there was a deficit in the South Island, this was offset by the absence of drying winds. There was, consequently, a good growth of grass and herbage, and conditions were generally favourable for agricultural pursuits.

The year was, on the whole, a cold one, temperatures being, on the average, about a degree below normal. Sunshine, also, was less than the average in most parts, but above it in Taranaki and the western portions of the South Island. In the winter and spring months the mountains were covered to unusually low altitudes with a heavy mantle of snow.