THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1924


Table of Contents

PREFACE.

THE 1924 number of the Year-book, while on the same general lines as the 1923 number, is considerably larger, partly owing to the inclusion of new matter and the extension of existing sections, and partly through the reprinting of certain articles from former issues.

The articles—five in number—which have been reproduced in this issue will all be found in Section I. They relate to the rivers, lakes, geology, flora, and fauna of New Zealand, and are in each case the work of recognized authorities on the respective subjects. The list of mountains, given in Section I, has been revised and largely extended by Mr. T. A. Fletcher, Secretary of the New Zealand Alpine Club, and the article on seismology has also been considerably extended by Dr. C. E. Adams, Government Seismologist.

The section on “Population" has been entirely re-written, and contains much new matter. Statistics of the 1921 population census are given in the form of an appendix at the end of the book.

Another section which has been largely recast is that devoted to “Morbidity,” the tables in the portion relating to cases in public hospitals being presented in a much improved form for purposes of comparison with back years. Bankruptcy is no longer included in the section on “Justice,” but now forms a separate section (xxxi).

In the “Trade" section the subsection relating to Imperial Government supplies has been omitted on account of the completion in 1922 of the disposal of the produce concerned. In its stead appears a new subsection dealing with “Trade of Ports,” and including statistical and other information on the subject of the recently inaugurated system of port tonnage statistics.

Other items which might be mentioned are the extension of the Water-power section, and the inclusion in the section on “State Aid to Settlers, Workers, and Local Authorities” of informative matter relating to the schemes of advances, and of tables of half-yearly instalments of principal and interest payments on advances. In the “Miscellaneous" section, which contains the usual summary of legislation (in 1922), are short articles on the Wellington municipal milk-supply and the Main Highways Act. This section also contains the voting figures for the general election and licensing polls of 1922.

Several new diagrams have been added, and, in addition to the maps published in the 1923 number, others have been added showing the distribution of sheep and the location and area of forests. The armorial bearings of the Dominion are given as a frontispiece.

MALCOLM FRASER,
Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Office,
Wellington, N.Z., 15th December, 1923.

Chapter 1. SECTION I.—DESCRIPTIVE.

NEW ZEALAND.—LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES.

THE Dominion of New Zealand consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. These may be classified as follows:—

  1. (a.) Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general practical purposes:—

    • North Island and adjacent islets.

    • South Island and adjacent islets.

    • Stewart Island and adjacent islets.

    • Chatham Islands.

  2. (b.) Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand, as proclaimed in 1847:—

    • Three Kings Islands.

    • Antipodes Islands.

    • Auckland Islands.

    • Bounty Islands.

    • Campbell Island.

    • Snares Islands.

  3. (c.) Islands annexed to New Zealand:—

    • Kermadec Islands.

    • Manahiki Island.

    • Cook Islands.

    • Rakaanga Island.

    • Niue (or Savage) Island.

    • Pukapuka (or Danger) Island.

    • Palmerston Island.

    • Suwarrow Island.

    • Penrhyn (or Tongareva) Island.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30' S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Royal Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then Colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation bearing date the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Group of islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned in the following schedule, were included:—

A line commencing at a point at the intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and proceeding due north to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; and thence due east to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich.

By mandate of the League of Nations the New Zealand Government also now administers the former German possession of Western Samoa; and, jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, holds the League's mandate over the Island of Nauru.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, and named the Ross Dependency. The Governor-General of New Zealand is appointed Governor of the Ross Dependency, and vested with the administration of the dependency.

AREA.

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand, exclusive of the territories administered under mandate, is 103,862 square miles. The areas of the principal islands are as follows:—

 Square Miles.
North Island and adjacent islets44,131
South Island and adjacent islets58,120
Stewart Island and adjacent islets662
Chatham Islands372
        Total Dominion proper103,285
“Outlying" islands284
“Annexed" islands293
    Grand total103,862

MOUNTAINS.

The mountainous character of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Other dormant volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, both of which have, in recent years, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island contains much more mountainous country than is to be found in the North. Along almost its entire length runs the mighty chain known as the Southern Alps, rising to its culmination in Mount Cook (or Aorangi, “the Sky-piercer,” in Maori nomenclature). No fewer than sixteen peaks of the Southern Alps attain a height of over 10,000 ft. Owing to the snow-line being low in New Zealand, many large and beautiful glaciers exist. The Tasman Glacier (Southern Alps), which has a total length of over eighteen miles and an average width of one mile and a quarter, is the largest. On the west coast the terminal face of the Franz Josef Glacier is but a few hundred feet above sea-level.

The following list of named peaks over 7,000 ft. in height has been compiled by Mr. T. A. Fletcher, secretary of the New Zealand Alpine Club. Some of the elevations shown are only approximate.

Mountain or Peak.Height (Feet).
* Not available.
North Island
    Ruapehu9,175
    Egmont8,260
    Ngauruhoe7,515
Kaikoura Ranges
    Tapuaenuku9,460
    Kaitarau8,700
    Mitre Peak8,532
    Whakari8,500
    St. Bernard7,416
    Dillon7,132
St. Arnaud Range
    Travers7,666
Spenser Range
    Franklyn7,671
    Una7,540
    Ella7,438
    Faerie Queen7,332
    Paske7,260
    Humboldt7,240
    Dora7,100
Southern Alps
    Cook12,349
    Tasman11,467
    Dampier11,287
    Silberhorn10,757
    Lendenfeldt10,456
    David's Dome10,443
    Malte Brun10,421
    Teichelmann10,370
    Sefton10,354
    Haast10,295
    Elie de Beaumont10,200
    Haidinger10,178
    Douglas Peak10,178
    La Perouse10,101
    De la Beche10,058
    The Minarets10,058
    Aspiring9,975
    Hamilton9,915
    Glacier Peak9,865
    Grey Peak9,800
    Aiguilles Rouges9,731
    Nazomi9,716
    Darwin9,715
    Chudleigh9,686
    Annan9,667
    Low9,653
    Haeckel Peak9,649
    Goldsmith9,532
    Conway Peak9,510
    Spencer9,508
    Walter9,507
    Green9,305
    D/Archiac9,279
    Hutton9,276
    Hochstetter Dome9,258
    Earnslaw9,250
    Nathan9,200
    Arrowsmith9,171
    Bristol Top9,167
    Sibbald9,161
    The Footstool9,073
    Rudolf9,039
    The Dwarf9,025
    Burns8,984
    Nun's Veil8,975
    Bell Peak8,950
    Johnson8,858
    Aylmer8,819
    Hopkins8,800
    Brodrick8,777
    Priest's Cap8,761
    Aurora Peak8,733
    Mannering8,704
    Meeson8,704
    Meteor Peak8,701
    Jervois8,675
    Whitcombe8,656
    Sealy8,651
    Moffatt8,647
    Thomson8,646
    Vampire Peak8,600
    Aigrette Peak8,594
    Dilemma Peak8,592
    Evans8,580
    Brunner8,578
    Bismarck8,575
    Conrad8,552
    Glenmary8,524
    Isabel8,518
    Dechan8,500
    Loughnan8,495
    Pibrac8,472
    Wolseley8,438
    Unicorn Peak8,394
    Forbes8,385
    Anderegg8,360
    Beatrice8,350
    Maunga Ma8,335
    Livingstone8,324
    Bannie8,300
    Eagle Peak8,300
    Acland8,294
    Jukes8,289
    Darby8,287
    Richmond8,286
    Centaur8,284
    Tyndall8,282
    Victoire8,269
    Alba8,268
    Coronet Peak8,265
    Percy Smith8,249
    Roberts8,239
    Malcolm Peak8,236
    Cumine8,223
    Huxley8,201
    Kim8,200
    Drummond8,197
    Blair Peak8,185
    Huss8,165
    Louper Peak8,165
    Ansted8,157
    The Anthill8,157
    Dennistoun8,150
    Dun Fiunary8,147
    Tyndall8,116
    Fettes8,092
    King8,064
    Glacier Dome8,047
    Humphries8,028
    Lucia8,015
    Graceful Peak8,000
    Lean Peak8,000
    Raureka Peak8,000
    Fletcher7,995
    Cooper7,897
    Ramsay7,880
    Francis7,876
    Observation Peak7,862
    Cadogan Peak7,850
    Blackburn7,835
    Du Faur Peak7,800
    Turret Peak7,800
    Westland7,762
    Copland Peak7,695
    Turner's Peak7,679
    Edison7,669
    Petermann7,664
    Montgomery7,661
    St. Mary7,656
    Taylor7,641
    Sibyl Peak7,625
    Edith Peak7,600
    Madonna Peak7,600
    Baker Peak7,600
    Novara Peak7,542
    Proud Peak7,540
    Nicholson7,500
    Pyramus7,500
    Howitt7,490
    Erebus7,488
    Eros7,452
    Rolleston7,447
    Turnbull7,400
    Lyttle's Peak7,386
    Annette7,351
    Neave7,350
    Roon7,344
    Maitland7,291
    Jollie7,232
    Enys7,202
    Potts7,197
    Hutt7,180
    Kinkel7,121
    Marshman7,116
    Panorama Peak7,075
    Gordon7,025
    Ballance7,008
    Burnett7,003
    Spence*
Two Thumbs Range
    Thumbs8,338
    Fox7,604
    Musgrave7,379
    Sinclair7,022
Darran Range
    Tutoko9,042
    Christina8,675
Barrier Range
    Edward8,459
    Pollux8,341
    Brewster8,264
    Castor8,256
    Liverpool8,040
    Islington7,700
    Goethe7,680
    Cosmos7,640
    Somnus7,599
    Plunket7,220
    Ark7,190
    Moira*
    Head*
    Clarke*
    Oblong Peak*
    French*
    Joffre*
    Balloon*
The Remarkables
    Double Cone7,688
    Ben Nevis7,650

HOT SPRINGS.

The hot springs of the North Island form one of the most remarkable features of New Zealand. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north—a distance of some three hundred miles; but the principal seat of hydrothermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces at Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood was deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints—are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The vast importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognized by the Government, and it is dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

There are also several small hot springs in the South Island, the best-known being those at Hanmer.

A full account of the springs in the Rotorua, Te Aroha, and Hanmer districts was given in the 1905 number of the Year-book, with analyses of the waters of some of the principal springs.

RIVERS.

The following account of the rivers of New Zealand, supplied by R. Speight, Esq., M.Sc., F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum, is reproduced from the 1914 Year-book.

In a country like New Zealand, with marked variations in topographic relief and with a plentiful and well-distributed rainfall, the rivers must necessarily form characteristic features of the landscape. Mountains, however, exert an important influence on their adaptability to the necessities of commerce, reducing their value on the one hand while increasing it on the other. Owing to the steep grades of their channels few of the rivers are fitted for navigation except near their mouths, but to compensate for this disability they furnish in many places ideal sites for power plants, which will in all probability be so utilized in the near future that New Zealand may become the manufacturing centre of the Southern Hemisphere. No country south of the Equator, except Chile and Patagonia, possesses such stores of energy conveniently placed, which cannot become exhausted until the sun fails to raise vapour from the neighbouring seas—a contingency to be realized only when life on the earth is becoming extinct.

The only part of the country which possesses rivers capable of being used for navigation is the North Island. The relief is not so marked as in the South, and many streams flow in deep beds, with somewhat sluggish current. There are flowing into the Tasman Sea rivers like the Waikato, Wairoa, Mokau, and Wanganui, which served the Maoris as important means of communication, and which are decidedly useful for the purposes of modern transport. The first-mentioned of these is by far the most important. Rising in the snows of Ruapehu, and receiving numerous affluents from the western slopes of the Kaimanawa Range, it pursues a northerly course for twenty miles with all the features of a mountain torrent till it enters Lake Taupo. Almost immediately on leaving this it plunges over the Huka Falls, formed by a hard ledge of volcanic rock, and then runs first north-east and then north-west till it reaches the sea, the amount of water discharged exceeding 800,000 cubic feet per minute. In certain parts of its course the valley is gorge-like in character and picturesque rapids obstruct its navigation, but in its lower reaches it widens out and flows for long distances through marshes and shallow lakes, and empties into the sea by a wide estuary, which is unfortunately blocked by a bad bar. It receives on the west a large tributary, the Waipa—itself also navigable for small steamers, and a river which may ultimately play no small part in the development of the south-westerly portion of the Auckland Province.

The Northern Wairoa shows features which resemble those of the Waikato. It rises in the hilly land of the North Auckland Peninsula, and flows south as a noble stream till it enters Kaipara Harbour, a magnificent sheet of water with many winding and far-reaching arms, but with its utility greatly discounted by the presence of a bar which, though with sufficient depth of water for vessels of moderate size, is frequently impracticable. The total estimated discharge from the streams running into the Kaipara Harbour is about 500,000 cubic feet per minute, of which the Wairoa certainly contributes one-half.

The Mokau River, which enters the sea about sixty miles north-east of New Plymouth, is navigable for a considerable distance in its lower reaches. Here it is flanked by limestone bluffs, clad with a wealth of ferns and other native vegetation, forming one of the most picturesque rivers of the country. Higher up, as in the Waikato, there are fine falls, which may ultimately be used for power purposes owing to their proximity to one of the important agricultural districts of the North Island.

The last of the four principal navigable rivers on the west coast is the Wanganui. This river gathers its initial supplies from the western flanks of the volcanic ridge of the centre of the Island, from which numerous streams run west over the Waimarino Plain in somewhat open channels till they coalesce and form the main river. Other tributaries, such as the Tangarakau and the Maunganui-te-ao, subsequently add their quota, and the river then flows in a southerly direction in loops and windings depressed far below the level of the coastal plain, between high papa bluffs clad with rich vegetation, till it reaches the sea as a deep tidal stream, the amount of its discharge being estimated at over 500,000 cubic feet per minute. Through the greater part of its course it has a characteristic trench-like channel, with a fairly even gradient, and with only slight interruptions from rapids. At low water these are most troublesome, but at times of high river-level they are passed without serious difficulty. This fine stream affords communication into a country difficult of access by road or railway, and it may be taken as typical of other smaller streams to the west, such as the Waitotara, the Patea, and the Waitara, which are navigable to a less extent, principally owing to the obstructions of timber in their channels; while the rivers lying more to the east and with courses parallel to the Wanganui—e.g., the Rangitikei and the Wangaehu—are more rapid and have little adaptability to the needs of transport. Further east still, in the neighbourhood of the Ruahine Mountains, the rivers become true mountain torrents, with steep grades and rapid currents.

On the other coast of the North Island the only streams capable of being used for navigation except just at their mouths are those running into the Firth of Thames—the Piako and the Waihou. But no account of our navigable rivers would be complete without a reference to the “drowned rivers” which characterize the northern parts of the Island. The Kaipara may be taken as a typical case of such, for the harbour merely represents the depressed and sunken lower reaches of the Wairoa and other streams. A further notable case is the Hokianga River, which runs for twenty miles between wooded hills and receives numerous tributaries from them, tidal for a considerable part of their courses, and allowing water communication to be used for at least fifteen miles from the point where actual discharge into the open sea takes place.

The remaining rivers of the North Island of any importance rise in the mountain axis that stretches from near Wellington towards the eastern margin of the Bay of Plenty. Towards the southern end, where it lies close to the shore of Cook Strait, the rivers from it are short and swift, the only exception being the Manawatu, which has cut a deep gorge in the mountain barrier and drains an extensive basin lying on the eastern flanks of the Ruahine Range to the north, and of the Tararua Range to the south, as well as a considerable area of country on the slopes of the Puketoi Range, its headwaters in this direction reaching nearly to the east coast of the Island. The Manawatu has an estimated discharge of over 600,000 cubic feet per minute, and judging by this it must be considered the second-largest river in the North Island. Although the Manawatu is the only stream which has succeeded up to the present in cutting through the range at its head, several of the rivers flowing west have eaten their way far back, and in future ages will no doubt struggle with the Manawatu for the supremacy of that tract of land lying to the east of the range. Remarkable changes are likely to occur in the direction of drainage, especially if the earth-movements now in progress in the neighbourhood of Cook Strait continue for any lengthy period.

The southern part of the Tararua and Rimutaka Ranges is drained by the Hutt River, which flows into Wellington Harbour, and by the Ruamahanga and its tributaries, flowing through the Wairarapa Plain. Most of these include within their basins some amount of papa country as well as steep mountain-slopes. While in the former they run in deep narrow channels, but when free from it they spread at times over wide shingly beds in a manner more characteristic of the streams of the South Island.

Several large rivers rise in the Ruahine Mountains and their northerly extensions. The chief of these flowing into Hawke Bay are the Ngaururoro, Mohaka, and Wairoa, the first being noteworthy for the enormous amount of shingle it has brought down; while further north the Waipaoa runs into Poverty Bay and the Waiapu into the open sea, both draining an extensive area of rich papa land. From the north-western side of the range the Whakatane and the Rangitaiki, two considerable streams, flow into the Bay of Plenty.

The chief factor which determines the characters of the rivers of the South Island is the great mountain mass of the Southern Alps, with its extensions and semi-detached fragments. Its general direction is parallel to the west coast of the Island, and nearer to this coast than to the eastern one; it also lies right athwart the path of the wet westerly winds which prevail in these latitudes. The moisture collected during their passage across the Tasman Sea is precipitated in the form of rain on the coastal plain and the hills behind it, while the mountain-tops intercept it chiefly in the form of snow, the amount of annual rainfall varying from about 100 in. at sea-level up to over 200 in. near the main divide. The eastern slopes of to range receive less rain, and are increasingly drier as the coast is approached, but there the amount is slightly augmented by moist winds coming from the open ocean to the east. In the higher mountain valleys on both sides of the range lie numerous glaciers, either of the small cliff type or large ones of the first order, the most notable being the Tasman, Hooker, Mueller, Rangitata, Lyell, and Ramsay on the east, and the Franz Josef and Fox on the west. The chief large rivers of the central district of the Island rise from the terminals of the glaciers and issue from the ice as streams of considerable volume. They reach their highest level in spring and summer, for not only does the heavier rainfall of that time of the year serve to swell them inordinately, but the snow and ice are melted under the combined influence of the rain itself and of the strong sun-heat. Although they are almost always more or less turbulent and dangerous to the traveller who attempts to ford them—in the warm months of the year they are liable to sudden and serious floods, and formerly they frequently blocked communication for weeks at a stretch—now, however, many of the worst streams have been bridged, and communication is thus easier and less precarious.

The general form of these valleys is of a fairly uniform type. Their heads are usually amphitheatre-like in shape, and for some distance they are occasionally covered by old moraines, and the course of the stream is impeded by huge angular blocks washed out of these or shed from the steep slopes; at times, too, the rive is flow through deep and somewhat narrow gorges. Lower down the valleys open out, with even steep sides, nearly perpendicular at times, and with flat floors covered by a waste of shingle, over which the rivers wander in braided streams. The sides are clad with dense bush for a height of approximately 2,500 ft., that merges into a tangle of subalpine scrub, to be succeeded after another 1,000 ft. by open alpine meadow, gradually passing upward into bare rock and perpetual snow.

After leaving the mountains the streams cross the narrow fringe of aggraded coastal plain, and cut down their channels through old glacial drifts which furnished in former times rich leads of alluvial gold. The mouths of these rivers are usually blocked by shallow bars, but after heavy floods a channel may be scoured out, only to be closed, when the river falls, by the vast quantities of drift material moved along the beach by the heavy seas and the strong shore currents which sweep the open coast. It is only where it is possible to confine the river-mouths and direct their scour that open channels can be permanently maintained, and even these entrances to the river are at times extremely dangerous to shipping.

The chief rivers which flow from the central portion of the Southern Alps to the Tasman Sea are the Taramakau, Hokitika, Wanganui, Wataroa, Waihao, Karangarua, Haast, and Arawata. All rise in glaciers, and their valleys are remarkable for their magnificently diversified bush and mountain scenery. Occasionally lakes, ponded back behind old moraines or lying in rock-bound basins and fringed with primeval forest, lend charm to the landscape, and make a journey along the Westland Plain one of the most delightful in New Zealand from the scenic point of view.

Farther north glaciers are absent, but the heavy rain feeds numerous large streams and rivers, the most notable being the Grey and the Buller, the last being in all probability the largest on the west coast, the amount of its discharge being estimated at nearly 1,000,000 cubic feet per minute.

The general features of the rivers which flow into the West Coast Sounds are somewhat similar, except that few rise in glaciers, and there is no fringe of plain to the mountains. The valleys have steeper sides, waterfalls and lakes are more common, and are ideally situated for power installations. One of the large rivers of this area is the Hollyford, which flows into Martin's Bay; but the largest of all is the Waiau, which drains the eastern side of the Sounds region, receives the waters of Lakes Te Anau, Manapouri, and Monowai, and enters the sea on the south coast of the Island.

The rivers on the eastern slope of the Alps present features similar to those of the west coast in their upper courses, but the valleys are broader and flatter, floored from wall to wall with shingle and frequently containing large lakes of glacial origin. In those cases where lakes do not now exist there are undoubted signs that they occurred formerly, having been emptied by the erosion of the rock-bars across their lower extremities and filled at the same time by detrital matter poured in at their heads.

The largest of all these rivers is the Clutha; in fact, it discharges the greatest volume of water of any river in New Zealand, the amount being estimated at over 2,000,000 cubic feet per minute. The main streams which give rise to this river flow into Lakes Wanaka and Hawea, and have their sources in the main divide to the north of the ice-clad peak of Mount Aspiring and in the neighbourhood of the Haast Pass. After flowing as a united stream for nearly thirty miles it receives from the west a tributary nearly as large as itself called the Kawarau, whose discharge has been accurately gauged by Professor Park at 800,000 cubic feet per minute. This great volume of water is due to the fact that the Kawarau drains Lake Wakatipu, which serves as a vast reservoir for the drainage of a considerable area of mountain country, including snow-clad peaks at the head of the lake. The united streams continue in a south-easterly direction, and their volume is substantially increased by the Manuherikia on the east bank as well as by the Pomahaka on the west. The course of the Clutha lies through the somewhat arid schist region of Central Otago, gorge alternating with open valley and river-flats; but some ten miles or so before it reaches the sea it divides, only to reunite lower down and thus include the island known as Inch-Clutha. It almost immediately afterwards enters the sea, but its outlet is of little use as a harbour owing to a shifting and dangerous bar. Portions of its course are navigable to a very limited extent, but it is more important commercially, since it has yielded by means of dredging operations great quantities of gold; in fact, it may be regarded as a huge natural sluice-box, in which the gold disseminated through the schists of Central Otago has been concentrated through geological ages into highly payable alluvial leads.

The following large rivers belong to the Otago and Southland District, but do not reach back to the main divide—the Jacobs, Oreti, and Mataura; and forming the northern boundary of the Otago Provincial District is the Waitaki, which drains a great area of alpine country, and includes in its basin Lakes Tekapo, Pukaki, and Ohau. Its main affluents are the Tasman and the Godley, rising in glaciers of the same name near the axis of the range where it is at its highest. As the river approaches the sea it crosses shingle-plains, through which it has cut a deep channel Hanked by terraces, which rise bench-like for some hundreds of feet above the present level of the river. Its general features are similar to those of the rivers of Canterbury farther north, except that a larger proportion of the course of the latter lies across the plains and uninterfered-with in any way by the underlying harder and more consolidated rocks. The four principal rivers which rise in glaciers are the Rangitata, Ashburton, Rakaia, and Waimakariri; while further north are the Hurunui and Waiau, snow- and rain-fed rivers rising in the main range beyond the northerly limit of glaciers; and there are other streams which do not reach beyond the outer flanking ranges, and are almost entirely rain-supplied.

All these rivers carry down enormous quantities of shingle, but in former times they carried down even more, and built up the wide expanse of the Canterbury Plains by the coalescing and overlapping of their fans of detritus, the depth of shingle certainly exceeding 1,000 ft. Subsequently, when conditions, climatic or otherwise, slightly altered, they cut down deep through this incoherent mass of material, forming high and continuous terraces. Nowhere is the terrace system more completely developed than at the point where the rivers enter on the plains, for there the solid rock that underlies the gravels is exposed, and by the protection that it affords to the bases of old river flood-plains or former terraces it contributes materially to their preservation in a comparatively uninjured condition. The valleys of all these rivers are now almost treeless except in their higher parts, but there the mixed bush of Westland is replaced by the sombre beech forest; it is only in exceptional cases that the totara, which forms an important element of the bush on the hills to the west, crosses the range and covers portions of the sides of the valleys on the east.

Both the Hurunui and the Waiau have cut down gorges through semi-detached mountain masses of older mesozoic rock, a result probably accelerated by the movements of the earth's crust; and farther north, in the Province of Marlborough, the Clarence, Awatere, and Wairau have their directions almost entirely determined by a system of huge parallel earth-fractures, running north-east and south-west, and the rivers are walled in on either side by steep mountains for the greater part of their length. The Clarence Valley is the most gorge-like of the three, since it lies between the great ridges known as the Seaward and Inland Kaikouras, which reach a height of about 9,000 ft. The last river of the three, the Wairau, flows for a considerable distance through a rich alluvial plain, and enters Cloudy Bay by an estuary which is practicable for small steamers as far as the Town of Blenheim. The most important of the streams on the southern shores of Cook Strait are the Pelorus, Motueka, Takaka, and Aorere, great structural faults being chiefly responsible for the position and characteristic features of the valleys of the last two.

An important commercial aspect of our rivers is their use not only as drainage channels, but as a source of water for pastoral purposes. Hardly any area is without water for stock or with a subsoil wanting in moisture necessary for successful cultivation. Only in Central Otago and on the Canterbury Plains were there formerly wide stretches of arid country, but the deficiency in the water-supply has been remedied by well-engineered systems of races, tapping unfailing streams at higher levels, and distributing a portion of their contents far and wide, so that the districts mentioned are rendered highly productive and absolutely protected from the serious effects of drought. It is, however, the rich alluvial flats and well-drained terrace lands bordering on the rivers that contribute specially to the high average yield per acre year after year for which this country has such a world-wide reputation.

From the brief summary given above it will be evident also that the country possesses enormous stores of energy awaiting exploitation. A beginning has been made in some places, such as at Waipori in Otago, at Lake Coleridge in Canterbury, at the Horohoro Falls in Auckland, and at a few other places where there are minor installations. These owe their development to their comparative nearness to centres of industry, but they represent an infinitesimal portion of the energy available, and the value of our vast store will be more truly appreciated when our somewhat limited reserves of coal show signs of failure or become difficult to work—unless, indeed, some new form of power is disclosed by the researches of science in the near future.

A list of the more important rivers of New Zealand is given, with their approximate lengths, the latter being supplied by the Department of Lands and Survey.

NORTH ISLAND.

 Miles.
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—
    Piako60
    Waihou (or Thames)90
    Rangitaiki95
    Whakatane60
    Waiapu55
    Waipaoa50
    Wairoa50
    Mohaka80
    Ngaururoro85
    Tukituki65
Flowing into Cook Strait—
    Ruamahanga70
    Hutt35
    Otaki30
    Manawatu (tributaries: Tiraumea and Pohangina)100

SOUTH ISLAND.

Flowing into Cook Strait—Miles.
    Aorere45
    Takaka45
    Motueka75
    Wai-iti30
    Pelorus40
    Wairau (tributary: Waihopai)105
    Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean— 
    Clarence (tributary: Acheron)125
    Conway30
    Waiau (tributary: Hope)110
    Hurunui90
    Waipara40
    Ashley55
    Waimakariri (tributaries: Bealey, Poulter, Esk, and Broken River)93
    Selwyn55
    Rakaia (tributaries: Mathias. Wilberforce, Acheron, and Cameron)95
    Ashburton67
    Rangitata75
    Opihi50
    Pareora35
    Waihao45
    Waitaki (tributaries: Tasman, Tekapo, Ohau, Ahuriri, and Hakataramea)135
    Kakanui40
    Shag45
    Taieri125
    Rangitikei115
    Turakina65
    Wangaehu85
    Wanganui (tributaries: Ohura, Tangarakau, and Maunganui-te-ao)140
    Waitotara50
    Patea65
Flowing into Tasman Sea— 
    Waitara (tributary: Maunganui)65
    Mokau75
    Waikato (tributary: Waipa)220
    Wairoa95
    Hokianga40
    Clutha (tributaries: Kawarau, Makarora, Hunter, Manuheri-kia, and Pomahaka)210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait— 
    Mataura120
    Oreti105
    Aparima65
    Waiau (tributaries: Mararoa, Clinton, and Monowai)115
Flowing into the Tasman Sea— 
    Cleddau and Arthur20
    Hollyford50
    Cascade40
    Arawata45
    Haast (tributary: Landsborough)60
    Karangarua30
    Fox25
    Waiho20
    Wataroa35
    Wanganui35
    Waitaha25
    Hokitika (tributary: Kokatahi)40
    Arahura35
    Taramakau (tributaries: Otira and Taipo)45
    Grey (tributaries: Ahaura, Arnold, and Mawhera-iti)75
    Buller (tributaries: Matakitaki, Maruia, and Inangahua)105
    Mokihinui30
    Karamea45
    Heaphy25

LAKES.

For the 1915 Year-book Mr. Speight supplied an article on the lakes of New Zealand. The article is here reproduced.

Lakes are features of the landscape which are usually attributable to the filling-up of hollows formed by faulting or warping, or by volcanic explosions, or by the irregular accumulation of material round volcanic vents, or to the interference with river-valleys by glaciers. Seeing that all these agencies have operated on an extensive scale in New Zealand in comparatively recent geological times, it is not surprising that its lake systems are well developed. The remarkable group of lakes, lying in the middle of the North Island, as well as isolated enclosed sheets of water in other parts of the Auckland Province, are due to volcanic action in its various forms, while those in the South Island are to be credited to the operations of glaciers. We have therefore two distinct types of lake scenery, one for each Island. The relief of the land near the volcanic lakes is not by any means marked, and they therefore rarely have bold and precipitous shores, and their scenic interest depends partly on the patches of subtropical bush which grows luxuriantly in places on the weathered igneous material, and partly on their desolate and forbidding surroundings, everywhere reminiscent of volcanic action, where the softening hand of time has not reduced the outpourings of the eruptive centres to a condition favourable for the establishment of vegetation. The thermal activity which is manifested in numerous places on their shores adds to their interest. In the South Island the lakes lie in the midst of splendid mountain scenery, with amphitheatres of noble peaks at their heads, crowned with perpetual snow, and clad at lower levels with dark primeval beech forest, which affords an appropriate setting for the waters at their base, rendered milky-white at times with the finest of sediment worn from solid rocks by powerful glaciers, and swept down to the quiet waters of the lake by turbulent glacial torrents.

LAKES OF THE NORTH ISLAND.

The largest sheet of fresh water in New Zealand is Lake Taupo, which is situated in the very heart of the North Island, at an elevation of 1,211 ft. above the sea. Its greatest length in a S.W.-N.E. direction is 25 miles, and its greatest breadth is about 17 miles, but its shape is somewhat irregular owing to a large indentation on its western side. Its area is 238 square miles, its greatest depth 534 ft., and it has a catchment area of about 995 square miles. About 60 per cent. of its water-supply comes from the Upper Waikato River, which drains the northern and eastern flanks of the central volcanoes as well as the western slopes of the Kaimanawa Range and its northern extensions. The lake discharges at its northeastern corner and forms the main Waikato River, which falls within a short distance over the Huka Falls, where the volume of water which passes over is estimated to reach an average of 5,000 cubic feet per second. The surroundings of the lake are picturesque, on the western side especially. Here it is bounded by cliffs of volcanic rock, generally between 100 ft. and 800 ft. in height, but at the Karangahape Bluffs they rise to over 1,000 ft. sheer. The northern shore is bold with promontories terminated with bluffs and intervening bays with gentler slope. The south side is generally fringed with alluvial flats, while the cast is bordered in places with pumice cliffs, and is somewhat uninteresting, but relieved from absolute monotony by the graceful extinct cone of Tauhara. About 20 miles to the south rise the great volcanic peaks of Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, and Ruapehu, with their bush-clad foothills, forming a splendid panorama when seen from the northern shore of the lake.

To the south-east of the middle of the lake lies the island of Motutaiko, in all probability the summit of a volcanic cone on the line of igneous activity which stretches north-east from the central volcanoes towards Tarawera, White Island, Tonga, and Samoa. The formation of the lake itself is attributable either to a great subsidence after volcanic activity waned, or to a great explosion which tore a vast cavity in the earth's crust and scattered the fragments far and wide over the middle of the Island; and evidence of declining igneous action is furnished by hot springs in the lake itself and near its shore, especially at the north-east corner near Wairakei and on the southern shore near Tokaanu. Earth-movements have in all probability continued down to recent times, for an old shore platform or wave-cut terrace surrounds the lake, indicating that its waters were formerly at a higher level.

The lake forms an enormous reservoir of power conveniently placed for exploitation; it is estimated that the Huka Falls would develop up to 38,000 horse-power, and its central position renders it peculiarly suitable for supplying a wide district. Although the immediate vicinity does not hold out much hope for its utilization, the rich agricultural districts which lie at some distance will no doubt rely on it in the near future as a convenient source of mechanical energy.

To the south of Taupo, nestling in the hills between the great lake and the northern slopes of Tongariro, lies Roto-Aira, a beautiful sheet of water, 3 miles in length and with an area of 5 square miles. It discharges by the Poutu River into the Upper Waikato. The other lakes of this region are small in size and usually occupy small explosion craters on the line of igneous activity mentioned above.

A most interesting group of lakes lies in the midst of the thermal region to the north-east of Taupo. These comprise the following: Rotorua, Roto-iti, Roto-ehu, and Rotoma, which belong to a system lying to the north-west of the area, and Tarawera, Rotokakahi, Tikitapu, Okareka, Rotomahana, Okataina, Rotomakariri, and Herewhakaitu, which lie to the south-east. The former group is connected either directly or indirectly with the Kaituna River basin, and the latter with the Tarawera River basin, both of which discharge their waters into the Bay of Plenty. All these lakes occupy either explosion craters or depressions due to subsidences of the crust or hollows formed by irregular volcanic accumulations. They lie at an elevation of about 1,000 ft. above the sea. The largest is Rotorua, which is nearly circular in shape, except for a marked indentation on the southern shore. It is 32 square miles in area, 84 ft. deep, with flat shores; but in the middle, rather towards the eastern side, rises to a height of 400 ft. the picturesque and historical Island of Mokoia. The lake discharges at its north-eastern corner by the Ohau Creek into Lake Roto-iti, a shallow and irregular depression, which runs in turn into the Okere River. To the north-east lies the small lake of Roto-ehu, separated from it by low ground, and farther on lies the picturesque Rotoma, of still smaller size.

The largest lake of the south-eastern group is Tarawera, lying to the north and west of the mountain of the same name; discharging directly into it are Rotokakahi, Okareka, and Okataina, the last two by subterranean channels, while Tikitapu and Rotomahana are separated from it by comparatively narrow ridges.

All these lakes owe their interest to the thermal manifestations which occur in their vicinity, and to the remnants of beautiful bush which have survived the eruption of Tarawera in 1886. They are also noted for their fishing, being well stocked with trout. Their water is available for power purposes to a limited extent; and a small installation is placed near the low fall where the Okere River discharges from Lake Roto-iti.

Two small lakes of volcanic origin are situated on the peninsula north of Auckland: these are Takapuna and Omapere. The former lies close to the City of Auckland, and occupies a small explosion crater near the sea; while Omapere is between the Bay of Islands and Hokianga, in a shallow depression, which owes its origin to the obstruction of the Waitangi River by a lava-flow. It is three miles long by two wide, and is placed at a height of 790 ft. above the sea.

About forty miles from the east coast, in the Hawke's Bay District, lies the most important lake of Waikare-moana, twelve miles in length by about six miles and a quarter in breadth at its widest part, but with an extremely irregular outline; it has an area of twenty-one square miles. Its surface is 2,015 ft. above the sea, and it has a maximum depth of 846 ft. It discharges by the Wairoa River to the northern shore of Hawke Bay. This lake is most favourably situated for the development of water-power, and it is estimated that it would generate, owing to its admirable position, as much as 134,000 horse-power. A few miles to the northeast lies the small lake called Waikare-iti, which discharges into the large lake.

The only other inland lakes of any importance in this Island are those situated in the lower course of the Waikato River, the most noteworthy being Waikare and Whangape. The former has an area of nearly eleven square miles and has a depth of 12 ft.; the latter is smaller, with an area of only four square miles and a depth of 9 ft. These owe their origin to flooding of low-lying land alongside the river—in all probability attributable to a slight lowering of the land in this part of the country, with the consequent inability of the river to discharge its surplus water without a proper channel being maintained.

Along the coast-line, especially behind the fringe of dunes, numerous small lakes are found, such as Rotokawa, near Kaipara, and Horowhenua, near Levin; and a large sheet of water occurs near the mouth of the Wairarapa Valley, called the Wairarapa Lake. The lake is very shallow, and liable to remarkable variations in size owing to heavy floods from the neighbouring ranges. Between it and the sea is a considerable area of swampy ground in which are several small lakes, the largest of which, Lake Onoke, is separated from Palliser Bay by a narrow shingle-spit.

LAKES OF THE SOUTH ISLAND.

By far the great majority of the lakes of the South Island are dependent for their formation either directly or indirectly on the action of glaciers. They may be either small tarns high on the mountains or large lakes occupying considerable lengths of old stream-valleys which have been overdeepened by the excavating-power of ice during the Pleistocene glaciation, or lakes formed by the filling of hollows in the irregular heaps of debris laid down on a plain at the base of the mountains or in a wide open valley. Accumulations of debris may also assist the first two causes in the formation of lakes.

Included in the first class are numerous sheets of water from the size of small ponds upwards, found in all parts of the mountain region, but especially in the high plateau regions of western Otago, and to a limited extent in north-west Nelson. To the second group belong the large lakes of the eastern watershed of the Alps and a small number which drain west, such as Rotoroa and Rotoiti in the Buller Basin, while to the last must be assigned the majority of the lakes of Westland; but Brunner and Kanieri should perhaps be assigned to the second class.

Seeing that glaciation was not so intense in the northern portion of the Island, it is not surprising that the lakes of that region are small and few in number. Attention has, however, been drawn to Boulder Lake, in the valley of the Aorere River, since it might be used for power purposes in connection with the great deposit of iron-ore at Parapara. It is only 151 acres in extent, but it lies at an elevation of 3,224 ft., and is conveniently placed for the establishment of an electric-power plant. Farther south, near the head of the Buller, are two larger lakes—Rotoroa and Rotoiti—occupying ice-eroded valleys dammed at their lower ends by moraine. The former has an area of eight square miles, and the latter two and three-quarter square miles; their heights above the sea being respectively 1,470 ft. and 1,997 ft., and the latter being 228 ft. deep.

In the valley of the Grey River are two lakes of considerable size—viz., Brunner and Poerua. These are shrunken and separated parts of a former extensive sheet of water which was ponded back behind a great glacier moraine. Lake Brunner is five miles long by four broad, has an area of 15.9 square miles, is 280 ft. above sea-level, and 357 ft. deep. It is surrounded on two sides by high wooded granite peaks, and on the other two by low ground. It discharges by the Arnold River to the Grey, but a very slight change of level would turn it into the Taramakau.

Lake Kanieri, which lies in the basin of the Hokitika River at the base of Mount Tuhua, is a beautiful sheet of water. It is five miles long by one and three-quarters wide, has an area of eight square miles, is 422 ft. above sea-level, and 646 ft. deep. It owes its origin partly to the hollow formed behind an immense morainic dam, and partly to the erosive action of the valley glacier. Farther south on the coastal plain of Westland are numerous small and picturesque lakes, wooded to the water's edge, lying behind heaps of glacial debris or in ice-eroded basins. The most notable of these are Ianthe and Mapourika, both of small size, the former with an area of only two square miles, at a height of 80 ft. above sea-level, and with a depth of 105 ft., and the latter remarkable for the fine panorama of mountain scenery, with Mount Cook in the background, which can be obtained from the shore of the lake. Along this strip of coast-line there are numerous lagoon-like expanses of the water, cut off from the sea by areas of dune or of moraine, the chief of which is Mahinapua, which lies close to the Town of Hokitika. This is but 6 ft. above tide water, and has an area of one and a half square miles. The creek discharging from it is noted for the perfect reflections to be seen in the dark, peat-stained water.

On the eastern side of the main divide lie the great valley lakes which belong to the following river-basins: Hurunui—Lake Sumner; Rakaia—Lakes Coleridge and Heron; Waitaki—Lakes Tekapo, Pukaki, and Ohau; Clutha—Lakes Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu; Waiau—Lakes Te Anau, Manapouri, and Monowai; Wairaurahiri—Lake Hauroko; Waitutu—Lake Poteriteri. These are all formed on the same plan; great glaciers have excavated the floor of a river-valley and have piled the debris across its lower portion, leaving a great hollow which was filled with water when the ice retreated. Even in those river-basins where no lakes now exist the traces of their former presence are evident; especially is this the case with the Waimakariri, Rakaia, and Rangitata Valleys. Besides these large lakes each valley has its quota of small ones, usually hidden away among the piles of moraine or ponded back behind shingle-fans. Among these small lakes should be noted the following: Tennyson, in the valley of the Clarence; Taylor, Sheppard, Katrine, and Mason, in the Hurunui; Pearson, Grassmere, and Letitia, in the valley of the Waimakariri; Evelyn, Selfe, Catherine, Ida, and Lyndon, in that of the Rakaia; Clearwater (or Tripp), Howard, and Acland, in the Ashburton; Alexandria, in the Waitaki; Lochnagar, Hayes, and Moke, in the Clutha. In the valley of the Waiau there are numerous lakes of small size hidden away in bush-clad valleys, the chief of which is Mavora, which discharges into the main Waiau by way of its large tributary, the Mararoa. On the west coast of this region are also many insignificant lakes as far as size is concerned, such as Lake Ada, a well-known beauty-spot on the Milford Sound track, while farther north the McKerrow, a lake of larger size, discharges into Martin's Bay.

The only other lakes in this Island that are worthy of mention are Waihola, which occupies the lower portion of the Taieri Plain, and drains to the sea by a deep winding gorge cut through a ridge of moraine-covered hills, the gorge being tidal for the greater part of its length; while on the coast immediately south of Banks Peninsula lie Lakes Forsyth and Ellesmere, both ponded back behind a great shingle-spit formed by the drift of material brought down the rivers and carried north under the influence of a strong shore current. Both are very shallow and liable at times to be invaded by the sea. Ellesmere is sixteen miles long by about ten broad, and Forsyth is about six miles long by one in breadth.

Among all these lakes three stand pre-eminent for their scenic interest—Wakatipu, Te Anau, and Manapouri. The first-named is walled in on both sides by steep mountains which rise at the head of the lake to over 8,000 ft. in the Humboldt Range, and to over 9,000 ft. in Mount Earnslaw. Te Anau has an uninteresting eastern shore, but its western shore is broken into three great arms, whose impressive scenery is strongly reminiscent of that of Milford Sound and George Sound; while Manapouri, with its many bush-clad islets and indented shore-line with innumerable sheltered coves and pebbly beaches, belongs to the same type as Dusky Sound, the most beautiful of all in the fiord region.

The lakes of Canterbury lie in a treeless area and owe their scenic interest principally to the background of snowy peaks, while Wanaka and Hawea are intermediate in character between them and the more southern lakes of Otago.

These lakes are enormous reserves of energy awaiting development. Estimates of the amount available are somewhat uncertain in their upward limits, seeing that modifications of proposed schemes may increase the possible power to a marked extent. The only one, however, which has been utilized in an adequate manner up to the present is Lake Coleridge. This is estimated to yield 10,000 horse-power, and if the scheme be developed to its full capacity the amount will probably reach 90,000. Lake Tekapo would furnish at least 400,000 horse-power; Pukaki, 70,000; Ohau, 100,000; Hawea, 90,000; Wakatipu, 100,000; Te Anau, 90,000; Manapouri, 420,000; and Hauroko, 80,000; and there are many lakes which could very easily be adapted for smaller installations. Especially is this the case in the fiord-region country, where the heavy and well-distributed rainfall produces an unfailing supply of water, where lakes are placed in ideal situations as reservoirs, and deep water and secure harbours provide ample facilities for the transport of manufactured products. When these are properly utilized the now wild and deserted region will become the home of industry in the Dominion, and one of the main centres of manufacture in the Southern Hemisphere.

GEOLOGY.

The following is a summary of the statistics of the chief lakes of New Zealand:—

Lake.Length, in Miles.Greatest Breadth, in Miles.Area, in Square Miles.Drainage Area, in Square Miles.Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per Second.Height above Sea-level, in Feet.Greatest Depth, in Feet.
    North Island.
Taupo25172389955,0001,211534
Rotorua7 1/263215842091584
Rotoiti10 3/42 1/41426500913230
Tarawera6 1/26 1/41575..1,032285
Waikaremoana126 1/4211287722,015846
Wairarapa104271,250......
    South Island.
Rotoiti522 3/486..1,997228
Rotorua72 1/28146..1,470..
Brunner5416145..280357
Kanieri51 3/4811..422646
Coleridge1131870..1,667680
Tekapo124325805,0002,323..
Pukaki105315156,0001,588..
Ohau103234245,0001,720..
Hawea205485185,7001,062..
Wanaka30475960..922..
Wakatipu5231121,16213,0001,0161,242
Te Anau3361321,32012,660694906
Manapouri12656416..5961,458
Monowai1211251700600..
Hauroko203251951,800611..
Poteriteri17217162..96 
Waihola4 1/21 1/83 1/32,200..(Tidal)..
Ellesmere1610107 1/2745..(Tidal)..

GEOLOGY.

The following article on the geology of New Zealand was prepared by Mr. P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey, and published in the 1914 number of the Year-book. It is here reproduced.

The geological history of New Zealand is long and complicated, and is as yet by no means clearly deciphered. Since the beginning of the Palæozoic periods that portion of the earth's crust where New Zealand is shown on the map has many times been elevated and depressed. Sometimes the land and the neighbouring ocean-floor as a whole have risen or fallen; at other times movement has been more or less local. Thus from age to age the land has greatly varied in outline, and whilst in one period it becomes a continent, in another it nearly or quite disappears beneath the ocean. The actual surface has been almost equally variable, for the mountain-chains of early periods have been planed down by denudation, and new mountains have risen to take their places. In short, the story of the land has been one of incessant, though as a rule slow-moving, change, and if the student would rightly interpret that story he must ever bear in mind that New Zealand in the past has never been quite or even nearly the same as we see it now. With the scanty materials at hand he must endeavour to reconstruct the land as it existed during past ages. A rich field for original research is open to the New Zealand geologist. Little has yet been accomplished in comparison with what remains to be done. There are many absorbing problems—some of great economic importance, some of world-wide interest—awaiting solution by the patient scientific worker.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF STRATIGRAPHY.

The oldest rocks in New Zealand appear to be those of western Otago, where over a large area is exposed a complex of gneisses and schists, intruded by granite and other igneous rocks. The gneisses in the main are altered granites and diorites, but some of the schists, at any rate, are of sedimentary origin. A pre-Cambrian age was assigned to these rocks by Professor F. W. Hutton, but Professor James Park considers them to be probably of Cambrian age, and includes them in his Maniototo Series.

Perhaps next in age to the western Otago gneisses and schists are the mica, chlorite, and quartz schists of Central Otago. In the absence of fossils, however, the age of these rocks is uncertain. Professor Hutton regarded them as pre-Cambrian, Professor Park assigns a Cambrian age, whilst Dr. P. Marshall considers them to be little, if at all, older, than the Triassic. Some schistose rocks in north, central, and western Nelson may be as old as, or even older than, the Otago mica-schists. The gneisses and schists on the western side of the Southern Alps may for the present be classed with the Nelson schists.

The oldest known fossiliferous rocks in New Zealand are the Ordovician argillites (“slates”), greywackes, and quartzites occurring near Collingwood (Nelson), and Preservation Inlet in south-west Otago. Ultimately these rocks may be found to have a considerable development in various parts of Nelson and Westland.

Rocks containing Silurian fossils occur in the Mount Arthur district, Nelson. They are principally altered limestone (practically marble), calcareous shale or argillite, sandstone, and quartzite.

At Reefton a small area exhibits quartzite, limestone, and slaty shale containing fossils believed to be of Devonian age. Elsewhere considerable areas have been assigned to the same period by Mr. Alexander McKay, but owing to the non-discovery of recognizable fossils definite proof of age is wanting. For a similar reason the age of most of the rocks placed in the Carboniferous period (“Maitai Series”) by McKay is uncertain. At Reefton the supposed Carboniferous rocks, which here contain many auriferous quartz-veins, are probably of Ordovician age. In the typical locality near Nelson the fossils found in the Maitai rocks indicate a Trias-Jura age, though possibly older rocks may be present also.

So far Permian rocks have not been satisfactorily identified in New Zealand. Park, however, considers his Aorangi and Kaihiku Series to be of Permian age.

During some of the Palæozoic periods it is conjectured that New Zealand formed part of or was the foreland of a large land-mass that extended far to the west. This land-mass possibly persisted to late Palæozoic times, and may have been the now-dismembered and all-but-lost continent known to geologists as Gondwana-land.

As yet the early and middle Mesozoic rocks of New Zealand have not been clearly separated by means of unconformities or fossil evidence. What may be called a Trias-Jura system is extensively developed in both the North and South Islands. The most fossiliferous localities are Hokonui Hills (Southland), near Nugget Point (Otago), Wairoa Valley, near the City of Nelson, Kawhia Harbour, and Waikato Heads, the two latter localities both on the west coast of Auckland. A broad belt of Trias-Jura or, according to Park, of Permo-Jurassic rocks extends through western Canterbury and Marlborough, and is continued as a somewhat narrower belt on the north side of Cook Strait from Wellington to the Cape Runaway district. Rocks of much the same age occur in the Mokau River watershed, in the Lower Waikato Valley, in the Coromandel Peninsula, and in North Auckland.

The supposed Jurassic rocks of Kawhia Harbour and Waikato Heads, mentioned above, may possibly be of Lower Cretaceous age. Admittedly Cretaceous rocks extend in a not-quite-continuous belt from Cape Campbell in Marlborough to the neighbourhood of Waipara in North Canterbury. At Amuri Bluff they are richly fossiliferous. Here and in several other localities the fossils include saurian remains. To the Cretaceous may also be assigned a somewhat extensive belt of rocks near the east coast of Wellington and southern Hawke's Bay. A continuation of this belt extends from a point north-west of Gisborne to the East Cape district.

The oldest known workable coal-seams in New Zealand probably occur in Cretaceous rocks. Much controversy, however, concerning the age of our coalfields has arisen. The late Sir James Hector, and with him Mr. Alexander McKay, considered that the coal-measures belonged to a Cretaceo-Tertiary system that extended from the Upper Cretaceous to the Middle Tertiary. For many years Mr. McKay was practically the sole exponent of this theory, but quite recently Dr. Marshall has advocated a very similar if not identical view. The truth, however, seems to be that the coal-measures concerning which there is a dispute are of two different ages. The Shag Point, Malvern Hills, and North Auckland coalfields are probably of Upper Cretaceous age. To these Park would add the Milton-Kaitangata coalfield and a small portion of the Green Island coalfield. The other coalfields, as mentioned below, are Tertiary.

Although there is certainly a palæontological break between the Upper Cretaceous (Waipara Series) and the Early Tertiary, the existence of an unconformity, as may be inferred from the previous paragraph, is a matter of doubt. The subdivision of the Tertiary strata, which are well represented in New Zealand, is still more or less tentative. To the Eocene may be assigned the bituminous coal-measures of the Grey, Buller, and Collingwood districts, and probably also some of the coal-bearing patches of central Nelson. Elsewhere Eocene rocks are not certainly known.

During the Early Eocene it is believed that New Zealand was again part of a continental area that extended far to the north, and was joined, or all but joined, to New Guinea and northern Australia. This continent may have included much of the area in the Pacific now studded with coral islands. Its former existence is inferred mainly from various features in our plant and animal life. According to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, no less than 366 New Zealand plants are found also in Australia. More significant, perhaps, is the occurrence of many closely related species and genera in the two regions, for comparatively few of the 366 species are likely to have persisted since the Eocene. Many of our birds show marked affinities to Australian and Malayan species. In this connection an interesting line of support for a Tertiary extension of New Zealand to the north is afforded by the annual migrations of the New Zealand cuckoos and of the godwit.

During the Miocene period New Zealand subsided until little of the present land-surface was above water. Consequently, notwithstanding extensive denudation in later periods, Miocene strata are well represented in almost all parts of the country. They are typically developed in the Oamaru district (north-east Otago), and hence Hutton's name of “Oamaru Series” is generally applied to the Miocene strata of New Zealand. Miocene rocks are well represented in north Westland, an area in which a decided unconformity separates them from the Eocene coal-measures. They form much of the surface of the North Island, where the name “papa" is commonly applied to the calcareous claystones and argillaceous sandstones which there form a great proportion of the Miocene rocks. In many places the Oamaru Series is characterized by the development of a fairly thick, soft, fossiliferous limestone about the middle horizon. This marks the time of greatest subsidence, or rather the time when the Miocene sea was deepest. Owing to their calcareous nature, the Miocene rocks give rise to some of the richest agricultural districts in New Zealand. In places they contain, in their lowest horizon, seams of good brown coal. There are also brown coals of late Miocene age.

In many localities the Miocene rocks pass without unconformity into strata considered to be of Pliocene age. In the Hawke's Bay and Wanganui districts these are marine and highly fossiliferous. They give rise to much good agricultural and more especially pastoral land adapted to sheep-farming or dairying. In Nelson and north Westland the Pliocene strata are largely composed of river-transported material, and are known as the Moutere Gravels. These in places are of a poorly auriferous character. In Nelson the Moutere Gravels form a poor pastoral soil, but one well adapted for apple-culture.

Towards the close of the Miocene and during the whole of the Pliocene period many parts of New Zealand, more particularly in the South Island, were undergoing elevation. As a result the North and South Islands (then quite different in outline from their present configuration), together with most of the outlying islands now in existence, such as the Chathams, Auckland Islands, &c., must have formed one large land-mass, which probably was united to an Antarctic continent. Since many New Zealand plants* are identical with, or closely allied to, South American forms, and there are also some striking resemblances in bird and other forms of animal life, it is thought that this Antaretic continent formed a bridge, probably at no time quite complete, between New Zealand and South America. By this route, in all likelihood, came the now extinct moas or their ancestral forms. At the time of this continental extension the Southern Alps rose far above their present heights, and were covered with one vast snowfield that fed immense glaciers spreading far and wide over the lowlands to the east and the west. According to Park, during the Pleistocene there was one great sheet of ice over the whole of the present South Island, and over part of the North Island. Moreover, this ice-sheet was joined to the Antaretic ice. The extreme views of Professor Park are not shared by other New Zealand geologists, who, however, unanimously agree that a large area in the South Island was glaciated. The great ice-streams of Picistocene times gave rise to rivers that carried enormous quantities of gravel and finer material derived from the mountains beyond the ice-front, and in great measure built up the lowlands of Canterbury and Westland. In the latter district the gravels sorted by these streams are in many places richly auriferous, but a greater and more permanent source of wealth is furnished by the fertile soil of the Canterbury Plains.

In many parts of Otago, Canterbury, Westland, and Nelson evidences of past glacial action are afforded by huge moraines, perched blocks, ice-worn surfaces (roches moutonnees), rock-benches, rock-basins, and other tokens of glaciation. To ice-action, it may here be mentioned, we owe some of the most magnificent features of the western Otago sounds.

At or before the end of the Pleistocene period the mountains lessened in height, through both denudation and a well-marked subsidence of the land. The climate grew milder, and the lowland ice melted away. The mighty glaciers rapidly retreated, geologically speaking, and are to-day represented only by the comparatively modest valley and mountain glaciers of north-west Otago, Canterbury, and Westland, with which may be included the small but permanent snowfield and glacier on Mount Ruapehu. While the glaciers were retreating the rivers of Canterbury and Westland, swollen by the melting ice, were unusually active in transporting debris to the lowlands and the sea-coast. At this time, too, as well as at somewhat earlier periods, the volcanoes of the North Island furnished an abundant supply of fragmentary material, much of which was transported by the streams, and used in building plains and river-flats. Many of these are fertile, but in those districts where pumice abounded a more or less barren soil, difficult of utilization, has resulted. Thus the land gradually became much as we see it now. In recent times geological changes, such as the lowering of heights by denudation, the filling of lakes by sediment, the outward growth of coastal plains in some places, and the wearing-away of the shores in other places, have slowly proceeded, and are to-day, of course, still going on. Slow movements of the land are probably in progress, but these have not been certainly detected. In 1855, however, as the result of a violent earthquake, the northern shore of Cook Strait, near Wellington Harbour, was raised on the average at least 5 ft., whilst the southern shore near Tory Channel and towards the mouth of the Wairau River was almost correspondingly depressed.

IGNEOUS ROCKS.

In the preceding paragraphs little notice has been given to igneous rocks or to volcanic action. The oldest igneous rocks of New Zealand are probably represented by the gneisses of western Otago, which, as previously stated, are mainly metamorphosed granites and diorites. Plutonic rocks intrude many of the Palæozoic and Mesozoic strata, and some of the formations also show evidence of contemporaneous volcanic action. Of the more ancient Plutonic rocks granite is the most prominent. It occurs in many localities in Stewart Island, western Otago, Westland, and Nelson. It has, however, not been found in situ in the North Island, though in at least four localities boulders of granite, probably derived in all cases from ancient conglomerates, have been discovered. Ultra-basic igneous rocks, now largely altered to serpentine, occur in north-west Otago, Westland, and Nelson.

*According to T. F. Cheeseman's “Manual of the New Zealand Flora” (preface, page ix), 108 New Zealand plants extend to South America.

Throughout the greater part of the Tertiary periods volcanic action in New Zealand was probably more intense than in any former age. During the Late Eocene or Early Miocene period eruptions, at first principally of andesitic rocks and later of rhyolite, began in the Coromandel Peninsula, and with little intermission continued throughout Miocene and Pliocene times. These volcanic rocks contain the gold-silver veins which have yielded rich bonanzas at Thames and Coromandel, and are now being worked at the Waihi, Talisman, and other mines.

There are many areas of Miocene volcanic rocks in North Auckland, and near the City of Auckland numerous small volcanoes were in action during the Pleistocene. Some of these—for example, Mount Rangitoto—have probably been active within the last two or three thousand years. In Taranaki the beautiful cone of Mount Egmont was built up during Pliocene and Pleistocene times. It is in the central part of the North Island, however, that the most intense volcanic activity has been displayed. Volcanic rocks, and more especially the pumice ejected during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene, cover large areas. Vulcanism has not yet ceased, for minor eruptions of fragmentary material still take place from Ngauruhoe, a typical volcanic cone near Ruapehu. The most striking evidence of volcanic action, however, is afforded by the numerous steam-vents, hot springs, and geysers found in a belt extending from Ruapehu to White Island (in the Bay of Plenty), itself a volcano in the solfataric stage. It is more than a coincidence that this belt is in line with the Southern Alps. Solfataric action is generally regarded as a sign of dying vulcanism, but that the subterranean forces are still capable of mischief was shown by the eruption of Tarawera, an apparently extinct volcano, on the 10th June, 1886. On this occasion over a hundred lives were lost.

In the South Island vulcanism is apparently quite dead, for the hot springs of Hanmer Plains and the western side of the Alps are due to many causes. During the Miocene, however, volcanic outbursts took place in many localities, in some on a grand scale. Banks Peninsula is formed mainly of basaltic and andesitic rocks, Lyttelton and Akaroa harbours are believed to represent ancient craters or centres of eruption. In the neighbourhood of Dunedin occurs a very interesting series of alkaline volcanic rocks. These were first described by the late Professor G. H. F. Ulrich, and in later years Dr. Marshall has given them exhaustive study.

CONCLUSION.

In the course of a short article it is impossible to give any adequate idea of what has been accomplished by geological workers in New Zealand, or what remains yet to be done before even the foundation for future work shall be securely laid. The important branches of geology in its application to agriculture and mining have hardly been mentioned, but elsewhere in this volume will be found references to the agricultural and mineral resources. For detailed information the reader is referred to the bulletins of the New Zealand Geological Survey; to Professor Park's “Geology of New Zealand,” which contains an excellent bibliography; and to the treatise on “New Zealand Geology,” by Dr. Marshall, as well as to many other publications too numerous to be here named. Finally, it may be mentioned that in each of the University Colleges excellent instruction in geology is being given by capable and enthusiastic teachers, so that in the near future we may expect increased progress in solving the many knotty problems of New Zealand geology.

SEISMOLOGY.

The following article by the former Government Seismologist, the late Mr. George Hogben, C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S., has been revised and brought up to date by Dr. C. E. Adams, D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer and Seismologist, with the assistance of Mr. J. Henderson, D.Se., Mining Geologist.

The Wellington earthquake of 23rd January, 1855, received a full notice in Sir Charles Lyell's classic work “The Principles of Geology,” * and probably largely on that account the attention of the scientific world was attracted to this feature of the natural phenomena of New Zealand. But since that earthquake, during which the level of the land in the neighbourhood of Wellington Harbour was raised about 5 ft., there has been no shock in the New Zealand region proper which has at all approached the destructive phase. Indeed, of about 2,000 earthquakes recorded as having origins in or near New Zealand, that of 1848 is the only other earthquake comparable in intensity to that of 1855; and the average intensity of all the earth quakes thus recorded is between III and IV on the Rossi-Forel scale—or, in other words, just sufficient to make pictures hung on walls move a little, and to cause doors and windows to creak or rattle slightly. In about twenty instances the force has been sufficient near the origin to overturn some chimneys (for the most part badly constructed ones), and in a very few buildings to crack walls or ceilings of faulty design. In about fifty other earthquakes such phenomena have been noted as the stopping of clocks, without any damage. The great majority of shocks have passed unperceived by the ordinary observer, and have been recorded only by means of instruments.

Earthquakes are usually divided into the two classes of volcanic and tectonic earthquakes. The former are those that precede, accompany, or follow a volcanic eruption, whereas tectonic earthquakes are caused by deformation of the earth's crust. The latter are of far greater general importance than those due to volcanic action, which may, indeed, be considered an effect of the same stresses that produce tectonic earthquakes.

A volcanic eruption is in almost all cases preceded by earthquakes, which, although they may be extremely violent, are characterized by the sharpness and brevity of the shock and by the smallness of the disturbed area. The after-shocks of a severe earthquake of the so-called volcanic type continue for a relatively short period. Successive earthquakes of a series have nearly the same place of origin.

Volcanic earthquakes in the past were usually considered to be due to explosions within the mass of the mountain. This hypothesis has been discarded, or at least much modified, by most modern authorities. They are considered rather to arise from the formation of new fractures, from the reopening or extension of old fractures, from the sudden injection of lava into cavities or fissures, and from the displacement of rock-masses adjoining a fracture. Thus they are essentially of the same nature as “tectonic" earthquakes.

Tectonic earthquakes are caused by the deformations of the earth's crust, to which surface features are ultimately due. These deformations arise from the gradual shrinking of the central core or from changes in the load on the crust through denudation and sedimentation. Stresses accumulate in the solid rock until relieved by the formation of fissures, along which movements of adjacent earth-blocks take place. These earth-blocks may be of vast size, and fractures or faults separating them are rarely single planes of rupture, but consist of numerous subparallel breaks extending more or less continuously along elongated belts. Such fault-zones may be hundreds of miles long and many miles wide.

The connection between earthquakes and the formation, extension, or growth of faults is evident in the somewhat rare cases in which the displacement reaches the surface. It is also indicated by the elongated form of the area over which the shock is equally felt, and by the association of these areas with faults traceable on the surface by geological and topographical data. When movement occurs considerable areas of the fracture-plane must be affected, and, since shocks may originate from any part of this area, the seismic focus may be of large size. Again, the foci of successive shocks of a series may migrate to and fro along the fracture or shift to adjacent fractures. Similarly, earthquake series may migrate along a fault-zone.

* Tenth edition, 1868, vol. ii, p. 82. London: John Murray; New Zealand Government Gazette, Wellington, vol. 2, No. 14, 17th October, 1855, p. 116.

Westminster Review, vol. 51, 1849; Mr. Justice H. S. Chapman, “Earthquakes in New Zealand,” Trans. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. 3, 1891; G. Hogben, “The Earthquakes of New Zealand,” p. 37; “Report of Selsmological Committee,” p. 505; New Zealand Government Gazette, Auckland, vol. 1, No. 27, 13th November, 1848. and vol. 1, No. 29, 20th November, 1848.

In New Zealand many great faults and fault-zones have been traced for long distances on geological and topographical evidence, but of these a few only have been active since European occupation. A notable zone extends north-east through the centre of the North Island from Mount Ruapehu to White Island. South of Ruapehu it has not been definitely traced on the surface, although from the positions of the foci of the groups of earthquakes it probably extends past Wanganui, across Cook Strait, and along the south-east shore of Tasman Bay to the South Island. The volcanic phenomena of the Rotorua-Taupo region, together with the recent remarkable earthquakes at Taupo, indicate that earth-stresses are still accumulating along this great fracture-zone.

Another important fault-system extends through North Canterbury, Marlborough, east Wellington, and Hawke's Bay. Its general course is north-east, parallel with the Taupo belt and the principal mountain-ranges of New Zealand. The Marlborough valleys, as well as the lowlands of the Hutt and Wairarapa districts, are directly controlled by fractures of this great system. In addition to many less severe shocks, the Wellington earthquake of 1855 was due to displacement along one of the major fissures. The southern end of the known active portion of the great fracture-belt is crossed by several important east-and-west faults; and the Hanmer earthquake of 1888 was due to the reopening of a fault extending in this direction along the upper valley of the Waiau-ua River.

The edge of the submarine plateau of which New Zealand is the most elevated portion lies about two hundred miles east of the North Island. Thence it extends north-eastward for hundreds of miles in a nearly straight line. The sea-floor to the east is several thousand feet lower, and the precipitous edge of the plateau probably is the scarp of a great fracture-belt. The most active seismic region of New Zealand is at or near the southern end of this submarine scarp, and here have originated several severe earthquakes.

Another submarine earthquake-zone, presumably also a fracture-zone, extends parallel with and some fifty miles from the east coast of the South Island, from opposite Christchurch to south-east of Dunedin. Numerous unimportant earthquakes have originated from this zone.

Another group of earthquake-foci occurs off the west coast of the North Island, opposite Raglan and Kawhia. This, like the other seismic zones, extends in a north easterly direction parallel with the main mountain-axis of the Dominion. Few earthquakes have been recorded from this locality, the principal being in 1882 and 1891.

The origins of the New Zealand region will be seen to arrange them-selves in groups as follows:—

Group I.—Earthquakes felt most strongly on south-east coast of North Island; the origins form a strip 180 miles from the coast, parallel to the axis of New Zealand, and to axis of folding of older rocks in Hawke's Bay. Chief shocks: 17th August, 1868; 7th March, 1890; 23rd and 29th July, 1904; 9th August, 1904 (intensity IX on R.-F. scale); 8th September. 1904; prob. 23rd February, 1863 (IX, R.-F.); &c.

According to the late Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., the geological evidence-shows that New Zealand rose considerably in the older Pliocene period, and was then probably joined to the Chatham Islands. At a later period subsidence occurred, followed again by elevation in the Pleistocene period, with oscillations of level since. The seismic origins of this group are at the foot of a sloping submarine plateau, about two hundred miles wide, which culminates to the east-south-east in the Chatham Islands. This elevation is separated from the New Zealand coast by a trough from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms in depth, which is widest and deepest between these origins and the mainland.

Group II.

  1. (a.) South-east of Otago Peninsula. Shocks: 20th November, 1872, &c.

  2. (b.) A strip south-east of Oamaru. Shocks: February, 1876; April, 1876, &c.

  3. (c.) Many short and jerky, but generally harmless, quakes felt in Christchurch, Banks Peninsula, and mid-Canterbury. Chief shocks: 31st August, 1870; 27th December, 1888 (VII, R.-F.); &c. Focus of 1888 shock, sixteen miles long, from west-south-west to east-north-east, twenty-four to twenty-five miles below surface being the deepest ascertained origin in the New Zealand region.

These origins form a line parallel to the general axis of the land. It is possible that the loading of the sea-floor by the detritus brought down by the rivers of Canterbury and Otago is a contributing cause of the earthquake of this group.

Group III.—Wellington earthquakes of January, 1855, and Cheviot earthquakes of 16th November, 1901, and of 25th December, 1922 (VIII, R.-F.).

The origin of the earthquake of 1855 was probably the fault that forms the eastern boundary of the Rimutaka Range and the western boundary of the Wairarapa Valley.

The origin of the Cheviot earthquake of 1901 was probably in or near the southern continuation of this fault.

The great earthquakes of October, 1848, probably came from the same region as those of January, 1855. The chief shocks of both series did extensive damage to property, and caused the formation of large rifts in the earth's surface; they are the only scismic disturbances since the settlement of the Dominion that can be assigned to degree X on the Rossi-Forel scale.

Group IV.

  1. (a.) Region about twenty-five to thirty miles in length, and, say, ten miles or less in width, running nearly north north-east from middle of Lake Sumner, about twenty miles below the surface, whence proceed most of the severer shocks felt from Christchurch to the Amuri, and a large number of minor shocks. Chief earthquakes: 1st February, 1868; 27th August to 1st September, 1871; 14th September and 21st October, 1878; 11th April, 1884; 5th December, 1881 (VIII, R.-F.), when Christchurch Cathedral spire was slightly injured; 1st September, 1888 (IX, R.-F.), when upper part of same spire fell, and still more severe damage was done in the Amuri district.

  2. (b.) A small shallow origin not more than five to ten miles below the surface, a few miles south of Nelson. Earthquake: 12th February, 1893 (VIII to IX, R.-F.): chimneys thrown down and buildings injured.

  3. (c.) Origin in Cook Strait, north-north-east of Stephen Island, about ten miles wide, and apparently traceable with few interruptions nearly to mouth of Wanganui River; depth, fifteen miles or more. More than half the earthquakes recorded in New Zealand belong to this region; earthquake of 8th December, 1897 (VIII to IX, R.-F.), and other severer ones came from south-south-west end. Probably the first recorded New Zealand earthquake, felt by Captain Furneaux on the 11th May, 1773, belonged to this region.

  4. (d.) Taupo Earthquakes.—During June and July, 1922, earthquakes were almost continuous in the Taupo district. The shocks reached intensity VIII on the Rossi-Forel scale, and then gradually subsided. Conditions were practically normal by the end of the year. The shocks were restricted to a small area of country, and were felt most strongly at Taupo, Wairakei, and Oruanui. The disturbances were accompanied by loud rumblings. No effect appears to have been produced on the thermal activities of the region. Considerable subsidence was reported along the north side of Lake Taupo in a general north-easterly direction.

    Former smart shocks in this region were reported in September-October, 1897.

  5. (e.) An origin near Mount Tarawera, with a large number of moderate or slight shocks, most, but not all, volcanic and local in character—e.g., those of September, 1866, and those of June, 1886, which accompanied and followed the well-known eruption of Mount Tarawera.

These origins of Group IV, (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), are nearly in a straight line on the map; on or near the same line are the origins of earthquakes felt in the Southern Lake District (15th December, 1883, &c.), the volcanoes Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, Tongariro, Tarawera, and White Island. It is evident that this line, which, like the rest, is parallel or nearly so to the general axis, is a line of weakness or of unstable equilibrium. Hence the adjusting movements that have caused earthquakes may have from time to time relieved the pressure of the rocks that restrained overheated steam and other volcanic agents from bursting out, and so may have led to volcanic eruptions; just as the series of earthquakes in Guatemala and in the Caribbean Sea in April and May, 1902, were the signs of movements in the great folds of that part of the earth's crust, in the course of which, the pressure in the Antillean Ridge being relieved, the volcanic forces below Mount Pelée in Martinique, and Mount Souffrière in St. Vincent, caused the disastrous eruptions of that year.

Group V.—Off the west coast of the North Island near Raglan and Kawhia. Chief shock: 24th June, 1891 (VII to VIII, R.-F.). The line joining this origin to that of the earthquake of 1st February, 1882, is parallel to the other lines of origins (Groups I to IV); but we have no data to establish any connection between them.

REPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND EARTHQUAKES.

Since 1888 there has been established in New Zealand a system of observing local earthquakes at selected telegraph-stations—about eighty in number—distributed throughout the extent of the Dominion.

Whenever a shock occurs and is felt by an officer in charge of one of these stations he fills up a form giving the New Zealand mean time of the beginning of the shock, its apparent duration and direction, and the principal effects observed by him. Some of the officers exhibit considerable care and skill in making up these returns, and the data have been used to determine principal origins of earthquakes within the New Zealand region.

All observers of earthquakes are cordially invited to forward their reports to the Government Seismologist, Hector Observatory, Wellington, giving all or any of the following particulars:—

  1. (1.) Time of beginning of shock (if possible, New Zealand time to nearest quarter-minute).

  2. (2.) Whether clock was verified by New Zealand time.*

  3. (3.) Apparent direction—e.g., S.E. to N.W., then N.E. to S.W.

  4. (4.) Apparent duration of shock.

  5. (5.) Effects in terms of the Rossi-Forel scale as under.

  6. (6.) Remarks: e.g., previous or subsequent tremors: spilling of liquids, with direction of overflow; rumbling before, during, or after shock.

The Rossi-Forel scale of earthquake intensities is as follows:—

  1. I. Microseismic shock: Recorded by a single seismograph or by seismographs of the same model, but not by several seismographs of different kinds; the shock felt by an experienced observer.

  2. II. Extremely feeble shock: Recorded by several seismographs of different kinds; felt by a small number of persons at rest.

  3. III. Very feeble shock: Felt by several persons at rest; strong enough for the direction or duration to be appreciable.

  4. IV. Feeble shock: Felt by persons in motion; disturbances of movable objects, doors, windows; creaking of ceilings.

  5. V. Shock of moderate intensity: Felt generally by every one; disturbance of furniture, beds, &c.; ringing of swinging bells.

  6. VI. Fairly strong shock: General awakening of those asleep; general ringing of house bells; oscillation of chandeliers; stopping of pendulum clocks; visible agitation of trees and shrubs; some startled persons leave their dwellings.

  7. VII. Strong shock: Overthrow of movable objects; fall of plaster; ringing of church bells; general panic, without damage to buildings.

  8. VIII. Very strong shock: Fall of chimneys; cracks in walls of buildings.

  9. IX. Extremely strong shock: Partial or total destruction of some buildings.

  10. X. Shock of extreme intensity: Great disaster; buildings ruined; disturbance of the strata; fissures in the ground; rock-falls from mountains.

The New Zealand returns are valuable not only in themselves, but as part of a world system of seismological observations; and the attention of observers is called to the fact that the reliable character of the record depends upon the individual accuracy of each observer. No shock, however slight, should be omitted. It is especially important that the first two questions should be answered accurately.

Three seismographs, all with photographic registration, are installed in New Zealand: two are Milne horizontal pendulums, and one is the new Milne-Shaw horizontal pendulum. One Milne and the new Milne-Shaw seismographs are installed at the Hector Observatory, Wellington, with their booms placed at right angles; and the other Milne seismograph is installed at the Magnetic Observatory, Christchurch.

The records of the New Zealand stations are sent to the General Secretary of the Seismological Committee of the British Association, to the Station Centrale Sismologique, Strasbourg, France, and to the principal observatories of the world, and thus form part of the general system of earthquake-observation being conducted throughout the world since 1890.

* A convenient means of verifying the time is provided by the wireless time-signals sent out every day, except Sundays and Government holidays, at 10.30 a.m. N.Z. time, by the Hector Observatory on a wave-length of 600 metres.

EARTHQUAKES IN 1921 AND 1922.

The accompanying diagram illustrates graphically the number and intensities of the earthquakes reported to the Seismologist in the years 1921 and 1922. These reports were supplied by officers of the Post and Telegraph Department, by private observers, and by the newspapers. Each vertical line represents the maximum effect of an earthquake, with the intensities according to the Rossi-Forel scale shown at the sides of the figure. It will be seen that two earthquakes in 1921, and four in 1922, reached intensity VIII on this scale. The figure also shows the distribution in time of the earthquakes.

DEATHS DUE TO EARTHQUAKES IN NEW ZEALAND.

Deaths due to earthquakes in New Zealand are fortunately very few. In the last seventy-five years seven have been recorded.

The shock of October, 1848, threw down a wall in Wellington, and three people were killed.

On the 24th January, 1855, a death occurred at Wellington recorded as “accidental death from the falling of a chimney.” The large earthquake took place during the night of the 23rd January, 1855.

On the 16th November, 1901, a child was killed by the Cheviot earthquake.

On the 12th April, 1913, a Maori was killed at Masterton by material falling from the post-office, due to an earthquake.

On the 7th October, 1914, a shepherd was killed by the Gisborne earthquake.

CLIMATE.

The following article on the climate of New Zealand has been prepared by the Dominion Meteorologist, Mr D. C. Bates.

The climate of New Zealand is spoken of in popular and general terms as equable, mild, and salubrious; but such a summary does not convey an adequate idea of variations that exist in a country stretching, as it does, north and south for nearly a thousand miles, and distinctly differentiated by lofty mountain-chains. Another fact which must also be borne in mind is that the greater part of the North Island is controlled by a different system of circulation from that which dominates conditions in the parts about Cook Strait and the South Island. The former is subject to ex-tropical disturbances, and the latter more to westerly or antarctic “lows,” which travel along the latitudes of the “forties,” with their prevailing westerly winds.

AUCKLAND.

The climate of the Auckland Province, speaking generally, combines degrees of warmth and humidity agreeable by day and comfortable by night, North of Auckland City conditions are almost subtropical, and in summer balmy easterly breezes prevail, and are responsible for delightful conditions. In winter the winds are more north and west, while changes to the south-west or south-east mostly account for the rainfall. Cumulus clouds are frequently formed in the afternoons, and, while tempering the heat of the day, also cut down sunshine records somewhat, but add considerably to the beauty of the land- and sea-scape. Southward of Auckland the climate is more varied, the west coast experiencing more rain, while the central parts are warmer in the day and considerably colder at night. In the winter months frosts, which are unknown farther north, now and then occur in the hours of darkness. Eastward from Rotorua (the great health resort and centre of the thermal region) is to be found one of the most genial climates in the world, and Tauranga and Opotiki have charms all their own, especially for their weather and the fruits which ripen to perfection in these regions.

The monthly and annual means of the temperature, rainfall, and sunshine of Auckland and Rotorua are shown in the following tables:—

Auckland.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 56 Years.Mean Rainfall for 68 Years.Mean Sunshine for 11 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr.min.
January73.758.966.52.5710.321358
February74.359.667.12.989.61757
March72.057.765.03.0411.117041
April67.854.661.23.3413.913753
May62.750.556.74.4618.412850
June59.247.853.54.7919.411550
July57.646.051.85.1320.91182
August58.246.052.24.2719.51364
September60.748.454.73.6317.613910
October63.550.757.33.5916.416129
November67.053.360.23.2814.618613
December70.956.763.92.8011.52148
Year65.652.559.243.88183.21,89725
Rotorua.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 32 Years.Mean Rainfall for 35 Years.Mean Sunshine for 9 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr.min.
January75.552.363.93.999.624953
February74.952.263.43.978.818818
March71.849.460.63.689.61910
April66.045.455.64.3510.815716
May60.040.750.35.4512.414319
June55.638.246.85.0312.811916
July54.237.045.55.1813.912910
August56.137.546.75.0313.413935
September59.640.850.25.1914.415635
October63.944.054.04.8513.918528
November68.346.757.54.0712.72157
December72.849.661.13.619.722847
Year64.944.554.654.40142.02,10344

HAWKE'S BAY.

The Hawke's Bay Province is one of the richest in New Zealand, and is favoured with a pleasant climate, being sheltered from westerly winds, though occasionally they are of the warm and dry (Foehn) type. It is rather dry, but ex-tropical disturbances are occasionally responsible for heavy downpours. Though the number of days with rain is less than, and sunshine above, that of other parts, the rainfall is still a good one, and fairly regular throughout the year, though some seasons have been notably dry. The meteorological records of Napier show reliable normals for the coastal districts. Inland the country is rather mountainous and less mild.

Napier.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 29 Years.Mean Rainfall for 16 Years.Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr.min.
January75.957.066.41.666.527520
February74.556.765.62.426.720733
March71.254.763.03.729.12171
April67.250.458.72.507.819517
May61.746.354.04.249.516114
June58.042.350.12.648.116236
July56.541.649.03.9610.314815
August57.942.150.03.1210.818735
September62.345.253.71.868.321617
October66.448.757.52.529.02345
November69.651.860.72.078.124518
December73.155.364.22.067.027622
Year66.249.357.732.77101.22,52653

WELLINGTON - TARANAKI.

Wellington, the capital city, as disclosed by its meteorological records, has a mean climate for the whole Dominion. Wellington occupies a central position, and is situated near Cook Strait, which divides the two main Islands. It has a somewhat changeable but temperate climate, and, though occasionally subject to disturbances from warmer regions, is usually controlled by the terrestrial wind-currents which have a westerly direction round the world in the latitude of the “forties.” It is popularly regarded as a rather windy spot, for high winds are frequently experienced, although they hardly ever reach hurricane force. Its windiness is largely owing to local configuration, for places quite near Wellington experience very little wind; and to compensate for this rather disagreeable element is a bountiful sunshine, averaging 2,027 hours per annum. There is a plentiful rainfall, amounting to nearly 50 in.

Between Wellington and Taranaki, following the Taranaki Bight, is probably one of the most fertile and agreeable regions in Australasia; but inland, though very productive, conditions are not so favourable.

Taranaki has a rather heavy rainfall, and in most parts of this region the grass is always green. Its climate is mild, and cattle winter in the open. Wanganui and Manawatu districts (which lie between Wellington and Taranaki) have less rainfall than either Wellington or Taranaki.

Wellington.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 56 Years.Mean Rainfall for 59 Years.Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr.min.
January69.455.862.53.3210.422811
February69.255.762.53.289.020717
March66.854.260.53.2711.31826
April62.851.357.03.9713.215050
May58.347.352.84.7716.613028
June54.744.349.54.9517.210351
July53.142.347.75.7618.310315
August54.442.848.64.4717.114041
September57.445.751.64.0815.215942
October60.348.354.34.1214.117738
November63.450.456.93.4712.920343
December66.953.860.33.1912.023921
Year61.449.355.348.65167.32,0273

It may be useful to make a comparison between the records of Wellington and those of Camden Square. London.

Camden Square, London.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 35 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.
January43.534.038.8
February45.634.440.0
March50.135.642.9
April57.439.448.4
May64.945.255.1
June70.951.061.0
July74.154.464.3
August72.653.763.2
September67.449.858.6
October57.543.950.7
November49.738.944.3
December45.135.840.5
Year58.243.050.6
Moumahaki.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 14 Years.Mean Rainfall for 16 Years.Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr.min.
January70.053.361.63.209.723536
February70.853.362.12.918.118452
March69.652.461.03.779.31804
April64.448.256.34.0313.114945
May59.144.151.64.1714.61193
June55.142.548.84.4214.910052
July53.740.947.34.2416.41094
August55.541.848.73.6814.714016
September58.844.851.84.0114.11487
October61.847.054.34.5314.91635
November64.649.156.83.5612.817017
December68.250.959.53.4611.923223
Year62.647.455.045.98154.51,93324

NELSON-MARLBOROUGH.

Nelson and Marlborough are highly favoured regions with regard to sunshine and shelter from marine winds. Long ago Bishop Selwyn said, “No one knows what the climate is till he has basked in the almost perpetual sunshine of Tasman's Gulf, with a frame braced and invigorated to the full enjoyment of heat by the wholesome frost or cool snowy breeze of the night before.”

Pastoral and agricultural industries are thriving, and the Province of Nelson is also famous for its fruit cultures—apples especially being celebrated for their variety, colour, and flavour. The rainfall about Nelson is very reliable, and averages from 35 in. to 45 in. per annum. Marlborough is also a sunny province, and its rainfall averages from 25 in. to 30 in.

Nelson.
MonthMean Temperatures for 31 Years.Mean Rainfall for 38 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January75.553.864.62.788.1
February74.653.964.12.819.5
March71.451.461.32.998.8
April66.547.457.02.979.7
May60.342.551.33.1610.0
June56.238.947.53.8210.1
July54.737.746.23.5611.1
August56.738.647.63.0710.5
September60.842.451.53.7212.2
October64.945.055.03.2511.8
November69.048.458.72.8911.3
December72.051.461.82.668.8
Year65.245.955.637.68121.9

WESTLAND.

The climate of Westland is influenced by its position with regard to the prevailing westerly winds, its proximity to the sea from which these winds blow, and the mountainous character of its eastern half. The rainfall, as might be expected, is heavy, and ranges from about 70 in. per annum in the north on the coast to as much as 200 in. in the mountainous country. The weather-changes are chiefly due to atmospheric depressions, with lowest pressures passing south of the Dominion. Cyclones centred in the north, while bringing heavy rains to the North Island and the east-coast portions of the South, do not, as a rule, affect Westland, as easterly winds, which then prevail, are not conducive to cloud-formation in this province. Sunshine at Hokitika averages 1,871 hours a year, and, though not so abundant as in east-coast districts, this is a good average amount considering the rainfall. Westland is noted for a clear, beautiful atmosphere during fair-weather periods.

Hokitika.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 34 Years.Mean Rainfall for 42 Years.Mean Sunshine for 8 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr.min.
January67.953.760.89.9912.619224
February68.453.360.87.3511.017726
March66.251.358.79.6713.717727
April62.747.254.99.2515.013037
May58.342.550.49.8215.414155
June54.939.147.09.8015.510144
July52.936.744.89.0816.310920
August54.638.146.39.2315.815332
September57.842.450.19.3016.613526
October59.845.752.711.6618.81626
November62.348.455.310.6317.417145
December66.352.259.210.4415.821741
Year60.945.853.3116.22183.91,87123

CANTERBURY.

The chief health resort of the South Island, Hanmer Spa, is situated on a small plateau in the northern portion of the Canterbury Land District. On account of its altitude, 1,120 ft., it enjoys an invigorating climate, with a mean annual temperature of only about one degree below that of Christchurch. Owing to its elevated position and nearness to the mountains Hanmer is in some winter seasons subject to rather severe snowstorms, such as are never experienced on the Canterbury Plains. The mean annual rainfall is 38.15 in., and the mean total sunshine 1,992 hours.

The district of Canterbury comprises a variety of topographical features. A plain stretches over a hundred miles from north-east to south-west, with a maximum width of about forty miles from the east coast to the foothills to the westward. The latter merge into the mountainous country culminating in the main range of the Southern Alps, which divide the provinces of Canterbury and Westland, and afford a protection from the heavily moisture-laden north-westerly winds. The rainfall of the Canterbury Plains is in consequence much restricted, the average being about 26 in. There is, however, a remarkable progressive increase from east to west, as is shown by the records. At Christchurch the mean is 25.13 in.; at Mount Torlesse Station (near Springfield), 39.86in. The climate of Canterbury might almost be described as Continental in type, with large extremes of temperature between summer and winter and day and night. Except in the three summer months frosts are numerous, and even in the early spring and late autumn they are at times severe enough to damage vegetation of a tender nature. In summer, day temperatures of over 90° in the shade are sometimes experienced. With regard to both climate and soil, the Plains have proved most suitable for agricultural farming, and much of the district is capable of growing splendid cereal and root crops. The prevailing winds in Canterbury are north-east and south-west, while north-westerlies are not, as often supposed, of frequent occurrence. They are most common in the springtime, and, being dry and warm, they have a somewhat enervating effect, though in winter-time they come as a welcome change from the keen temperatures then generally ruling. The bright sunshine, as recorded at Lincoln, shows a daily average for the year of 5.8 hours.

Lincoln.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 23 Years.Mean Rainfall for 40 Years.
Maximum.Minimum,Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January70.752.661.62.189.3
February69.352.660.91.727.8
March66.450.058.22.3710.0
April61.845.153.42.019.5
May56.140.148.12.3011.2
June50.936.043.42.4111.7
July49.934.942.42.9013.5
August52.236.244.22.0111.5
September57.240.548.81.9810.0
October62.243.652.91.649.2
November66.047.456.71.9710.6
December69.851.460.62.1310.3
Year61.044.252.625.62124.6

OTAGO.

Otago, the southernmost part of New Zealand, is very diversified as regards both its physical features and its climate. Inland, in Central and North Otago, the climate is dry and clear—hot in summer and cold in winter. The rainfall for this district averages from 13 in. to 20 in. Near the coast, in the Dunedin district, the rainfall is more plentiful, averaging from 30 in. to 40 in. per annum, a good deal of which falls in light drizzling rains.

There are continuous rainfall records from various parts of Dunedin for sixty-nine years, of which the median rainfall is 33.5 in., and the mean in the table following may be regarded as too high.

Dunedin.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 55 Years.Mean Rainfall for 63 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January66.449.557.03.4114.3
February65.749.456.62.7211.3
March62.947.855.32.9212.7
April60.344.751.62.7412.8
May53.341.047.03.2613.7
June49.338.443.13.1312.8
July47.536.941.53.0413.0
August49.937.743.13.1813.0
September53.940.747.02.7712.7
October59.042.750.83.0014.1
November61.444.953.13.2914.2
December64.547.955.33.5014.5
Year57.843.550.136.96159.1

Queenstown, on Lake Wakatipu, amongst the mountains, at an elevation of over 1,000ft., furnishes the following averages:—

Queenstown.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 55 Years.Mean Rainfall for 63 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January70.449.960.12.768.8
February70.249.659.91.805.6
March66.447.957.12.517.3
April59.143.851.52.957.8
May51.838.645.22.6775
June45.933.739.72.416.9
July43.331.837.51.965.9
August47.333.840.61.766.1
September54.338.746.52.537.5
October59.842.150.93.619.0
November63.244.553.82.838.8
December68.049.258.62.498.0
Year58.342.050.130.2889.2

At Invercargill, the chief town of Southland, the averages are as follow:—

Invercargill.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 55 Years.Mean Rainfall for 63 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January65.848.357.04.2315.7
February65.747.656.62.7711.6
March64.446 055.23.6014.2
April59.142.750.94.3816.5
May53.537.745.64.6617.5
June49.736.242.93.5115.9
July48.434.041.23.4515.9
August52.136.144.13.3514.7
September56.739.047.83 0513.8
October59.542.851.14.6517.2
November61.043.652.34.5417.8
December63.846.255.04.3115.7
Year58.341.750.046.50186.5

The average rainfall of Southland is between 40 in. and 50 in., but towards Queenstown the rainfall is between 30 in. and 40 in. The rainfall is well distributed throughout the year, but there is less wind in winter than in summer.

Stewart Island has a wonderfully mild and moist climate, especially on its eastern side, with an average rainfall of 65.18 in.

RAINFALL FOR THE YEAR 1922.

The total year's rainfall was below the average over most of the Dominion, but slightly in excess north of Auckland and also at scattered places in Westland and Central Otago in the South Island. Following is a short summary for each month of the weather and the chief atmospheric systems which were in evidence:—

January.—Anticyclones dominated from the beginning until the 20th January, and the weather was fair though somewhat changeable, owing to several small disturbances passing south of the Dominion.

After the 20th a cyclone developed northward of New Zealand. It proved a very intense and extensive one, the effects of which practically lasted until the end of the month. Easterly to south-easterly gales were prevalent during this period, and very heavy rains were experienced in the northern and east-coast districts of the North Island. Waihi recorded 20.43 in. for the month, of which amount 16.78 in. fell between the 25th and 28th (inclusive), the greatest fall being 6 70 in. on the latter day. At Keretoki Station, Waimatenui, on the 29th, a fall of 0.87 in. took place in twelve minutes.

The total rain for the month was below average in the country surrounding Cook Strait and in the south-west portion of the South Island. All other parts of the Dominion had an excess, the greatest being on the east coast of the North Island, where some stations recorded as much as five times the average.

February.—During the greater part of February the weather was chiefly fair, under the influence of high atmospheric pressure.

After the 22nd an extensive depression northward of New Zealand- accounted for unsettled conditions, with strong easterly winds and heavy rain, in the northern and east-coast portions of the North Island. These districts had a total rainfall considerably above the average for the month, while generally elsewhere a deficiency was recorded.

March.—Westerly disturbances were frequent during the month of March, and all parts of the Dominion with a westerly aspect had rainfalls considerably above the average. Gisborne and Napier districts on the east must, however, reported little more than half the normal for the month. There were floods in Westland in the beginning of the month. Some exceptionally heavy winds were recorded on the 16th and 17th in various parts, when lowest barometric pressure was recorded in the South. Stormy weather continued generally until the close of the month. These heavy winds were mostly regarded as “Equinoctial gales,” although it does not appear that they hare really any connection with the Equinox.

Thunderstorms were prevalent at this period.

On the 26th an unusual visitant to New Zealand, in the shape of a tornado, made its appearance at Wellsford, seventy-three miles north-east of Auckland, and its track was marked by considerable damage in destruction of trees, houses, and sheds, though fortunately without loss of life. Mr. Osborn, whose dwelling was destroyed, described the oncoming of the storm as follows:—

“It looked rather misty outside, and we were sitting on the couch by the window talking about the weather, one passing the remark that it looked like rain. It commenced to blow then, but not very hard at the start. The door was open, and I and my wife walked over to close it. The cyclone looked about ten chains off. It just seemed to look like one big cloud in the middle of a lot of mist. Just when I closed the door it hit us hard. A blinding flash of lightning seemed to be the prelude to the ‘big noise.’ Everything was then one big roar. The whole sky seemed to swirl round about our house, and the force of the wind was terrific.”

The small house then rose bodily with its three inmates and was swirled around in the air, and after being carried some distance was smashed to matchwood, and papers were found twenty miles away.

On the same evening a water-spout was seen at the distance of about twenty miles, and it was believed to have connection with the tornado. It was described as a great pillar of water rising from the sea to black low-lying clouds, sweeping hundreds of feet of water at its base and travelling rapidly with irresistible force.

April.—Fair weather prevailed during the first week of April, but the remainder of the month, owing to several extensive westerly depressions, was characterized by changeable conditions. These disturbances accounted for strong northerly and westerly winds generally and occasional heavy rain in the west-coast districts. On this account places in the west-coast and southernmost districts received a rainfall above the average, but over most of the Dominion the total was below, the east-coast provinces experiencing very dry and mild weather.

May.—The month was a dry one generally, and the total rainfall was below normal over most of the Dominion, only a few scattered places in the northern and east-coast districts of the North Island and in the northern portion of the South Island recording falls over the average.

From the 1st to the 10th a westerly disturbance brought squally westerly winds and rain, mostly to districts with a westerly aspect.

Dull and misty conditions prevailed from the 13th to the 18th, while a shallow depression moved from the north-west over the country.

Between the 24th and 27th an intense cyclone, passing in the North, accounted for some heavy downpours in the northern and east-coast districts of the North Island, and very cold weather generally.

On the last day of the month strong easterly winds, with threatening conditions, prevailed in the far North, owing to the presence of a depression to the north-west of the Dominion.

Fine, mild days and cold nights were frequent during the month, particularly in the South Island, and, except in the far North, the average wind-force was lower than usual.

June.—June proved a cold month, the mean shade temperature being below the average of previous years. Frosts were more frequent and more severe than usual in places generally subject to them. Rotorua reported 17 degrees of frost on the morning of the 28th, while Hanmer, in the South. Island, registered 21 degrees of frost on the 11th and 12th, and experienced twenty-seven mornings with temperatures below freezing-point.

The month opened with unsettled weather generally and stormy conditions in the northern districts, where some heavy rain fell between the 1st and 4th owing to a cyclonic disturbance passing over the Dominion from the north-west to the south-east. Its centre was apparently located in the neighbourhood of the Chatham Islands on the 4th. From the latter date until the 20th, although anticyclonie pressure enveloped the country, continuous tropical depressions northwards resulted in a prevalence of cold east and south-east winds generally and frequent drizzling rains in the east-coast districts, especially of the North Island.

The West Coast, at this time, experienced fine, clear weather.

After the 25th a storm-centre to the eastward of the South Island developed considerable intensity, and accounted for strong southerly winds and showers on the east coast, which prevailed until the 30th.

The month, on the whole, was a dry one, and, except for a few stations along the east coast, all parts of the Dominion recorded a total rainfall much below the average.

July.—The July rainfall was nearly everywhere below the average, some places showing the lowest fall ever recorded for this month. Precipitation came mostly as light showers, but some heavy downpours occurred in various parts, with boisterous north-west winds on the 10th, while an intense westerly disturbance was pasting in the South, and in the northernmost districts about the 28th and 29th, when a tropical depression was located northwards of New Zealand on the edge of an anticyclone centred in the South.

The month was remarkable for a frequency of dry southerly winds, clear days, and cold nights, and frosts were again above the average in number and degree.

August.—The weather during August was of a changeable character, being dominated chiefly by disturbances of a westerly type with lowest pressure moving from west to east southward of the Dominion. Of these depressions the most notable was one which persisted between the 14th and 25th, and, although not of remarkable intensity, it accounted for unsettled and, at times, boisterous conditions. Most of the rainfall occurred during this period, and in the west-coast districts of both Islands some heavy downpours brought the total for the month in excess of the average. In all other parts of the Dominion the aggregate rainfall was below the mean of previous years, and in the east-coast provinces the weather might be described as dry and calm generally, with mild days but cold nights. Frosts were numerous and severe in many parts.

September.—Rainfall was below the average except at isolated places, particularly in the north-east portion of the South Island and the extreme north of the North Island.

Unsettled weather was generally confined to two periods—viz., between the 9th and 14th and the 22nd and 28th. In the former period an extensive though rather shallow cyclonic depression ruled, bringing welcome rain in most parts on the 10th and 11th. Some snow was reported on the 11th on the high country in the South, and also on the 13th on the higher levels in the North Island as far north as the Gisborne district.

The heavy rains that occurred in parts towards the end of the month were accounted for by a succession of disturbances on the edge of an anticyclone which at that time overspread the Dominion.

Except during the periods mentioned, fair weather predominated, with several sharp frosts in various parts. The month was a good one for agricultural work, and, although growth was not abundant, it was sufficient for grazing purposes.

October.—October was remarkable for the large number of westerly disturbances, which accounted for a prevalence of strong north-west winds generally and heavy rainfall in the west-coast and northern districts of the South Island. The total rainfall was also above the average in the extreme north of the North Island, while other parts of the Dominion experienced a deficiency, the east-coast districts suffering most in this respect.

The month opened dry and fine generally, but warm and humid conditions were shortly followed by heavy west-coast rains, and more general rains at the end of the first week. Barometric pressure was very low in the South on the 14th at 9 a.m., but increased rapidly in the next thirty-six hours, and some snow fell on the higher levels about this time, with stormy conditions in the South. Fair weather ruled between the 15th and 19th, after which boisterous westerlies continued until the end of the month.

November.—Westerly or antarctic disturbances accounted for the stormy weather conditions which were rather prevalent during the first half of the month and again at the close. Between the 18th and 28th an anticyclone brought fair weather generally. The total rainfall was considerably below the average on the east coast of the North Island, but, with few exceptions, all other parts of the Dominion experienced an excess, which was greatest on the west coast of the North Island and the east coast of the South.

December.—The weather during December was dominated by disturbances of both tropical and antarctic origin. Of the former type there were at least three, and of the latter four, while anticyclones, though conspicuous during the first half of the month, were mostly centred northward of the Dominion.

Warm, dull, unsettled conditions predominated, with rainfall well distributed in time and place. The total precipitation was nearly everywhere above the average and on the east coast of the North Island it was in marked contrast to the low falls of the past few months.

Below-average falls were, however, recorded in the central and southernmost districts of the North Island and in the northernmost and extreme south-west portions of the South Island.

The following tables show the difference, above or below the mean, for each month in the year:—

NORTH ISLAND RAINFALL, 1922.

Monthly Means compared with the Averages for Seventeen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.
+5.504.166.33..............4.994.56
Av.3.282.994.093.884.534.555.104.263.704.383.603.24
-......2.603.013.282.493.892.993.68....
Mean Number of Days with Rain, compared with the Averages for Seventeen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.

+ Above the average.

- Below the average.

+12.69.618.8........15.6..15.115.413.8
Av.10.08.510.912.514.415.316.614.814.014.913.510.9
-......11.512.412.812.2..10.6......

SOUTH ISLAND RAINFALL, 1922.

Monthly Means compared with the Averages for Seventeen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.
+....3.44..............3.463.51
Av.3.702.673.343.353.463.823.723.163.783.853.423.47
3.682.63..3.333.373.733.613.133.693.81....
Mean Number of Days with Rain, compared with the Averages for Seventeen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.

+ Above the average.

— Below the average.

+....11.611.9........13.2..13.912.3
Av.12.39.111.211.912.113.013.212.613.214.213.912.3
12.28.9....12.012.912.812.5..14.0....

TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, AND WIND THROUGHOUT NEW ZEALAND, AS OBSERVED AT TWENTY-FOUR STATIONS, FOR THE YEAR 1922.

The observations were taken at 9 a.m.
Stations.Months.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of BarometerPrevailing Winds.
Highest.Lowest.Mean Max. Temp.Mean Min. Temp.Mean Temp. for Month.Wet Days.Fall.
* No record.
  °Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland (lat. 38° 50' S.; long. 174° 50′ 4″ E.; alt. 125 ft.)—January80.057.074.361.667.9123.9129.86E, NE.
February82.055.072.961.467.1116.2530.05SW, NE.
March79.050.570.358.261.2206.2029.77SW, W.
April72.048.566.755.961.3154.1630.04W.
May67.046.062.552.557.5214.0030.07W.
June63.037.557.946.252.0132.9930.12W, SE.
July62.039.556.745.851.2211.6930.06W, SE.
August67.037.556.246.652.9202.5329.99W.
September65.041.560.947.854.3123.0230.13SE.
October69.048.064.153.758.9194.0430.07W. NE.
November74.547.067.154.460.7173.6629.88W, SW.
December78.547.069.958.364.1175.6129.83SW, W.
Te Aroha (lat. 37° 32' 8.; long. 175° 42' E.: alt. 46 ft.)—January85.040.077.958.168.0106.24..SE, N.
February86.050.077.159.068.0106.65..S, N.
March79.040.070.552.961.7105.51..NW, N.
April72.039.066.748.757.7103.10..N.
May69.034.064.545.454.9123.27..W.
June64.029.058.037.947.9103.64..S, E.
July62.029.057.138.647.891.96..S.
August64.030.059.541.750.61.83.62..N, W, S.
September66.030.061.940.451.182.24..SW, S.
October72.040.065.350.157.7153.03..NW, N.
November82.047.070.253.561.8134.65..NW.
December80.05073.257.565.2136.77..NW, N.
Waihi (lat. 37° 28' S.; long 175° 52' E.: alt. 340 ft.)—January82.646.273.754.664.11120.4329.938SE, NW.
February85.641.774.256.665.41014.7030.093E, W.
March80.243.870.254.362.3206.7629.784W, NW.
April74.533.567.148.457.792.3330.061W.
May69.731.561.846.354.0147.7430.105W, E.
June63.521.956.836.146.4126.8030.173E, NW.
July61.526.256.436.646.5114.0730.093W, NW, E.
August65.122.759.039.049.0184.0630.044W, N.
September68.727.261.139.350.1105.0230.183E, W.
October73.133.565.448.456.9214.3430.085W, NW.
November82.141.470.050.660.3143.5429.886W.
December82.037.072.754.063.3157.1829.813W.
Tauranga(lat 30° 42' S.: long. 176° 22' E.; alt. 100 ft.)—January81.545.572.153.562.8115.39..NE, S.
February83.044.572.654.763.0116.10..E, NE.
March81.542.070.751.461.0207.89..SW, W SW, W.
April77.038.067.247.757.4112.87..SW, W.
May72.035.064.145.454.7102.08..S, SW.
June66.029.059.637.848.7124.15..S, SW.
July62.031.057.838.047.9111.23..S, SW.
August65.030.059.740.049.9143.43..SW, W, NW.
September68.032.061.641.651.681.75..E, SW, NE.
October75.038.066.248.657.4174.16..SW, W.
November83.036.068.849.859.3144.14..SW, W.
December82.041.073.054.563.7122.50..SW, W.
Rotorua (lat., 38" 9. S.; long. 176° 15' E.; alt. 932 ft.)—January78.045.071.654.262.9124.27..S, E.
February82.743.073.255.264.293.64..NW, S.
March80.040.069.151.060.0134.08..W, NW, SW.
April75.035.065.746.556.1132.42..W, S.
May69.534.062.544.553.591.88..SW, SE, S.
June63.027.058.137.247.6114.09..S, SW.
July59.031.056.638.847.771.54..S.
August62.030.057.441.549.4143.90..S. W, NE.
September67.035.062.641.852.2123.66..S.
October72.035.064.446.655.5174.04..N, W.
November81.035.068.848.058.4143.96..W, N, SW.
December79.539.072.053.262.6134.14..W, S, N.
Taihape (lat. 39" 40' S.; long. 175° 49' E.; alt. 2,080 ft.)—January73.244.064.650.657.6134.62..NE, W.
February80.838.267.651.259.4111.71..NE, W.
March74.239.061.447.754.5224.95..W, SW.
April67.234.058.644.051.3171.83..W.
May64.031.651.142.646.8161.86..NE, W.
June*27.2*35.3*161.40..NE, S.
July57.731.046.435.440.9162.78..NE, SW.
August57.029.250.036.643.3223.14..W.
September61.030.053.637.945.7141.54..NE, W.
October70.034.059.843.651.7152.90..NW, W, NE.
November72.634.361.644.653.1174.73..W, NW.
December73.037.863.948.656.2144.40..W, NW.
Greenmeadows (Napier) (lat. 39° S.; long. 176° 53' E.; alt. 70 ft.)—January87.052.071.957.064.4159.9329.919W, S.
February87.049.071.157.564.3144.5630.148SW.
March80.045.071.954.163.091.6329.809NW. NE.
April78.538.067.947.457.640.28*N. NW.
May73.038.561.146.753.9125.68*NW, S.
June63.028.553.540.146.8141.34*NW, S.
July67.033.054.940.047.4143.3030.038SW.
August68.533.059.540.950.280.6129.970SW, S.
September72.037.060.742.851.8121.3130.160SW, S, E.
October79.039.068.648.658.6111.1530.009W, NW.
November86.541.072.850.861.880.7929.790W, NE.
December..................
Moumahakl (Taranaki) (lot. 39° 44' S.; long, 174° 40' E.; alt. 270 ft.)—January71.047.066.051.458.7144.65..NW, SW.
February72.041.065.951.658.891.99..SE, NW.
March70.042.064.951.358.1266.33..NW, NE.
April72.034.062.943.953.4143.37..NW.
May61.030.052.142.247.1142.93..NW, NE.
June54.028.045.735.040.392.44..SE, SW.
July54.030.045.637.341.4114.38..SE.
August59.030.053.139.146.1195.34..NW, SE.
September64.033.057.639.248.483.03..N, SW.
October73.037.062.544.053.283.74..NW.
November77.040.065.648.056.8126.92..NW.
December79.043.070.653.061.8144.66..NW.
New Plymouth (lat. 39° 3' 35" S.; long 174° 4' 58" E.; alt. 60ft.—January78.049.071.458.464.9133.65..SE, NW.
February81.048.073.057.965.462.13..SE.
March74.047.068.155.361.7226.96..SW.
April67.039.064.050.557.2143.27..W, SW. E.
May67.038.061.047.554.2123.84..SE, SW.
June62.034.055.343.449.3113.58..SE.
July59.034.055.041.948.481.61..SE.
August61.334.357.143.450.2205.89..SE, E.
September62.334.158.443.350.8104.58..SE, NW.
October65.239.962.249.956.0187.19..NW, SE, SW.
November67.843.161.950.756.3208.48..NW, SW.
December71.140.566.055.160.5153.95..N, NW.
Masterton (lat. 40° 57' S.; long. 175° 40' E.; alt. 377 ft.)—January84.044.269.852.160.9161.97..SW, E. NE.
February89.436.873.452.362.8111.39..NE, E.
March80.837.469.248.758.9175.82..W, SW.
April76.830.466.243.754.991.32..NE, NW, SW.
May74.025.459.940.950.4141.12..SE, NE.
June64.823.252.336.444.3191.75..SW, SE.
July61.427.052.835.744.2182.52..SW, NE.
August64.226.457.635.946.7142.16..NE, SW, NW.
September68.027.460.237.348.7122.52..NE, E. SW.
October76.030.667.945.356.6120.89..W, NE.
November83.233.470.046.358.1172.57..NE, NW.
December82.435.271.851.961.9153.35..NE, SW.
Palmerston North (lat. 40° 21' S.; long 175° 37' E.; alt. 100 ft.)—January78.548.070.854.062.461.01..E. W.
February82.041.074.153.463.790.75..E. SE.
March77.040.567.651.759.6225.86..W, NW.
April735.064.548.856.6122.40..W. NW.
May 30.060.443.451.981.66..E. W.
June66.025.053.638.346.0102.40..SE, E.
July60.026.553.538.746.181.55..SE. E.
August61.028.056.340.048.1155.44..NW, E.
September70.030.060.140.150.181.84..W. E.
October76.035.063.947.355.6152.76..W, SW.
November73.537.064.848.356.5186.14..W.
December74.545.067.651.659.6162.45..W, E.
Wellington (lat. 41° 16' S.; long. 174° 46' E.; alt. 10 ft.)—January75.047.068.255.061.6120.6829.970S, NW.
February82.340.571.956.063.981.0730.011N. S.
March74.544.267.253.260.2156.8129.641NW, N.
April70.339.064.351.157.6121.1229.951N, NW.
May65.631.959.745.252.4121.2330.102N, S.
June59.331.053.941.747.8183.3280.105S, N.
July59.331.054.241.848.0121.6930.085S, N.
August61.1356.843.550.1122.3029.952N, S.
September67.133.559.044.851.9112.5230.141N, S.
October71.337.364.050.157.0132.3329.950N, NW.
November71.740.963.851.957.8165.4229.748NW. N.
December76.642.468.655.762.190.7429.753S. NW.
Nelson (lat. 41° 16' 17° S.; long. 173° 18' 46° E.; alt. 13 ft.)—January70.943.571.654.763.160.80..N, SE.
February78.841.572.454.763.593.02..N, SE.
March70.841.567.848.658.2145.22..SW.
April75.436.865.147.656.390.98..S, N.
May66.132.659.844.252.0123.49..SE, S.
June50.831.454.837.346.092.99..SE, S.
July60.430.054.335.644.960.67..SE, S.
August60.129.455.939.147.5153.08..SE, NE.
September63.131.657.941.149.593.60..N, SE.
October75.239.764.648.356.5116.24..N.
November77.039.366.548.457.5144.03..N, SW.
December75.940.870.353.061.681.29..N, SW.
Brightwater (lat. 41° 23' S.; long. 173° 9' E.; alt. 89 ft.)—January81.041.073.353.863.560.59..N, SW.
February82.042.075.051.863.462.49..N.
March78.040.067.848.358.0155.84..SW.
April73.038.066.146.656.3101.92..SW.
May69.030.061.042.651.883.59..SW, SE.
June63.027.055.633.644.683.66..SE, S.
July58.027.054.836.245.561.30..SE, S.
August60.037.054.940.647.7133.72..SE, NE.
September*****103.36..N, SW.
October72.0*64.6**113.72..N, SW.
November77.036.066.546.656.5134.16..N, SW.
December77.038.070.351.761.0100.97..SW, NE.
Hokitika (lat, 42° 41' 30' S.; long. 170° 49' E.; alt. 12 ft.)—January78.045.570.353.762.01110.8029.936SW, NW, SE.
February74.046.070.054.662.383.7330.092NW, SW.
March72.039.562.347.354.82412.8729.671SW, SE.
April67.036.060.047.053.52514.0729.972SW, SE.
May62.031.557.143.850.4165.0230.092E.
June61.528.554.934.144.574.9330.168E.
July58.528.554.234 244.284.6130.072E, SE.
August59.029.054.838.946.82212.5629.928NE, SE.
September66.033.557.641.149.3145.0330.141SE, E.
October65.537.559.546.953.22517.5929.945NW, SW.
November66.034.059.742.951.32213.1729.736N, NE.
December68.040.062.850.456.61714.3929.762SW.
Hanmer Springs (lat 42° 23' S.; long. 172° 47' E.; alt. 1,225 ft.)—January88.038.068.448.258.3104.04..NW, SE.
February88.034.070.548.559.543.27..NW, SW.
March74.032.065.042.653.8134.59..NW.
April79.029.063.542.753.193.43..NW.
May70.022.056.835.346.081.78..NW.
June60.017.048.227.537.8112.40....
July66.020.048.527.538.0102.90....
August61.020.053.330.241.751.15..NW.
September68.025.058.034.346.1102.89..NW.
October70.031.065.243.154.161.32..NW.
November78.030.066.142.654.3123.30..NW.
December80.032.068.848.458.6116.15..NW.
Christchurch (lat. 43° 31' 30" S.; long. 172° 38' 50" E.; alt. 25 ft.)—January86.143.866.953.160.0121.9329.951NE, SW.
February86.240.668.754.361.551.0430.074NE, SW.
March87.634.660.746.656.6162.6829.572SW, NE.
April75.130.561.743.852.880.5929.861NE, SW.
May73.926.455.239.147.190.9930.076SW, NE.
June55.923.548.733.941.3152.7130.194SW, NE.
July69.125.349.932.741.3121.3030.084SW, NE.
August63.926.252.037.244.6101.0629.908SW, NE.
September67.530.555.340.447.892.5330.111SW, E.
October78.335.266.045.555.890.4529.815E, SW.
November77.536.165.646.055.8133.2429.651NE, SW.
December88.637.467.650.759.282.2129.705SW, NE, E.
Lincoln (lat, 43° 32' 16" S.; long. 172° 38' 39" E.; alt. 42 ft.)—January89.840.070.750.660.682.1929.890NE, SW.
February*****41.08**
March89.031.566.645.756.1172.6729.558SW, NE.
April74.030.063.443.353.370.6329.837NE, NW.
May73.227.057.438.447.960.9629.976NE, SW.
June60.022.549.033.641.6121.6330.151SW, NE.
July69.024.051.032.241.660.5030.010SW, NW.
August66.026.054.035.744.860.8229.831W, E.
September68.531.558.240.549.371.5030.096NE, S.
October79.030.567.646.356.930.1829.770NE, NW.
November79.035.466.646.356.4102.4729.605NE, SW.
December91.036.068.750.359.5102.4529.675NE, NW.
Kisselton (lat. 43° 22' S.; long. 171° 33' E.; alt. 1,220 ft.)—January88.034.570.148.259.161.46..SE, NW.
February91.037.072.448.560.431.58..NW, SE.
March72.033.563.342.252.793.26..NW, SW.
April83.030.563.241.352.2113.57..NW, SE.
May69.523.556.035.945.951.31..NW, SW.
June56.520.049.128.138.650.52..NW, SW.
July63.020.547.826.537.132.83..NW, SW.
August67.023.053.932.243.071.08..SW, NW.
September66.520.553.936.347.161.13..SW, NW.
October77.530.566.043.754.8101.39..NW.
November77.035.064.943.953.992.92..NW, SW.
December81.035.069.446.257.88..64..NW, SE.
Timaru (lat. 44° 25' S.; long. 171° 18' E.; alt. 40 ft.)—January81.645.068.152.360.2153.16..SE, E, NE.
February84.444.069.651.260.481.15..E, SE.
March79.639.065.446.956.1182.80..SW, NE.
April74.032.062.843.653.260.40..NE, SW.
May63.227.855.040.147.560.65..NE, SW.
June55.225.048.632.640.6110.49..SW.
July62.426.048.631.940.270.83..SW, NE.
August59.027.250.536.343.480.50..SW, NE.
September67.430.650.539.547.771.04..SW, NE.
October84.034.068.245.756.970.64..NE, E.
November81.636.464.846.255.5172.83..NE, S.
December90.642.868.851.560.1163.57..W, SW.
Waimate (lat. 44° 44' S.; long. 171° E.; alt. 200 ft.)—January86.043.066.350.758.5164.53..NE. N.
February81.043.068.650.459.582.52..NE, SW.
March80.037.064.046.055.0173.05..SW. NE.
April70.032.061.642.752.180.59..NE.
May68.027.055.639.147.3120.59..NE.
June58.024.050.232.541.380.52..SW.
July60.027.049.431.440.480.91..NE, SW.
August61.028.051.435.443.4100.74..NE, SW.
September68.030.056.338.447.391.11..NE. SW.
October82.036.066.344.055.481.73..NE, SW
November77.038.063.645.254.4162.51..NE.
December87.040.065.549.557.5226.68..NE, SW.
Dunedin (lat. 45° 52' S.; long. 170° 31' E.; alt. long. 170° 31' E.; alt. 300 ft.)—January83.045.064.651.357.9174.7529.985NE, SW.
February80.042.067.751.659.682.3030.093NE, SW.
March71.038.058.746.152.4266.9329.591SW, NE.
April74.037.05945.152.4132.3629.819SW, NW.
May71.032.054.542.948.7121.8130.081SW, NE, N.
June56.029.048.136.742.4103.6930.208SW, N.
July58.030.049.236.843.0101.3730.072SW, N.
August59.034.051.440.245.8162.4329.918NE, SW.
September67.035.056.041.848.9131.8930.129NE, SW.
October78.038.063.945.754.8131.8329.800NE, SW.
November75.037.061.246.053.6214.9529.649NE, SW.
December82.040.063.649.056.3183.7829.717NE, SW.
Gore (lat. 46° 6' S.; long. 168° 57' E.; alt. 245 ft.)—January87.039.069.847.858.894.20..E, SW.
February86.038.072.847.260.080.94..SW, E.
March81.033.060.742.251.4226.07..SW, E.
April76.029.060.040.650.3183.21..SW, NE.
May63.022.054.137.445.7131.41..SW, E.
June55.020.045.329.737.5121.62..NE, SW.
July55.021.047.129.338.2131.49..SW, NE.
August61.030.052.434.813.0153.05..E, NE.
September70.027.058.438.048.2131.78..E.
October72.029.065.041.753.3152.70..SW, NW.
November74.032.062.242.952.5254.88..SW. E.
December77.036.066.344.955.6184.33..SW. NE.
Invercargill (lat. 46° 25' S.; long. 168° 21' E.; alt. 12 ft.)—January81.037.067.748.358.0123.40..E. SW.
February82.035.069.049.259.1111.14..W, NW.
March72.035.059.243.751.4299.10..SW.
April75.030.059.141.950.5195.92..SW, E.
May62.024.053.840.045.9211.87..SW. NE.
June58.022.048.232.840.5142.06..NE, E.
July56.022.048.833.140.9142.37..E, W.
August59.031.052.238.845.1213.47..E, NE.
September67.028.057.841.049.4152.20..NW, NE.
October75.033.062.945.954.4193.54..NW, SW, NE.
November71.036.062.445.754.0245.49..SW.
December76.037.065.247.056.1183.76..SW.

COMPARATIVE TABLE, 1922.

Stations.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of BarometerPrevailing Winds.
Highest and Date.Lowest and Date.Mean Max. Temp. for Year.Mean Min, Temp, for Year.Mean Temp. for Year.Days on which Rain tell.Total Fall.
 °Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland82.037.565.253.559.319848.0629.990W, SW.
 Feb. 14June 21 and Aug. 2 29.0       
Te Aroha86.029.066.848.657.714750.68..NW, S, N.
 Feb. 14June and July       
Waihi85.621.965.747.056.316587.2730.030W, NW.
 Feb. 14June 22       
Tauranga83.029.066.146.956.515145.69..SW, S.
 Feb. 2 andJune 28       
 Nov. 26        
Rotorua82.727.065.646.555.814441.62..S, SW.
 Feb. 15June 22, 23       
Taihape80.827.258.143.951.019335.86 W, NE.
 Feb. 14June 22       
Moumahaki79.0 Dec. 1628.0 June 2259.444.652.015849.78..NW. SE,
New Plymouth81.034.062.849.856.216955.13..SE, SW.
 Feb. 25June 22 and July 24 and 26       
Masterton89.4 Feb. 1523.2 June 2264.343.954.017427.38..NE, SW.
Palmerston N.82.025.063.146.354.714734.26..W, E.
 Feb. 27June 22       
Wellington82.331 062.649.255.915029.2329.958N, S.
 Jan. 28June 22 and July 31       
Nelson79.9 Jan. 2229.4 Aug. 363.446.054.712235.71..N, SE.
Hokitika78.0 Jan. 2328.5 June 11 and July 2960.344.652.4199118.8229.960SW, NE, SE.
Hanmer Springs88.017.061.039.250.111537.28..NW.
 Jan. 8 and Feb. 14,15June 12, 13       
Christchurch88.623.560.443.652.012620.7329.917SW, NE.
 Dec. 12June 22       
Kisselton91.020.061.239.350.28224.69..NW, SW
 Feb. 13June 11, 21       
Timaru90.625.060.543.151.812618.06..SW, NE.
 Dec. 12June 21,22, 29       
Waimate87.0 Dec. 1224.0 June 2159.942.251.014225.48..NE, SW.
Dunedin83.0 Jan. 629.0 June 10, 2858.244.451.317738.0929.922SW, NE.
Gore87.020.059.539.749.618135.68..SW, E.
 Jan. 7June 30       
Invercargill84.022.058.942.250.521744.32..SW, E.
 Jan. 7June 10 and July 7       

FLORA.

The following article by Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., on the flora of New Zealand is reproduced from the 1913 number of the Year-book.

Owing to its long isolation and diverse elements (Malayan, Australian, Sub-antarctic, and endemic), the flora of New Zealand is of special interest. Ferns, fern-allies, and seed-plants number, so far as is at present known, about 1,700 species, of which about three-fourths are endemic. Many hundreds of algae, fungi, mosses, and liverworts have been described, but these certainly do not represent the total number of such. With regard to the seed-plants, one family (the daisy) contains more than 230 species, three (sedge, figwort, and grass) each more than a hundred, and ten (carrot, orchid, buttercup, madder, epacrid, willowherb, pea, rush, and forget-me-not) between thirty and seventy. The ferns and fern-allies, though not of the overwhelming importance in the flora that many think, still number 157 species. The genera Veronica, Carex, Celmisia, Coprosma. Ranunculus. Olearia, Senecio, Epilobium, and Myosotis contain many species, no few of which, owing to their extreme variability, are difficult to exactly define. This is especially the ease with Veronica, which embraces more than a hundred species.

Variability is not concerned merely with adult plants, but quite often there are species with juvenile forms quite distinct from the adults and which may persist for many years. This strange procedure is seen, more or less, in a hundred species. Familiar examples amongst trees are the lacebark, lowland-ribbonwood, lancewood, kowhai, and kaikomako.

Many of the growth-forms of New Zealand plants are characteristic of the life-conditions. These are, for example — climbing-plants with long, woody, ropelike stems; shrubs with stiff, wiry, interlaced branches forming close masses; cushion-plants sometimes of immense proportions, as in the vegetable sheep (species of Haastia and Psychrophyton); leafless shrubs with round or flattened stems; species of Veronica looking exactly like cypresses; trees with leaves bunched on long trunks; grasses and sedges forming tussocks. The ligneous plants are almost all evergreen, only some twenty being deciduous or semi deciduous. Herbs that die to the ground in winter and bulbous plants are very rare.

The plant associations are of quite as great interest as the species; indeed, to find an equal variety a continent extending to the tropics would have to be visited. The northern rivers and estuaries contain a true mangrove association, an unexpected occurrence outside the tropics. Lowland and montane forests are of the tropical rain-forest type. They are distinguished by their wealth of tree-ferns, filmy ferns, woody climbing-plants, massive perching-plants, deep carpets of mosses and liverworts, and trees provided at times with plank-like buttresses. The kauri forest in the north, the swamp kahikatea forest, and the assemblages of taxads (rimu, miro, totara, and matai), are different rain-forest associations. Another forest is that where species of the southern-beech (Nothofagus), incorrectly termed “birch,” are dominant. Such are subantaretic, and constitute the greater part of the high-mountain forests, though in Wellington, Marlborough, and Nelson they are common in the lowlands. Shrub heath in which the manuka is dominant is common in the North, South, and Stewart Islands, but is specially abundant on the Auckland gumfields, where it is an obstacle to agriculture. Fern heath of tall bracken is also widespread. Swamp characterized by Phormium, raupo, toetoe, and niggerhead was once common, but draining has greatly reduced its area. Bogs and moorland support a peculiar vegetation. Hummocks of bog-moss are abundant, and a small wiry umbrella-fern may cover wide areas. Grass land with brownish-leaved tussock-grasses is a great feature of parts of the volcanic plateau of the North Island, and of the east of the South Island. Species of Poa and Fesluca form the principal tussocks of the lowlands and lower hills, but at higher altitudes and in Southland at low levels species of Danthonia dominate. This name is not to be confused with the turf-making species of the same genus used in artificial pastures.

The alpine vegetation is of great scientific importance. It contains, exclusive of lowland plants which ascend to the mountains, about 550 species, most of which never descend below 1,500 ft. altitude, while some are confined altogether to the highest elevations. The most beautiful of the New Zealand flowers, but with few exceptions, belong to this mountain-flora. Here are the great buttercups, white and yellow; the charming ourisias; the marguerite-flowered celmisias; the dainty eyebrights; forget-me-nots, yellow, bronze, and white; and many other delightful plants. The growth-forms, too, are often striking or quaint. Cushion-plants, rosette-plants, stiff-branched shrubs, and mat-forming plants are much in evidence. Hairiness, leathery texture, and great rigidity, perhaps accompanied by needle-like points, as in the spaniard (Aciphylla Colensoi), are common characters of leaves.

The floras of the following groups of islands, far distant from the mainland, are distinctly part of that of New Zealand. The Kermadecs contain 114 species of ferns, fern-allies, and seed-plants, only 12 of which are endemic, while 71 belong also to New Zealand proper. The largest island (Sunday Island) is covered with forest in which Metrosideros villosa, a near relation of the pohutakawa, is the principal tree. The Chatham Islands possess 235 species, 29 of which are endemic, though several of the latter are trivial varieties merely, while the remainder of the flora is, with one exception, found on the mainland. Forest, moor, and heath are the principal plant associations. The leading tree is the karaka, but by the Moriori called kopi. On the moors are great thickets of a lovely purple-flowered shrub, Olearia semidentata. There are two remarkable endemic genera, Coxiella and Myosotidium, the former belonging to the carrot family, and the latter a huge forget-me-not, now nearly extinct. The Subantaretic Islands (Snares, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Macquarie) have a dense vegetation made up of 194 species, no fewer than 52 of which are endemic, the remainder being found in New Zealand, but chiefly in the mountains. Forest is found only on the Snares and the Aucklands, with a species of Olearia and the southern rata as the doninant trees respectively. Extremely dense scrubs occur on the Auckland and Campbell Islands, and moors, sometimes with huge tussocks, are a characteristic feature of all the islands, thanks to the enormous peat-deposit and the frequent rain. Several herbaceous plants of stately form and with beautiful flowers occur in great profusion.

The Cook Islands, though a part of the Dominior, possess a Polynesian flora quite distinct from that of New Zealand, and are excluded from this notice, while, on the contrary, the flora of the Macquarie Islands (belonging to Tasmania) is a portion of that of New Zealand.

Besides the indigenous, an important introduced element, consisting of about 540 species, mostly European, has followed in the wake of settlement. These aliens are in active competition with the true natives. There is a widespread but quite erroneous opinion that the latter are being eradicated in the struggle. This is not the case. Where the vegetation has never been disturbed by man there are no foreign plants; but where man, with his farming operations, stock, and burning has brought about European conditions, then certainly the indigenous plants have given way before artificial meadows, with their economic plants and accompanying weeds. On the tussock-grassland, however, invader and aboriginal have met, and though the original vegetation is changed there is no reason to consider the one class or the other as the conqueror. On the contrary, both may be expected to persist, and in course of time a new flora and vegetation will be evolved.

FAUNA.

The fauna of New Zealand is briefly described in the following article by Mr. James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S., which originally appeared in the 1914 number of the Year-book.

New Zealand's native fauna has attracted the attention of investigators in nearly all parts of the world. Its special interest lies in its manifold peculiarities, in the incongruous characteristics possessed by some of its members, and in the ancient types found in different classes of its animals.

Beginning with the mammalia, the Dominion is surprisingly inadequately represented. Its only land mammals, except seals, are two bats. One of these, the long-tailed bat, belongs to a genus (Chalinolobus), which is found in the Australian and Ethiopian zoological regions, and to a species, morio, found in the south-east of Australia, as well as in New Zealand; but the other, the short-tailed bat (Mystacops luberculatus), belongs to a genus peculiar to this Dominion. At one time it was believed that the Maori dog (Canis familiaris, variety maorium, the “kuri" of the Maoris) and the Maori rat (Mus exulans, the Maoris' “kiore”) were indigenous to New Zealand, but it is now generally believed that these two animals were introduced by the Maoris when they made their notable migrations from their legendary Hawaiki—probably Tahiti, in the Society Group—between five and six hundred years ago. The dog was highly prized as a domestic pet, and the rat as an article of diet. Both could easily be taken across the sea in the large canoes used in those days. The dog, without doubt, is extinct. Statements by Captain Cook, J. R. and G. Foster, Sydney Parkinson (the artist), the Rev. W. Colenso, and early visitors to New Zealand show that the Maori dog was a very ordinary animal. It was small, with a pointed nose, pricked ears, and very small eyes. In colour it was white, black, brown, or parti-coloured, and it had long hair, short legs, a short bushy tail, and no loud bark, but only a whine. The Maoris lavished upon it an abundance of affection. When dead its flesh was used for food, its skin for clothing, and its hair for ornaments. Opinions differ in regard to the approximate date of its extinction, and investigations in this respect are made somewhat difficult by the fact that for some years “wild dogs,” as they were called—probably across between the Maori dog and dogs brought by Europeans—infested several districts in both the North Island and the South Island, and were confused with the Maori dog. It is probable that the pure Maori dog became extinct about 1885. The Maori rat, a forest-dweller, is not so plentiful as it was when Europeans first came to New Zealand, but it still lives in the forests.

The long-tailed species of bat was once fairly plentiful, especially in the forests, where it makes its home in hollow trees. Large numbers also at one time were found under old bridges across streams, notably at the River Avon, in Christchurch. It is not very rare now, and specimens sometimes are found in the forests and in caves. The latest specimens are reported from a cave near Castle Rock on the Tiki Road, not far from Coromandel; and also from a cave at Orakeikorako, nine miles up the Waikato River from Atiamuri, in the Taupo district. The short-tailed species is not extinct, but rare. Most bats are exceptionally well adapted for life in the air, feeding on flying-insects, and even drinking on the wing. But the short-tailed species of New Zealand possesses peculiarities of structure which enables it to creep and crawl with ease on the branches and leaves of trees, and probably it seeks its food there as well as in the air. Few naturalists, however, have had opportunities to observe it, and little is known of its habits.

The sea-lion, the sea-elephant, the sea-leopard, and the fur-seal are found on islands in the Dominion's boundaries. In the early days of colonization sealing was a great industry, and yielded large profits to some of the adventurous men who took part in it.

Amongst the sea mammals whales, of course, are the most important. At one time extensive whaling was carried on in New Zealand waters, three hundred vessels, chiefly from America, sometimes visiting the country in one year. The industry began about 1795, reached the height of its prosperity between 1830 and 1840, and then began to dwindle. In recent years there has been an effort to revive the industry, but it will never attain the position it held in former years. Porpoises are plentiful, and the dolphin (Delphinus delphis) also is found in these waters. Mention should be made here of “Pelorus Jack,” a solitary whale which for some years met vessels near Pelorus Sound, and which was protected by an Order in Council under the name of Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus). He was the only member of the species reported from New Zealand waters.

In contrast with the species of land mammals, the members of the next class, Aves, were remarkably plentiful when settlement began. Bush and grass fires, cats, stoats and weasels, and the ruthless use of the gun have reduced their numbers, but they still stand as probably the most interesting avifauna in the world. They include a comparatively large number of absolutely flightless birds. No living birds in New Zealand are wingless, but the kiwi (Apteryx), the weka (Ocydromus), the kakapo parrot (Stringops), and the takahe (Notornis hochstetteri)* cannot use their wings for flight, while a duck belonging to the Auckland Islands (Nesonetta) is practically in the same plight. There are also several species of birds whose wings are so weak that they can make only short flights. Other notable birds are the kea (Nestor notabilis), which is accused of killing sheep on stations in the South Island; the tui (Prosthemadera novœ-zealandiœ), which affords one of the most beautiful sights in the New Zealand forests, and charms visitors with its silvery notes; the huia (Heteralocha acutirostris), the only species known in which there is a wide divergence in the shape of the bills in the two sexes, the male's being short and straight, while the female's is curved, pliant, and long; and the wry-billed plover (Anarhynchus frontalis), the only bird known to possess a bill turned to one side. Cormorants or shags (Phalacrocorax) and penguins (Impennes) are exceptionally well represented in the avifauna. New Zealand, indeed, may be regarded as the headquarters of the penguins, as all the genera except one are found within the boundaries of this Dominion. The oldest fossil penguin known is from the Eocene and Oligocene rocks of New Zealand. New Zealand probably was the centre from which penguins were dispersed to other countries.

* This bird is better known as Notornis mantelli. That name was first given by Sir Richard Owen to an extinct bird, represented by a fossil found at Waingongoro, in the North Island, by Mr. W. Mantell in 1847. When the first living specimen of the Notornis was found in 1849 scientists concluded that it was identical with the fossil, and it bore the same name; but when Dr. Meyer, of Dresden, examined the skeleton of the third specimen, he found that it was different from the fossil, and he changed the specific name from Mantelll to Hochstetteri, thus honouring Dr. Hochstetter, a naturalist who visited New Zealand in the early days.

Several species of birds make notable migrations to New Zealand. The godwit (Limosa novœ-zealandiœ), it is believed, breeds on the tundras of Eastern Siberia, and spends the summer months in New Zealand, arriving about October, and leaving in March or April. The knot (Tringa canutus) is believed to make almost the same journey, and two cuckoos—the shining-cuckoo (Chalcococcyx lucidus) and the long-tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis taitensis)—come from Pacific islands in the spring and leave for their northern homes about April. Both, like most members of the Cuculidæ family, are parasitical, and impose upon small native birds the duty of hatching and rearing young cuckoos. The kiwi, already mentioned, belongs to the same subclass as the ostrich, the emu, and the cassowary, all struthious birds, and has several peculiarities besides its flightlessness. One of these is the position of its nostrils, at the tip of its bill, instead of at the base as in all other birds. Its plumage is peculiarly hair-like in appearance. It possesses a very generalized structure; as Sir Richard Owen once suggested, it seems to have borrowed its head from one group of birds, its legs from another, and its wings from a third. It was once believed to be almost extinct, but in recent years has been shown to be fairly plentiful in some districts where there is little settlement.

The takahe (Notornis) is one of the world's very rare birds. Only four specimens have been found. Two of the skins are in the British Museum, one is in the Dresden Museum, and one in the Otago Museum, in Dunedin. The fourth specimen was caught by two guides (Messrs. D. and J. Ross) at Notornis Bay, Lake Te Anau, in 1898. Although at the present time (1914) it is sixteen years since the Notornis was last seen, there is reason to believe that individuals still exist in the wild districts of the southern sounds.

The interest of the living avifauna is surpassed by the interest of the extinct birds. These include the great flightless moa (Dinornis), a goose (Cnemiornis minor), a gigantic rail (Aptornis otidiformis), and an eagle (Harpaqonis moorei).

Reptilian life is restricted to about fifteen species of lizards, and to the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). This is a lizard-like creature, the only surviving representative of the order Rhynchocephalia, otherwise extinct. The tuatara is found in no other country. Its nearest ally is Homœosaurus, whose remains have been found in Jurassic rocks in Germany. It has been destroyed to a large extent by wild pigs, cats, and dogs, and is now seldom found except on a few islands off the coast of the mainland.

The amphibians are represented by a small frog (Liopelma hochstetteri), which is very rare, and has been recorded from only a few districts in the Auckland Province. Its nearest ally is in China.

About 250 species of fish have been found in New Zealand waters. A large number of these are used for food. Several species, notably the mudfish (Neochanna apoda), which is sometimes discovered buried 4 ft. deep in clay in places where rivers have overflowed in flood, and in swampy places, are interesting. Some of the genera are peculiar to New Zealand, but some also occur in Australian and South American waters.

Amongst the invertebrates one of the peculiarities is the fact that the Dominion has few butterflies, although it is well supplied with moths. It has a red admiral butterfly (Vanessa), named after the European species, which it resembles, and a copper butterfly (Chrysophanus), which is very plentiful. In the forests there is that strange growth the “vegetable caterpillar.” The Dominion has native bees and ants, dragon-flies, sober-coloured beetles, and representatives of other orders of insects. The katipo spider (Latrodectes katipo), which lives mostly on or near the sea-beach, is well known locally. Amongst the mollusea there is a large and handsome land-snail (Paryphanta), and Amphibola, an air-breathing snail, peculiar to the country, which lives in brackish water mainly in estuaries. There are about twenty species of univalves and twelve of bivalves in the fresh-water shells, and about four hundred species in the marine shells, including the paper nautilus (Argonauta). Perhaps the most interesting of all the invertebrates is the Peripatus, an ancient type of creature which survives in New Zealand and in parts of Australia, Africa, South America, the West Indies, New Britain, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. Zoologically, it belongs to the air-breathing division of the phylum Arthropoda, and has been placed in a special class, Prototracheata or Onychophora. It is about 3 in. long, has many feet, loves moisture, shuns light, and moves slowly. Two genera have been found in New Zealand. One genus, Peripatoides, contains two species, novœ-zealandiœ and suteri, and the other, Oöperipatus, contains only one species, viridimaculatus. The Peripatus is viviparous. It is claimed that one New Zealand genus, Oöperipatus, is oviparous, but that has not been fully proved.* Professor A. Dendy, F.R.S., has made special investigations in regard to the New Zealand species.

With the arrival of Europeans the whole face of the fauna was changed. The first European animal introduced was the pig, liberated by Captain Cook in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773. With settlement, sheep, cattle, horses, and other domestic animals were brought, some for utility, some for pleasure, such as song-birds, and some for sport, such as deer, trout, pheasants, and quail. In the work of acclimatization several great and irretrievable blunders were made. The worst of these was the introduction of rabbits, stoats, and weasels.

* Professor Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S., late Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, in the new Eneyclopœdia Britannica.

Chapter 2. SECTION II.—HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND ADMINISTRATION.

EARLY HISTORY.

THE history of New Zealand prior to the seventeenth century is shrouded in mythology and tradition. When the country was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had discovered these islands many centuries previously. Papers written in 1874 by Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Fox and Sir Donald McLean state that at what time the discovery of New Zealand was made by the Maoris, and from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, and that much has been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they probably found inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less variation, in all the eastern Pacific islands.

DISCOVERY BY EUROPEANS.

It was on the 13th December, 1642, that Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, discovered New Zealand. Tasman left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskercq,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen" (or “Sea-hen”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius and discovered Tasmania, named by him “Van Diemen's Land,” in honour of Anthony van Diemen, Governor of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, he steered eastward, and sighted the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country.”

Tasman, under the belief that the land he saw belonged to a great polar continent, and was part of the country discovered some years before by Schouten and Le Maire, to which the name “Staten Land” had been given, gave the same name “Staten Land” to New Zealand; but within about three months afterwards Schouten's “Staten Land” was found to be merely an inconsiderable island. Upon this discovery being announced, the country that Tasman had called “Staten Land” received the name of “New Zealand,” by which it has ever since been known. Tasman sailed along the coast and anchored in Golden Bay, called by him “Murderers' Bay” on account of an unprovoked attack on a boat's crew by the Natives and the massacre of four white men. Thence he steered along the west coast of the North Island, and gave the name “Cape Maria van Diemen” to the north-western extremity thereof. After sighting the islands of the Three Kings he finally departed without having set foot in the country.

There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who, after leaving the Society Islands, sailed in search of a southern continent then believed to exist. He sighted land on the 6th October, 1769, at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the South and Stewart Islands—which last he mistook for part of the South Island—he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned—

  • M. de Surville, in command of the “Saint Jean Baptiste,” who sighted the north-east coast on the 12th December, 1769, only two months after Cook's arrival at Poverty Bay.

  • M. Marion du Fresne—1772.

  • Captains Vancouver and Broughton—1791.

  • Captain Raven—1792 and 1793.

  • Alejandro Malaspina and José de Bustamente y Guerra—1793.

  • Lieutenant Hanson—1793.

SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION.

So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven, of the “Britannia,” landed a sealing-party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over twelve months before being called for by the “Britannia.”

The next few years saw the establishment of whaling-stations at several points on the coast, and in 1814 the first missionaries—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—arrived in New Zealand. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government, who preached his first sermon in New Zealand on Christmas Day, 1814. He returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall, Kendall, and King, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands.

In 1825 three separate attempts were made to found colonies in various parts of New Zealand, but none of these was successful, and for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling-stations. A number of Europeans gradually settled in different parts of the country, and married native women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonization arrived in Port Nicholson on the 22nd January, 1840, and founded the town of Wellington. During the few succeeding years the settlements of Nelson, Taranaki, Otago, and Canterbury were formed by immigrants sent out by associations in the United Kingdom.

BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY.

As early as 1833 a British Resident (Mr. Busby) was appointed, with headquarters at Kororareka (now called Russell), on the Bay of Islands. Seven years later—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain. William Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. A compact called the Treaty of Waitangi, to which in less than six months 512 names were affixed, was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. The seat of Government was established at Waitemata (Auckland), and a settlement formed there.

The record of formal Government of New Zealand under the British Crown begins with the following Proclamation issued by Captain Hobson on the 21st May, 1840:—

Proclamation.

In the name of Her Majesty VICTORIA, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. By WILLIAM HOBSON, Esquire, a Captain in the Royal Navy, Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand.

WHEREAS by a treaty bearing date the sixth day of February, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty, made and executed by me, William Hobson, a Captain in the Royal Navy, Consul and Lieutenant-Governor in New Zealand, vested for this purpose with full powers by Her Britannic Majesty of the one part, and the Chiefs of the Confederation of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and the separate and independent Chiefs of New Zealand not members of the Confederation, of the other, and further ratified and confirmed by the adherence of the principal Chiefs of this Island of New Zealand (commonly called the “Northern Island”), all rights and powers of sovereignty over the said Northern Island were ceded to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland absolutely and without reservation:

Now, therefore, I, William Hobson, Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand, in the name and on behalf of Her Majesty, do hereby proclaim and declare to all men that from and after the date of the above-mentioned treaty the full sovereignty of the Northern Island of New Zealand vests in Her Majesty Queen Victoria, her heirs and successors for ever.

  • Given under my hand, at Government House, Russell, Bay of Islands, this twenty-first day of May, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty.

    WILLIAM HOBSON,

            Lieutenant-Governor.

By His Excellency's command.

WILLOUGHBY SHORTLAND, Colonial Secretary.

British sovereignty over the South Island was formally proclaimed at Cloudy Bay on the 17th June, 1840, by Major Bunbury, H.M. 80th Regiment, and Captain Nias, R.N.

From the date of Hobson's Proclamation until the 3rd May, 1841, New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales, and on the latter date it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated the 16th November, 1840.

CONSTITUTION.

The Government of the colony was first vested in a Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; there was an Executive Council and a Legislative Council with advisory powers only.

On the 30th June, 1852, an Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament, and published in New Zealand by Proclamation on the 17th January, 1853. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives.

The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the House of Representatives, who, however, held no portfolios. The first Ministers under a system of responsible government were appointed in the year 1856.

On addresses from both Houses of the General Assembly, His Majesty the King, by Order in Council dated 9th September, 1907, and by Proclamation issued 10th September, 1907, was graciously pleased to change the style and designation of the Colony of New Zealand to “The Dominion of New Zealand"; the change taking effect from Thursday, the 26th September, 1907.

By Letters Patent dated 11th May, 1917, the designation of Governor and Commander-in-Chief which had hitherto been held by the Royal representative in New Zealand was altered to “Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.”

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.

Prior to the establishment of responsible government the Executive Council for New Zealand consisted, in addition to the Governor, of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, and the Colonial Treasurer, seniority being in the order named. The Governor, or in his absence the senior member present, was to preside, and two members exclusive of the Governor or member presiding were to form a quorum. The Governor was commanded to in all things consult and advise with the Executive Council, and not to exercise the powers and authorities vested in him except by and with the concurrence and advice of the Executive Council, unless in cases of an urgent and pressing nature which would not admit of delay. In such cases he was, with all convenient speed, to bring the measures so adopted by him before the Executive Council for its revision and sanction. Nothing in these instructions, however, was to prevent the Governor exercising any or all of the powers and authorities vested in him, without the advice and concurrence of the Executive Council, in cases not considered of sufficient importance to require their assistance or advice, or in cases which were of such a nature that in his judgment material prejudice might be sustained by consulting the Executive Council thereupon. No questions were to be brought before the Council except those proposed by the Governor, who in any case in which he saw sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the major part or the whole of the Council was further empowered to exercise the powers vested in him in opposition to such opinion.

The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of the 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of the 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). The relationship between the powers of the Governor-General and the Executive Council is indicated in paragraphs V and VII of the Instructions, which read as follows:—

V. Governor-General to take Advice of Executive Council.

In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General shall be guided by the advice of the Executive Council, but, if in any case he shall see sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the said Council, he may act in the exercise of his said powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Us without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case it shall be competent to any member of the said Council to require that there be recorded upon the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

VII. Regulation of Power of Pardon.

The Governor-General shall not pardon or reprieve any offender without first receiving in capital cases the advice of the Executive Council, and in other cases the advice of one at least of his Ministers; and in any case in which such pardon or reprieve might directly affect the interests of Our Empire, or of any country or place beyond the jurisdiction of the Government of the Dominion, the Governor-General shall, before deciding as to either pardon or reprieve, take those interests specially into his own personal consideration in conjunction with such advice as aforesaid.

The present Executive Council consists of eleven members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

Prior to the establishment of responsible government the Legislative Council of New Zealand consisted of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Colonial Treasurer, and the three senior Justices of the Peace. The Governor, or in his absence the senior member present, was to preside at all meetings of the Council; four members in addition to the Governor or the member presiding to form a quorum. No law or Ordinance was to be enacted by the Legislative Council which was not first proposed by the Governor, and no question was to be debated unless submitted by him for that purpose. The laws and Ordinances of the Council were to be designated “Ordinances enacted by the Governor of New Zealand with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council thereof.” No laws whatsoever were to be made to continue for less than two years except only in cases of unforeseen emergency requiring provision for temporary service, and the Governor was specially enjoined not to propose or assent to Ordinances or laws dealing with certain matters, some of which were,—

  • Restricting public worship, although not conducted according to the Church of England.

  • Reducing revenue or infringing prerogative or affecting the salaries or allowances of public officers without special leave.

  • Issuing bills of credit or other negotiable securities in lieu of money on the credit of the colony, or paper currency, or any coin save the legal coin of the realm.

  • By which persons not of European birth or descent might be subjected or liable to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of European birth or descent would not also be subjected.

  • Raising money by public or private lotteries.

  • Naturalizing aliens without leave.

  • Divorcing persons joined together in holy matrimony.

  • Granting money, land, or other donation or gratuity to the Governor.

The Legislative Council assembled for its first session at Auckland on the 24th May, 1854, and comprised fourteen members.

The Councillors had been designated a year earlier by the Governor, and their names submitted for the Royal approval; and they were gazetted in New Zealand in December, 1853. Until 1868 the rule was that the appointment of members should be made by an instrument under the Royal Sign-manual, but the rule was not strictly observed after 1861. An Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1868 validated any appointments of Councillors that might have been made irregularly in the past, and provided that future appointments should be made by the Governor (not by the Sovereign).

Until 1891 members were appointed for life, but since that year appointments have been made for seven years only, members, however, being eligible for reappointment. The last remaining life appointee, the late Hon. W. D. H. Baillie, died on the 24th February, 1922, after holding office for nearly sixty-one years. Prior to 1891 the Speaker was appointed by the Governor, but the Council now elects its own Speaker, who holds office for five years. A Chairman of Committees is elected every session, and holds office till the election of his successor. Speaker and Chairman are both eligible for re-election. The Imperial Act under which the earliest appointments were made did not fix a minimum number of members, though it provided that the first appointees should be not less than ten in number. The number actually summoned was sixteen, of whom only fourteen attended and were enrolled. The number increased irregularly for thirty years. In 1835 and 1886 it stood at fifty-three, but has not since reached that limit. The number on the roll at present is forty-one.

Provision for an elective Legislative Council is contained in the Legislative Council Act, 1914, which was originally intended to come into operation at the first general election of members of the Lower House after the end of 1915. The introduction of the new system has, however, been postponed from time to time, and at present the position is that the Act is to be brought into operation at a date to be specified by Proclamation. Under the system outlined in the Act the Dominion is to be divided into four electoral divisions, two in the North Island and two in the South, and the number of members is to be forty, divided between the two Islands on a population basis. The Governor-General is empowered to appoint not more than three Maori members to the Council.

The qualifications for membership of the Legislative Council are the same as for the House of Representatives, referred to below, with the proviso that a person may not at the same time be a member of both Houses.

Before the year 1892 the honorarium of Councillors was understood to be for the session, not for the year, and formed the subject of a special vote every session, the amount varying in different sessions. By the Payment of Members Act, 1892, the honorarium was made annual, not sessional, and was fixed at £150 a year. The amount was raised in 1904 to £200, and in 1920 to £350, but was reduced in 1922 to £315. Besides the honorarium, members are allowed travelling-expenses actually incurred in going to and from Parliament.

Subject to certain exemptions, members not attending the Council are liable to be fined.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty— seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are now designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Legislature Act, 1908, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

The North Island at present returns forty-six European members, and the South Island thirty. Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with the exception that the term of the nineteenth Parliament was extended to five years by special legislation.

Every registered elector of either sex who is free from any of the disqualifications mentioned in the Legislature Act, 1908, is eligible for membership. All contractors to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly, in any one financial year, as well as the public servants of the Dominion, are incapable of being elected as, or of sitting or voting as, members.

The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £450 per annum, subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. Travelling-expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed. The rate of payment for several years prior to 1920 was £300 per annum, but was increased in that year to £500, a 10-per-cent. reduction, however, being made in 1922 by the Public Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1921-22.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon after as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

THE FRANCHISE.

The three cardinal principles of the franchise in New Zealand are (1) one man one vote, (2) female suffrage, and (3) adult suffrage.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the last-mentioned, the following classes of persons not being entitled to register as electors or to vote:—

  • An alien;

  • A person of unsound mind;

  • A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of His Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1908, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for one month in the electoral district for which he claims to vote.

The system of “one man one vote” has been in operation since 1889, and women's suffrage since 1893. The qualifications for registration are the same for both sexes.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.

Side by side with the general government of the country, but subordinate to it, there has existed a system of local government since the early years of New Zealand's annexation as a British colony. The history of local government divides naturally into two periods representing two distinct systems—viz., the provincial, which was in operation up to 1876, and the county, which superseded the provincial in that year.

THE PROVINCES.

On the 23rd December, 1847, a Charter was signed dividing the colony into two provinces—New Ulster and New Munster—and this was proclaimed in New Zealand on the 10th March, 1848. The Province of New Ulster consisted of the whole of the North Island with the exception of that portion adjacent to Cook Strait and lying to the south of a line commencing at the centre of the mouth of the Patea River and running thence due east to the east coast. The Province of New Munster consisted of the South and Stewart Islands and of the portion of the North Island excluded from New Ulster. Each province had a Lieutenant - Governor, an Executive Council, and a Legislative Council, while the Governor-in-Chief for the whole colony was also Governor of each province. Provision had also been made for a House of Representatives in each province, but this portion of the Charter was suspended for five years, and before it came into operation a new Constitution was obtained.

Under the new Constitution the Provinces of New Ulster and New Munster were abolished and the colony was divided into six provinces—Auckland, New Plymouth (later altered to Taranaki), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. Each province was to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. In each case the election was for four years, but a dissolution of the Provincial Council by the Governor could take place at any time, necessitating a fresh election both of the Council and of the Superintendent. The Superintendent was chosen by the whole body of the electors of the province, and each member of the Provincial Council by the electors of a district. The boundaries of the new provinces were gazetted on the 2nd April, 1853, and the boundaries of the electoral districts on the 14th May following, the first general elections for the House of Representatives and the Provincial Councils being held during 1853 and the beginning of 1854. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine by the formation of Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Southland, later reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with Otago, and again increased to nine by the formation of Westland, remained as integral parts of the Constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, that body having been vested with the power of altering the Constitution Act.

EARLY BOROUGHS AND TOWN DISTRICTS.

Even before the division of New Zealand into the two provinces of New Ulster and New Munster, local government had its inception, Wellington having been created a borough in 1842 under the authority of the Municipal Corporations Ordinance of that year. The Ordinance was disallowed by the Home Government, but was re-enacted, with necessary alterations, in 1844. Wellington, which lost its status on the original Ordinance being disallowed, did not become a borough again until 1870, Auckland (constituted in 1851) remaining the only borough in New Zealand for several years.

Wellington, which had been the first borough in the country, also became the first town district, with a form of government not differing greatly from that of a municipality. Gradually the more important towns adopted the status of boroughs, while the less-important remained town districts. In Otago, however, between 1865 and 1875, several small towns were created boroughs under the authority of an Ordinance of the Otago Provincial Council, nineteen of the thirty-six boroughs in existence at the date of the abolition of the provinces being in Otago, all formed under the provisions of the Ordinance referred to.

THE ROAD AND HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

Another form of local government which came into existence in the provincial days was that of the road districts, or, as they were called in certain parts of the country, highway districts. As the names imply, the road and highway districts were formed for the purpose of extending and maintaining roads. Each district was controlled by an elected Board, which had power to levy rates. The first Road Boards were formed in 1863, and by 1875 their number had risen to 314.

THE COUNTIES.

Among the instructions given Captain Hobson on his appointment as the first Governor of New Zealand was one directing that the colony was to be divided into counties, hundreds, and parishes. In accordance with this instruction, the boundaries of the County of Eden, in which Auckland—the then capital—is situated, were proclaimed in 1842, and some years later the county was divided into hundreds. Very little further was done towards giving effect to the instructions, and the first administrative county was Westland, separated from Canterbury Province in 1867, and granted a system of local government in the following year.

It was not until the abolition of the provinces in 1876 that a scheme of division of the whole country into counties was introduced. The Counties Act, 1876, which, in conjunction with the Municipal Corporations Act of the same year, provided a comprehensive scheme of local government in lieu of the provincial governments, divided New Zealand into sixty-three counties. With the exception of six, which were exempted from the operations of the Act, each county was placed under the control of an elected Chairman and Council, possessed of fairly full powers of local government—considerably less, however, than those formerly enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. The Counties Act specially excluded boroughs from the counties within which they geographically lie, and a similar provision has since been made in the case of town districts having a population of over 500.

EXTENSION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

Since the abolition of the provinces and the passing of the Counties and Municipal Corporations Acts of 1876 there has been considerable extension of local government. Many of the road districts have merged with the counties within which they lie, while others have become boroughs and town districts. On the other hand, counties, boroughs, and town districts have increased in numbers, while several entirely new classes of local districts, formed for definite purposes—as, for instance, land drainage or electric-power supply—have come into existence. In most cases the Boards of these districts have borrowing and rating powers.

The numbers of local districts of each class in the Dominion at present are as follow:—

Counties129
Boroughs118
Town districts—
        Not forming parts of counties38
        Forming parts of counties36
Road districts58
River districts45
Land-drainage districts60
Harbour districts41
Hospital districts44
City and suburban drainage districts3
Tramway districts2
Local railway districts4
Water-supply districts6
Electric-power districts24
Gas-lighting district1

Chapter 3. SECTION III.—OFFICIAL.

SUCCESSIVE VICEREGAL REPRESENTATIVES.

1840-1853.

Captain William Hobson, R.N., Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand under Sir George Gipps, Governor of New South Wales, from January, 1840, to 3rd May, 1841, and Governor of New Zealand from 3rd May, 1841, until date of death, 10th September, 1842.

Lieutenant Willoughby Shortland, Administrator from 10th September, 1842, to 26th December, 1843.

Captain Robert Fitzroy, R.N., Governor from 26th December, 1843, to 17th November, 1845.

Captain George Grey, who became Sir George Grey, K.C.B., in 1848, Governor from 18th November, 1845, to 1st January, 1848; Governor-in-Chief over the Islands of New Zealand, Governor of the Province of New Ulster, and Governor of the Province of New Munster from 1st January, 1848, to 7th March, 1853; Governor of New Zealand from 7th March, 1853, to 31st December, 1853.

Lieutenant-Governors of Provinces.

  • Edward John Eyre, Esquire, Lieutenant-Governor of New Munster from 28th January, 1848, until duties of Lieutenant-Governor ceased on 7th March, 1853.

  • Major-General George Dean Pitt, Lieutenant-Governor of New Ulster from 14th

  • February, 1848, until date of death, 8th January, 1851.

  • Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Henry Wynyard, C.B., Lieutenant-Governor of New Ulster from 26th April, 1851, until duties of Lieutenant-Governor ceased on 7th March, 1853.

1854 TO DATE.

Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Henry Wynyard, C.B., Administrator from 3rd January, 1854, to 6th September, 1855.

Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B., Governor from 6th September, 1855, to 2nd October, 1861.

Sir George Grey, K.C.B., Administrator from 3rd October, 1861; Governor from 4th December, 1861, to 5th February, 1868.

Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G., Governor from 5th February, 1868, to 19th March, 1873.

Sir George Alfred Arney, Chief Justice, Administrator from 21st March to 14th June, 1873.

Sir James Fergusson, Baronet, P.C., Governor from 14th June. 1873, to 3rd December, 1874. The Marquis of Normanby, P.C., G.C.M.G., Administrator from 3rd December, 1874;

Governor from 9th January, 1875, to 21st February, 1879.

James Prendergast, Esquire, Chief Justice, Administrator from 21st February to 27th March, 1879.

Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G., Administrator from 27th March, 1879; Governor from 17th April, 1879, to 8th September, 1880.

James Prendergast, Esquire, Chief Justice, Administrator from 9th September to 29th November, 1880.

The Honourable Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G., Governor from 29th November, 1880, to 23rd June, 1882.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator from 24th June, 1882, to 20th January, 1883.

Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B., Governor from 20th January, 1883, to 22nd March, 1889.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator from 23rd March to 2nd May, 1889.

The Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G., Governor from 2nd May, 1889, to 24th February, 1892.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator from 25th February to 6th June, 1892.

The Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G., Governor from 7th June, 1892, to 6th February, 1897. Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator from 8th February to 9th August, 1897. The Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G., Governor from 10th August, 1897, to 19th June, 1904. The Right Honourable William Lee, Baron Plunket, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., Governor from 20th June, 1904, to 8th June, 1910.

Hon. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., Chief Justice, Administrator from 8th June to 22nd June, 1910.

The Right Honourable John Poynder Dickson-Poynder, K.C.M.G., Baron Islington, D.S.O., Governor from 22nd June, 1910, to 2nd December, 1912.

Hon. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., Chief Justice, Administrator from 3rd December to 19th December, 1912.

The Earl of Liverpool, P.C., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., Governor from 19th December, 1912; Governor-General from 28th June, 1917, to 7th July, 1920.

Right Hon. Sir Robert Stout, P.C., K.C.M.G., Chief Justice, Administrator from 8th July, 1920, to 26th September, 1920.

Viscount Jellicoe of Seapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O., Governor-General from 27th September, 1920.

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND.

His Excellency, Admiral of the Fleet, the Right Honourable John Rushworth, Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.

Private Secretary—Captain Arthur R. W. Curtis, M.C.

Official Secretary—A. Cecil Day, C.B.E.

Military Secretary and Aide-de-Camp—Captain P. R. M. Mundy, D.S.O., M.C.

Aide-de-Camp—Lieutenant R. Gordon Southsy, M.C.

Honorary Aides-de-Camp—Colonel H. Hart, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel C. W. Melville, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel R. Young, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel A. E. Stewart, C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel Hugh Stewart, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.C.; Lieutenant-Colonel R. C. Allen, D.S.O.

Honorary Physician—Colonel E. J. O'Neill, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.B.

Honorary Surgeon—Brigadier-General Sir D. J. McGavin, Kt., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.D.

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS.

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856.
Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May, 185612 June, 1856.
3. Stafford.Edward William Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 July, 18616 Aug., 1862.
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug., 186230 Oct., 1863.
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct., 186324 Nov., 1864.
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov., 186416 Oct., 1865.
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct., 186528 June, 1869.
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 June, 186910 Sept., 1872.
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sept., 187211 Oct., 1872.
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct., 18723 Mar., 1873.
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar., 18738 April, 1873.
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 April, 18736 July, 1875.
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 July, 187515 Feb., 1876.
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb., 18761 Sept., 1876.
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sept., 187613 Sept., 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sept., 187613 Oct., 1877.
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct., 18778 Oct., 1879.
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct., 187921 April, 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 April, 188225 Sept., 1883.
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sept., 188316 Aug., 1884.
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug., 188428 Aug., 1884.
23 AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug., 18843 Sept., 1884.
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sept., 18848 Oct., 1887.
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct., 188724 Jan., 1891.
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan., 18911 May, 1893.
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.1 May, 189321 June, 1906.
28. Wall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 June, 19066 Aug., 1906.
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C., K.C.M.G.6 Aug., 190628 Mar., 1912.
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar., 191210 July, 1912.
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.10 July, 191212 Aug., 1915.
32. NationalRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.12 Aug., 191525 Aug., 1919.
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.25 Aug., 1919..

MASSEY MINISTRY.

LIST OF MEMBERS SINCE MINISTRY ASSUMED OFFICE ON 25TH AUGUST, 1919, SHOWING OFFICES HELD AND PERIODS DURING WHICH SUCH OFFICES OCCUPIED.
Name.Office.FromToRemarks.

* Continuing office held in National Ministry.

† Appointed a member of the Executive Council from 21st June, 1923.

Right Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.Prime Minister25 Aug., 1919*  
Minister of Labour25 Aug., 1919*14 May. 1920Succeeded by Sir W. H. Herries.
Minister of Industries and Commerce25 Aug., 1919*21 June, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Lee.
Minister of Railways4 Sept., 191916 May, 1922Succeeded by Mr. Guthrie.
Minister of Finance12 May, 1920  
Minister of Stamp Duties12 May, 1920  
Minister of Mines27 July, 192015 April, 1921Succeeded by Mr. Anderson.
Minister of Defence25 Aug., 1919*28 April, 1920Succeeded by Sir R. H. Rhodes. 
Sir James Allen, K.C.B.Minister of Finance4 Sept., 191928 April, 1920Succeeded by Right Hon. Mr. Massey.
Minister of Stamp Duties4 Sept., 191928 April, 1920
Minister of External Affairs24 Nov., 191928 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Lee.
Minister of Railways25 Aug., 1919*3 Sept., 1920Succeeded by Right Hon. Mr. Massey.
Sir William Herbert Herries. K.C.M.G.Native Minister25 Aug., 1919*7 Feb., 1921Succeeded by Mr. Coates
Minister of Customs4 Sept., 19197 Feb., 1921Succeeded by Mr. Stewart
Minister of Marine4 Sept., 19197 Feb., 1921Succeeded by Mr. Anderson.
Minister of Labour14 May, 19207 Feb., 1920
Member of Executive Council without portfolio7 Feb., 192122 Feb., 1923Died.
Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.Attorney-General25 Aug., 1919*  
Commissioner of State Forests25 Aug., 1919*21 Feb., 1922Succeeded by Sir R. H. Rhodes.
Minister of Immigration25 Aug., 1919*12 May, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Nosworthy.
Minister of Public Health4 Sept., 19193 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Parr.
Minister of Education4 Sept., 19193 April, 1920
Minister of Internal Affairs3 Feb., 192012 May, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Anderson.
Minister of Marine1 Mar., 192121 Feb., 1922
Minister of Justice13 Jan., 192327 June, 1923Succeeded by Mr. Parr.
Minister of External Affairs18 June, 1923  
Sir William Fraser, K.C.V.O.Minister of Public Works25 Aug., 1919*3 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Goates.
Minister of Mines4 Sept., 191927 July, 1920Succeeded by Right Hon. Mr. Massey.
Member of Executive Council without portfolio27 July, 192016 July, 1923Died.
Minister of LandsDavid Henry Guthrie25 Aug., 1919*  
Minister of Railways16 May, 19226 June, 1923Succeeded by Mr. Coates.
William Henry NosworthyMinister of Agriculture4 Sept., 1919  
Minister of Immigration12 May, 1920  
Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.Minister of Public Works3 April, 1920  
Postmaster-General4 Sept., 1919  
Minister of Telegraphs4 Sept., 1919  
Minister of Justice4 Sept., 19193 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Lee
Minister of Native Affairs9 Mar., 1921  
Minister of Railways6 June, 1923  
Major John Bird Hine, M.C.Minister of Internal Affairs4 Sept., 191917 Jan., 1920Succeeded by Sir. F. H. D. Bell.
Ernest Page LeeMinister of Justice3 April, 192013 Jan., 1923Succeeded by Sir F. H. D. Bell.
Minister of External Affairs12 May, 192013 Jan., 1923
Minister of Industries and Commerce22 June, 192013 Jan., 1923Succeeded by Mr. Stewart.
Christopher James Parr, C.M.G.Minister of Education3 April, 1920  
Minister of Health3 April, 192027 June, 1923Succeeded by Sir M. Pomare.
Minister of Justice27 June, 1923  
George James AndersonMinister of Internal Affairs12 May, 19201 Mar., 1921Succeeded by Mr. Stewart.
Minister of Labour1 Mar., 1921  
Minister of Mines15 April, 1921  
Minister of Marine21 Feb., 1922  
Sir Robert Heaton Rhodes, K.B.E.Minister of Defence21 July, 1920  
Commissioner of State Forests21 Feb., 1922  
Minister of Internal Affairs1 Mar., 192127 June, 1923Succeeded by Mr. Bollard. 
Minister of Customs9 Mar., 1921  
Minister of Industries and Commerce11 June, 1923  
Sir Maui Pomare, K.B.E., C.M.G.Member of Executive Council representing the Native Race25 Aug., 1919*  
Minister of Cook Islands25 Aug., 1919*  
Minister of Health27 June, 1923  
Richard Francis BollardMinister of Internal Affairs27 June, 1923  

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1923.

His Excellency the GOVERNOR-GENERAL.

Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister of Stamp Duties, Minister in Charge of Land and Income Tax, State Advances, Valuation, Electoral, and Public Trust Departments.

Hon. Sir F. H. D. Bell, K.C.M.G., K.C., Attorney-General, Minister of External Affairs, and Leader of the Legislative Council.

Hon. D. H. Guthrie, Minister of Lands, Minister in Charge of Land for Settlements, Discharged Soldiers Settlement, Scenery Preservation, and Repatriation Departments.

Hon. W. Nosworthy, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Immigration, and Minister in Charge of Tourist and Health Resorts and Legislative Departments.

Hon. J. G. Coates, M.C., Minister of Railways, Minister of Public Works, Minister of Native Affairs, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, Minister in Charge of Native Trust, Roads, and Public Buildings.

Hon. C. J. Parr, C.M.G., Minister of Education, Minister of Justice, Minister in Charge of Police and Prisons Departments.

Hon. G. J. Anderson, Minister of Labour, Minister of Mines, Minister of Marine, Minister in Charge of Pensions, Printing and Stationery, and Inspection of Machinery Departments.

Hod. Sir R. H. Rhodes, K.B.E., Minister of Defence, Commissioner of State Forests, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Government Life and Accident Insurance. State Fire Insurance, National Provident Fund, Friendly Societies, and Public Service Superannuation Departments.

Hon. W. Downie Stewart, Minister of Customs, Minister of Industries and Commerce, and Minister in Charge of Board of Trade.

Hon. Sir Maui Pomare, K.B.E., C.M.G., Minister of Health, Member of the Executive Council representing the Native Race, Minister in Charge of Hospitals and Charitable Aid, Mental Hospitals, and Cook Islands Departments.

Hon. R. F. Bollard, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister in Charge of High Commissioner's, Audit, Museum, Registrar-General's, Census and Statistics, Laboratory, and Advertising Departments.

Clerk of the Executive Council—F. D. Thomson, B.A., C.M.G.

SUCCESSIVE PARLIAMENTS.

SUCCESSIVE PARLIAMENTS SINCE THE PASSING OF THE CONSTITUTION ACT CONFERRING REPRESENTATIVE INSTITUTIONS UPON NEW ZEALAND, WITH THE DATES OF OPENING OF SESSIONS AND DATES OF PROROGATION AND OF DISSOLUTION.
Parliament.Dates of Opening of Sessions.Dates of Prorogation.Dates of Dissolution
First27 May, 18549 Aug., 185415 Sept., 1855.
31 Aug., 185416 Sept., 1854
8 Aug., 185515 Sept., 1855
Second15 April, 185616 Aug., 18565 Nov., 1860.
(No sess., 1857)..
10 April, 185821 Aug., 1858
(No sess., 1859)..
30 July, 18605 Nov., 1860
Third3 June, 18617 Sept., 186127 Jan., 1866.
7 July, 186215 Sept., 1862
19 Oct., 186314 Dec., 1863
24 Nov., 186413 Dec., 1864
26 July, 186530 Oct., 1865
Fourth30 June, 18668 Oct., 186630 Dec., 1870.
9 July, 186710 Oct., 1867
9 July, 186820 Oct., 1868
1 June, 18693 Sept., 1869
14 June, 187013 Sept., 1870
Fifth14 Aug., 187116 Nov., 18716 Dec., 1875.
16 July, 187225 Oct., 1872
15 July, 18733 Oct., 1873
3 July, 187431 Aug., 1874
20 July, 187521 Oct., 1875
Sixth15 June, 187631 Oct., 187615 Aug., 1879.
19 July, 187710 Dec., 1877
26 July, 18782 Nov., 1878
11 July, 187911 Aug., 1879
Seventh24 Sept., 187919 Dec., 18798 Nov., 1881
28 May, 18801 Sept., 1880
9 June, 188124 Sept., 1881
Eighth18 May, 188215 Sept., 188227 June, 1884.
14 June, 18838 Sept., 1883
5 June, 188424 June, 1884
Ninth7 Aug., 188410 Nov., 188415 July, 1887.
11 June, 188522 Sept., 1885
13 May, 188618 Aug., 1886
26 April, 188710 June, 1887
Tenth6 Oct., 188723 Dec., 18873 Oct., 1890.
10 May, 188831 Aug., 1888
20 June, 188919 Sept., 1889
19 June, 189018 Sept., 1890
Eleventh23 Jan., 189131 Jan., 18918 Nov., 1893.
11 June, 189125 Sept., 1891
23 June, 189212 Oct., 1892
22 June, 18937 Oct., 1893
Twelfth21 June, 189424 Oct., 189414 Nov., 1896.
20 June, 18952 Nov., 1895
11 June, 189619 Oct., 1896
Thirteenth7 April, 189712 April, 189715 Nov., 1899.
23 Sept., 189722 Dec., 1897
24 June, 18985 Nov., 1898
23 June, 189924 Oct., 1899
Fourteenth22 June, 190022 Oct., 19005 Nov., 1902.
1 July, 19018 Nov., 1901
1 July, 19024 Oct., 1902
Fifteenth29 June, 190325 Nov., 190315 Nov., 1905.
28 June, 19048 Nov., 1904
27 June, 190531 Oct., 1905
Sixteenth27 June, 19063 July, 190629 Oct., 1908.
21 Aug., 190629 Oct., 1906
27 June, 190725 Nov., 1907
29 June, 190812 Oct., 1908
Seventeenth10 June, 190917 June, 190920 Nov., 1911.
7 Oct., 190929 Dec., 1909
28 June, 19105 Dec., 1910
27 July, 191130 Oct., 1911
Eighteenth15 Feb., 19121 Mar., 191220 Nov., 1914.
27 June, 19128 Nov., 1912
26 June, 191316 Dec., 1913
25 June, 19146 Nov., 1914
Nineteenth24 June, 191515 Oct., 191527 Nov., 1919.
9 May, 19169 Aug., 1916
28 June, 19172 Nov., 1917
9 April, 191817 April, 1918
24 Oct., 191812 Dec., 1918
28 Aug., 19197 Nov., 1919
Twentieth24 June, 192012 Nov., 192015 Nov., 1922.
10 Mar., 192124 Mar., 1921
22 Sept., 192113 Feb., 1922
28 June, 19221 Nov., 1922
Twenty-first8 Feb., 192319 Feb., 1923..
14 June, 192330 Aug., 1923

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND, SEPTEMBER, 1923.

Speaker—Hon. Sir W. C. F. CARNCROSS, Kt.
Chairman of Committees—Hon. OLIVER SAMUEL.
Clerk of the Legislative Council—A. F. LOWE.
Name.Provincial District.Date of Appointment.
Alison, Hon. Ewen WilliamAuckland7 May, 1918.
Barr, Hon. JohnCanterbury22 January, 1921.
Bell, Hon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon, G.C.M.G.Wellington21 May, 1919.
Buchanan, Hon. Sir Walter, Kt.Wellington23 June, 1922.
Campbell, Hon. James PalmerAuckland2 September, 1921.
Carncross, Hon. Sir Walter Charles Frederick, Kt.Taranaki17 March, 1917.
Carroll, Hon. Sir James, K.C.M.G.Auckland2 September, 1921.
Clark, Hon. Edward HenryOtago25 June, 1920.
Cohen, Hon. MarkOtago25 June, 1920.
Collins, Hon. Colonel William Edward, C.M.G.Wellington14 July, 1921.
Craigie, Hon. JamesCanterbury1 June, 1923.
Earnshaw, Hon. WilliamWellington25 June, 1920.
Fleming, Hon. David ThomasOtago7 May, 1918.
Garland, Hon. George JosephAuckland7 May, 1918.
Geddis, Hon. William JohnHawke's Bay7 May, 1918.
Gow, Hon. James BurmanAuckland7 May, 1918.
Grimmond, Hon. JosephWestland7 May, 1918.
Hall-Jones, Hon. Sir William, K.C.M.G.Wellington6 October, 1920.
Hawke, Hon. Archibald FotheringhamOtago7 May, 1918.
Hislop, Hon. Thomas WilliamWellington2 September, 1921.
Izard, Hon. Charles HaywardWellington7 May, 1918.
Louisson, Hon. CharlesCanterbury7 May, 1918.
MacGregor, Hon. JohnOtago14 July, 1921.
McIntyre, Hon. William HendersonNelson2 September, 1921.
Mackenzie, Hon. Sir Thomas, G.C.M.G.Otago12 March, 1921.
Mander, Hon. FrancisAuckland1 June, 1923.
Michel, Hon. Henry LeslieWestland7 May, 1918.
Mitchelson, Hon. Sir Edwin, K.C.M.G.Auckland25 June, 1920.
Moore, Hon. RichardCanterbury14 July, 1921.
Newman, Hon. Alfred KingcomeWellington1 June, 1923.
Newman, Hon. Edward, C.M.G.Wellington1 June, 1923.
Patuki, Hon. John TopiOtago7 May, 1918.
Rikihana, Hon. WiremuAuckland1 June, 1923.
Samuel, Hon. OliverTaranaki14 July, 1921.
Scott, Hon. RobertOtago25 June, 1920.
Sinclair, Hon. Sir John Robert, Kt.Otago7 May, 1918.
Smith, Hon. Colonel George John, C.B.E.Canterbury25 June, 1920.
Snodgrass, Hon. William Wallace, M.B.E.Nelson2 September, 1921.
Stewart, Hon. WilliamAuckland7 May, 1918.
Thomson, Hon. George MalcolmOtago7 May, 1918.
Triggs, Hon. William HenryCanterbury7 May, 1918.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. SEPTEMBER, 1923.
Speaker—Hon. C. E. STATHAM.
Chairman of Committees—J. A. YOUNG, M.P. Clerk of the House—E. W. KANE.
Name.Electoral District.
For European Electorates. 
Anderson, Hon. George JamesMataura.
Armstrong, Hubert ThomasChristchurch East.
Atmore, HarryNelson.
Bartram, Frederick NatleyGrey Lynn.
Bell, AllenBay of Islands.
Bitchener, JohnWaitaki.
Bollard, Hon. Richard FrancisRaglan.
Buddo, Hon. DavidKaiapoi.
Burnett, Thomas DavidTemuka
Coates, Hon. Joseph Gordon, M.C.Kaipara.
Corrigan, James RandallPatea.
De la Perrelle, Philip AldboroughAwarua.
Dickson, James McCollChalmers.
Dickson, James SamuelParnell.
Edie, JohnClutha.
Field, William HughesOtaki.
Forbes, George WilliamHurunui.
Fraser, PeterWellington Central.
Girling, William JamesWairau.
Glenn, William SpiersRangitikei.
Guthrie, Hon. David HenryOroua.
Hanan, Hon. Josiah AlfredInvercargill.
Harris, AlexanderWaitemata.
Hawken, Oswald JamesEgmont.
Hockly, Frank FranklinRotorua.
Holland, Henry EdmundBuller.
Horn, JamesWakatipu.
Howard, Edwin JohnChristchurch South
Hudson, Richard PhineasMotueka.
Hunter, Sir George, Kt.Waipawa.
Isitt, Leonard MonkChristchurch North.
Jordan, William JosephManukau.
Langstone, FrankWaimarino.
Lee, John AlexanderAuckland East.
Linklater, JosephManawatu.
Luke, Sir John Pearce, Kt., C.M.G.Wellington North.
Lye, FrederickWaikato.
Lysnar, William DouglasGisborne.
McCombs, JamesLyttelton.
McIlvride, LewisNapier.
McKay GilbertHawke's Bay.
McKeen, RobertWellington South.
McLeod, Alexander DonaldWairarapa.
Macmillan, Charles Edward de la BareaTauranga
Macpherson, John AndrewOamaru.
Massey, Right Hon. William Ferguson, P.C.Franklin.
Masters, RobertStratford.
Monteith. Alexander LammontWellington East.
Munro, James WrightDunedin North.
Murdoch, Alfred JamesMarsden.
Nash, James AlfredPalmerston.
Nosworthy, Hon. WilliamAshburton.
O'Brien, JamesWestland.
Parr, Hon. Christopher James, C.M.G.Eden.
Parry, William EdwardAuckland Central.
Poland, HughOhinemuri.
Potter, Vivian HaroldRoskill.
Ransom, Ethelbert AlfredPahiatua.
Rhodes, Hon. Sir Robert Heaton, K.B.E.Ellesmere.
Rhodes, Thomas WilliamThames.
Rolleston, Francis JosephTimaru.
Rolleston, John ChristopherWaitomo.
Savage, Michael JosephAuckland West.
Sidey, Thomas KayDunedin South.
Smith, Sydney GeorgeTaranaki.
Statham, Hon. Charles ErnestDunedin Central.
Stewart, Hon, William DownieDunedin West.
Sullivan, Daniel GilesAvon.
Sykes, George RobertMasterton.
Thomson, John CharlesWallace.
Wilford, Thomas MasonHutt.
Williams, Kenneth StuartBay of Plenty.
Witty, GeorgeRiccarton.
Wright, Robert AlexanderWellington Suburbs.
Young, James AlexanderHamilton.
For Maori Electorates. 
Tau HenareNorthern Maori.
Ngata, Hon. Apirana TurupaEastern Maori.
Pomare, Hon. Sir Maui Ngatata, K.B.E., C.M.G.Western Maori.
Uru, Henare Whakatau.Southern Maori.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

LIST OF PRINCIPAL DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND NAMES OF PERMANENT HEADS.

Department.Permanent Head.
Title.Name.
AgricultureDirector-GeneralC. J. Reakes, C.B.E., M.R.C.V.S., D.V.Sc. Melb.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralG. F. C. Campbell, C.M.G.
Crown LawSolicitor-General(Vacant).
CustomsComptrollerG. Craig, LL.M.
DefenceGeneral Officer Commanding N.Z. Military ForcesMajor-General Sir E. W. C. Chaytor, K.C.M.G., K.C. V.O., C.B., N.Z. Staff Corps.
EducationDirectorJ. Caughley, M.A.
External Affairs and Cook IslandsSecretaryJ. D. Gray.
Government InsuranceCommissionerA. T. Tiaversi, F.I.A. Lond.
National Provident FundSuperintendent
Friendly SocietiesRegistrarW. M. Wright.
Public Service SuperannuationSecretary
HealthDirector-GeneralT. H. A. Valintine, C.B.E., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,D.P.H.
Industries and CommerceSecretaryJ. W. Collins.
ImmigrationUnder-SecretaryH. D. Thomson.
Inland RevenueCommissionerD. G. Clark, O.B.E.
Land and Income TaxDeputy CommissionerA. E. Fowler.
Stamp DutiesDeputy CommissionerJ. Murray.
Land and DeedsAssistant Secretary for Land and DeedsC. E. Nalder.
Internal AffairsUnder-Secretary and Chief Electoral OfficerJ. Hislop, M.V.O., O.B.E.
Registrar-General'sRegistrar-GeneralW. W. Cook.
Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianM. Fraser, O.B.E.
Justice (including Prisons and Patents)Under-Secretary for Justice and Controller-General of PrisonsC. E. Matthews.
LabourSecretary of Labour, Chief Inspector of Factories, and Registrar of Industrial UnionsF. W. T. Rowley.
Land for SettlementsLand Purchase ControllerJ. D. Ritchie.
Lands and SurveyUnder-SecretaryJ. B. Thompson, M.N.Z. Soc.C.E.
MarineSecretaryA. D. Park (acting).
Mental HospitalsInspector-GeneralF. Hay, M.B., C.M.
MinesUnder-SecretaryA. H. Kimbell.
NativeUnder-SecretaryR. N. Jones.
Native TrustNative TrusteeW. E. Rawson.
NavalNaval AdviserCommodore A. F. Beal, C.M.G.
PensionsCommissionerG. C. Fache, O.B.E.
PoliceCommissionerA. H. Wright.
Post and TelegraphSecretaryA. T. Markman.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterW. A. G. Skinner.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeJ. W. Macdonald.
Public WorksUnder-Secretary and Engineer-in-ChiefF. W. Furkert, A.M.I.C.E., A.M.I.M.E.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerR. W. McVilly, M.V.O.
RepatriationDirectorJ. R. Samson.
State AdvancesSuperintendentW. Waddel.
State Fire InsuranceGeneral ManagerJ. H. Jerram.
State Forest ServiceDirectorL. McIntosh Ellis, B.Sc. (F.). C.S.F.E.
Tourist and Health ResortsGeneral ManagerB. M. Wilson.
TreasurySecretaryJ. J. Esson, C.M.G.
ValuationValuer-GeneralF. W. Flanagan, O.B.E.

By an Act passed during the year 1912 and intituled the Public Service Act, 1912, the Public Service of New Zealand was placed under the direct and sole control of a Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners, who are appointed for a term of seven years, are responsible only to Parliament, and can be dismissed from office only for misbehaviour or incompetence.

The Act, which became operative on the 1st April, 1913, applies to all members of the Public Service with the exception of the Controller and Auditor-General, officers of the Railway Department, members of the Police and Defence Forces, Judges and Magistrates, officers of the House, certain officers of the Legislative Departments, and persons paid only by fees or-commission, as well as any officer to whom the Governor-General in Council declares the Act shall not apply.

By the Post and Telegraph Act of 1918 the Post and Telegraph Department was exempted from the control of the Commissioner, with the exception that the Commissioner makes all appointments.

  • Public Service Commissioner: P. D. N. VERSCHAFFELT.

  • Assistant Commissioners: (Vacant).

NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES ABROAD.

High Commissioner for New Zealand in London—Hon. Sir James Allen, K.C.B., New Zealand Offices, 415 Strand, London W.C. 2.

Official Representative of Customs Department in United Kingdom—F. W. Lawrence (acting), New Zealand Offices, 415 Strand, London W.C. 2.

New Zealand Trade Commissioner for Australia and Government Agent, Melbourne—H. J. Manson, Dominion Chambers, 59 William Street, Melbourne.

New Zealand Government Agent, Sydney—W. R. Blow, London Bank Chambers, corner of Pitt and Moore Streets, Sydney.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent, Adelaide—D. Hawes, Pirie Street, Adelaide.

Honorary New Zealand Representative in India—R. L. B. Gall, care of Messrs. Landale and Clark (Limited), P.O. Box 112, Calcutta.

New Zealand Government Agent, Vancouver—W. A. James, Mercantile Buildings, 318 Homer Street, Vancouver.

Resident Agent for New Zealand, San Francisco—H. Stephenson Smith, 311 California Street, San Francisco.

Official Representative of Customs Department in Canada and United States—W. J. Stevenson, 44 Whitehall Street, New York.

TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF BRITISH COUNTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND.

United Kingdom.—H.M. Trade Commissioner: Noel Elmslie, 11 Grey Street, Wellington. Canada.—Trade Commissioner: W. A. Beddoe, Customs Street, Auckland.

FOREIGN CONSULS.

CONSULS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OR WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, SEPTEMBER, 1923.

Argentine Republic.—Consul-General: Humberto Bidone, Wellington. Vice-Consul: E. S. Baldwin, Wellington.

Belgium.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): H. Segaert, Sydney. Consuls: A. M. Ferguson, Auckland; G. F. Johnston, Wellington; Sir J. J. Kinsey, Christchurch; G. L. Denniston, Dunedin. Vice-Consuls: C. R. J. Ward, Christchurch; W. A. Moore, Dunedin; R. A. Anderson, Invercargill.

Brazil.—Vice Consul: A. H. Miles. Wellington.

Chile.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Senor Don Manuel Gundelach, Sydney. Consuls: E. A. Craig, Auckland; J. Montgomery, Christchurch; H. L. Nathan. Wellington; J. A. Roberts, Dunedin.

China.—Consuls: Li Kwang Heng, Wellington; Chao-Song Lee, Samoa.

Czecho-Slovakia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Emanuel Hajny (acting), Sydney.

Denmark.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Ove Lunn, Melbourne. Consul for North Island: Michael Myers, Wellington. Consul for South Island: H. Sorensen (acting), Christchurch. Vice-Consuls: H. P. Richmond, Auckland; W. E. Perry, Hokitika; O. H. Möller, Dunedin; Charles Dahl, Palmerston North.

Finland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Harald Tanner, Sydney.

France.—Consul: Paul Serre, Auckland. Consular Agents: George Humphreys, Christchurch; O. R. Bendall, Wellington; S. E. D. Neill, Dunedin; Gordon Hay-Mackenzie, Samoa.

Greece.—Vice-Consul for New Zealand: J. F. Dyer, Wellington.

Honduras.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Frederic Walsh, Sydney.

Italy.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: Commander G. St. Martin, Melbourne. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): A. Grossardi, Melbourne. Consular Agents: Joseph Wallace, Christchurch; L. O. H. Tripp, O.B.E., Wellington; J. A. Roberts, Dunedin; Geraldo Perotti, Greymouth; Giovanni (J. H.) Pagni, Auckland.

Japan.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): E. Suzuki, Sydney. Honorary Consuls: A. B. Roberton, Auckland; A. Young, Wellington.

Jugo-Slavia (Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes).—Consul: G. L. Scansie, Auckland.

Latvia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Edward Birin, London.

Liberia.—Consul: Charles Louisson, Christchurch. Acting-Consul: T. N. Holmden, Wellington.

Mexico.—Consul: J. W. Hall, Auckland.

Netherlands. — Consul - General for Australia and New Zealand: P. E. Teppema, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): W. G. Johnston, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: George Ritchie, Dunedin; M. Copeland, Auckland; C. J. Cooper, Christchurch.

Norway.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: E. K. B. Arentz, Melbourne. Consul: A. W. Newton, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Sigurd Bentzon, Melbourne; Robert Millar, Auckland; George Jameson, Christchurch; M. E. Wiig, Invercargill; J. H. Enright, Westport; John Scott, Timaru; W. F. Edmond, Dunedin (honorary).

Paraguay.—Consul: A. E. Kernot, Wellington.

Peru.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: J. M. Paxton, Sydney. Consul: G. H. Baker, Auckland.

Poland.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Hon. George Earp, Sydney.

Portugal.—Consul: David L. Nathan, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: A. D. S. Duncan, Wellington; C. W. Rattray, Dunedin.

Spain.—Consul-in-Chief (with jurisdiction over Australia and New Zealand): Senor Don Jaime Montero y de Madrazo, Melbourne. Hon. Vice-Consul: A. K. S. Mackenzie, Wellington.

Sweden.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: E. H. Lindquist, Sydney. Acting-Consul: W. I. Nathan, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: C. I. Nathan, Auckland; W. H. Cheesman, Christchurch (acting).

Switzerland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): M. Stahel, Melbourne.

United States of America.—Consul-General: A. E. Ingram, Wellington. Consul: K. de G. MacVitty, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: J. E. Moran, Wellington; M. I. Mays, Wellington; J. C. Hudson, Wellington; A. R. Preston, jun., Auckland. Consular Agents: H. P. Bridge, Christ-church; H. Reeves, Dunedin.

Uruguay.—Vice-Consul (Acting-Consul): W. J. Prouse, Wellington.

Chapter 4. SECTION IV.—STATISTICAL ORGANIZATION.

EARLY STATISTICAL RECORDS.

NEW Zealand was proclaimed a British Crown colony in 1840. Official statistical records of the country commenced with the following year, 1841, in the shape of reports compiled for the information of the Colonial Office, and known by immemorial custom as “blue-books.”

These reports, which continued until 1852, were prepared in manuscript form in triplicate, and several copies repose to this day in the custody of the Registrar-General, their careful penmanship still legible despite the faded ink. A collection of tables compiled by various Government authorities and illustrating the work of their Departments composed the annual blue-book. Bald statements as were these early statistical efforts, yet they fail to hide altogether the incidents of the times. Here a table of population figures apologizes for incompleteness by the statement that an enumerator had been badly handled by Natives who were suspicious of his motives in collecting information; again, a list of exports shows the ghastly trade in dried human heads.

Two factors retarded the development of the statistics of the blue-books: in the first place they were not intended for general publication; secondly, there appeared a lack of co-ordination between the Departments furnishing the returns and the office collating and ultimately issuing them.

It was not long, however, before the need of authoritative statistics was felt, both for present use and also as a record of the development of the country and its various provinces and settlements. Accordingly we find that, in 1849, “Statistics of New Munster,” compiled under the superintendence of Alfred Domett, were printed by order of the Legislative Council. Again, “Statistics of Nelson” covering the period 1843-54 were issued in 1855. Various other publications were issued dealing with some individual province or settlement. In the year 1853 a Constitution granted by the Imperial Parliament came into force, and from this date the fragmentary and inchoate statistical works find a new complexion. Five years later the Registrar-General, who had been entrusted with the task of compiling annually statistics of the whole colony, produced a volume dealing with the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856:

STATISTICAL LEGISLATION.

One of the many ways in which statistics may be classified is as to source from which obtained, and in this respect they naturally divide into two classes—i.e., as to whether they are compiled from the records (obtained primarily for some other purpose) of a Government Department or other similar authority, or whether the data require to be specially collected from individual persons, &c.

As has been indicated above, the statistics included in the early blue-books belong in the main to the first of these two categories. Certain items, however, notably population figures, would be more correctly placed in the second category, though the system of collection was exceedingly crude and the scope of inquiry very limited. As a matter of fact, the population figures prior to 1851 appear to have been compiled in each settlement by the local Resident Magistrate by the simple method of ascertaining from the head of each house the number of persons in the household. From such small beginnings, however, has grown the Dominion's present comprehensive system of collection of statistical data.

The proper collection of statistics from the public on the voluntary basis which appeared to exist in the “forties" could be maintained only with a very small population, and with the simplest of inquiries. With the increase of population and the desire to obtain fuller information than in the past it was found advisable as early as 1851 to pass an Ordinance providing for the collection of statistics in the form of recurrent censuses. The Ordinance is of peculiar interest as being the first enactment on the subject of the collection of statistics in New Zealand, and as being the foundation on which all subsequent legislation of the kind has been based. With the exception of the schedules, which provided for the ascertainment of information as to sex, age, and degree of education of all persons, day- and Sabbath-school attendance, and particulars of live-stock and crops, it was reproduced in full in the 1923 issue of this book.

Following on the passing of the Census Ordinance of 1851 by the General Government several of the provinces into which New Zealand was divided passed Census Ordinances of their own, the necessity for which is not apparent, as other provinces took censuses under the authority of the 1851 Ordinance.

This Ordinance gave way in 1858 to the Census Act of that year, which was amended in 1860, 1867, 1873, and 1876, and was in its turn repealed in 1877, when a new Act was passed, consolidating and extending the law relating to census-taking. The Act of 1877 was amended in 1880 and again in 1890; also, in effect, in 1895, when the Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act was passed, making provision for the annual collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics, which had formerly been collected quinquennially under the Census Act. In 1908 the Census Act and amendments and the Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act were consolidated in the Statistics Act, 1908, as part of the general consolidation of statutes. The Statistics Act, 1908, was replaced two years later by the Census and Statistics Act, 1910, which was amended in 1915 by the Census and Statistics Amendment Act of that year.

It would be out of place here to recapitulate the various alterations and extensions involved in the successive enactments referred to. Suffice it to say that they reflect the growth of the world-wide realization of the importance and value of statistics.

The Census and Statistics Act, 1910, with the amendment of 1915, provides not only for the taking of the quinquennial population census, but also for the collection of statistical information under numerous specific heads, and contains a general authority to the Governor-General to extend the system of collection to cover any other items in respect of which statistical information may be found necessary or advisable.

THE STATISTICAL AUTHORITY.

The early “blue-books" appear to have been compiled by the Colonial Secretary. After the granting of responsible government the Registrar-General was entrusted with the collection of statistics, a function which he retained until 1910. The Census and Statistics Act, 1910, provided for the appointment of a Government Statistician, who has since been the authority charged with the administration of the Act. The 1910 Act laid down that the Government Statistician was to be an officer of the Registrar-General's Department, but this proviso was cancelled in 1915 by the amending Act of that year, whereupon the Census and Statistics Office came into existence as a separate branch of the Department of Internal Affairs.

STATISTICAL ORGANIZATION.

Until quite recent years there was very little statistical collection apart from the quinquennial census, the annual collection (on legislative authority) of the agricultural and pastoral statistics, the collection on a voluntary basis of returns of private schools, savings-banks, &c., and the obtaining of statistical information from other Government Departments. It should be noted, however, that the census was formerly the means used for the collection of certain data (as, for instance, concerning industrial manufacture), now obtained independently of the census.

Since the passing of the Census and Statistics Act in 1910, and more especially since the formation of the Census and Statistics Office in 1915, the system of statistical collection has expanded considerably, not only in regard to the regular activities of the Office, but also for the obtaining of data required for some special purpose. During the war and post-war periods, for instance, the provisions of the Census and Statistics Act were utilized for the collection of information as to stocks, consumption, requirements, &c., of numerous commodities, including flour, wheat, oats, coal, oils, wire, iron, steel, copper, twine, turnip-seed, and medical requisites.

Among branches of statistical inquiries now regularly pursued by the Census and Statistics Office may be enumerated the following:—

  1. (a.) From private sources: Agricultural and pastoral statistics (main collection, areas sown in wheat and oats, threshings of wheat and oats, stocks of wheat, flour, and oats, sheep returns, detailed statistics of live-stock, and detailed statistics of commercial orchards); industrial manufacture; fire insurance; finances of local governing bodies; building societies; private savings-banks; prices; wages; consumption and stocks of coal; hospital patients.

  2. (b.) From Government Departments in the form of individual cards, &c.: Births; marriages; deaths; orphanhood; migration; naturalization; inquests; civil and criminal cases in Court; prisons; divorce; bankruptcy; deceased persons' estates; industrial disturbances.

STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

When New Zealand ceased to be a Crown colony in 1853 the annual despatch of the blue-books to the Colonial Office in London was discontinued. During the next few years several volumes of statistical tables appeared, compiled by various Provincial Governments, and in 1858 the Registrar-General published a volume for the colony as a whole, covering the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856. This volume was the first of a regular annual series which, developed and expanded, were issued, formerly by the Registrar-General's Department, and from 1915 to 1920 by the Census and Statistics Office. As indicating the expansion of the country and of its statistical organization it may be mentioned that while the statistics of the four years 1853-56 were contained in a single small volume, the statistics for 1920, the last year of publication in the old form, occupied four volumes aggregating nearly 1,200 pages.

Closely allied to the annual volumes of Statistics were the volumes of Census Statistics which were regularly compiled and published after each census of New Zealand from 1858 to 1916, for the first four occasions as part of the Statistics, but later (commencing with 1871) as separate publications.

With each volume of Statistics, commencing with that for 1853-56, went a brief report on the statistics presented. Developing slowly at first, the ultimate result was a fairly comprehensive report on the statistics—not only those presented, but the whole statistics (so far as compiled) of the colony. A similar report on census matters was included in each volume of Census Statistics.

Parallel with the statistical reports came, in 1875, an issue of another type—"The Official Handbook of New Zealand, a Collection of Papers by Experienced Colonists on the Colony as a Whole, and on the Several Provinces,” edited by Julius Vogel, C.M.G. (afterwards Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.), at that time Premier of the colony. The purpose of this book differed from that of the statistical reports. Its aim was to give “a New Zealand view of New Zealand to those who may think of making the colony their home or the theatre of business operations.” Its well-written articles, generously illustrated with woodcuts and photographs, make this early volume interesting reading. Printed in London, it was circulated largely in England.

In 1884 a new and revised edition of this Handbook was complied by Mr. William Gisborne, and edited by the Agent-General of the day (F. D. Bell, afterwards Sir Francis Bell, father of Sir F. H. D. Bell, the present Attorney-General). The purpose of this edition was similar to that of its predecessor, although in form it approximated more closely to the modern type.

Another example of a handbook composed for some special purpose was that of Dr. Hector, issued for the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880.

By the year 1889 the annual report on the statistics had reached considerable proportions, and it was decided by the Registrar-General to issue it as a separate publication. He remarks in the preface to the 1889 volume of Statistics as follows: “The report has now reached about the size of the original Victorian Year-book, and it has been deemed desirable to publish it in octavo size to make it more convenient for general reference.” A similar decision, it may be added, was come to in regard to the quinquennial Census Report.

For 1889 and 1890 the Report on the Statistics was accordingly issued as a separate publication with several new features. The following year (1891) was a census year, and the place of the usual statistical report for that year was taken by a separate “Report on the Results of a Census of the Colony of New Zealand taken for the Night of the 5th April, 1891,” the first of a series of reports which have been published after each census since.

In 1892 the Report on the Statistics reappeared, remodelled and considerably enlarged, and under the title of the “New Zealand Official Handbook.” The Handbook achieved a very considerable success, and the Government gave instructions for the preparation annually of a similar volume, to be called the “New Zealand Official Year-book.” The compilation remained in the hands of the Registrar-General until 1910, when on the passing of the Census and Statistics Act of that year the Year-book and other statistical publications came under the control of the Government Statistician.

The demy octavo size adopted in 1889, when the Report on the Statistics was first issued as a separate publication, was retained for the Official Handbook, and, up to the 1920 number, for the Year-book. This size, however, was not altogether satisfactory from the point of view of economy of space or for the display of tabular matter, and in the next issue gave way to the royal octavo size.

A change was also made at the same time in the year-number of the book. Formerly the book had been designated by the year of compilation, though in recent years it had not appeared until early in the following year. The book now bears the year of publication.

It has been shown above how the annual volume of Statistics included each year up to 1888 a prefatory report, which gradually grew in bulk until it was deemed advisable in 1889 to publish it as a separate volume, which shortly afterwards developed into the “New Zealand Official Year-book.” From 1889 to 1920 the Statistics were accordingly issued without any accompanying letterpress.

A new policy adopted in 1921 in regard to the publication of the Annual Statistics involves the reintroduction of the report to accompany the tabular matter. In lieu of presenting the statistics in one comprehensive publication, these now form the tabular matter for ten separate annual reports, each covering a definite branch of statistical inquiry, and including explanatory letterpress in addition to the tables.

A similar policy is being followed in the case of the census results. In addition to the complete report published separately after the completion of the census tabulation, each volume of tables contains also an introductory discussion of the results disclosed.

The full list of the statistical publications of the Census and Statistics Office is as follows:—

PUBLICATIONSOFTHE CENSUSAND STATISTICS OFFICE.
Title.Periodicity of Issue.
New Zealand Official Year-bookAnnual.
Annual Statistical Reports— 
   Population and DwellingsAnnual
   Migration
   Vital Statistics
   Justice
   Trade and Shipping
   Agricultural and Pastoral Production
   Manufacturing Production
   Local Government
   Insurance
   Miscellaneous (Prices, Building Societies, Bankruptcy, Meteorology, Statistical Summary)
Municipal Handbook of New ZealandBiennial.
Monthly Abstract of StatisticsMonthly.
Census Statistics— 
   Vol. I. PopulationQuinquennially.
   Vol. II. Ages
   Vol. III. Birthplaces
   Vol. IV. Allegiance
   Vol. V. Length of Residence
   Vol. VI. Race Aliens
   Vol. VII. Religions
   Vol. VIII. Industries, Occupations, and Unemployment
   Vol. IX. Conjugal Condition
   Vol. X. Fertility
   Vol. XI. Orphanhood
   Vol. XII. Dependency
   Vol. XIII. Life Insurance
   Vol. XIV. Life Tables
   Vol. XV. Dwellings
   Vol. XVI. Households

Appendices:

  1. (a.) Maori Census

  2. (b.) Census of Cook and other Pacific Islands

  3. (c.) Census of Western Samoa

  4. (d.) Libraries

  5. (e.) Religious Denominations

  6. (f.) Poultry and Bees

Report on the Census
Published in New Zealand Gazette and also as extracts:— 
   Vital Statistics of Urban AreasMonthly and annual.
   Estimated Population of New ZealandQuarterly.
   Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics— 
     Estimated Yields of Wheat and OatsAnnual.
     Interim Return of Principal Crops and Live-stockAnnual.
     Estimated Spring Areas under Wheat and OatsAnnual.
     Stocks—Flour, Wheat, and OatsAnnual.

The principal publication of the Census and Statistics Office is the “New Zealand Official Year-book,” which, as its title implies, is the official book of general reference on the various branches of the Dominion's activities and the various aspects of her social and economic characteristics and progress. Necessarily, however, much of the information given in the Year-book is of a condensed character, owing to the wide range of subjects covered. The annual Statistical Reports, the census publications, and the Municipal Handbook contain much more detailed information on the particular subjects they deal with, while the Monthly Abstract of Statistics contains the latest statistical information available on a variety of subjects, giving monthly or quarterly figures in most cases.

In addition to the publications of the Census and Statistics Office, many parliamentary reports contain statistical information, often of a detailed nature. The full list cannot be given here, but the principal of these annual reports are mentioned below, arranged in the order of subjects followed in the Year-book:—

Subject.Report.
Number.Title.
Public health, hospitals, &c.H.-31Report on Public Health, Hospitals, and Charitable Aid.
H.-7Report of Inspector-General of Mental Hospitals.
EducationE.-1Report of Minister of Education.
E.-2Report on Primary Education.
E.-3Report on Education of Native Children.
E.-4Report on State Care of Children, Special Schools, and Infant-life Protection.
E.-5Report on Technical Education.
E.-6Report on Secondary Education.
E.-7Report on Higher Education.
JusticeH.-16Report of Commissioner of Police.
H.-20Prisons Report.
H.-20AReport of Prisons Board.
DefenceH.-19Report of General Officer Commanding Defence Forces.
ShippingH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery Department.
RailwaysD.-2Railways Statement.
D.-1Public Works Statement.
Postal and telegraphicF.-1Report of Post and Telegraph Department.
LandsH.-3Report of Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Department
Crown landsC.-1Report on Settlement of Crown Lands.
C.-5Report on Land for Settlements Act.
C.-9Report on Discharged Soldiers' Settlement.
Native landsG.-9Report on Native Land Courts, Maori Land Boards, and Native Land Purchase Board.
Agricultural and pastoral productionH.-29Report of Department of Agriculture.
H.-23Sheep Returns.
ForestryC.-3Report of State Forest Service.
FisheriesH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery Department.
H.-22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
MiningC.-2Mines Statement.
C.-2AReport on State Coal-mines.
Water-powerD.-1Public Works Statement.
Public financeB.-1Public Accounts.
B.-6Financial Statement.
D.-1Public Works Statement.
State aid to settlers, workers. &c.B.-13Report of State Advances Office.
H.-11AReport of Housing Superintendent.
H.-30Report of Repatriation Department.
PensionsH.-18Report of Pensions Department.
SuperannuationH.-26Report of Public Service Superannuation Board.
E.-9Report on Teachers' Superannuation Fund.
D.-5Report on Government Railways Superannuation Fund.
National Provident FundH.-17Report of National Provident Fund Board.
BankingF.-4Report on Post Office Savings-bank.
Life insuranceH.-8Report of Government Insurance Commissioner.
Accident insuranceH.-8AReport on Accident Insurance Branch of Government Insurance Department.
Fire insuranceH.-6Report of General Manager of State Fire Insurance Office.
Friendly societiesH.-1Report of Registrar of Friendly Societies.
Industrial disputesH.-11Report of Labour Department.
Public Trust OfficeB.-9Report of the Public Trust Office.
B.-9AAccounts of the Public Trust Office.
Patents, designs, and trademarksH.-10Report of Registrar of Patents.
Inspection of machineryH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery Department.
Islands attached to New ZealandA.-3Report on Cook and other Islands.
A.-4Report on Western Samoa.

Chapter 5. SECTION V.—POPULATION.

METHOD OF COMPILATION.

In common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data is the census, which in New Zealand is taken quinquennially. Details of the latest enumeration (1921) will be found elsewhere in this volume or in the special publications devoted to it; here it is sufficient to refer to the following aspects. In the first place, the comparative shortness of the interval between census enumerations mitigates the danger of serious intercensal error. Secondly, owing to the high standard of intelligence of the population, and to the political, geographical, and social conditions prevailing in the Dominion, the data compiled as a result of the census is both remarkably free from error and unusually complete.

The basis adopted for the census—and indeed, practically universally throughout population statistics in New Zealand—is that of the population de fait, as opposed to the population de sejour habituel, the population de droit, and other bases adopted in various countries. For the benefit of those not conversant with the terms current in statistical usage, it may be explained that the population de fait is the basis perhaps most common in international use, and comprises simply all persons present at the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration, irrespective of habitual residence, legal domicile, and so forth.

Intercensal figures of total population are based on the customary equation:—

Population = Population (census) - Births and immigration - Deaths and emigration.

Compulsory registration of births and deaths was instituted throughout the Dominion in 1855, and the present system of recording such particulars may be confidently asserted to afford statistics exceptionally complete. A point of minor importance which may be noted is that births and deaths registered during a year are considered as actually occurring during that year.

The fact that all migration to and from the Dominion must be waterborne over lengthy distances, and that it centres in a few ports, facilitates the compilation of accurate statistics of external migration. Records of migration between the North and South Islands are also maintained. Population statistics of lesser internal divisions and of towns are based upon a variety of data collected annually. In conclusion, reference should be made to the fact that neither Maoris nor residents of Cook Islands, Niue, or Western Samoa are included in population statistics unless it is specifically stated or it is obvious from the context.

GENERAL POPULATION.

The population of the Dominion of New Zealand and the mandated territory of Western Samoa at 31st March, 1923, is quoted:—

Males.Females.Total.
Population of New Zealand proper (excluding Maoris)648,545623,1961,271,741
Maori population28,28025,28053,560
Population of Cook Islands and Niue6,7746,57913,353
Population of the mandated territory of Western Samoa20,00717,97137,978
     Totals703,606673,0261,376,632

INCREASE OF POPULATION.

The outstanding note of the history of population movement in New Zealand is that of unbroken growth. That it has not been invariably regular is well attested by the accompanying table setting forth the increase at successive census enumerations from 1858 onwards. To carry the investigation further back were at once unnecessary and unprofitable, for prior to the census of 1858 we have only one New Zealand census, together with divers provincial enumerations of earlier dates, few of the records of which are now available.

Date of Enumeration.Population.Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.Equivalent Annual Percentage Increase.
December, 185859,413   
December, 186199,02139,60866.6722.36
December, 1864172,15873,13773.8624.97
December, 1867218,66846,51027.028.86
February, 1871256,39337,72517.255.40
March, 1874299,51443,12116.825.60
March, 1878414,412114,89838.369.58
April, 1881489,93375,52118.225.91
March, 1886578,48288,54918.073.63
April, 1891626,65848,1768.331.66
April, 1896703,36076,70212.242.44
March, 1901772,71969,3599.861.99
April, 1906888,578115,85914.992.95
April, 19111,008,468119,89013.492.74
October, 19161,099,44990,9819.021.63
April, 19211,218,913119,46410.872.42

As might be expected, the rate of increase in the earlier years was exceedingly high compared with the experience of latter years, for a young country, endowed with fertile soil and moderate climate, and in the opening stages of development, presented glowing attractions sufficient to overcome the less alluring considerations of pioneering in a distant country more or less occupied by a race of warlike Natives.

In the “sixties" the gold rushes brought large numbers of people to New Zealand, many of whom stayed to become permanent citizens. This source of increase, however, was eclipsed during the vigerous immigration policy of the “seventies,” when in one year alone (1874) 32,118 assisted immigrants were brought into the country.

The rate of increase gradually subsided as the country became settled and the land available for settlement became less. At the present time the annual increment of population is less than 2 1/2 per cent. The increase during two years ended March, 1922, and March, 1923, may be stated as 30,476 (2.50 per cent.) and 23,543 (1.89 per cent.) respectively.

Subjoined is a diagram which illustrates the population movement of the past and permits a speculative glimpse at the future. The arithmetic average of the percentage increases of population, as ascertained by census enumerations during four decades (1881-1921), has been approximately 12.11 per cent. per quinquennium. Plotting this constant ratio as a logarithmic “curve,” and producing it both forward and backward in point of time, it is contrasted with the logarithmic “curve" expressing the actual populations. The two “curves" coincide greatly of recent years, thus indicating the steadying of the rate of growth and giving some confidence to the projection of the constant ratio as supplying an approximation of the probable population in the future.

The final criterion of the Dominion's growth in respect of population is supplied by a comparison of the rates of increase of other portions of the British Empire and of various countries. In the table appended are shown the intercensal ratios of increase for such countries. In all cases the movements shown are those for the intercensal periods approximating as closely as possible to the arcades chosen. Contrasted with the European countries shown, the Dominion is experiencing a rapid growth, for they are “emigration" countries, while New Zealand is an “immigration" country. Contrasted on the other hand with Canada and Australia, the comparison is not altogether favourable to New Zealand, although the former countries are much older in point of settlement. Canada is, of course, comparatively close to the sources of immigrant population, while both Canada and Australia still have vast areas undeveloped. This, as already indicated, is not the case in New Zealand.

Country.Population (latest Census).Intercensal Increase per Cent. in Decennial Periods approximating to
Numbers.Year.1910-1920.1900-1910.1890-1900.1880-1890.1870-1880.1800-1870.

* Decrease.

New Zealand1,218,913192120.8730.5123.3125.8791.09158.93
Great Britain42,767,53019214.7410.3612.0311.1713.9512.73
Australia5,436,794192122.0418.0818.8841.0732.3045.61
Canada8,788,341192121.9534.1711.1311.7617.2319.37
Cape of Good Hope2,782,71919218.496.4457.79111.8245.25
Norway2,649,775192012.386.1411.02....6.22
Sweden5,904,48919206.927.517.354.789.538.00
Netherlands6,865,314192017.1914.7713.1412.4312.107.87
France39,209,51819210.031.930.831.953.61*-3.43
Germany59,858,2841919*-7.8115.0114.049.2810.17..
Italy38,835,941192112.016.45....6.197.20
United States of America105,710,620192014.9421.0220.7325.5030.0822.63

SEX PROPORTIONS.

In respect of the relative proportions of the sexes in the population, New Zealand has since the first settlement of the Islands differed materially from the older countries of the world. Although in the latter the composition of the populations has been no doubt to some extent affected by migration, yet, in general, natural increase would appear to be the main determining factor, the numbers of males and females being in most of these countries approximately equal, with a more or less marked tendency, however, for the females slightly to exceed the males. The excess of females in such older countries arises from a variety of causes, amongst which the most potent are probably (a) higher rate of mortality amongst males, (b) the fact that males tend to emigrate to a greater extent than females.

Very different is the case with newer countries such as New Zealand, where the rule is (in the early years of colonization especially) for the male population to outnumber the female.

The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand, the number of females to 1,000 males having risen from 622 in 1861 to 896 in 1911. The proportion rose to 993 in 1916, mainly on account of the absence of so many men at the war, and fell again in 1921 to 956, a figure appreciably higher than in pre-war years.

Census Year.Males.Females.Females to 1,000 Males.
186161,06237,959622
1871150,356106,037705
1881269,605220,328817
1891332,877293,781883
1901405,992366,727903
1906471,008417,570887
1911531,910476,558896
1916551,775547,674993
1921623,243595,670956
1923 (estimate)648,545623,196961

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless due to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe were such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries. Gold-mining and coal-mining, for instance, would attract large numbers of men, but few women. The effect of this early preponderance of males no doubt still exists, but in an ever-diminishing degree, its gradual elimination being effected by the dying-off of the earlier settlers.

Of the two sources from which the Dominion's population has been recruited—viz., migration and natural increase—the effect of the former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, and of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females. Between 1860 and 1922 the gain of males by migration totalled 90,000 more than that of females. This excess was only partly offset numerically by a female surplus of 40,000 in the figures of natural increase, but the net excess of some 50,000 males is not nearly sufficient to maintain the former high ratio of males to females in the population. It is highly probable that within two or three decades the female population will outnumber the male.

Up to the “seventies" New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since then natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—has been the principal factor. For a few years, indeed (1888-91), there was actually an excess of departures over arrivals.

During the forty-seven years that have elapsed since 1875 natural increase has accounted for 72 per cent. of the total increase of population, as against only 32 per cent, during the fifteen years preceding 1875.

A table is appended showing for each five-yearly period since 1860 the excess of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration.

Quinquennium.Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
MalesFemales.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.

* Decrease.

† Departure and return of troops of Expeditionary Force not included in migration figures.

‡ Single year.

1861-657,6258,98516,61063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1866-7015,66317,77933,44211,1679,36920,53626,83027,14853,978
1871-7519,40921,12940,53846,56135,44581,94665,91056,574122,484
1876-8030,14332,80862,95131,87022,91754,78762,01355,725117,738
1881-8532,36235,04667,40815,95813,00128,95948,32048,04796,367
1886-9030,78133,54464,325-4,911*-3,791*-8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891-9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40615,32037,17236,03373,205
1896-190028,09731,43759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901-0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,44663,73850,446114,184
1906-1038,68143,06781,74825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
1911-1542,32346,68289,00517,65617,96535,56159,97964,587124,566
1916-2035,24841,35976,6076,9797,87514,85442,22749,23491,461
19218,4779,40817,8855,9476,89112,83814,42416,29930,723
19228,7669,26318,0293,7183,6847,40212,48412,94725,431
Totals, 1861-1922357,345397,360754,705272,084181,636453,720629,429578,9961,208,425

Further information on the subject of natural increase will be found in the “Births" subsection of the “Vital Statistics” section of this book

The diagram which follows shows much more clearly the irregularity of the migration increase and the steadiness of the natural increase, the latter, however, broken by a sharp fall on account of the low birth-rate of the late war years and the influenza epidemic of 1918. The curves represent five-yearly moving averages.

INTERCENSAL ESTIMATES.

As already noted, the intercensal estimates of population prepared from the records of vital statistics and of migration are, by virtue of the favourable position of the Dominion in this respect, remarkably accurate. Indeed, as regards the statistics of total population the term “estimate" is scarcely correct, for the system in use should give, and does to a great extent give, the actual figures. With the exception of the years of the Great War, when the movement of troops was not ascertained exactly, the census totals invariably showed the quarterly returns of population to be highly accurate. There is always a difference in date between the census enumeration and the nearest quarterly statement, for no two of the seventeen general census enumerations in the history of the Dominion have been taken on the same day of the year, and this in itself usually accounts for the greater part of what disparity actually is shown.

The population at the end of each of the last ten years is quoted in the appended table, together with the movement in each year and the mean population for the year:—

Calendar Year.Estimated Population at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent.

* Decrease.

† Census population.

1913569,109515,5531,084,66232,0353.041,068,644
1914568,161527,8331,095,99411,3321.041,090,328
1915563,963538,8311,102,7946,8000.621,099,394
1916549,895550,6681,100,563-2,231*-0.20*1,099,449
1917537,360560,3121,097,672-2,891*-0.26*1,099,117
1918542,046566,3271,108,37310,7010.971,103,022
1919601,888575,5171,177,40569,0326.231,142,889
1920617,756590,0791,207,83530,4302.581,192,620
1921633,040606,9261,239,96632,1312.661,223,901
1922645,524619,8731,265,39725,4312.051,251,895

As the year ended 31st March is for most of the administrative functions of the Government the period most in use, similar data is quoted for “financial" years:—

Year ended 31st March.Estimated Population at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Total.Numerical.Per Cent.

* Decrease.

1914571,738518,0861,089,82428,0792.641,075,784
1915569,541531,0011,100,54210,7180.981,095,183
1916559,023541,3831,100,406-136*-0.01*1,100,474
1917547,629553,5331,101,1627560.071,099,449
1918542,096562,6871,104,7833,6210.331,102,972
1919559,887568,7431,128,63023,8472.161,116,706
1920607,555579,5841,187,13958,5095.181,157,884
1921622,719595,0031,217,72230,5832.581,202,430
1922636,956611,2421,248,19830,4762.501,232,960
1923648,545623,1961,271,74123,5431.891,258,017

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.

Records of external migration have been kept in New Zealand since 1860. Prior to the 1st April, 1921, the statistics were compiled from returns furnished monthly by Collectors of Customs, but since that date they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving the Dominion, and much detailed and important information is consequently now available. The year 1922 is the first complete twelve months for which figures under the new system are available, and no direct comparisons are therefore possible with the previous period which covered nine months only.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last ten years are given in the table following. The figures for the six years 1914-19 do not include members of the Expeditionary Force, nor have crews of vessels been taken into account.

ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES, 1913-22.
Year.Arrivals.Departures.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
191325,89118,69744,58818,56011,80930,369
191422,52615,12037,64620,02512,48132,506
191514,48711,06425,55113,3189,15822,476
191611,9599,84021,79911,9329,23121,163
19179,1596,49015,6497,5976,27213,869
19186,3565,55011,9066,0975,56311,660
191910,77210,15920,93111,3778,50019,877
192023,68720,37544,06217,95114,97332,924
192122,44619,43641,88216,01912,54028,559
192218,81116,42235,23315,64312,74628,389

The monthly figures for 1922 are as follows:—

Month.Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals.Excess of Departures.
January3,9101,8982,012..
February4,2992,8131,486..
March3,1123,523..411
April3,1133,701..588
May2,6522,754..102
June1,9822,848..866
July1,6421,763..121
August2,2442,100144..
September2,9062,018888..
October3,4951,7041,791..
November2,2191,1881,031..
December3,6592,0791,580..
     Totals35,23328,3898,9322,088

CLASSES OF ARRIVALS.

The statistics for the year 1922 show that during that period 35,233 persons arrived in the Dominion. These are classified hereunder according to their purposes in coming to the Dominion:—

 Total (both Sexes)Per Cent. of Total.
Immigrants intending permanent residence13,84539
New Zealand residents returning from abroad11,36632
Tourists6,58319
Persons on commercial business1,7045
Persons visiting the Dominion in connection with entertainments, sport, &c.9343
Persons in transit6442
Others (officials, &c., of other countries)157..
 35,233100

The departures recorded during the same period numbered 28,389, who may be divided under the following headings:—

 Total (both Sexes).Per Cent. of Total.
New Zealand residents departing permanently2,1508
New Zealand residents departing temporarily12,18043
Visitors to the Dominion departing14,05149
Persons regarding whom no information is available8..
 28,389100

NEW ZEALAND RESIDENTS.

New Zealand residents going abroad temporarily on business or pleasure represented 43 per cent. of the total departures, while of the arrivals 39 per cent. were New-Zealanders returning to their homes after temporary absence. The elimination of this class of migrant reduces the arrivals during the year to 23,867, and the departures to 16,201.

TEMPORARY VISITORS.

Tourists and other temporary visitors comprised a further 29 per cent. of the arrivals and 49 per cent. of the departures. Of the 6,583 tourists (males 2,926, females 3,627) who arrived during the year 1922 no fewer than 4,342 came from Australia, the British Isles being next with 934, followed by the United States (357), Fiji (218), Canada (127), South Africa (103). Forty-three tourists gave their country of permanent residence as China.

Persons visiting New Zealand on commercial business numbered 1,704, of whom all but 261 were males. Australia contributed 66 per cent. of the total visitors on business. Among the class “theatrical, entertaining, sporting, &c.” Australia predominated with 722 (males 444, females 278) out of totals of 579 and 355 respectively.

PERMANENT ADDITIONS AND LOSSES.

Having eliminated the two classes of migrants whose movements only temporarily affect the population of the Dominion, there remains the important residue which represents the permanent additions and losses of population. During the year 1922 13,845 persons landed in the Dominion with the intention of making their future homes here, while during the same period 2,150 permanent residents of New Zealand were attracted to other countries, the result being a net gain to the Dominion on 11,695. This figure, which represents the permanent gain to the population of the Dominion through migration during 1922, exceeds the nominal excess of total arrivals over total departures for the same year by 4,851. This is due to the excess of departures over arrivals in what may be called the temporary migration.

In a young country such as New Zealand it would not be surprising to find that the proportion between males and females of the new immigrants was considerably in favour of the former, but the figures for the year show that the male preponderance is not as great as might be expected. As a matter of fact, females comprised 48 per cent. of the total immigrants as against 52 per cent. males. No doubt the propaganda work carried out by the New Zealand and Imperial Governments in connection with the scheme for assisting domestic servants and also the wives of immigrants to the Dominion is largely responsible for this increased proportion of females.

Of the New-Zealanders who transferred their homes to other countries during the year 47 per cent. were females and 53 per cent. males.

AGES.

Sixty-seven per cent. of the new immigrants who arrived during 1922 were over 15 and under 45 years, 10 per cent. were over 45 years, while the remaining 23 per cent. were children under 15 years. The preponderance of persons in the younger and more vigorous years of life among the immigrants is no doubt attributable to the fact that the desire to migrate and the facilities for migration diminish with older persons.

Among the persons lost to New Zealand's population during 1922, however, it is interesting to note that while 24 per cent. were children under 15 years of age and 59 per cent. between the ages of 15 and 45 years, 17 per cent. were persons of 45 years and over. This higher percentage of persons 45 years and over amongst the departures would appear to confirm to a certain extent the general impression that many immigrants return to their native lands later in life.

The following table shows the number of new permanent immigrants who arrived during 1922, and of New Zealand residents who departed during the same period, by sexes and age-groups, and also the permanent gain to the population of the Dominion through migration:—

Under 15 Years.15 and under 45.45 Years and over.Not stated.Total.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
New permanent immigrants1,6021,5084,9774,2917337273413,845
Permanent departures262245673593199178....2,150
Permanent gain to population of Dominion1,3401,2634,3043,6985345493411,695

ORIGIN AND DESTINATION.

Of the 13,845 new immigrants intending to settle in the Dominion all but 516 (358 males and 158 females) came from British countries. The British Isles supplied 11,079 (males 5,611, females 5,468), Australia 1,669 (males 968, females 701), Canada 281 (males 202, females 79), South Africa 88 (males 49, females 39), and India 85 (males 52, females 33). The majority of the immigrants from foreign countries came from China (175), United States (94), Italy (49), Switzerland (35), Denmark (29), and Jugo-Slavia (20).

With the exception of 127 persons (of whom 68 departed for the United States, 15 for China, and 14 for Germany) the whole of the New Zealand residents who permanently left the Dominion went to British countries, the figures for which were as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
United Kingdom276276552
Australia7136351,348
Canada262147
South Africa18624
India8715
Other British countries22527

NATIONALITIES.

Only 405 (males 311, females 94) persons of foreign nationality out of the total of 13,845 arrived as new immigrants intending permanent residence in the Dominion, the remaining 13,440 persons being British subjects. The chief nationalities represented among the alien immigrants were as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
China14413157
Italy381452
Denmark251035
Switzerland22830
United States16723
Jugo Slavia131023
Other533285

It is worthy of note that of the 157 Chinese immigrants 144 (males 131, females 13) were under 40 years of age, 11 males were between the ages of 40 and 55 years, and 2 males were between the ages of 55 years and 65 years.

Aliens constituted a very small proportion of the total number of New Zealand residents who departed permanently during 1922. Out of a total of 2,150 permanent departures only 68 were aliens, comprising 21 (males 11, females 10) citizens of the United States, 12 male Chinese, 7 (males 5, females 2) Germans, and 28 (males 23, females 5) persons of various other nationalities. The 12 Chinese departing were all over 55 years of age.

RACE ALIENS.

Although race aliens comprised comparatively small proportions of the total arrivals and departures during 1922 they are by no means unimportant. As a matter of fact, the entry of race aliens, especially Chinese and Hindus, into the Dominion has been regarded with concern for some years. The definition of the term “race alien” as used in connection with these statistics is “a person of other than European race.”

During 1922, 620 race aliens landed in the Dominion, but of these only 204 (171 males, 33 females) intended to make their future homes here. Of the 787 race-alien departures, 35 of those who were departing permanently stated that they had been permanent residents of the Dominion.

The following table shows the chief races represented by race aliens who arrived during 1922 as immigrants intending permanent residence, and by those who were permanent New Zealand residents departing permanently during the same period:—

Chinese.Hindus.Others.Total.
M.F.M.F.M.F.

* Loss.

Immigrants intending permanent residence14616711816204
New Zealand residents departing permanently13 429735
Permanent gain of race aliens to population of New Zealand through migration133163-1*99169

From the above table it can be seen that out of a total permanent gain to the population of New Zealand of 169 race aliens, 149 (133 males, 16 females) were Chinese, 3 male Hindus, and 18 (9 males, 9 females) of various other races. The table also shows that the Dominion lost 1 female Hindu through migration during 1922.

More fully detailed information in connection with external migration during 1922 is contained in the Statistical Report on External Migration for that year.

The total arrivals of race aliens during each of the last ten years, and of departures in each year since 1915 (prior to which information was not available), are as follows:—

Year.Arrivals.Departures.
Chinese.Hindus.Others.Total.Chinese.Hindus.Others.Total.

* Not available.

1913325133131589****
191451125755823****
191526513443222376824329
1916327925941,01321639314569
19172729236072431312383708
191825613852391721419171404
1919418193977082381866322
19201,477225321,734380549443
1921255137249641368100239707
192234532172549362125213700

The pending alteration of the law was the cause of a huge influx of Chinese in 1920 with a view to anticipating the tightening of the restrictions, which actually came into operation on the passing of the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act of that year. A limit on the number of Chinese permitted to enter the Dominion is now imposed.

During the war years the number of race-alien arrivals was swelled by the unavoidable inclusion of natives of the British and French Pacific islands who came to New Zealand to embark for the seat of war.

Estimates of the number of race aliens in the Dominion at 31st March, 1923, are as follows: Chinese, 3,063; Syrians, 695; Indians, 585; other races, 862; total, 5,205.

At the census of 1881, the year in which taxation was first imposed on Chinese landing in New Zealand, the Chinese population numbered 5,004 persons, which fell to 4,542 in 1886, and further to 3,711 in 1896. During the period 1881-96 the poll-tax was £10 per head, and this seemed sufficient for the purpose of preventing a large influx of Chinese. During the years 1894 and 1895, however, the arrivals shown by the Customs returns were found to be somewhat greater than the departures, and in 1896 an Act was passed raising the poll-tax on Chinese immigrants to £100 per head, and limiting the number of Chinese passengers that may be carried by vessels to New Zealand to one for every 200 tons burthen. According to the census of 1901, the Chinese population was 2,857; in 1906 it was 2,570; in 1911, 2,630: in 1916, 2,147; and in 1921, 3,266, of whom 156 were half-castes.

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.

Permanent residents of the Dominion and bona fide New-Zealanders visiting the United Kingdom may nominate any person, not a prohibited immigrant within the meaning of the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908 (N.Z.), and its amendments, or of the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919 (N.Z.), residing in the United Kingdom, for an assisted passage to New Zealand under the following conditions:—

Provided that such person has not attained the age of fifty years. Although assisted passages cannot be granted to persons who have attained the age of fifty years, the Immigration Department can arrange passages for any such persons proceeding as members of a family or of a party the remainder of which is travelling at assisted rates. Full fares (subject to alteration by the shipping companies) are as follows: Third-class six-berth, £37; four-berth, £39; two-berth, £43 per adult.

Provided that such person has not resided in the Dominion or Australia for a period of at least five years immediately preceding nomination.

Provided that such person can supply to the High Commissioner for New Zealand in London satisfactory medical certificate and certificate of character.

Provided that, in the case of such person being married, nomination must include husband, wife, and family (if any), except where a judicial separation exists or desertion is proved.

Provided that the nominator undertakes to make provision for maintenance and employment for such nominee after arrival in the Dominion, and also guarantees that such person will reside in the Dominion for at least five years.

All questions as to suitability of any such person nominated for an assisted passage to be decided by the High Commissioner for New Zealand in London.

Provided that the above conditions are complied with, an assisted passage will be granted at the following rates, such rates to be subject to revision should the occasion arise:—

 Third Class.
Six berth.Third Class. Four-berth.Two berth.
Ordinary nominations, other than farm labourers, miners, and domestics (each adult)£18£20£24
Farm labourers and miners (each adult) (see special conditions below)£10£12£16
Domestics (see special conditions below)Free.Free.Free.
Children under the age of twelve years travelling with their parentsFree.£1 each.£3 each.

Nominations can be cabled at an extra cost of £1. Remittances can be forwarded to nominees.

Total amount of passage-money must be paid before a passage is booked. The money can be paid in New Zealand by the nominator, or in London by the nominee, or partly by both.

Passages can be booked to the following ports in New Zealand: Auckland, Gisborne, Napier, Wellington, Lyttelton, Timaru, Oamaru, and Port Chalmers.

Nominated passages to be granted by direct route only.

In addition to the conditions set out as governing the general nominated passages, the following apply to nominated farm labourers and miners:—

Provided that such person is a bona fide farm labourer or miner and is employed as such at the time of nomination, and that a written undertaking is given to follow such calling for at least twelve months after arrival in the Dominion.

Provided that such farm labourer or miner has attained the age of sixteen years or has not attained the age of forty-five years.

Wives, male issue twelve and under sixteen years of age, and female issue twelve and under eighteen years of age, are eligible at the special rates.

In addition to the conditions set out as governing the general nominated passages, the following apply to nominated domestics:—

Provided that such person is a bona fide domestic and is employed as such at the time of nomination, and a written undertaking is given to follow such calling for at least twelve months after arrival in the Dominion, and that marriage will not be contracted during that period.

Provided that such person has attained the age of eighteen years or has not attained the age of forty years.

“Domestic" means general servant, cook, housemaid, parlourmaid, waitress, laundress, nursemaid.

Passages are granted on vessels belonging to the Shaw-Savill and Albion Company and the New Zealand Shipping Company from Southampton, and the Federal Steam Navigation Company from Liverpool.

Unhealthy persons should not be nominated, as passages at reduced rates will not be granted to them. When cases of lung, chest, or other like complaints are discovered in any member of a family by the Medical Officer at London or Liverpool the whole family will be prevented from sailing.

In the case of immigrants under twenty-one years of age special arrangements have to be entered into for their protection on the voyage where deemed necessary or advisable.

The High Commissioner is authorized to grant to suitable and healthy farmers, farm labourers, and domestic servants, who apply to him in London, a third-class passage to New Zealand at the same rates as nominated migrants.

Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). Up to 1884, free passages were granted in the majority of cases. The numbers of assisted immigrants during each year are as follows:—

Year.Number.
1871303
18724,736
18738,754
187432,118
187520,370
18769,677
18775,344
18786,618
187910,311
18802,689
1881103
1882726
18835,902
18843,888
18851,072
1886917
18871,286
1888485
188991
1890144
189144
19041,058
19052,191
19063,682
19072,959
19084,667
19093,299
19102,341
19113,070
19123,535
19135,151
19143,716
19151,300
1916695
1917231
1918421
19193,569
19207,615
19218,085
19227,773

The total to 31st December, 1922, is 180,936, of which number all have come from the United Kingdom, with the exception of 3,909 from the Continent of Europe, spread over the five years 1874 to 1878 (inclusive).

RECEPTION OF ASSISTED IMMIGRANTS.

On arrival in New Zealand the immigrants are met on board by officers of the Immigration Department, who accompany the Port Health Officer to the ship. Whilst the ship is in the stream it is the special duty of such officers to afford to the assisted immigrants all necessary information as regards transhipment, &c. Arrangements are made for the safety and transhipment of luggage.

Each immigrant is seen as he passes towards the doctor for examination, and is handed an official letter containing information as to where his ticket will be arranged for, and the place and time of departure of his connecting train or boat (if any). It is the practice of the Department to send out advices, by wire if necessary, to friends and relatives of immigrants about to arrive, and to get back information as to where the newcomers will be met. These messages, often together with private letters, &c., are given out on board to those to whom they are addressed.

As regards the female assisted domestic workers who are sent to New Zealand under the supervision of one or more responsible matrons, the Government advertises the fact that the books of the Department are open to record the names of those people in the Dominion desirous of securing the services of an assisted girl. Such advertisements bring in many applications, especially pending the arrival of the ship.

Each matron in charge on board is instructed to classify the girls under two heads: (a) Those with work already arranged or friends to go to; (b) those without either friends or work. On arrival they are met by the Girls' Superintendent of the Immigration Department. Arrangements are made for sending to their destinations those girls who are going to friends or to definite positions. Those requiring accommodation are directed to homes or hostels approved by the Minister of Immigration for this purpose. The Superintendent then separately considers the case of each girl, and arranges to place her with an applicant for a Government-assisted girl. After a girl has been placed the Department endeavours to keep in touch with her by correspondence.

PERMITS AND PASSPORTS.

PERMISSION TO ENTER NEW ZEALAND.

With certain specified exceptions, no person over the age of fifteen years may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a passport or some other document satisfactorily establishing his or her nationality and identity. Exemption from this requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts, referred to below) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

In the case of a person coming from a foreign country the passport must have been issued or viséd by the British Ambassador or a British Consul in that country, and in the case of a person coming from any part of the British dominions the issue or visé must have been by some public official duly authorized in that behalf.

Certain exceptions are made with respect to persons coming to New Zealand from the Cook Islands and Samoa. In their case the only requirement is the possession of a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or the Administrator of Samoa, as the case may be. The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject arriving in New Zealand as the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives, or to a British subject arriving from the Commonwealth of Australia.

DEPARTURES FROM NEW ZEALAND.

The regulations which required persons over the age of fifteen years to obtain written permission to depart for any place beyond the seas have been revoked. With the exception of British subjects travelling to the Commonwealth of Australia, all persons travelling to places beyond the seas are required to be in possession of a passport or similar document to facilitate landing thereat. British passports are issued, under the direction of His Excellency the Governor-General, by the Department of Internal Affairs.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.

The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908, and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919. It is administered by the Customs Department.

PROHIBITED IMMIGRANTS.

The following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

  1. (1.) Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Minister of Customs.

    (Temporary permits may, however, be granted on arrival to such persons who desire to enter New Zealand as visitors for purposes of business, pleasure, or health. These permits are granted for periods not exceeding six months, but may, under special circumstances, be extended.)

    NOTE.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage because he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject, or because he is an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of His Majesty.

  2. (2.) Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath or make an affirmation of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

  3. (3.) Idiots or insane persons.

  4. (4.) Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  5. (5.) Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.

    The above provisions do not apply to (a) His Majesty's land and sea Forces, (b) the officers and crew of any ship-of-war of any Government, (c) persons duly accredited to the Government of New Zealand by the Imperial or any other Government, (d) the officers and crew of any mercantile vessel who leave New Zealand with that vessel.

  6. (6.) Chinese (not naturalized in New Zealand), unless they pay a poll-tax of £100.

    The officers and crew of any ship-of-war of the Chinese Government, and members of the crew of any mercantile vessel who leave New Zealand by that vessel, are exempted from this provision. There is power to exempt any other persons or classes of persons under such conditions as the Minister of Customs may prescribe.

  7. (7.) Persons who have at any time been subjects of the State of Germany or of Austria-Hungary as those States existed on the 4th August, 1914, except under a license issued by the Attorney-General.

  8. (8.) Persons not permanently resident in New Zealand who are disaffected or disloyal and of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the Dominion, and whom the Attorney-General on that account prohibits from landing.

    NOTE.—Any person included in classes (3), (4), and (5) above may be exempted by the Governor-General in Council or by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

RESTRICTED IMMIGRANTS.

When persons arrive in New Zealand who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm, and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons come to New Zealand must enter into a bond for £100 for each such person, guaranteeing his support and maintenance for five years.

His Majesty's land and sea Forces, persons brought to New Zealand either wholly or partly at the expense of the Government, shipwrecked mariners brought to New Zealand by another vessel without charge, and persons domiciled in New Zealand are exempted from these provisions. General power is given to exempt other persons in special cases and under such conditions as the Minister of Customs may prescribe.

GENERAL.

Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Attorney-General, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name; age; nationality, race, or people to which he belongs; occupation, residence, and place of birth of himself and parents.

NATURALIZATION.

When any alien residing in New Zealand desires to be naturalized he may present to the Governor-General a memorial signed and verified by a statutory declaration setting forth—

His name, age, birthplace, residence, and occupation;

The length of his residence in New Zealand, and his desire to settle therein;

A request that letters of naturalization may be granted to him.

Every memorial must have written upon it or attached to it a certificate signed by some Magistrate or Justice to the effect that the applicant is known to the person certifying and is of good repute. On taking the oath of allegiance he shall enjoy within New Zealand all the rights and capacities that a natural-born subject of the United Kingdom can enjoy or transmit, excepting such rights (if any) as are specially excepted in the letters of naturalization granted to him.

Any person who has been previously naturalized in the United Kingdom or any British possession may obtain letters of naturalization in New Zealand upon presentation of his certificate or letters to the Governor-General, with satisfactory evidence of his bona fides.

An alien woman married to a natural-born or naturalized British subject shall be deemed to be herself naturalized. Where the father (or the mother, being a widow) has become naturalized in New Zealand, every child of such father or mother who during minority resides with such parent shall also be deemed to be naturalized.

In accordance with the provisions of section 9 of the Finance Act, 1921-22, the following fees have been prescribed by Order in Council dated 26th September, 1922:—

 £s.d.
Letters of naturalization issued to a woman who was a British subject previous to her marriage with an alien050
Letters of naturalization granted to any person who served with any New Zealand Expeditionary Force or with any Imperial Force or Allied Force050
Letters of naturalization granted in other cases (provided that in any case of indigence, to be determined by the Minister of Internal Affairs, the fee shall be 5s.)200
Endorsement of any certificate or letters of naturalization obtained out of New Zealand (provided that in any case of indigence, to be determined by the Minister of Internal Affairs, the fee shall be 5s.)200
Endorsement of any certificate or letters of naturalization obtained out of New Zealand in the case of any person who served with any New Zealand Expeditionary Force or with any Imperial Force or Allied Force050
Certified copy of any certificate or letters of naturalization050

The Revocation of Naturalization Act of 1917 provided that the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, revoke the naturalization of any person when such revocation is considered desirable on grounds of public policy.

During the year 1922, letters of naturalization were granted to 265 persons of the following nationalities:—

Males.Females.Total.
Norwegian11..11
Swedish18..18
Danish24226
Russian10111
Finnish9..9
Polish617
German33336
Belgian3..3
Dutch314
French325
Swiss628
Italian30..30
Austrian617
Jugo-Slavonic66..66
Czecho-Slovakian3..3
Greek3..3
Portuguese2..2
Syrian1..1
United States10212
Chilian..11
Samoan2..2
Totals24916265

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS.

The Registration of Aliens Act, passed in 1917, provided for the registration of all persons of the age of fifteen or over who are not British subjects either by birth or by naturalization in New Zealand.

The system of registration, particulars of which were given in the 1923 issue of the Year-book, remained in force until August, 1923, when the operation of the Act of 1917 was suspended by the Registration of Aliens Suspension Act, 1923.

The number of aliens on the Dominion register on 31st December, 1922, was 8,624. The nationalities of these are as follows:—

Nationals ofMales.Females.Total.
France10595200
Spain181028
Portugal13720
Italy20572277
Switzerland17091261
Luxemburg1..1
Belgium443276
Netherlands572077
Germany438304742
Danzig9..9
Memel2..2
Denmark397174571
Norway32177398
Sweden325132457
Finland14227169
Russia9336129
Siberia123
Latvia532881
Lithuania11415
Esthonia718
White Russia6612
Tartar Bashkir Republic123
Ukraine181735
Poland8151132
Czecho-Slovakia181129
Croatia1..1
Austria422365
Hungary8614
Fiume6..6
Jugo-Slavia67550725
Rumania12416
Bulgaria213
Greece641680
Turkey2..2
Armenia1..1
Palestine112
Syria9061151
China2,871972,968
Japan6..6
Egypt1..1
United States469257726
Mexico112
Panama2..2
Cuba1..1
Peru314
Chile8..8
Brazil1..1
Argentina415
Venezuela1..1
Tonga431457
Samoa38341
Totals6,8891,7358,624

Chinese rank easily first among the unnaturalized aliens in the Dominion, and account for 34 per cent. of the registrations in force at 31st December, 1922. Nationals of Germany come second, of the United States third, and of Jugo-Slavia fourth. The three Scandinavian countries—Denmark, Norway, and Sweden—had an aggregate of 1,426 subjects on the register.

A summary follows giving information as to ages of registered aliens as at 31st December, 1922:—

Age-group.Males.Females.Total.
15 and under 2019641237
20 and under 25779122901
25 and under 301,0212081,229
30 and under 359292331,162
35 and under 408252361,061
40 and under 45665207872
45 and under 50528182710
50 and under 55482137619
55 and under 60429121550
60 and over1,0352481,283
     Totals6,8891,7358,624

The total number of aliens on the register showed little movement between one period and another, a decrease of 193 being recorded between December, 1921, and December, 1922. During the twelve months, however, no fewer than 1,422 aliens (males 1,013, females 409) were registered. Removals from the roll for the same period totalled 1,615 (males 1,209, females 406), a total of 3,037 transactions being thus effected.

Of the 1,615 removals, 1,198 were due to departure from the Dominion, 338 to naturalization, 47 to death, and 32 to other causes. The figures for the two sexes are—

Cause of Removal.Males.Females.Total.
Departure from New Zealand9142841,198
Naturalization231107338
Death41647
Other causes23932
     Totals1,2094061,615

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.

NORTH AND SOUTH ISLANDS.

In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, this position being reversed at the succeeding enumerations until 1901, in which year the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total, a position which it has since considerably improved upon. The Maori War which broke out in 1860 retarded settlement in the North, while a large area of land reserved for the Maoris was for many years a serious hindrance to the development of this portion of the Dominion. The South Island was practically free from Maori troubles, and settlement was more rapid, though much of the land was disposed of in large areas. The discovery of gold in Otago in 1861 and on the West Coast in 1864 attracted to these localities considerable numbers of miners.

The population of the two Islands at successive censuses is given in the table following, together with the percentage that each Island bears to the total:—

Population of the North and South Islands, 1858-1921.

Census Year.Population (excluding Maoris).Proportions per Cent.
North Island.South Island.*Total.North Island.South Island.*

* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.

185834,09425,31959,41357.3842.62
186141,64157,38099,02142.0557.95
186465,263106,895172,15837.9162.09
186779,913138,755218,66836.5563.45
187196,875159,518256,39337.7862.22
1874111,934187,580299,51437.3762.63
1878158,208256,204414,41238.1861.82
1881193,047296,886489,93339.4060.60
1886250,482328,000578,48243.3056.70
1891281,474345,184626,65844.9255.08
1896340,638362,722703,36048.4351.57
1901390,579382,140772,71950.5449.45
1906476,737411,841888,57853.6546.35
1911563,733444,7351,008,46855.9044.10
1916651,072448,3771,099,44959.2240.78
1921741,255477,6581,218,91360.8139.19

It was estimated that at the 31st March, 1923, the population of the North Island was 772,294, and that of the South Island 499,447. A feature of recent years has been the steady drift of South Island residents to the North Island. In 1922 this northward tide of population reacted, the North Island losing several thousand to the South.

PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS.

The populations of the various provincial districts as disclosed by the censuses of 1891, 1901, 1911, and 1921, and as estimated at the 1st April, 1923, are as follows:—

Provincial District.Census Population.Estimate, 1st April, 1923.
1891.1901.1911.1921.
Auckland133.178175.946264.524369.618389.196
Hawke's Bay28.50635.42448.54660.92562.643
Taranaki22.06537.85551.56961.91163.501
Wellington97.725141.354199.094248.801256.954
Marlborough12.76713.32615.98517.78818.967
Nelson34.77037.91548.46347.62849.181
Westland15.88714.50615.71414.18114.602
Canterbury128.663143.248173.443199.034211.010
Otago—     
   Otago portion116.088125.341132.402136.880141.181
   Southland portion37.00947.80458.72862.14764.506
     Totals626.658772.7191.008.4681.218.9131.271.741

During the thirty years from 1891 to 1921 the population of the Dominion increased by 95 per cent., and each of the four North Island provinces showed a higher rate of increase—viz., Taranaki, 181 per cent.; Auckland, 178 per cent.; Wellington, 155 per cent.; and Hawke's Bay, 114 per cent. Among the South Island provinces Southland led with a percentage increase of 68, followed by Canterbury (55), Marlborough (39), Nelson (37), and Otago (18), while Westland showed a decrease of 11 per cent.

Although over the thirty years Taranaki showed the greatest rate of increase, nevertheless if a comparison is made between 1911 and 1921 it is found that this province, while increasing in population at a greater rate than any South Island province, was lowest of the four North Island provinces, with a rate of 20 per cent., as against 40 per cent. in the case of Auckland, and 26 and 25 per cent. respectively for Hawke's Bay and Wellington.

URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION.

Somewhat over one-third (36.82 per cent.) of the population of the Dominion is included in the four principal urban areas—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and nearly one-half (49.89 per cent.) in these and in the ten secondary urban areas. The urban areas, which are of quite recent origin, have no legal status, but were formed for statistical purposes, with a view to obviating difficulties formerly experienced through alterations of boundaries of cities and bóroughs. Each urban area contains, in addition to the central city or borough and any suburban boroughs or town districts, a considerable non-municipalized area adjacent to and contingent on the centre. The boundaries, which will remain unaltered for a long period, thus allowing of definite comparisons being made over a series of years, have been fixed with a view to providing for probable expansion.

Including those cities and boroughs which form parts of urban areas, the borough population at the census of 1921 aggregated 681,988, or 56 per cent. of the total population of the Dominion. Prior to 1900 there was no statutory limitation to the number of inhabitants necessary to constitute a borough, and consequently many small centres became municipalities. The Municipal Corporations Act now imposes a limit as to area, and provides that no new borough may be constituted unless the proposed area contains at least 1,000 inhabitants.

The counties contain what is generally regarded as the rural population, though this is only approximately correct, some of the boroughs, as stated above, having small populations mainly engaged in rural occupations. On the other hand, some of the non-municipalized towns, which include town districts suburban to the cities and principal boroughs and lying within the urban areas referred to above, have populations more urban than rural.

The town districts are of two classes, which may be referred to as “dependent" and “independent,” the former being in some matters under the jurisdiction of the Council of the county within which it lies, while the latter is entirely independent of county control. A town district may attain its independence of the county when its population exceeds 500, and may become a borough on reaching a population of 1,000.

For population purposes dependent town districts have their figures included in the totals of the counties within which they lie, while independent town districts are excluded, as is also the case with boroughs. Under the old method of computing urban and rural population, however, both classes of town districts are included in the county totals, as in the following table showing the urban and rural population at each census since 1881:—

Census Year.Counties.Boroughs.Percentage.
Counties.Boroughs.Shipboard, &c.
1881291,238194,98159.4439.800.76
1886327,328245,61256.5842.460.96
1891352,097270,34356.1843.140.68
1896391,735307,29455.6943.690.62
1901417,596350,20254.0445.320.64
1906458,797424,61451.6347.790.58
1911496,779505,59849.2650.140.60
1916501,259585,30645.5953.241.17
1921530,852681,98843.5555.950.50

URBAN DRIFT.

In view of the public attention which has recently been bestowed upon the question of urban drift, the subject merits some further discussion. In the first place, although most references to this phenomenon are couched in condemnatory terms, it is far from certain that the weight of evidence supports this view. The many arguments both pro and con are outside the scope of the present subject, which proposes merely a brief measurement of the extent of urban drift in New Zealand.

A measure of very fair accuracy is provided by the proportion of “county" and “borough" population in the table immediately preceding. Its drawback is perhaps that it slightly overstates the proportion of urban inhabitants and recent movements of the urban drift. A better criterion is contained in the next table, although perhaps the effects are here slightly understated.

For reasons indicated above, it is not altogether correct to regard the county population as rural and the borough population as urban. It is perhaps preferable to consider the question in the light of the following figures, in the computation of which the urban population is considered as that living in cities, boroughs, or town districts of over 1,000 inhabitants in 1881, 1,200 in 1886, 1,300 in 1891, 1,450 in 1896, 1,600 in 1901, 1,800 in 1906, 2,050 in 1911, 2,250 in 1916, and 2,500 in 1921. Here the basic town has been given a rate of increase approximately equivalent to that of the country as a whole, it being assumed that a town of 2,500 bears much the same relationship in the present day as one of 1,000 inhabitants did in 1881. The results are as under:—

Census.Rural Population: Per Cent.Urban Population: Per Cent.
188162.3437.66
188660.4739.53
189161.1638.84
189661.9538.05
190160.8739.13
190657.9642.04
191157.0742.93
191654.1845.82
192151.2348.77

The increasing proportion of urban population in recent years is plainly manifest. It is noteworthy that the “urban drift,” either non-existent or quiescent up to 1906, in that year commenced a swift rise, which is apparently gaining in momentum.

Consideration of urban population would be incomplete without a reference to the size of the towns dealt with. To that end a table has been compiled which shows the grouping of the residents of cities, boroughs, and town districts according to the size of their municipality. The total may be taken as corresponding sufficiently well to the -urban population. The table shows some very interesting movements in urban distribution, but it is necessary to utter a caution against comparisons made without due consideration. Adjoining boroughs frequently amalgamate, and thus a large borough or city is at once in existence although there may well be little or no change otherwise. Again, boroughs or town districts are often created out of what prior to such creation is considered rural territory, and the change in status automatically places them within the number of the urban population without any corresponding change in the industries, &c., characteristic of the respective towns. Furthermore, the number of alterations in the boundaries of local districts is most marked.

Cities, Boroughs, and Towns with Populations of1923.1901.
Number of Cities, &c.Population.Per Cent. ofNumber of Cities, &c.Population.Per Cent. of
Urban Population.Total Population.Urban Population.Total Population.
Over 50,0004318,47041.0025.04........
25,000-50,000........277,85121.1910.08
10,000-25,00010144,80518.6411.39353,82114.656.96
5,000-10,0001181,65510.506.421066,25918.038.58
2,500-5,0002387,11511.216.852074,48920.279.64
1,000-2,50063102,47513.208.063859,11716.097.65
Under 1,0008142,3905.453.336335,8829.774.64
     Totals192776,910100.0061.09136367,419100.0047.55

An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population, as in the case of the Australian States—e.g., Victoria, whose capital city, Melbourne, contains 51.27 per cent. of the total population of the State—the more highly urbanized portion of the community is localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island. Of the Northern provinces Taranaki is the only one in which rural population predominates. The actual distribution is set forth in the accompanying table:—

Provincial District.Cities, &c., of over 10,000.Cities, &c., of 2,500-10,000.Cities, &c., of under 2,500.Total Population of Cities, &c.,Remainder of population.
Number.Population.Number.Population.Number.Population.
Auckland5138,5951151,0905051,045240,730148,466
Taranaki112,63027,53098,20528,36535,136
Hawke's Bay114,940213,70098,98537,62525,018
Wellington3126,300633,1752427,005186,48070,474
Marlborough  14,73021,6606,39012,577
Nelson  213,66065,89019,55029,631
Westland  15,05043,8458,8955,707
Canterbury294,425520,8451112,035127,30583,705
Otago—        
   Otago portion160,325315,2501916,76092,33548,846
   Southland portion116,06013,740109,43529,23535,271

New Zealand is not alone in experiencing the modern tendency of urban aggregation: it is, in fact, occurring in almost all countries. Accurate data on this point is not readily available, but the next table, which gives a comparison with England and the United States, supplies this deficiency to some extent. Neither of these two countries, however, represents the same stage of development as the Dominion, so that the comparison suffers to that extent. The urban population quoted for England is that of the total of “urban districts”: that for the United States is the total population in towns of over 2,500 inhabitants.

Census nearest toNew Zealand.England and Wales.United States of America.
Urban.Rural.Urban.Rural.Urban.Rural.
188037.762.367.932.128.671.4
189038.861.272.028.035.464.6
190039.160.977.023.040.060.0
191042.957.178.121.945.854.2
192048.851.2  51.448.6
URBAN AREAS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION, 1ST APRIL, 1923.
Urban Area.Population (excluding Maoris).
Auckland. 
Auckland City86,105
   Birkenhead Borough2.620
   Northcote Borough2,140
   Takapuna Borough4,535
   Devonport Borough9,290
   Avondale Borough3,460
   Newmarket Borough3,130
   Mount Eden Borough15,610
   Mount Albert Borough12,440
   Onehunga Borough7,510
   Otahuhu Borough2,975
   New Lynn Town District1,565
   Ellerslie Town District1,750
   Remainder of urban area (including portions of Henderson and Glen Eden Town Districts)14,630
     Total167,760
Wellington. 
Wellington City92,590
   Lower Hutt Borough6,040
   Petone Borough8,285
   Eastbourne Borough1,600
   Johnsonville Town District1,045
   Remainder of urban area2,510
     Total112,070
Christchurch. 
Christchurch City79,450
   Riccarton Borough4,140
   New Brighton Borough4,580
   Sumner Borough3,190
   Lyttelton Borough3,840
   Remainder of urban area18,200
     Total113,400
Dunedin. 
Dunedin City60,325
   St. Kilda Borough6,480
   Green Island Borough2,000
   West Harbour Borough1,730
   Port Chalmers Borough2,610
   Remainder of urban area1,905
     Total75,050
Hamilton. 
Hamilton Borough12,920
   Remainder of urban area2,430
     Total15,350
Gisborne. 
Gisborne Borough11,520
   Mangapapa Town District1,440
   Remainder of urban area2,160
     Total15,120
Napier. 
Napier Borough14,940
   Taradale Town District1,025
   Remainder of urban area1,905
     Total17,870
Hastings. 
Hastings Borough9,735
   Havelock North Town District1,230
   Remainder of urban area2,765
     Total13,730
New Plymouth. 
New Plymouth Borough12,630
   Remainder of urban area1,300
     Total13,930
Wanganui. 
Wanganui Borough17,165
   Gonville Town District3,470
   Castlecliff Town District1,675
   Remainder of urban area2,140
     Total24,450
Palmerston North. 
Palmerston North Borough16,545
   Remainder of urban area1,265
     Total17,810
Nelson. 
Nelson City9,820
   Tahunanui Town District520
   Remainder of urban area900
     Total11,240
Timaru. 
Timaru Borough14,975
   Remainder of urban area1,475
     Total16,450
Invercargill. 
Invercargill Borough16,060
   South Invercargill Borough1,915
   Remainder of urban area2,205
     Total20,180

COUNTIES.—ESTIMATED POPULATION, 1ST APRIL, 1923.

NOTE.—The column headed “Administrative" does not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but includes dependent town districts. The heading “Geographic" includes all cities, boroughs, or town districts geographically situated in a county.

County.Population (excluding Maoris).
Administrative.Geographic.
North Island—  
   Mongonui3,9703,970
   Whangaroa910910
   Hokianga2,8102,810
   Bay of Islands4,3904,390
   Whangarei8,92014,485
   Hobson4,9457,080
   Otamatea3,8003,800
   Rodney3,4103,835
   Waitemata8,27030,565
   Eden11,520141,525
   Great Barrier234234
   Manukau5,73012,585
   Franklin9,82013,195
   Raglan4,9554,955
   Waikato8,44525,355
   Waipa8,84512,240
   Kawhia1,0951,095
   Otorohanga3,1853,185
   Waitomo4,9007,225
   Taumarunui1,0153,215
   Matamata5,1906,080
   Piako6,46010,150
   Ohinemuri2,6958,285
   Hauraki Plains3,1703,170
   Thames1,8006,680
   Coromandel2,1052,105
   Tauranga4,8608,205
   Rotorua1,9706,080
   Taupo795795
   Whakatane3,2255,010
   Opotiki2,1253,280
   Matakaoa685685
   Waiapu1,7551,755
   Uawa960960
   Waikohu3,3353,335
   Cook6,22519,185
   Wairoa2,4754,565
   Hawke's Bay11,53038,460
   Waipawa3,3004,435
   Waipukurau1,0302,505
   Patangata2,1102,110
   Dannevirke4,6708,635
   Woodville1,8903,060
   Weber435435
   Ohura2,8102,810
   Whangamomona1,3201,320
   Clifton2,1102,110
   Taranaki5,01019,250
   Inglewood3,2004,410
   Egmont2,7303,245
   Stratford5,2208,360
   Eltham3,5755,660
   Waimate West2,4053,040
   Hawera5,5059,895
   Patea3,2605,080
   Kaitieke3,0403,895
   Waimarino3,2306,220
   Waitotara2,83025,140
   Wanganui2,6502,650
   Rangitikei8,41514,615
   Kiwitea2,4302,430
   Pohangina1,3301,330
   Oroua3,6608,295
   Manawatu4,4156,115
   Kairanga4,83521,380
   Horowhenua5,4959,745
   Pahiatua3,1004,445
   Akitio1,2101,210
   Eketahuna2,1703,055
   Mauriceville840840
   Masterton2,94011,130
   Castlepoint550550
   Wairarapa South3,0554,760
   Featherston3,5706,830
   Hutt6,86024,490
   Makara3,23096,865
     Total282,964767,789
South Island—  
   Sounds1,0301,030
   Marlborough7,87514,005
   Awatere1,7401,740
   Kaikoura2,2602,260
   Amuri2,2002,200
   Cheviot1,2401,240
   Waimea9,67022,570
   Takaka2,0102,010
   Collingwood1,1101,110
   Buller5,4809,320
   Murchison1,4201,420
   Inangahua3,4703,470
   Grey5,38012,215
   Westland4,2907,610
   Waipara2,4402,440
   Kowai2,0802,080
   Ashley840840
   Rangiora3,1705,250
   Eyre1,9803,705
   Oxford1,8001,800
   Tawera955955
   Malvern3,0503,050
   Paparua5,3455,345
   Waimairi11,44515,585
   Heathcote4,02095,080
   Halswell1,8001,800
   Mount Herbert455455
   Akaroa1,7852,435
   Chatham Islands220220
   Wairewa1,0351,035
   Springs1,8901,890
   Ellesmere3,4554,005
   Selwyn1,5901,590
   Ashburton12,42018,220
   Geraldine5,9008,725
   Levels5,37020,915
   Mackenzie3,2703,270
   Waimate7,5909,740
   Waitaki10,83017,320
   Waihemo1,4302,250
   Waikouaiti4,2309,160
   Peninsula1,7901,790
   Taieri5,78576,395
   Bruce4,7957,940
   Clutha7,4458,955
   Tuapeka4,9506,355
   Maniototo2,6602,865
   Vincent3,8355,170
   Lake1,6402,735
   Southland25,76552,415
   Wallace9,18011,370
   Fiord1212
   Stewart Island440440
     Total217,867497,802
     Grand total500,8311,265,591
BOROUGHS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION, 1ST APRIL, 1923.
Borough.Population (excluding Maoris).
North Island— 
   Whangarei4,690
   Dargaville2,135
   Birkenhead2,620
   Northcote2,140
   Takapuna4,535
   Devonport9,290
   Auckland (City)86,105
   Avondale3,460
   Newmarket3,130
   Mount Eden15,610
   Mount Albert12,440
   Onehunga7,510
   Otahuhu2,975
   Pukekohe2,080
   Ngaruawahia1,145
   Hamilton12,920
   Cambridge2,225
   Te Awamutu1,700
   Te Kuiti2,325
   Taumarunui2,200
   Morrinsville1,440
   Te Aroha2,250
   Paeroa1,700
   Waihi3,890
   Thames4,880
   Tauranga2,445
   Rotorua4,110
   Whakatane1,785
   Opotiki1,155
   Gisborne11,520
   Wairoa2,090
   Napier14,940
   Hastings9,735
   Waipawa1,135
   Waipukurau1,475
   Dannevirke3,965
   Woodville1,170
   Waitara1,610
   New Plymouth12,630
   Inglewood1,210
   Stratford3,140
   Eltham2,085
   Hawera4,390
   Patea1,175
   Raetihi990
   Ohakune1,560
   Taihape2,145
   Wanganui17,165
   Marton2,555
   Feilding4,635
   Foxton1,700
   Palmerston North16,545
   Shannon1,030
   Levin2,085
   Otaki1,135
   Pahiatua1,345
   Eketahuna885
   Masterton8,190
   Carterton1,705
   Greytown1,230
   Featherston1,075
   Lower Hutt6,040
   Petone8,285
   Eastbourne1,600
   Wellington (City)92,590
     Total451,650
South Island— 
   Picton1.400
   Blenheim4,730
   Nelson (City)9,820
   Richmond1,070
   Motueka1,490
   Westport3,840
   Brunner525
   Runanga1,260
   Greymouth5,050
   Kumara495
   Hokitika2,360
   Ross465
   Rangiora2,080
   Kaiapoi1,725
   Christchurch (City)79,450
   Riccarton4,140
   New Brighton4,580
   Sumner3,190
   Lyttelton3,840
   Akaroa650
   Ashburton5,095
   Geraldine995
   Temuka1,830
   Timaru14,975
   Waimate2,150
   Oamaru6,160
   Hampden330
   Palmerston820
   Waikouaiti590
   Port Chalmers2,610
   West Harbour1,730
   Dunedin (City)60,325
   St. Kilda6,480
   Green Island2,000
   Mosgiel1,805
   Milton1,405
   Kaitangata1,740
   Balclutha1,510
   Tapanui295
   Lawrence700
   Roxburgh410
   Naseby205
   Alexandra700
   Cromwell635
   Arrowtown325
   Queenstown770
   Gore.3,740
   Mataura1,215
   Winton795
   Invercargill16,060
   South Invercargill1,915
   Bluff1,610
   Riverton875
     Total274,960
     Grand total726,610
TOWN DISTRICTS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION, 1ST APRIL, 1923.
Town District.Population (excluding Maoris).
(a.) Town Districts not forming Parts of Counties.
North Island— 
   Hikurangi875
   Warkworth425
   Helensville930
   Henderson615
   Glen Eden600
   New Lynn1,565
   Ellerslie1,750
   Howick455
   Papatoetoe1,335
   Manurewa850
   Papakura1,240
   Waiuku770
   Tuakau525
   Huntly1,765
   Leamington550
   Manunui855
   Matamata890
   Te Puke900
   Mangapapa1,440
   Taradale1,025
   Havelock North1,230
   Opunake515
   Manaia635
   Rangataua440
   Mangaweka350
   Hunterville635
   Waverley645
   Castlecliff1,675
   Gonville3,470
   Bull's515
   Martinborough955
   Upper Hutt1,705
   Johnsonville1,045
     Total33,175
South Island— 
   Tahunanui520
   Leeston550
   Tinwald705
   Pleasant Point570
   Lumsden610
   Wyndham705
   Otautau760
   Nightcaps555
   Total4,975
   Grand total38,150
(b.) Town Districts forming Parts of Counties.
North Island— 
   Kaitaia580
   Kohukohu320
   Rawene300
   Russell290
   Kawakawa380
   Kaikohe360
   Ramo450
   Onerahi370
   Mercer325
   Raglan310
   Ohaupo270
   Kihikihi270
   Kawhia195
   Otorohanga540
   Turua385
   Patutahi305
   Te Karaka335
   Otane370
   Norsewood160
   Ormondville330
   Ohura200
   Kaponga410
   Normanby365
   Lethbridge260
   Rongotea295
     Total8,375
South Island— 
   Havelock260
   Takaka430
   Cobden1,120
   Amberley350
   Southbridge430
   Outram345
   Clinton445
   Edendale395
     Total3,775
     Grand total12,150

RURAL LOCALITIES AND SMALL CENTRES.

New Zealand has numerous townships and more or less closely settled rural localities with considerable population but without local self-government as boroughs or town districts. A list of such townships, &c. (other than those included in urban areas), with more than 500 inhabitants as estimated at 1st April, 1923, is here given. In each case the population quoted covers not only the township proper or the centre of the locality but also the immediate vicinity.

Aorangi525
Ashhurst765
Auroa515
Blackball750
Bunnythorpe760
Clevedon550
Clive660
Coromandel800
Denniston575
Dunsandel545
Flat Creek540
Granity650
Halcombe640
Kaikoura620
Kakahi580
Kimbolton575
Lincoln500
Makarewa625
Mamaku590
Manawaru530
Mangatainoka560
Matangi565
Maungaturoto505
Methven1,150
Midhirst680
Millerton680
Morven545
Nolantown545
Okaiawa620
Orepuki730
Ormond540
Owaka605
Owhango705
Oxford1.030
Porirua1,630
Prebbleton540
Putaruru670
Rakaia980
Reefton1,600
Riwaka750
Seacliff1,450
Springston565
Tariki520
Taupiri550
Te Kopuru675
Templeton790
Te Rapa525
Toko525
Tokomaru550
Trentham650
Tuatapere730
Waihou715
Waikari525
Waikino550
Waipu525
Waitati640
Wakefield800
Weraroa530

ADJACENT ISLANDS.

Adjacent to the main Islands are many smaller islands, some of which are of considerable area, and are under cultivation; others are but islets used as sites for lighthouses, while others again are barren and unfitted for human habitation. Some of these islands are included within the boundaries of counties, and their populations are included in the county figures. The following adjacent islands not attached to any county were inhabited at the census of 1921:—

Island.Population (excluding Maoris).
M.F.Total.
Pakatoa12324
Rotoroa711485
Little Barrier134
Tiritiri7815
Rakino235
Browns123
Pahiki10212
Mokohinau437
Ponui91625
Waiheke119123242
Rangitoto532881
Motutapu8513
Motuihi16319
Kawau211738
Motuhora325
Moturekareka2..2
Motuketekete1..1
Rangiahua213
Puketutu91221
Slipper2..2
Cuvier5510
Great Mercury2..2
Motiti6511
East Cape5510
Kapiti415
Somes426
Arapawa323062
Long Island2..2
Maud2..2
Forsyth10515
Blumine123
Motuanauru1..1
Brothers3..3
D'Urville472572
Stephen8311
Quarantine246
Dog314
Centre6410
     Totals485357842

DENSITY OF POPULATION.

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand, including Cook and other annexed islands, is 103,861 square miles. Omitting the annexed islands and certain uninhabited outlying islands, the area of the land-mass remaining is 103,298 square miles. This calculation, it should be explained, includes all inland waters.

Using the later figure as a base, the density of population may be quoted as 12.31 persons to the square mile, or, if Maoris be included, 12.83 persons to the square mile.

A truer statement of average density can be ascertained by applying, not the total area as used above, but subtracting the area occupied by rivers, lakes, roads, higher portions of mountain-ranges, &c. The remaining area, which may be considered as the total (including areas devoted to forests, &c.) inhabitable or usuable land, carries a population of 13.28 (or, including Maoris, 13.84) persons to the square mile.

Reverting to the area first used above, as being the one in common use for this purpose, the progress of development is illustrated in the appended statement:—

 Persons to Square Mile.
18814.74
18865.60
18916.07
18966.81
19017.48
19068.60
19119.76
191610.64
192111.80
192312.31

Of interest also is the relative distribution of the population, and to this end the density is quoted for provincial districts, as in 1923:—

Provincial District.Persons per Square Mile.
Auckland15.34
Taranaki17.02
Hawke's Bay14.77
Wellington23.78
Marlborough4.49
Nelson4.52
Westland2.99
Canterbury15.23
Otago—Otago portion10.12
     Southland portion5.68
Dominion12.31

The South Island provinces, it should be noted, contain on an average much more mountainous country than these of the North Island.

The various cities, boroughs, and town districts in New Zealand occupy a total of approximately 514 square miles. Considering their population as “urban,” the urban population has a density of 1,511.50 per square mile, and the rural population a density of 4.75 per square mile.

A useful comparison is possible with various countries from the succeeding table. Inasmuch, however, as the geographical character of countries varies, the real density may differ largely from the nominal.

 Persons per Square Mile.

* Inclusive of Maoris.

New Zealand12.83*
United Kingdom388.94
Australia1.87
Canada2.42
Newfoundland1.64
Union of South Africa14.63
India226.09
Norway21.17
Sweden34.12
Denmark191.85
Belgium654.31
Netherlands543.73
Germany326.25
France184.38
Switzerland242.88
Italy362.19
Spain106.70
United States35.55
Japan297.03
China111.43

BUILDINGS.

While not directly constituting a division of population statistics, the subject of buildings, and in particular housing, is so closely cognate to it that it must be treated under the same head. Fuller statistical treatment of building operations from various aspects is presented in the Census volume on “Dwellings,” and in the “Annual Report on Population and Buildings.”

According to the census enumerations of 1916 and of 1921 the number of inhabited dwellings was—

 Census, 1921.Census, 1916.
Private dwelling250,074229,423
Tenement in private dwelling9,9738,643
Hotel1,3221,220
Boardinghouse3,8463,009
Religious institution127118
Educational institution144147
Charitable institution11995
Hospital437298
Prison5027
Other443106
     Totals266,535243,086

The number of persons per inhabited building in 1916 was 4.52, and in 1921 was 4.57. Considering only inhabited private dwellings and tenements, the figures are— 1916, 4.25; 1921, 4.27.

Building statistics are now collected annually for all cities, boroughs, and town districts. A summary of building permits issued for the last two years is quoted:—

BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED: CITIES, BOROUGHS, AND TOWN DISTRICTS, 1921-22 AND 1922-23.
 1922-23.*1921-22.

* Subject to alterations of a minor character.

Private dwellings—  
   New buildings—  
     Number5,0254,330
     Value£3,960,513£3,141,000
   Value of alterations and additions£435,620£421,705
Business premises—  
   New buildings—  
     Number942605
     Value£1,455,038£597,359
   Value of alterations and additions£364,006£190,576
Total, including other buildings—  
   New buildings—  
     Number6,5635,015
     Value£6,124,439£4,602,834
   Value of alterations and additions£977,242£680,178

The average value of private dwellings erected was £725 in 1921-22 and £788 in 1922-23. For business premises corresponding figures are £987 (1921-22) and £1,546 (1922-23). An improvement in the amount of building undertaken is noticeable particularly as regards business premises. It should not be forgotten that the above figures refer to building permits, and probably slightly exceed the number of buildings actually erected.

In reference to the severe housing shortage which has prevailed for some years it is worthy of notice that the houses for which permits were issued during the year ended 31st March, 1923, would, at 4.27 persons per house, provide accommodation for approximately 21,400 people. The actual increase in the total population of cities, boroughs, and town districts during the year is estimated at 20,830. Several thousands of this total, however, represent the populations of newly created town districts and extensions of existing cities, &c., which ought not to be counted in this connection, since at the date of creation or accretion they were already more or less well provided with housing accommodation. Allowance must also be made for houses destroyed by fire or otherwise demolished.

MAORI AND HALF-CASTE POPULATION.

A census of the Maori population is taken every five years, the information being obtained by the collectors either directly or through the chief or head of the tribe or hapu. The name, sex, and age, so far as can be ascertained, of each Maori are entered; but, owing to the nomadic habits of the race and lack of definite knowledge in some particulars, it has been a difficult task in the past. The results of the last seven enumerations are as follows:—

Census Year.Males.Females.Total.
189122,86119,13241,993
189621,67318,18139,854
190123,11220,03143,143
190625,53822,19347,731
191126,47523,36949,844
191625,93323,84349,776
192127,90824,84352,751

While it is probable that in the earlier years covered by the table there was a slight understatement of numbers, yet a comparison of the figures for the last three or four censuses establishes the fact that the Maori race retains its virility and is on the increase. The position is the more satisfactory in that it presents an almost unique spectacle of a Native race living with a white race of overwhelmingly superior numbers and yet able to preserve its own individuality and strength.

Further evidence on the subject is borne by the following table, which shows the increasing proportion of children under fifteen years of age:—

Census Year.Males.Females.
Under 15.Over 15.Under 15.Over 15.
189133.2266.7835.2264.78
189635.2864.7236.8263.18
190135.7564.2537.8962.11
190638.2661.7439.2060.80
191139.1060.9040.9759.03
191641.3558.6541.4358.57
192139.4860.5240.5659.44

The number of half-castes is given in the next table for seven census periods. Those under the first heading are included in the Maori totals, the others being classed among the European population. It is a matter of some difficulty to ascertain the number of half-castes living as Maoris. There has been no definite rule to guide collectors in deciding when a half-caste should be classified as living as a Maori—indeed, it might be said that all the half-castes and a large preportion of the Maoris in the South Island live in European fashion. They mostly have separate holdings of land and separate homes, and have adopted the habits of the Europeans. At the censuses of 1916 and 1921 the old method of enumerating the South Island Maoris was discarded, the same methods and forms being utilized as for the European population. By the census of 1926 it is hoped that much of the necessity for distinction between the two races will have disappeared.

HALF-CASTES.
Census Year.Half-castes.Total.
Living as Members of Maori Tribes.Living as and among Europeans.
18912,6812,1844,865
18963,5032,2595,762
19013,1332,4065,539
19063,9382,5786,516
19114,1812,8797,060
19163,5293,2216,750
19213,1164,2367,352

Estimates of the Maori population are now prepared quarterly, and a summary of recent data is quoted below:—

Item.Males.Females.Total.
Maori population as at 31st December, 192228,24825,23953,487
Maori population as at 31st March, 192328,28025,28053,560
Mean Maori population, 192228,11025,12153,231
Mean Maori population, 1922-2328,17925,18553,364

POPULATION OF COOK AND OTHER ANNEXED ISLANDS.

During the year 1901 the boundaries of the Dominion were extended to include the Cook Group and certain other of the South Pacific islands. No record of the population of these islands was then obtainable, but at each subsequent census a record of various particulars was obtained. In April, 1921, the population was 13,209, of whom 12,849 were Natives. The figures for each census from 1906 onwards are as follows:—

Census Year.Males.Females.Total.
19066,2246,11612,340
19116,4496,14912,598
19166,5536,24412,797
19216,6926,51713,209

As in the case of Maoris, quarterly estimates of population are now prepared for the Cook Islands. Figures for the last year are—

Cook Islands and Northern Group.Niue.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Population at 31st December, 19224,9904,5609,5501,7642,0113,775
Mean population, 19224,9704,5309,5001,7442,0143,758
Population at 31st March, 19235,0104,5709,5801,7642,0093,773
Mean population, 1922-234,9804,5409,5201,7522,0123,764

POPULATION OF WESTERN SAMOA.

At the census of 17th April, 1921, the population of the mandated territory of Western Samoa was 37,157, made up as follows:—

Males.Females.Total.
European population1,1289382,066
Native Samoan population16,79516,54133,336
Chinese indentured-contract labour1,290..1,290
Melanesian and Polynesian indentured-contract labour4569465
     Totals19,66917,48837,157

It should be explained that what is for the sake of convenience called the “European" population includes also those Chinese, South-Sea-Islanders, &c., who are not indentured-contract labourers.

A proper comparison with previous enumerations is not possible, owing to indentured-contract labour not having been included in these. A census taken in July, 1917, showed the European population to then number 1,927, and the native Samoans 35,404. The latter have not yet fully recovered from the losses of the disastrous influenza epidemic of 1918-19.

Chapter 6. SECTION VI.—VITAL STATISTICS.

Table of Contents

SUBSECTION A.—BIRTHS.
REGISTRATION.

REGISTRATION of births in New Zealand dates as far back as 1847, in which year was passed a Registration Ordinance which made provision for a record of births and deaths being kept by the State. Under this Ordinance many registrations were effected, some of births as far back as 1840. Compulsory registration did not, however, come into force until 1855.

The earlier Registration Acts and their amendments provided for very little information being given in the case of births, the register containing merely date and place of birth, name and sex of child, names of father and mother, and occupation of father. In 1875, however, a new Registration Act was passed, under which information was recorded as to ages and birthplaces of parents, and in 1912 the sexes and ages of previous issue of the marriage were added to the items required to be shown in the birth entry.

The law as to registration of births is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1908, and the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Acts, 1912 and 1915. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within sixty-two days without fee. After sixty-two days and within six months a birth is registrable only after solemn declaration made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of a late fee of 5s., which may, however, be remitted at the discretion of the Registrar-General. When six months have elapsed a birth cannot be registered except within one month after conviction of one of the responsible parties for neglect. But an information for such neglect must be laid within two years of date of birth. Registration of still-births, previously not provided for, was made compulsory by section 4 of the Amendment Act of 1912, which came into force on the 1st March, 1913.

Although sixty-two days are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval—viz., forty-eight hours if in a city or borough, and twenty-one days in every other case.

REGISTRATION OF MAORI BIRTHS.

In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, however, empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in the Dominion is 216, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Native settlement of any size is within easy reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the figures of births given in the following pages do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with towards the end of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The number of births registered in 1922 (29,006) is the second highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1920. The rate per 1,000 of mean population, however, is lower than in any preceding year, with the solitary exception of 1919 the rate for which was adversely affected by conditions brought about by the war.

The numbers and rates of births in each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
190321,82926.61
190422,76626.94
190523,68227.22
190624,25227.08
190725,09427.30
190825,94027.45
190926,52427.29
191025,98426.17
191126,35425.97
191227,50826.48
191327,93526.14
191428,33825.99
191527,85025.33
191628,50925.94
191728,23925.69
191825,86023.44
191924,48321.42
192029,92125.09
192128,56723.34
192229,00623.17

There is a noticeable fall in the rate in the later years of the period covered by the table, as compared with the earlier. This fall, however, is small when compared with the tremendous decline between the “seventies" and “nineties" disclosed by the following diagram, which shows also the course of the rates of deaths, natural increase, and marriages from 1855 to 1922:—

The effect of the declining birth-rate is shown in the following table giving the numbers of children under one year of age and the proportions which those numbers represent in the total population as recorded in past census years:—

 Total Population (all Ages).Children under
One Year.
Children under
One Year per 1,000
of Population.
Census 1886578,48218,35531.73
Census 1891626,65816,44326.24
Census 1896703,36017,07024.27
Census 1901772,71918,38123.79
Census 1906888,57822,28925.08
Census 19111,008,46824,34024.14
Census 19161,099,44927,02124.57
Census 19211,218,91327,26422.37

NATURAL INCREASE.

The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been partially compensated for by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31.19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 14.40 in 1922. The following table shows the fall in all three rates:—

Period.Annual Rates per 1,000 living.
Births.Deaths.Natural Increase.
1871-187539.8812.6727.21
1876-188041.2111.8029.41
1881-188536.3610.9525.41
1886-189031.159.8521.30
1891-189527.6810.1517.53
1896-190025.759.5516.20
1901-190526.609.9116.69
1906-191027.069.7517.31
1911-191525.989.2216.76
1916-192024.3210.7313.59
192123.348.7314.61
192223.178.7714.40

The particularly low rate of natural increase for the quinquennium 1916-20 is largely due to the abnormally but accountably low birth-rates in 1918 and 1919, combined with the heavy toll of deaths exacted by the influenza epidemic of 1918.

In spite of the fact that the birth-rate in New Zealand is low compared with other countries, yet so low is the Dominion's death-rate that New Zealand ranks high among the nations as regards the rate of natural increase.

The rates of births and of natural increase for the principal countries for which recent statistics are available are as follows:—

BIRTH AND NATURAL-INCREASE RATES.
Country.Quinquennium.Annual Rates per 1,000.
Births.Natural Increase.

* Registration area.

Decrease.

Quebec1916-2035.018.1
Netherlands1917-2126.316.9
South Africa1918-2228.016.0
Australia1918-2224.714.3
Uruguay1916-2027.013.5
New Zealand1918-2223.312.9
Denmark1917-2124.011.4
Norway1918-2224.511.1
Ontario1916-2023.311.1
Japan1917-2133.59.7
United States*1916-2024.19.6
Scotland1917-2123.28.4
Jamaica1917-2135.58.4
Ceylon1917-2138.57.5
Eng. and Wales1918-2220.97.2
Sweden1917-2121.26.9
Spain1917-2129.34.5
Ireland1917-2120.44.2
Switzerland1916-2019.14.2
Finland1916-2023.33.8
Italy1915-1922.62.5
Belgium1916-2014.71.1
Germany1914-1818.6-1.6
France1917-2115.5-4.3

BIRTH-RATES OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

For twenty years prior to 1885 the New Zealand birth-rate was higher than that of Australia, but in that year the positions were reversed, and except for the seven years 1903-9 the Australian rate has been somewhat higher than that of New Zealand. It is interesting to note that the rates of the two countries have shown practically the same movement, New Zealand, however, reaching in 1899, and Australia not till four years later, the temporary limit of the rapid fall which had been steadily in progress since the “seventies.” In each country the check in the decline of the birth-rate was succeeded by a moderate but steady rise for ten years, followed by a fall commencing in New Zealand in 1909 and in Australia in 1913, an interval of four years again separating the movements of the two countries. The movement over the last ten years is as follows:—

BIRTH-RATES PER 1,000 OF POPULATION.
State.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Queensland30.2429.4629.3527.5928.9627.9525.8027.1026.5925.53
New South Wales28.8628.9628.3327.5327.5526.1224.2726.1025.9425.68
Victoria25.8225.4524.5524.2023.4022.1921.4623.9523.1523.10
South Australia29.0829.3326.8126.8425.6225.1523.6124.7124.0723.71
Western Australia29.3628.4527.9727.3725.7623.0821.7124.7323.4323.96
Tasmania30.0330.3329.3229.0327.6826.6325.9027.2826.9727.07
Commonwealth28.2528.0527.2526.5626.2725.0023.5325.4524.9524.69
New Zealand26.1425.9925.3325.9425.8923.4421.4225.0923.3423.17

BIRTH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS.

Urban areas have been created at each of the four chief centres and at ten of the more important secondary centres, each area including in addition to the central borough and any suburban boroughs a considerable non-municipalized area adjacent to and contingent on the centre. The creation of these areas allows of vital and other statistics being compiled over a series of years for a definite area with fixed boundaries, and obviates the disabilities formerly arising from frequent alterations of boundaries of boroughs. The birth statistics of urban areas for each of the last five years are as follows:—

BIRTH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS, 1918-22.
Urban Area.Number of Births.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

* Not available.

Excluding Hamilton and Hastings.

Auckland2,9112,6033,2603,1783,16221.7719.4722.1720.1519.23
Wellington2,2052,0122,4022,2492,35323.1521.1323.6420.9221.26
Christchurch1,8751,8352,3572,1442,17320.2219.7922.4420.2919.73
Dunedin1,2841,2331,6021,4721,37418.6917.9421.7220.3718.70
Totals of principal areas8,2757,6839,6219,0439,06221.2019.6822.5120.4119.74
Hamilton****384****25.69
Gisborne34533034936935827.2526.0723.8225.5423.99
Napier36936745237235124.3924.2527.2221.6419.86
Hastings****353****26.09
New Plymouth26626539032033927.1627.0535.2725.3125.09
Wanganui45948160058652823.5224.6527.0224.9121.85
Palmerston North35932740240540325.6323.3526.2523.9923.02
Nelson21921422522421621.9821.4821.4721.0719.85
Timaru30729034832834822.3821.1423.1621.1521.70
Invercargill47937047741447326.8220.7124.9721.5524.14
Totals of secondary areas2,8032,6443,2433,0183,75324.8823.4726.0623.2123.10
Grand totals11,07810,32712,86412,06112,81522.0220.5323.3121.0420.62

In most countries it is found that the cities and larger towns have a somewhat higher birth-rate than the general average of the country, owing largely if not entirely to the natural tendency for people in the country districts to avail themselves of the better medical and nursing facilities provided in the population centres. In New Zealand, however, the effect of this on the birth-rates of the urban areas is obviated by information as to the domicile of the parents being obtained in the case of all births registered in the areas, and the births allocated accordingly. The result is to give for each of the four principal areas a birth-rate somewhat lower than the Dominion average. The ten secondary areas, however, have, on the average, a higher rate than that of the Dominion as a whole.

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.

An examination of the figures shows that, with the exception of one year, there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860).

But little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibits violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which tend to disappear as the total of births grows larger. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878, to 1,078 in 1875 and 1,073 in 1915.

The number of births and their sex-proportion for twenty years are given below:—

Year.Number of BirthsProportion of Births of Males to every 1,000 Females.
Males.Females.
190311,21710,6121,057
190411,76211,0041,069
190512,10911,5731,046
190612,39711,8551,046
190712,83512,2591,047
190813,36912,5711,063
190913,50213,0221,037
191013,44212,5421,072
191113,53212,8221,055
191213,99613,5121,036
191314,43313,5021,069
191414,53513,8031,053
191514,41513,4351,073
191614,66913,8401,060
191714,32913,9101,030
191813,12412,7361,030
191912,58711,8961,058
192015,43414,4871,065
192114,57613,9911,042
192214,89714,1091,056

The gradual increase in the proportion of males born is illustrated by taking the average ratios of successive decennial periods. The apparent cessation in the decrease, as shown by the figures for the seven-year period 1916-22, as compared with the preceding decennium is due to the low masculinity recorded in the last two war years, when (it may be remarked in passing) the proportion of first births to total births was abnormally low.

Period.Male Births to
1,000 Females.
* Seven years.
1856-18651,062
1866-18751,043
1876-18851,045
1886-18951,045
1896-19051,054
1906-19151,055
1916-1922*1,049

If the figures for a short period can be taken as an indication it would appear that the proportion of males is somewhat higher for first births than for the general average of all children. Of 26,897 first births registered during the three years 1920-22 (excluding plural births), 13,999 were of males and 12,898 of females, the proportion of males per 1,000 females being 1,085. The high proportion does not appear to be due to the youth of the mothers, there being a lower rate in cases where the mother was between the ages of twenty and twenty-five than in other age-groups, with the exception of ages forty and over, where the numbers are insignificant, and where, doubtless for this reason, the figures for the three years covered give results far from uniform, the number of male first births per 1,000 female being for this group 1,216 in 1920, 897 in 1921, and 947 in 1922. It should be added that in some of the other groups and even in the total the results for the three years, taken separately, do not altogether coincide.

The figures for various age-groups for the three years in conjunction are as follows:—

SEXES OF FIRST-BORN, 1920-22.
Age of Mother, in Years.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
Under 208337421,123
20 and under 255,2044,9181,058
25 and under 304,8314,3451,112
30 and under 352,1591,9661,098
35 and under 407727281,060
40 and over2001991,005
Totals13,99912,8981,085

In the three years covered there were 283 plural first births, and in 115 cases the children were both males, in 79 both females, and in the remaining 89 of opposite sex.

Further light on the question of sexes of children may be thrown by some figures extracted from the records of births registered in the four years 1919-22 in cases where the child was shown to be the fourth-born of a family in which the three previously born children were still living. In New Zealand the birth entries give particulars of numbers and sexes of previous issue of the parents, with the ages of the living issue, and the following interesting statement showing the sex-nativity order up to the fourth child has been compiled. Families in which plural births occurred among the first four children have been excluded.

First born.Second born.Third born.Fourth born.Number of Cases.
MaleMaleMaleMale681
MaleMaleMaleFemale663
MaleMaleFemaleMale633
MaleMaleFemaleFemale607
MaleFemaleMaleMale558
MaleFemaleMaleFemale550
MaleFemaleFemaleMale583
MaleFemaleFemaleFemale593
FemaleFemaleFemaleFemale530
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale553
FemaleFemaleMaleFemale548
FemaleFemaleFemaleMale585
FemaleMaleFemaleFemale508
FemaleMaleFemaleMale523
FemaleFemaleMaleFemale556
FemaleMaleMaleMale605

Of the 9,276 families covered, in 4,868 the first child was a male and in 4,408 a female, the number of males per 1,000 females being thus 1,104. This proportion is considerably reduced for subsequent births, the figures being as follows:—

Child.Males.Females.Males per
1,000 Females.
First4,8684,4081,104
Second4,7764,5001,061
Third4,7464,5301,048
Fourth4,7214,5551,036

It is interesting to note that not only are males in preponderance among firstborn, but also that in cases where the first-born is a male there appears to be a greater probability of the second child being a male also. Where the first-born is a female, however, the second child appears to have a more even prospect as to sex.

The numbers dealt with are small, and too much weight cannot be attached to the proportions. It is significant, however, that the figures of first-borns registered in the three years 1920—22, and those of first-borns in cases whore the fourth child of the family was registered in the last four years, give almost identical results, and the two sets of figures taken in conjunction support the conclusion that there is a higher masculinity rate among first-born children than among later issue.

The conclusion arrived at by these figures, so far as they go, would serve to explain the increasing masculinity of births in successive decennia referred to above, when it is remembered that the average number of children to a family has fallen heavily during the period, and the proportion of first-born children correspondingly increased.

The sex-proportions of illegitimate births are generally supposed to be more nearly equal than those of legitimate births. Although little reliance can be placed on the figures for New Zealand by reason of the small numbers represented, such weight as they have is in favour of the theory. The average for the period 1911-20 was 1,011 males per 1,000 females—a rate considerably lower than that for all births (1,053) for the same period. The proportion in 1921 was 1,036, and in 1922 1,089, the latter being much higher than the proportion for all births.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 328 cases of twin births (656 children) registered in 1922. There were no cases of triplets.

The number of children born alive was 29,006; the number of mothers was 28,678: thus, on an average, one mother in every 87 gave birth to twins, against 80 in 1921, 81 in 1920, and 89 in 1919.

The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total cases of births during the last ten years were—

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Multiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases.
* Including one case of quadruplets.
191327,93527,619314111.41
191428,33827,976350612.73
191527,85027,546302111.00
191628,50928,184323111.50
191728,23927,927312..11.17
191825,86025,560294311.62
191924,48324,2062703*11.15
192029,92129,552365212.42
192128,56728,210347512.48
192229,00628,678328..11.44

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of twin births for the last ten years:—

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
191331410886120
1914350105116129
19153029388121
19163239998126
191731290105117
19182948795112
19192708179110
1920365128105132
192134712590132
192232811490124

During the ten years 1913-22 there were twenty-one cases of triplets. In two cases all three children were males, in five cases all were females, in two cases there were two males and one female, and in each of the remaining twelve cases two of the three children were females. There occurred in 1919 one case of quadruplets, all male children.

AGES OF PARENTS.

Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1922 is shown in the following table:—

RELATIVE AGES OF PARENTS.
Age of Mother, In Years.Age of Father, in Years.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and over.Total.
* Including thirty cases where plural births would have been registered had not one child been still-born.
Single Births.
14 and under 15......1............1
15 and under 1611................2
16 and under 17253..2..1......13
17 and under 18173418431........77
18 and under 193282461651........182
19 and under 20371481204713421....372
20 and under 213223218972198..2....554
21 and under 25511,2402,2021,013336123256515,002
25 and under 3034042,8442,8621,3904021263221..8,084
30 and under 352395662,4352,287926298842036,660
35 and under 40..5694471,6711,3935591567374,380
40 and under 45..284419669247616961101,658
45 and under 46........319392110294
46 and under 47........2719123..43
47 and under 48........12971..20
48 and under 49............411..6
49 and under 50..........11......2
Totals1772,1926,0656,9415,9283,5791,5594911952327,150*
Multiple Births.
16 and under 17..1................1
17 and under 18..1................1
18 and under 19..1................1
19 and under 201131............6
20 and under 21..1....1..........2
21 and under 25..101572..1......35
25 and under 30..221311182......75
30 and under 35..13353810621..96
35 and under 40......103322731..76
40 and under 45......14116..1..23
Totals118428589512253..316
Grand totals1782,2106,1077,0266,0173,6301,5814961982327,466

An indication of the direct effect on the birth-rate caused by the loss of men in the war is obtained by a comparison of the above figures with similarly compiled figures for 1912, the first year for which such statistics are available. A summary is here given, showing for the two years the age-groups of the fathers and mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered in the respective years. For convenience, multiple births are counted once only.

Age-group.Fathers.Mothers.
1912.1922.1912.1922.
Under 21811781,1071,212
21 and under 251,6062,2104,5475,037
25 and under 306,4526,1078,1668,159
30 and under 357,5107,0266,8206,756
35 and under 405,4576,0173,8884,456
40 and over4,9005,9281,4781,846
Totals26,00627,46626,00627,466

A study of the individual age-groups shows in the case of the fathers considerable decreases at ages 25 to 30 and 30 to 35, the groups which at present are more particularly affected by the loss of men in the war. All other groups, however, show substantial increases, amounting in the aggregate to 2,289, or 19.01 per cent., as compared with an increase of only 5.61 per cent. if all births are taken into account. As the mean population for 1922 showed an increase of 20.49 per cent, over that for 1912, it would appear that the apparently considerable decrease in the birth-rate in the later year as compared with the earlier is almost entirely accounted for by the loss of young men in the war, and to a less extent in the influenza epidemic. It should be added that even in the age-groups which show increases war and epidemic losses have tended to restrict these increases, while, on the other hand, the post-war tendency, referred to in the next subsection, for men to marry younger would normally act in the opposite direction.

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.

Information as to the previous issue of the parents is now required in connection with the registration of births. Tables are given showing for the year 1922 information as to number of previous issue in conjunction with (I) age of mother, and (2) duration of marriage.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS REGISTERED, 1922.

(a.) Age of Mother and Number of Previous Issue.
Age of Mother.Number of Previous Issue.Totals.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.
* This number represents 27,150 single cases and 316 multiple cases.
14 and under 151................1
15 162................2
16 1714................14
17 18771..............78
18 19172101............183
19 20302697............378
20 214011302221........556
21 252,7311,6135421142782....5,037
25 302,8672,5221,364738398182871..8,159
30 351,3421,5121,2559926644894939..6,756
35 404925616836736204568709834,456
40 4513711816220721517951214381,681
45 46579812102814194
46 474..5346119143
47 481222..283..20
48 491......1112..6
49 50........1....1..2
Totals8,5496,5454,0522,7391,9431,3332,0122801327,466*
(b.) Duration of Marriage and Number of Previous Issue.
Duration of Marriage, in Years.Number of Previous Issue.Totals.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.
* This number represents 27,150 single cases and 316 multiple cases.
Under 14,20611..............4,217
1 and under 22,49989118............3,408
2 and under 39582,4042104..........3,576
3 and under 43281,226578353........2,170
4 and under 516461566815272......1,608
5 and under 6984175512705041....1,391
6 and under 793348567399122335....1,567
7 and under 8762053944002236013....1,371
8 and under 93013227932828510638....1,198
9 and under 1030102220274251146742..1,099
10 and under 155616845068574667484315..3,637
15 and under 2092310617321026181211221,708
20 and under 2523111945462051378476
25 and over........112114340
Totals8,5496,5454,0522,7391,9431,3332,0122801327,466*

FIRST BIRTHS.

Of a total of 130,030 legitimate births registered during the five years 1918-22, no fewer than 37,947, or 29 per cent., were of first-born children, and of these 18,820, or 50 per cent., were born within twelve months, and 29,424, or 78 per cent., within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 22 per cent, of cases where there was any issue to the marriage two years elapsed before the birth of the first child.

The number of first births and the proportion of these to total births vary considerably from year to year in sympathy with variations in the annual number of marriages. The proportions of first births occurring within the first and second years after marriage, however, have shown remarkably little variation since the cessation of the war. The figures for each of the last five years are—

Year.Total Legitimate Cases.Total Legitimate First Cases.Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases.First Cases within One Year after Marriage.First Cases within Two Years after-Marriage.
Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.Number.Proportion to Total First Cases.
   Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
191824+3915,32821.432,41345.293,78971.11
191923,0705,43923.582,63748.484,08375.07
192028,1389,24432.854,68450.677,09476.74
192126,9659,38734.814,88052.007,75382.59
192227,4668,54931.134.20649.206,70578.43
Total for five years130,03037,94729.1818,82049.6029,42477.54

In the next table the figures of first births within one year after the marriage of the parents are dissected into monthly periods:—

Duration of Marriage.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Under 1 month4252698278
1 month and under 2 months6498125140104
2 months and under 3 months99101167177144
3 months and under 4 months141125220228244
4 months and under 5 months148161295253255
5 months and under 6 months215202347341319
6 months and under 7 months259258445456413
7 months and under 8 months213222377370364
8 months and under 9 months212238407382340
9 months and under 10 months443469859979762
10 months and under 11 months298397802804654
11 months and under 12 months279314571668529
Total under 12 months2,4132,6374,6844,8804,206
Total 12 months and over2,9152,8024,5604,5074,343
Grand total5,3285,4399,2449,3878,549

The great majority of the children born between the seventh and ninth month of marriage are obviously prematurely-born infants. Omitting these, and assuming that all infants born alive within seven months after marriage have been extra-maritally conceived, it appear that during the five years, out of a total of 37,947 first-born children, 6,867, or 18 per cent., were extra-maritally conceived.

During the five years the births of 6,172 illegitimate were registered, and if these are all regarded as first births (which is not the case) a total of 13,039 extra-marital conceptions is recorded, which represents just under 30 per cent, of the total of legitimate first births, plus illegitimate births. The figures for each of the last five years are—

Year.Total Legitimate First Births.Illegitimate Births.Legitimate Births within Seven Months after Marriage.Proportion of Legitimate First Births within Seven Months after Marriage.Proportion of Extra-marital Conceptions to Total of Legitimate First Births and Illegitimate Births.
    Per Cent.Per Cent.
19185,3281,16996818.1732.89
19195,4391,13299718.3332.40
19209,2441,4141,66818.0428.92
19219,3871,2451,67717.8727.48
19228,5491,2121,55718.2128.37
Totals for 5 years37,9476,1726,86718.1029.55

The corresponding percentages for Australia in the year 1921 were slightly higher than those for New Zealand, 20 per cent, of legitimate first births occurring within seven months after marriage, and 31 per cent, of all first births being either illegitimate or within seven months after marriage.

ILLEGITIMACY.

The births of 1,224 children (638 males, 586 females) registered in 1922 were illegitimate: thus 42 in every 1,000 children registered were born out of wedlock, a proportion somewhat lower than that ruling during the five years immediately prior to 1922.

The numbers for each of the last ten years, with the percentages they bear to the total births registered, are as follows:—

Year.Number.Percentage to Total Births.
19131,1814.23
19141,3024.59
19151,1524.14
19161,1464.10
19171,1594.56
19181,1794.65
19191,1384.65
19201,4244.76
19211,2584.40
19221,2244.22

Included in the total of 1,224 illegitimate births in 1922 were 12 cases of twins, the number of accouchements being thus 1,212. From the following table it will be seen that of the 1,212 mothers, 402, or 33 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age.

ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN, 1922.—AGES OF MOTHERS.
Age.Cases.
Years. 
121
132
1517
1620
1769
1881
19115
2097
21103
2282
2371
2473
2561
2656
2747
2838
2939
3047
3121
3232
3321
3413
3515
3618
3720
3821
399
406
412
427
434
442
462
Total1,212

The proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women — at the reproductive ages, covering a period of thirty years, is shown in the following table:—

Year.Unmarried Women aged 15-45 Years.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,9906389.25
189689,7228349.30
1901105,4209378.89
1906116,5061,1329.72
1911116,7261,0789.24
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21

The rates of illegitimacy in Australia and New Zealand are quoted. The average rate for New Zealand for the ten years (4.44 per 100 of all births) compares favourably with that of the Commonwealth (5.12 per 100).

PROPORTION OF ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS IN EVERY 100 BIRTHS.
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.Common-wealth.New Zealand.
19126.145.645.724.714.394.785.534.28
19136.225.356.034.184.405.185.484.23
19145.775.295.563.874.225.905.264.59
19155.364.975.744.004.245.325.124.14
19165.114.735.153.803.755.054.774.10
19175.014.745.533.964.155.284.914.56
19185.465.185.854.024.025.285.234.65
19195.765.145.773.924.216.145.304.65
19205.104.795.253.743.895.284.844.76
19215.224.834.853.154.035.534.754.40

THE LEGITIMATION ACT.

An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock, whose parents afterwards intermarry, is deemed to be legitimized by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes Registrars must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and must also produce the evidence of his marriage. Registration thus becomes the test of legitimacy.

Prior to the passing, on the 6th February, 1922, of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921-22, legitimation could be effected only if at the time of the birth of the child there existed no legal impediment to the marriage of the father and mother, but the legal-impediment proviso was repealed by that amendment.

The amendment of 1921-22 also provides for legitimation by the mother in the event of the death of the father after the intermarriage of the parents. In such a case the application for legitimation is heard by a Magistrate, and upon his certifying that it has been proved to his satisfaction that the husband of the applicant was the father of the child, the child is registered as the issue of the applicant and her husband.

The following is the number of legitimations in each year, and the total to 1922, since the Act of 1894 came into force:—

 Number of Children legitimized.
Year.Previously registered.Not Previously registered.Total.
18949211
1895551368
1896451156
1897341448
1898322759
1899281341
1900303262
1901281947
1902554196
1903412465
1904444387
1905483684
19067352125
19077539114
19088435119
19096762129
19107546121
19117646122
19128651137
19138972161
19149966165
191510067167
191619091281
191721396309
191812876204
191910066166
192010985194
19217495169
1922193106299
Totals2,28014263706

The high total of legitimation entries in 1916 and 1917, as compared with preceding and subsequent years, was no doubt due almost entirely to the continued duration of the war and the passing of the Military Service Act. The prospect of a prolonged absence abroad, and the uncertainty as to whether he would ever return, naturally caused many a reservist to make proper provision for his illegitimate issue. The effect of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921—22, is seen in the high figure for 1922.

ADOPTIONS.

Section 8 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1915, contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. If the child's birth has been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on it. In any case a new entry is made on the prescribed form in the register of births.

During the year 1922 the registration of 379 adopted children (157 males and 222 females) was effected, as compared with 584 in 1921, 501 in 1920, and 266 in 1919.

STILL-BIRTHS.

The registration of still-births has been made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. Still-births are not included either as births of as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each complete year since registration became compulsory are as follows:—

Year.Male.Female.Not stated.Total.
191442124414679
19153823406728
19163832954682
191737530514694
19183963005701
191937728815680
192046736310840
19214934028903
19224693649842

The number of still-births registered during the ten months ended December, 1913, was 467.

It is a well-known fact that masculinity is much higher among still-births than among living births. The figures for the nine years covered by the above table show the rate for still-births to have been 1,297 males per 1,000 females. The rate for individual years has ranged between 1,726 (in 1914) and 1,124 (in 1915).

A table is added, showing ages of parents in cases of still-births registered in 1922.

STILL-BIRTHS, 1922.—AGES OF PARENTS.
Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father, in Years.Total.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 65.65 and over.Illegitimate Cases.
* This number represents 816 single cases, ten cases of twins, and two cases of triplets. The total number of still-born children was 842.
16 and under 17....1............12
17 and under 18..14..1........17
18 and under 191111..........59
19 and under 20..6..............28
20 and under 21285..1........319
21 and under 25..29412181......15115
25 and under 30..16746927912..6204
30 and under 35..1217350286313186
35 and under 40....6216456265..5183
40 and under 45......1163718151189
45 and under 46..............2....2
46 and under 47............1......1
47 and under 48..............2....2
48 and under 49........1..........1
Totals3621531861681315229242828*

MAORI BIRTHS.

The number of births of Maoris registered during 1922 under the provisions of section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, was 1,438 (746 males, 692 females). The births of two males and two females were registered under the main Act, and the total of 1,442 represents a rate of 27 per 1,000 of Maori population.

BIRTHS IN COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE.

Regulations under the Cook Islands Act, 1915, providing for compulsory registration of births and deaths in the Cook Islands and Niue from the 1st July, 1916, were gazetted on the 29th June, 1916.

In the case of a birth a month is allowed in which to furnish the following particulars to a Registrar: The place and date of birth; the Christian name and sex of the child; the names and residence of both father and mother, and also (if Natives) whether of full blood, or quarter-, half-, or three-quarter caste.

Duplicates of all entries are kept by the Registrars of the High Court at Rarotonga and Niue respectively. A fine not exceeding £5 is imposed on persons supplying false information. No fees are payable for registration.

The following are the figures of birth-registrations in each Island during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923:—

BIRTHS IN COOK ISLANDS, 1922-23.
Island.Number of Births.
Rarotonga122
Aitutaki74
Mangaia67
Atiu46
Manihiki13
Rakaanga17
Mitiaro10
Mauke23
Penrhyn9
Niue99
Total480

BIRTHS IN WESTERN SAMOA.

During the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923. 1,694 births were registered in Western Samoa. Ninety of the children were born to Europeans, and two to indentured labourers, the remainder being native Samoans. The figures in regard to the last-mentioned cannot be relied on as accurate.

SUBSECTION B.—MARRIAGES.
INTRODUCTORY.

MARRIAGE may be solemnized in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. No marriage can be legally solemnized before 8 o'clock in the forenoon or after 8 o'clock in the evening. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, the limits were 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to the Registrar of the district within which the marriage is to be solemnized, and the party giving notice must have resided for three full days in the district. In the case of a person under twenty-one, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. Provision exists for application to a Judge of the Supreme Court in cases where a parent or guardian is non compos mentis, or unreasonably or from undue motives refuses or withholds consent.

If a declaration is made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in the Dominion, then a certificate may be issued after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The ages at which persons may contract binding marriages are the same as in England—twelve years for females and fourteen for males. Marriage may be contracted at earlier ages than those stated, but would be voidable at the discretion of either of the parties upon reaching the age of twelve or fourteen, as the case may be, and without the necessity of proceedings in Court.

The system of notice and certificate has obtained in New Zealand since 1855. By this system it is ensured not only that marriages are in order, but that no legally solemnized marriage escapes registration. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnized, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether solemnization has been effected. Inquiries are made similarly in respect of any marriage for which a return is received, but for which there is no corresponding return of notice and certificate.

The marriage of a man with his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased's husband's brother in 1901.

An important provision is contained in section 7 of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, which reads as follows:—

  1. (1.) Every person commits an offence against this Act, and is liable on summary conviction to a fine of one hundred pounds, who—

    1. (a.) Alleges, expressly or by implication, that any persons lawfully married are not truly and sufficiently married; or

    2. (b.) Alleges, expressly or by implication, that the issue of any lawful marriage is illegitimate or born out of true wedlock.

  2. (2.) “Alleges" in this section means making any verbal statement, or publishing or issuing any printed or written statement, or in any manner authorizing the making of any verbal statement, or in any manner authorizing or being party to the publication or issue of any printed or written statement.

  3. (3.) A person shall not be deemed to make an allegation contrary to the provisions of this section by reason only of using in the solemnization of a marriage a form of marriage service which at the commencement of this Act was in use by the religious denomination to which such person belongs, or by reason only of the printing or issue of any book containing a copy of a form of marriage service in use at the commencement of this Act by any religious denomination.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The movement of the marriage-rate since 1855 is shown by the diagram on p. 104. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
19036,7488.23
19046,9838.26
19057,2008.28
19067,5928.48
19078,1928.91
19088,3398.82
19098,0948.33
19108,2368.30
19118,8258.70
19129,1498.81
19138,8138.25
19149,2808.51
191510,0289.12
19168,2137.47
19176,4175.84
19186,2275.65
19199,5198.33
192012,17510.21
192110,6358.69
19229,5567.63

The normal tendency towards a gradual increase in the marriage-rate was disturbed by the war. Taking the years seriatim, 1914 is little affected, the influences being of a counterbalancing nature. The succeeding year, 1915, in spite of the increasing diminution in the number of males of marriageable age, established a new record in point of number of marriages and—by comparison with the previous half-century—of rate also. This may be regarded as resulting almost wholly from the passing of the National Registration Act in 1915, and the desire of many men to be shown in the register as married, with a view to obtaining certain advantages or escaping certain obligations. Many marriages which would ordinarily have taken place in later years were thus celebrated in 1915. The result was to adversely affect the marriage-rate in 1916. The Military Service Act of 1916, which took into account only marriages taking place before May, 1915, had a further depressing influence. The absence, in increasing proportion, of a large proportion of the men of marriageable age was felt still more severely in 1917 and 1918. In 1917 the rate descended to a level never previously reached, and in 1918 reached an even lower position.

With the cessation of hostilities at the end of 1918, and the return of the troops in 1919, a great increase in the marriage-rate set in. Many of the Dominion's soldiers had married while abroad, and apparently thousands more married shortly after their return to New Zealand, the marriages in 1919 being over 50 per cent, in excess of those for 1918, with a further huge increase in 1920, which year easily holds the record for number of marriages, and has the highest rate since 1864.

The high numbers and rates experienced in 1920 continued into the early months of 1921, but a falling-off then occurred, presumably due in the main to adverse economic conditions. An improvement was shown for the latter half of 1922, but the rate for the year is low by comparison with recent years other than the later war years.

STANDARDIZED MARRIAGE-RATE.

In a country like New Zealand, where the age-constitution of the population has altered considerably, the crude marriage-rate based on the total population does not disclose the true position over a period of years. Even if only the unmarried (including widowed and divorced) population over twenty in the case of men and over fifteen in the case of women be taken into account, the rates so ascertained would still not be entirely satisfactory for comparative purposes, owing to differences in sex and age constitution, divergences between rates for different age-groups, and variations in the proportions of marriageable persons in the community. A better plan is to ascertain the rate among unmarried females in each age-group and to standardize the results on the basis of the distribution of the unmarried female population in a basic year.

This has been done for each census year from 1881 to 1921, the year 1911 being taken as the standard. The course of the standardized rates as shown in the following table varies materially from that of the crude rates:—

Year.Marriage-rate per 1,000.Index Numbers of Marriage-rates taking 1911 as base = 100.
Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.
Crude.Standardized.Crude.Standardized.
18816.67.3980.776125137
18866.055.160.46993102
18916.048.35.03698285
18966.847.348.0788081
19017.850.249.0908583
19068.555.653.7989491
19118.759.159.1100100100
19167.550.754.3868692
19218.759.763.9100101108

The index numbers of the three classes of rates over the series of years enables the effect of standardization to be shown at a glance. Comparing, for instance, the years 1881 and 1911, it is seen that whereas the crude rate per 1,000 of total population was nearly one-fourth less in 1881 than in 1911, the crude rate when only the unmarried female population of fifteen or over is considered was one-fourth greater, and the standardized rate more than one-third greater. Similar though less noticeable results are recorded for years subsequent to 1881.

Taking the standardized rates as a test, the true marriage-rate is shown to have fallen heavily between 1881 and 1896, and to have risen thereafter, the tendency to rise, however, being temporarily disturbed by the war.

RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A comparison of the marriage-rate for each State of the Australian Commonwealth with New Zealand for the ten years 1913-22 is given. With the exception of the three years 1919-21 the Commonwealth rate has for some years been higher than that of this country.

MARRIAGES PER 1,000 OF MEAN POPULATION IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.Commonwealth.New Zealand.
19138.679.028.139.408.198.278.668.25
19148.739.378.319.118.227.788.808.51
19158.939.689.009.028.018.029.149.12
19167.608.628.028.157.567.378.147.47
19177.136.966.737.365.305.866.805.84
19186.896.796.437.075.245.706.595.65
19197.497.917.958.236.877.387.808.33
19208.929.759.8510.038.909.509.6210.21
19217.808.798.908.817.977.828.598.69
19227.518.188.278.197.217.798.037.63

A comparison of the latest available rates in various countries is given in the next table. During the war, probably owing to their distance from the scene of operations, Australia and New Zealand had their rates more seriously interfered with than was the case even with other combatant countries, but have now regained the high positions in the list which they held in pre-war years.

MARRIAGE-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
Country.Quinquennium.Average Yearly Rate.
Japan1917-218.9
South Africa1918-228.9
England and Wales1918-228.8
Ontario1916-208.5
Netherlands1916-208.5
Belgium1916-208.2
Australia1918-228.1
New Zealand1918-228.1
Scotland1917-218.1
Denmark1917-218.0
Quebec1916-207.5
Spain1917-217.5
Switzerland1916-207.1
Norway1918-226.8
Sweden1917-216.7
Germany1912-166.1
France1915-196.0
Finland1916-205.8
Ireland1916-205.5
Ceylon1917-215.3
Italy1913-175.1
Uruguay1915-194.6
Jamaica1917-213.7

DISTRIBUTION OF MARRIAGES OVER THE YEAR.

It is interesting to dissect the year into shorter periods and to notice the fluctuations of the marriage totals. The following table shows the number of marriages solemnized during each quarter of the last ten years:—

MARRIAGES IN EACH QUARTER, 1913-22.
Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.
19132,3392,4141,8132,247
19142,2192,6252,1812,255
19151,9842,7282,2473,069
19162,2142,3931,7731,833
19171,5111,8051,5051,596
19181,4571,7561,5931,421
19191,6312,4322,4503,006
19202,9813,3292,8433,022
19212,8722,8492,3302,584
19222,2492,5552,2142,538
Decennial average2,1462,4892,0952,357

It will be seen that the June quarter is apparently considered the most propitious for the solemnization of marriage. The three years exceptional in this respect are 1915, 1919, and 1921. In 1915 the total for December quarter was swelled by the influence of the National Registration Act passed in October; the high figure for December quarter, 1919, is explained by the celebration of many marriages postponed until the return of soldiers from abroad; while in 1921 the results for March quarter showed promise of a continuation of the standard set in 1920, but the adverse financial and economic conditions evidently caused a falling-off in marriages after Easter.

The Easter and Christmas seasons are apparently regarded as the most suitable times of the year for entering the matrimonial state, and, judging by the quarterly figures for an average year, Easter would appear to slightly predominate. In 1919, however, the only year for which monthly figures have been extracted, 1,282 marriages were celebrated in December, as against only 932 in April, the explanation of this being, of course, the fact that it was not until the latter portion of 1919 that the effect of the return of men from the war was felt.

The marriages contracted in each month of 1919 were as follows:—

January558
February501
March572
April932
May590
June910
July833
August798
September819
October923
November801
December1,282
Total9,519

Wednesday claims almost half of the total marriages, judging by the figures for the year 1919:—

Sunday54
Monday1,109
Tuesday1,645
Wednesday4,109
Thursday1,279
Friday476
Saturday847
Total9,519

The days of the year 1919 on which an exceptionally large number of marriages were performed were—

23rd April137
26th November120
25th June117
30th April110
15th October107
31st December106

All these days were, it may be remarked, Wednesdays. Easter Monday, usually considered a most suitable day, ranked only thirteenth in favour.

CONDITION OF CONTRACTING PARTIES.

The table which follows gives information as to the conjugal condition of persons married in each of the last nine years. Prior to 1914, divorced persons, whose numbers were small, were not shown separately in the marriage statistics, but were classed among bachelors and spinsters respectively.

Year.Marriages between Bachelors andMarriages between Divorced Men andMarriages between Widowers and
Spinsters.Divorced Women.Widows.SpinstersDivorced Women.Widows.SpinstersDivorced Women.Widows.
19148,312882606571637721134
19158,9559431660152137222173
19167,13810231673101338622153
19175,43910026864101635118151
19185,1578626811891640423146
19198,07915437288163153240207
192010,328208529181194859158213
19219,000196421178263653858182
19228,018199364170543747443197

The figures reveal considerable increases, especially in the last four years, in the numbers of widowed and divorced persons remarrying. Out of every 1,000 persons married in 1914, 11 were divorced and 51 widowed, the corresponding figures for 1922 being 29 and 69 respectively. The increase in the one case is a reflex of the large number of divorce cases since the war, while as regards widowers and widows the obvious explanation lies in the war and the influenza epidemic.

Taking the whole period covered by the tables it is found that while 1,397 divorced men remarried, the corresponding number for women was 1,698. In the case of widowed persons, however, in spite of the fact that the number of widows caused by the war and the epidemic must greatly have exceeded the widowers caused by the latter, only 4,904 widows remarried, as compared with 5,886 widowers. It would appear that in the case of divorced persons women are more likely to remarry than men, while in the case of widowers and widows the converse holds.

Included amongst widows in 1922 were nine women, and amongst the widowers five men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 224, subsection (5), of the Crimes Act, which reads: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

The numbers of persons married under the protection of the above subsection during the last ten years are as shown in the following table:—

Year.Males.Females.Total.
1913459
191451318
19155712
191621113
191782129
191831114
1919111829
192051520
192171623
19225914

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.

Of the persons married in 1922, 292 bridegrooms and 1,528 brides were under twenty-one years of age. Of the bridegrooms, I was between fifteen and sixteen, 7 were between seventeen and eighteen, and 37 between eighteen and nineteen. Of the brides, I was between fourteen and fifteen, 14 were between fifteen and sixteen, and 42 between sixteen and seventeen years of age. A table is given showing relative ages of bridegrooms and brides in groups of years.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED, 1922.
Age of Bride, in Years.Age of Bridegroom, in Years.Total Bridegrooms.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.
Under 2119187131......292
21 and under 257131,284344407212,391
25 and under 304271,3151,039211449..3,045
30 and under 35140443636303901581,635
35 and under 40391493052511575220973
40 and under 451150991171367836527
45 and over7207481124128259693
Total brides1,5283,3482,5101,0045582843249,556

The following are the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in the years 1902, 1912, and 1922:—

Age, in Years.1902.1912.1922.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Under 211.3916.591.8815.973.0615.99
21 and under 2524.9340.6022.6334.7825.0235.03
25 and under 3038.4326.9037.7428.4031.8626.27
30 and under 3518.809.4120.7211.6417.1110.51
35 and under 408.383.438.8250010.185.84
40 and under 453.461.333.662.215.522.97
45 and over4.611.744.552.007.253.39
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Taking the brides first, the figures reveal a tendency for women to marry some-what later in life now than formerly, a tendency, however, much more noticeable in the ten years 1902-12 than in the next decennium. Probably the most noticeable feature in regard to the bridegrooms is the heavy fall between 1912 and 1922 in the percentage for the age-group 25—30, a direct result of war losses, which were mainly among men who would now have been in this age-group. A similar but less substantial fall is disclosed for the age-group 30-35; but the group 21-25, which fell several points between 1902 and 1912, rose to its former level again in 1922.

In the years immediately preceding the war 62 per cent. of the bridegrooms were under thirty years of age, a proportion which has since undergone considerable changes, as shown below:—

PERCENTAGES OF BRIDEGROOMS UNDER THIRTY YEARS OF AGE, 1913-22.
Year.Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.Total under 30.
19131.8022.0437.7561.59
19142.1022.0437.3461.48
19152.0823.3337.4362.84
19161.9623.0734.5159.54
19173.5821.6331.1756.38
19185.0619.5030.6255.18
19193.6219.4931.4554.56
19202.6421.6132.6756.92
19213.0024.4032.4359.83
19223.0625.0231.8659.94

The average age at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, has shown a tendency to increase somewhat. The averages for the three years 1917, 1918, and 1919 were high—over thirty-one for bridegrooms and over twenty-seven for brides—but 1920 and subsequent years show a return towards normal, in spite of the effect of the increase in the proportion of widowed and divorced persons among the brides and grooms. The figures for each of the last twenty years are given.

MEAN AGE AT MARRIAGE.
Year.Mean Age of Bridegrooms.Mean Age of Brides.
190329.8925.84
190429.6025.44
190529.6525.75
190629.7625.97
190729.8326.07
190829.8626.11
190930.1126.40
191029.9126.32
191130.1226.48
191229.9526.39
191330.1526.42
191430.0926.69
191530.0326.56
191630.6426.77
191731.1927.07
191831.5727.16
191931.2127.11
192030.7326.89
192130.6926.72
192230.4926.83

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown above, which cover all parties and are adversely affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average age of bachelors marrying in 1922 was 28.73 years, and of spinsters 25.61 years.

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age 26 held pride of place for bridegrooms and age 21 for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1922 without alteration, but in the case of bridegrooms an alteration to age 28 occurred in 1918, followed by a return to 26 and 27 (equal) in 1919. In 1920 the most popular age for bridegrooms fell to 25, and in 1921 and 1922 to 24, a position which had not previously occurred since statistics of individual ages of bridegrooms and brides were instituted in 1902.

MARRIAGES OF MINORS.

Of every 1,000 men married in 1922, thirty-one were under twenty-one years of age, while 160 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one. The proportion of bridegrooms under twenty-one was in normal pre-war years 2 per cent. of the total number. The proportions from 1917 onwards, particularly 1918 (5.06 per cent.), shown in the following table, therefore represent a high increase in marriages of male minors. No corresponding rise occurs in the proportion of marriages of female minors—indeed, a decided fall is apparent in 1919 and 1920 as compared with pre-war years.

BRIDEGROOMS AND BRIDES UNDER AND OVER TWENTY-ONE, 1913-22.
Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.Minors, per 100 Marriages.
Adults.Minors.Adults.Minors.Bridegrooms.Brides.
19138,6541597,4191,3941.8015.82
19149,0851957,8421,4382.1015.50
19159,8192098,5161,5122.0815.07
19168,0521616,9431,2701.9615.46
19176,1872305,3431,0743.5816.74
19185,9123155,2669615.0615.43
19199,1753448,2471,2723.6113.36
192011,85432110,4971,6782.6413.78
192110,3163198,9511,6843.0015.84
19229,2642928,0281,5283.0615.99

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

Of the 9,556 marriages registered in 1922, Church of England clergymen officiated at 2,614, Presbyterians at 2,466, Methodists at 1,034, and Roman Catholics at 1,151, while 1,815 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the last eight years:—

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.
1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Church of England26.7625.7324.5425.3627.2628.5728.5827.36
Presbyterian25.8425.3622.9224.0925.8727.0626.0025.81
Methodist11.8310.4710.4411.2211.7010.3510.9710.82
Roman Catholic11.1812.0211.9411.1911.0811.0811.3012.04
Other denominations5.835.375.395.065.175.335.414.98
Before Registrars18.5621.0524.7723.0818.9217.6117.7418.99
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The above figures must not be taken as a true indication of the religions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both parties are members of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any of the denominations. It will be noted that the proportion of marriages by Registrars rose considerably above the 1915 level in 1916, 1917, and 1918, but fell sharply in 1919.

MAORI MARRIAGES.

In cases where both parties to a marriage are of the Native race there is no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the provisions of that Act, though the parties are at liberty to take advantage thereof. Considerable inconvenience, however, was found to exist on account of the non - registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Native Land Act, 1909, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Marriage Act. Ministers solemnizing the latter class of marriages must send returns to the Registrar-General.

Returns of 278 marriages in which both parties were of the Native race were received during the year 1922. Of these, 30 were in accordance with the provisions of the Marriage Act. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

MAORI MARRIAGES, 1913-22.
Year.Under Native Land Act.Under Marriage Act.Total.
191322034254
191421941260
191519027217
19161729181
191720548253
191819726223
191918140221
192019855253
192121236248
192224830278

Maori marriages are not included in the numbers shown elsewhere in this subsection, nor are they taken into account in the computation of marriage-rates.

MARRIAGES IN COOK ISLANDS.

According to the annual report of the Cook Islands Department, the following are the figures of marriages solemnized in the Cook Islands during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923:—

MARRIAGES IN COOK ISLANDS, 1922-23.
Island.Number of Marriages.
Rarotonga27
Aitutaki19
Mangaia19
Mauke4
Atiu10
Penrhyn6
Rakaanga1
Mitiaro2
Pukapuka1
Niue (year 1922)47
Total136

The remaining islands of the group either had no marriages or did not furnish returns.

MARRIAGES IN WESTERN SAMOA.

During the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923, 151 marriages were recorded in the mandated territory of Western Samoa. Of these, 23 were between members of the European population, the balance of the marriages being between native Samoans.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.

The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (June, 1923) 1,736, and the denominations to which they belong are shown hereunder:—

Denomination.Number.
Church of England440
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand392
Roman Catholic Church280
Methodist Church of New Zealand253
Salvation Army159
Baptists66
Congregational Independents33
Lutheran Church3
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference4
Hebrew Congregations6
Church of Christ36
Catholic Apostolic Church4
Liberal Catholic Church6
Unitarians4
Seventh-day Adventists6
Latter-day Saints6
Reorganized Latter-day Saints3
Ringatu Church14
Others21
Total1,736

The Ringatu Church is a Maori denomination.

SUBSECTION C.—DEATHS.

COMPULSORY registration of deaths was instituted in New Zealand in 1855. As in the case of births, a system of non-compulsory registration had obtained since 1848.

Until the year 1876 the only information provided for in the death-registration entry was as to date, place, and cause of death, and name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1875, required information to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars re burial had also to be entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act have made it requisite to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand should be registered within three days after the day of the death if in a city or borough, or seven days in any other case. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the undertaker in charge of the funeral being by the Amendment Act of 1912 made solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the undertaker was primarily looked to for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. It is not necessary to effect a death-registration entry in the case of a still-born child.

Any person burying or permitting or taking part in the burial of the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, a Coroner's order to bury the body, or a Registrar's certificate of registration of the death renders himself liable to a fine of £10.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
19038,52810.40
19048,0879.57
19058,0619.27
19068,3399.31
190710,06610.95
19089,0439.57
19098,9599.22
19109,6399.71
19119,5349.39
19129,2148.87
191310,1199.47
191410,1489.31
19159,9659.06
191610,5969.64
191710,5289.58
191816,36414.84
191910,8089.46
192012,10910.15
192110,6828.73-
192210,9778.77-

The death-rate was very low in both 1921 and 1922, eclipsing in each case the previous record of 8.87 per 1,000 which was reached in 1912. In point of numbers, however, the total for 1922 is the third highest ever recorded, having been exceeded only in 1918 and 1920.

MALE AND FEMALE DEATH-RATES.

The death-rates of males and females for the last ten years are shown separately in the next table, also the number of male deaths to every 100 female deaths, and the death-rate of males expressed as an index number of the female rate, taking the latter as equal to 100.

Year.Deaths per 1,000 of the Total Population.Male Deaths to every to every 100 Female Deaths.Male Rate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100).
Males.Females.Total.
191310.468.389.47138125
191410.537.989.31144132
191510197.879.06137129
191611.148.139.64138138
191711.098.099.58134137
191818.0311.7714.84147153
191910.858.069.46148149
192011.119.1510.15127121
19219.757.668.73133127
19229.607.908.77127122

In normal times the excess of male over female population has the effect of showing a smaller variation between death-rates for the two sexes than is indicated by a comparison of numbers of deaths. The withdrawal of a large number of males between the ages of 20 and 45 for military service overseas, however, reduced the male population without proportionately reducing the total of male deaths, the death-rate among persons of those ages being considerably less than for the whole population. Consequently there was during the war period an increase in the percentage of the male rate to the female, a position accentuated in 1918, and to a less extent in 1919, by the influenza epidemic, which exacted a heavier toll among males than among females.

AGES AT DEATH.

The deaths occurring during 1922 are tabulated below in single ages up to five years, and thereafter in groups, showing males and females separately:—

Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month470320790
1-3 months11266178
3-6 months544296
6-12 months8269151
1-2 years8071151
2-3 years5751108
3-4 years353267
4-5 years332154
5-10 years135104239
10-15 years8587172
15-20 years114113227
20-25 years153134287
25-30 years149164313
30-35 years198179377
35-40 years242212454
45-50 years295232527
50-55 years348252600
55-60 years324261585
60-65 years405325730
65-70 years519354873
70-75 years505400905
75-80 years518426944
80-85 years529390919
85-90 years313246559
90-95 years6852120
95-100 years221335
100 years224
101 years..11
103 years..11
104 years1..1
Totals6,1314,84610,977

A preponderance of males occurs at practically all age-groups, the principal exception being the group “25 and under 30,” a period at which the effects of child-bearing are felt in the female numbers. The two preceding groups show a very slight excess of males, the greatest excess occurring at ages 60 and over, in sympathy with the greater disparity between the numbers of male and female population at those ages.

Some remarkable changes in the age-distribution of persons dying have occurred during the period of fifty years which has elapsed since statistics of ages of deceased persons were first compiled. The total deaths in 1922 were three and a half times greater than in 1872, but the deaths under one year of age increased by only one-eighth in the interim; indeed, if the comparison be made between 1875 and 1922, an actual decrease of one-third is recorded. Between these two years the annual number of births doubled itself, and the decrease in the deaths under one year is an eloquent tribute to the efficacy of the stops taken to preserve infant life, a subject which is dealt with later on in this subsection.

Turning now to deaths at ages 80 and over, a remarkable difference between the earlier and later years covered by the figures is apparent. In 1872, deaths in this group numbered only 34, or slightly more than 1 per cent, of the total of 3,112; while in 1922, 1,640 deaths over 80 years of age were recorded, this number representing 15 per cent, of the total deaths in that year. In 1902 the corresponding percentage was only 6. The figures are a reflex of the changes in the age-constitution of the population, combined with the great improvement in the death-rate at the earlier ages.

Similar though less pronounced changes have occurred in the age-groups between 60 and 80 years, while the groups up to age 40 show results in the same direction as those for deaths under one year of age. The following table indicates the changes that have occurred over a period of fifty years in the numbers and proportions of deaths contributed by the various age-groups:—

DEATHS BY AGE-GROUPS, 1872-1922.
Ages, in Years.Number of Deaths.Percentage to Total.
1872.1882.1892.1902.1922.1872.1882.1892.1902.1922.
Under 11,0841,6781,5941,7121,21535.2929.4624.7020.4411.07
1 and under 542370953957838013.7712.458.356.903.46
5 and under 101173302582082393.815.793.992.482.18
10 and under 15631431751511722.052.512.711.801.57
15 and under 20671762612572272.183.094.043.102.07
20 and under 251092273193252873.553.994.943.882.61
25 and under 301552472433633135.054.343.774.332.85
30 and under 351702482212993775.534.353.423.573.43
35 and under 401932662523244546.284.673.903.874.14
40 and under 451692772462985095.504.863.813.554.64
45 and under 501152632453305273.744.623.803.944.80
50 and under 551042403474016003.394.225.384.795.47
55 and under 60601763394295851.953.095.255.125.33
60 and under 65772043675047302.503.585.696.026.65
65 and under 70661643006628732.152.884.657.907.95
70 and under 75391172836279051.272.054.397.498.24
75 and under 80271182054059440.882.073.184.838.60
80 and over341122605021.6401.111.984.035.9914.94
Totals for specified ages3,0725,6956,4548,37510,977100.00100.00100.00100.00.100.00
Unspecified4065..............
Grand totals3,1125,7016,4598,37510,977..........

The death-rates at various age-groups during recent years are as shown in the next table. The effect of the influenza epidemic of 1918 in the rates for that year, especially for ages 20 to 55 inclusive, is very noticeable.

DEATH-RATES PER 1,000 LIVING AT VARIOUS AGE-PERIODS.

Ages, in Years.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Under 514.1211.7716.0613.4812.23
5 and under 102.301.932.121.781.79
10 and under 151.981.491.391.471.37
15 and under 205.162.242.321.852.04
20 and under 2510.032.742.872.652.86
25 and under 3515.123.953.962.973.61
35 and under 4514.796.016.845.495.06
45 and under 5515.7210.0111.3410.468.52
55 and under 6523.8919.8421.2419.0417.51
65 and under 7550.4245.5644.2940.9439.57
75 and over145.94143.53150.24124.84134.34
All ages14.849.4610.158.738.77

The average age at death of persons of either sex in each of the ten years 1913-22 was as follows:—

Year.Males.Females.
191346.2643.04
191446.9744.27
191547.2444.71
191646.0644.01
191748.3345.51
191844.5644.29
191950.7348.47
192048.7445.92
192148.4546.97
192250.1649.69

The drop in the average age at death in 1918 is the result of the influenza epidemic, the average age of these succumbing to influenza being below the normal average age at death, especially in the case of males.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

The following figures showing the expectation of life at various ages are based on the experience of the quinquennium 1906-10:—

EXPECTATION OF LIFE OR AVERAGE AFTER-LIFETIME IN NEW ZEALAND.
Age.Males.Females.
 Years.Years.
059.16561.764
163.12564.816
262.83664.503
362.16863.843
461.40763.053
560.58162.211
1056.14457.754
1551.57053.172
2047.20048.770
2542.97944.562
3038.77540.477
3534.61436.396
4030.54032.368
4526.50728.294
5022.67224.295
5518.97220.443
6015.50816.774
6512.22913.331
709.38310.311
757.1027.777
805.2945.815
853.9544.262
902.7652.900
951.6131.650
1000.7200.723

It will be noted that while the expectation or average after-lifetime of males at age 0 is given as 59.165 years, the average age at death of males in 1922 is only 50.16 years. The for the difference in these figures is that the average age at death in 1922 is nothing more than the average of the ages of those dying in that year; and if the population be one with a preponderance of young people, as is the case in New Zealand, that preponderance of young ages must also be reflected among those dying in a particular year, who, after all, are largely a sample of the living. The average age at death in one particular year is therefore evidence of the age-constitution of the population in that year rather than of the vitality of the people, though it is affected by both factors. In New Zealand the average age at death is on the whole constantly increasing, mainly because the population is gradually getting a due proportion of old people; but a large immigration of young people or a sufficient increase in the birth-rate could send it down again by furnishing a greater number of deaths at low ages, even without any change in the vitality.

The expectation of life is independent of these factors, being based upon the scientifically determined rates of mortality at every successive year of age, and could be said to represent the average age at death of, say, 100,000 people followed from birth to their final extinction by death. In the course of time, when the age-constitution of the population of New Zealand approximates more closely to that existing in the older countries, the average age at death in a given year will tend to be in closer agreement with the actuarially ascertained expectation of life at age 0.

DEATH-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A table is given showing the death-rates of the Australian States and Commonwealth, and of New Zealand, in each of the ten years 1913-22.

DEATH-RATES PER 1,000 OF MEAN POPULATION, 1913-22.
Country.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Queensland10.399.9711.0010.969.6010.2312.2210.639.349.14
New South Wales10.8910.1110.4810.499.439.6913.1810.139.518.92
Victoria11.1111.5911.1011.6610.3110.6613.1511.1310.529.65
South Australia10.8210.7110.6711.499.879.7211.6910.4410.029.10
Western Australia9.349.419.289.869.059.2011.2410.2810.449.33
Tasmania10.879.6710.1110.589.109.0910.699.6710.309.29
Commonwealth10.8710.5110.6610.959.719.9912.6910.509.919.21
New Zealand9.479.319.069.649.5814.849.4610.158.738.77

New Zealand has ordinarily a lower death-rate than any of the Australian States, which, again, have considerably lower rates than other countries. The apparently disadvantageous position of New Zealand in the matter of the rate for 1918 is explained by the fact that the Dominion experienced the widespread influenza epidemic during 1918, while in the Commonwealth the outbreak did not occur till 1919.

The death-rates of certain of the principal European and other countries are also given. The rates for New Zealand and Australia compare very favourably with these.

Country.Quinquennium.Average Rate per 1,000.
* Registration area.
Union of South Africa1918.2212.0
Denmark1917-2112.6
Ontario1916-2013.2
Netherlands1917-2113.4
Norway1918-2213.4
Uruguay1916-2013.5
England and Wales1918-2213.7
Sweden1917-2114.3
United States*1916-2014.5
Scotland1917-2114.8
Switzerland1916-2014.9
Belgium1916-2015.8
Ireland1917-2116.2
Quebec1916-2016.9
Finland1916-2019.5
France1917-2119.8
Germany1914-1820.2
Italy1915-1922.1
Japan1915-1922.5
Spain1917-2124.8
Jamaica1917-2127.1
Chile1914-1827.1
Ceylon1917-2131.0

STANDARDIZATION OF DEATH-RATES.

Perfect accuracy in comparing one country with another can be attained only by the use of what is termed an “index of mortality.” The proportions of the living vary in regard to the different age-groups, and the ordinary death-rate—which is calculated on the population as a whole—does not afford a true means of judging of the relative healthiness of the places compared; but by taking a population like that of Sweden and applying the percentage at each age-group to the death-rates a standard of health or index of mortality can be arrived at. This is done for New Zealand, in accordance with a resolution of the Statistical Conference held at Hobart in 1902, and the result for 1922 is given below in tabular form:—

INDEX OF MORTALITY IN NEW ZEALAND FOR 1922.
Ages, in Years.Estimated Mean Population.Number of Deaths.Deathrate per 1,000.Percentage of Population of Sweet 890 (Standard).Index of Mortality in New Zealand per 1,000.
Under 129,0061,21541.882.551.07
1 and under 20472,0241,0182.1639.800.86
20 and under 40389,2011,4313.6826.960.99
40 and under 60267,4892,2218.3019.231.60
60 and upwards94,1755,09254,0711.466.20
Totals1,251,89510,9778.77100.0010.72

Where comparisons are restricted to the figures for different years in a country such as New Zealand, where the age and sex constitution of the population is undergoing a gradual change, it is preferable to use as a standard the constitution of the population of the same country at some fixed date.

In the following table the rates have been standardized on the population as disclosed at the census of 1911.

DEATH-RATES, CRUDE AND STANDARDIZED, 1872-1922.
Year.Crude (Actual) Death-rate.Standardized Rate.
187211.3912.36
187312.6714.10
187412.9813.79
187515.9217.30
187612.6614.09
187711 4712.86
187810.9612.76
187912.4614.11
188011.4612.70
188111.1312.41
188211.1913.06
188311.4513.29
188410.3911.88
188510.7612.36
188610.5412.17
188710.2911.96
18889.4311.72
18899.4410.80
18909.6611.25
189110.3512.08
189210.0611.75
189310.2311.80
189410.1911.56
18959.9111.22
18969.1010.35
18979.1410.58
18989.8411.50
189910.2411.02
19009.4310.21
19019.8110.66
190210.5011.41
190310.4011.17
19049.579.87
19059.2760
19069.319.66
190710.9511.37
19089.579.94
19099.229.20
19109.719.63
19119.399.38
19128.878.87
19139.479.47
19149.319.31
19159.069.09
19169.649.22
19179.589.04
191814.8414.66
19199 468.99
192010.159.88
19218.738.49
19228.778.29

The system of standardization adopted is similar to that used in arriving at the international index of mortality, but is more detailed. The population and deaths for each year of the period have been divided, each sex separately, into five-yearly groups of ages (with one group only for ages 80 and over), and the rates for the various groups ascertained and weighted according to the percentage which the respective age-groups bore to the total population at the census of 1911.

The New Zealand rates, ascertained on the basis of the Swedish age-distribution, may be compared with those of the Australian States and of the Commonwealth standardized by the same system.

STANDARDIZED DEATH-RATES, 1912-21.
Country.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
New Zealand11.2711.9211.8511.3811.8811.6616.8011.7212.7610.93
Queensland13.9113.2512.7014.3014.3712.6413.9415.9714.3612.30
New South Wales13.6313.6112.7213.2413.4812.4512.8616.4813.3212.27
Victoria14.9413.5014.1113.5414.2812.8113.2315.5113.7212.85
South Australia12.7613.2513.0313.7914.4512.6512.5314.5913.4912.47
Western Australia14.5512.5812.5612.7914.1512.9313.6915.5015.6315.60
Tasmania13.6913.5412.1113.0413.4311.7811.7013.2912.2813.16
Commonwealth14.0813.4713.1813.4713.9912.6313.0715.7513.6512.66

OCCUPATIONS OF DECEASED MALES.

The occupations of males who died during 1922, arranged according to classification groups, are shown in the following table. Further details may be obtained from the Annual Report on the Vital Statistics for the year 1922.

Nature of Occupation.Age-group (in Years).Totals.
Under 15.15 and under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 45.45 and under 65.65 and over.
Fishing and trapping......75517
Agricultural and pastoral..24321613277631.307
Forestry..129232661
Mining and quarrying..242245136206
Processes relating to minerals......121013
Processes relating to chemicals, animal and vegetable products....27122142
Processes relating to metals, machines, tools, conveyances, jewellery, &c...78455680196
Processes relating to fibrous material, textiles, and dress..13163259111
Processes relating to food, drink, and tobacco....57262159
Processes relating to wood, basketware, furniture, &c...138223266
Processes relating to paper, stationery, printing, and photography1429162355
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, canals, &c...11381110196401
Transport and communication1723105114141391
Commerce and finance..4785145190431
Public administration, clerical, and professional..620107132204469
Entertainment, sport, and recreation......104115
Personal and domestic service..11256468159
Dependent on public or private support1,14143341191,211
Other or indefinite..1228163236482921
Totals1,1431141538721,3722,4776,131

BIRTHPLACES OF DECEASED PERSONS.

Of the 10,977 persons whose deaths were registered in 1922, 4,865, or 44 per cent., were born in New Zealand, and 4,970, or 45 per cent., in the United Kingdom. The figures for the principal countries are—

British countries—Number.
    New Zealand4,865
    England and Wales2,707
    Scotland1,246
    Ireland1,017
    Australia417
    Canada41
    India22
    Other British countries38
 10,353
Foreign countries—Number.
    Germany65
    Denmark43
    Norway35
    Sweden35
    China36
    France20
    United States18
    Other foreign countries85
 337
 Number.
Total British countries10,353
Total foreign countries337
At sea36
Unspecified or unknown251
Grand total10,977

DEATH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS.

The number and rate of deaths for each of the fourteen urban areas during the last five years are as shown in the following statement:—

URBAN AREAS.—DEATHS AND DEATH-RATES, 1918-22.
Urban Areas.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

* Not available.

† Excluding Hamilton and Hastings urban areas.

Auckland2,4161,4281,6361,5041,59118.0710.6811.139.539.67
Wellington1,4961,0611,08196796615 7111.1410.649.008.73
Christchurch1,4359991,2421,0141,06315.4710.7711.839.609.65
Dunedin1,11377891074278416.2011.3212.3410.2710.67
Totals of principal areas6,4604,2664,8694,2274,40416.5510.9311.399.549.59
Hamilton****126****8.43
Gisborne13811411811311010.909.008.057.827.37
Napier25416121016715916.7910.6412.659.729.00
Hastings****71****5.25
New Plymouth1378412412712613.998.5811.2110.049.33
Wanganui27621322217819314.1410.9110.007.577.99
Palmerston North23614815213612816.8510.579.928.057.31
Nelson1349513110511713.459.5412.509.8810.75
Timaru15912514513916711.599.119.658.9610.41
Invercargill36117319015815420.219.689.958.227.86
Totals of secondary areas1,695
1,113
1,292
1,123
1,35115.05
9.88
10.38
8.64
8.31
Grand totals8,155
5,379
6,161
5,350
5,75516.21
10.69
11.16
9.33
9.26

In compiling the statistics of deaths for the urban areas the rule is followed of carefully excluding deaths of persons who do not belong to the areas but have come from elsewhere for the purpose of obtaining better medical attention. Nevertheless the rates for the urban areas, in spite of the omission of this class, are in general somewhat above the average for the Dominion as a whole. It is noteworthy, however, that in each of the five years covered the average for the secondary areas is considerably lower than that for the principal areas.

ORPHANHOOD.

The table following shows the number of living issue left by married men whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1913-22, the information being given according to age of father and of issue. It will be seen that during the period under review 29,022 fathers left issue to the number of 134,231, an average of 4.62. There were also 5,038 married men or widowers who died without leaving issue.

NUMBER AND AGES OF ISSUE LEFT BY MARRIED MEN, 1913-22.
Age of Issue, in Years.Number of Issue left by Fathers dying within the Age-groups shown at Head of Column.
20 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 65.65 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and over.Totals.
0178390198636..1..836
1188564303718113..1,148
21756263751201814411,333
31326654441422511731,429
41006284721621910821,401
57761753418427201621,477
64461755621935311661,524
71659360829537442131,617
8946958434259382761,534
9940767735871503861,616
10337467640691604761,663
111279702442109775451,669
12..222691503143996061,724
13..16567352815310973141,715
14..97634602180128104141,759
15..83590584215130107161,725
16..51608685234183169311,961
17..24495703291187191201,911
18..11481744343238217302,064
19..3401798375287264602,188
20....324811410285328432,201
21 and over..79538,0799,58313,93138,88827,35998,800
Unspecified73710314813512531467936
Totals9396,9292,08216,98912,56716,06840,95727,700134,231
Married men who died—
    (a) Without leaving issue2796766607574114641,0447475,038
    (b) Leaving issue5552,6813,4643,9722,5673,0807,4505,25329,022
Totals8343,3574,1244,7292,9783,5448,4946,00034,060

Taking all deaths of married men or widowers, whether leaving issue or not, it is found that the average living issue is 3.94, as compared with 4.24 for the period 1903-12. The following table shows the average issue for various age-groups in the two decennial periods:—

Age-group, in Years.Deaths of Married Men or Widowers.Total Number of Issue left.Average Number of Issue left.
1903.12,1913.22,1903.12,1913.22,1903.12,1913.22,
20 and under 305248345669391.081.13
30 and under 401,8873,3573,9866,9292.112.06
40 and under 502,4524,1248,11212,0823.312.93
50 and under 603,4754,72915,18316,9894.373.59
60 and under 652,3142,97811,61712,5675.024.22
65 and under 703,1913,54415,46716,0684.854.53
70 and under 806,3498,49429,99040,9574.724.82
80 and over2,9586,00013,13627,7004.444.62
Totals23,15034,06098,057134,2314.243.94

Several tables dealing with orphanhood are given in full in the Annual Report on Vital Statistics. One of these, showing the number of issue under 16 left by deceased married men, is summarized and given in the next table:—

ISSUE UNDER AGE 16 LEFT BY MARRIED MEN OR WIDOWERS, YEAR 1922.
Age at Death, in Years.Total Number of Cases where Issue left under Age 16.Cases leaving Number of Issue under 16 Years of Age shown at Head of ColumnTotal Number of Children left under Age 16.
1234567 and over.
20 and under 257511........10
25 and under 3031181111......47
30 and under 35752818121142..176
35 and under 4012334342612863327
40 and under 45155314733151694446
45 and under 50138443324151192365
50 and under 5512752302110563298
55 and under 6010650241212251229
60 and under 65593213761....108
65 and under 70471918532....92
70 and under 751610411......25
75 and under 808611........11
80 and over642..........8
Totals898333236144864937132,142

Among men who left any issue under age 16, the average number of such issue was 2.39. The average for all married men or widowers who died during the year was, however, only 0.62.

WIDOWS LEFT BY MARRIED MEN.

Of the 3,468 married men or widowers whose deaths were registered in 1922, 913 were shown to have been widowers, and 2,478 to have left widows; while in the remaining 77 cases there was no information given as to whether the deceased left a widow. Of the married men leaving widows, 2,128 had living issue also at time of death, and 350 had no living issue. In 770 cases widowers left issue, and in 143 cases no issue. In 39 of the 77 cases where no information was given as to whether a widow was left, there was living issue, in 19 cases no living issue, and in 19 cases no information as to issue was given. A table is given showing the relative ages of married men who died in 1922, and of their widows.

DEATHS, 1922.—AGES OF MARRIED MEN WHO DIED, AND OF THEIR WIDOWS.
Age of Widow, in Years.Age of Deceased, in Years.
20 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and under 90.90 and upwardsTotals.
Under 206..............6
20 and under 252315311......43
25 and under 302158113........93
30 and under 355804655......141
35 and under 401627821431..170
40 and under 45212133692762..251
45 and under 50..18212240124..261
50 and under 55....14147992211..293
55 and under 60....2741393782262
60 and under 65....3912689313261
65 and under 70....127912446..252
70 and under 75........15108454172
75 and under 80........151635120
80 and under 85..........849562
85 and under 90..........19212
90 and upwards............314
Ages not specified1679102119275
Totals59234380462546482291242,478

INFANTILE MORTALITY.

New Zealand has the lowest rate of infantile mortality in the world, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of large industrial undertakings, &c., and partly to legislative and educative measures, the latter both by the State and by various organizations.

The following table, giving infantile-mortality rates in various countries for the latest available quinquennial period, clearly shows the favourable position occupied by New Zealand:—

Country.Quinquennium.Deaths under One Year per 1 000 Births.
* Registration area.
New Zealand1918-2247
Australia1918-2263
Norway1914-1865
South Africa1918-2281
Switzerland1916-2082
Netherlands1917-2183
England and Wales1918-2285
Ireland1916-2086
United States*1916-2094
Scotland1917-2198
Uruguay1915-19111
Finland1915-19118
Belgium1914-18129
France1915-19132
Quebec1916-20149
Japan1915-19173
Jamaica1917-21178
Ceylon1917-21192

Not only has New Zealand had for many years the lowest rate of infantile mortality in the world, but the rate for the Dominion has shown steady and rapid improvement, more particularly during the last twenty years. The position was carefully investigated in 1920 by Dr. R. M. Woodbury, Ph.D., of the Children's Bureau of the United States Department of Labour, and his conclusions as to the causes of the low rate in New Zealand and the acceleration in the rate of decline during recent years are here reproduced in full:—

CONCLUSION.

It remains to point out the relationship between the general health movements and the specific measures of governmental and private agencies, and the reduction of the infant mortality from the several causes.

Certain influences have been operating steadily toward a decrease in infant mortality throughout the period. These influences include the gradual increase in medical knowledge of the best methods of disease-prevention, the raising of the level of training in the medical profession, the improvements in public sanitation, the gradual extension of the public health work in the Dominion as shown in the increase of powers and the improvements in methods of administration in the Health Department, and the gradual education of the public in methods of preventing disease and of maintaining health. These movements are difficult to trace in their individual effects upon infant mortality, but their combined influence is written plainly in the gradual and steady improvement in the rates of infant mortality from epidemic diseases and tuberculosis, as well as in the decline in infant mortality from respiratory and from gastric and intestinal diseases which occurred during the period from about 1875 to 1903.

The marked acceleration in the rate of decline in infant mortality, beginning about 1905, points clearly to the presence of new causes operating to produce it. The study of the work of various governmental and private agencies, so far as they affect infant welfare during the period under review, suggests three principal movements as responsible in the main for this acceleration.

The establishment of State maternity hospitals for the training of maternity nurses was a very important beginning in a gradual raising of the level of maternity care available. The compulsory registration of midwives and the voluntary registration of nurses were further steps toward securing better maternity and general nursing service.

The work of the St. Helens Hospitals, although especially directed toward providing for better confinement care for the wives of working-men, offers large possibilities for the reduction of the infant-mortality rate from causes peculiar to early infancy—causes which are related to the care and condition of the mother. The decrease of one-half in the infant-mortality rate during the first month of life secured in New York City by systematic pre-natal supervision shows in a striking way what can be accomplished in the further reduction of the rate from causes peculiar to early infancy. As yet, the St. Helens Hospitals provide nursing and confinement services for the mothers of only about one-sixteenth of the infants born in New Zealand, and have paid comparatively little attention to the need for pre-natal care. Nevertheless their work already appears to have had a slight influence on the mortality from causes peculiar to early infancy.

The work of infant-life protection is another important factor in the reduction of infant mortality. This work reaches only infants boarded out apart from their mothers; this group, for the most part of illegitimate birth, is one in which infant mortality is generally high, and is therefore in especial need of supervision. Since the improvement of the inspection service due to the employment of trained inspectors for infants' homes the reduction in mortality among these infants has been marked.

The most important influence in the reduction of the infant-mortality rate is undoubtedly the work of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children. Organized in 1907 in Dunedin, its work spread to other cities, and has gradually enlarged until in 1919 it reached directly through its infant-welfare centres over one-fourth of all the babies born in New Zealand. Through its newspaper health articles and through its distribution of pamphlets, including the distribution of its principal pamphlet through the Department of Health upon the registration of births, the society also undoubtedly exerts an important influence over a large proportion of those infants not directly reached by the Plunket nurses. The emphasis laid upon breast feeding, and, in case breast feeding is not possible, upon “humanized milk,” makes for a reduction in the mortality from gastric and intestinal diseases; while general instruction in infant hygiene, the value of fresh air, proper clothing, and other matters, doubtless exerts an important influence in reducing the mortality from respiratory diseases.

These new movements, together with the conditions favourable to low infant-mortality rates already described, are doubtless responsible for New Zealand's position as the country with the lowest infant-mortality rate.

The number of deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the ten years 1913-22 and the rate per 1,000 births registered are shown in the following table:—

DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER ONE YEAR OF AGE, 1913-22.
Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 Births.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19139427111,65365.2652.6659.17
19148286281,45656.9745.5051.38
19158275671,39457.3742.2050.05
19168306161,44656.5844.5150.70
19177675931,36053.5342.6348.16
19187045481,25253.6443.0348.41
19196364721,10850.5339.6845.26
19208486651,51354.9445.9050.57
19217745921,36653.1042.3147.82
19227184971,21548.2035.2341.89

The rate for 1922 is the lowest ever recorded, not only for the two sexes in conjunction, but also for each sex separately. The rate is invariably somewhat higher among males than among females.

Since 1921 a distinction has been made between legitimate and illegitimate children in the New Zealand statistics of infantile mortality, and in each of the two years covered so far the proportion of illegitimate infants among those dying within the first year of life has been found to be considerably greater than the proportion of illegitimate births to total births. The figures are—

Year.Total Deaths under One Year.Deaths of Illegitimate Infants under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Deaths under One Year.Proportion of Illegitimates in Total Births.
   Per Cent.Per Cent.
19211,3661188.644.40
19221,215867.084.22

The excess of the male over the female rate of infantile mortality holds for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table. The discrepancy is, however, somewhat greater in the first half of the year than in the second.

DEATHS AT AGE-PERIODS UNDER ONE YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS.
Year.Male Deaths per 1,000 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
191333.7410.6010.4610.4625.409.636.4511.18
191432.139.436.388.5325.437.536.675.87
191535.317.496.667 9122.786.475.887.07
191629.588.939.348.7324.285.856.587.80
191731.687.406.428.0323.945.755.687.26
191829.189.985.728.7624.187.463.467.93
191933.136.914.376.1223.375.974.545.80
192034.408.105.966.4826.996.764.767.39
192133.218.165.696.0428.025.433.865.00
192231.557.523.635.5022.684.682.984.89

The number of male deaths per 100 female deaths in the first month of life during the ten years 1913-22 was 138; between one and three months, 136; between three and six months, 135; and between six and twelve months, 115.

The actual number of male and female deaths during these periods of life are next shown for the last ten years. Taking the whole decennium it is found that of every 100 males who died under one year of age, 59 lived less than one month, 74 less than three months, and 86 less than six months. The corresponding figures for females are 57, 72, and 84 respectively.

NUMBER OF DEATHS AT AGE-PERIODS UNDER ONE YEAR.
Year.MaleFemale
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
191348715315115134313087151
19144671371001243511049281
191550910896114306877995
19164341311371283368191108
1917454106921153338079101
1918383131751153089544101
1919417875577278715469
1920531125921003919869107
19214841198388392765470
19224701125482320664269

If the deaths under one year of age are divided into two groups—viz., those occurring during the first month of life and those during the remainder of the twelve months—it is found that the decrease disclosed for recent years when compared with earlier is entirely confined to the latter class; the explanation being, no doubt, that with premature birth, congenital debility, and other causes of death due to pre-natal influences (which are responsible for the great majority of deaths during the first month), it has not hitherto been found possible to effect the great improvements which have come about in regard to complaints arising from post-natal causes.

The next table shows that whereas in the average of the five years 1916-20 the death-rate under one month of age was only slightly lower than in the quinquennium 1881-85, the rate for children who have survived the first month of life was only one-third as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, where the Dominion formerly lost, between the ages of one month and one year, sixty children out of every thousand, it lost only twenty in the quinquennium 1916-20. In 1921 the number per thousand was only eighteen, and in 1922 only fifteen.

Period.Deaths per 1,000 Births.Deaths between 1 and 12 Months per 1,000 Children who survive 1 Month.
Under 1 Year.Under 1 Month.Between 1 and 12 Months.
1881-188590.6029.7760.8362.70
1886-189084.0927.5756.5258.13
1891-189587.6030.3457.2658.93
1896-190080.0630.3849.6851.24
1901-190574.7730.6444.1345.54
1906-191069.6230.2839 3440.57
1911-191553.6329.2824.3525.05
1916-192048.6228.1620.4621.05
192147.8230.6717.1517.63
192241.8927.2314.6615.06

The decrease by half in the general rate and three-quarters in the rate between one and twelve months, and the practically stationary nature of the rate under one month, are well indicated in the accompanying diagram.

If the deaths under one month for the year 1922 are subjected to a more detailed analysis as to age it is found that of the total of 790 nearly a third (254) occurred within twenty-four hours of birth, and nearly three-quarters (592) within one week. The following table gives information as to the causes of death at various periods of the first year of life:—

INFANTILE MORTALITY, 1922.—CAUSES AND AGES.
Cause of Death.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 1 week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and under 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Total.
Measles..............1....1
Whooping-cough..............1..12
Diphtheria................224
Influenza..............21..3
Tuberculosis (all forms)....1........1439
Syphilis..........111....3
Meningitis..1....11135719
Convulsions4122124..54741
Bronchitis..213..8153629
Broncho-pneumonia..41....98108848
Pneumonia..111114..4422
Diseases of stomach..1......113118
Diarrhœa and enteritis....1638161919779
Hernia, intestinal obstruction......1..1..2228
Congenital malformations16391995239664136
Congenital debility, icterus184217115141720114165
Premature birth1721514021132321....423
Other causes peculiar to early infancy3871111..6..1....128
Absorption of deleterious gases (overlain, &c.)..1..1..125..111
Other causes67775123581676
Totals, both sexes2543381016235113659678731,215
Totals, males1561886338256547544438718
Totals, females981503824104818423435497

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infantile-mortality rates for various groups of causes over a period of fifty-one years. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last quinquennia covered—1872-76 and 1918-22—it is found that the general infantile-mortality rate shows a decline of 57 per cent., while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (92 per cent.), gastric and intestinal diseases (84 per cent.), convulsions (81 per cent.), epidemic diseases (79 per cent.), and respiratory diseases (65 per cent.). On the other hand, an actual increase of 16 per cent, is disclosed by the figures for the two classes of pre-natal causes—malformations and diseases of early infancy—taken in conjunction.

The decrease shown for tuberculosis and the increase for malformations are probably somewhat loss than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the former heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis.

INFANTILE-MORTALITY RATES FOR PRINCIPAL CAUSES, 1872-1922.
Year.Epidemic Diseases.Tuberculosis.Infantile Convulsions.Respiratory Diseases.Gastric and Intestinal Diseases.Malformations.Early Infancy.Other Causes.Totals.
187212.85.110.710.824.30.624.511.6100.4
187326.84.29.912.715.70.822.815.2108.1
187410.54.89.513.928.90.523.716.7108.5
18758.67.210.717.426.41.429.324.8125.8
18768.65.97.79.925.72.624.818.3103.5
187710.85.57.210.118.81.521.315.490.6
18789.84.77.48.918.30.921.013.484.4
187913.85.48.015.922.91.324.515.6107.4
18806.65.07.713.619.91.621.417.593.3
188110.15.47.513.119.01.421.214.792.4
18828.74.98.311.415.31.424.913.488.3
188312.65.28.312.824.81.022.716.5103.9
18848.04.78.010.111.41.425.310.479.3
18857.33.96.811.919.80.927.810.889.2
18869.94.98.212.524.21.227.010.598.4
18879.95.36.89.924.41.425.510.893.8
18886.64.26.19.411.91.322.38.970.7
18894.62.65.710.419.31.325.99.178.9
18908.62.66.29.518.61.424.77.178.7
189114.73.66.713.418.41.125.08.391.2
18928.83.66.510.621.60.927.210.089.2
189313.73.36.714.312.91.625.89.788.0
189411.23.25.78.913.41.022.515.481.3
189510.03.57.315.015.42.024.410.788.3
18965.42.86.86.219.71.624.810.077.3
18974.02.75.89.717.11.623.08.472.3
18985.92.75 37.519.51.528.29.179.7
18999.73.56.813.820.61.329.910.395.9
19006.61.85.48.016.41.522.712.875.2
19014.22.34.411.012.51.727.38.071.4
19027.11.84.012.217.31.631.27.782.9
190310.42.14.711.515.41.627.77.781.1
19044.01.24.27.213.21.426.28.671.0
19053.01.24.110.014.20.927.07.167.5
19063.01.33.77.511.51.125.88.262.1
190712.51.93.311.422.81.327.77.988.8
19083.71.52.96.017.81.627.47.067.9
19093.71.24.07.211 32.225.26.861.6
19106.61.43.16.915.02.227.64.967.7
19112.80.63.46.610.71.925.44.956.3
19122.11.11.95.17.94.326.82.051.2
19134.10.72.56.29.03.228.45.159.2
19143.50.61.84.47.53.526.83.351.4
19153.70.42.06.25.44.724.93.850.1
19164.50.42.64.77 33.824.23.250.7
19173.00.32.04.16.24.224.63.848.2
19185.00.62.04.33.23.227.22.948.4
19191.70.41.94.44.14.625.23.045.3
19204.40.41.75.24.34.527.22.950.6
19212.00.52.15.24.75.026.22.147.8
19221.20.31.43.73.34.724.82.541.9

CAUSES OF DEATH.

The classification of causes of death was made in 1908 for the first time in New Zealand according to the international classification of diseases initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon and used by the Commonwealth of Australia and the principal European and American countries. It is highly desirable for comparative purposes that uniformity of statistical method should obtain.

The Bertillon system differs materially from that in use prior to 1908, and comparisons of certain causes of mortality between years prior and subsequent to 1908 are impossible owing to changes in the classification. This applies more particularly to diseases of the digestive, nervous, respiratory, and circulatory systems. There are, however, certain principal causes of death which are unaffected and retain their comparative value, such as cancer, tubercular diseases, typhoid fever, whooping-cough, measles, influenza, scarlet fever, diabetes, appendicitis, liver and puerperal diseases, accident, and suicide.

A comparison of the causes of deaths in 1921 and 1922 arranged according to an abridged classification, the percentage of each group to the total deaths, and the proportion per 10,000 of population are given in the following table:—

Class.Number of Deaths.Proportion o Total Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1921.19221921.1922.1921.1922.
......Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
I. General diseases2,7442,61025.6923.7822.4220.85
II. Diseases of the nervous system and of the organs of special sense1,0531,1179.8610.188.608.92
III. Diseases of the circulatory system1,9082,14017.8619.4915.5917.09
IV. Diseases of the respiratory system1,1011,12610.3110.269.008.99
V. Diseases of the digestive system6286815.886.205.135.44
VI. Diseases of the genito-urinary system and annexa5445005.094.554.443.99
VII. Puerperal state1451491.361.361.191.19
VIII. Diseases of the skin and of the cellular tissue61540.570.490.500.43
IX. Diseases of the organs of locomotion32460.300.420.260.37
X. Malformations1591561.491.421.301.25
XI. Early infancy7497187.016.546.115.74
XII. Old age7918917.408.126.467.12
XIII. Violence7347196.876.556.005.74
XIV. Ill-defined causes33700.310.640.270.56
Totals10,68210,977100.00100.0087.2887.68

The first class, general diseases, which includes both cancer and tuberculosis, is annually responsible for about a quarter of the deaths registered. Next in order of numbers comes Class III, diseases of the circulatory system, the principal of which, organic heart-disease, ranks easily first among individual causes of death in New Zealand. Classes VIII and IX are responsible for very few deaths.

The next table shows the number of deaths from certain principal causes for the five years 1918-22, and the proportion per 10,000 of the population:—

Cause.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Typhoid fever33344024670.300.300.340.200.54
Measles1531224710.140.031.020.380.01
Scarlet fever30231524100.270.200.130.200.08
Whooping-cough2771074940.240.060.900.400.03
Diphtheria18914991103781.711.310.770.840.62
Influenza5,5163464801056650.013.034.020.860.53
Pulmonary tuberculosis6646026956406266.025.275.835.235.00
Other forms of tuberculosis1631601561531771.521.401.311.251.41
Cancer9361,0311,0291,0441,0668.499.028.638.538.52
Diabetes1951681491651591.771.481.251.351.27
Exophthalmic goitre42254438290.380.220.370.300.23
Anæmia, chlorosis82758397790.740.660.700.790.63
Meningitis1821551331141141.651.361.120.920.91
Infantile paralysis412990.040.010.020.070.07
Apoplexy, cerebral hæmorrhage4705395255145654.264.724.404.204.51
Epilepsy61494948430.550.430.420.390.34
Convulsions of children under 5 years of age70616470560.630.530.540.560.45
Organic heart-disease1,3691,5381,7031,5121,68512.4113.4614.2812.3513.46
Arterio-sclerosis8374111831030.750.650.930.680.82
Embolism, thrombosis53788580960.480.680.720.650.78
Bronchitis3042903892883412.762.543.262.352.72
Broncho-pneumonia2001402311941771.811.221.941.581.41
Pneumonia4494015284274074.073.524.433.493.25
Gastritis38364922250.340.320.410.180.20
Diarrhœa and enteritis1471321882211871.331.151.581.801.49
Appendicitis and typhlitis928889851070.830.770.750.700.86
Hernia, intestinal obstruction96879127791020.870.691.060.690.81
Cirrhosis of liver41402828370.370.350.240.230.30
Simple peritonitis45576540520.410.500.550.330.42
Nephritis, Bright's disease2873093563773102.692.702.983.082.48
Cystitis26363623260.240.310.300.190.21
Diseases and accidents of puerperal condition1341241941451491.211.081.631.191.19
Malformations1121381651591561.021.211.381.301.25
Congenital debility2391962631911652.171.722.201.561.32
Premature birth3733174364034233.382.773.663.293.38
Senility1,2291,0561,01779189111.149.238.536.467.12
Violence (1) suicide1131391331571641.021.221.121.281.31
(2) accident, &c.5485815635775554.975.084.724.724.43
Other causes1,7021,5211,5691,5561,67015.4313.3413.1612.7113.32
     Totals16,36410,80812,10910,68210,977148.3694.55101.6087.2887.68

INFLUENZA.

During the latter part of 1918 the Dominion was visited by a most virulent epidemic of influenza of a character similar to that experienced in most countries of the world in 1918 or 1919. The disease was more properly pneumonic influenza, and many deaths in the earlier stages of the outbreak were registered as caused by pneumonia, broncho-pneumonia, &c., which in the light of later knowledge would probably have been ascribed to influenza.

The deaths from influenza alone during 1918 reached a total of 5,516, a number greatly in excess of the grand total for the preceding forty-six years, prior to which statistics of causes of death are not available. This figure does not include Maori deaths—approximately 1,200—due to influenza.

The following table shows that influenza caused more deaths in 1919 and 1920 than in any year prior to 1918, thus showing that though the epidemic of that year was short-lived the disease still remained and exerted its influence on the death-rates of the next two years:—

DEATHS FROM INFLUENZA, 1872-1922.
Year.Deaths.
18728
18736
187417
187515
187617
18779
18783
187915
188011
188110
188213
188311
18846
18855
188611
18879
18889
18899
189070
1891210
1892144
1893106
1894233
1895125
189689
1897120
1898219
1899135
1900181
1901219
1902117
190356
1904113
190570
1906132
1907223
190864
190947
1910141
191163
191265
191356
191463
1915110
191673
191738
19185,516
1919346
1920540
1921105
192266

Of the 5,516 victims of influenza during 1918. 3,529 were males and 1,987 were females. The number of male deaths equalled 6.54 per 1,000 of the male population, and the female deaths were 3.68 per 1,000 of the female population. Males, therefore, suffered almost twice as severely as females.

Under the age of 15 the rates for both sexes were low and comparatively equal. Over the age of 55 the same is true, except that both rates were fairly high. But between those two groups lies the great bulk of the population, varying from youth to middle age, and with normally a comparatively low death-rate. Yet in this instance the death-rate soared very high, particularly so in the case of males. In the age-group 35-39 years inclusive the male death-rate was more than three times the female rate. Possibly the fact that many thousands of males of good health and physique were temporarily absent from the country was an influencing factor.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Pulmonary tuberculosis takes fourth place in point of the number of deaths resulting therefrom during 1922, ranking after heart-disease, cancer, and senility, in that order. Acute miliary tuberculosis is included with pulmonary. The average for the last ten years was 621, or 5.47 per 10,000 of mean population.

Year.Deaths from Pulmonary Tuberculosis.Rate per 10,000.
19136566.14
19145765.28
19155625 11
19165915.38
19175975.43
19186646.02
19196025.27
19206955.83
19216405.23
19226265.00

Of 626 persons who died from pulmonary tuberculosis in 1922, 413, or 66 per cent., were known to have been born in the Dominion. In 17 cases the country of birth was not known or not stated, and in the remaining 196 cases the deceased person had been born outside New Zealand. Eleven of the last-mentioned had been in New Zealand less than one year, and 28 less than five years.

In addition to the 626 deaths from pulmonary tuberculosis during 1922, there were 177 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, made up as follows:—

Tuberculous meningitis75
Abdominal tuberculosis40
Tuberculosis of spine17
Tuberculosis of joints10
Tuberculosis of other organs25
Disseminated tuberculosis10

The following table gives the number and rate of deaths from all forms of tuberculosis during the last ten years, with the percentage that deaths from tuberculosis bear to all deaths:—

Year.Mean Population.Number of Deaths from Tubercular Diseases.Rate per 10,000.Percentage of Total Deaths from all Causes.

(a All deaths;

(b) excluding deaths from influenza, October-December, 1918.

19131,068,6448127.608.02
19141,090,3287286.677.17
19151,099,3946936.306.95
19161,099,4497426.747.00
19171,099,1177556.877.17
19181,103,0228327.54(5.08 (a) 7.64 (b)
19191,142,8897626.677.05
19201,192,6208517.147.03
19211,223,9017936.487.42
19221,251,8958036.417.32

Tuberculosis claims its victims at comparatively early age. Of those dying from this cause in 1922, persons under the age of twenty years formed 18 per cent., and those under forty-five years 75 per cent. The figures for the various age-groups are as follows:—

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM TUBERCULAR DISEASES, 1922.
Ages, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5242246
5 and under 10131427
10 and under 1581422
15 and under 20133952
20 and under 25395089
25 and under 304754101
30 and under 356439103
35 and under 40473582
40 and under 45493483
45 and under 50342357
50 and under 55291948
55 and under 6017825
60 and under 65151025
65 and under 7014317
70 and under 759312
75 and under 806410
80 and upwards224
     Total deaths430373803

The proportions for the two sexes vary considerably over the different age-groups, females being in the majority up to thirty years of age, and males thereafter.

The New Zealand rate of deaths from tubercular diseases, together with those of England, Scotland, Ireland, and other principal countries of the world, is next shown. New Zealand compares more than favourably with the majority of the countries given.

DEATH-RATES FROM TUBERCULOSIS.
Country.Year.Death-rates (per 10,000).

* Registration area.

South Africa19194.5
New Zealand19226.4
Australia19216.8
Ceylon19217.5
Ontario19207.9
England and Wales192111.3
United States*192011.4
Scotland192111.8
Quebec192013.4
Netherlands192113.5
Belgium191914.4
Germany191514.8
Denmark191715.8
Spain192115.8
Uruguay191916.0
Italy191616.7
Ireland192017.0
Switzerland192018.0
Jamaica192119.2
Sweden191620.6
France191521.8
Norway191622.6
Japan191823.9
Finland191627.9

CANCER.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than organic disease of the heart. The increasing prevalence of cancer is causing no little concern in the Dominion, as indeed it is throughout the civilized world. It is, however, to be noted that each of the last three years shows a slight fall in the cancer death-rate.

A much more complete presentation of data than can be given here was published in a special article on cancer mortality in the Year-book for 1917 (pages 776-809).

In 1922 there were 1,066 deaths from cancer in the Dominion, a proportion of 8-52 per 10,000 persons. This rate represents a slight decrease when compared with the previous year, and is 6 per cent, lower than that recorded for 1919. The average number of cancer deaths and the average cancer death-rate for the years 1913-22 were 963 and 8.48 respectively. Deaths of males during 1922 numbered 562, and of females 504.

Rates for war years are inflated to some extent by the absence of a large number of men at ages when there is comparative immunity from cancer.

NUMBER OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, THE PROPORTION PER 10,000 OF POPULATION, AND THE PERCENTAGE OF ALL DEATHS, 1913-22.
Year.Deaths from Cancer.Total Deaths, all Causes.Deaths from Cancer per 10,000 of Mean Population.Deaths from Cancer per 100 of all Deaths.

(a) All deaths;

(b) excluding deaths from influenza, October-December, 1918.

191385610,1198.018.46
191490410,1488.298.91
19159009.9658.199.03
191690910,5968.278.50
191795710,5288.719.09
191893616,3648.495.72(a)
8.59(b)
19191,03110,8089.029.54
19201,02912,1098.638.50
19211,04410,6828.539.77
19221,06610,9778.529.71

The following diagram illustrates, on the one hand, the increase in the cancer death-rate, and, on the other, the decrease in the rate of deaths from tuberculosis:—

The proportion of deaths from cancer to the 1,000 persons living in some of the principal countries of the world, as shown in the next table, leads to the conclusion that there is a general tendency to increase.

CANCER DEATH-RATES PER 1,000 LIVING IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES.
Country.Average of 5 Years, 1896-1900.Average of 5 Years, 1906-10.Increase per Cent, during 10 Years.Rate for Last Year ascertainable.

* Decrease.

    Year.Rate.
New Zealand0.590.7222.0319220.85
Commonwealth of Australia0.580.7020.6919210.87
England and Wales0.800.9417.5019211.22
Scotland0.771.0029.8719211.22
Ireland0.580.7936.2119200.85
Germany0.660.8427.2719150.85
Austria0.690.7813.0419120.81
Italy0.510.6425.4919170.64
Norway0.860.9712.7919170.96
Denmark0.450.5420.0019140.58
Netherlands0.921.0311.9619211.18
Switzerland1.271.2600.79*19201.26
Spain0.430.6448.8419210.60

The parts of the body most commonly affected in New Zealand are the stomach and liver. Among females the generative and mammary organs are frequently the seat of the disease. Full details of location are published in the Annual Report on the Vital Statistics.

CANCER: SEAT OF DISEASE, 1922.
Seat of Disease.Males.Females.Total.
Buccal cavity44549
Stomach and liver246123369
Peritoneum, intestines, rectum9988187
Female genital organs..8787
Breast..7474
Skin211132
Other organs or organs not specified152116268
     Totals5625041,066

It will be observed that in two instances the rates for the two sexes show considerable disparity, to the disadvantage of the male sex—viz., cancer of the buccal cavity and of the stomach and liver. The discrepancy in the former instance is, perhaps, due largely to two circumstances: first, that smoking is confined more or less exclusively to the males, and, secondly, that, generally speaking, more attention is paid to the teeth, &c., by females. In the second instance it appears that another predominantly male habit—drinking—is partially responsible. Alcohol is known to detrimentally affect the stomach, &c., by producing ulceration and cirrhosis, often forerunners to cancer.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, 1922.
Ages, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
Under 55..5
5 and under 101..1
10 and under 15123
15 and under 20314
20 and under 25.......
25 and under 30123
30 and under 35347
35 and under 40122032
40 and under 54223254
45 and under 50355489
50 and under 555655111
55 and under 606857125
60 and under 658072152
65 and under 708862150
70 and under 758063143
75 and under 80504191
80 and upwards573996
     Totals5625041,066

Ninety per cent, of the deaths from cancer during 1922 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 59 per cent, at ages 60 years and upwards.

Exhaustive statistical inquiry covering the period from 1872 to date has shown that in New Zealand death from cancer is, on the average, now occurring later in life than formerly. It would seem that this is the case even if allowance be made for the fact that the age-constitution of the Dominion is increasing—i.e., that the average citizen of New Zealand is now older than the average citizen of ten, twenty, or fifty years ago.

PUERPERAL CAUSES.

In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, owing to the association between maternal death-rate and the all-important matter of the birth-rate, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance.

In recent years New Zealand has had a comparatively high death-rate from puerperal causes when considered in relation to the number of births rather than on population basis. The rate for each year since 1872 is as follows:—

Year.Proportion per 1,000 Children born.
18724.26
18734.63
18745.76
18756.44
18764.58
18774.39
18784.78
18794.48
18803.93
18814.91
18825.31
18834.95
18846.90
18857.31
18865.75
18874.96
18885.87
18894.23
18905.42
18915.20
18924.53
18934.29
18945.99
18955.45
18964.67
18974.38
18984.80
18994.57
19003.84
19014.39
19025.33
19035.86
19044.66
19054.22
19063.88
19074.62
19084.59
19095.09
19104.50
19114.33
19123.64
19133.58
19144.16
19154.70
19165.86
19175.98
19185.18
19195.06
19206.48
19215.08
19225.14

During the fifty years covered by the table the rate has ranged between 3.58 and 7.31 per 1,000 live births registered, the lowest rate being in 1913 and the highest in 1885. It is noticeable that in the cases of both lowest and highest rates neighbouring years rank first and second on the list. The rate for 1920 was the third highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885, but it is gratifying to see that this high rate was not maintained in the two following years.

The figures for years subsequent to 1915 are somewhat disadvantageously placed for purposes of comparison with earlier years. Commencing with 1916, special inquiry has been made in all cases where a woman of child-bearing age has been returned as having died of such causes as septicæmia, peritonitis, nephritis, &c. (without qualification), with the result that in each year several of such cases are found to be puerperal, and are now so classed. Possibly this factor also affects to a certain extent comparison with other countries, and in any case the possibility of different treatment between one country and another as regards puerperal accidents and diseases and associated causes should not be overlooked when comparing New Zealand with other countries. It may be stated, however, that the rate for the Dominion is somewhat higher than the rates for Australia (4.72 in 1921) and England and Wales (3.91 in 1921), but lower than those for Scotland (6.4 in 1921) and Ireland and the United States registration area (5.5 and 8.0 respectively in 1920).

The next table shows the number of deaths from puerperal causes during each of the last ten years, classified in the eight groups into which such cases are divided in the international classification.

The great increase in the figures for puerperal septicæmia since 1916 would suggest that the alteration in the system referred to above is entirely responsible for the considerable increases in maternal deaths since 1915. The indications, however, are that the change is only partly responsible. During the five years 1911-15 deaths shown as being due to puerperal septicæmia averaged 26 per annum, and during the next five years 55 per annum, an increase of 29. The corresponding figures for non-puerperal or undefined septicæmia of women of the child-bearing ages were 16 and 4 for the respective quinquennia, a decrease of only 12.

DEATHS FROM PUERPERAL CAUSES, BY GROUPS, 1913-22.
Group.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

* Mainly deaths from puerperal mania.

Accidents of pregnancy252138272715926913
Puerperal hæmorrhage14171420181110401822
Other accidents of labour16191826161911121013
Puerperal septicæmia29352260594852674852
Puerperal albuminura and convulsions10183224373036374135
Puerperal embolism and thrombosis3755810491812
Following childbirth (not otherwise defined)*2125411312
Puerperal diseases of the breast............1......
     Totals99118131167169134124194145149

DEATHS FROM VIOLENCE.

Deaths from violence, apart from suicide, are steadily decreasing in numbers. The rate per 10,000 of mean population was 6.58 in 1902, 6.65 in 1907, 4.95 in 1912, 5.10 in 1917, and 4.43 in 1922. The various forms of violent deaths in 1922 are shown in the following table:—

VIOLENT DEATHS (EXCLUDING SUICIDES), 1922.
Cause of Death.Males.Females.Total.
Accidents—   
   Poisoning by food112
   Other acute poisonings628
   Conflagration729
   Burns, scalds91524
   Asphyxia21425
   Drowning10220122
   Cutting or piercing instruments1..1
   Firearms22325
   Falls39847
   Mines and quarries4..4
   Machinery6..6
   Crushing—   
     Railway42345
     Tramway819
     Motor vehicles451661
     Other vehicles21728
     Other20..20
Injuries by animals9..9
Homicide—   
   By firearms1..1
   By asphyxia..33
   By drowning134
   By other means336
Starvation4..4
Excessive cold8..8
Effects of heat3..3
Lightning2..2
Electricity4..4
Fractures (cause not shown)161834
Other external injuries35641
 440115555

SUICIDES.

The suicidal deaths in 1922 were 164—males 130 and females 34. The rate per 10,000 of mean population was—males 2.04, females 0.55, both sexes 1.31. The average of the preceding five years was 1.15 per 10,000 living. The New Zealand suicide-rate approximates those of the Commonwealth (1.14 per 10,000 in 1921 England and Wales (0.99 in 1921), and the United States registration area (in 1920), but compares unfavourably with those of Scotland (0.61 in 1921) and Ireland (0.21 in 1920). The following table shows the means of self destruction employed in New Zealand in 1922:—

SUICIDES, 1922.
Mode of Death.Males.Females.Total.
Hanging or strangulation33740
Firearms37138
Cutting or piercing instruments17522
Poison14519
Drowning14923
Asphyxia7512
Jumping from high places123
Explosives2..2
Means not stated5..5
     Total suicides13034164

MAORI DEATHS.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths of Maoris registered under section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, since its coming into force. The numbers registered under the main Act are also given.

Year.Under Section 20 of Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912.Under Main Act.
Males.Females.Totals.Totals.

* Not shown separately.

1913**41261
191438234172342
191542436278631
191643232976147
191738234772944
19181,0009371,93799
19196315631,19469
192044641385933
192148530779218
192247442389712

Maoris suffered exceedingly severe losses during the influenza epidemic of 1918. As statistics of causes of deaths are not compiled in their case, the exact totals cannot be ascertained. By taking December quarter's huge total of deaths and subtracting the approximate number in normal times it seems that the death-toll of the epidemic was in the neighbourhood of 25 per 1,000 of the Maori population. These deaths are not included in the numbers quoted elsewhere in this subsection.

DEATHS IN COOK ISLANDS.

As explained in the Births subsection of this book, a system of compulsory registration of deaths is now ruling in the Cook Islands.

Particulars required are much the same as in New Zealand proper, but the onus of registering is thrown on the occupier of the house where the death took place, or on any person present at the time of death. If the deceased in his or her last illness was attended by a medical practitioner a medical certificate must be supplied to the Registrar. Any person conducting a burial or a religious service thereat must notify the nearest Registrar in writing within one week.

The following are the figures of death registrations in each island during the twelve months ended the 31st March, 1923:—

DEATHS IN COOK ISLANDS, 1922-23.
Island.Number of Deaths.
Rarotonga70
Aitutaki48
Mangaia51
Manihiki12
Mauke12
Mitiaro6
Rakahanga16
Atiu33
Penrhyn8
Niue82
Total338

DEATHS IN WESTERN SAMOA.

During the twelve months ended the 31st March, 1923, the deaths of 1,027 persons were registered in Western Samoa. Of these 19 were Europeans, 6 Chinese indentured labourers, 2 Melanesian or Polynesian indentured labourers, and the remaining 1,000 native Samoans.

SUBSECTION D.–MORBIDITY.

DEATH-RATES are of great value as indicating the relative healthiness of different countries or for different years. The statistics of causes of registered deaths are of further use as showing the incidence of fatal diseases or accidents, and as indicating in a general way the relative rise or fall of diseases over a series of years. For instance, the fall in the incidence of tuberculosis and the increase in cancer (discussed in Subsection C of this section) can be readily traced from the records of deaths attributed to these causes in different years.

In comparisons of healthiness based on death-rates, however, the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years is not taken into account. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now give a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally.

Of recent years much attention has been devoted in different countries to the possibility or otherwise of obtaining reliable statistics of sickness. In certain of the American States an attempt has been made to obtain from medical men returns of all patients dealt with, giving the nature and duration of illness, and similar systems have been inaugurated or proposed in other countries.

In New Zealand certain diseases are notifiable, but beyond this the only record other than that of fatality is the information ascertainable from the returns of discharges from public hospitals. In the absence of full statistics of sickness, however, information from the two sources mentioned is of considerable value, and gives a fair indication of the prevalence of the more important diseases.

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES.

The system of notification of certain diseases has been in force in New Zealand for many years, and the list of notifiable diseases has undergone several alterations. The list at present is as follows:–

  1. A. Notifiable infectious diseases mentioned in Part I of First Schedule of Health Act, 1920:–

    Anthrax.Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).
    Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis).Puerperal fever (puerperal septicæmia and puerperal sapræmia).
    Cholera.Scarlet fever (scarlatina).
    Dengue.Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch, and Philippine itch).
    Diphtheria.
    Erysipelas.
    Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever).Typhus.
    Yellow fever.
    Leprosy.
  2. B. Notifiable infectious diseases declared by Gazette notice:–

    Encephalitis lethargica.Acute primary pneumonia.
    Fulminant influenza.Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis).
    Pneumonic influenza.Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids).
    Septicæmic influenza.
    Ophthalmia neonatorum.Tuberculosis (pulmonary).
  3. C. Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, mentioned in Second Schedule:–

    Actinomycosis.Food-poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).
    Anchylostomiasis (hookworm disease).
    Bilharziosis (endemic hæmaturia, Egyptian hæmaturia).Chronic lead poisoning.
    Phosphorus poisoning.
    Beriberi.Tetanus.
    Hydatids.
  4. D. Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, declared by Gazette notice:–

    Eclampsia.

Notifications of diseases during 1922 are shown for each month of the year in the following table:–

Disease.January.February.March.April.May.June.July.August.September.October.November.December.  Totals.

* Only pneumonic, fulminant, and septicæmic types included.

Scarlet fever1041031401851631251471321328065731,449
Diphtheria171127179210217212202182143143861171,989
Enteric fever2829271578743193633282725539
Tuberculosis (pulmonary)925985769311010210585128102921,129
Cerebro-spinal meningitis13414251657342
Acute poliomyelitis212021144532232198
Puerperal fever281427192616192126261822262
Influenza*15131481210332435261412216
Acute primary pneumonia2928515262781001731051199158946
Erysipelas15151836373131222522910271
Tetanus..1222421..33222
Encephalitis lethargica......31391233..236
Hydatids2..3423..3263836
Trachoma..21....2....2......7
Ophthalmia neonatorum32331143231..26
Actinomycosis....1..................1
Anthrax..........1..........12
Food-poisoning..4....................4
  Totals.5094205767707116466767176015954284267,075

A quinquennial summary of certain principal diseases is as follows:–

PRINCIPAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES NOTIFIED, 1918-22.

Disease.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Scarlet fever1,6541,5211,2481,8451,449
Diphtheria5,5393,4992,4422,6111,989
Enteric fever423477389451539
Tuberculosis1,0729841,3051,2071,129
Cerebro-spinal meningitis15996795642
Poliomyelitis6117626798
Puerperal septicæmia7679124178262
Erysipelas7273156228271

Information as to case-fatality in regard to the three first-mentioned diseases above is given in the next table for each of the last ten years:–

Year.Diphtheria.Scarlet Fever.Enteric Fever.
Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality. Per Cent.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality. Per Cent.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality. Per Cent.
1913747618.171,614110.68863606.95
19141,094787.131,506221.45859485.59
19151,420996.972,312441.90825526.30
19162,3761636.864,278521.22806373.72
19175,4582374.342,755301.09653416.28
19185,5391893.411,654301.81423337.80
19193,4991574.491,521231.51477347.13
19202,442953.891,248151.203894010.28
19212,6111074.101,845241.30451245.32
19221,989783.921,449100.695396712.43

PUBLIC HOSPITALS: ADMISSIONS AND DISCHARGES.

The total admissions to public hospitals in New Zealand during 1922 numbered 47,549. There were 3,610 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year being thus 51,159, equal to 392 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris. The total number of persons treated is somewhat less than the number of cases, each admission being counted a separate case.

Of the 51,159 cases, 26,983 were discharged as recovered, in 14,987 cases the patient was discharged relieved, and in 2,407 cases as unrelieved. Deaths in hospital numbered 2,984, or 5.83 per cent, of cases dealt with, and 3,798 patients were still in hospital at the end of the year. The figures of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the public hospitals in the Dominion, other than St. Helens Maternity Homes, are given in the table following, together with the numbers of patients in hospital at the beginning and end of the year. There are eighty-eight public hospitals, this number including four fever or infectious-diseases hospitals, six sanatoria for consumptives, and three other institutions for special classes of cases.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.–ADMISSIONS, DISCHARGES, ETC., 1922.

Hospital.Patients remaining on 1st January, 1922.Admissions during 1922.Discharges during 1922.Deaths in Hospital during 1922.Patients remaining on 31st December, 1922.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
Mangonui15131105165614
Whangaroa47345191012
Bay of Islands132121524621213
Hokianga14277217444917
Northern Wairoa19243205272217
Otamatea4685710122
Whangarei691,022679278104183
Auckland3705,5113,7021,192157427403
Waikato1582,4551,404799115134161
Kawhia372574824
Taumarunui263562973452917
Waihi333532983571531
Thames41793596145133842
Coromandel6109474011611
Mercury Bay..685013131
Tauranga11236160541698
Te Puke6117103135..2
King George V, Rotorua1805981773497329150
Opotiki12139103234912
Waiapu158366458
Cook941,08288589456493
Wairoa202832482321020
Napier1651,7091,038397176113150
Waipawa384653409262441
Pukeora Sanatorium14427392413018119
Dannevirke213412822261537
Taranaki901,14399091207062
Stratford835225855..2324
Hawera3349936874132354
Patea122151711961417
Wanganui1271,6851,1953384390146
Waimarino..159......6
Taihape255714607192432
Palmerston North681,6381,302168779663
Otaki91691232416114
Otaki Sanatorium3676164016..40
Pahiatua16182161141814
Masterton32640476102123349
Greytown111841303412514
Trentham Orthopædic..647563542307..
Wellington3354,1783703,109366329339
Wairau4263447896212952
Havelock..312262..1
Picton1319418172107
Nelson47595354158315445
Westport313843193222438
Denniston317614720192
Reefton39113763211627
Waiuta Nurses' Home270619..11
Grey River56373- 23087104656
Westland272561963752025
Otira Cottage..1182..1..
Kaikoura6234201183711
Queen Mary, Hanmer..40412318625..70
Amuri..503412112
Waikari18873210..4
Oxford2776112123
Christchurch3155,1571,8002,712340322298
Burwood Infectious Diseases253593629..310
Cashmere Hills Sanatorium71614464276
Coronation Hospital for Consumptives5667121642962
Lyttelton Casualty Ward..40..382....
Akaroa137294122
Ashburton5170357381143353
Geraldine..1310..1..2
Fairlie..5646622..
Timaru551,003414476337560
Talbot Infectious Diseases1219301......
Waimate274993919031725
Oamaru1634223650133821
Pleasant Valley Sanatorium426125215349
Port Chalmers Cottage1442812212
Logan Point Infectious Diseases..4239..1..2
Dunedin1713,6021,6301,419204273247
Wakari1427..1251014
Prince Edward Convalescent Home1812067518..12
Louisa Roberts, Middlemarch..25194..11
Tuapeka91037818556
Kaitangata..33255..12
Tapanui8934346345
Naseby8150100392611
Dunstan1186601311112
Cromwell713910228169
Lake County77641172815
Seddon Memorial, Gore1631024139112114
Southland871,038353515778595
Kew Infectious Diseases1148319577
Wallace and Fiord332682133042430
 Totals3,61047,54926,98314,9872,4072,9843,798

The Trentham Orthopædic Hospital and the Queen Mary Hospital (Hanmer) were formerly under the control of the Defence Department, but were transferred to the Health Department in 1922. Patients in these hospitals at the date of transfer are included in the admissions for the year.

Trentham Orthopædic Hospital was closed before the end of the year, and the figures of discharges include a number of cases transferred to other hospitals.

The figures of admissions, discharges, and deaths for all public hospitals for each of the last five years are–

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.–ADMISSIONS, DISCHARGES, AND DEATHS, 1918-22.

Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
191846,22631,2539,4091,3664,46846,496
191942,91726,32111,3851,9062,86442,476
192045,99528,23012,4182,2413,39946,288
192145,10726,30213,9121,9252,97445,113
192247,54926,98314,9872,4072,98447,361

SEXES OF PATIENTS.

From the following table it will be seen that males considerably outnumber females among hospital patients. During the nine years for which statistics are available the number of males to every 100 females has ranged from 127 in 1922 to 160 in 1919. The death-rate is also invariably higher among male than among female patients.

Year.Discharges and Deaths.Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000 Cases.
Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.Males per 100 Females.Males.Females.
191417,25611,4911501,5397452078965
191519,91012,6601571,5368281867765
191622,62014,9651511,7449951757766
191722,23916,4921351,8129811858159
191827,11919,3771402,9551,51319510978
191926,16416,3121601,8849801927260
192026,62719,6611352,1771,2221788262
192125,36519,5481301,9091,0651797554
192226,51920,8421271,8611,1231667054

AGES OF PATIENTS.

The ages of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1921 and 1922 are as shown in the following summary:–

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.–AGES OF PATIENTS DISCHARGED OR DYING.

Ages of Patients, in Years.1921.1922.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 52,4111,7764,1872,4441,8044,248
5 and under 102,9002,5175,4172,9662,4045,370
10 and under 151,9741,7073,6812,1201,7483,868
15 and under 254,3674,0368,4034,3154,3798,694
25 and under 353,8883,8587,7464,3354,3138,648
35 and under 453,3712,7646,1353,7122,9146,626
45 and under 552,4121,3053,7172,6431,5324,175
55 and under 651,7737632,5361,6388732,511
65 and over2,2177822,9992,2978253,122
Unspecified524092495099
  Totals.25,36519,54844,91326,51920,84247,361

SUMMARY OF DISEASES, ETC.

The international classification of diseases and causes of death divides such into fourteen well-defined classes, which are further subdivided into 189 orders. The table following shows that Class I, “General diseases,” is first on the list as regards both discharges and deaths. Diseases of the digestive system and diseases of the respiratory system come second and third respectively in point of numbers, but the death-rate in each case is low. External causes come next on the list, and here again the death-rate is very low, owing to the preponderance of simple fractures, cuts, bruises, &c.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.–CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES, 1922.

Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
I. General diseases4,9112,8457735824095,3144,206
II. Diseases of the nervous system and of the organs of special sense1,0101,8975351591282,3221,407
III. Diseases of the circulatory system624806842421161,200672
IV. Diseases of the respiratory system4,2822,104101251903,9242,904
V. Diseases of the digestive system5,9181,8332091811134,3063,948
VI. Diseases of the genito-urinary system and annexa1,9811,226169134651,0392,536
VII. Puerperal state1,96133546..57..2,399
VIII. Diseases of the skin and of the cellular tissue1,4156803021161,439723
IX. Diseases of the organs of locomotion9028547229161,302571
X. Malformations2681704314842974
XI. Diseases of early infancy4429622256066
XII. Old age (senile debility, &c.)58755944220380
XIII. External causes3,3691,886175123364,658931
XIV. Ill-defined causes29323510992323325
  Totals.26,98314,9872,4071,8611,12326,51920,842

Figures of total cases and of deaths for each of the fourteen classes are given in the next table for each of the last five years. The figures for total cases relate to the total discharges and deaths, and not to admissions, and do not cover persons still in hospital at the end of the year.

Class.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
I18,0219,66212,4019,5979,5202,5379771,192966991
II2,2632,7372,8072,9983,729266334310307287
III1,7592,0041,9601,9221,872328322356380358
IV4,3505,3936,3056,3836,828379311473320341
V6,2056,9887,3027,9398,254288266333268294
VI3,0993,1443,1253,4753,575169175180233199
VII1,1621,4591,7902,0262,3993847796557
VIII1,5721,7821,9142,0242,1622936354137
IX1,2011,4871,5151,5971,8731819312845
X300347364440503814151722
XI106781201071264737464847
XII34433543120928315011716488136
XIII5,3326,5375,6225,7235,589187193146199159
XIV7825236324736482416391411
  Totals.46,49642,47646,28844,91347,3614,4682,8643,3992,9742,984

6–Ybk.

The greatest increase in the number of cases dealt with during the period is shown by Class VII, puerperal state, this being mainly due to the increasing use of public hospitals for accouchements. Class II, diseases of the nervous system, also shows a considerable increase over the period. The huge number of cases and of deaths shown for Class I, general diseases, in 1918 is due to the influenza epidemic of that year.

More detailed information concerning the principal diseases and groups of diseases is given in the following pages.

EPIDEMIC GENERAL DISEASES.

The first class of diseases in the international classification is the “general diseases,” the first nineteen orders of which cover epidemic diseases. The principal epidemic general diseases dealt with in public hospitals are scarlet fever and diphtheria. There are four special hospitals for the treatment of these and similar infectious diseases, all situated in the South Island. Several hospitals have fever wings attached.

Information concerning the various epidemic diseases for each of the last five years is given in the following table:–

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Typhoid fever2402032072423352418302742
Malaria23205261914..1......
Smallpox....95............ 
Measles7173581352229222410..
Scarlet fever9078088511,1171,107131781310
Whooping-cough16141477111....2152
Diphtheria4,4302,2211,6691,7221,377146109747664
Croup16117161111..1..
Influenza7,3991,0553,5145084481,604642103314
Dysentery363925231821211
Erysipelas79598111713736336
Chicken-pox2235203947..1....1
Mumps1487904815..........
German measles212113537..........
Others28..28..........
 Totals13,2574,8307,3244,3113,7941,795220372169140

The occurrence of epidemics can readily be traced from these figures–influenza in 1918 and 1920, diphtheria in 1918, smallpox in 1920, measles in 1920, whooping-cough in 1920, and mumps in 1919 and 1920. In normal years diphtheria is responsible for more admissions and more deaths than any other epidemic disease.

It is interesting to note that while males preponderate in influenza cases, girls appear to be more susceptible than boys to diphtheria and scarlet fever, and in some years to measles. The figures for the two sexes for these four diseases are–

Year.Influenza.Diphtheria.Scarlet Fever.Measles.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
19184,4242,9752,0162,4143285794526
19196803751,0031,2183075014231
19202,0171,497721948326525269312
1921333175762960399718174178
192226818061276537673161168
 Totals for 5 years7,7225,2025,1146,3051,7363,054591715

TUBERCULOSIS.

Tuberculosis occupies eight orders in the classification of diseases, but is usually divided into two groups–viz., pulmonary tuberculosis and other forms of tuberculosis. The former covers three-fifths of the cases of tubercular disease dealt with in hospitals, and a somewhat higher proportion of the deaths. A large percentage of the tubercular cases is dealt with at six sanatoria for consumptives.

Tuberculosis cases in public hospitals and sanatoria during the last five years are as follows:–

Class.Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Pulmonary tuberculosis1,2301,0871,0291,0971,278238233246219262
Acute miliary tuberculosis5717151547131415
Tuberculous meningitis39485455523741495345
Tuberculosis of intestines and peritoneum71745971601514111722
Tuberculosis of vertebral column89918110515514101257
Tuberculosis of joints13013223320817778647
Tuberculosis of other organs242264237272231111413513
Disseminated tuberculosis..8101811..6398
Totals1,8061,7111,7201,8411,979326333353326379

Full details as to location are given in the Annual Report on Vital Statistics, which also contains figures for each individual hospital.

The death-rate is exceedingly high in cases of tuberculous meningitis and acute miliary tuberculosis, averaging 91 per cent, in the one case and 90 per cent, in the other over the five years. Males greatly preponderate among patients treated for tuberculosis, the figures for 1922 being males 1,250, females 729.

VENEREAL DISEASES.

In connection with the following table of venereal-disease cases it should be noted that the figures relate to in-patients only, and do not include out-patients, who represent the great majority of cases treated at the public hospitals.

Year.Syphilis.Gonococcus Infection.
Cases.Deaths.Cases.Deaths.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
19181104683973923
191994396211351....
192014278591808621
192196381032216011
192213453772055161

In order to obtain some definite information regarding venereal disease, a questionnaire has been attached since 1919 to the hospital discharge-cards used in the preparation of statistical tables, requiring completion in all cases where the disease treated was due to one form or other of venereal disease. Of 181,038 patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during the four years 1919-22, some 1,074 suffered from the effects of syphilis and 1,299 from the effects of gonococcal infection. Some of the results obtained are summarized in the following table.

How Infection contracted.Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Died.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
* Otherwise than by sexual intercourse.
Origin Syphilitic.
Congenitally813474315414178477
Sexual intercourse6322284787715314455119
Mouth or lip infection....211......31
Accidentally....1..........1..
Otherwise*11131......34
Not known or not stated222114551481618623394
 Totals9457480176142356327779295
Origin Gonococcal.
Sexual intercourse2741354361032617121748256
At birth13221192..413032
Infection from child..1..............1
From parents..1..2..........3
Rape......1..........1
By contact..51..........15
Contact with infected clothes, &c.12..4........16
Accidentally..1..4..........5
Otherwise*512610..1....1123
Not known or not stated4235493638129581
 Totals3352145031693126174886413
 Grand totals4292719833451736180311,665708

The above figures do not include cases of chancroid infection, nor cases where the disease was “probably of syphilitic origin” or “probably of gonococcal origin.”

Another portion of the questionnaire concerned itself with the present communicability of the disease, and the opinions of the physicians in charge of the cases were as follows:–

Was Disease communicable at Date of Discharge ?Origin Syphilitic.Origin Gonococcal.
No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.
* Including one who died shortly after discharge.
Yes22220.6740431.10
Very likely10.09....
Probably40.37352.69
Possibly111.03141.08
Except by intercourse....10.08
Yes, if treatment stopped20.1950.38
To receive further treatment282.61534.08
No47844.5160346.42
Probably not70.6520.15
Unlikely10.0910.08
Not with care40.3780.62
Not with treatment30.2850.38
Not at present20.19....
Not actively....10.08
Patient dead91*8.47211.62
Not known or not stated22020.4814611.24
 1,074100.001,299100.00

These figures relate to those persons suffering from venereal disease who in the large majority of cases have been compelled to seek admission to hospital for the treatment of some complication of the disease from which they were suffering, and who otherwise would have remained outside the hospital and, in the absence of compulsory notification, been unnoticed. Those patients discharged suffering from this disease in a communicable form had completed their treatment as in-patients, and were discharged from hospital to “carry on treatment” either as out-patients of the hospital concerned or as patients of private medical practitioners. At the present time it is not possible to compulsorily detain for treatment a person who is suffering from venereal disease.

CANCER.

Of recent years cancer has come into great prominence amongst causes of death, now ranking in New Zealand second only to heart-disease in point of number of deaths. Information as to deaths and death-rates from cancer is given in Subsection C of this section.

A special article on cancer in New Zealand was published in the Official Yearbook for 1917.

The total number of deaths in public hospitals in 1922 where cancer was assigned as the cause was 294 (males 186, females 108). In addition 161 patients treated for cancer were discharged as recovered, 291 as relieved, and 248 as unrelieved. Very few of the recoveries were in cases of internal cancer, and but a small proportion of the deaths in cases of surface cancer. It is noticeable that with but few exceptions cancer of the mouth and its annexa is confined to males.

Of the 294 patients who died in hospital from cancer during 1922, 154, or 52 per cent., had been in hospital less than one month, and of these 43 died within one week of admission.

Tables published in the Annual Report on Vital Statistics give detailed information as to condition on discharge and part of body affected, in conjunction with age of patient and also with period in hospital. The following table gives a summary of cancer cases during the last five years, following the international classification as to region affected:–

CANCER CASES IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS, 1918-22.

Region.Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Buccal cavity941051151351362423312618
Stomach and liver1501721781852067691969393
Peritonæum, intestines, and rectum72117851091243547435056
Female genital organs89859481113232321922
Breast67104741011131410161518
Skin54505462846107412
Other and undefined organs1711931922022187775697875
 Totals697826792875994255279283275294

The percentages of deaths to total cases for the period covered by the above table are given in the following table. It may be mentioned that the two classes with the highest death-rates have also the highest proportion of cases where the patient was discharged unrelieved, and the lowest percentage of recoveries. These two classes are composed entirely of cases of internal cancer, and the “other and undefined” class, which comes third in order of percentage of deaths, also consists mainly of internal cancer cases.

Region.Total Cases, 1918-22.Total Deaths, 1918-22.Percentage of Deaths to Cases.
Buccal cavity58512221
Stomach and liver89144950
Peritonæum, intestines, and rectum50723146
Female genital organs4629821
Breast4597316
Skin3043913
Other and undefined organs97637438
Totals4,1841,38633

OTHER GENERAL DISEASES.

The principal of the remaining general diseases, with their figures for each of the last five years, are as follows:–

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Non-puerperal septicæmia5074905264885362614231113
Tetanus14161616189610107
Rickets4022253638..3121
Non-malignant tumours17919221420823842644
Acute articular rheumatism3974624094675466881324
Chronic rheumatism and gout1931251531552026411910
Diabetes mellitus1081351301611583942435338
Exophthalmic goitre108879810282121118128
Leucæmia11151533373831411
Anæmia and chlorosis978998921082019202818
Alcoholism2332933393362681012171915
Others8282566179108768
 Totals1,9692,0082,0792,1552,310145137167181157

The great majority of patients treated for non-puerperal septicæmia are males, and it would appear that most of the cases coming under this head are due to septic infection of wounds. Males also considerably outnumber females in rheumatism cases, and represent nine-tenths of the alcoholism cases. Females are in the majority in anæmia cases, and more so in cases of exophthalmic goitre. Next to tetanus and leucæmia, the numbers for which are small, diabetes has the highest death-rate of any of the diseases included in this group. Most of the deaths from anæmia are due to the pernicious type of the disease.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The diseases of the nervous system, following the international classification, are as follows:–

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Encephalitis819108138124511
Encephalitis lethargica..59181025..219911
Meningitis13018911695888796706462
Locomotor ataxia29314046392..455
Infantile paralysis471758231349....998
Other diseases of the spinal cord3551619599912112316
Apoplexy, cerebral hæmorrhage12816218917919175118125118116
Softening of the brain3323222212
Paralysis without specified cause1701821721351294549463422
General paralysis of the insane1162912......1..
Other forms of mental alienation100131116130251..1234
Epilepsy14816416714816253523
Convulsions15141111321..117
Convulsions of infants322233353023331
Chorea3645424365..11..1
Neuralgia, neuritis27532431232848131243
Other nervous diseases4194656384737082514132112
 Totals1,5861,8641,9871,9792,676264333307303284

Very high death-rates are shown for encephalitis, encephalitis lethargica, meningitis, and apoplexy, but the general rate for the class is low, owing to the large number of cases of neuralgia, neuritis, neurasthenia, mental alienation, and in 1921 and 1922 infantile paralysis, for all of which the death-rate in hospitals is negligible. Mental cases are not retained in hospital for any length of time, being generally transferred to the mental hospitals as soon as possible.

Infantile paralysis is seen to have greatly increased in 1921 and 1922, while encephalitis lethargica has not so far resumed the importance it assumed in 1919. These two diseases, together with meningococcus meningitis, are transferred to the epidemic class in the revised classification, which comes into force in New Zealand from the 1st January, 1923.

The substantial increase of nearly 700 cases of nervous diseases shown for 1922 over 1921 is due in the main to large increases in cases of infantile paralysis, mental alienation, neuralgia, neuritis, and neurasthenia, few of which result fatally in hospital. As a matter of fact, the total deaths for the class are lower in 1922 than in 1921.

DISEASES OF THE EYES.

Eye troubles are responsible for a considerable number of hospital cases, but very few deaths. Out of 3,079 cases during the five years 1918-22 only 5 deaths were recorded. The figures for the principal affections of the eyes during the five years are–

Disease.Total Cases.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
* Not available–included in “Other diseases of eyes.”
Cataract118185132184159
Conjunctivitis3149526975
Iritis5354466456
Strabismus2035233224
Glaucoma1823333718
Dacryocystitis1011151818
Keratitis2613111827
Trachoma***125
Blepharitis***66
Ulcers of eye60858410198
Abscesses, tumours of eye***3026
Foreign body in eye1423182329
Other diseases of eyes153173146112118
 Totals503651560706659

Injuries to the eyes, other than those due to the presence of some foreign body, are included in the “accident" class.

DISEASES OF THE EARS.

Diseases of the ears dealt with in hospital in 1922 numbered 394, compared with 323 in 1921, 255 in 1920, 208 in 1919, and 174 in 1918. Of the 394 cases in 1922, 308 were treated for otitis media, and 27 for otorrhœa. Only 3 deaths were recorded in 1922, all due to otitis media.

DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

Organic diseases of the heart are responsible for nearly half of the total admissions for diseases of the circulatory system and for three-fourths of the deaths. Acute endocarditis has, however, a somewhat higher death-rate than the organic diseases. The figures for the principal diseases of the circulatory system for the last five years are–

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Pericarditis151410141666451
Acute endocarditis363632102111818234143
Organic diseases of heart812872848850750285257291293261
Angina pectoris891717831352
Diseases of arteries4253444858818131623
Embolism and thrombosis35505336621215151222
Varicose veins and ulcers278342285287204312....
Hæmorrhoids189212199165171........1
Phlebitis2134483731..112..
Adenitis609675109130..2..11
Abscess of groin6761604975......1..
Abscess of axilla4331475354........1
Other diseases of lymphatic system1121311289312221..1..
Epistaxis and other hæmorrhage333838283111312
Inorganic diseases of heart823233345..1121
Other diseases of circulatory system..2314..........
 Totals1,7592,0041,9601,9221,872328322356380358

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

The total cases of respiratory disease dealt with in public hospitals during 1922 were 6,828. This total, however, includes 2,776 cases of tonsils and adenoids, and 217 cases of adenoids, which under the revised classification will be regarded as diseases of the digestive system, and are accordingly omitted from the following table.

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Diseases of nasal fossæ3704153903384201......1
Diseases of larynx724981855554132
Goitre13815014113614042546
Other diseases of thyroid5433385890......45
Bronchitis4856568217188213352724972
Broncho-pneumonia2032013933533087243937242
Pneumonia8808831,2529951,191216151251146163
Pleurisy4075494984574702427151622
Pulmonary congestion2225262232469811
Gangrene of lung2211..211....
Asthma1731961571572236111076
Pulmonary emphysema432..1012....1
Hydatid of lung202019201023123
Pneumoconiosis14912384310..2
Other diseases of respiratory system83124107415735563
 Totals2,9273,3153,9383,3843,835377310473317339

Bronchitis, broncho-pneumonia, and pneumonia are responsible for three-fifths of the total cases in this class, and five-sixths of the deaths. Males represent the majority of the cases of respiratory disease, an exception occurring, however, in the case of goitre and other diseases of the thyroid. The 1922 figures for thyroid diseases include 181 females and only 49 males.

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH.

Dental caries is the principal disease of the mouth dealt with in public hospitals, representing 139 out of a total of 339 cases in 1922. Other complaints contributing to the total were: Stomatitis, 23: alveolar abscess, 32; pyorrhœa, 34; and hæmorrhage from tooth-socket, 18. The death-rate in this group is negligible, as will be seen from the figures for the last five years.

Year.Total Cases.Deaths.
19182171
1919253..
19202174
19213765
19223393

DISEASES OF PHARYNX AND TONSILS.

Formerly diseases of the tonsils were classed among diseases of the digestive system, while adenoids appeared as a disease of the respiratory system. Owing, however, to the huge number of cases (2,776 in 1922) where the patient is treated for both tonsils and adenoids, these two diseases have been grouped together in the Year-book. Under the revised classification the two complaints are included in diseases of the digestive system under the title “Diseases of pharynx and tonsils (including adenoid vegetations),” and the following table covers all diseases which will be included in this group in future. The death-rate for the group is exceedingly low.

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Adenoids and tonsils1,2241,8282,1872,7492,776......32
Adenoids19925018025021721......
Enlarged tonsils6579581,01915321222......
Peritonsillar abscess5041......
Tonsillitis756827..12
Septic throat143109729491221..1
Pharyngitis2135293435......11
Vincent's angina3320121218..1....1
Other4888362811132
 Totals2,3253,2083,5074,1344,24577289

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.

There were 870 cases of and 23 deaths from diseases of the stomach during the year 1922, the principal of which were ulcer of stomach 237 cases, gastritis 360, and dyspepsia and indigestion 145.

Of the 23 deaths, gastric ulcer was the complaint in 15 cases.

A comparison of the discharges and deaths for the principal diseases in each of the five years 1918-22 is given.

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Ulcer of stomach1992022232032372325252515
Gastritis39542634242536054952
Dyspepsia, indigestion728169109145....1..1
Vomiting21131514121....2..
Hæmatemesis271822181622311
Other diseases8810116573100751044
Totals8028418368428703836483723

DIARRHŒA AND ENTERITIS.

The total cases of diarrhœa and enteritis included in the returns for 1922 were 736, including 56 deaths. Twenty-nine of the deaths were of children under two years of age.

The total number of cases and of deaths in each of the last five years are–

YearTotal Cases.Total Deaths.
Under 2 Years of Age.2 Years and over.Total.Under 2 Years of Age.2 Years and over.Total.
1918118294412191736
191981407488101828
1920160433593362460
1921204549753402565
1922200536736292756

Infants under two years of age represent little more than one-fourth of the total cases, but more than one-half of the deaths.

APPENDICITIS.

Appendicitis ranks high among hospital cases, but the death-rate is exceedingly low. During the five years 1918-22 only 303 deaths occurred out of a total of 12,182 cases dealt with, representing a percentage of 2.49. The figures for the last five years are–

Year.Total Cases.Deaths.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19181,0101,0302,040401858
19191,0571,0402,097392463
19201,1651,3082,473472168
19211,3721,3782,750341751
19221,3311,4912,822392463

Males represent somewhat less than one-half of the total cases dealt with, but two-thirds of the deaths were of males. In other words, the male death-rate is double the female rate.

HERNIA, INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION.

Hernia and intestinal-obstruction cases included in the returns for 1922 numbered 970, including 46 deaths. A table showing for the different varieties of hernia, intestinal obstruction, intussusception, and volvulus, the number of cases and of deaths during the last five years is given below:–

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Inguinal hernia37247948862461474263
Ventral hernia6872751008142321
Umbilical hernia15264632321..6..2
Femoral hernia312445293132441
Strangulated hernia265333523231731222
Hernia (undefined)27314468621132
Intestinal obstruction10876101104963018302529
Intussusception14283417262131174
Volvulus..6255..3122
 Totals8731,0179701,0029706446705146

There is very little movement over the period, the most noticeable point being the increase in cases of inguinal hernia. This increase, however, has been accompanied by a large decrease in cases of undefined hernia, most of which would appear to be inguinal-hernia cases. Females largely outnumber males in the figures for ventral, umbilical, and femoral hernia.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER.

Non-cancerous diseases of the liver were responsible for 42 deaths during the year 1922. Discharges and deaths of patients treated for liver-diseases numbered 514. Of the total, biliary calculi was highest with 238 (including 176 females), and cholecystitis, with 109, next highest.

The following table is a brief summary of the principal diseases:–

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Acute yellow atrophy4121341112
Hydatids5954484553983..1
Cirrhesis23172429371367612
Biliary calouli1572292102182384108914
Cholecystitis52748611110966338
Jaundice563842464736131
Other diseases263732332738274
 Totals3774504444835144245252942

PERITONITIS.

In 156 cases in 1922 the disease treated was entered as peritonitis, without the actual cause of the condition being indicated. Peritonitis is a frequent complication of appendicitis and other diseases of the digestive system, and also of the puerperalstate. Females predominate among peritonitis cases, as will be seen from the following table covering the last five years:–

Year.Total Cases.Deaths.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19183370103101626
1919526711981927
19204082122121830
1921307710751318
19226294156162036

DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM.

The figures for the various diseases of the urinary system dealt with in public hospitals during the last five years are–

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
* Not available–included in “Other diseases of bladder.”
Acute nephritis161273013010418772210
Bright's disease16424123326727554757511184
Pyelitis819011114223842232
Hæmaturia27243636362........
Movable kidney3022252415..........
Pyelonephritis99181482..262
Pyonephrosis58....1025....3
Hydronephrosis364711..1..11
Abscess of kidney51612127......1..
Other kidney-diseases302743363352542
Renal colic3224323738..........
Renal stone423845436421213
Stone in bladder or urethra1531174521..121..
Retention of urine494957554537951
Incontinence of urine**201223**1....
Cystitis153177193196181101419147
Cystocele1510161313....1....
Other diseases of bladder603045242733425
Stricture, &c., of urethra14315012113711686788
Enlargement, &c., of prostate1411701551501763533323447
 Totals1,1651,1491,2131,3801,441148157168213175

Bright's disease is responsible for nearly half of the total deaths in this group, though it represents only about one-sixth of the cases. Diseases of the prostate, principally cases of enlargement, have also a comparatively high death-rate. Females comprise the majority of the cases of pyelitis, movable kidney, and cystitis.

DISEASES OF MALE GENITAL ORGANS.

Phimosis is responsible for more admissions to public hospitals than all other non-venereal diseases of the male genital organs taken together. Under the classification in force up to the end of 1922, children under five years of age treated for phimosis were placed in the malformation class, but under the revised classification, which has been adopted for the purpose of the following table, all phimosis cases are regarded as diseases of the genital organs.

Disease, &c.Total Cases.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
* Not available–included in “Other diseases.”
Phimosis178229216294349
Paraphimosis2710301011
Circumcision1222301510
Epididymitis132316117
Orchitis3951352925
Hydrocele5197506961
Undescended testicle***1830
Other4674322238
Totals366506409468531

Only 4 deaths were recorded during the period covered by the table–1 in 1918, 1 in 1919, and 2 in 1921.

DISEASES OF FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS.

Diseases of the female genital organs, other than cancer or those diseases shown to be venereal or puerperal, are an important group in hospital cases, though the death-rate is exceedingly low. The total cases passing through public hospitals in 1922 were 1,748, involving only 24 deaths. The list follows:–

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

*Not available–included in “Other diseases of uterus.”

Not available–included in “Other diseases.”

Uterine hæmorrhage1321601461521602........
Uterine tumour15013814515016336343
Metritis5726201925......1..
Endocetritis180175157157172......1..
Cervicitis***1211***1..
Endocervicitis6*71010..*......
Erosion of cervix***1021***....
Retroversion of uterus28427224927429742..21
Anteflexion of uterus5*12127..*......
Retroflexion of uterus2517112020..........
Prolapse of uterus11113514621918924..43
Pelvio cellulitis46615037531......3
Pelvic abscess141926192221312
Dysmenorrhœa6370597468..........
Leucorrhœa2623181940..........
Amenorrhœa2..4811..........
Other diseases of uterus12511912010111311113
Ovarian cysts8312011313210422332
Salpingitis1611021081301163....16
Pyosalpinx29503723..1......
Pyosalpingitis138............
Hydro-salpinx..36..........
Salpingo-oophoritis81214..........
Oophoritis272212..........
Vaginitis192125..........
Bartholin's abscess1818126..........
Other diseases18179545960....1..1
 Totals1,6011,5631,5801,7291,7482017121824

DISEASES OF BREAST.

The following table gives figures for the principal non-puerperal and non-cancerous diseases of the female breast dealt with at public hospitals during the last five years. One death–from mastitis–was recorded in 1918, and none at all in the four succeeding years.

Disease.Total Cases.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Abscess of breast53678088106
Tumour of breast4548252625
Mastitis4438335249
Others32112
 Totals145155139167182

PUERPERAL STATE.

A total of 2,399 cases comes under the heading of puerperal in 1922. This number includes 841 cases of normal childbirth dealt with at public general hospitals, but does not cover maternity cases in St. Helens Hospitals.

There have been substantial increases in the number of puerperal cases treated during the last five years. This increase can justly be put down to the huge advance that has taken place in the matter of providing maternity wards at the various public hospitals. Whereas in 1918 there were only 321 cases of normal labour, this figure has rapidly risen until in 1922 it reached the comparatively high total of 841. Puerperal septicæmia also rose during the same period from 43 to 226, but the mortality-rate decreased by over 50 per cent. Accidents of pregnancy accounted for the remainder of the increase. The totals given in the following table for miscarriage do not include threatened miscarriage (30 in 1922); nor do those for abortion include threatened abortion (46 in 1922). These, together with hyperemesis (35 in 1922) and vomiting (28 in 1922), are the principal diseases included in “Other accidents of pregnancy.”

PUERPERAL DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS.

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Miscarriage26624727831037872314
Incomplete miscarriage33781..
Abortion296322360106139........1
Incomplete abortion2202141..
Ectopic gestation45775976802223..
Other accidents of pregnancy6285691892093..422
Normal labour321393592690841..........
Puerperal hæmorrhage2345482654....355
Laceration, &c., of perinæum2630594632..........
Laceration, &c., of cervix4355844525132....
Other accidents of labour444721
Puerperal septicæmia431391471392261727443338
Puerperal albuminuria, convulsions245772745261318144
Puerperal phlebitis and phlegmasia43714121..231
Puerperal mania, &c.961513101..1..1
Puerperal diseases of breast......12..........
Totals1,1621,4591,7902,0262,3993847796557

DISEASES OF BONES, ETC.

Cases of non-tuberculous diseases of the bones and of the organs of locomotion dealt with in 1922 numbered 1,873, including 45 deaths. Twenty-eight deaths were due to osteomyelitis. The principal diseases in this class, following the order of the classification, for the years 1918-22 were–

Disease.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Osteomyelitis149178233219245
Mastoiditis66688881168
Periostitis5151476782
Necrosis9547735750
Sinusitis40244251119
Osteitis1513151316
Exostosis21791021
Other diseases of bones124261189233207
Synovitis97151133129152
Arthritis536385105112
Ankylosis2237181622
Other diseases of joints8165897993
Amputations3341462646
Bursitis92787488128
Lumbago5966606651
Myalgia3555536072
Talipes3883737782
Tenosynovitis1414111621
Ganglion1415131418
Bunion12621149
Other diseases of organs of locomotion109154143176159
 Totals1,2011,4871,5151,5971,873

The bulk of the increase between 1921 and 1922 is due to abnormally high figures in the latter year for mastoiditis, sinusitis, and bursitis.

SKIN-DISEASES.

The figures for the principal diseases of the skin and annexa during the last five years are–

Disease.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Gangrene3636373635
Carbuncle4460689164
Furuncle2829374574
Boils2329252425
Abscess461447511478543
Cellulitis160224226247336
Whitlow3957707980
Ulcers223209239228219
Eczema164157142129147
Scabies2451699683
Dermatitis32445790105
Sinus8384576252
Erythema3838265042
Impetigo4747424866
Ingrown nails4455423549
Herpes2222292731
Psoriasis1214151718
Seborrhœa1115222014
Urticaria1016141712
Ringworm14791114
Pruritus75379
Onychia288612
Pemphigus57824
Other diseases54136158179128
 Totals1,5831,7971,9142,0242,162

Diseases of the skin and annexa, which comprise four orders in the international classification, are an important group in morbidity statistics, though the death-rate is very low. Abscesses, cellulitis, and ulcers are responsible for nearly half of the total cases dealt with under this heading, eczema ranking highest among other skin-diseases.

Deaths from these diseases during the year 1922 numbered 37, as compared with 41 in 1921, 35 in 1920, 36 in 1919, and 29 in 1918. The deaths include in 1922, 11 ascribed to gangrene, 19 to cellulitis, and 4 to acute abscesses.

MALFORMATIONS.

The principal disease included under the title of “Malformations,” under the classification hitherto in use is phimosis of children under five years of age. The revised classification, however, treats this complaint as a disease of the genital organs, and it is accordingly omitted from the following table.

Disease.Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Cleft palate2121292632142..4
Nævus3217191922..........
Hare-lip10166178....22..
Hydrocephalus781086214..2
Spina bifida5179721353
Congenital dislocation of hip822152014....1....
Taiipes84162233..........
Heart-disease....496....133
Other malformations3129424148372610
 Totals122118148171176813151622

EARLY INFANCY.

Forty-seven deaths in public hospitals during 1922 are recorded as having been due to diseases of early infancy, which is 1 less than in the previous year. The chief items in this class are marasmus (17 deaths) and premature birth (12 deaths). The total discharges and deaths in 1922 amounted to only 126; thus the deaths amounted to the very high percentage of 37.30 to the total cases treated, as against 44.85 in 1921, 38.33 in 1920, 47.44 in 1919, and 44.34 in 1918.

OLD AGE.

Hospital returns show a total of 94 male deaths and 42 female deaths from old age during 1922. These totals include the returns of three hospitals which are also old people's homes. The numbers for the five years 1918-22 are as follows:–

Year.Total Cases.Deaths.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
19182727211337
1919280559225
19203349712935
1921150596424
1922203809442

EXTERNAL CAUSES.

The principal headings included in this class in hospital cases are fractures and injuries in regard to which no specified cause is shown. In death-registrations the cause of death is asked for, and in cases of deaths resulting from fractures and other injuries the actual cause is obtained, and the death classified under one or other of the thirty definite headings provided. The Medical Superintendents are, however, concerned not with causes but with natures of injuries, and the returns in the great majority of cases are classed under the headings “fractures" and “injuries,” which in death statistics would be regarded as somewhat indefinite, but which in morbidity statistics are invaluable on account of the fact that the part of the body affected is given in most of the cases.

The following table shows as far as possible the classification of the various external causes dealt with during the five years 1918-22. Battle injuries swelled the total considerably in 1918 and 1919.

Total Cases.Deaths.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Self-inflicted injuries352119223972245
Homicidal injuries2..3..1....2....
Battle injuries1,1841,6955771762761415423
Accidental poisoning81796782715105911
Accidental immersion in water653145......2..
Burns and scalds1962192812692522823223019
Suffocation and gas poisoning17789......1..
Traumatism by firearms5551100104104541138
Injuries by animals7611515........1
Starvation12..111....1..
Frostbite, excessive cold565621....1..
Exposure........4..........
Effects of heat64186......1..
Electric shock2112............
Fractures, dislocations, &c.1,6351,8732,0272,2552,2468889898984
Miscellaneous injuries2,1162,5682,5202,7712,5583850335628
 Totals5,3326,5375,6225,7235,589187193168199159

In a few instances cases included in the fractures and miscellaneous injuries in the above table could have been definitely allocated to one of the following five headings of the classification, but on account of such cases obviously representing only a small proportion of the total for the respective headings it has been considered advisable to omit these headings altogether and to include the cases in the two general headings. The five headings referred to are: Traumatism by cutting or piercing instruments; traumatism by fall; traumatism in mines and quarries; traumatism by machines; traumatism by other crushing (vehicles, railways, landslides, &c.).

The 2,558 cases of miscellaneous injuries shown for 1922 include 30 cases of severed tendons, 5 of strained muscles, and 10 of abrasions to skin. In the remaining 2,513 cases the trouble was merely returned as cut, bruised, injured, crushed, &c., hand, leg, or as the case might be. The location of these 2,513 miscellaneous injuries, as well as of the 2,246 fractures, dislocations, &c., is shown in the following table:–

Region.Fractures, Dislocations, &c.Miscellaneous Injuries.
Head117401
Face107336
Neck116
Back29103
Thorax and contents20659
Abdomen and contents4082
External genital organs..20
Upper limbs635687
Lower limbs1,097758
Undefined1451
 Totals2,2462,513

MEDICAL EXAMINATION FOR EXPEDITIONARY FORCE.

Useful information as to the extent of illness and defects among an important section of the Dominion's population is contained in the published results of the medical examination of recruits for the Expeditionary Force raised for service in the late war. Recruits were classified as follows:–

  • A–Men fit for active service beyond the seas.

  • B–Men fit for active service beyond the seas if they undergo specified medical, surgical, or dental treatment–(1) after operation in camp or public hospital, (2) after recovery at home.

  • C–Men at present unfit for active service beyond the seas, but fit for service in New Zealand in connection with or for the purposes of the present war: (1) Those to proceed to the Cl Camp for training; (2) those permanently unfit for service outside New Zealand.

  • D–Men permanently unfit, either for active service beyond the seas or for any service in New Zealand in connection with or for the purposes of the present war.

A total of 135,282 men was examined, with the following results:–

Class.Number of Men.Percentage of Total.
A46,48834.37
B18370.62
B23,25040
C16,8075,03
C274,68955.21
D3,2112.37
 135,282100.00

Among those rejected were 6,106 men over the military age and 139 apparently under age; so that, taking men of ages 20 to 45, the proportion classed A would be slightly higher than that shown above–viz., 36.03, as against 34.37 per cent. The proportion of Class A to total recruits at quinquennial groups of ages is as follows:–

Age-group.Percentage.
20 and under 2547
25 and under 3039
30 and under 3538
35 and under 4031
40 and over14

The percentage at ages 40 and over suffers by the inclusion in the total of the 6,106 men over military age. Were these excluded the percentage of Class A men in the last age-group would be 19, a figure still greatly below those of preceding groups. A summary of classes by age-groups follows:–

CLASSES IN WHICH RECRUITS WERE PLACED (BY AGES).
Class.Ages.Totals.
20-25.25-30.30-35.35-40.Over 40.
A14.8309.65710.6927.6553.65446.488
B130317717412558837
B21,1187146885102203,250
C12,3551,2131,6301,2233866,807
C212,03712,28514,59215,01520,76074,689
D7997616574835113,211
 Totals31,44224,80728,43325,01125,589135,282

The causes of rejection of the 88,895 recruits classed other than “A" are next given. Diseases of the circulatory system rank first, with a total of 22,612 (valvular disease of the heart, 10,879; other diseases of the heart, 4,517; diseases of arteries, 42; varix, 4,994; varicocele, 1,340; and hæmorrhoids, 840); while defects of the extremities, flat feet, defective vision, and hernia are other important causes of rejection, as is also the somewhat indefinite “impaired constitution and debility.”

CAUSES OF REJECTION.
Disease or Defect.No. of Cases.
Defects of upper extremities2,882
Defects of lower extremities7,173
Under height605
Under chest-measurement959
Insufficient weight68
Apparent age not in accordance with regulations139
Over height11
Syphilis183
Other venereal diseases112
Tubercle of lungs1,429
Other tubercular diseases289
Impaired constitution and debility4,043
Other general diseases312
Malformation of ears2
Malformation of nose and mouth129
Malformation of chest and spine1,011
Malformation of urinary or genital organs136
Impediment of speech297
Other diseases of the nervous system1,200
Defective intelligence1,076
Defective vision6,423
Diseases of the eyes and eyelids168
Diseases of the middle ear (including deafness)2,455
Other diseases of the ears114
Diseases of the nose and mouth202
Valvular disease of the heart10,879
Other diseases of the heart4,517
Diseases of arteries (aneurism)42
Diseases of the veins (varix)4,994
Diseases of the lungs (except tubercle)766
Other respiratory diseases2,056
Loss or decay of many teeth20
Hernia4,530
Diseases of the digestive system1,715
Hæmorrhoids840
Diseases of the urinary organs622
Varicocele1,340
Other diseases of the generative organs (not syphilitio)656
Diseases of the joints1,431
Flat feet3,211
Other affections of the bones and muscles1,189
Ulcers, wounds, and cicatrices792
Other affections of the cutaneous system1,149
Goitre1,681
Epilepsy672
Over age6,106
Rheumatism, sciatica, and lumbago2,044
Alcoholic211
Not classified6,014
 Total88,895

Chapter 7. SECTION VII.—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—PUBLIC HEALTH.
HEALTH ACT, 1920.

THE Health Act, 1920, repealed the consolidated Public Health Act, 1908, and its amendments. A résumé of the present Act is here given.

PART I: ADMINISTRATION.

This Part of the Act deals with the constitution of the Department of Health. The chief administrative officer is the Director-General of Health, whose powers and functions, during his absence from duty, are dolegated to a Deputy Director-General. The Department comprises the Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, School Hygiene, Dental Hygiene, Child Welfare, and Maori Hygiene, each of which is under the supervision of a divisional head called the Director.

The Dominion is divided into health districts, each of which is under the charge of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science. Power is also given to appoint such number of Inspectors of Health, medical practitioners, nurses, and other professional officers as may from time to time be required.

A Board of Health is constituted under the chairmanship of the Minister of Health. It consists, in addition to the Minister, of the Director-General, three medical practitioners, a person appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Municipal Association, another appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Counties Association, a member of a recognized association of civil engineers, a Chairman, of a Hospital Board, a lady member representative of the interests of women and children, and a person appointed on the recommendation of the Minister. The Board in the main is advisory in function, but under certain circumstances it may exercise mandatory powers. Commissions of inquiry may be appointed in assistance of the Board.

PART II: POWERS AND DUTIES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The initial sections of this Part of the Act empower and direct every local authority to appoint sanitary inspectors; to cause regular inspection to be made of its district; to secure the abatement of nuisances; to enforce all regulations in force in the district; to make by-laws; to furnish to the Medical Officer of Health such reports as may be required. In certain cases, on the recommendation of the Board of Health, the Governor-General, by Order in Council, may exempt any local authority, not being a Borough Council, from any or all of the duties set out above. In these circumstances it shall be the duty of the Health Department to do all such things as it considers necessary for the promotion and conservation of public health within the district concerned, all expenses incurred by the Department being recoverable from the local authority in question as a debt due to the Crown.

The Board of Health may require any local authority to provide sanitary works within its district. However, a local authority, if dissatisfied with such requisition, has the right of appeal to a Board of Appeal consisting of a Stipendiary Magistrate and two assessors representing respectively the Board of Health and the local authority.

Every local authority must appoint its own sanitary inspectors or subscribe to the salary of an Inspector of the Department of Health. No person can now be appointed as a sanitary inspector unless he is the holder of a certificate from the Royal Sanitary Institute, or in lieu thereof such certificate as may be prescribed by regulation.

Other sections define nuisances and the various steps to be taken for their abatement; provide for the establishing on the part of the local authority of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; lay down certain requirements in regard to water-supply and sanitary conveniences for buildings; detail the procedure with regard to closing orders and demolition orders for insanitary buildings; govern the registration and regulation of cattle - saleyards for the keeping of animals; the protection and purification of water-supplies; the sanitation of Maori settlements; the making and application of by-laws; the duties and powers of Harbour Boards with respect to the sanitary condition of wharves and tidal lands.

PART III: INFECTIOUS AND NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

The initial sections of this Part of the Act give the Medical Officer of Health, if authorized on that behalf by the Minister, very extensive powers in the event of an outbreak of any infectious disease. Thus he may take possession of lands and buildings for the purpose of providing accommodation for patients; he may commandeer vehicles for their conveyance; he may demand drugs, articles of food or drink, &c., for their treatment. Penalties are laid down for refusal or failure to comply with any such requisition, while provision is made for compensating persons who suffer any loss or damage thereby. Very wide power is also given a Medical Officer of Health in the direction of controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease, of prohibiting public gatherings, of prohibiting the admission to schools, theatres, &c., of children under the age of sixteen. These emergency powers were given as the result of the experience of the influenza epidemic of 1918.

Infectious diseases are divided into two classes—the non-notifiable and the notifiable—which are set out in detail in the First Schedule of the Act. With reference to the former group, certain general provisions are applicable, protecting the public against carelessness on the part of the case or the person in charge thereof.

The medical practitioner who attends any person suffering from a notifiable infectious disease must forthwith report the case to the local authority and the Medical Officer of Health. If no medical practitioner is in charge of the case the occupier of the premises must notify. In the case of any vessel in port the master must notify the case to the Port Health Officer.

Provision is also made in this Part of the Act for the notification of certain non-communicable diseases of public-health importance, such as hydatids, tetanus, chronic lead poisoning, &c.

Other sections deal with the ordering to hospital of persons suffering from infectious diseases, the disinfection of premises and articles, the destruction of infected articles, the establishing by local authorities of mortuaries and disinfecting-stations, the notification by undertakers of any death from infectious disease, and the duties of local authorities with respect to burials.

A comprehensive set of regulations has been gazetted detailing more exactly the powers with regard to infectious disease.

PART IV: QUARANTINE.

Power is given the Governor-General to proclaim places of inspection, quarantine grounds, and quarantine stations. Ships, persons, and goods liable to quarantine are fully defined. The whole procedure with regard to the inspection of ships, the granting of pratique, the ordering into quarantine, and the release from quarantine is set out. Power is given to detain, or to release under medical surveillance, persons liable to quarantine, without quarantining the whole ship's company.

Medical practitioners and nurses may be appointed by the Director-General to take charge of passengers and crew of a ship undergoing quarantine, and the owners or agents are liable for any cost incurred under this head. It is the duty of the owners or agents of the ship to supply persons undergoing quarantine with such provisions, medicines, fuel, &c., as the medical officer in charge may require. All expenses incurred in connection with disinfection are a charge against the ship.

Comprehensive regulations have been made under this Part of the Act governing the whole matter of quarantine.

PART V: REGULATIONS.

Extensive powers have been given the Governor-General in this Part of the Act to make regulations for the conservation or promotion of public health. Included therein is provision whereby regulations may be made for any matter affecting the public health in respect of which any local authority is empowered to make by-laws. Where any local authority has failed to make by-laws, or, having made them, has failed effectively to enforce them, regulations may be made and enforced in the district concerned at the cost of the local authority.

PART VI: MISCELLANEOUS.

Medical practitioners authorized by the Minister may enter public schools and examine the children and notify parents of defects found in the children. Infirm and neglected persons found to be living in unsatisfactory conditions or without proper care or attention may be removed to institutions available for their reception. The Board of Health is empowered, in default of a local authority, to carry out sanitary works and exercise powers under the Act at the cost of such an authority.

DIPLOMAS IN PUBLIC HEALTH.

The New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1912, conferred on the Senate of the New Zealand University the power to grant diplomas in public health, and to make regulations for the examination of candidates for such diplomas.

REGISTRATION OF MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS.

Under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1914, is constituted the Medical Board of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health and six other registered medical practitioners, who are appointed to the Board by the Governor-General, the term of appointment being a three-yearly one.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which enacts that every person shall be entitled to registration who satisfies the Board that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom, or eligible for registration on such last-mentioned register; or the holder of a foreign diploma approved by the Board, and granted by any university or institution other than the University of New Zealand or a university or institution situated in the United Kingdom, after a course of not less than five years' study of the subjects pertaining to a medical and surgical degree or license. The Board may, however, refuse to approve any diploma unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma.

No person is entitled to be registered if he has been at any time convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term of two years or upwards, or is otherwise not of good fame or character. Applicants who are refused registration have the right of appeal to the Supreme Court.

Applications for registration are received in the first place by the Registrar of Births and Deaths at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, or Dunedin. One month's notice of intended application is required, such notice to be advertised once in the New Zealand Gazette and also in a newspaper circulating in the district in which the applicant intends to practise.

The fee for registration is £3 3s., payable on deposit of evidence of qualification.

A table is appended showing the additions to and removals from the Medical Register during the last five years, with the numbers on the register on the 1st January and 31st December of each year.

MEDICAL REGISTER.—ADDITIONS AND REMOVALS.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

* Includes 36 with New Zealand qualifications.

† Includes 28 with New Zealand qualifications.

‡ Includes 21 with New Zealand qualifications.

Number on register on 1st January9699851,0151,0641,071
Number added during year by registration3048*716033
Number added during year by restoration33541
Number removed during year on evidence of death172025108
Number removed during year by direction of Medical Board—..........
   Ceased to practise........1
   Letter not delivered and returned to Registrar General..1..4021
   Reported dead......72
Number removed during year by direction of Supreme Court....2....
     Number on register on 31st December9851,0151,0641,0711,073

REGISTRATION OF DENTISTS.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist in New Zealand who is the holder of a degree in dental surgery of the University of New Zealand, or a certificate of proficiency in dentistry obtained from the Senate of the University, or is registered or entitled to be registered as a dentist in the United Kingdom, or is the holder of such degree in dentistry granted in a British possession or a foreign country as may be recognized by the Senate of the New Zealand University. Evidence of good character is required in every case. The fee for registration is £1.

A table is appended showing the additions to and removals from the Dentists' Register during the last five years, with the numbers on the register on the 1st January and 31st December of each year.

DENTISTS' REGISTER.—ADDITIONS AND REMOVALS.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Number on register on 1st January759753751747746
Number added during year by registration..5165
Number removed during year on evidence of death67572
Number on register on 31st December753751747746749

REGISTRATION OF NURSES AND MIDWIVES.

The Nurses Registration Act provides that every person who has attained the age of twenty-one years and is certified as having had three years' training as a nurse in a recognized general hospital, together with systematic instruction in theoretical and practical nursing from the medical officer and the matron of that hospital, and who passes the prescribed examination, is entitled to registration. During the year ended 31st March, 1923, there were 250 candidates for the final examination in medical and surgical nursing, and 212 passed. There are now 3,475 nurses on the register.

The Midwives Act provides that after undergoing a course of training—in the case of registered nurses for six months, and in the case of unqualified women for twelve months—and after passing the State examination of midwives, a person may be placed on the register

The number of registered midwives on 31st March, 1923, was 1,786. Of these 1,541 were trained and certificated, the remainder having satisfied the Registrar that at the date of the passing of the Act they had been for at least three years in bona fide practice as midwives, and that they bear a good character.

REGISTRATION OF PLUMBERS.

The Plumbers Registration Act, passed during the session of 1912, provided for the setting-up of a Board, to be called the Plumbers' Board of New Zealand. This Board consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy, who shall be Chairman; the Director of Education; a city or borough engineer nominated by the cities and boroughs which have a population of over 5,000 inhabitants, and appointed by the Governor-General; a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The functions of the Board are to decide what persons may be registered under the Act, in what districts sanitary plumbing shall be performed only by registered plumbers, and what shall be the scope of the examinations to be held as a part of the process of securing registration.

The main principle underlying the Act is that of securing trained and certificated sanitary plumbers, and that such registered plumbers shall not be required to pay any license fee or pass any examination under any local authorities controlling sanitary-plumbing works.

At the examination held under the Act in November, 1922, 113 candidates presented themselves, the results being as follows: Eleven qualified in the theoretical part, 17 in the practical part, and 47 qualified or completed in both parts of the examination and were duly granted registration. The total of names entered in the register to date is 1,462.

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS.

In order to make better provision for the sale of food and drugs in a pure state, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was passed by the Legislature, and came into operation on the 1st January, 1908.

The Act is administered by the officers of the Health Department, and provides for the analysis, by public analysts, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption, or likely to cause injury to health if consumed, heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible.

Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such things are manufactured or packed. The selling of light-weight bread is an offence under the Act, as is also the taking-back of bread after it has been in the possession of the purchaser for more than an hour.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food or drug and submit the same for analysis.

Regulations have been gazetted from time to time defining standards for the control of the purity of foodstuffs and of drugs. In general, the New Zealand standards are on the lines recommended by the Australian Inter-State Conference.

Statistics compiled by the Department of Health show that during the year 1922 a total of 133 convictions under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was secured in Magistrates' Courts, the total fines imposed equalling £783. Of the 133 convictions, 51 were for selling adulterated milk, the fines in these cases totalling £346. Short-weight bread convictions, 20 in number, secured fines amounting to £193; improper labelling of foodstuffs resulted in 4 convictions, with fines aggregating £4.

QUACKERY PREVENTION ACT, 1908.

Section 2 of this Act enacts that every person commits an offence who publishes or causes to be published any statement which is intended by the defendant or any other person to promote the sale of any article as a medicine, preparation, or appliance for the prevention, alleviation, or cure of any human ailment or physical defect, and which is false in any material particular relating to the ingredients, composition, structure, nature, or operation of that article, or to the effects which have followed or may follow the use thereof.

The penalty inflicted is a fine not exceeding £100 in the case of a first conviction, and not exceeding £200 for every subsequent conviction. The object of the Act is to effectually stop the exploitation of the public by means of medicines or treatment alleged to cure all and sundry complaints and ailments.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

The School Medical Branch of the Education Department, which had been in existence since 1912, was transferred on the 1st February, 1921, to the Department of Health, becoming the Division of School Hygiene of that Department. This transfer has proved of great advantage in linking up the school medical work with the other Health services of the Dominion, and especially in providing readier facilities for treatment.

The Physical-training Branch, with its staff of twelve itinerant instructors and a Chief Physical Instructor, continues under the control of the Education Department owing to the intimate relationship between physical education and the general teaching-work of the schools. During the year 1920 the Education Department published its syllabus of physical training for schools, based largely upon the syllabus of the London Education Board. Fifteen minutes per day are devoted to physical training in the State schools, and in the larger of these schools special corrective classes are held for the benefit of children suffering from particular defects. This latter work is carried on under the supervision of the school medical officers.

During the year ended 31st March, 1923, schools to the number of 1,021 were inspected.

Statistical returns were compiled relating to the complete examination of 53,752 school-children, and in addition over 48,537 children were examined for the more important defects.

Standard VI, Standard II, and entrants to the primer classes were selected for detailed examination. An average of 88.34 per cent, of the children medically examined was returned as having some defect, 60.40 per cent, showing defects other than dental. These percentages are not of much value for comparison with results recorded in other countries, as there is no internationally recognized standard as to what constitutes a defect. In the Dominion it is customary to record as such very slight deviations from the normal. Approximately some 60 per cent, of those recommended received medical treatment, the percentage varying, according to the facilities available, from 44 in some districts to 80 in others.

With the exception of the school dental clinics, which have so far been provided by the Division of Dental Hygiene, there are no school clinics for the treatment of school-children. The staff of the Division of School Hygiene consists of twelve school medical officers and twenty-seven school nurses. School medical officers are empowered by the Health Act, 1920, to medically examine the children attending the primary State schools. The work of these officers is described in the annual report of the Director of the division under two main headings, “Inspectional" and “Educational.” This report emphasizes the prevalence of preventable defects in school-children, and shows how much improvement can result from application of modern knowledge of child-welfare. For this reason educational deventive work is emphasized as being of primary importance not only as y of the school medical officer, but as one of the fundamental responsibilities of all who have the care and training of children.

DENTAL TREATMENT OF SCHOOL-CHILDREN.

The Dental Division of the Department of Health has at present, besides the Director and the Dental Supervisor in charge of the training-school for dental nurses at Wellington, a staff of eight dental surgeons stationed at other centres. In addition to these, twenty-nine dental nurses who have completed training have been stationed at suitably equipped clinics in various parts of the Dominion. Fifteen additional nurses are now in training.

The following is a summary of the operations performed and treatment carried out from the 1st April, 1922, to the 31st March, 1923: Fillings, 26,673: extractions, 25,864; other operations, 12,747: total operations, 65,284.

Besides the above, many children have been examined and their teeth charted. Duplicate charts have been sent to parents, resulting in the treatment of many cases by private practitioners or at hospitals.

Leaflets have been printed for circulation to parents embodying short terse rules to be followed for the prevention of dental disease. Every opportunity is being taken to bring this phase of the question before the parents and the public.

SUBSECTION B.—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.
EXPENDITURE ON HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE AID.

Commencing with the year 1916-17, the official statistics of Hospital Boards have been prepared on the basis of an Income and Expenditure Account and Balance-sheet. The accounts for the last five years are in some points not absolutely comparable with the figures shown under the system followed in years prior to 1916-17.

HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE-AID INCOME.

The total gross income of Hospital Boards, separate institutions, and Government institutions for the year ended 31st March, 1922, was £1,406,631, and for Hospital Boards alone £1,340,947. The main sources of income for the year are as follows:—

 £
1. Contributable by Government391,113
2. Levies on local authorities436,619
3. Voluntary contributions25,108
4. Fees payable by those assisted451,240
5. Charitable-aid recoveries49,215
6. Rents, interest, and dividends25,268
7. Miscellaneous income23,810

Items 4 and 5 above must be viewed in conjunction with the amounts written off in respect of fees receivable, as shown in the expenditure summary hereunder.

EXPENDITURE.

The total gross expenditure of Hospital Boards, separate institutions, and Government institutions amounted during the year to £1,367,384. The total expenditure of Hospital Boards alone was £1,306,016. The following are the main items of expenditure by all authorities:—

 £
1. Hospital maintenance770,428
2. Charitable aid192,673
3. Administration52,672
4. Amounts written off in respect of fees receivable289,905

HOSPITAL-MAINTENANCE EXPENDITURE.

The average annual cost of maintenance per occupied bed in general hospitals controlled by Boards for the last five years is set out below:—

Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Miscellaneous and Special Departments.Total Maintenance.
 ££££££
1917-1830.711.833.841.83.2121.3
1918-1935.912.839.048.00.6136.3
1919-2040.415.443.252.40.3151.7
1920-2147.417.155.968.50.4189.3
1921-2245.015.654.869.85.3190.5

CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE.

The charitable-aid expenditure for the last five years has been an follows:—

Year.Indoor Relief.Outdoor Relief.Total.
 £££
1917-1891,09244,006135,098
1918-1982,71353,464136,177
1919-2091,97482,423174,397
1920-21101,69588,346190,041
1921-22111,10781,566192,673
HOSPITAL AND CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE, 1912-13 to 1921-22.
Year ended 31st March.Mean Population.Hospital and Charitable-aid and other Expenditure.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
  £s.d.
19131,046,624392,28176
19141,075,788436,1668
19151,095,207460,85585
19161,100,496524,8159
19171,099,449559,310102
19181,102,972715,1591211¾
19191,116,706788,11214
19201,157,884937,16716
19211,202,4301,053,013176
19221,232,9691,077,47917

The above figures include ordinary expenditure of Hospital Boards and of separate institutions as well as of the Department of Health in respect of institutions under its control. For 1915-16 and prior thereto actual payments only are stated. For subsequent years the expenditure incurred is stated, but amounts written off in respect of fees receivable are not included. Capital expenditure is excluded throughout.

The number of persons availing themselves of treatment in public hospitals for the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Total Number of Persons under Treatment.Proportion under Treatment per 1,000 of Population.Average Number of Occupied Bods per Diem.Proportion per 1,000 of Mean Population.
191328,76827.52,3422.24
191430,64628.52,4682.29
191533,37530.52,6522.42
191638,66535.12,9002.64
191742,12938.33,3813.08
191843,96939.93,6453.31
191951,89746.53,8063.41
192050,78543.94,0253.48
192150,91241.63,7743.08
192251,21341.53,9333.19

The hospitals covered by the above table include all public general hospitals, infectious-diseases hospitals, consumptive sanatoria, maternity hospitals and any other special hospitals controlled by Hospital Boards and the Health Department, as well as two separate institutions—the Mercury Bay and Oamaru Hospitals.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.

The number of public general hospitals at 31st March, 1922, was 75. In addition there were four infectious-diseases hospitals and five institutions for consumptives, thirteen maternity hospitals, and one special sanatorium for general cases.

Information as to the number of public general hospitals and their staff and accommodation is given for each of the five years 1917-18 to 1921-22.

Number ofYear ended 31st March.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Institutions6565657175
Medical staff (stipendiary)117126139144160
Nursing staff—     
   Trained nurses298297324355427
   Probationers8759109811,0321,079
Domestic staff711782836898982
Beds4,1714,6955,0535,1355,307

Further particulars concerning the public general hospitals of the Dominion for the years ended the 31st March, 1921 and 1922, are given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st. March.
1921.1922.
Average number of patients per diem3,3433,551
Number of patients under treatment47,51747,926
Deaths3,2972,799
Average annual cost of maintenance per occupied bed apart from administration, &c., charged£188.3188.8
Number of out-patients attended during year32,95830,754

It will be noted that the above summaries relate to financial years. The statistics given in Subsection D of the preceding section are for calendar years.

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.

The Private Hospitals Act, which came into force on the 1st January, 1907, is now embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1909, which provides for the licensing, management, and inspection of private hospitals. All such institutions must be licensed, and every application for a license must be accompanied by a statement giving full description of the house proposed to be used, number of patients, and class of cases proposed to be received. The licensee shall state whether it is in respect of a lying-in private hospital or a surgical and medical private hospital, or if for both classes of cases; and no private hospital may be used for any purpose other than that in respect of which the license is granted and purposes reasonably incidental thereto.

For every private hospital there must be a resident manager, either the licensee or some person appointed by the licensee, and in every case the manager must be a legally qualified medical practitioner or a registered nurse in the case of a surgical and medical hospital, or a registered midwife in the case of a lying-in hospital, or a registered nurse and midwife, or a registered nurse having as resident assistant a registered midwife, in the case of a hospital licensed for both purposes. No license shall be granted in respect of a house not previously licensed until such house and annexed buildings have been approved by the Director-General of Health, and no addition shall be made to any private hospital until it has been so approved. No license shall be granted until the character and fitness of the applicant have been proved satisfactory, and the license must be renewed on the 1st January of each year.

In every private hospital there must be kept a register of patients showing particulars as to name, age, abode, and date of reception of each patient, date when such patient left, or, in the event of death, the date thereof, name of medical practitioner attending, and such other details as may be prescribed. Inquiry may be made at any time as to the management and conduct of any such private hospital, and if such inquiry prove unsatisfactory the license may be revoked, and, for a period of five years, no new license shall be granted to the person whose license is so revoked.

Provision is made for the inspection of private hospitals in the same manner as for public institutions of the like nature, trained nurses with midwifery certificates being appointed for the purpose.

The Governor-General may from time to time make such regulations as are necessary for carrying the Act into effect, and substantial penalties are provided for breaches of its provisions.

MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There are seven State maternity hospitals now open for the use of the public. The St. Helens Hospital at Wellington was opened in June, 1905, and a new and up-to-date building in July, 1912; that at Dunedin was opened in October, 1905; that at Auckland in June, 1906, and a new building in February, 1923; that at Christchurch in April, 1907. State institutions have also been opened at Gisborne, Wanganui, and Invercargill.

These institutions represent a development of the policy begun by legislation in 1901, when the Nurses Registration Act was passed, followed in 1904 by the Mid-wives Act. The latter provided that after a certain date only those midwives who were duly registered would be qualified to practise on their own account. During the year ended 31st March, 1923, a total of 1,531 confinements took place in the seven hospitals mentioned, and 570 confinements were attended by the institution nurses outside these hospitals, as compared with 1,392 and 572 confinements respectively during the previous twelve months.

Tables are given showing information as to births and deaths in each of these institutions during the year ended 31st March, 1923, and the totals for each of the last five years. Births in cases dealt with outside St. Helens Hospitals by nurses attached to institutional staffs are also shown.

ST. HELENS HOSPITALS, 1922-23.
Town.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended outside.
Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
Auckland37713250
Gisborne99..33
Wanganui112..16
Wellington3531580
Christchurch29713142
Dunedin151..276
Invercargill142..113
     Totals1,531318570
ST. HELENS HOSPITALS, 1918-19 to 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended outside.
Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
19191,1231826521
19201,139525552
19211,246625579
19221,392525572
19231,531318570

There is a maternity hospital attached to the Medical School at Dunedin, which also serves as a training-school for medical students and midwives.

Maternity homes and wards under the control of Hospital Boards are established at Mangonui, Kawakawa, Whangarei, Napier, Picton, Blenheim, Greymouth, Rangiora, Ashburton, and Cromwell. For the reception of single girls there are special charitable institutions at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Invercargill, in addition to those established by the Salvation Army at the four chief centres and at Napier and Gisborne.

BENEVOLENT AND ORPHAN ASYLUMS.

Fifty-five institutions classed under the heading of benevolent and orphan asylums furnished returns to the Census and Statistics Office for the year 1922. These institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide free accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons to whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and refuge homes for unfortunate women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “prison gate” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of the orphanages deal with cases similar to those dealt with by the industrial schools under the control of the Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Court.

The 55 institutions which furnished returns for 1922 had a total of 6,908 inmates during the year, of whom 3,890 were males and 3,018 females. They commenced the year with a total of 3,608, and had 3,631 at the end of the year. Admissions during the year totalled 2,962, and in addition 338 infants were born in the institutions. Discharges numbered 2,939, and deaths of inmates 338. The ages of all inmates in the institutions at any time during the year were as follows:—

Age-group.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5464445909
5 and under 10344422766
10 and under 15359546905
15 and under 25166469635
25 and under 35185335520
35 and under 45288136424
45 and under 55259117376
55 and under 65464104568
65 and over1,3504411,791
Unspecified11314
     Totals3,8903,0186,908

SUBSECTION C.—MENTAL HOSPITALS.

There are seven public mental hospitals in the Dominion maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The number of patients at the end of 1922 was 4,932, consisting of 2,816 males and 2,116 females. These numbers include Maoris, of whom there were 40 males and 32 females.

The patients on the register at the end of the year 1922 (including Maoris) were distributed as shown below:—

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland6464241,070
Tokanui15398251
Porirua6364871,123
Nelson184110294
Hokitika17270242
Christchurch377435812
Dunedin (Seacliff and Waitati)6314701,101
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)172239
Totals2,8162,1164,932

The number of patients remaining at the close of each of the last five years, and the proportion per 10,000 of the population (excluding Maoris) at the end of the year, are shown in the following table:—

NUMBER REMAINING (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1918-22.
Year.Number remaining at Close of Year.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19182,5641,9214,48547.3033.9240.46
19192,6301,9574,58744.6634.0038.96
19202,6792,0074,68644.2934.0138.80
19212,7382,0684,80643.2534.0738.76
19222,7762,0844,86043.0033.6238.41
Means of five years2,6782,0074,68544.5033.9239.08

The total number of patients under oversight, care, or control during 1922 was 5,812 (males 3,320, females 2,492), as against 5,677 in 1921. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 4,754 in 1921 and 4,809 in 1922.

ADMISSIONS.

The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1922 were 842 (456 males and 386 females), this number not including 102 transfers from one institution to another. The causes of insanity as assigned on admission are given below:—

Heredity126
Congenital118
Previous attack132
Puberty and adolescence15
Climacteric35
Senility97
Puerperal state17
Mental stress, sudden26
Mental stress, prolonged29
Solitude3
Alcohol38
Syphilis31
Toxæmia1
Traumatic7
Epilepsy36
Arterio-sclerosis5
Hemiplegia4
Drug habit1
Septic miscarriage1
Heart-disease5
Diabetes1
Meningitis2
Ill health26
Organic brain-disease1
Phthisis1
Influenza2
Cerebral hæmorrhage3
Sunstroke1
Overwork1
Religion2
Unknown70
Injury at birth1
Lethargic encephalitis1
     Totals, excluding transfers839
Transfers102
     Grand total941

FIRST ADMISSIONS.

Of the 839 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1922, those admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 694 (males 390, females 304), and those readmitted 145 (males 63, females 82).

The figures for 1922 represent one first admission for every 1,881 persons in the Dominion, including Maoris

Excluding the Native race, the number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of population for each of the last five years were as follows:—

FIRST ADMISSIONS AND RATE PER 10,000 OF MEAN POPULATION, 1918-22.
Year.Number of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19183673206876.805.686.23
19194482967447.835.186.51
19203733347076.125.735.93
19214073177246.515.305.92
19223803006805.954.895.43
Means of five years3953137086.645.366.00

VOLUNTARY INMATES.

Persons labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as voluntary boarders. At the beginning of 1922 there were 99 boarders in residence (36 males, 63 females), and during the year 111 (57 males, 54 females) were admitted. If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1922, 11 (6 males, 5 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 9 died, while 87 (39 males, 48 females) were discharged, leaving 103 resident at the end of the year (43 males, 60 females)

AGES OF INMATES.

A summary is attached showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the close of 1922.

AGES OF INMATES, 31ST DECEMBER, 1922.
Age, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
1 to 54610
5 10342054
10 15292150
15 207251123
20 30299188487
30 40558402960
40 507075251,232
50 to 60472447919
60 70398268666
70 80167124291
80 90323870
90 and over224
Unknown422466
Totals2,8162,1164,932

MAORIS ADMITTED AND REMAINING.

The number of Maoris admitted as patients to the mental hospitals is small. Twenty (16 males, 4 females) were admitted during the year, and 72 (40 males, 32 females) remained at the end of the year.

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.

Dealing with patients of all races, the next table gives the average number resident, those who were discharged as recovered, and those who died during the period 1918-22:—

Year.Average Number Resident.Discharged as recovered.Died.
Number.Per Cent. of Average Number Resident.Number.Per Cent. of Average Number Resident.
19184,5012836.294489.95
19194,5273377.443427.55
19204,6543106.663768.08
19214,7543717.803186.69
19224,8093136.513958.21
Means of five years4,6493236.943768.09

Of those who died in mental hospitals during 1922, 132, or 33 per cent., had been inmates for less than one year, while 94, or 24 per cent., had been in residence for more than ten years. Of those discharged recovered 222, or 71 per cent., had been inmates for less than one year. A table is given showing length of residence of patients who died and of patients who were discharged recovered during 1922.

Length of Residence.Patients who died.Patients discharged Recovered.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month16153112..12
1 month and under 3 months221537432568
3 months and under 6 months151833354277
6 months and under 9 months14923192746
9 months and under 1 year53891019
1 year and under 2 years242751243256
2 years and under 3 years22133541216
3 years and under 5 years171936268
5 years and under 7 years8816224
7 years and under 10 years111122516
10 years and under 12 years8614......
12 years and under 15 years6713......
15 and over4029691..1
Died during absence347......
Totals211184395156157313

Old age is the principal cause of death among mental-hospital patients, and, among individual causes, general paralysis of the insane ranks second. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the year 1922 are as follows:—

DEATHS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS, 1922.
Tuberculosis22
Cancer5
Other general diseases35
General paralysis of the insane34
Organic brain-disease26
Epilepsy18
Other diseases of the nervous system42
Diseases of the respiratory system25
Diseases of the circulatory system44
Diseases of the digestive system8
Diseases of the genito-urinary system7
Diseases of the skin3
Diseases of the bones1
Old age115
External causes5
Ill-defined causes5
Total395

A table is added showing for all admissions since 1876 the percentages of patients discharged (as recovered, relieved, and not improved, separately), died, and remaining.

Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Discharged—......
   Recovered39.7646.0440.83
   Relieved7.279.058.00
   Not improved1.841.821.80
Died36.2226.1832.07
Remaining at end of 192214.9116.9117.30
 100.00100.00100.00

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.

A license may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such licenses, which may be revoked at any time. The Inspector-General has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private institute in the Dominion, that at Wakari, near Dunedin, established in 1882. Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the last five years are as follows. These figures are included in preceding tables.

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL (included in previous figures).
Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Patients remaining at End of Year.
19181111745
19191512444
19201613344
192169140
1922108339

ACCOMMODATION.

At the end of the year 1922 the mental hospitals of the Dominion had accommodation for 4,735 patients, the cubic content of the dormitories and sleeping-rooms being well over 3,000,000 cubic feet. Details of accommodation are as follows:—

Institution.Number of Patients for whom there is Accommodation.
In Single Rooms.In Dormitories.Totals.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Auckland167103462298629401
Tokanui282012080148100
Porirua10690484313590403
Nelson1013179101189114
Hokitika40171724721264
Christchurch6284321364383448
Seacliff173138364318537456
Totals, State institutions5864652,1021,5212,6881,986
Ashburn Hall Private Mental Hospital2833....2833
Totals, all institutions6144982,1021,5212,7162,019

EXPENDITURE, ETC.

The total expenditure on maintenance of mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions), and receipts from patients and for sale of produce, &c., during the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Total Expenditure.Receipts from Patients, Sale of Produce, &c.Net Expenditure.

* Fifteen months.

 £££
1918248,60969,195179,414
1919286,84794,130192,717
1920360,961122,939237,122
1921-22*384,615115,416269,199
1922-23357,510112,304245,206

The total net expenditure out of the Public Works Fund for buildings and equipment from 1st July, 1877, to 31st March, 1923, was £974,583.

Chapter 8. SECTION VIII.—EDUCATION.

HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

THE inception and establishment of educational facilities in New Zealand is the history of civilization and progress in this part of the British dominions. As might be expected, it was immediately after the advent of the first missionaries that schools for the instruction of the Native youth were established. Later, as a European population settled in the country, the need for a means of educating the white children arose, and finally the necessity for some co-ordinated scheme for the whole colony asserted itself. This latter was consummated in the Education Act of 1877, which Act is the basis of the system of education obtaining in the Dominion at the present day.

EARLY NATIVE EDUCATION.

The system of education which was pursued from the foundation of the colony—and, indeed, from 1816, when the first mission school was established at Rangihoua, in the Bay of Islands—was that of imparting instruction to the Natives in their own language in establishments where great numbers of all ages were congregated, and where they were not only educated, but were also housed, fed, and clothed. The first legislative action in this connection was an Ordinance passed by the Legislative Council at Auckland in 1847. This provided for the education of the youths of New Zealand, and recognized none but religious schools. Its administration, including the appointment and removal of teachers, was almost wholly in the hands of the religious bodies. The Ordinance declared that religious education (with a conscience clause), industrial training, and instruction in the English language should find a part in the curriculum of all schools which received financial assistance under the Ordinance. The aggregate amount of aid to be given was not to exceed one-twentieth of the estimated revenue of the colony. The provisions of the Ordinance actually applied to both races, but the greater part of the money appropriated in succeeding years was for Native schools and institutions. The amount of aid was set down annually on the Civil List, and the distribution for the year ended 30th September, 1854, well illustrates the apportionment among the religious bodies, viz; Church of England, £3,500; Wesleyan, £1,600; Roman Catholic, £800; total, £5,900.

The desirability of the subsidy to schools being removed from the Civil List and provided for by vote of the House of Representatives resulted in the passing of the Native Schools Act, 1858. This embodied much the same provisions as the Ordinance of 1847, with the exception that the sum of £7,000 was appropriated annually to be distributed as capitation.

Despite these attempts to set up a satisfactory scheme for the education of the Native children, little success attended the efforts of the Government, and in 1863 barely five hundred scholars were being taught in the various institutions for Native education. This was due primarily to the unsettled state of the country as a result of the hostilities that had broken out, but no doubt the scheme of education itself was unsound in many respects, particularly as it allowed the children to drift back to the demoralizing influence of their own kaingas. These combined causes practically led to the utter collapse during the next few years of a system which had been pursued since the education of Natives had been first attempted.

In 1867 the Native Schools Act was passed, but before it could be brought into effective operation the North Island, where the bulk of the schools were situated, again became involved in war, and it was not until 1871, when an amending Act was passed, that any real effort could be made to introduce a workable system of Native education. The main provisions of the new scheme were, firstly, the establishment of village schools wherever a sufficient Native population and other circumstances rendered it possible; secondly, the instruction to be in the English language only, except where the location of an English teacher might be found impossible; thirdly, the working of the village schools through the agency of the Natives themselves, associated with and aided by such Europeans as might be willing to work with them on School Committees; fourthly, the contribution by the Natives of part of the expenses of salaries and inspection, together with grants of land for buildings. Provision was also made for a continuance of capitation to schools already established (mainly denominational) which fulfilled conditions that were laid down.

That the new legislation was eminently successful is seen from the statistics of the year 1874. Forty-one new schools had been formed, with an attendance of 875 boys and 370 girls. There were also twenty-three other schools which were receiving a capitation allowance, with a total of 142 boys and 100 girls in attendance. In 1879 the control of Native schools passed from the Native Department to the Education Department, which has since been responsible for their administration. As the district in which a Native school is established becomes populated and the Native population Europeanized in its mode of living, the school is handed over to the control of the Education Board for the district.

THE PROVINCIAL SYSTEMS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

The Ordinance of 1847, referred to earlier, was practically a nullity in so far as the education of children other than Natives was concerned. Indeed, it was not until the establishment of provincial institutions in 1853 that any legislative action was taken in the direction of providing facilities for the education of white children. Up to that time colonists were dependent upon small private schools, mainly, though by no means exclusively, of a denominational character. Until their abolition in 1876 the various provinces conducted their own education systems. The result was that, instead of a methodical scheme of school organization for the whole of New Zealand, there came into existence systems varying widely both in the principles upon which they were established and in the results attained. This is well illustrated by the following account of the more important features of the various legislative provisions with respect to education made by the Provincial Governments:—

AUCKLAND.

It was in this district that the bulk of the money appropriated on the Civil List for Maori education was expended, and the Legislative Council Ordinance of 1847, already referred to, was of more effect in Auckland than in any other part of the colony. The first attempt of the Provincial Council, however, to provide for the education of the children in its sphere of jurisdiction was the Education Act of 1857. The Superintendent of the Province was empowered to appoint a Board of Education consisting of from five to nine Commissioners, to hold office for three years. The Superintendent made grants out of the funds which were voted, to all schools which fulfilled the requirements of the Act. Religious instruction was at the option of the local School Committee, but exemption was to be granted to all scholars whose parents did not desire their attendance. In 1867, however, this provision was abolished and secular instruction alone obtained. Schools which received aid from the Board could not charge pupils more than 1s. per week. Further legislation enabled a school rate, additional to fees, to be levied in 1867.

A change in administration was made in 1868. The Board on this occasion was formed of the Superintendent of the Province, the Executive and Speaker of the Council, and three members elected annually by the Council. This Board's function was to form districts in suitable areas, and it was also vested with the powers of distributing the annual vote of the Council and the income from reserves that had been set aside for educational purposes. The Board was also the authority in which the schools were vested. Teaching continued to be secular in character. It appears that little success attended this Act, for at the end of 1872 there were no common public schools (as opposed to private or denominational) either in the City of Auckland or its suburbs, or in the goldfield townships or the pensioner settlements.

Accordingly it is not surprising to find all existing education legislation scrapped in 1872 and a fresh Act passed. The Board on this occasion still retained its political members, and to these were added four further members appointed by the Council, and three appointed by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Thus constituted, the Board proceeded with the formation of school districts. It also fixed rates and controlled all available funds. A householder's rate of £1 and a rate of 5s. on each child (raised to 10s. in 1874) were levied throughout the province by the Superintendent. These rates were subsequently supplemented by a poll-tax of 10s. per annum on each male adult. No fees were charged in the schools themselves, all expenses being met from these rates and other income of the Board. Secular instruction still obtained, and the Act seems to have been a considerable improvement upon its predecessors in so far as the results obtained were concerned.

TARANAKI.

This province made a start in 1857 by empowering the Superintendent to appoint a Commission of four to see what scheme should be adopted, but nothing further was done until the lapse of a decade. In 1867 a Board of Education was established, having the same personnel as the Board of Trustees of Public Reserves, and from the middle of 1868 all revenue from education reserves was diverted to the purposes of the Education Ordinance. Appropriations were also made annually by the Provincial Council for education. Denominational schools were eligible for assistance from the funds available. The Board had power to establish separate education districts if agreed to by the householders. Local Committees were to be elected, consisting of either three or six members, of whom one or two were to retire in rotation each year. To supplement the funds from education reserves the Committees were empowered to impose a household rate not exceeding £1. Religious instruction (with a conscience clause) was allowed either before or after school hours, but the Irish Board of Education's selected Scripture portions could be read as part of the regular curriculum.

A further Ordinance was passed in 1874. This repealed the existing legislation and established the Patea and the New Plymouth Educational Boards, each consisting of seven elected members. The two Boards exercised full control over the educational activities of the province, levied a household rate as under the repealed Ordinance, and imposed a charge of 6s. 6d. per annum on each scholar in attendance at school. Provision was made, however, for fees and rates to be remitted in necessitous cases.

WELLINGTON.

Early in 1855 the Wellington Provincial Council passed an Ordinance (the outcome of a Commission set up in 1853) for the establishment of common schools. It provided for the proclamation of school districts by the Superintendent of the Province; for an annual election of School Committees: and for the levying of a uniform rate where necessary upon every house in the school district, but not exceeding £1 per year for each house. The Committees' powers gave them practically complete control in their respective districts. Religious instruction was prohibited in the original Ordinance, but an amendment of 1857 gave power to the Committees to allow Bible-reading without note or comment. The operation of the Ordinance was not as effective as its originators anticipated, the chief difficulty being the lack of funds to properly establish and maintain the schools. It continued in force, however, until 1871, without further change except in regard to a few machinery clauses.

In this latter year existing legislation was repealed and the Education Act, 1871, passed. Under this the province was divided into ten school districts. Each district elected a member to a Board which had complete charge of education in the province. The schools were supported by a capitation fee of 5s. per child per annum, together with an annual rate on all rateable property, limited to ½d. in the pound. Four amending Acts were passed in the four succeeding years, the principal alteration made being contained in that of 1874, which abolished capitation and rates and levied a school fee of 5s. per quarter for each child actually attending school.

HAWKE'S BAY.

Immediately after the formation of the Hawke's Bay Province an Education Act (1859) was passed. This repealed the earlier Education Acts of the Wellington Provincial Council. Denominational schools were excluded from participation in grants for buildings or repairs, but in the case of common schools a pound-for-pound subsidy was granted to any district raising at least £40 for these purposes, with a limit of £100 subsidy over three successive years. Monetary aid apart from that required for buildings was given to both classes of school in proportion to the number of children educated, at the rate of 7s. per quarter, subject, however, to the provision that the weekly charge to parents did not exceed 2s. per child. Government aid was drawn from appropriations and the proceeds of education land reserves. In 1868 this was supplemented by a school rate of £1 per annum levied on every householder. The scheme in Hawke's Bay seems to have worked with a degree of success. No religious instruction was permitted in the common schools during ordinary hours.

NELSON.

This province early made a start in providing means of education, and the year 1853 saw a Commission set up to consider the best scheme to be established in the province. In 1856 an Act followed. The Superintendent of the Province was empowered to constitute districts and a Central Board of Education. Rates were to be levied for the provision of funds. Amending legislation followed in 1858 and 1862, and in 1863 a fresh Act was passed. Under this latter Act the existing education districts which had been constituted were continued. They were to be controlled by local Committees of six persons. Annual rates in these districts were levied to the extent of £1 on every householder, plus 5s. for each child. Religious instruction was permitted, but was to be of a non-controversial character, and parents had opportunity to object if they so desired.

MARLBOROUGH.

Marlborough, on its separation from Nelson and its elevation to provincial status, started its educational activities by repealing the existing legislation and passing the Education Act, 1861, which virtually re-enacted the system formerly in force in Marlborough as part of the Province of Nelson. Four years later the Superintendent with a Central Board of Education was replaced by the Superintendent and Executive of the Province.

The year 1871 saw a fresh start made, and the Town and Road Boards were constituted the authorities for managing the schools. Rating-powers were given to provide funds, and compulsory fees were payable on account of all children between the ages of seven and twelve within three miles of the school. The curriculum was maintained on a secular basis, religious teaching being forbidden.

CANTERBURY.

An Ordinance of the Canterbury Provincial Council in 1855 carried to a conclusion a compact made with the original colonists, and the following year saw Christ's College founded, it being placed under the control of the Church of England Bishop and Wardens. The next year a sum of £2,500 was voted for the assistance of primary schools, and this was placed in the control of the English, Wesleyan, and Presbyterian Church authorities for distribution. The limitations imposed included a clause for exemption from religious teaching where objected to by parents, and fees were to be the same in all schools. A similar appropriation for education was made during the next five or six years, when, as a result of a Commission which brought down its report in 1863, legislation in the direction of ensuring a more effective system was introduced. A first step was taken in the same year, when the administration of the annual appropriation was withdrawn from the churches, though denominational grants were not themselves cut off. In lieu thereof an Education Board responsible to the Provincial Government was set up. All applications for aid came within its jurisdiction, as did also the regulation of salaries and the appointment of Inspectors.

A further Ordinance in 1864 did not change the Board. Districts were however, to be proclaimed on a requisition for such. A Committee in each district managed the schools, seeing to their establishment, fixing salaries, fees, and selecting teachers—all, however, subject to the Board. No child was to be absent from Bible-reading, but might be exempted from further religious instruction if the Committee was assured the child received instruction elsewhere. Amendments to the above Ordinance were made in 1868 and 1870, but in 1871 all existing legislation was repealed and a new Ordinance passed. Under this latter the appointment of the Education Board was in the hands of the Provincial Superintendent and the Executive. The Board itself became responsible for the examination and classification of its teachers, and on its recommendation school districts were proclaimed, with or without the local requisition required before. Each district paid one-sixth of the cost of building schools, and, failing to do so, was liable to a rate of 6d. in the pound, to be levied by the Superintendent. The management of the school, fixation of salaries, appointment and removal of teachers, came within the jurisdiction of the district Committee. All teachers were required to have a certificate from the Board.

The financial matters connected with the various districts were assisted by a tax of £1 levied on each householder within three miles of a school, with an additional 5s. for each child. These levies were made by the Superintendent of the Province, and paid to the Committees of the respective districts. Bible-reading was prescribed, but teachers themselves gave no instruction. Provision was, however, made for the admission of ministers of religion. In the year 1873 the provisions regarding Bible-reading were withdrawn, and at the same time grants to denominational schools ceased.

A further change in regard to administration was made in 1875. The Board was abolished, and a department and permanent secretary were appointed. The districts, which were retained, had to raise half the cost of buildings, and to do so a rate of 1s. in the pound might be levied. It is of interest to note that towards the end of the same year an attempt made to secure the assent of the General Assembly to a Bill for the restoration of a Board to be appointed by the Superintendent for the control of education in Canterbury was defeated.

WESTLAND.

An Ordinance of 1874 prescribed a scheme for Westland, and a further amending Ordinance was passed in the following year. The operation of this legislation, however, was of a limited nature, it being finally repealed, in common with other provincial Ordinances, by the Education Act, 1877.

OTAGO.

There is no doubt that the initial attempts in propounding a scheme of education were eminently more successful in Otago than in any other province. The subject was dealt with at the first sitting of the Provincial Council, when a Committee was appointed to report on the question. At the close of 1854 the recommendations of this Committee were adopted, and a Grammar School was formed at Dunedin. Certificated teachers were sent for from Scotland, and provision was made for expenses being met from the provincial funds and from rates to be levied for the purpose. This measure of 1854 was merely provisional, and a complete Ordinance in 1856 replaced it. This Ordinance provided for a Board of Education consisting of the Superintendent and the Executive of the Province, with the Rector of the Grammar School and two members from each School Committee. The functions of the Board consisted of promoting school districts and establishing schools therein. Each district elected a Committee annually, who consulted with the controlling Board as to buildings, but carried out the selection of their own teachers. The allocation of the moneys available was made so that land and school buildings came from the provincial funds, while the teachers were to be paid by school funds and a poll-tax on adult males of not more than £1. Religious instruction was given at stated hours, and exemption could be obtained on objection by parents. Six years later this Ordinance was repealed, and at that time the rate mentioned above had not been levied and the poll-tax never attempted.

The Education Ordinance of 1862 vested all school properties in the Superintendent of the Province instead of the Board, and the Board was made entirely political, the representatives of the Committees being dispensed with. The Board defined districts on requisition, and to the local Committees was left the determination of questions relating to buildings, character of the schools, salaries paid to teachers, and the fees. All the Board's determinations, however, came within the purview of the Superintendent. The scheme does not appear to have been a practical success, and was repealed two years later.

The next and final attempt of the Provincial Council was the Education Ordinance of 1864. The chief alterations were in the matter of finance and the responsibilities of the Board and Committees. The Board provided a large share of the cost of buildings and enlargements, but the districts were responsible for repairs and also fixed the minimum school fees to be paid by those attending. Rates were imposed, but were withdrawn the next year, apparently causing some dissatisfaction. Some minor amendments were also made in the matter of salaries and repairs of buildings. No further changes were made subsequent to this, although two rating Bills were tabled in the Provincial Council.

EDUCATION STATISTICS OF 1867.

Of interest are the available figures which relate to a period ten years before the passing of the Act of 1877, with its consequent nationalization of the education system. The five main provinces only are dealt with in detail, certain figures for the minor provinces—Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Westland—not being available.

TABLE SHOWING PROVINCIAL APPROPRIATIONS AND NUMBER OF SCHOLARS IN 1867.
Province.Population.Revenue.Number of Scholars.
Total.Appropriated to Education.Attending Public Schools.Attending Private Schools.

* 1860.

Not available.

  ££  
Auckland48,321196,6673,0002,686*3,258
Wellington21,950166,4442,7149701,793
Nelson23,814170,6345,6801,668650
Canterbury53,866562,8076,7512,1782,297
Otago48,577503,75511,6983,2981,546
Others22,160263,8483,727
Totals218,6881,864,15533,570

NATIONAL SYSTEM OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

he desirability of introducing some connected scheme to replace the heterogeneous systems in operation was affirmed by the House of Representatives in 1869, but considerable differences of opinion as to the form which legislation should take prevented a measure being passed for several years. It is evident, however, from the crop of provincial enactments in 1871 and subsequent years that the fear of a national system led most of the Provincial Councils to put their educational houses in order in the attempt to retain control of education.

Whether religious teaching of a non-sectarian character was to be provided for, and the question of grants to denominational and private schools, were the reasons for the dropping of a Bill which was introduced into the General Assembly in 1871. A further effort was made in 1873, but, although the Bill then introduced passed through all stages in both Houses, it did not actually reach the statute-book. Nothing further was done until 1876, when, with the abolition of the provincial institutions, it was necessary to provide machinery to keep the existing public schools in operation. This was done by the passing of the Education Boards Act, 1876, which made temporary provision for the administration of education. The education districts thus created were coterminous with the provincial districts of the same name. By the Act all taxes and rates previously authorized by the provincial Legislatures were abolished with the exception of school fees and capitation rates on account of children. A vote was made out of the Land Fund in aid of maintenance of schools.

Parliament in 1877 was in the position of requiring to make provision for a national system. The Bill which was presented underwent considerable modification. Provision for a capitation-tax of 10s. on every child of school age was deleted, and instruction was to be of an entirely secular character. It will be seen accordingly that with the passing of this Act the foundation of the present system of free, compulsory, and secular education was well laid. The outstanding features of the Education Act, 1877, were the provisions for a central Department of Education controlled by a Minister of the Crown; the establishment of twelve education districts—viz., Auckland, Taranaki, Wanganui, Wellington, Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, Nelson, North Canterbury, South Canterbury, Westland, Otago, and Southland—governed by Boards; and the establishment of school districts, which came under the jurisdiction of School Committees. On the Department was the onus of administering the annual appropriations by distributing to the Boards funds for the erection and maintenance of schools and the establishment of training or normal schools, and also the payment of capitation to the Boards at the rate of £3 15s. for each scholar in average daily attendance.

Education Boards were to be elected by School Committees, and to consist of nine members, three of whom were to retire annually. In the Boards were vested all property and endowments, and rents from these became part of the Board funds. The Boards were required to administer funds in carrying out the building arrangements for which grants were provided by the Department; in paying the salaries of teachers; and in granting to School Committees money for general educational purposes. The appointment and removal of teachers were in their hands, and the Act also gave the Boards power to establish scholarships, and to provide for secondary education in district high schools. Fees were, however, payable to Education Boards by pupils receiving such secondary instruction. School Committees of seven members were to be elected annually. Generally the Committee had the management of educational matters within its own district, and out of the money received from the Board made payments incidental to the administration of the Committee's functions. In addition to these provisions the Act of 1877 specified the course of instruction to be given in the schools throughout the colony. Inspectors, who were officers of the Education Boards, were to be appointed to examine and report on the school-work.

COURSE OF LEGISLATION SINCE 1877.

In the main the principles of the Act of 1877 are operative to-day. Several amendments made in succeeding years necessitated a consolidating measure in 1904. Among the principal alterations and additions that had been made up to that date were: The creation of the Grey District by a subdivision of Westland in 1884, thus bringing the total number of education districts up to thirteen; the provision in 1900 for a comprehensive scheme of manual and technical instruction; the introduction of physical drill into the curriculum in 1901; and, in 1903, the institution of National Scholarships to be awarded by the Department, and the introduction of a system of free places in secondary schools and district high schools for scholars completing the primary course. Up to the year 1901 also each Board had its own scale of staffs and salaries, but an Act of 1901 fixed the relation of the number and the remuneration of teachers in a school to the number of pupils in attendance. In 1905 each education district, was divided into three wards, each returning three members, one of whom in each ward retired annually.

No outstanding changes beyond the consolidation of education legislation in 1908 were made until 1914. By the Education Act of that year the whole of the law relating not only to public but also to secondary, technical, and special schools was recast. The principal changes involved the reorganization of the Department of Education, and the Inspector-General of Schools became Director of Education. Inspectors of Schools, who had hitherto been officers of the several Education Boards, became officers of the central Department, a provision, it may be noted, that was deleted from the Bill of 1877. Provision was made for the constitution of fewer education districts in lieu of the thirteen then existing, and by an Act of 1915 nine were created. Every education district is divided into urban areas and a rural area. An urban area consists of a borough or a group of boroughs having more than eight thousand inhabitants; and the rural area, which comprises the rest of the district, is divided into three wards. The members for each ward of the rural area and for all urban areas are, as formerly, to be elected by the members of the several School Committees. The number of members of an Education Board for the rural area is six—two for each ward. The number of members for each urban area is two for each sixty thousand or part of sixty thousand inhabitants. School Committees continue to be elected by the householders, and hold office for one year.

A Council of Education is established whose statutory duty it is to report to the Minister and advise upon any matters in connection with education referred to it by the Minister, or which it may consider advisable to introduce into New Zealand. The Council has, however, no administrative or executive functions. To obviate the necessity for frequent meetings of the Council the Minister is given power to constitute from time to time District Advisory Committees, to afford assistance and to advise with regard to matters concerning one district only.

Under the Act provision is made for an annual graded list of certificated teachers. The first grading was completed and published in 1916, and has since been made annually. Except in special cases, all teaching appointments are governed by the position of the applicants on the list, and it is also the basis for the determination of the rate of salary payable.

Amending legislation, mainly of an administrative character, has been enacted at various times since 1914. By the Education Act, 1921-22, the registration of all private schools is made compulsory, and teachers in both public and private schools are required to take the oath of allegiance.

The programme of primary instruction at present provided by the Act includes English, arithmetic, geography, history and civics, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical instruction, moral instruction and health, and singing.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.

The number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of the Dominion is shown in the following summary, classified according as to whether they receive primary, secondary, technical, or higher education. Pupils of private schools not subject to departmental inspection are excluded; this, however, in no way vitiates the figures given below, as the number thus unaccounted for is insignificant. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year in each case

TABLE SHOWING SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS AS AT 31st DECEMBER, 1920, 1921, and 1922.
Class of Institution.1920.1921.1922.
Primary Education.   
Public (State) schools197,645205,181210,491
Native village schools5,5085,8226,161
Native mission schools267237363
Registered private primary schools22,19323,92424,861
Lower departments of secondary schools815774590
     Total primary226,428235,938242,466
Secondary Education.   
Secondary schools9,19610,03010,736
Secondary departments of district high schools2,1572,1762,606
Technical high schools2,7663,3494,202
Maori secondary (boarding) schools474488413
Registered private secondary schools1,4391,6341,998
     Total secondary16,03217,67719,955
Technical Classes (excluding Technical High Schools).   
Conducted by Education or High School Boards8,2215,5671,807
Conducted by Technical School Boards or Managers9,16310,0819,195
Conducted by University colleges1,2441,1841,260
Total technical18,62816,83212,262
University Education.   
University colleges (including training-college students)3,6723,9243,683
University students exempt from lectures150199275
Lincoln Agricultural College555353
     Total University3,8774,1764,011
     Total scholars and students264,965274,623278,694

An increase of 4,071 (or 1.5 per cent.) is shown for 1922 as compared with 1921.

Public primary schools, including district high schools, numbered 2,550 in 1922, against 2,498 in 1921. The number of registered private primary schools from which returns were received by the Education Department was 263. Aided or endowed colleges, grammar and high schools in operation numbered 36, technical high schools 13, registered private secondary schools 27, and University colleges 4. The number of primary and secondary schools established for the education of the Native or Maori race was 146.

PUBLIC (STATE) PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

From the table which follows an indication is given of the growth of the education system since the creation of a central administrative. Department in 1877. At that time the number of schools in proportion to the population of the colony was relatively small, but during the following twenty years the number increased rapidly. Since 1900, however, the closer settlement of the country districts and, more recently, the drift of population to the larger centres have to some extent counteracted this tendency to multiply the number of schools. At present there is one school to approximately each five hundred members of the European community.

It is of interest to note that the number of children attending the primary schools is to-day, in proportion to the total population, but little greater than in 1878, and this despite the better facilities for education now obtaining. In that year 15.4 per cent. of the community attended the primary schools. This increased to 18.5 per cent. in the next ten years, but had fallen as low as 16.5 per cent. in 1920. The reason for this state of affairs is twofold. On the one hand, the birth-rate has declined consistently since the early “eighties,” and, on the other, the age-constitution of the population has been steadily rising.

Compared with 1921, there was in 1922 an increase of 5,740 in the number of pupils belonging to the public schools as at the end of the year, and the average attendance shows an increase of 7,706 for the whole year. The figures tabulated below include pupils attending the secondary departments of district high schools.

TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOLARS, 1878 to 1922.
Year.Population at 31st December (excluding Maoris).Number of Schools.Pupils at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percent age of Weekly Roll.
1878432,51974865,040..48,773..
1888607,3801,158112,685113,63690,10879.3
1898743,4631,655131,621133,782111,63683.4
1908960,6421,998147,428145,974127,16087.1
19131,084,6622,255172,168169,530151,24289.2
19181,108,3732,365194,934191,382169,83688.7
19191,177,4052,400196,059193,655174,88590.3
19201,207,8352,437199,802196,731171,10287.0
19211,239,9662,498207,357202,944182,30689.8
19221,265,3972,550213,097209,251190,01290.8

Of the 2,550 schools shown above for 1922, 2,084 had average attendances of between one and eighty, and of these 987 had averages ranging from one to twenty.

RELATIVE ACTIVITIES OF EDUCATION DISTRICTS.

The relative activities of the nine Education Boards administering primary education may be gauged from the following figures as at 31st December, 1922; they are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

Teachers and Schools, by Education Districts, as at 31st December, 1922.
Education District.Number of Schools.Adult Teachers.Total Number of Adult Teachers and Pupil-teachersPercentage of Male to Female Adult Teachers.
Sole Teachers.Heads of Schools.Assistant Teachers.Pupil-teachers.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
Auckland72618418625437166727501341841,73863.5
Taranaki16426624728141407212834537.8
Wanganui211447079112520821365749451.2
Hawke's Bay18221886663518716284444743.4
Wellington2724211285167534817425973742.4
Nelson146317033512833151825248.1
Canterbury39439173141299243837681051,01742.5
Otago264421179836125617436063753.5
Southland191456761172413914183238558.3
Totals2,5504749458641525042,5261824055876,05250.8

A table is now given which shows by education districts the total roll of scholars as at the end of each year for the last five years. The figures indicate in a general way that the rate of increase has been more pronounced in the North Island districts than in the South. They also indicate, more clearly perhaps than the preceding table, the relative size and responsibilities of the nine Boards. The figures are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

Scholars, by Education Districts, 1918 to 1922.
District.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Auckland53,25954,42256,88159,81662,248
Taranaki10,09110,12810,27610,83411,121
Wanganui15,48415,31115,60516,31016,673
Hawke's Bay13,49513,84314,31915,11715,593
Wellington24,86224,60324,71725,69926,367
Nelson6,9806,8417,0007,0287,052
Canterbury34,09034,48834,77535,76136,885
Otago22,33922,19222,01222,19222,084
Southland12,08012,07212,06012,42412,468
     Totals192,680193,900197,645205,181210,491

In each of the education districts are located the Inspectors of Schools, who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school Inspectors on the 31st December, 1922, was 44, allocated as follows: Auckland, 12; Taranaki, 3; Hawke's Bay, 3; Wanganui, 4; Wellington, 5; Nelson, 2; Canterbury, 7; Otago, 5; Southland, 3.

AGE AND SEX OF PUPILS.

The following table shows the age and sex of the pupils on the rolls of the public schools of the Dominion at the end of 1922, and the percentage of the roll for each age:—

Ages.1922.Percentages for Five Years.
Boys.Girls.Total.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
5 and under 6 years7,8957,44015,3357.47.87.27.47.3
6 and under 7 years11,24610,41521,66110.710.610.610.210.3
7 and under 8 years12,11211,11123,22311.411.611.611.611.0
8 and under 9 years12,34111,59223,93311.311.411.511.211.3
9 and under 10 years12,34411,53623,88011.411.311.211.411.4
10 and under 11 years12,19311,41723,61011.511.311.111.011.2
11 and under 12 years11,82610,77622,60210.711.011.110.710.7
12 and under 13 years11,26710,44021,70710.510.410.610.610.3
13 and under 14 years10,1179,33819,4558.98.89.19.29.3
14 and under 15 years6,0774,93011,0074.74.44.55.05.2
15 and over2,4441,6344,0781.51.41.51.72.0
Totals109,862100,629210,491100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

CONVEYANCE AND BOARD OF SCHOLARS.

Free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway-line but out of reach of a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, district high schools, and technical high schools, and also by free-place holders travelling to attend technical schools or classes other than technical high schools.

Education Boards are also authorized to make provision when necessary for the conveyance of pupils to primary schools by road or water, and to contribute towards the payment for board of children compelled to live away from home in order to attend school. The expenditure on these services for the last five years is shown in the following table:—

Conveyance and Board.—Expenditure for 1918 to 1922.
Year.Railway Fares.Other Conveyance and Boarding Allowances.Total.
Primary.Secondary.Technical.Primary.Secondary.Technical.
 £££££££
191810,9744,9483,13810,087....29,147
191911,4595,6133,85217,757155..38,836
192012,0586,2553,75419,169661241,314
192113,4706,1134,38622,089....46,058
192211,9426,7894,74222,839....46,312

MANUAL INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Elementary handwork in such subjects as modelling, paper and cardboard work, and brushwork is taught by the ordinary staff in practically every school of any size in the Dominion. The boys of Standards V and VI (also Standard IV in small schools) in 572 schools receive instruction from special teachers in woodwork or ironwork, there now being 115 specially equipped centres for this purpose. The girls of similar standards from 566 schools also receive instruction from special instructors in domestic subjects, including a comprehensive course in cookery and domestic hygiene. This instruction is also given at suitably equipped centres, which correspond in number to the woodwork and ironwork centres. Subjects relating to agriculture or dairy-work are taught in 1,528 schools. These subjects are generally taught by the regular staff under the supervision of itinerant instructors specially qualified in the work. Different branches of elementary science are taught in 114 schools, and swimming and life-saving at 77 schools.

The payments made by the Department on account of salaries, capitation, and material for manual instruction for the year ended 31st March, 1923, amounted to £73,835.

CLASS-BOOKS AND SCHOOL AND CLASS LIBRARIES.

A capitation grant at the rate of 3d. per head on the average attendance is paid to Boards for the purpose of supplying schools with supplementary continuous readers for class-reading, and also for the free supply of class-books in certain cases.

Provision has been made for the payment of subsidies of £1 for £1 on moneys raised by voluntary contributions for school libraries. In addition a subsidy is payable by the Education Board not exceeding £5 for any one school.

“SCHOOL JOURNAL.”

Since May, 1907, an illustrated paper, called the School Journal, has been published by the Department monthly for use as a supplementary reader in primary schools, and is regarded as a useful and popular publication. In many cases it is being used as the chief reader. It is issued in three parts, suited to the varying capacities of the pupils in Standards I to VI inclusive, and is supplied free to all public schools, Native schools, special schools, and other institutions more or less under the Department's control or supervision. To a very large number of private schools it is supplied at cost price, with the result that over 17,000 copies of the School Journal are purchased monthly. Of the last issue of the School Journal for the year 1922 the number of copies printed was—Part I, 71,950; Part II, 67,650; Part III, 58,150; total, 197,750. These numbers show an increase of 6,750 over those of the previous year. The price to purchasers is at present 1d. for each of Parts I and II, and 1 ½d. for Part III, the minimum charge for one of each part being 4s. 6d. per annum.

“EDUCATION GAZETTE.”

A monthly Gazette is published by the Department. In addition to containing articles by leading educationists it is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and advertisement of vacancies, and arrangements obtain whereby copies are available for perusal by every teacher in the Dominion.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

Physical education is recognized as part of the primary-school curriculum, and by regulation it is compulsory on the part of head teachers to devote a minimum time of fifteen minutes a day to the subject. Its administration is in the hands of a Chief Physical Instructor and a staff of twelve itinerant instructors. Schools are visited by the instructors for the purpose of both instructing and inspecting. Corrective classes are held in the larger schools for the purpose of remedying physical defects of the children, and exercises for this purpose are prescribed by the physical instructor after the child has been examined by a School Medical Officer. The Department uses its own syllabus of physical training, which was published in 1920, and is based on that of the London Board of Education, modified to suit New Zealand conditions.

The medical and dental inspection of school-children and school dentistry were transferred from the jurisdiction of the Education Department to that of the Department of Health at the end of 1920, and reference to these matters is dealt with in Section VII of this publication.

PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHERS.

The number of teachers in the public schools, exclusive of those employed in the secondary departments of district high schools, is shown for a number of years. The figures are as in December of the years given, and in the case of pupil-teachers exclude probationers from 1913 onwards.

TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1878 to 1922.
Year.Adults.Pupil-teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
18787074541,161118332450
18881,0398871,926219694913
18981,2341,3702,6042298311,060
19081,3312,0213,352161476637
19131,6032,6594,262142474616
19181,3663,4524,818123523646
19191,6063,3945,000123503626
19201,6753,5005,175114466580
19211,7723,4885,260141415556
19221,8423,6235,465182405587

The total number of teachers employed in primary schools, excluding probationers and including 587 pupil-teachers, in 1922 was 6,052 (2,024 males and 4,028 females); of these 78 per cent. held teachers' certificates. The number of probationers was 767 (171 males and 596 females). Taking all schools with two or more teachers, the average number of pupils per teacher was thirty-five; in schools with six or more teachers the average number was forty; and in all schools the average number was thirty-one. The table given earlier in discussing the relative activities of the various Education Boards shows the number of male and female teachers respectively in each education district for the year 1922.

Omitting schools with less than twenty-one pupils, the ratio of adult men teachers to adult women teachers in 1922 was 100 to 182. The proportion of men to women in charge of schools with one to twenty scholars was 100 to 299. If the adult teachers of all public schools are taken it is found that the ratio of men teachers to women teachers was 100 to 197 in 1922. The ratio of male pupil-teachers was 100 to 223 in 1922. This information over a period of five successive years shows in a striking way the reduction in the disparity evident in the earlier years. A proportion of one male to three female teachers is regarded by educationists as satisfactory.

PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL-TEACHERS (FEMALES PER 100 MALES), 1918 to 1922.
Ratio of1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Adult teachers—     
   Schools with one to twenty scholars523362392318299
   Schools with more than twenty scholars227193190182182
   All schools253211209197197
Pupil-teachers425409409294223
Probationers688603511445349
Students in training colleges488362333324256

The average salaries paid to teachers in 1922, including house allowance or value of residence, were—Male head teachers, £420; female head teachers, £360; male assistants, £326; female assistants, £224; sole male teachers, £246; sole female teachers, £216. The movement over a period, when considerable salary adjustments have been made to meet the variation in the cost of living, is now shown. The figures include both certificated and uncertificated teachers.

AVERAGE SALARY OF PRIMARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS, 1918 to 1922.
Class of Teacher.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
 £££££
Male head teachers319380432438420
Female head teachers251319373385360
Male sole teachers174221266266246
Female sole teachers143193221234216
Male assistants257301336343326
Female assistants150197229238224

The following table shows the number of certificated teachers receiving salaries of the various grades during the year 1922:—

SALARIES OF CERTIFICATED TEACHERS, 1922.
Salaries (including Allowances and Value of Residences).Certificated Male Teachers.Certificated Female Teachers.
Sole and Head Teachers.Assistants.Sole and Head Teachers.Assistants.
Not exceeding £1801164109
£181 to £25035651401,388
£251 to £30010775174329
£301 to £350147106129222
£351 to £40034813412961
Over £4004158953
     Totals1,0534855812,112

Information as to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund will be found in the section of this book dealing with Pensions, Superannuation, &c.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

Training colleges are situated in the four principal centres of the Dominion. The management of the training colleges is entrusted to the local Education Boards, subject to general regulations. The amount expended by the Department during the financial year 1922-23 for the training of teachers was £158,473. The number of students at the end of 1922 was—Auckland, 351; Wellington, 276; Christchurch, 243; and Dunedin, 281: total, 1,151.

A very considerable increase has been in evidence in the number of students attending the training colleges. The figures for the last three years are as follows:—

Training College.1920.1921.1922.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland561331896520226797254351
Wellington391351744914219179197276
Christchurch261171435014619671172143
Dunedin361381744920125076205281
     Totals1575236802136919043238281,151

The number attending in each of the earlier years of the past decade has been—1913, 439; 1914, 430; 1915, 390; 1916, 442; 1917, 451; 1918, 500; and 1919, 582.

The ordinary course of training is for two years, and the output of trained teachers from the colleges in 1922 was 593. There is also provision for a one-year course, which under certain conditions may be taken by University students or matriculated students who have completed a two-years course at an agricultural college or a school of home science recognized by the University of New Zealand. In addition there are short-period studentships, of not less than three months' nor more than one year's duration, for the benefit of teachers who have already been employed in teaching and are deemed worthy of further training in professional work.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

By the Education Amendment Act, 1921-22, every private school was required to apply for registration before the 13th July, 1922, and no private school can now be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration. Application, however, does not of necessity carry registration, as certain precedent conditions of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum are required to be fulfilled. By the principal Act of 1914 every child between the ages of seven and fourteen is required to be enrolled as a pupil of either a public or a registered school. It follows accordingly that the parents of a child of school age are liable to the penalty of £2 provided for in the principal Act if such child is improperly enrolled at other than a public or registered school.

At the end of the year 1922 the number of registered private primary schools was 263, with a total roll number of 24,861 and an average attendance of 21,216 for the year.

REGISTERED PRIVATE SCHOOLS, 1919 to 1922.
Year.Number of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19192129,52511,45220,97718,47267616683
19202219,93512,25822,19319,16266642708
192123510,96712,95723,92420,94176682758
192226311,23413,62724,86121,24674726800

The following particulars show that the bulk of the scholars concerned attend Roman Catholic schools, the actual proportion being 80.3 per cent. in 1920, 71.5 per cent. in 1921, and 81.5 per cent. in 1922.

ROMAN CATHOLIC REGISTERED PRIVATE SCHOOLS, 1919 to 1922.
(Included in preceding table.)
Year.Number of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19191527,7319,43817,16915,11631472503
19201598,3229,86818,19015,97339486525
19211689,09610,55119,64717,11740520560
19221789,50610,74720,25317,07636533569

In addition to the 263 registered primary private schools there were 27 private secondary schools on the register at the end of 1922, with a total roll number of 1,998.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR NATIVES.

The number of Native village schools in operation at the end of 1922 was 127. In addition there are nineteen private schools at which education for Maori boys and girls is provided. Of these, ten are maintained from the incomes arising out of lands held in trust for educational purposes by various denominational bodies; the others are supported by private resources. Instruction is imparted by means of the English language only.

On the rolls of the 127 village schools at the 31st December, 1922, there were 6,161 children (including 814 Europeans). The average attendance for the year was 5,436, the percentage of regularity being 88.8, and the average weekly roll number 6,119. The total number of pupils on the rolls of the Native mission schools was 363, and on those of the secondary schools 413. At the end of the year, therefore, the total roll number of all the Native schools inspected by officers of the Education Department was 6,937, the average weekly roll being 6,878, and the total average attendance 6,133.

Of the children on the rolls of the Native schools 84 per cent, are Maoris speaking Maori in their homes, 3 per cent, are Maoris speaking English, and 13 per cent. are Europeans.

The total net expenditure on Native schools during the year ended the 31st March, 1923, was £69,631. Included in this is the sum of £55,052 expended on teachers' salaries, £2,642 expended on new buildings and additions, £2,579 on maintenance of buildings, repairs, &c., and £3,805 on secondary education.

The staffs of the village schools included seventy-six male and forty-six female head or sole teachers, and 148 assistants. The following figures indicate the average salaries paid in 1922 to Native-school teachers:—

 Males.Females.
Head teachers296274
Sole teachers183192
Assistants122126

The following table records the development of the Native village schools since the year 1881, when they were transferred from the Native Department to the control of the Education Department. No account is taken of schools which, as the European element in them has become predominant, have been handed over to the various Education Boards.

NATIVE VILLAGE SCHOOLS.—NUMBER, ATTENDANCE, AND TEACHERS, 1881 to 1922.
Year.Number of Schools at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance: Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.Number of Teachers.
Males.Females.
188160..1,406..5410
1886692,3432,02086.26035
1891662,3951,83776.76034
1896742,8742,22077.36472
1902983,6503,00582.377103
1907994,3213,56182.484123
19121084,6444,04287.090144
19171185,1914,50786.880167
19201195,4164,63985.782171
19211235,7384,98886.983180
19221276,1195,43688.886184

Besides the children of the Maori race who are receiving instruction in the Native schools there is a large number (5,917) attending public schools, so that the total number of primary pupils of Maori race (including those in the mission schools) is 12,441.

SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Until 1904 secondary schools were established by special (local) Acts of the General Assembly, and the bulk of schools giving secondary education have been so constituted. At the present time the provisions of the Education Act, 1914, allow of the Minister of Education establishing such schools, and in general the minimum number of prospective pupils must be sixty pupils in the case of secondary schools, twenty pupils in the case of the secondary department of a district high school, and forty pupils in the case of a technical high school. Secondary schools are controlled by a Board of Governors, district high schools by the Education Board of the district, and technical high schools either by a Board of Managers or the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity. Free places are granted to suitably qualified pupils. A junior free place is tenable for two years, with a possible extension to three years. When held at a district high school it is tenable to the age of seventeen. Senior free places are tenable up to the age of nineteen. The Act provides for the award of Junior and Senior National Scholarships of a monetary value of £5 or £10 respectively, supplemented if necessary by a boarding-allowance of £35. In 1918 war bursaries for the dependants of soldiers killed or disabled in the European war were instituted.

In addition to the three classes of institutions referred to above there is also a small number of registered private secondary schools and of Maori secondary schools which provide for post-primary education. The total number of the five classes of schools providing secondary education during the last five years is set out in the accompanying table.

NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS PROVIDING SECONDARY EDUCATION, 1918 to 1922.
Year.Secondary Schools.Secondary Departments of District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Private Secondary Schools.Total.
1918346281018132
1919346991021143
1920355991018131
19213557131020135
19223661131027147

Pupils on the roll at the end of the year for the five classes of schools providing secondary instruction numbered 19,955 in 1922, as compared with 17,677 in 1921. The number of pupils in each year of the last decade is shown in the following table; no account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary department is included.

PUPILS RECEIVING SECONDARY INSTRUCTION AT END OF EACH YEAR, 1913 to 1922.
Year.Secondary Schools.District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Native Secondary Schools.Registered Private Secondary Schools.Total.

* Actual number on roll during year.

19135,8031,8371,664*419545*10,268
19146,0561,8961,839*435850*11,076
19156,4882,1021,955*42199211,958
19167,0522,1152,1054571,00412,733
19177,5902,1802,3474871,20613,810
19188,3842,2832,7474711,36615,251
19199,0682,1592,9264341,49716,084
19209,1962,1572,7664741,43916,032
192110,0302,1763,3494881,63417,677
192210,7362,6064,2024131,99819,955

It should be pointed out that the above figures give the total scholars enrolled as at the end of the year. In the class of institution under review, however, a number of pupils leave before the close of the school year, and the figures shown are therefore on that account a little below the total number of scholars who have received instruction during the year. On the other hand, the total given is somewhat in excess of the total of pupils in average attendance over the whole year.

At the end of 1922, of the total scholars attending secondary schools, 5,971 were boys and 4,765 girls; of the total attending technical high schools, 2,334 were boys and 1,868 were girls; and in the case of registered private schools the total roll consisted of 756 boys and 1,242 girls. The figures of Maori secondary schools and of the secondary departments of district high schools as at the close of the year do not distinguish between male and female pupils.

FREE SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Not all of the pupils receiving secondary education hold free places, but of the scholars attending Government schools no less than 94 per cent. were receiving free tuition in 1922. The following table gives a summary of the various secondary free places at the end of each of the last three years for which payment was made by Government:—

Free Places in December, 1920, 1921, and 1922.
Class of Free Place.1920.1921.1922.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Secondary schools—..................
   Junior free pupils2,9742,5905,5642,7132,9415,6543,4723,2226,694
   Senior free pupils1,2421,0472,2891,7231,1632,8861,5361,2162,752
District high schools—..................
   Junior free pupils8098671,6768418701,7111,0331,0632,096
   Senior free pupils157184341145173318181215396
Maori secondary schools48509850621125256108
Technical high schools—..................
   Junior free pupils1,2261,0002,2261,4451,2022,6471,8811,4613,342
   Senior free pupils151199350232261493337300637
     Totals6,6075,93712,5447,1496,67213,8218,4927,53316,025

SCHOLARSHIPS HELD AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND DISTRICT HIGH SCHOOLS.

National Scholarships.

At the examinations held in 1922, 231 candidates qualified for Junior National Scholarships, of whom twenty-five were from schools with not more than eighty pupils and fifty-seven were pupils of secondary schools. The number of candidates qualifying for Senior National Scholarships was 130. The figures below indicate the number and value of scholarships current in December, 1920, 1921, and 1922, respectively. The number of scholarship-holders is, of course, included in the number of free-place holders already shown under the heading of “Free Secondary Education.”

Number of scholarship-holders—1920.1921.1922.
Number of scholarship-holders—   
   Boys458426441
   Girls280273280
     Totals738699721
Number receiving boarding-allowance (included in the above total)201172175
Number receiving travelling-allowance (similarly included)454745
Number held at secondary schools627569584
Number held at district high schools757569
Number held at technical high schools..3153
Number held at registered private secondary schools362415
Total annual rate of payment£12,510£11,693£10,885

Private Scholarships.

The number of foundation and private scholarships in the last term of 1922 was 200. Of the holders, 101 were also Government free pupils under the regulations. In addition, free tuition was given by the schools to holders of foundation and private scholarships.

WAR BURSARIES FOR SOLDIERS' DEPENDANTS.

Regulations which came into force in January, 1918, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of killed or disabled members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. To qualify for a war bursary a child must be eligible for—

  1. (a.) Free education at technical classes; or

  2. (b.) A free place at a secondary school, district high school, or technical high school; or

  3. (c.) A University or educational bursary at a University college.

A bursary entitles the holder to an allowance, in addition to free tuition, of £1 10s. or £3 per annum in the case of those qualified under (a), £5 for those under (b), or £10 for those under (c). Lodging-allowance is also payable to bursars who are obliged to live away from home to attend school, at the rate of £15 per annum under (a) and £30 under (b) and (c); travelling-allowances varying from £5 to £10 per annum are also made when travelling is necessary. The number and value of such bursaries in force each year since the inauguration of the scheme are now given.

Year.Number.Value. £
191827328
191935524
192038646
192130565
192240377

STATES AND SALARIES OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Complete details of the staffs and salaries of thee five classes of schools providing secondary education are not available. The following figures are therefore confined to full-time teachers of secondary schools proper and the secondary departments of district high schools:—

Teaching Staffs of Secondary Institutions, 1918 to 1922.
Year.Secondary Schools.District High Schools.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
1918175195370217293
19191861953813471105
19202071934003674110
19212111944053370103
19222352074424770117

The average rate of salary paid for each of the last five years is shown below. Under the provisions of the Education Amendment Act of 1920, regulations have been made prescribing definitely the salaries of secondary-school teachers which are paid by the Government. The range of salaries payable is as follows: Principals—Men, £570 to £860; women, £415 to £645. Assistants—Men, £183 to £520; women, £158 to £390. In addition, a married Principal receives house allowance of £60 if a residence is not provided, a head of a department may receive £30, and a married assistant receives £40 per annum. The salaries of Principals are graded according to the size of the school, and the salaries of assistants according to the classification of the position held.

Average Salaries paid to Teachers of Secondary Institutions, 1918 to 1922.
Year.Secondary-school Principals.Secondary-school Assistants.District High School Secondary Assistants.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
 ££££££
1918615434300201263218
1919647509332252298268
1920711548389289341304
1921734542383284345307
1922703529359267302289

LOWER DEPARTMENTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Somewhat analagous to private schools, but on a different basis, are the lower departments of secondary schools. These departments may be held in connection with secondary schools for pupils who have not passed Standard VI, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met out of the income from the endowments of the school or from Government grants. Twelve secondary schools have lower departments attached to them. A large number of the pupils board at the school hostels, indicating that these departments are used by the children of country residents able to afford to send their children away from home to attend school. The tuition fees charged average £11 per annum, and the boarding fees £50. The figures relating to the last five years reveal the following particulars regarding the number of pupils and teachers at the end of each year:—

Lower Departments of Secondary Schools.
Year.Number of Schools.Scholars.Teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.

*Not available.

191814365215580***
19191439229468671825
19201445436181592029
19211443334177472229
19221234424659081523

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

The Education Act provides for public instruction in such subjects of art, science, and technology as are set forth in regulations. Up to the end of 1919 the main source of revenue of technical schools and classes was derived from capitation payments made by the Government on the attendances of pupils, and each Board of Managers or controlling authority was responsible for the fixing of the salaries of its instructors, and the conditions of employment. In 1920, however, capitation payments were to a great extent abolished, and there was substituted a Dominion system of classification of technical-school teachers and manual-training instructors, and a corresponding system of payment of salaries. The abolition of capitation payments also involved making direct provision for the incidental expenses incurred by Technical School Boards and controlling authorities in connection with the schools, and the allowance for these for any school or class was made proportional to the total salaries paid by the Department for that school or class.

TECHNICAL CLASSES OTHER THAN CLASSES AT TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS.

Classes were held at sixty-three centres, as compared with ninety-four in the previous year. The number of individual students was as follows:—

 1921.1922.
Classes conducted by Education or High School Boards5,5671,807
Classes conducted by Technical School Boards or by Managers10,0819,195
Classes conducted by University colleges1,1841,260
     Totals10,83212,262

Students receiving free education during 1922 at technical classes other than technical high schools numbered 4,405 (2,537 males and 1,868 females). This compares with a total of 3,835 (2,127 males and 1,708 females) in the preceding year.

TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS.

These schools (thirteen in 1922) are of secondary grade, and provide industrial, domestic, agricultural, commercial, and art courses. The number of pupils in attendance was as follows: Auckland, 599; Pukekohe, 175; Wanganui, 422; Feilding, 125; Hawera, 187; Stratford, 175; Wellington, 465; Napier, 279; Hastings, 143; Westport, 133; Christchurch, 651; Dunedin, 454; and Invercargill, 394. The total roll number was 4,202. The schools appear to meet the needs of a number of young people who would not otherwise proceed to secondary schools. The courses of instruction taken up by pupils were as follows:—

Courses of Instruction at Technical High Schools, 1918 to 1922.

Course.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Industrial6987868399511,234
Commercial and general1,4821,6351,3581,7462,054
Domestic385297330385611
Agriculture177203232263288
Art557415
Totals2,7472,9262,7663,3494,202

Some indication of the growth of technical education and of the expenditure thereon is apparent from the following table. The figures relating to expenditure refer in each case to the financial year ending 31st March following.

Particulars relating to Technical Education for the Years 1918 to 1922 inclusive.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

* Year ended 31st March following.

Classes.     
Number of centres at which classes were held1311101219466
Number of technical high schools8891313
Number of students—     
   (a.) Technical high schools2,7472,9262,7663,3494,202
   (b.) Other classes16,91017,95018,62816,83212,262
Number of free pupils at (a) and (b) above6,7157,2426,5426,9758,384
Number of students attending under compulsory regulations1,3241,3721,6361,585324
Chief Items of Expenditure.*     
Capitation and salaries—£££££
   (a.) Technical high schools33,15047,34329,818119,289119,464
   (b.) Other classes33,11947,85831,918119,289119,464
   (c.) Salaries and allowances, &c.....20,589119,289119,464
Grants for buildings and equipment5,77313,31967,217101,19866,308
Subsidies on voluntary contributions1,6736,9345,4663,9914,207
Conveyance of (a) Instructors464615635679808
     (b) Students3,3123,8523,7674,3864,742
     Total expenditure* by Government85,335132,245169,530244,627207,628

Further information in regard to free places in technical high schools is given under the heading of “Secondary Education.”

SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND CARE OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN.

CHILD WELFARE.

The functions of the Special Schools Branch of the Education Department include the following phases of social work: (1) The maintenance, supervision, and training of destitute, dependent, and delinquent children committed to the care of the State; (2) the supervision of children and juvenile offenders placed on probation by the Courts; (3) the supervision of all infants and young children under the age of six years maintained for payment apart from their parents; (4) the supervision of children in cases where epidemic pensions or widows' pensions are paid by the State; (5) the education and training of afflicted children over the age of six years; the definition “afflicted" includes deaf, blind, or improvable feeble-minded children and children partly deaf or suffering from defective speech and stammerers. The following figures indicate the numbers under control during each year of 1919 to 1922 inclusive:—

 1919.1920.1921.1922.
Industrial schools and receiving-homes3,5933,8393,8303,798
Juvenile probation172281272277
Infant-life protection807797706742
Deaf children96118148135
Feeble-minded children150198201230
Totals4,8185,2335,1575,182

The number of new cases actually dealt with in 1922 was 410.

Agencies in connection with the juvenile probation system are established in all the large towns of the Dominion, and boys' probation homes exist in each of the four chief centres. The number of cases dealt with by the Juvenile Probation Officers in 1922 was 1,080.

CHILDREN BOARDED OUT.

At the end of the year 1922 the number of children boarded out in foster-homes was 1,969, as compared with 2,035 at the end of the preceding year. On account of the increased cost of living, the boarding-out rate has been raised at various times, and in April, 1920, was increased from 15s. to 17s. 6d. per week for infants under twelve months, and from 12s. 6d. to 15s. for children over that age and up to fifteen years, or longer if the child in question is still attending school. In addition, a very complete initial outfit of clothing is supplied with each child, and the Department provides free medical and dental treatment and medicines. School books and stationery are also provided for children attending school.

BOYS' SCHOOLS.

The Boys' Training-farm at Weraroa provides for boys of all ages who, through the commission of offences against the law, are not considered fit to associate with the children attending an ordinary public school—at least not until they have undergone a course of training and discipline at Weraroa.

CARE OF THE FEEBLE-MINDED.

An institution at Otekaike is available for the reception of feeble-minded boys, who, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, and in the bootmaking, basketmaking, matmaking, and carpentering shops. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and employed in housework and laundry-work, in the workroom sewing, knitting, &c., and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing.

INFANT-LIFE PROTECTION.

This work is carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. The majority of infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate, and have been neglected to such an extent prior to placing them in foster-homes that the greatest care is necessary in catering for their welfare.

DEAF CHILDREN AND CHILDREN WITH SPEECH-DEFECTS.

Special classes are established in the various centres for the education of the hard-of-hearing children and for the correction of defective speech among children. A school at Sumner exists for the preliminary teaching of stone-deaf children and young children who, in addition to being deaf, have little or no speech, and incidentally for the training of teachers for the deaf.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY AND AFFILIATED COLLEGES.

Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the New Zealand University, founded by the New Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875. In 1876 the University was recognized by Royal charter as entitled to grant the degrees of Bachelor and Master of Arts, and Bachelor and Doctor of Laws, of Medicine, and of Music. The Amendment Act of 1883, and the supplementary charter issued in December of the same year, added the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Science. By the provisions of the New Zealand University Act of 1908 and subsequent amending Acts the Senate of the University now has power to confer, in addition to those mentioned, the following degrees: Doctor of Literature; Master of Laws, of Surgery, and of Science; Bachelor, Master, and Doctor of Veterinary Science, of Dental Surgery, of Mechanical, Electrical, Civil, Mining, and Metallurgical Engineering, of Naval Architecture, of Agriculture, of Public Health, and of Commerce; Bachelor of Science in Home Science; and Bachelor of Science in Architecture. Diplomas in a number of subjects may also be obtained. In 1921 a Bachelor of Science in Forestry and a Doctorate of Philosophy were instituted.

The University is an examining, not a teaching body, and four teaching institutions are affiliated to it—the Auckland University College, founded in 1882; Victoria University College, founded in 1897 at Wellington; Canterbury College, founded in 1873 at Christchurch; and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. The affairs of these University colleges, including the appointment of professors and lecturers, are entirely in the hands of the various Councils. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions: Otago University has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, and a school of home science; Canterbury College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil); Auckland University College has a school of mines and a school of commerce; and Victoria University College specializes in law and science.

The affiliated colleges receive annual statutory Government grants towards meeting the expenses of their general maintenance. These grants are now as follows: Auckland University College, £10,600; Victoria University College, £10,600; Canterbury College, £3,600; Otago University, £8,200. The colleges are also in receipt of rents from endowments, Canterbury College and Otago University being the most richly endowed, due to the foresight of the early settlers in those provinces.

The growth of University education is seen from the annexed table. There were in 1922 3,683 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges. Of these, 204 were graduates, 2,570 undergraduates, and 909 unmatriculated students. In addition to the students mentioned above, there were 275 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures. There were also 53 students taking an agricultural course of University grade at the Lincoln Agricultural College.

STUDENTS ON BOOKS OF AFFILIATED COLLEGES, 1913 to 1922.
Year.Attending Lectures.Exempt Students.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.
19131,45366188262,228
19141,37675889342,257
19151,24369376272,039
19161,09279864311,985
19171,00789550251,977
19181,1221,01859272,226
19191,8311,13083163,060
19202,3271,345122283,822
19212,5241,400157424,123
19222,5911,092231443,958

It will be noted that a very considerable increase has taken place in the total number of students over the decennium. A falling-off in the war years is apparent, but this is almost exclusively due to the absence of male students on active service.

FREE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.

University Junior Scholarships are of the value of £20 per annum plus tuition fees, and are tenable for three years. In the case of holders living away from home a further sum of £30 per annum is allowed. The University National Scholarships are of equal monetary value. The number of junior and national scholarships gained in 1922 was thirty-five. Taranaki Scholarships are of the annual value of £60, and the Senate may at its discretion extend the tenure from three to four years. There are also some thirty or forty local and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same entrance examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the Senior University, Sir George Grey, and John Tinline Scholarships. The various colleges have also private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarship, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, the Medical Travelling Scholarship, the Engineering Travelling Scholarship, the Post-graduate Travelling Scholarship, the French Travelling Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All excepting the last-named are tenable abroad. The Research Scholarships are each of the value of £100 per annum, with laboratory fees and expenses.

So far twenty-two Rhodes Scholarships have been granted, of which six have been gained by students of Auckland University College, six by students of Otago University, six by students of Victoria University College, and four by students of Canterbury College. Of the twenty-two Research Scholarships awarded up to the present two were in active operation in 1922.

University bursaries entitle the holders to the payment of tuition and examination fees (not exceeding £20 per annum) during a three (or possibly four) years' course at a University college or school of agriculture recognized by the University. The number of University bursaries held in 1922 was 598. The number of educational bursaries under the Education Act, 1914, held in 1922 was sixty-four. Domestic-science bursaries tenable at the Otago University may be awarded under the regulations for technical instruction. Bursaries of this kind were awarded to ten students in 1922, making thirty-six bursars in attendance at classes. Training-college studentships also carrying tuition at University classes, and the completion of a training-college course is one of the grounds on which an educational bursary may be awarded for further University study.

Agricultural bursaries may be awarded to qualified candidates in order to enable them to obtain the necessary practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1922 seven bursars were in attendance at Lincoln Agricultural College, Canterbury, and three bursars were attending a University college.

From the table given below will be seen the number of students who received free University education during each of the last ten years:—

Students receiving Free Higher Education, 1913 to 1922.
Year.Junior University, University National, and Taranaki Scholarships.Senior University Scholarships.University and Educational Bursaries.Training-college Studentships.Other.Total.
191390818344526752
1914911128642444856
191584831741636861
1916761230543727857
1917811328345640873
1918801033348369975
1919100195075861361,348
192099186317351161,599
19219913705774651,656
19228812616771911,578

The outstanding feature of the above table is the number of University and educational bursaries which are now awarded as compared with a period of ten years ago. This is due to a marked widening of the bursary regulations. The courses of an increasing number of secondary-school pupils are now continued to comply with the conditions under which bursaries may be awarded.

WORKERS EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.

Tutorial and preliminary classes are conducted by the Workers' Educational Association, which works in conjunction with the four University colleges, for working men and women in such subjects as economics, psychology, industrial history, English literature, English composition, modern history, electricity, and hygiene, &c. Members of the staffs of the University colleges and other educationists act as tutors of the classes. Seventy-two classes were held in 1922, with a roll number of 2,500. The classes were held for the most part in the large cities, although in the Wellington centre particularly classes were held in a number of the smaller towns. The Government now contributes directly £2,500 per annum to the movement, in addition to which £1,250 paid by the Government out of the National Endowment Fund to the University of New Zealand is devoted to the same object, making a total of £3,750. Voluntary contributions received by the University colleges on account of the association's classes are also subsidized by the Government.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.

Examinations are conducted by the Education Department for the various purposes of Junior and Senior National Scholarships, junior and senior free places in secondary schools, district high schools, and technical schools, and teachers' certificates. Also, by arrangement with the Public Service Commissioner, examinations are held for admission to and promotion in the Public Service.

The University conducted examinations in 1922 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, public health, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, and music, and for admission to the legal and accountants' professions. The number of candidates for examination is increasing each year; there were 5,467 entrants for the degree examinations in 1922, compared with 4,964 in 1921. The number of candidates for matriculation has nearly doubled in the last five years, the entries over the quinquennium being—1918, 2,129; 1919, 2,653; 1920, 3029; 1921, 3,643; 1922, 4,143.

The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department during the last five years is given below:—

Examination.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
Junior National Scholarships and junior free places1,9172,1702,2982,2822,500
Public Service Entrance, Senior National Scholarships, and Intermediate2,4223,0632,9993,4193,544
Teachers D and C1,9122,2342,3652,9213,227
Public Service Senior78507828..
Kindergarten Certificate Examination59125
Special Public Service Entrance Examination in June133189204248..
Special Public Service Entrance Examination for returned soldiers....73....
London University Examinations2422..
Qualifying Examination Railway Engineering Cadets........9
     Totals6,4697,7198,0208,9029,285

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.

Expenditure on education has increased rapidly of recent years, and out of public funds no less a sum than £3,187,292 was spent for the financial year ended 31st March, 1923. The public funds referred to above, however, include not only the amount appropriated by parliamentary vote, but also sums paid from primary-education reserves revenue. Nor does this represent the whole amount expended on education in the Dominion. In the case of certain secondary schools and University colleges a considerable revenue from endowments, fees, &c., is received and becomes available for educational purposes. The figures given below relate only to direct expenditure on education from the public purse. Figures for the last five years, analysed according to the various branches of expenditure, are—

SUMMARY OF EDUCATION EXPENDITURE FOR FINANCIAL YEARS ENDED 31st MARCH, 1919 to 1923.
Service.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
 £££££
General administration20,61826,01238,46838,62034,629
Elementary education1,439,5721,782,3052,252,5812,377,7972,165,200
Secondary education144,156229,630255,215310,878272,907
Technical instruction85,258132,038170,200244,627207,628
Training colleges, &c.59,92189,070129,685158,158158,473
Higher education51,11068,976109,242117,434128,974
Native schools48,50059,17671,40977,60369,631
School for the deaf3,9725,3486,0506,0366,423
Education of the blindCr. 174111Cr. 14610188
Schools for the feeble-minded6,4145,10015,60511,1908,261
Industrial schools and probation system65,90384,527107,753108,62293,914
Material and stores10,8826,18913,003Cr. 4,345Cr. 10,785
Miscellaneous services50,09355,51954,99350,65251,949
     Totals1,986,2252,544,0013,224,0583,497,3733,187,292

There is now given a series of comparative figures which show the increase in the cost of education since the beginning of the present century. The table following shows the expenditure in thousands of pounds, and the rate per unit of mean population.

COST OF EDUCATION, 1898-99 to 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 (£1,000)s.d.
1899519134
1904679156
1909980194
19111,083208
19121,133215
19131,237225
19141,301230
19151,378241
19161,493258
19171,694295
19181,814317
19191,986351
19202,554424
19213,224516
19223,497646
19233,187486

The exceptionally marked increase of recent years (the year 1922-23 is an exception) in the total cost of education is in a large measure due to improved teachers' salaries. This item, together with the salaries of Inspectors of Schools, approximates 80 per cent. of the total expenditure. Another potent factor which requires to be borne in mind in considering the additional amount spent each year is the numerical increase in the population of school age, and the consequent increased number of scholars attending the primary schools. Compared with a decade ago, also, the number of pupils taking advantage of free secondary education has increased enormously, and this has involved considerable additional expenditure.

Chapter 9. SECTION IX.—JUSTICE.

CIVIL CASES.

THE ordinary civil jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts is limited generally to claims not exceeding £200. Justices of the Peace may hear and decide certain civil cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed £20. The numbers of plaints issued and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in the lower Courts during the ten years 1913-22 are shown in the following table:—

Year.Cases entered.Cases tried.
Number.Total Amount claimed.Number.Total Amount sued for.Total Amount for which Judgment entered.
  £ ££
191361,759670,92539,086427,484366,981
191462,471706,95339,233455,197398,760
191560,170695,62537,632446,979383,532
191649,806639,92231,064395,779339,847
191746,004624,69329,412401,568340,958
191839,176563,35825,594378,025308,429
191938,775619,57624,680385,020319,135
192046,601787,52428,999467,665399,219
192159,3391,169,28639,013762,605654,863
192265,6291,279,89044,296936,673786,373

It would appear that the practice of using the Courts as media for the collection of small debts is growing. For instance, the number of cases tried in Magistrates' Courts in 1900 was 19,816, the aggregate sum sued for being £286,719. Although the population of the Dominion increased from 1909 to 1915 by little more than 25 per cent., the number of cases tried represents an increase of nearly 100 per cent. in the fifteen years. From 1914 to 1919 successive declines, probably occasioned by war causes, were recorded: in 1920 increases are shown, both in the number of cases tried and the amounts concerned; while the figures for 1921 show an abnormally large increase in litigation, 39,013 cases being tried, involving no less than £762,605, of which judgment was recorded for £654,863. Still further increases on these high figures are shown for the year 1922, when 44,206 cases were tried, involving £936,673, judgment being entered for £786,373.

The numbers of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments were recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand during each of the ten years 1913-22 were as follows:—

SUPREME COURT: CIVIL JURISDICTION.
Year.Number of Actions commenced.Cases tried.Judgments recorded.
With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
19137887524328479,610
19147929525128191,286
19156975025324168,555
19166734819325478,877
191758170172234100,447
191861147188226104,927
19197837222723888,144
19209159132926296,017
19211,536126334557244,942
19221,431115408748316,533

DIVORCE.

The figures for 1922 show a substantial decrease in the number of divorce petitions filed, only 643 petitions for dissolution of marriage being entered for hearing during the year, as compared with 796 in 1921. It must be remembered, however, that abnormal numbers of divorce cases are shown for the three years immediately preceding 1922—viz., 675 in 1919, 748 in 1920, and 796 in 1921; the corresponding figures for 1917 and 1918 being only 282 and 380 respectively. In 386 of the cases in 1922 decrees nisi were granted, 149 of these being made absolute during the year. In addition, decrees nisi were granted in respect of 157 petitions filed in previous years, 111 of these being made absolute before the end of the year, and 262 decrees nisi of previous years became absolute. The total number of decrees nisi for the year 1922 was thus 543, which includes 5 decrees for nullity of marriage.

In addition, 4 petitions for judicial separation and 88 for restitution of conjugal rights were filed. One decree was granted in the former class, and 57 in the latter.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions were filed in the last five years.

Duration of Marriage, in Years.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Under 528665441531531443537
5 and under 1046969693664210612111992
10 and under 1561707283715610110610180
15 and under 2030544957503958845657
20 and under 3014273981353548546772
30 and over651944198310169
Not stated..8..2....2..12
Totals185326329401294195349419395349

A table is also given showing the grounds of petitions, in combination with particulars as to the number of living issue. Columns are added showing for the various grounds the sex of the petitioner.

Grounds.Petitioner.Number of Cases in which Number of Living Issue wasNot stated.Total Number of Cases.
Husband.Wife.0123456 or over.
Adultery11784594549251166..201
Adultery and desertion1734....1......8
Adultery and separation1......1..........1
Bigamy246..............6
Desertion10314174664024168151244
Desertion and drunkenness..3..21..........3
Drunkenness..4....31........4
Drunkenness and cruelty..1031212..1..10
Drunkenness and failure to maintain..41..2....1....4
Insanity41212..........5
Malformation123..............3
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights1369531..1....19
Separation for not less than three years51799272618134121130
Separation and desertion..1............1..1
Separation and drunkenness..2....11........2
Not stated112..............2
Totals294349191151130714320352643

In nineteen cases the number of living issue was 6, in eight cases 7, in four cases 8, in two cases 9, and in two cases 10 or over.

The next table gives information as to grounds of petition, not only in respect of petitions filed during 1922, but also for petitions where decrees were granted during the year. The figures shown for decrees nisi include cases where both nisi and absolute decrees were granted during the year, and those for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in 1922 or in a previous year.

Grounds.Petitions filed in 1922.Petitions where Decree Nisi granted in 1922.Petitions where Decree Absolute granted in 1922.
Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
Adultery1178483798776
Adultery and cruelty......1..1
Adultery and desertion171411
Adultery and separation1......1..
Bigamy241313
Desertion1031418213679142
Desertion and drunkenness..3..3..3
Drunkenness..4..4..9
Drunkenness and cruelty..10..8..9
Drunkenness and failure to maintain..4..1....
Insanity411135
Malformation12..1..1
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights13611675
Rape..........1
Separation for not less than three years517947674142
Separation and desertion..1........
Separation and drunkenness..2..2..1
Seven years' imprisonment for causing actual bodily harm..........1
Not stated111..11
Totals294349227316221301

It is found that in 551 of the cases the parties were married in New Zealand, and that in 458 cases the marriage had been solemnized by a clergyman, and in the remaining 185 cases (28.8 per cent.) by a Registrar of Marriages or other civil official. Civil marriages constituted 19 per cent. of those solemnized in New Zealand in 1922.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during each of the last eight years are as follows:—

Year.Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage.Judicial Separation.Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Petitions filed.Decrees Absolute.Decrees Nisi.Petitions filed.Decrees for Separation.Petitions filed.Decrees for Restituton.
19152561742243......
19162891982474......
191728221922152....
1918380199279442..
1919675336479512..
1920748469574924..
1921796511660526843
1922643522543418857

INQUESTS.

The number of bodies on which inquests were held in 1922 was 1,425, including 56 Maoris. In 998 cases the bodies were of males, and in 427 of females.

The verdicts given at the inquests held in 1922 may be classified as under:—

Nature of Verdict.Inquests on Persons.
 Males.  Females.  Total.
Disease and natural causes434297731
Accident42887515
Homicide51015
Suicide13133164
Totals9984271,425

Of the accidental deaths the most common forms during 1922 were crushing and drowning. The verdicts show that 167 deaths, or 32.42 per cent. of the total fatal accidents, were due to the former cause, while to the latter 136 deaths, or 26.31 per cent., were due.

The inquests on suicidal deaths in 1922 show a decrease of 2 on the number for the previous year. The figures for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Inquests on Suicides.
Males.  Females.  Total.
191311833151
191411627143
191511212124
191612228150
191710430134
19189922121
191911280142
192011320133
192113333166
192213133164

FIRE INQUESTS.

In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner may hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into cause of death.

During 1922 four inquests were held on fires. In one case the verdict was arson, and in the remaining three cases no evidence was forthcoming.

POLICE.

On the 31st March, 1923, the number of permanent members of the Police Force in New Zealand was 980 of all ranks, being an increase of 6 during the year. The total is made up as follows: 5 superintendents, 14 inspectors, 4 sub-inspectors, 29 senior sergeants, 89 sergeants, 795 constables, 10 senior detectives, 7 detective-sergeants, and 27 detectives. There were also 23 temporary constables, 12 police surgeons, 8 matrons, 7 district constables, and 4 Native constables.

The following table shows the number of stations and of police in each police district. Temporary constables are included, but not district or Native constables.

Police District.No. of
Stations.
No. of
Police.
Whangarei1728
Auckland36179
Hamilton3065
Gisborne1331
Napier1948
New Plymouth1432
Wanganui2040
Palmerston North1742
Wellington35176
Greymouth2243
Christchurch37124
Timaru1339
Dunedin3598
Invercargill2344

There were also 8 officers attached to headquarters, 1 was on loan to the Cook Islands Administration, 1 on loan to the Samoan Administration, and 4 were on leave prior to retirement.

The proportion of police to population is 1 to every 1,321 persons, and the expenditure (exclusive of the cost of buildings) on the whole Police Force for the year ended the 31st March, 1923, was 5s. 8 1/4d. per head of population.

The following table shows the growth of the Police Force since 1878, prior to which each province had its own Police Force, and reliable data are not available:—

Year ended 31st March.Officers.Noncommissioned Officers.Detectives.Constables.Total.Police to Population (including Maoris).Cost per Inhabitant.
       s.d.
18782590143294581 to 1,020..
18852065173724741 to 1,29530 3/4
18901266134034941 to 1,337210 3/4
1895751134164871 to 1,50226 3/4
19001156204995861 to 1,36320 1/4
19051265255536551 to 1,386210 1/4
19101686346397751 to 1,33633 1/2
191519100377559111 to 1,2634..
192021114387439161 to 1,350411 3/4
192123112477689501 to 1,33764 3/4
192222118438261,0091 to 1,28963 3/4
192323118448181,0031 to 1,32158 1/4

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS.

TOTAL CASES.

The gross total of criminal cases in Magistrates' Courts during the year 1922 was 42,900, males being charged in 40,594 cases and females in 2,306. These totals include 1,620 cases against Maoris (males 1,560, females 60).

The number of cases during each of the last ten years, inclusive and exclusive of Maoris, is as follows:—

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—TOTAL CASES, 1913-22.
Year.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
191345,1722,78847,96044,1042,74346,847
191447,7073,26350,97046,1733,19849,371
191543,9963,19347,18942,3643,14145,505
191639,6232,93442,55738,1892,87141,060
191738,5372,91241,44936,9572,82939,786
191833,4662,93336,39931,8272,85534,682
191937,8722,57540,44735,7352,48638,221
192041,0922,39943,49139,0182,32841,346
192143,3352,46245,79741,4252,38843,813
192240,5942,30642,90039,0342,24641,280

The 42,900 cases dealt with in 1922 resulted in 34,513 summary convictions, and in 893 committals to the Supreme Court for sentence after conviction in Magistrates' Courts. In 638 cases the accused person was committed to the Supreme Court for trial, and in 749 the Magistrate admonished and discharged the offender under a provision enabling him to do so in the case of a trivial offence, without a conviction being recorded. In 2,212 cases the charge was dismissed on the merits of the case, and in the remaining 3,895 cases the accused person was discharged for want of prosecution or want of evidence.

Of the 34,513 summary convictions—i.e., the cases in which the offender on being convicted was dealt with by the Magistrate—1,368 represented convictions of Maoris, leaving 33,145 for persons other than Maoris, equal to 26.48 per 1,000 of mean population, as compared with 28.96 per 1,000 in 1921. The figures for the last ten years are—

SUMMARY CONVICTIONS (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1913-22.
Year.Number.Per 1,000 Mean Population.
191338,74836.26
191440,41037.06
191538,21934.76
191634,19631.10
191732,77129.82
191827,83425.23
191930,75726.91
192033,66628.23
192135,44628.96
192233,1452.48

In comparing one year with another it should be remembered that the number of convictions may be considerably affected by alterations in the law or changes in its administration. As an example of the former may be mentioned the introduction in New Zealand of a system of compulsory military training. Convictions for breaches of the Defence Act rose from 12 in 1911 to 4,819 in 1912, involving an increase of 2,700 in the total convictions for the latter year, instead of a fall of 2,000 which would otherwise have been recorded. On the other hand, convictions during recent years have been somewhat reduced by the introduction of the system referred to previously, where in the case of a trivial offence the offender may be admonished and discharged without a conviction being recorded.

For similar reasons to those referred to in the foregoing paragraph it is inadvisable to base comparisons of quasi criminal offences between different countries on the statistics of summary convictions for the various countries. This, of course, does not apply in the case of serious crimes which are dealt with by the Supreme Court.

A great proportion of the cases dealt with in New Zealand are in respect of comparatively insignificant offences—as, for instance, drunkenness, offences against by-laws, &c.

A classification of convictions during the last five years, according to principal offences and groups of offences, is next given. The figures are exclusive of Maoris.

1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
* Not including convictions (85 in 1922) for selling liquor without a license, an offence against the revenue laws.
Offences against the person525671647699592
Offences against property (including forgery)2,3392,9783,3443,2053,217
Drunkenness (including issue of prohibition orders)8,6179,43710,08210,2477,520
Offensive conduct or language, and obstruction, &c, of police1,1591,6211,7451,7961,365
Breaches of by-laws3,5083,8075,1105,2906,446
Other offences against good order9118639501,1161,276
Breaches of Licensing Act*2,2322,7832,6122,7372,381
Breaches of Destitute Persons Act1,7561,6431,9342,1412,213
Breaches of Impounding Act1,0171,3221,5231,6861,220
Breaches of Motor Regulation Act1,0421,6381,9331,5011,457
Breaches of Defence and Military Service Acts1,3871,4311,0962,0021,856
Other offences3,3412,5632,6903,0263,602
Totals27,83430,75733,66635,44633,145

Of the 592 summary convictions for offences against the person in 1922, no fewer than 531 were for common assault. Attempted suicide was responsible for 52 convictions, indecent assault for 2, aggravated assault 4, and cruelty to children 1. In addition 1 person was convicted of unlawful carnal knowledge and 1 of abduction. In the more serious classes of offences against the person the cases are referred to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence.

The 3,217 summary convictions for offences against property during 1922 are in the main made up of various forms of theft. Theft (not otherwise described) was responsible for 2,224 convictions, embezzlement for 21, housebreaking and stealing 40, and receiving stolen property 92. In addition there were 311 convictions for fraud and false pretences, 1 for forgery, 1 for arson, and 527 for wilful damage. The more serious cases of offences against the property laws are also sent on to the Supreme Court to be dealt with. Details of these will be found under “Criminal Cases in Supreme Courts.”

The principal of the “Other offences against good order” is vagrancy, which represented 606 of the 1,276 summary convictions under this heading in 1922. Offences relating to gambling (350) and cruelty to animals (138) ranked next in 1922.

Among “other offences” (3,602 convictions in 1922) may be mentioned miscellaneous offences under the following Acts:—

Factories32
Shops and Offices200
Shipping and Seamen94
Noxious Weeds57
Apiaries11
Rabbit Nuisance24
Stock179
Sale of Food and Drugs157
School Attendance211
Alien Registration74

PUNISHMENT ON SUMMARY CONVICTION.

Of a total of 33,145 summary convictions (exclusive of those of Maoris) in 1922 peremptory imprisonment was imposed in only 1,982 cases, in addition to which the convicted person went to gaol in 411 cases in lieu of paying a fine. A summary of punishments for the year 1922 is next given.

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—PUNISHMENTS ON SUMMARY CONVICTION, 1922.
Punishments.Exclusive of Maoris.Maoris.Totals (including Maoris).
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Offences against Good Order.Other Offences.
Released under Offenders Probation Act8585261320652
Convicted and discharged777081,8899521143,740
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence383122329828708
Committed to an industrial school31151165140
Committed to Salvation Army1155819..93
Fined36668311,6609,14795022,805
Imprisonment in lieu of fine115263621231942
Peremptory imprisonment756675317091052,087
Whipping..52....254
Bound over101291243
Order made4271,5451,5621113,249
Totals5923,21716,60712,7291,36834,513

DISTINCT CASES.

The statistics given above refer, as stated, to all cases dealt with in Magistrates' Courts, including those in which a person is charged with two or more offences committed simultaneously or in the same connection—as, for instance, drunkenness, damaging property, and resisting the police. If only one (the most serious) offence is counted in each instance the number of cases in 1922 is reduced from 42,900 to 37,175, or, excluding Maoris, from 4,280 to 35,827. A summary is given for the year 1922 comparing total and distinct cases classified according to the result of the hearing.

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—TOTAL AND DISTINCT CASES, 1922.
Maoris.Others.
Total Cases.Distinct Cases.Total Cases.Distinct Cases.
Discharged for want of prosecution or want of evidence78593,8172,964
Dismissed on the merits70562,1421,705
Admonished and discharged2720722571
Committed for sentence4731846610
Committed for trial3024608452
Summary convictions recorded1,3681,15833,14529,525
Totals1,6201,34841,28035,827

ARREST AND SUMMONS CASES.

Persons charged in the Magistrates' Courts may be brought before the Court either on summons or after arrest, according to the nature of the offence and to other circumstances. Of the total of 42,900 cases in 1922, 13,493 were “arrest" and 29,407 “summons" cases. A summary is given.

Arrest Cases.Summons Cases.Totals.
Cases.Summary Convictions.Cases.Summary Convictions.Cases.Summary Convictions.
Maoris—      
    Males4803871,0809411,5601,328
    Females171443266040
            Totals4974011,1239671,6201,368
Others—      
    Males12,17010,00026,8 6421,31439,03431,314
    Females8267331,4201,0982,2461,831
            Totals12,99610,73328,28422,41241,28033,145

In 46 per cent, of arrest cases the offence is drunkenness, 6,210 of the total of 13,493 in 1922 coming under this head. Of the 843 female arrest cases included in the table drunkenness was the cause of arrest in 313 cases.

ARREST CASES.

Information in connection with both arrest and summons cases is obtained on cards, which, however, give considerably more particulars concerning the offender in regard to the former class than are available for the latter. From the information given in arrest cases it is possible to ascertain the number of distinct persons arrested, and to compile statistics as to their ages, birthplaces, &c.

The total number of convictions of arrested persons, other than Maoris, during 1922 was 11,134, which reduces to 9,347 if multiple charges—i.e., those in respect of offences committed by the same person at the same time—are excluded. If only the principal offence for which each person was convicted during the year is taken into account the number of distinct persons convicted after arrest is found to be 6,854, a number equal to only 61 per cent, of the gross total of convictions of arrested persons.

OFFENCES, BIRTHPLACES, AND AGES.

The next three tables give the offences and ages, offences and birthplaces, and birthplaces and ages of the distinct persons (excluding Maoris) arrested and convicted during 1922.

CONVICTIONS IN ARREST CASES, 1922.
Offences and Ages.
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
The person1055507764256
Property2082231602592571,107
Good order663694701,3442,8765,125
Other offences206441114127366
Totals3047117211,7943,3246,854
Offenses and Birthplaces.
Offences againstNew Zealand.England and Wales.Scotland.Ireland.Australia.Elsewhere.*Totals
* Including unspecified.
The person138568122022256
Property710170393855951,107
Good order2,1931,0904765403744525,125
Other offences1755019302072366
Totals3,2161,3665426204696416,854
Birthplaces and Ages.
Birthplace.Under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
New Zealand2774794159531,0923,216
England and Wales131241343267691,366
Scotland11947136339542
Ireland..1229134445620
Australia84261141217469
Elsewhere*53535104462641
Totals3047117211,7943,3246,854

Of the 6,854 distinct persons, other than Maoris, arrested and convicted during 1922, no fewer than 5,125 were convicted for offences against good order, and of these 3,919 were for drunkenness (including 100 drunk and disorderly, and 4 habituals). In addition, 27 were convicted in respect of prohibition orders; 312 for indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct; 224 for using obscene, threatening, or abusive language; 400 for vagrancy; 70 for assaulting, resisting, or obstructing the police; 9 for soliciting prostitution; 3 for keeping brothels; 106 for offences relating to gambling; and 55 for other offences against good order.

Of the 256 distinct persons arrested and convicted during 1922 for offences against the person, 208 convictions were for common assault; and of the 1,109 distinct persons arrested and convicted for offences against property, 852 convictions were for theft of various classes, 99 for fraud and false pretences, 21 for receiving stolen property, 1 for arson, and 134 for wilful damage.

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURTS.

Criminal cases in Supreme Courts are divisible into two classes—viz., those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Magistrate's Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The figures for 1921 and 1922 are as follows:—

SUPREME COURT.—TOTAL CRIMINAL CASES, 1921 and 1922.
Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
1921.1922.1921.1922.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Indictments and informations68039912166683988616
Convictions407175103400174943
Sentences in cases of committal for sentence1,03318873379851784331
Total sentences1,440351,383341,385341,33734

A similar table to the above is next given, showing for 1921 and 1922 the number of distinct persons dealt with in Supreme Courts, only the principal offence being taken into account in cases where the same person was tried in respect of two or more offences during the year.

SUPREME COURT.—DISTINCT PERSONS, 1921 and 1922.
Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
1921.1922.1921.1922.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Indicted32324386113132438611
Convicted and sentenced201102503194102393
Sentenced after committal for sentence39114330183591331818
Total sentenced59224580215532355721

A classification of offences for which persons were convicted in Supreme Courts or sentenced after committal by a Magistrate for sentence gives the following results for the last two years:—

SUPREME COURT.—OFFENCES OF PERSONS CONVICTED OR SENTENCED (EXCLUSIVE OF MAORIS), 1921 and 1922.
Class of Offence.Total Cases.Distinct Persons.
1921.1922.1921.1922.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Against the person1842211710121187
Against property96919994233591338712
Forgery and against the currency17661103614491
Other567681324261
Totals1,385341,383345532358021

A summary of punishments inflicted in the Supreme Court in 1922, taking account only of distinct persons other than Maoris, is next given in conjunction with classes of offences.

SUPREME COURT—OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS OF DISTINCT PERSONS (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1922.
Punishment.Offence against the Person.Offence against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other Offences.Totals.
Imprisonment only, with or without hard labour:—     
    15 years or upwards, including “life”2......2
    10 and under 15 years21....3
    7 and under 10 years51....6
    5 and under 7 years57..113
    3 and under 5145..120
    2 and under 3583..16
    1 and under 2 years9465363
    6 months and under 1 year5342344
    Under 6 months9201434
Imprisonment and reformative treatment241..7
Reformative treatment only22127144167
Imprisonment and declared habitual criminal4134..21
Declared habitual criminal only..2..13
Fined96..722
Released under Offenders Probation Act16103161136
Convicted and discharged21....3
Ordered to come up for sentence5102118
Totals1163884826578

Of the 116 distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) convicted or sentenced in 1922 for offences against the person, 2 were guilty of attempted murder, 5 of manslaughter, 27 of assault, 2 of robbery with violence, 6 of bigamy, 28 of indecent assault, and 46 of various other offences against the person.

Of offences against property, breaking and entering, with or without theft, was the offence for which 137 persons were convicted or sentenced, while 149 were guilty of theft, 22 of receiving stolen property, 48 of fraud and false pretences, 17 of arson (including attempts), 12 of embezzlement, and 3 of mischief.

Of the 48 persons shown under the heading of “forgery and offences against the currency,” 18 were convicted or sentenced for forgery alone, 28 for forgery and uttering, and 2 for unlawfully being in possession of counterfeit coins.

The principal of the “other" offences in 1922 were—Vagrancy, 5; and indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct, 4; breaches of Births, Deaths, and Marriages Registration Act, 4; and false declarations, 4.

COURT OF APPEAL.

Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, each division consisting of five Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exercises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty any two Judges (of whom the Chief Justice shall be one) may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions may be held. The Chief Justice, or, in his absence, the senior Judge, presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present, but if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion the judgment, &c., appealed from shall be deemed to be affirmed.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to His Majesty in Council.

In criminal cases questions of law may be reserved by the Supreme Court for the Court of Appeal, and upon a refusal by the Court to reserve any question the person aggrieved may move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. Any person aggrieved may also (after conviction) apply to the Court of Appeal for a new trial upon leave being granted by the Supreme Court. Any person has now the right to apply to the Court of Appeal against a sentence passed in the Supreme Court where such person has been convicted upon an indictment or if sentenced for any crime on a plea of “Guilty.”

The number of cases brought before this Court and the judgments thereon for the last ten years are as follow:—

Year.Crown Criminal Cases.Civil.
Number.Convictions affirmed.Appeals.Cases removed.
Number.Allowed.Number.Judgments for Plaintiffs.Judgments for Defendants.
19138518420136
19144413516132
19154314714113
191641166633
1917441141284
191853115752
191962139624
19204216101174
192131189734
19224428141045

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.

The following table gives for the year 1922 the prison accommodation, the number of prisoners received, the number in prison at end of year, and the daily average number in confinement:—

Name of Prison.Number for whom there is Accommodation.Number received during Year.Number in Confinement at End of Year.Daily Average Number in Confinement.
* Deemed to be prisons under section 17 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917.
Auckland3781,422335343.00
Waikeria14095112110.00
New Plymouth681175044.27
Hautu (Tokaanu)30322119.28
Waikune (Erua)52574736.34
Napier741691313.46
Wellington778747788.45
Point Halswell33692024.10
WiTako671045159.77
Addington32691918.11
Paparua166382147142.00
Invercargill179177189177.42
Minor prisons2449003137.25
Police-stations*..1022..
Totals1,5404,5691,1141,113.45

The number of persons in gaol (including Maoris) at the end of each of the last ten years, and the proportion per 10,000 of population as at the 31st December, is given in the next table:—

PRISONERS IN GAOL (31ST DECEMBER).
Year.Number of Prisoners.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
1913834859197.358.10
1914981641,0458.569.12
1915941579988.168.66
1916836548907.277.74
1917954531,0078.318.78
19181,005421,0478.689.04
1919852689206.947.50
1920996641,0607.928.43
19211,044551,0998.088.50
19221,052621,1148.328.90

The total number of prisoners received in the different gaols during the year 1922 was 4,569 (males 4,296, females 273), as compared with 4,995 (males 4,698, females 297) in 1921, counting each admission as a distinct person.

If to the total of 4,569 receptions during the year be added 55 persons in gaol awaiting trial or sentence at the beginning of the year, an aggregate of 4,624 is obtained. This number includes 181 debtors and 4 lunatics, the gross total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for, or persons charged with, criminal offences being 4,439.

From this gross total must be deducted 739 as representing receptions on transfer or in transitu, leaving a net total of 3,700 receptions. In 925 cases the accused person was not returned to prison after trial, and 51 persons were in prison awaiting trial or sentence at the end of the year. The net total receptions of prisoners under sentence reduces to 2,724, and, after making a further deduction of 476 on account of more than one term of imprisonment being undergone by the same person during the year, the number of distinct prisoners received for criminal offences is found to be 2,249 (males 2,125, females 124). This number includes 139 Maoris (135 males, 4 females).

The number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) imprisoned in each of the last twenty years, counting one offence only when the same person was imprisoned more than once, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is added.

DISTINCT PRISONERS RECEIVED UNDER SENTENCE.
Year.Prisoners.Proportion per 10,000
of Mean Population.
19032,84234.65
19042,89634.27
19052,79632.14
19062,96633.12
19073,09133.63
19083,00931.84
19093,15932.51
19103,24232.66
19112,87728.35
19123,02329.09
19133,22930.22
19143,38631.05
19152,92426.51
19162,40421.87
19172,39921.83
19181,70115.42
19191,72515.09
19201,87115.74
19212,02016.50
19222,11016.85

In classifying the offences a prisoner convicted of more than one offence during the year is reckoned once only under the heading of the principal offence—e.g., a prisoner convicted three times of drunkenness, twice of vagrancy, and once of theft is counted only once, under the heading “Offences against Property,” theft being the principal offence. Debtors and lunatics received into gaol are omitted.

The following tables show the number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) received into prison under sentence during 1922, classified according to birthplaces and offences, ages and offences, and ages and previous convictions:—

BIRTHPLACES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO PRISON UNDER SENTENCE DURING 1922.
Birthplace.Nature of Offence.Totals.
Against the Person.Against Property.Drunkenness.Other Offences.
New Zealand864501164011,053
Australia12602076168
England and Wales43145110162460
Scotland6314851136
Ireland10285662156
Other British countries4151929
China3....710
Other foreign countries618114782
Not stated..75416
Totals1707543678192,110
AGES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO PRISON UNDER SENTENCE DURING 1922.
Age, in Years.Offences against the Person.Theft and other against Property.Offences not included previously.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assaults.Other.Vagrancy.Drunkenness.Other.
Under 21131111209..33187
21 and under 25812115524165266
25 and under 307211105163265246
30 and under 3512181113154087286
35 and under 40911..78325995284
40 and under 45109..78335782269
45 and under 5024142245659188
50 and under 5534..30235547162
55 and under 6031..1615302792
60 and under 654....1214191362
65 and over13..428181266
Not stated......1....12
Totals729447542333675862,110
AGES AND PREVIOUS CONVICTIONS OF DISTINCT PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO PRISON UNDER SENTENCE DURING 1922.
Age. in Years.Not previously convicted.Previous Convictions.Total Distinct Convicted Prisoners.
Once.Twice.Three Time.Four Times.Over Four Times.Totals.
Under 219642221071091187
21 and under 25139553614814127266
25 and under 301025429141433144246
30 and under 351284228201454158286
35 and under 401034626191971181284
40 and under 45823732221185187269
45 and under 50662517101456122188
50 and under 5554261510552108162
55 and under 60297922436392
60 and under 65192314334362
65 and over156921335165
Not stated1....1....12
Totals834342226125994841,2762,110

The next table gives the offences and gravest previous offences of the distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1922:—

OFFENCES AND GRAVEST PREVIOUS OFFENCES OF DISTINCT PRISONERS RECEIVED INTO PRISON UNDER SENTENCE, 1922.
Offences.Gravest Previous Offence.
Against the Person.Theft and other Offences against Property.Offences not Included previously.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assault.Other.Vagrancy.Drunkenness.Other.
Against the person—................
    Sexual offences73..1312430
    Assaults116..1543544
    Other......1......1
Against property5232372191427462
Offences not included above—................
    Vagrancy18361831316185
    Drunkenness19..512513237255
    Other223..871728137299
Totals178756001491922261,276

HABITUAL CRIMINALS AND REFORMATIVE DETENTION.

The following table shows the distinct prisoners (excluding Maoris) received in prison during 1922 after being sentenced to reformative treatment or having been declared habitual criminals, classified according to sentences:—

Original Sentence.Sentenced to Reformative Treatment for a Period ofDeclared Habitual Criminals.Totals.
Under Two Years.Two and under Five Years.Five Years and over.
Reformative treatment only6014916..225
Declared habitual criminal......22
Under 1 year919..331
1 year and under 2..7..1017
2 years and under 3..41712
3 years and under 4......33
4 years and under 5..........
5 years and under 7......22
7 years and over....134
Totals691791830296

PRISONS BOARD.

For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of the Chief Justice as President, and six other members. The Board meets at such times as the President determines, and, subject to the provisions of the Act and regulations, may determine its own procedure.

It is the duty of the Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal undergoing sentence or reformative detention is sufficiently reformed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration the case of every habitual criminal, &c., at least once a year, and to make a report to the Minister of Justice annually as to the operations of the Board, numbers dealt with, and the operation and effect of the Act.

Under the provisions of section 14 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917, the Board was empowered to consider, at the request of the Minister of Justice, the cases of prisoners who had been sentenced to imprisonment with or without hard labour for periods exceeding two years, after half of the full term of imprisonment had expired, and to make recommendations to the Governor-General as to the release on probation of any such prisoner.

PROBATION.

An Act styled the First Offenders' Probation Act was passed in 1886 to provide, at the discretion of the Court, for conditional release on probation in the case of first offenders, in lieu of imprisonment. This Act, with its amendment of 1903, was consolidated in 1908, the consolidated Act being repealed in 1920 by the Offenders Probation Act of that year, under which the system of probation is no longer confined to first offenders.

Under the Act of 1886 an “offence" for which probation could be granted was defined as—

“Any indictable offence, not being one for murder, attempted murder, burglary, coining, corrosive-fluid throwing, demanding money with menaces, extortion of money under threats of accusation of crime, placing an explosive substance to endanger life or property, rape, robbery with violence, or an offence attended by irreparable or serious consequences, and either endangering life, or indicating, in the opinion of the Court, an established criminal intention on the part of the accused, and includes any indictable offence which may be dealt with and disposed of by a Court of summary jurisdiction.”

The Act of 1920 widens the definition to cover “any offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise.”

The maximum period of probation was originally fixed as not exceeding the longest term of imprisonment to which the offender might be sentenced for his offence; in 1903 the maximum was altered to three years, and in 1920 to five years.

Probation Officers are appointed, whose duties are defined by section 5 of the 1920 Act, which reads as follows:—

  1. (1.) “It shall be the duty of a Probation Officer, when so required by the Court,—

    1. (a.) “To make inquiries as to the character and personal history of any person accused or convicted of an offence, and as to such other matters in relation to such person as the Court may direct, and to report fully thereon to the Court in writing; and

    2. (b.) “To keep a full record of such inquiries and of the results thereof.

  2. (2.) “It shall be the special duty of the Probation Officer, if satisfied in any case that the best interests of the public and of the offender would be served by the release of the offender on probation, to recommend to the Court that he be so released.”

The conditions of release on probation are set out as follows:—

  1. (1.) “That the offender shall report himself in person where directed within twenty-four hours after his release on probation:

  2. (2.) “That he shall report himself in person between the hours of nine in the morning and nine in the evening of such day or days (being not less than once in every month) as may be specified in that behalf in the order, or as may be required by the Probation Officer, and at such place or places as may be directed: Provided that the Probation Officer may, if he thinks fit, authorize him to report in writing in lieu of in person on any occasion:

  3. (3.) “That he shall reside at an address notified to the Probation Officer, and that he shall sleep at such address unless the Probation Officer otherwise approves in writing:

  4. (4.) “That if he removes from such address he shall give to the Probation Officer at least forty-eight hours' notice of his intention so to do; and if he removes to any place within the district of another Probation Officer he shall, within twenty-four hours after such removal, notify the fact of his removal, and his address and employment, to the Probation Officer in that district:

  5. (5.) “That the nature and place of his employment shall be made known to and be approved by the Probation Officer:

  6. (6.) “That he shall not associate with any person or persons or with any class of persons with whom the Probation Officer has in writing warned him not to associate:

  7. (7.) “That he shall be of good behaviour, and shall commit no offence against the law:

  8. (8.) “Such other special conditions as the Court may, in its discretion, impose.”

A breach of the conditions of the probationary license renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

The effect of the legislation of 1920 has been to greatly increase the number of cases in which probation is extended to an offender. According to a return prepared by the Chief Probation Officer, 508 persons were placed on probation in the year 1922, as against 575 in 1921 and 264 in 1920.

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1922:—

Age.Term of Probation.Totals.
Under One Year.One Year and under Two Years.Two Years and under Three Years.Three Years and over.
10 and under 1513116
15 and under 206626043171
20 and under 255455516121
25 and under 30418261866
30 and under 40638311388
40 and under 50714131246
50 and under 70132410
Totals30183188107508

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.

Offences committed by juvenile offenders—i.e., persons under or apparently under the age of sixteen—constitute a class worthy of special consideration. Figures of juvenile cases in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last nine years are as follows:—

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—JUVENILE CASES, 1914-22.
Year.Total Cases.Discharged for want of Prosecution or Evidence.Dismissed on the Merits.Admonished and discharged.Committed for Trial or Sentence.Summarily convicted.
* New heading, 1917.
19141,384201130*31,050
19151,67737468*61,229
19161,68746483*51,135
19171,58599875039887
19181,552122445523831
19191,7591155564320926
19201,579805964617777
19211,391664463712632
19221,2545059627..518

The increasing utilization of the provision which enables a Magistrate to admonish and discharge an offender without a conviction being recorded renders comparisons on the basis of summary convictions inadvisable, as it is obvious from a glance at the figures for 1916 and 1917 that many who in 1917 and subsequent years have been admonished and discharged would prior to that year have been included among the convicted, though a considerable proportion would have been included in the totals of “discharged for want of evidence” and “dismissed on the merits,” especially as the form of return then in use did not provide for “admonished and discharged” cases. Probably the best comparison between one year and another is obtained by taking the total number of juvenile cases, as in the following:—

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of
Mean Population.
19141,3841.26
19151,6771.52
19161,6871.53
19171,5851.44
19181,5521.40
19191,7591.54
19201,5791.32
19211,3911.14
19221,2541.00

Of the 518 summary convictions of juveniles in Magistrates' Courts in 1922, no fewer than 420 were in respect of offences against property, including theft 330, housebreaking and stealing 23, and wilful damage 58.

Seven juveniles were convicted during the year of offences against the person (the offence in two cases being indecent assault, and the remaining five cases assault, common or not further defined), while 58 were convicted of offences against good order (including 55 breaches of by-laws), and 33 of other offences (offences relating to the use of firearms 9, and offences under Defence Act 9).

Offences by juveniles are seldom of a very serious nature, and even when a conviction is recorded Magistrates frequently adopt the course of discharging the offender or of ordering him to come up for sentence when called upon. In the latter case it rests almost entirely with the offender himself as to whether any further steps will be taken, and it is found that in very few cases does the future conduct of the convicted person render it necessary for him to be brought before the Magistrate again for sentence.

The punishment meted out to juvenile offenders in 1922 was as follows:—

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—CONVICTIONS OF JUVENILE OFFENDERS, 1922.
Class of Offence and Punishment.
Punishment.Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other.Totals.
Released on probation..56..157
Convicted and discharged2931213120
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence175..278
Committed to industrial school384..1198
Fined..3445685
Imprisoned..11..2
Whipped..55....55
Committed to non-Government institutions110....11
Order made..12....12
Total summary convictions74205833518

Beyond the information disclosed by the Magistrate's Court returns as to committals for sentence or trial, no statistics of juvenile cases in Supreme Courts are available. From the table given on the foregoing page, however, it is obvious that very few such cases find their way to the higher Court.

Similarly, juvenile prisoners are almost non-existent, it being the custom where restraint is necessary to commit offenders to industrial schools. The prison statistics show that only two boys under the age of sixteen were received into gaol during 1922.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.

Crime amongst women in New Zealand is not extensive. Of 33,145 summary convictions in Magistrates' Courts in 1922 (excluding Maoris) only 1,831, or 5.52 per cent., were of females. Drunkenness, including the issue of prohibition orders, was responsible for 399 convictions, theft 238, wilful damage 19, common assault 19, offensive conduct or language 52, soliciting prostitution 10, keeping a brothel 5, and vagrancy 83. A large proportion of the convictions was in respect of minor breaches of the law, including 339 breaches of by-laws; 114 of the Licensing Act: 89, Impounding Act; 62, Motor Regulation Act; and 28, School Attendance Act.

The exclusion of multiple charges in respect of offences committed in conjunction reduces the number of summary convictions of females to 1,637, including 622 arrest cases, which represent only 391 distinct persons. The number of distinct persons concerned in the 1,015 summons cases cannot be ascertained.

In addition to the 1,831 summary convictions of women in Magistrates' Courts during the year there were 44 committals to the Supreme Court—33 for sentence and 11 for trial. The Supreme Court statistics show that 16 charges against females were dealt with during the year, resulting in 3 convictions, each representing a distinct person. In addition 18 women were sentenced after committal for sentence in respect of 31 offences.

The number of distinct female prisoners received into prison during 1922 was 124, the principal offences of these being—vagrancy, 33; drunkenness, 18; and theft, 25. The actual number of receptions of female prisoners during the year was 273, this number including Maoris, and the daily average number of women prisoners in gaol was 60.91. Two reformatories (at Addington and Point Halswell) house women prisoners only.

OFFENCES BY NEW-ZEALAND-BORN.

The statistics available on the subject indicate that crime among the New-Zealand-born is less than among the rest of the population of the Dominion. As explained previously, information as to birthplace and age is available in arrest cases, and the figures for 1922 show that of 7,134 persons (excluding Maoris) convicted in Magistrates' Courts after arrest, 3,216, or 45 per cent., were New-Zealand-born. Persons born in New Zealand represented at the census of 1921 74 per cent, of the total population, including, of course, a considerable proportion of children. Probably the best comparison is by taking only males at age 20 and over, and this shows that whereas New-Zealand-born males formed 57 per cent, of the total male population at ages 20 and over in 1921, they formed in 1922 only 44 per cent, of males of those ages convicted in Magistrates' Courts after arrest.

A summary of offences and ages of distinct New-Zealand-born persons convicted during 1922 is given (females are included).

OFFENCES AND AGES.—NEW ZEALAND-BORN ONLY (EXCLUDING MAORIS).
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
The person737304123138
Property19217510414990710
Good order632312597019392,193
Other offences1536226240175
Totals2774794159531,0923,216

A further table shows the ages of distinct New-Zealand-born prisoners received into gaol during the last five years. The proportion of New-Zealand-born to total male prisoners at ages 20 and over was in 1922 50 per cent., as compared with the 57 per cent, shown previously as being the corresponding proportion in the population.

AGES OF DISTINCT NEW-ZEALAND-BORN CONVICTED PRISONERS RECEIVED INTO PRISON, 1918-22.
Year.Under 15.15 and under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.Totals.
1918..62100122265192741
19191789595281226776
1920174151130239274869
1921..80134120265290889
1922..1172231402812921,053

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.

The number of convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates' Courts for the last ten years is shown in the following table:—

SUMMARY CONVICTIONS OF MAORIS (MAGISTRATES' COURTS), 1913-22.
Years.Offences.
Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
Drunkenness.Other.
19134523294332243937
1914511913353304061,313
1915691874224053731,456
1916441522963933781,263
1917501853203734901,418
1918661902974074581,418
19191502724116204821,935
19201002753904726141,851
1921752973144445481,678
1922672382143295201,368

Distinct Maoris convicted after arrest in 1922 numbered 280. The ages of these are given in the following table in combination with information as to the class of offence:—

AGES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT MAORIS CONVICTED (ARRESTS ONLY), 1922.
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.Unspecified.Totals.
The person14554120
Property28231888691
Good order2192641705163
Other offences..11..16 
Totals314750548513280

The number of Maoris convicted in the higher Courts exhibits the extent of serious crime amongst the Native race. Those who are sentenced in the Supreme Court after pleading guilty in the lower Court have been included.

Year.Maoris convicted or sentenced in Supreme Court forTotals.
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Miscellaneous Offences.
191841761845
19198248242
19206187..31
192110206440
19229112123

Twelve of the number for 1922 had been sent up from the Magistrates' Courts for sentence.

The number of distinct Maori prisoners received into gaol under sentence during 1922 was 139 (including 4 women), as compared with 99 in 1921.

DRUNKENNESS.

The extent to which convictions for drunkenness swell the total of convictions is obvious from the information given throughout this section. Drunkenness is a peculiar class of offence, and one to which considerable attention is paid in New Zealand and elsewhere, and some further particulars concerning statistics of drunkenness are accordingly given below.

The number of convictions for drunkenness, including drunkenness with disorderly conduct, during 1922 (exclusive of convictions against Maoris) totalled 5,771 against males and 326 against females. In addition there were 216 convictions against Maoris—211 against males and 5 against females. The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness recorded, and the proportion per 1,000 of the mean population of each sex, excluding Maoris, during the last ten years:—

CONVICTIONS FOR DRUNKENNESS (EXCLUSIVE OF MAORIS), 1913-22.
Year.Convictions.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Totals.Males.Females.Totals.
191310,81578311,59819.271.5410.85
191412,1331,01213,14521.341.9412.06
191512,01095212,96221.221.7811.79
19169,93776510,70218.011.40973
19177,9716068,57714.661.097.83
19186,4675326,99911.980.946.35
19197,1814757,65612.550.836.70
19207,9955088,50313.110.877.13
19218,0354558,49012.850.766.94
19225,7713266,0979.040.534.87

If the Maoris are included, the total convictions for drunkenness during 1922 will amount to 6,313 (5,982 against males and 331 against females). Of these, 5,965 (5,652 males and 313 females) were arrest cases, while 348 (330 males and 18 females) were cases brought before the Magistrate by summons. The following table shows the birthplaces and ages of all persons (including Maoris) arrested and convicted for drunkenness during the year. Birthplaces and ages in summons cases are not obtainable.

BIRTHPLACES AND AGES OF PERSONS CONVICTED FOR DRUNKENNESS (ARRESTS ONLY), 1922.
Birthplace.Under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 60.60 and over, and Unspecified.Totals.
New Zealand—       
    Maoris..1923346117154
    Others302092748251,062632,463
Australia..134511118645400
England and Wales263862685991641,182
Scotland..133415429888587
Ireland..729143388136703
Other European countries..473711029187
Asia..1564218
Africa......13..4
America..183633684
Other (including unspecified)..1125174183
Totals323315121,6172,7497245,965

Among the New-Zealand-born population of European descent there is evidence of less drunkenness than among persons who have come from abroad. It will be seen that in all the age-groups given in the following table the percentage of convictions of New-Zealand-born males lower than the corresponding percentage of population, while the reverse is, of course, true in respect of males born outside the Dominion:—

Age. in Years.Percentage of Male Population, Census 1921.Percentage of Convictions for Drunkenness, 1922 (Arrest Cases).
New-Zealand-born.Others.New-Zealand-born.Others
20 and under 2581.7018.3062.4637.54
25 and under 3074.5125.4953.3146.69
30 and under 4066.9933.0149.9350.07
40 and under 5058.0841.9241.3158.69
50 and under 6049.2350.7731.0468.96
60 and under 7016.9583.0510.6889.32
70 and under 8011.8188.198.8991.11

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the tables on the previous page. Dealing with arrests only (males, 5,652; females, 313: total 5,965), but excluding Maoris, it is found that the number of distinct persons convicted of this offence was 4,028 (3,839 males and 189 females), or 71.27 per cent, of the total “arrest" convictions (excluding Maoris) for drunkenness.

The total convictions (exclusive of those of Maoris) for all offences (arrests only) in 1922 were 10,733, but the distinct convictions amounted to only 7,134, the former total including 3,599 convictions for multiple charges against the same person. Of the latter, 772 were in respect of charges dealt with at the same time as the offender was convicted of drunkenness, the principal associated offences being—

Offence.Number of Convictions.
Common assault39
Theft18
Wilful damage93
Assaulting, resisting, or obstructing police57
Indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct102
Obscene, threatening, or abusive language173
Vagrancy35
Breaches of by-laws28
Breaches of Licensing Act165
Prohibition orders issued42

Any person who has been three times convicted for drunkenness within the nine months immediately preceding any conviction for drunkenness may be declared an habitual drunkard. A Magistrate may, in addition to or in lieu of a penalty, commit an habitual drunkard to any institution authorized by the Governor-General to receive and detain such persons for any period not being less than twelve months. The law makes provision in respect of the discharge of inmates, their good conduct, discipline, and punishment for offences during detention, and for the proper inspection of such institutions.

Drunkenness is usually met with a fine, the returns for 1922 showing that of the 6,097 persons (exclusive of Maoris) convicted of drunkenness as many as 3,930 were fined, while 521 went to gaol in preference to paying the fine, 116 were peremptorily imprisoned, and 44 (including 19 habitual drunkards) committed to a Salvation Army Home or other such institution. Sixteen convicted persons were ordered to come up for sentence, and no fewer than 1,388 were convicted and discharged.

A calculation of the amount of alcoholic liquor consumed per head of mean population during the last five years is given below:—

CONSUMPTION OF BEER, WINE, AND SPIRITS PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION.
 Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
 Beer. Gal.  Wine. Gal.  Spirits. Gal.  Beer. Gal.  Wine. Gal.  Spirits. Gal.
19189.2130.1090.5029.6290.1140.524
191911.6400.1460.57712.1470.1530.603
192012.1590.1930.76312.6670.2010.795
192111.2380.1770.79011.7220.1850.824
19229.5960.0880.23510.0040.0920.297

The quantity of each kind of alcoholic liquor used in the Dominion during the same period was as follows:—

 Beer for Consumption. Gal.  Wine for Consumption. Gal.  Spirits for Consumption. Gal.
191810,621,229126,122578,177
191913,882,286174,333688,632
192015,106,653239,880947,660
192114,347,111225,9871,008,875
192212,524,191115,180371,857

Chapter 10. SECTION X.—DEFENCE.

NEW ZEALAND MILITARY FORCES.

THE New Zealand Military Forces consist of the Permanent Forces, the Territorial Force, and the Senior Cadets.

The units of the Permanent Forces are the New Zealand Staff Corps, the Royal New Zealand Artillery, the New Zealand Permanent Staff, the New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps, the New Zealand Army Pay Corps, and the Air Services.

The New Zealand Permanent Forces contain 100 professional officers, who are charged with the training of the Forces and the administration of all matters connected therewith.

The Royal New Zealand Artillery has an establishment of 100 “other ranks.” These supply the necessary instructors for the Territorial Artillery, provide cadres for the Field Artillery units, and maintain the harbour-defences and artillery equipment throughout the Dominion.

The New Zealand Permanent Staff, with a strength of 112, provides drill instructors and custodians of Defence property and equipment, and also carries out administrative functions.

The New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps comprises 6 officers (included in the 100 for the New Zealand Permanent Forces) and 100 other ranks, who are in charge of the mobilization equipment and bulk depots of the Forces.

The New Zealand Army Pay Corps comprises 5 officers and 11 other ranks.

The Air Services have an establishment of 5 officers and 12 other ranks.

For purposes of defence the Dominion is divided into three commands—the Northern Command comprising roughly the northern half of the North Island, the Central Command comprising the remainder of the North Island, and the Southern Command comprising the South Island, Stewart Island, and Chatham Islands.

These commands are each divided into four regimental districts, and each command contains the following units of the New Zealand Territorial Force:—

Three regiments of Mounted Rifles, seven batteries of Artillery, one Field Engineer Depot, one Corps of Signals Depot, four battalions of Infantry, one Army Service Corps Depot, and one Medical Corps Depot.

This organization on mobilization produces one complete division and three brigade. of Mounted Rifles, and provides the machinery by which this force could be duplicated and kept up to strength.

The present strength of the Territorial Force is 609 officers and 12,678 other ranks.

The Senior Cadets are organized in battalions, and receive physical and elementary military training. The strength of the Senior Cadets is 374 officers and 26,422 other ranks.

Rifle clubs exist throughout the Dominion for the encouragement of rifle shooting, and in addition to minor fixtures a Dominion rifle meeting is held at Trentham annually when practicable.

All male inhabitants of New Zealand who have resided therein for six months and are British subjects are liable to be trained as follows:—

In the Senior Cadets—from fourteen years of age, or date of leaving school, as the case may be, to eighteen years of age (or in the case of those who at the age of eighteen are attending a secondary school, then to the date of their leaving school).

In the Territorial Force—from eighteen years (or from any later date on which they cease to attend a secondary school as aforesaid) to twenty-five.

New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War. These comprised a total of 6,500 officers and men.

Immediately the Great European War broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then went to the western front, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate against the Turks in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 100,000 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and nearly 17,000 lost their lives on active service.

On the Armistice being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent. of the total population of the Dominion in 1914, while it is known that a very large number of other New-Zealanders served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

The Headquarters of the New Zealand Military Forces is at Wellington. The General Officer Commanding is Major-General Sir Edward Chaytor, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., C.B., p.s.c.

NAVAL DEFENCE.

By the Australasian Defence Act, 1887, provision was made for the payment by New Zealand of a proportional part of the cost of the establishment and maintenance of a British Naval Force to be employed for the protection of trade in Australasian waters. Under this Act a sum of approximately £20,000 per annum was paid by New Zealand to the Imperial Government.

In 1903, consequent on the passing of the Australian and New Zealand Naval Defence Act, the annual contribution payable by New Zealand was raised to “a sum not exceeding £40,000.”

By the Naval Subsidy Act, 1908, the contribution of the Dominion was again increased, this time to a sum of £100,000 payable annually for ten years from the 12th May, 1909.

In 1909 New Zealand presented the battle-cruiser “New Zealand” to the Imperial Government. Full information concerning this vessel and her visit to New Zealand in 1913 appears in the 1913 issue of this book (pages 932-941). This ship has been scrapped as a result of the Washington Conference.

The Naval Defence Act, 1913, provides for the establishment of a New Zealand Naval Force by voluntary enlistment for a prescribed period, members on discharge to be drafted into the New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve for a further prescribed period—for service only in time of war: the ships and personnel forming the force to pass under the control and to be at the disposition of the Government of Great Britain in time of war.

A commencement was made with the formation of a New Zealand Division immediately prior to the war, when H.M.S. “Philomel" was commissioned with ranks and ratings lent from the Royal Navy to serve as a training-ship for the formation of a small Naval Force. The “Philomel" was employed under the orders of the British Admiralty throughout the war, and no opportunity was afforded for the commencement of a scheme of training.

In 1919 Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O., visited New Zealand in H.M.S. “New Zealand,” and presented his report making recommendations and suggestions for the naval defence of the Dominion.

In 1920 H.M.S. “Chatham" was presented to New Zealand by the British Government, and was commissioned on the 1st October of that year with officers and men of the Royal Navy: the officers on loan therefrom for three years, the men partly on loan but mainly transferred to the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy for a period of three years. At the expiration of this term the personnel obtained from the Royal Navy, except such as desired to extend their engagements or to take their discharge in the Dominion, returned to England, and the “Chatham's" commission wás continued, her complement being made up of further officers and men on loan from the Royal Navy, with locally entered New Zealand ratings filling the subordinate positions. Commodore Alan G. Hotham, C.B., C.M.G., commanded the “Chatham" for the first three years, and was succeeded in that command in August, 1923, by Commodore Alister F. Beal, C.M.G., as Commodore Commanding the New Zealand Station and Naval Adviser to the New Zealand Government.

After the arrival of the “Chatham" in New Zealand waters, the “Philomel,” which had been paid off towards the end of the war, was again commissioned on the 1st March, 1921, as a training-ship, for which purpose she had in the meantime been converted. The “Philomel" also carries out the duties of depot ship at Auckland. The period of first engagement was, by Order in Council, fixed at twelve years, with subsequent re-engagement for periods of five years, on a system of deferred pay in lieu of pension; and the period of enrolment in the Reserve on discharge from the seagoing forces was fixed at ten years, or up to the age of forty, for service only in time of war. A commencement was made in May, 1921, with the recruiting of New Zealand boys and youths for training as seamen and stokers, of whom, together with a limited number of artificer, artisan, and other special ratings, 225 have been entered up to the 30th June, 1923.

Legislation was passed in February, 1922, authorizing the formation of a New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve by voluntary enlistment therein, in addition to the drafting thereto of ratings discharged from the seagoing forces. An Order in Council of the 10th July, 1922, prescribes the conditions of service in the various classes of the Reserve. All reservists, other than those of the inactive Reserve as referred to in the immediately preceding paragraph, are required to perform specified periods of training in ships of the New Zealand Division. The Reserve, when formed, will provide a nucleus for local defence.

A Naval Board was constituted by Order in Council of the 14th March, 1921, charged with the control of all matters relating to the Naval Forces, upon the policy directed by the Minister, and vested with the executive command of the Naval Forces: the Board to be composed of the Minister of Defence (President) and the following members: The Commodore Commanding New Zealand Station (First Naval Member), the Chief Staff Officer to the Commodore (temporarily, as Second Naval Member), the Secretary to the Commodore Commanding (Secretary to the Board).

By Order in Council of the 20th June, 1921, it was provided that the ships and personnel comprising the New Zealand Naval Forces shall be described respectively as forming and belonging to “The New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy,” which shall be the official designation of the Force.

H.M.S. “Veronica,” which had been on the New Zealand Station since 1920, was recommissioned in March, 1922 for further service on the station. H.M.S. “Laburnum" arrived in New Zealand waters from England during the same month. These two sloops are provided and maintained by the British Government, their duties consisting mainly of policing the South Pacific islands within the limits of the New Zealand Station.

The amounts provided by Parliament in respect of Naval Defence expenditure during the year 1923-24 are—

 £
Upkeep of New Zealand Division of Royal Navy339,397
Contribution to Singapore Naval Base100,000
Debt charges (interest, sinking fund, and repayments) on loan-money raised for building battle-cruiser “New Zealand”89,244
      Total£528,641

Chapter 11. SECTION XI.—EXTERNAL TRADE.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

EARLY TRADE.

FROM the very earliest times New Zealand has inevitably been dependent upon foreign intercourse for its development and progress. The first European residents in New Zealand seem to have been the small party of sealers from Sydney who settled at Dusky Sound for ten months in 1792-93, and built there the first vessel made from local timber. The seals and whales of the South Seas attracted attention to the Islands as a convenient depot, and by 1800 there were established many little settlements where the blubber was tried out. In 1794 the timber trade was inaugurated by the visit of the “Fancy,” and the export of timber, mainly kahikatea (white-pine), rapidly grew to goodly proportions. The native flax (Phormium tenax) was also easy recognized as a source of wealth, and a considerable export arose.

Thus, irregularly, the settlement of New Zealand went hand-in-hand with external trade, and was, indeed, promoted by the hope of commercial gain. The early exports were all local products as enumerated above, with the gruesome addition of tattooed Maori heads, while the imports were mainly muskets and powder.

The arrival of the New Zealand Company's expedition in 1840 stimulated the development of a more stable trade—wool had been exported to Hobart in 1839—and gradually the exports and imports of New Zealand took on their modern form. In 1852 the young colony was granted representative government, and from that date there is an accurate record of the external trade of the country. By 1856 full responsible or cabinet government was established.

By 1853 the export of flax had been practically ruined owing to increased competition from other sources, and the amount exported in that year was negligible. Timber, however, retained its place as a principal export, supplying 31 per cent. (£93,000) of the total exports; while wool had increased to 22 per cent. (£86,507). The value of grain exported was small, only £19,000 (6 per cent.); whale-oil amounted to £22,000, and potatoes to £30,000. The total exports in 1853 were £303,282, and the total imports £597,827.

THE GROWTH OF TRADE, 1853-1922.

A low and fluctuating level of trade was turned in 1860-63 into a rapidly increasing volume by the effect of the gold-discoveries which occurred in the early “sixties.” Both imports and exports were stimulated, the former to feed and clothe an ever-increasing population, the latter by the export of gold.

After the increase in the early “sixties,” trade remained stationary till the expenditure of borrowed money brought the land-boom of the early “seventies.” A great temporary increase of trade was succeeded by violent fluctuations and but slowly increasing trade as the effects of the bubble were slowly worked off. From 1873 till 1895 the world level of prices was falling continuously, and this factor contributed not a little to the depression of New Zealand. Little headway could be made against a falling price of wool and a decreasing production of gold, which were the main features of those twenty years.

But in 1895 world prices began to rise, and the effect is seen immediately in the upward shoot of the external trade. On only four occasions has this upward tendency been checked—in 1908, when the commercial crisis which was felt in the Old World a year previously affected New Zealand; in 1913, on the occasion of another depression of trade; in 1917-18, as a result of shortage of shipping; and again after 1920, in which year the colossal total of £108,000,000 was reached, due principally to heavy importations, which could not be maintained.

The following table shows the increase in the total trade since the year 1853:—

Year.Total Value.Value per Head.
Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.
 ££££s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1853901,110597,828303,2823009191871022
186310,510,0797,024,6743,485,4057210548952410
187312,075,0586,464,6875,610,37141193229419911
188315,070,0377,974,0387,095,999289515131382
189315,896,8796,911,5158,985,3642409109013119
190327,799,05312,788,67515,010,3783317101511101830
190428,040,04213,291,69414,748,3483338151471791
190528,484,80412,828,85715,655,947321410141411171911
190633,306,54015,211,40318,095,1373739161982041
190737,371,81817,302,86120,068,957401331816621169
190833,788,77817,471,28416,317,4943515118991754
190935,336,71515,674,71919,661,996367316272048
191039,231,79217,051,58322,180,20939104173622610
191138,574,36919,545,87919,028,4903802195218150
191242,747,15520,976,57421,770,58141210203920191
191345,275,02422,288,30222,986,72242732017121102
191448,117,54321,856,09626,261,4474428200112419
191553,477,74621,728,83431,748,9124812101915228178
191659,626,22026,339,28333,286,9375448231923056
191752,516,81220,919,26531,587,547471551907281410
191852,750,19524,234,00728,516,188471662119525171
191984,641,77330,671,69853,970,0757412261694745
1920108,037,77461,595,82846,441,94690119511211381810
192187,771,27042,942,44344,828,82771143351936126
192277,738,81035,012,56142,726,24962111271943427

TOTAL OVERSEAS TRADE, 1922.

A consideration of the preceding table reveals that the total trade of £77,738,810 in 1922 has been surpassed on three occasions only—in 1919, 1920, and 1921, when abnormal conditions, now little in evidence, were strongly emphasized. It is well known that the stimulus given to imports during these years had its origin in the wave of artificial prosperity which characterized the period. The high prices then paid for imports swelled the yearly totals higher still. In 1922 exports totalled £42,726,249 and imports £35,012,561, leaving a favourable balance of £7,713,688, which may be taken as indicating a return to a practically normal state of affairs, after the adverse conditions ruling in 1920 and the early part of 1921. A comparison with the 1921 figures brings out the satisfactory feature that, although exports diminished by about £2,000,000, imports showed a decrease of nearly £8,000,000.

The discussion on the subject of export values in the next subsection shows that the slight fall in the total value of exports in 1922 was entirely due to lower prices ruling during the year. The volume of exports in 1922 was only slightly lower than in 1919.

The following figures, which relate to the two years 1921 and 1922, and for the first six months of 1923, present the monthly totals of exports and imports, and illuminate statistically the progressive return to more stable conditions after the critical financial period of 1921-22:—

ACTUAL MONTHLY FIGURES OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS, 1921-23.
Month.1921.1922.1923.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 ££££££
January5,336,5056,664,5744,253,2783,020,1453,262,8914,076,164
February3,305,0934,329,2684,962,4622,786,6945,972,9173,040,831
March4,547,0624,664,6602,946,8303,032,4765,749,2133,685,342
April6,063,9825,337,7005,308,1092,536,4795,335,2693,539,704
May3,934,6813,747,0394,585,5332,487,5835,705,9883,396,628
June3,997,5383,447,6264,836,1542,326,0975,056,0553,447,832
July4,947,6551,856,2523,728,5652,204,622....
August2,524,9032,623,5872,053,9033,353,987....
September1,786,2262,732,1692,470,9613,354,828....
October2,205,8782,488,6621,594,7513,437,128....
November2,853,8142,036,1172,409,4262,969,389....
December3,325,4903,014,7893,576,2773,504,135....

The figures are now given grouped on the basis of a three-monthly moving average, the values shown for each month representing an average of that month and the months immediately preceding and following. The three-monthly moving averages present the more accurate view in that they smooth out undue fluctuations in the figures due to monthly shipping and other local conditions.

THREE-MONTHLY MOVING AVERAGE OF IMPORTS ANDEXPORTS, 1921-23.
Month.1921.1922.1923.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 ££££££
January4,199,3755,677,3574,180,2732,940,5434,270,6953,540,377
February4,396,2205,219,5014,054,1902,946,4384,995,0073,600,779
March4,638,7124,777,2094,405,8002,785,2165,685,8003,421,959
April4,848,5754,583,1334,280,1572,685,5135,596,8233,540,558
May4,665,4004,177,4554,909,9322,450,0535,365,7703,461,388
June4,293,2913,016,9724,383,4172,339,434....
July3,823,3652,642,4883,539,5412,627,901....
August3,086,2612,404,0032,751,1432,971,146....
September2,172,3362,614,8062,039,8723,381,981....
October2,281,9732,418,9832,158,3793,253,782....
November2,795,0612,513,1892,526,8183,303,551....
December3,477,5272,690,3503,082,8653,516,563....

The outstanding feature of the figures is the rapid fall in the total value of imports during the first half of 1921, and, indeed, during the second six months also. This latter period marks a time when importers, as a result of the precedent adverse market conditions, were exercising caution in placing orders, and really represents a change over to another extreme. The figures for 1922 and the first half of 1923, however, reveal the fact that this condition of trade atmosphere has now been dispelled, and the Dominion's imports centre round a mean of a little more than three millions monthly. The figures are brought out graphically in the following diagram.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE MONTHLY TREND OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS DURING 1921 AND 1922, AND FIRST SIX MONTHS OF 1923.

The diagram shows that the monthly value of imports for the twelve months ended June, 1922, remained fairly constant, and what has been said earlier in regard to the restoration of confidence is well brought out by the trend of the import figures for the last six months of the year 1922. In the case of exports the seasonal nature of the trade is well distinguished. March and April usually witness the heaviest shipments of the year, and the volume then falls away until September or October, when the exportation of butter commences.

It will be noted that in the case of the exports this seasonal fluctuation is well pronounced in the diagram shown, and the two years 1921 and 1922 are practically a repetition of one another. It is of interest to remember, however, that the value of the 1921 exports would have been considerably less had not excellent prices been obtained for the Dominion's butter and cheese; other prices had collapsed. The year 1922 saw a partial recovery in the case of wool-prices, but a decline in regard to other important items.

In comparing the total trade of New Zealand for 1922 with that of preceding years it is essential to bear in mind that certain of our primary products which were purchased by the Department of Imperial Government Supplies in earlier years were not shipped until 1920, and to a lesser extent in 1921. Final shipments were made in 1922, but on a much smaller scale. This produce went to swell the normal value of exports in the years they were shipped, while in fact substantial advances had been made to the vendors on the purchase price. The matter is more fully dealt with in the Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping for 1921.

TRADE PER HEAD.

The trade per head, which is shown over a number of years in the first table of this subsection, was fairly great in the early years after 1853: but the amount was swelled by the relatively large imports which were necessary for the development of the young colony. The gold-discoveries raised the level of both imports and exports, and after 1870 the borrowing policy which was inaugurated greatly inflated trade, and especially imports. The highest level of imports per head, apart from the abnormal years of the early “sixties" and the last two years, was reached in 1874, and the consequent reaction saw an almost continuous decrease in the per capita trade as regards both imports and exports till 1895.

DIAGRAM SHOWING TOTAL TRADE, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION, 1853-1922.

The diagram shows very clearly the rapid and almost continuous fall in the trade per head from 1863 to 1895, and the corresponding rise thereafter.

It is significant that the turning-point should have come in 1895, the year in which prices turned to rise all over the world. Since 1895 there has been an almost constant increase in the value of the Dominion's total trade per head of the population. It will be noticed that the total trade per head has advanced very rapidly during the last few years.

The large increases in recent years are largely but not entirely due to the increased market values of both imports and exports.

BALANCE OF TRADE.

The relation between imports and exports is of the greatest importance to a young country like New Zealand. In the very earliest years of occupation by Europeans the exports of phormium, timber, and skins were greatly in excess of the few imports, mainly muskets and gunpowder, a fact which is explained partly by the temporary residence of the traders and more by the weaker bargaining-power of the Maori. With the settlement of the regular colony in 1840 there was evident an inflation of imports occasioned by the amount of capital the new colonists brought in for the development of the country. From 1853 to 1870 there was an excess of imports, which, however, was tending to decrease.

A temporary excess of exports gave place in the early “seventies" to another great increase of imports, due to the borrowing policy inaugurated in that period. Except for a big decrease in 1880, the value of imports continued to be greater than exports until 1886. From that year onward there has been a continued excess of exports, except for the three years 1908, 1911, and 1920. The year 1886 is worthy of note as marking an outstanding period in the history of New Zealand's trade. A more or less fluctuating excess of imports had obtained prior to that time, but from 1886 the exports began to form a preponderating feature of the total trade. The consequent balance of trade in favour of the Dominion has since remained remarkably unbroken. Indeed, on the basis of a quinquennial average, the figures relating to the three more recent years referred to earlier as showing an excess of imports recede into and form part of a continuous favourable balance of trade which has existed since 1886.

The balance of trade is intimately bound up, in later years especially, with the large imports of capital which have been brought in to assist in the development of the country. This has already been made evident in discussing the balance of trade in early years. The excess of imports from 1853 to 1870, and again from 1872 to 1886, can definitely be traced to the importation of capital in those periods.

On that portion of the public debt held outside New Zealand at the 31st March, 1923, the annual interest charge aggregated £4,902,815, and there was a further annual charge of £292,964 in respect of repayment of funded debt to the Imperial Government. At the 31st March, 1922, local bodies' debts held outside the Dominion involved an annual interest charge of £447,042, the total payments outside the Dominion on the public and semi-public debt being thus somewhat over five and a half millions.

Against this outgoing must be set the amount of new importations of capital in the shape of loans. While the expenditure on interest is fairly constant from year to year, the amount raised by new loans varies, and these variations are a big factor in the fluctuations of the balance of trade.

The following table shows the comparison of this balance with the increase in the public debt since 1866:—

Period (Annual Average).Imports.*Exports.*Excess of Imports.*Excess of Exports.*Increase of Net Debt.*

* In millions of pounds.

Most of this increase was due to new loans raised in the Dominion.

 £££££
1866-705.014.530.48..0.69
1871-756.375.430.94..1.91
1876-807.436.021.41..2.24
1881-857.846.751.09..1.03
1886-906.308.09..1.791.02
1891-956.719.17..2.460.99
1896-19008.5611.01..2.451.26
1901-512.4114.39..1.982.22
1906-1016.5419.26..2.721.62
1911-1521.2824.36..3.085.33
1916-2032.7538.76..6.0118.32
1921-2238.9843.78..4.804.76

An attempt has been made to compile a more approximately correct statement of New Zealand's credit balance in international trade and other payments than is disclosed by the recorded trade figures, and the result is given in the table below. The figures shown are the actual or estimated totals for the various items for the year 1922. In many cases they are only approximate, and in some instances an arbitrary estimate had to be resorted to.

NEW ZEALAND.—INTERNATIONAL PAYMENTS AND TRADE BALANCE FOR THE YEAR 1922.
Credit.(£1,000.)(£1,000.)
1. Exports of produce f.o.b. value at port of shipment42,130..
2. Exports of gold545..
3. Exports of silver51..
4. Government and local loans raised abroad7,220..
5. Tourists' expenditure in New Zealand1,000..
6. Immigrants' capital640..
7. Net shipping income50..
 -51,636
Debit.  
1. Imports of merchandise f.o.b. value at port of shipment28,764..
2. Government imports2,896..
3. Imports of coin186..
4. Freight payable on all imports carried in foreign vessels, insurance, and exchange (valued at 20 per cent. of imports)6,332..
5. Government payments abroad (additional to 2)150..
6. Interest on public and local debt4,950..
7. Redemption of public debt141..
8. Expenses of New-Zealanders travelling abroad500..
 43,919

A net credit balance of £7,717,000 is shown, and if new loans are excluded from the credit side a small credit balance still remains.

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE AND BULLION.

There is no Mint in New Zealand, whilst there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion. Gold therefore ranks as an ordinary export of the Dominion, along with wool, frozen meat, and dairy-produce. In earlier days this export of gold was much more important than now, amounting in 1863 to 70 per cent. of the total exports, from which figure it shrank steadily to 6 per cent. in 1913. During each of the last three years the proportion has been less than 2 per cent.

As all coin necessary for the commerce of the Dominion must be imported from abroad, the movement of specie affords a ready index of the state of trade. A bad year is reflected in an export of specie, while prosperous years show a steady inflow. A table is given showing imports and exports of specie during the ten years 1913-22.

VALUE OF SPECIE IMPORTED AND EXPORTED, 1913-22.
Year.Total Specie.Excess of Specie Imports over Exports.
Imported.Exported.
 £££
1913634,670176,359458,311
1914711,8697,522704,347
19151,070,114318,090752,024
19161,293,8805,8801,288,000
1917177,13570,475106,660
1918102,21535,61066,605
1919362,53162,150300,381
192041,97536,5805,395
1921198,321367197,954
1922186,487300186,187

The amount of gold bullion exported is shown in the following table:—

EXPORTS OF GOLD FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1913-22.
Year.Exports.Percentage of Total Exports.
To United Kingdom.To Australia.To other Countries.Total.
 £££££
1913353,7631,105,720161,459,4996.35
1914159,499735,81157895,3673.41
19155,060507,6591,181,8341,694,5535.34
1916134,827510,499553,8861,199,2126.01
1917690,025213,863..903,8882.86
191827542,116..42,3910.15
1919339,533558,656436,2131,334,4022.47
1920103,35312,167768,228883,7481.90
19212,7606,966602,442612,1681.36
192213,3675,731521,084540,1821.26

The exports of gold to “other countries” included above were from 1920 to 1922 principally to the United States, being brought about by the unfavourable position of the rate of exchange. The actual exports of gold to the United States were £718,899 in 1920, £602,308 in 1921, and £354,944 in 1922. The progressive decrease is a reflection of the return of a more favourable rate of exchange.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.

It is customary to classify the trade of a country as “special" and “entrepôt,” according as it represents the exchange of domestic productions for imports for home consumption, or a mere transit trade. In many countries, such as Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom, the transit trade attains considerable importance, but New Zealand, owing to its geographical position, is precluded from developing in that direction. Her imports, except for a small forwarding trade to the Pacific islands, are for her own consumption, and the great bulk of her exports are commodities of domestic production.

The following table, which excludes specie, shows for the last ten years the very small proportion which re-exports bear to the total trade of the Dominion:—

PROPORTION OF RE-EXPORTS TO TOTAL TRADE (EXCLUDING SPECIE), 1913-22.
Year.Trade.Re-exports (included in two preceding Columns).Percentage of Re-exports
Imports.Exports.Total.To Imports.To Exports.
 ££££  
191321,653,63222,810,36344,463,995232,4731.071.02
191421,144,22726,253,92547,398,152269,2081.271.03
191520,658,72031,430,82252,089,542387,9601.881.23
191625,045,40333,281,05758,326,460305,1501.220.92
191720,742,13031,517,07252,259,202429,1152.071.36
191824,131,79228,480,57852,612,370543,5682.251.91
191930,309,16753,907,92584,217,092603,5411.991.12
192061,553,85346,405,366107,959,219813,0721.321.75
192142,744,12244,828,46087,572,5821,213,0022.842.73
192234,826,07442,725,94977,552,0231,026,8012.942.40

Before comparisons may properly be made with the trade of other countries care must be taken to ensure that the statistics are comparable in their methods of compilation and definition.

The value of imports into New Zealand has, since 1916, been reckoned at the fair market value in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus 10 per cent.; exports are valued f.o.b. In the United States and Canada, however, the value of imports also are calculated f.o.b., and the difference, representing freight, insurance, and charges, amounts to about 10 per cent. of the total value.

Again, in the United Kingdom the values of both imports and exports are obtained by assessment at current market prices in the United Kingdom.

A comparison of the “special" trade of various countries is shown in the table given below, the information being taken from the Commonwealth Official Year-book. Such a comparison (which covers in most cases the latest available year) necessarily ignores many of the elements considered above, but gives a sufficiently accurate idea of the relative trade of the various countries. The figures for Canada relate to the year ended 31st March, 1921, and for Australia to the year ended 30th June, 1921; in all other cases the figures refer to the calendar year.

TrADE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.—IMPORTS FOR HOME CONSUMPTION AND EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE, INCLUDING BULLION AND SPECIE.
Country.Year.Trade.*Trade per Inhabitant.
Imports.Exports.Total.Imports.Exports.Total.

* In thousands of pounds.

† Excluding bullion and specie.

  ££££s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
New Zealand192142,94244,82987,77135193612671143
Netherlands1920314,717163,412478,1294686242270108
New Zealand192235,01342,72677,73927194342762111
Australia1920-21156,519126,431282,9502818623735259
Norway191792,29543,779136,0743514161285140
Denmark192176,76264,948141,7102664218547149
Switzerland1921101,69779,789181,48625167255446111
Belgium1921194,367138,166332,5332588181743103
Canada1921-22171,122169,391340,51319102196238164
United Kingdom1921979,625703,1961,682,821201421417335115
Argentine192052,416206,208258,624667241823149
Sweden192174,00664,131138,13712147110723152
France1921455,832417,211873,04311126101292253
United States1921640,0531,117,0981,757,1566111011416125
Italy1920204,409100,567304,97651132149860
Brazil1920124,406107,514231,92041731067121
Japan1921198,788152,463351,25131112145656
Spain192144,31528,06172,37622101713911

Utilizing the 1921 figures, which are more strictly comparable with the remainder of the table, New Zealand is seen to head the list as regards the total exports of domestic produce and imports of articles entered for home consumption, Netherlands taking second place. It will be noted that, under the head of imports above, Netherland's trade per unit of population is much larger than the Dominion's; but, on the other hand, the New Zealand exports per capita not only exceed those of the Netherlands, but somewhat more than counteract the deficiency in the case of imports. On the basis of the 1922 figures, however, New Zealand drops to second place, being first in regard to exports and second in the case of imports.

By themselves statistics of foreign trade are not a sure test of a country's prosperity, and they must always be interpreted with a knowledge of local conditions. An increase of imports may not be the result of increased purchasing-power, but may merely represent loans from another country, or even a failure of the home supply of certain commodities. Similarly, increased exports may mean greater productivity and increased purchasing-power, but they may also denote the payments on greatly increased liabilities.

In all countries the home trade is greatly in excess of the external trade, and in larger countries, which are more self-contained, a decrease in foreign trade may be due to development within the country itself. But New Zealand is far from self-contained, and from her position must attach a great importance to external trade. Under present conditions, only by export can a sufficient market be obtained for her rich resources, and only from abroad can be obtained the manufactures which are needed for common use. The development of the external trade since 1895 has been accompanied by increasing prosperity, and every advance in exports, followed by larger imports, represents an increase in the wealth of the Dominion.

SUBSECTION B.—EXPORTS.

METHOD OF RECORDING EXPORTS.

IN New Zealand the Department of H.M. Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination.

In all cases exports are valued “free on board at the port of shipment.” In many cases, however, the goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, and in such cases values must be assessed in New Zealand with reference to current prices.

The exports of New Zealand produce are shown separately from re-exports of imported goods.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPORT TRADE.

The table on the next page gives a summary of the main exports from New Zealand during the last twenty years. The main commodities are shown separately, and the progress of the Dominion during the last two decades is strikingly illustrated.

The main feature of the table is the prominence given to the primary products of the soil. The extractive industries of New Zealand have always supplied the overwhelming bulk of the exports, and, though the proportion of the different classes has varied from time to time, there has never been any considerable or even noticeable export of manufactured goods.

Until 1914 the statistical tables included a heading “Manufactures,” which showed a considerable total value in each year, reaching £987,072 in 1913. Included in this group, however, was phormium, the value of which (excluding tow) was in 1913 £721,924; and though the phormium is stripped and prepared in New Zealand, it leaves the Dominion as a raw fibre, which can hardly be termed a “manufacture.” Similarly, leather in 1913 amounted to £31,945, and copra was also included in this heading. There are some genuine manufactures exported, such as ale and beer, cordage, soap, and woollens, but their value is insignificant compared with the primary products.

All the items of pastoral products considered show great increases over the twenty years, and the total exports show nearly a threefold increase in the period. There was a slight fall in 1904, and two more serious decreases were recorded in 1908 and 1911. The figures for 1917 and 1918 were considerably below those of 1916, but the export values during 1919 constituted a record. Since that date there has been a continued decrease in the value of exports, but the total for 1922 is nevertheless a long way ahead of any year prior to 1919.

In the last twenty years the proportions of the principal exports have changed a good deal. Wool, which reached its maximum percentage (47.9) in 1897, showed a tendency to decline till 1902, then partially regained its position, once more showing a marked fall in 1918, owing to a considerable portion of the clip being retained in the Dominion until the next year, when wool to the value of £19,559,537 was exported. The wool exported during the year 1922 was valued at £11,882,463, which is a great improvement on the figure for the previous year, when exportations of this article amounted to only £5,221,479. The total exports of wool during the four years 1919-22 aggregated nearly 50 millions sterling.

Frozen meat in recent years has supplied approximately 20 per cent. of the total exports, a proportion considerably exceeded in 1920 and 1921, when the value of this important item of export reached £11,673,696 and £11,164,345 respectively, but owing to a recovery in wool-values this proportion has for the year 1922 declined to its old level.

EXPORTS OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE, 1903-22.
Year.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.Tallow.Skins, Hides, and Pelts.Other Pastoral Produce.*

* The main Items in this heading are bacon and hams, beef and pork (salted), live-stock, preserved meats, sausage-skins, and preserved milk.

† The main items in this heading are bran and sharps, chaff, flour, fruits, barley, beans and peas, maize, malt, hops, oatmeal, potatoes, and seeds.

 £££££££
19034,041,2743,197,0431,318,067194,998517,871566,178239,532
19044,673,8262,793,5991,380,460185,486357,974498,121189,942
19055,381,3332,694,4321,408,557205,171347,888675,201208,939
19066,765,6552,877,0311,560,235341,002455,026894,518257,313
19077,657,2783,420,6641,615,345662,355560,9651,055,650273,447
19085,332,7813,188,5151,171,182783,419481,335767,692231,142
19096,305,8883,601,0931,639,3801,105,390648,4521,018,103316,959
19108,308,4103,850,7771,811,9751,195,373756,8411,129,041468,298
19116,491,7073,503,4061,576,9171,192,057607,257911,519467,695
19127,105,4833,909,5692,088,8091,680,393684,7391,091,871370,616
19138,057,6204,449,9332,061,6511,770,297663,0881,199,375317,181
19149,318,1145,863,0622,338,5762,564,125694,3481,317,593433,331
191510,387,8757,794,3952,700,6252,730,211780,8281,450,276690,398
191612,386,0747,271,3182,632,2937,514,310785,3391,667,679637,409
191712,175,3665,982,4042,031,5513,949,251553,0161,861,817776,194
19187,527,2664,957,5763,402,2234,087,278847,6182,645,8641,170,011
191919,559,5379,628,2923,080,1287,790,9902,680,0063,439,4682,432,819
192011,863,82711,673,6963,022,3356,160,8401,748,7735,032,2422,058,463
19215,221,47911,164,34511,169,5308,199,183867,2981,980,1762,081,514
192211,882,4638,387,4619,041,5544,686,850750,5741,929,5321,380,130
Year.Wheat.Oats.Other Agricultural Produce.Gold.Coal.Kaurigum.Phormium Fibre and Tow.Timber.

* The main Items in this heading are bacon and hams, beef and pork (salted), live-stock, preserved meats, sausage-skins, and preserved milk.

† The main items in this heading are bran and sharps, chaff, flour, fruits, barley, beans and peas, maize, malt, hops, oatmeal, potatoes, and seeds.

 ££££££££
190314,068453,702277,0752,037,832128,927631,102603,411240,713
1904126,035212,724220,4841,987,501139,898501,817714,147254,021
1905144,37499,664184,2422,093,936107,062561,444711,940318,895
19069,91576,981183,6462,270,904122,614522,486812,712304,941
19073264,656157,9852,027,490114,737579,888897,718311,862
1908344108,997156,3892,004,79985,846372,798420,520375,235
1909305,902453,314216,9542,006,900183,961552,698324,458337,740
1910216,65744,299220,5661,896,318259,562465,044480,519407,658
1911219,1969,211184,4081,815,251204,379395,707325,130439,353
191295,702483,756481,1471,345,131216,170401,305407,903490,508
191311,81629,252238,9081,459,499205,010549,106797,062319,055
19143,580165,930278,894895,367282,163497,444492,230422,864
1915128132,827541,3181,694,553329,731279,133610,059383,883
191617,83530,200135,6801,199,212326,553339,8821,078,632381,488
19175091,306178,087903,888236,063291,9171,232,608408,121
1918460872194,42242,391227,228157,3131,408,147556,309
191967933,671753,8371,334,405201,383255,812907,584439,935
192038852,502477,166883,748128,509556,756688,972697,608
192124384,434405,417612,168109,510367,197319,604503,785
1922316,52891,991560,425540,182253,762563,270295,530479,447

The main feature of the period has been the great advance, relatively and absolutely, of butter and cheese, the export of which has increased beyond all expectations—viz., from £1,513,065 in 1903 to £19,368,713 in 1921. Exports fell away during the past year, only £13,728,404 being credited to these two important items. Other classes of pastoral produce have also increased to several times their total for 1903, and timber shows much the same result. The value of coal and phormium, however, has remained fairly stationary, with a growing tendency to decrease. In the case of gold, the value in 1922 was considerably less than in 1903, the figures showing over the twenty years a decline from £2,037,832 to £540,182. Agricultural produce shows a fluctuating export with a tendency to decrease, the comparatively large amount for 1922 being due to a considerable carry-over from the previous season.

The relative importance of the main commodities is shown in the diagram given below.

In the following table the exports are classified under the main industries, according to a broad division, to illustrate the relative importance of the pastoral, agricultural, mining, forestry, and other industries as far as the export trade is concerned. It must be remembered that in a particular industry the home trade may be relatively more important than the external trade.

The table indicates a tendency for the Dominion to rely more and more upon the pastoral industry for her main exports. The four main products of that industry—wool, frozen meat, butter, and cheese—provide an ever-increasing proportion of the total quantity of goods shipped overseas. On the other hand, the proportion of minerals has tended to fall, mainly through decreasing exports of gold, and agricultural exports fluctuate with a downward tendency. It would seem that New Zealand is restricting her agriculture to a level barely sufficient to provide for her own needs in the matter of foodstuffs, and only in exceptional years is there a surplus available for export.

TABLE SHOWING PROPORTIONS OF EXPORTS SUPPLIED BY THE MAIN INDUSTRIES, 1903-22.
Year.Exports.Percentage of Total Exports.
Pastoral.Mining.Agricultural.Forest.Other.Pastoral.Mining.Agricultural.Forest.Other.
 £££££%%%%%
190310,074,9632,265,604744,845885,2571,039,70967-115.15.05.96.9
190410,079,4082,251,108559,243769,1881,089,40168.315.33.85.27.4
190510,921,5212,329,858428,280891,4101,084,87869.814.92.75.76.9
190613,150,7802,555,551270,542841,1661,277,09872.614.11.54.67.2
190715,245,7042,344,903162,967904,4861,410,89776.011.70.84.57.0
190811,956,0662,279,520265,730758,1151,058,06373.314.01.64.66.5
190914,685,2652,378,775976,170905,930765,85674.412.15.04.63.9
191017,520,7152,344,348481,522889,603944,02179.010.62.24.04.2
191114,750,5582,165,137412,815843,310856,67077.511.42.24.44.5
191216,931,4801,660,2801,060,605900,6711,217,54577.87.64.94.15.6
191318,519,1451,791,777279,976874,1101,521,71480.67.81.23.86.6
191422,529,1491,263,553448,404927,4821,092,85985.84.81.73.54.2
191526,534,6082,149,217674,273674,5331,716,28183.66.82.12.15.4
191628,894,4221,661,650183,797734,0341,502,00487.65.00.62.24.6
191727,329,5991,274,222179,902711,1881,593,04687.94.10.62.35.1
191824,638,531479,017196,291719,5381,903,63388.21.70.72.66.8
191948,611,2401,668,314788,187698,8491,537,79491.23.11.51.32.9
192041,560,1761,103,344530,0561,262,8941,135,82491.12.41.22.82.5
192140,683,525787,591490,094884,279769,96993.31.91.12.01.7
192238,058,564850,469968,9441,066,054755,11791.32.02.32.61.8

The diagram given on the page following shows clearly the relative importance in the external trade of the main classes of exports. The most noticeable feature is the extremely high proportion of the exports supplied by the pastoral industries. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,” but in the early years of the new century fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining produce. Since 1901, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1921 it amounted to 93 per cent. of the total. The figure for the year 1922 shows a slight decrease by comparison with the previous year, this being mainly accounted for by the large increase in the amount of agricultural produce exported as compared with preceding years.

On the whole, mining products are growing less important to New Zealand, mainly because of the overwhelming increase of the pastoral products. In later years especially this tendency to diminish is noticeable.

Agricultural exports showed an abnormal increase from 1899 to 1903, the period which covers the South African War, but since then their importance has steadily declined. Their lowest level (0.6 per cent. of total exports) was reached in 1916 and 1917. The rise in the percentage for 1922 was due to large shipments of wheat and oats to the United Kingdom and Australia. It is only in exceptional years that New Zealand has any surplus available for export. Forest products, too, though steady, show a relative downward tendency, and therefore the strip representing them tapers towards the later years.

Measured by their value in money the exports of 1922 show a slight decrease of 4 per cent. as compared with the previous year. The exports of 1919 constituted a record, which was entirely due to the large increase in pastoral produce. Wool has for a number of years been the principal item of export, but the decline in the price of wool has adversely affected the value of the total exports of this commodity in the last few years. That huge sums of money have been lost to this country through lower prices ruling during the past year is easily seen when comparing the quantities and values exported during 1920 and 1922, the figures being 321,533,215 lb. in 1922, as against 162,327,176 lb. in 1920, or an increase of 159,206,039 lb. in the former, against the small increase of £18,636 in the latter —£11,863,827 to £11,882,463. Frozen meat stood at £8,387,461, a decrease of £2,776,884 when compared with the figure for the previous year.

The following table compares the exports of twelve principal items during 1921 and 1922. With the exception of wool, kauri-gum, and phormium, all of the items covered show more or less substantial decreases on the basis of aggregate values.

INCREASES OR DECREASES IN THE MAIN EXPORTS IN 1922.
Article.Value.Amount ofPercentage.
1922.1921.Increase.Decrease.Increase.Decrease.
 ££££  
Wool11,882,4635,221,4796,650,984..127-38..
Frozen meat8,387,46111,164,345..2,776,884..24.87
Butter9,041,55411,169,530..2,127,976..19.05
Cheese4,686,8508,199,183..3,512,333..42.84
Preserved milk529,6501,109,331..579,681..52.26
Tallow750,574867,298..116,724..13.46
Skins, hides, and pelts1,929,5321,980,176..50,644..2.56
Gold540,182612,168..71,986..11.76
Coal253,762109,510144,252..131.72..
Kauri-gum563,270367,197196,073..53.40..
Phormium295,530319,604..24,074..7.53
Timber479,447503,785..24,338..4.83

In 1914 a new method of classification was adopted, and both imports and experts were divided into classes. The total exports of each class in 1922 are shown in the following table:—

EXPORTS by CLASSES, 1922.
No.Class.Domestic Produce.Re-exports.
 ££ 
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)23,473,47516,795
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt675,7829,143
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic), and substances used in making up the same59326,429
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors2,91138,735
VTobacco and preparations thereof1011,762
VILive animals59,0031,925
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs13,964,1801,591
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres628,81816,135
IXAApparel3,719247,599
IXBTextiles15,999224,206
IXCManufactured fibres24,64610,900
XOils, fats, and waxes758,0009,781
XIPaints and varnishes2645,629
XIIStones and minerals used industrially826,9881,534
XIIISpecie..300
XIVAMetal (unmanufactured and partly manufactured) and ores605,5711,200
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines3,37441,156
XVMachinery and machines10,86558,519
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)1,018681
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes49,6257,147
XVIIATimber479,694427
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures2,5551,602
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials5,5777,374
XIXAPaper3547,856
XIXBStationery10,93516,963
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods19667,032
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments4033,082
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares5,59813,664
XXIIBManures5,05515,237
XXIIIMiscellaneous16,979132,697
..Parcels-post67,324..
        Totals41,699,1481,027,101

It will be seen that the great bulk of the exports fall into two classes—I, which includes butter and cheese and frozen meat; and VII, which includes wool, hides, skins, and pelts. Mineral products come under XII and XIVA, and timber under XVIIA; tallow is the main-item in X; phormium, seeds, and fungus in VIII; while the main agricultural products are included in II.

The re-exports are spread mainly over various manufactured items.

The principal items of export may conveniently be grouped under six definite heads, as in the table below.

Practically all the main commodities are homogeneous articles, and it is therefore possible to give the quantities exported. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter contain the variable element of price.

QUANTITIES OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE EXPORTED, 1918-22.
Articles.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
The mine—     
   Coal (tons)182,603138,17480,08853,183118,755
   Gold (oz.)11,987320,210212,973149,595131,848
   Silver (oz.)879,383453,567369,400480,023443,134
   Other minerals (tons)171181651548
The fisheries—     
   Fish (cwt.)8,6335,4997,8499,78513,456
   Oysters (doz.)142,80029,347121,23492,340163,911
   Whalebone (lb.)....7,0561,120..
   Whale-oil (gal.)64,940114,732115,09054,13022,365
The forest—     
   Fungus (cwt.)2,0549891,5761,6163,236
   Kauri-gum (tons)2,4194,1286,4813,9016,391
   Timber, sawn and (sup. ft.) hewn74,932,81549,726,67069,664,01445,902,62744,186,848
Pastoral products—     
   Bacon and hams (cwt.)3,4754253698471,714
   Beef and pork, salted (cwt.)4,9044,2747,5984,1533,995
   Butter (cwt.)431,023345,818312,009898,4781,120,200
   Cheese (cwt.)883,4301,572,3111,222,0501,368,7861,161,196
   Hides and skins (number)320,832440,492570,095796,025723,003
   Live-stock—     
       Cattle (number)402309508416467
      Horses (number)316134117203225
       Sheep (number)3,2511,3554,5863,0483,768
       Pigs (number)626456272502386
   Preserved meats (cwt.)74,903218,802117,55059,20343,905
   Frozen meats (cwt.)2,036,9043,822,6834,628,2824,322,7543,518,004
   Sausage-skins (cwt.)19,89922,86824,98723,44326,280
   Rabbit-skins (number)7,854,15214,340,00714,363,21613,922,44615,487,225
   Sheep skins and pelts (number)8,741,5388,501,7569,221,55223,406,9899,499,851
   Tallow (cwt.)328,420937,480540,820554,240529,900
   Wool (lb.)108,724,575274,246,613162,327,176158,714,828321,533,215
Agricultural products—     
   Bran and sharps (tons)2755432771242,346
   Chaff (tons)24957519716656
   Flour (tons)1,5412,8764,42811122
   Grain—     
       Barley (centals)41270563619,72973,796
       Beans and peas (centals)54,297252,892116,712125,485112,828
       Oats (centals)1,30057,93190,811172,589274,272
       Wheat (centals)674974455277727,698
   Hops (cwt.)2,0102,2141,6162,0991,970
   Oatmeal (tons)877828939
   Potatoes (tons)4403,6031,3021,216788
   Seeds (grass and clover) (cwt.)15,99549,90623,82137,31970,120
Miscellaneous—     
   Ale and beer (gal.)12,78216,30315,6828,51913,865
   Cordage (cwt.)7,3593,3549,0326,4166,709
   Leather (cwt.)2,2284,4333,1022,6293,742
   Phormium fibre and (tons) tow26,98225,60922,07511,16711,425
   Soap (cwt.)7,3616,5888,2734,6846,050

The values of these principal commodities are tabulated in the following table, and the statement of exports is rendered complete by the addition of miscellaneous groups and the provision of totals for each group and for all combined.

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES EXPORTED, 1918-22.
Articles.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
The mine—£££££
   Coal227,228201,383128,509109,510253,762
   Gold42,3911,334,405883,748612,168540,182
   Silver171,456103,03787,66565,64755,222
   Other minerals37,94229,4893,4222661,303
         Totals479,0171,668,3141,103,344787,591850,469
The fisheries—     
  Fish19,20217,42527,52234,33743,356
   Oysters1,1143421,3239651,713
   Whalebone....3,100244..
   Whale-oil12,61822,90823,3047,5052,310
   Other2540229916544
       Totals32,95941,07755,54843,21647,423
The forest—     
   Fungus6,7842,5238,41312,85222,271
   Kauri-gum157,313255,812556,756367,197563,270
   Timber556,309439,935697,608503,785479,447
   Other1325791174451,066
       Totals719,538698,8491,262,894884,2791,066,054
Pastoral products—     
   Bacon and hams21,9012,9933,3125,7958,789
   Beef and pork, salted13,86211,78722,8812,1777,359
   Butter3,402,2233,080,1283,02211,169,5309,041,554
   Cheese4,087,2787,790,9906,160,8408,199,1834,686,850
   Hides and skins532,510969,4831,142,006575,222505,708
   Live-stock—     
      Cattle16,7438,91416,79811,96312,046
      Horses29,54427,7156,71627,22433,747
      Sheep16,9337,31129,02525,80711,152
      Pigs4,3503,1001,9672,2961,278
      Other1,0338858131,380780
   Preserved milk and cream341,797579,266795,6121,109,331529,650
   Preserved meats420,1791,283,218538,571273,691160,819
   Frozen meats4,957,5769,628,29211,673,69611,164,3458,387,461
   Sausage-skins257,871324,001454,280447,873467,981
   Rabbit-skins299,765775,118830,024448,180567,864
   Sheep skins and pelts1,813,5891,694,8673,060,212956,774855,960
   Tallow847,6182,680,0061,748,778867,298750,574
   Wool7,527,26619,559,53711,863,8275,221,47911,882,463
   Other46,493183,629189,81164,077146,529
       Totals24,638,53148,611,24041,560,17640,683,52538,058,564
Agricultural products—     
   Bran and sharps1,8274,5552,9541,37316,201
   Chaff3,1555,8752,5241,532495
   Flour29,34153,18854,9422,784526
   Fruits3071,72914,68523,34165,890
   Grain and pulse—     
      Barley3074815959,47729,644
      Beans and peas71,282319,516151,162120,317103,370
      Oats87233,67152,50284,43491,991
      Wheat460679388243316,528
      Other1,2403,9736,1651,249771
   Hops11,23416,30116,75119,14218,455
   Oatmeal2,0833,2671,062267845
   Onions2,0996,01812,9552,1508,162
   Potatoes4,27938,71812,8069,1136,351
   Seeds (grass and clover)42,215249,886147,369156,114285,451
   Seeds (various)24,37249,12750,27556,86222,579
   Other1,2181,2032,9211,6961,685
       Totals196,291788,187530,05690,088968,944
Miscellaneous (including manufactures—     
   Ale and beer1,4422,5082,3902,0502,833
   Apparel92,814136,0456,0264,1552,854
   Cement7,6516,9762,27811,9565,017
   Cordage26,63010,52529,93521,09724,364
   Foods, Infants' and invalids61215..18
   Leather28,09564,64551,94059,56242,675
   Phormium fibre and tow1,408,147907,584688,972319,604295,530
   Soap14,72414,06921,69311,60812,921
   Sugar19,23826,69916,43820,7069,428
   Woollen manufactures10,6328,8662,4049,08814,630
   Other261,295318,788258,185266,927297,624
       Totals1,870,6741,496,7171,080,276726,763707,694
       Total exports (domestic produce)27,937,01053,304,38445,592,29443,615,45841,699,148
   Specie35,61062,15036,650367300
   Re-exports543,568603,541813,0721,213,0021,026,801
       Total exports28,516,18853,970,07546,441,94644,828,82742,726,249

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the -developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865 70 per cent., and even in 1871 44 per cent., of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines with the United Kingdom the Mother-land has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875-1914 £365,880,997 (or almost exactly 80 per cent.) of a grand total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the war, did not vary greatly from year to year, but there have naturally been considerable variations since 1914, the most notable being the marked fall in 1918. Exports destined for the United Kingdom have, however, been considerably in advance of this percentage during the last two years, reaching as they did in 1921 and 1922 86 and 85 per cent. respectively.

The total amount sent to Australia fluctuates considerably from year to year, rising if the products of the Commonwealth are reduced by drought. The proportion of New Zealand's exports sent to Australia has declined considerably during the twenty years covered by the table on the next page.

Exports to Canada have increased enormously during the twenty years, rising from £2,421 in 1903 to £1,793,576 in 1918; but the figures show a great falling-off during the last four years—indeed, the amount for the year 1922 is the lowest value of exports to that country since 1911. Even before the war Canada had become an important market for New Zealand's produce, having taken exports to the value of £606,662 in 1913, as compared with £199,587 two years earlier and only £24,051 in 1908.

Exports to the Pacific islands have risen steadily in total value, and have increased slightly as a proportion of total exports.

The value of exports to the States fluctuated considerably up to 1912, with no definite indication of an increase. In 1913 and 1914, however, there was a substantial rise as compared with earlier years, and the war and earlier post-war years witnessed a huge further increase Although the United States still occupies second place to the United Kingdom in the Dominion's export trade, the figures for 1921 and 1922 show that the value of articles sent to that country is now rapidly falling.

Prior to the war Germany's position in the export table was similar to that of Canada, exports having risen from £17,584 in 1903 to £205,931 in 1910 and £456,163 in 1914. The total value of exports sent direct to Germany during the year 1921 was £46,162, and in 1922 £218,338.

The high totals for 1918 and 1919 shown for “other countries” are mainly due to temporary heavy exports to Egypt and, in the former year, to France. Exports to Japan vary considerably from year to year, and it is rarely that the value exceeds the £100,000 mark. The total value of exportations in 1922 was £211,159, and is the highest amount ever credited to that country.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.Pacific Islands.United States.Germany.Other Countries.*Total.

* The principal other countries are Hong Kong, Straits Settlements, India, France, Egypt, Java, and Japan.

 ££££££££
190311,345,0752,233,9962,421160,133669,64917,584581,52015,010,378
190411,876,2731,817,62215,961166,767598,92123,931248,87314,748,348
190512,087,8182,294,97151,329170,210716,30138,958296,36015,655,947
190614,047,1762,882,52229,815188,755642,79254,952249,12518,095,137
190716,533,4932,221,26078,015186,839714,06366,489268,79820,068,957
190813,143,7802,103,16124,051203,581326,41540,191476,31516,317,494
190916,193,1881,918,115180,975258,164684,81077,969348,77519,661,996
191018,633,1182,010,751160,842296,244553,603205,931319,72022,180,209
191115,134,7432,515,168199,587324,306434,586170,493249,60719,028,490
191216,861,2562,848,664542,271338,621620,988254,703304,07821,770,581
191318,130,1602,315,747606,662295,032912,051337,448389,62222,986,722
191421,383,8911,928,410595,611326,0251,028,054456,163543,29326,261,447
191525,389,0302,548,605925,813499,0632,006,5074379,89031,748,912
191626,869,9882,191,545691,986368,0692,493,9875671,35733,286,937
191726,023,3961,460,980961,653540,3801,894,3176706,81531,587,547
191818,244,2501,803,7391,793,576511,8424,045,648..2,117,13328,516,188
191944,312,0482,249,827980,190548,1124,200,861..1,679,03753,970,075
192034,354,3002,351,7991,357,774718,2837,456,04123203,72646,441,946
192138,716,5932,070,013454,597517,3632,702,10446,162321,99544,828,827
192236,154,1742,208,280446,457399,3782,672,775218,338626,84742,726,249

Included in the exports to the United Kingdom are considerable quantities of produce which are shipped to London merely as a convenient depot, and which are re transferred to the Continent or to America. The total re-exports in normal pre-war years amounted to about £4,000,000 annually, but the amount fell, under war conditions, to £2,408,737 in 1915 and £565,529 in 1918, rising again to £1,691,168 in 1919, and still further to £3,578,617 in 1920. The figure for the year 1921 totalled £2,709,249.

The largest item in the re-exports is wool, which, to the value of nearly £2,000,000 annually, was redistributed in pre-war years from London to the manufacturing centres of Belgium, northern France, and Germany. This amounted to a big proportion of the Dominion's wool exports, averaging about 25 per cent.

The bulk of the kauri-gum, more than one-half of the phormium, and three-fourths of the sheep-skins were usually re-exported in pre-war years.

The principal items of New Zealand produce re-exported from the United Kingdom in 1921 were—

 £
Wool889,170
Frozen meat645,807
Rabbit-skins311,370
Sheep-skins187,109
Preserved milk114,604
Hemp101,665
Tallow93,774
Butter and cheese84,220
Oleomargarine43,583
Kauri-gum37,596
Sausage-skins26,823

The following table shows the exports for the five years ending with 1922, according to the countries of destination. The British possessions and protectorates are stated first, according to geographical order, followed by foreign countries in the same order.

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1918-22.
Country.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
 £££££
United Kingdom118,244,25044,312,04834,354,30038,716,59336,154,174
British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.     
Europe—     
    Gibraltar32330..
    Malta47457..
 506837..
Asia—     
   Ceylon99247810,24528,01934,752
   Hong Kong5,05212,26328,96413,19223,457
   India57,293328,87449,75642,917172,046
   Straits Settlements1,12428,20742,343130,49652,056
   Other172783197166
   64,478369,849131,391214,821282,477
Africa—     
   Egypt1,211,7221,059,5833,86712135
   South African Union7182,2415,5712,90817,993
   Other1753778016474
 1,212,6151,062,2019,5183,19118,102
America—     
   British West Indies17121,889155
   Canada1,793,576980,1901,357,774454,597446,457
   Other11192688
   1,793,688980,2061,357,812456,494446,620
Pacific islands—     
   Australia1,803,7392,249,8272,351,7992,070,0132,208,280
   Fiji136,076140,835203,568151,96595,044
   Tonga107,310167,215187,438103,04559,012
   Western Samoa84,24193,062173,347127,91766,443
   Other6,9687,3147,6896,2777,408
   2,138,3342,658,2532,923,8412,459,2172,436,187
Foreign Countries and Possessions.     
Europe—     
   Belgium150575,0108,048
   France810,00798,57320314,89360,595
   Germany....2346,162218,338
   Italy4670,813692,50222,514
   Netherlands..44472,4635,174
   Norway9,95899681718
   Switzerland12,1134034,927494
   Other8,398832552911,468
   828,411172,6721,06576,265316,649
Asia—     
   China33532,77935,2248424,876
   Japan5,4158,1784,90420,149211,159
   Java3,0278292,37522,33258
   Sumatra..431,1394,1422,000
   Other7731,1312971,1841,036
   8,85472,96043,93948,649219,129
   Africa471252,633
America—     
   Argentina11234,4134,772438
   Chile1,6971,27713,35718,30840
   United States of America4,045,6484,200,8617,450,0412,702,1042,672,775
   Other9012682015,554
   4,048,2574,202,1877,473,8192,725,3852,678,807
Pacific islands—     
   Hawaii7662,04611,92862,16499,639
   Society Islands118,865123,169123,66356,63557,241
   Tutuila4,3601,9434,1716,69512,655
   Other53,25612,5286,4793,1631,936
   177,247139,686146,241128,657171,471

In the following table exports during 1922 have been grouped in accordance with the classification adopted by the British Board of Trade in many of its tables. As might be expected from the large value of butter, cheese, and frozen meat exported, food is the largest of the five divisions, raw materials (other than foodstuffs), which had up to recent years occupied first position, coming next. Many of the most important items in the former class are raw materials also, and the table is a further illustration of the fact that New Zealand is essentially a primary-producing country. Exports of articles wholly or mainly manufactured constituted in 1922 only 4.25 per cent. of the total. A similar table given in the “Imports" subsection of this book shows that the reverse is the case in respect of imports— namely, a preponderance of manufactured goods received into the Dominion.

Countries.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified (including Parcels-post).Bullion and Specie.Total.
 ££££££
United Kingdom22+849,21512,223,084924,378155,1152,38236,154,174
British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.      
Asia—      
    British North Borneo Protectorate......24..24
    Burma......2..2
    Ceylon45....0334,61434,752
    Hong Kong82222,43116044..23,457
    India1,249..1,076723168,998172,046
    Malay States......140..140
    Straits Settlements51,933....123..52,056
Africa—      
    Anglo-Egytptian Sudan......4..4
    British East Africa Protectorate......22..22
    Egypt......35..35
    South African Union12,8993183,5251,251..17,993
    Southern Rhodesia......48..48
America—      
    British Guiana......8..8
    British West Indies152....3..155
    Canada205,411225,4330369,577..446,457
Pacific Islands—      
    Australia348,3711,032,847701,261114,39511,4062,208,280
    Fanning Island4851475....961
    Fiji41,5617,63239,3466,505..95,044
    Gilbert and Eilice Islands......1..1
    Nauru (Pleasant) Island8..93....101
    Norfolk Island83....28..111
    Ocean Island..1,278......1,278
    Papua354....3..357
    Pitcairn Island......44..44
    Solomon Islands Protectorate2,2085861,68576..4,555
    Tonga27,3701,68827,3942,26030059,012
    Western Samoa36,7903,81624,870967..66,443
Foreign Countries and Possessions.      
Europe—      
   Austria......39..39
    Belgium..7,971671..8,048
    Bulgaria......11..11
    Czcho-Slovakia......25..25
    Denmark......50..50
    France..59,341921,162..60,595
    Germany17,604199,847575312..218,338
    Hungary......31..31
    Italy34522,0226384..22,514
    Jugo-Slavia......33..33
    Netherlands..4,55358239..5,174
    Norway......18..18
    Portugal......1..1
    Russia......76..76
    Spain......111..111
    Sweden..1,0002071..1,091
    Switzerland....296198..494
Asia—      
    Asiatic Turkey....15096..246
    China4,383..80413..4,876
    Japan123,40686,2431,352158..211,159
    Java40....18..58
    Minor Dutch East Indies724....12..736
    Philippine islands....3618..54
    Sumatra2,000........2,000
Africa—      
    Portuguese East Africa....2,606....2,606
    Tunis......27..27
America—      
    Argentina......438..438
    Bolivia......4..4
    Brazil......2..2
    Chile29....11..40
    United States of America407,8491,728,08142,994138,907354,9442,672,775
    Uruguay750..8963,902..5,548
Pacific islands—      
    Hawaii85,246..14,228165..99,639
    New Caledonia......1..1
    New Hebrides1,1765967225..1,932
    Society Islands31,32026220,3005,357257,241
    Tuamotu Archipelago3........3
    Tutuila1,80110,756908..12,655
        Totals24,255,63215,639,2491,815,337443,385572,64642,726,240

More detailed information as to principal exports to the various countries is given in the following pages:—

PRINCIPAL ARTICLES EXPORTED TO VARIOUS COUNTRIES, 1918-22.
Class.Item.Article.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
United Kingdom.
   £££££
11Butter3,266,2962,994,9642,630,23410,953,9418,758,471
 3Casein4,93760,12262,250108,07867,766
 4Cheese3,902,4877,526,0286,147,0238,191,2334,679,348
 14Honey5,81459,2349,08527,99046,336
 16Bacon17,403..2584953
  Meats, poultry, and game—     
 19    Beef, frozen923,0011,056,6391,701,3251,706,180535,772
 24    Kidneys, frozen21,39454,75235,07236,06739,546
 25    Lamb, whole carcases, frozen1,168,2213,037,3571,915,7444,597,5804,966,867
 27    Meat-extract2,59316,92210,9303,1484,648
 28    Mutton, whole carcases, frozen1,560,8374,396,81315,394.0764,468.3592,644,818
 29    Mutton, joints, frozen30,64438,31642,18344,24332,770
 30    Pork, frozen......20,28834,640
 32    Potted and preserved284,1131,040,062380,931150,59287,275
 34    Rabbits, frozen in the skins52,78539,8335,28616,4656,823
 35    Rabbits, frozen, other kinds..7,81310,55013,0055,093
 36    Sausage casings and skins2548,27520,77556,98044,463
 37    Veal, frozen9,0118,80912333,7511,557
 38    Other kinds, frozen30,525163,38659,91531,59921,307
 40AMilk, dried248,636475,759689,203960,971457,518
 40BMilk and cream, preserved, condensed, or evaporated19,13235,55428,42410
  Fruits—     
II59    Bottled and preserved in syrup..12,9621,4832,21142
 67    Apples, fresh....13,96519,19860,344
  Grain and pulse, unprepared—     
 79    Beans and peas58,182289,125103,412100,49985,398
 81    Oats..1,09039,55282,15242,731
 83    Wheat2......190,976
 103Jams, jellies, and preserves11,66863,9022,6912,15549
  Hides, pelts and skins, undressed—£££££
VII193   calf..578427,48255,10915,944
 194    Cattle121,60633,99774,60981,50131,592
 196    Rabbit11,20497,743457,084247,081319,297
 198    Sheep, with wool......10,410104,797
 199    Sheep, without wool17,661499,685672,598367,665294,137
  Wool—     
 204    Greasy3,811,13611,888,0136,983,0923,130,0116,844,265
 205    Scoured855,1163,510,3852,778,754633,1181,947,752
 206Sliped856,3083,075,7962,080,747974,1852,197,797
 207Washed73,62327,41019,0843,6028,583
VIII208Copra..13,01530,2025,6679,717
 216Phormium tenax178,829427,870181,983103,11985,849
 217Rags2,75116,21313,3381,8292,049
 218Tow..19,2674,902..920
 223Seeds, grass and clover3,034170,23364,02871,368117,244
IXa234Apparel n.e.i.78,659125,8332,05012,7468,707
IXb283Piece-goods, silks, satins, velvets, &c.74783,83215,3691,941
 286Piece-goods, woollen3221743,30438,92061,594
  Tallow—     
X340    Refined92,243398,372162,62194,70391,399
 341    Unrefined106,7291,688,9901,047,474726,808640,867
XII357Coal, bunker121,182137,34160,92790,728202,640
 360Kauri-gum Gold—4,19894,856109,984134,502123,423
XIVa384    Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet..339,210101,7291,285..
 397Metals, scrap (except Iron and steel), not being precious8,8424,4663,9925707,145
 400Scheelite37,92229,4891,378..528
 401Silver..6,46214,98015,5692,382
  Leather—     
XVIa581    Calf-skins, whole......19,896..
 587    Hide-leathers, crust or rough tanned, but undressed4,96424,3901,453.. 
 588    Dressed..22,991..23,73711,870
 592    Sole, pump, and skirt leather..27,2432,73431,20228,193
XXIIA788Sugar of milk18,59620,572....2,078
....Parcels-post97,01545,98434,64142,30035,133
India.
XIVa384Gold—Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet....23,884..166,104
 401Silver—Bar, ingot, and sheet53,4949,43724,10417,3302,894
Ceylon.
XIVa401Silver....9,91024,61434,614
Straits Settlements.
140Milk and cream, dried, preserved, condensed, &c...1,06328,35688,56951,740
Hong Kong.
VIII220Fungus4,5592,5187,91312,85222,271
Egypt.
I1Butter14,0219,3803,620....
 4Cheese180,718186,396......
 19Beef, frozen736,534713,733......
 28Mutton, whole carcases, frozen237,63350,355......
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.24,3585,011......
Canada.
I1Butter102,90754,753271,67882,90891,777
 13Gelatine3,76011,31722,2133,7344,175
  Meats—     
 19    Beef, frozen....6,8311,827122
 25    Lamb, whole carcases, frozen52,61125,32885,28919,6997,586
 28    Mutton, whole carcases, frozen118,47123,12249,417146897
 32    Potted and preserved13,7598944,03914,1773,386
 36Sausage casings and skins50,46253,49495,59966,21088,199
  Hides, pelts and skins, undressed—     
VII193    Calf10,77547,262105,35035,40314,881
 194    Cattle224,984299,519232,43959,79477,151
 196    Rabbit96,41088,66528,1567,1361,701
 198    Sheep, with wool......1,5998,523
 199    Sheep, without wool79,358118,889225,22443,67419,324
 Wool—£££££
VII204   Greasy382,314....50,64954,608
 205   Scoured19,6614,138..2,10622,268
 206   Slipped170,015....26,65915,700
VIII216Phormium tenax89,87660,18467,2172,715..
 223Seeds, grass and clover3068,5591,9001,7398,408
X841Tallow, unrefined275,513116,84126,145....
XII357Coal, bunker8,26610,703783..2,267
 360Kauri-gum81,49743,38753,1487,9398,931
Australia.
I1Butter3,7915816,37131083,847
 4Cheese1,7041,0575,6404,7346,214
 10Fish, fresh or preserved by cold process (other than oysters)13,6437,25713,99825,18636,154
 11Fish, preserved in tins or other4,18011,72313,3869,25112,030
 ..airtight vessels..........
 13Gelatine16,5253,37614577105
 30Pork, frozen37,076......13,315
 32Meats, potted and preserved..13,8837,25218,10615,779
 36Sausage and skins6,2284,2568,3093,4527,338
 40Milk cream, preserved, condensed, &c.59,45267,24126,57816,6003,923
  Grain and pulse, unprepared—     
II79Beans and peas12,56521,32632,97918,93217,523
 81Oats7631,39810,6601,13047,465
 101Hops10,6648,6629,43416,49917,593
 135Potatoes1829,6884149..
IV158Whisky15,6234,5815,2067,04423,387
VI175Cattle for stud purposes11,8544,3559,0095,9317,150
 176Horses, ordinary20,62023,75210,78323,80124,459
 183Sheep for breeding purposes9,6101,6431,7421,4101,712
  Hides, pelts and skins, undressed—     
VII193Calf31,11722,08140,97748,215115,930
 194Cattle125,335288,976435,399259,370198,861
 199Sheep, without wool14,6963,91616,26412,43955,911
  Wool—     
 204Greasy8,272..319,4125,190
 206Sliped30,585......276
VIII216Phormium tenax218,507133,461225,002161,17499,700
 218Tow19,73021,33235,12725,79329,426
  Seeds—     
 223   Grass and clover22,28956,60744,30545,22128,153
 224   Linseed14,69035,91938,17448,73314,698
 225   Other8,52516,14415,6207,8257,041
IXa234Apparel n.e.i.1,6061,5273,71629,64850,030
  Textiles—     
 253   Hosiery3647513,3307,134160,759
IXB278   Piece goods n.e.i.2,65612,82520,95428,70922,336
 283   Silks, satins, velvets, &c.3593,98792414,3248,697
 286   Woollen n.e.i., of pure or mixed wool54,5541,95412,07961,444
 288Woollen rugs4,5113,8011,5563,4719,329
IXc302Twine, binder21,2416,14314,61016,70221,791
X318Oil, whale12,61412,77523,3047,5012,310
 341Tallow, unrefined3,99812,94236,31029,340240
  Coal—     
XII357    Bunker28,09222,01424,76414,91611,264
 358    Cargo3,41110,58127,32115,89416,690
 360Kauri-gum4,8951,9564,1537,9006,742
 367Pumice-sand5,2382,7327,0056,9618,156
  Gold—     
XIVA384    Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet27,009548,3162,4861,902357
 385    Concentrates, slimes, tailings,&c.15,97210,5608,9784,1064,739
 401Silver115,71153,7101,7137,10611,049
XIVb474Tinned sheets753,18239,7254,9432,857
 495Metal manufactures n.e.i.1,7542,2024,9834,7695,013
XV511Agricultural implements n.e.i.1,5931,5113,0213,2287,278
 570Machinery and machines n.e.i.6,8633,8812,8634,0675,383
  Timber—     
XVIIA605    Flitches, other than kauri18,3141,4264,503244..
      Sawn, n.e.i., rough—     
 632        Beechwood11,0408,5642,57812,57610,166
 635        Kauri55,77748,69311,12740,91146,346
 636        New Zealand white-pine231,358250,857515,781353,350353,745
 638        Rimu or red-pine196,49998,647124,80866,11440,560
 639        Other14,91217,09731,62524,9205,780
XVIII666Cement, building, Portland, and other structural....67,2751
XIXB698Books, papers, and music, printed4+3143+9496+25913+46011+020
XX714Jewellery—Precious stones, unmounted..64+73071+284135+61458+114
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope1052041812+1644+770
  Vehicles, motor, for road traffic, and materials therefor—     
XXIII893Cars, motor..5+25611,69416,44437,097
 895Rubber tires, covers, and tubes2,2376,42440,78227,725 
 902Miscellaneous, manufactured6231,86633,48033,23326,102
....Parcels-post13,87116,97342,71823,35718,060
Fiji.
I1Butter3,9667,54111,7346,2426,580
 32Meats, potted and preserved17,49315,65827,07718,2018,425
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.1,9133,7255,3963,6863,832
 52Confectionery, unenumerated5861,1301,2851,5721,267
II86Bran9263,0581,374284207
 87Flour, wheaten16114,61915,7841,0107
 130Sugar, refined4,3644,7184,6594,9383,381
 135Potatoes2,1966,1077,0846,3294,161
 149Tea, bulk1,1482,6623,7001,7991,057
IXa234Apparel n.e.i.1,1971,1332,5991,9761,029
IXb278Piece-goods—Cotton n.e.i...7,70231,9745,7771,860
 286Woollen piece-goods n.e.i.1,209911,2171,6652,972
IXc295Bags and jute and hessian1,4271,29035013,7418,245
X341Tallow, unrefined4,0373,8379,2102,4412,820
  Coal—     
XII357    Bunker6,9345,8431214691,220
 358    Cargo1302,09624,2293,272
  Timber—     
      Sawn, n.e.i., dressed—     
XVIIA628        Kauri4,1691,1724791,0422,245
      Sawn, n.e.i., rough—     
 635        Kauri11,6283,859391295542
XVIII666Cement, building, Portland, and other structural4,1993,8301,6252,2841,087
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films1,6701,4627062,7206,635
 ..Parcels-post1,2211,5362,8632,4612,021
Tonga (Friendly Islands).
I1Butter2,2432,7834,7023,8791,987
 11Fish, preserved in tins1,7665,9405,041877324
 20Beef, salted3,7533,2457,0323,1261,730
 32Meats, potted and preserved17,56521,65244,26730,39813,136
 41Provisions n.e.i.1,1351,5332,5941,8381,346
II43Biscuits, ships' plain1,5331,7221,2591,275561
 87Flour, wheaten4734,8522,83122650
 130Sugar, refined1,9424,8532,5705,5202,593
IXA234Apparel n.e.i.7812,3204,2932,4331,505
IXb278Cotton piece-goods n.e.i.16,46514,66519,29411,4446,088
IXC301Cordage and rope n.c.i.1,2981,3152,9611,6561,212
X324Oil, kerosene2,3156381,1091,4151,881
XIII375Silver (specie)25,75061,15025,460300300
 ..Parcels-post* 7111,1971,9441,4871,262
Western Samoa.
I1Butter3,7884,3925,3115,0273,482
 11Fish, preserved in tins1,1832,4054,337697505
  Meats—     
 20    Beef, salted7,4336,96412,8597,7625,156
 32    Potted and preserved17,18713,41529,17028,76216,490
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.1,2161,6402,8902,6811,626
II54Chaff2,6143,3761,5791,05989
 130Sugar, refined1,5687,0175,7776,1131,329
IXa234Apparel n.e.i.1,5971,9932,8901,8671,632
IXb278Piece-goods—Cotton n.e.i.7,52310,36025,0045,6102,850
XIVb422Hardware and Ironmongery1,0978274,1932,2821,161
XXIIA765Medicinal preparations, &c.7659492,7431,8671,093
XXIII875Soap, common bar1,8972,8974,8583,1042,522
Belgium.
VII204Wool, greasy......3,4037,611
France.
  Wool—     
VII204    Greasy767,23798,243..14,38658,337
 206    Sliped9,639........
X341Tallow, unrefined26,597........
Germany.
I19Beef+ frozen........17,604
VII204Wool, greasy......39,533195,383
Italy.
VII204Wool, greasy......18821,573
Norway.
VIII216Phormium tenax9,957........
Russia.
X341Tallow, unrefined8,381........
Switzerland.
....Parcels-post11,5331682,672198
Japan.
I83Wheat........121,632
VII204Wool, greasy......15,30486,038
Java
XIV495Metal manufactures n.e.i.3,023817..100..
United States.
I1Butter....67,778102,98335,112
 3Casein....14,1122,03316,462
 25Lamb, whole carcases, frozen..1,0842,053,3269,65216,718
 28Mutton, whole carcases, frozen....307,485111,216..
 32Meats, potted and preserved10,32359,69517,413918..
 36Sausage casings and skins204,783218,695335,383322,056330,621
II79Beans and peas41713,09014,24073731
  Hides, pelts and skins, undressed—     
VII193    Calf..5,78427,48255,10915,944
 194    Cattle16,614264,668207,50429,21949,448
 196    Rabbit191,977587,021338,269188,295245,202
 199    Sheep, without wool1,701,8743772,147,889532,977486,554
  Wool—     
 204    Greasy542,772885,392..269,353394,268
 206    Sliped88..2,14417,54719,293
VIII208Copra1,5483,4285,135....
 216Phormium tenax890,594240,501173,07726,16779,524
 223Seeds, grass and clover16,54725,67539,71442,272134,682
X319Benzine..12..61,44210
 326Motor-spirit n.e.i...113..9
  Tallow—     
 340    Refined66,82490,714156,410....
 341    Unrefined259,540318,162310,2308,8438,701
XII357Coal, bunker18,06317,36115,0851,3755,683
 360Kauri-gum66,723115,613389,467214,383416,164
XIVa384Gold—Bar, dust, Ingot, and sheet..234,998718,899602,308354,944
....Parcels-post2,3774,0458,6256,4154,087
Argentina.
VI183Sheep for breeding purposes....4,4002,579400
Chile.
VI183Sheep for breeding purposes....13,01318,015..
Hawaii (Sandwich Islands).
I1Butter242043,0478,42049,542
 19Beef, Frozen....6838,12723,692
 32Meats, potted and preserved..544,531552,758
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c...3502,2663628
Society Islands.
I1Butter4,6865,9647,3324,3145,313
 32Meats, potted and preserved18,58716,13421,6698,63410,387
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.4,9895,7906,9054,9635,693
II43Biscuits, ships' plain3,8491,959849529682
 87Flour, wheaten28,07131,20333,818789300
  Sugar—     
 129    Raw2,5613,2943,2102,193725
 130    Refined4,3355,8863,2704,4341,907
 135Potatoes8481,1471,3138291,001
VI174Cattle, ordinary4,1723,7603,8261,5022,458
 179Pigs, ordinary3,1272,2281,704628..
IXb278Piece-goods, cotton, n.e.i.1,1312,2651,9548414,418
IXc301Cordage and rope n.e.i.1,1081,1281,565458560
XII357Coal, bunker3,15311,690......
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films1,4431,0108605,8701,206
XXIII875Soap, common bar9,3969,16312,6915,6958,560
Tutuila.
I32Meats, potted and preserved2,0481,1771,6812,5531,775
XII358Coal, cargo....1,3712,44210,076
Guam.
  Coal—     
XII357    Bunker10,4221,199......
 358    Cargo18,4312,103......

In order to show at a glance the destinations of the main items of export, tables are appended showing the details for five years for each of the principal articles.

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS, 1918-22.
Country to which exported.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Wool.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom80,502,867258,388,501162,301,559145,385,964292,176,127
Canada8,191,76949,661..2,353,9782,537,316
France11,328,1941,482,037..698,6712,529,840
Germany......1,477,1317,060,931
Japan......1,068,2925,001,918
United States of America8,178,68813,294,50825,5317,241,05110,775,092
Other countries523,0571,031,90672489,7411,451,991
     Totals108,724,575274,246,613162,327,162158,714,828321,533,215
Frozen Meat.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom1,537,6713,469,8423,747,9654,241,0743,471,435
Canada70,67118,67150,5945,4493,209
Pacific islands6035561,16221,91219,085
Australia275....33,412
Germany........15,352
United States of America6381,888829,56154,3165,511
Egypt427,034331,724......
     Totals2,036,8923,822,6814,629,2824,322,7543,518,004
Butter.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom415,250336,606282,679878,7371,081,512
Canada11,8936,00019,5269,52514,083
Pacific islands1,4952,1263,0332,1996,933
Australia43661,5282410,225
United States of America....4,8437,8995,762
Other countries1,0491,080400941,685
     Totals431,023345,818312,009898,4781,120,200
Cheese.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom844,1981,517,1021,220,4091,368,0511,160,285
Pacific islands233273362309196
Australia256105539360661
Egypt38,64639,796......
Other countries11215,0797606661
     Totals883,4451,572,3551,222,0701,368,7861,161,203
Country to which exported.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Tallow.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom3,52936,17019,46425,95625,668
Australia962404261,0848
Canada5,8722,261390....
United States of America6,0186,9856,582415500
Other countries9061,218179257319
     Totals16,42146,87427,04127,71226,495
Hides (Horse and Cattle).
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom53,8489,99621,61061,51622,688
Canada82,94289,01365,75344,15049,719
Australia65,736118,506135,692194,545134,947
United States of America6,434103,93664,66329,24233,549
Other countries..438400....
     Totals208,960321,889288,118329,453240,903
Calf-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom....8001,5521,606
Canada18,84657,565133,017112,37551,035
Australia87,39241,62377,069162,465857,524
United States of America..7,61340,371164,30854,398
Other countries..6..12..
     Totals106,238106,807251,257440,712454,563
Rabbit-skins.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom254,8683,032,1889,578,7788,285,4878,801,683
Canada2,871,9801,633,067271,782150,48645,990
Australia52,91739,485113,524111,68260,320
United States of America4,674,3879,635,2674,399,1325,369,0916,561,230
Other countries......5,70018,002
     Totals7,854,15214,340,00714,363,21613,922,44615,487,225
Sheep Skins and Pelts.
 Number.Number.Number.Number.Number.
United Kingdom65,1632,638,3782,777,0643,016,2893,769,803
Canada340,620530,492681,609446,727276,680
Australia123,37022,46653,353149,852720,887
United States of America8,212,3855,310,4205,715,7304,823,3235,376,226
Other countries......2071,257
     Totals8,741,5388,501,7569,227,7568,436,39810,144,853
Sausage Casings and Skins.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
United Kingdom498386,574249,400427,439513,275
Canada395,010396,189545,386889,009469,535
Australia230,243244,429178,303112,710178,120
United States of America1,635,2201,538,6331,858,4891,686,9251,791,735
Other countries59127079818,62110,459
     Totals2,261,5622,566,0952,832,3762,634,7042,963,124
Beans and Peas.
 Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.
United Kingdom44,512230,49275,748106,34495,536
Australia10,25415,98732,25518,60716,785
United States of America4489,2948,27250041
Other countries20458492108593
     Totals55,418255,831116,767125,559112,955
Seeds (Grass and Clover).
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
United Kingdom77824,2895,77112,63538,219
Canada1401,8173645182,312
Australia10,65918,15313,14918,63911,551
United States of America4,4157,0084,8116,29818,557
Other countries340182524
     Totals15,99551,30724,14338,11570,663
Gold.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom7082,00924,9696183,168
India..40,3505,670..39,545
Strats Settlements..5,370......
Hong Kong..2,0394,722....
Canada....1,08431..
Australia11,917133,2203,6192,2561,668
United States..57,222172,908146,69087,467
     Totals11,987320,210212,972149,595131,848
Coal.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom90,01085,29930,57036,01587,094
Canada4,9595,947412..960
Australia26,77326,49640,65419,31517,442
Fiji4,8716,109912,8332,926
Pacific Islands (other than Fiji)6,08510,5304,3362,3648,057
United States of America16,52712,4868,8211,1002,754
“Guam”29,3723,125......
Other countries4,006301150750..
     Totals182,603150,29385,03462,377119,233
Kauri-gum.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom691,7711,8511,8751,824
Canada1,16770374665129
United States of America1,1271,6353,8501,8724,191
Other countries56193489247
     Totals2,4194,1286,4813,9016,391
Phormium Fibre.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
United Kingdom3,28610,9115,3653,1933,053
Canada1,5721,4891,85376..
Australia4,5563,7646,6775,5563,803
United States of America15,5686,0595,0468182,871
Other countries1851248....
     Totals25,16722,34718,9499,6439,727
Timber (Sawn and Hewn).
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
United Kingdom45,80073,65744,39349,454147,889
Australia72,965,07148,807,93269,281,24645,712,40343,743,950
Fiji1,301,936394,891113,29167,90087,906
Pacific islands (other than Fiji)619,708290,532227,56799,852219,452
Other countries3005,268..3,2744,674
     Totals74,932,81549,572,28069,666,40745,932,95344,203,871

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30th JUNE.

New Zealand's exports consist almost wholly of seasonal products, and the calendar year often splits the seasons. The largest export, wool, is sheared from the sheep in the early summer, and the wool-sales are held in December and January, Exports of any season's wool-clip are therefore divided between one year and the next in varying proportion. A favourable season or a sudden demand may cause a great increase of exports in the December quarter, with the result that the March quarter of the next year shows low figures. The wool trade invariably bases its calculations on each season's clip, not on calendar years.

The same argument holds good in the case of butter and cheese, which are almost wholly exported in December and March quarters. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, since this division does not split the seasonal production of any main commodity, and more truly shows the results of each season as compared with previous seasons. The following table gives this information for the principal items of export during each of the last five “June" years:—

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE FROM NEW ZEALAND FOR YEARS ENDING 30TH JUNE, 1919 to 1923 (inclusive).
Article.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
The mine—£££££
     Coal195+573174,46594,350189,312247,480
     Gold635,7171,085,483836,911547,443601,247
     Silver128,464113,25674,47252,24255,931
Fisheries—     
     Fish17,37424,74328,16640,69447,019
The forest—     
     Kauri-gum193,902406,278418,968471,022584,298
     Timber (sawn and hewn)517,182544,229622,939526,435438,414
Pastoral products—     
     Beef, salted10,82116,84518,0769,89914,080
     Butter3,592,8752,257,1458,447,1988,055,82811,490,844
     Cheese5,501,4526,930,1788,376,4956,027,2866,433,812
     Hides707,0571,071,639533,844371,225668,800
     Live-stock40,92050,83968,59765,25067,071
     Meat, preserved924,934708,702474,612211,870170,284
     Meat, frozen4,911,58210,027,65613,974,37910,333,5368,987,212
     Sausage-skins262,288421,017478,128501,555414,603
     Skins, rabbit209,702653,663537,611419,298549,543
     Skins, sheep1,937,2422,754,0761,875,835976,007913,377
     Tallow1,613,2502,155,7531,500,765876,433814,625
     Wool15,378,92313,206,0838,637,51511,051,95211,359,137
Agricultural products—     
     Beans and peas170,012131,180162,817111,516149,452
     Oats4,75841,849103,36129,755137,074
     Wheat40197793133,365184,014
     Hops18,40914,48924,50915,20015,084
     Potatoes7,72239,99910,1897,7095,715
     Seeds, grass and clover98,066248,643137,065255,252212,211
Miscellaneous—     
     Leather47,13337,856109,36033,61526,869
     Phormium fibre and tow1,059,316656,553443,624269,453292,541
     Other New Zealand produce1,523,1152,079,9241,891,6902,032,3061,339,533
          Totals39,708,19045,853,49049,881,26943,615,45846,220,608

RE-EXPORTS.

The forwarding trade of New Zealand has never at any time been of great significance, and, prior to 1914, on only one occasion (in 1907) did the amount exceed a quarter of a million sterling. Since 1913, however, this amount has rapidly increased until in 1922 it reached the comparatively large figure of £1,027,101.

Items of re-exports consist partly of goods returned from New Zealand either as unsuitable or as finished with, though the bulk of the total amount is made up by various classes of machinery, hardware, metal manufactures, motor-cars, and also items such as apparel, books, tobacco, and spirits.

There is, however, a genuine entrepôt trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is still comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands, which are treated as part of the Dominion, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

The amounts for the last twenty years of the re-exports of New Zealand are shown in the table below:—

RE-EXPORTS (EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1903-22.
 £
1903133,734
1904136,963
1905138,539
1906152,134
1907278,503
1908180,675
1909173,215
1910208,310
1911198,287
1912239,221
1913232,473
1914269,208
1915387,960
1916305,150
1917429,115
1918543,568
1919603,541
1920813,072
19211,213,002
19221,027,101

The destination of this re - export trade is shown in the following table for 1918-22:—

Country.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
 £££££
United Kingdom103+580113,267103,955245,334163,814
Canada7,00917,74429,62822,1158,207
Australia261,814263,689382,593590,065707,567
Fiji36,92740,93471,64556,30831,486
Tonga33,05142,25765,71636,02722,319
Western Samoa25,35031,18278,52143,96218,099
United States of America17,00824,36449,386133,74738,379
Society Islands27,18323,16821,86621,41715,604
Other countries31,64646,9369,76264,02721,626
Totals543,568603,541813,0721,213,0021,027,101

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

It is widely recognized that the price of wool and of the other principal items of export has a vital bearing on the prosperity of New Zealand, and in the following pages an attempt is made to analyse the influence exerted upon the total values of exports by these changes of prices. New Zealand has always been peculiarly dependent for her prosperity upon her external trade, and the early vicissitudes of the several settlements were caused in great part by the difficulty of finding an assured market for their products. After the gold-discoveries of the “sixties,” there was a steady export of that metal; but the great development of sheep-farming caused the export of wool to outstrip and finally to overshadow gold. Before refrigeration these two commodities comprised the overwhelming bulk of New Zealand's exports—on the average from 90 to 95 per cent.

This was the position when, in the early “seventies,” the world level of prices began to fall, which it continued to do steadily till 1895. About this time the first alluvial deposits of gold began to work out, and gold exports constantly decreased. At the same time the price of wool fell lower and lower, so that the colony found both its great sources of wealth shrinking fast. An ambitious borrowing policy, followed by a period of land speculation, precipitated the country into the severest crisis it has yet experienced, and economic conditions became rapidly worse, till a long period of depression ended in the early “nineties" in a banking crisis.

All through this period the quantities of goods exported constantly increased. Refrigeration came in 1882, and frozen meat and dairy-produce added to the country's wealth. But the depressing influence of falling prices continually minimized the effect of the strenuous efforts at increased production, and the condition of the country remained unpromising.

The years 1895-96 saw a complete change, which can be ascribed only to two facts: the world level of prices began to rise, and the beneficial effects of refrigeration began to make themselves felt; so that from this period dates the prosperity of New Zealand. Under the stimulus of rising prices, which always benefit debtors and producers, exports have increased by leaps and bounds, as will be seen by a reference to the chart in Subsection A of this section. Following the increase of exports there has been a great development of imports and of the home trade.

It is an economic axiom that rising prices tend to benefit producers, for the reason that all prices do not rise equally, and the main prices which lag behind the general level are the prices of the two biggest expenses of production—labour and capital. Hence the producer gets the benefit of rising prices for his produce, while his wages-bill and the interest on his borrowed capital do not increase so fast. It is the latter fact which is of value to New Zealand. The amount of interest which must be paid by New Zealand in each year is paid by the export of domestic produce, and is represented by a continued excess of exports over imports. In times of rising prices fewer bales of wool and carcases of mutton need be shipped each year to discharge this obligation.

At the same time New Zealand derives an extra benefit from the fact that her exports are rising faster than the average level of prices. Investigations into prices, not only in New Zealand but also in the older countries, show that raw materials and foodstuffs rise much faster than other commodities, and this feature is especially marked in animal products. In New Zealand Dr. Mcllraith has demonstrated that prices of exports constantly rise faster than prices of imports.

All these influences, which are the principal effects of rising prices, tend to stimulate and increase production; but their exact extent can never be separated from the other causes of increased productivity: all that may be measured is the apparent effect upon the exports as disclosed by changing values. From these data it is possible to ascertain with some accuracy what extra value has been added by the element of prices; but the important influences increasing productivity are not touched by this method.

Practically all the main exports of New Zealand are primary products, either raw materials or foodstuffs. From their nature it is possible in nearly every case to obtain the quantities exported as well as the values. It is then an easy matter of computation to find what the value would have been, assessing the quantities for each year at the prices of a selected base year or period, and by comparison with the actual values recorded to estimate the effect of price-changes.

This method is used by the British Board of Trade and by the Common wealth Statistician, and is very suitable for application to New Zealand. Of the total exports of New Zealand produce, 99 per cent. can, for the purpose of the present inquiry, be treated in this fashion, leaving only 1 per cent. to be calculated pro rata.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE, SHOWING VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF VALUES RULING IN 1900.
Year.Recorded Value.Index Numbers of Value at Rates ruling in 1900.Index number of “True" Volume of Exports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 ££££  
190013,055,24917.1013,055,24917.1010001000
190112,690,46016.3113,885,22717.8510641044
190213,498,59916.9214,877,30218.6511401091
190314,838,19218.0915,148,50018.4711601080
190414,601,78717.2813,979,64416.541071967
190515,503,53017.8213,618,83815.651043915
190617,840,34619.9214,796,09716.521133966
190719,783,13821.5215,830,14917.2212131007
190815,894,53016.8214,554,75415.401115901
190919,462,93620.0317,886,54118.4113701077
191021,944,16322.1018,524,54018.6614191091
191118,781,89818.5116,131,86915.901236930
191221,272,40520.4717,754,86517.091360999
191322,577,89021.1317,506,32316.381341958
191425,984,71723.8319,807,86718.1715171063
191531,042,66228.2420,099,59218.2815401069
191632,975,90729.9918,681,65316.991431994
191731,087,95728.2815,567,99514.161192828
191827,937,01025.3312,401,37311.24950657
191953,304,38446.6424,826,91221.7219021270
192045,592,29438.2320,059,45916.821537984
192143,615,47335.6421,298,57317.4016311018
192241,699,14833.3127,013,51321.582,0691262

In order to show the effect of changes in price from year to year, and particularly in the latter years, it is interesting to construct a series of index numbers basing the figures for each year upon the prices of the previous year. In this way it is possible to compare succeeding years directly, instead of comparing each year with a given base. The method used is the same, except that the base is changed.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FOR EACH YEAR 1900-22, SHOWING VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF VALUES RULING IN THE PREVIOUS YEAR.
Year.Total Exports (Domestic Produce).Effect of Price-changes.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.
 ££££
190013,055,249......
190112,690,46013,885,227..1,194,767
190213,498,59913,597,171..98,672
190314,838,19213,744,6651,093,527..
190414,601,78713,693,279908,508..
190515,503,53014,224,9241,278,606..
190617,840,34616,843,708996,638..
190719,783,13819,087,151695,987..
190815,894,53018,189,260..2,294,730
190919,462,93619,533,010..70.074
191021,944,16320,157,1641,786,999..
191118,781,89819,109,809..327,911
191221,272,40520,671,508600,897..
191322,577,89020,974,6231,603,267..
191425,984,71725,546,190438,527..
191531,042,66226,367,4134,675,249..
191632,97528,852,7374,123,170..
191731,08727,479,8363,608,121..
191827,93724,764,4833,172,527..
191953,304,38455,928,460..2,624,076
192045,592,29443,068,4702,523,824..
192143,615,47348,408,624..4,793,151
192241,699,14855,318,596..13,619,448

The comparison of each year with the preceding year brings out the advantage gained by a rise in prices. The gain shown represents the surplus value added by rising prices to the exports of any year, and, similarly, the loss shows how falling prices penalize New Zealand. The gains due to the rise of prices in 1915 and the three following years are remarkable. The figures for the crisis years 1908-9, for 1911, for 1919, and especially for 1921 and 1922, are eloquent of what falling prices mean for the Dominion. The recorded total of exports in 1922 would have been over thirteen and a half millions greater had average prices of exports remained as in 1921.

The next table is based on June years, which, as stated previously, are preferable as giving a comparison between one season and covers the four principal items of export from 1890-91 to 1922-23. Here again a huge increase in total values of exports on account of enhanced prices is very evident.

EXPORTS OF WOOL, FROZEN MEAT, BUTTER, AND CHEESE FOR YEARS ENDING 30th JUNE, SHOWING VALUES AS ACTUALLY RECORDED AND AS ASSESSED AT THE AVERAGE PRICES OF 1890-99.
Year.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.
Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890-99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890-99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890-99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890-99.
 ££££££££
1890-914,216,4193,641,7681,188,6201,136,432128,306143,79695,86693,699
1891-924,229,6833,735,4611,140,5711,103,579198,363206,47891,67083,578
1892-934,072,3423,999,3291,067,7801,018,744208,909189,97895,90392,232
1893-944,353,4154,274,7111,054,5371,022,559303,951299,575106,280100,779
1894-954,028,6514,329,7691,322,8101,337,768231,700242,471160,061163,260
1895-964,393,5744,345,4491,276,2321,243,269250,885256,159121,993137,210
1896-974,357,2444,449,2301,340,1691,344,449357,187366,728151,298159,899
1897-984,732,5425,032,1621,691,5461,831,138404,049404,127136,146142,455
1898-994,241,9844,847,2711,776,8431,804,212451,269452,348127,209126,913
1899-19004,889,1014,859,8062,298,1402,315,097693,666666,625224,238210,630
1900-13,890,5734,781,0592,193,4942,122,519858,543822,599239,325210,630
1901-23,079,2715,094,4462,526,6612,367,9311,044,317947,782171,886162,912
1902-34,034,7125,475,2773,310,0732,840,9371,211,2231,045,407186,412146,600
1903-44,313,0184,779,7452,846,0822,318,9581,445,8141,345,834194,779175,808
1904-55,468,5664,927,2852,714,0262,003,7091,417,9841,319,133180,215165,619
1905-66,605,7905,144,5592,882,3872,215,6181,540,3271,319,385300,056243,318
1906-77,415,4865,487,4273,143,7642,858,9031,631,1741,365,022568,058412,533
1907-85,649,6365,314,7793,165,0482,453,0431,133,665942,588761,100555,439
1908-95,965,2836,397,4533,775,9902,961,1131,491,8371,198,433977,358712,921
1909-107,962,6696,594,2953,631,1222,952,0411,712,6591,393,6131,275,148978,653
1910-117,164,8446,202,3353,875,3792,914,5071,685,0331,378,4741,093,715839,158
1911-126,965,4166,328,1673,671,9482,743,4771,891,2351,435,8841,496,7301,068,174
1912-138,217,6446,503,5454,315,4442,8902,027,8221,504,3181,914,2381,341,035
1913-148,262,1536,673,8035,079,2283,323,423197,6621,681,9152,317,9701,594,670
1914-159-907,6706,893,4205,737,6573,169,7062,336,8621,702,8562,277,5091,492,725
1915-166976,247,7187,476,6373,954,7442,805,1521,668,1573,345,3141,919,876
1916-17628,3595,342,6686,953,9443,481,3472,767,1501,443,4103,982,0891,881,560
1917-189,519,1994,497,9336,414,4712,943,9703,232,7881,684,5374,010,8421,787,735
1918-1915,378,9237,340,7754,911,5822,221,0823,592,8751,715,7955,501,4522,319,330
1919-2013,206,0836,009,88310,027,6564,552,9922,257,1451,046,8136,930,1782,818,278
1920-218,637,5155,388,38213,999,5316,177,3118,447,1982,608,2068,376,4052,942,923
1921-2211,051,95210,500,43510,333,5364,793,9838,055,8283,877,7366,027,2862,691,800
1922-2311,359,1378,209,6538,902,0933,686,80211,490,8445,509,3676,433,8122,838,468

The diagram above and those on pages 281, 282, and 283 show very plainly the tremendous divergence in recent years between the recorded and “assessed" value of these four items. A curve is added in each case showing the index number of export values, the decennium 1891-1900 being taken as the base = 1000.

The effect which war and post-war prices of products have exerted towards raising the Dominion's exports to an unprecedented height is best shown by the following comparison between the year ended 30th June, 1914, and the corresponding twelve-monthly periods ending in 1921, 1922, and 1923. On the recorded figures, exports for 1922-23 were nearly 91 per cent. higher than those for 1913-14, and the increase is seen to be due almost equally to the greatly enhanced prices ruling in the latter year as compared with 1913-14, and to the huge rise that has taken place in the real volume of exports, which have increased by nearly 40 per cent. over the base year. The table covers only fifteen principal items, which, however, represent more than nine-tenths of the total exports.

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FOR THE TWELVE MONTHS ENDED 30th JUNE, 1921, 1922, and 1923, showing VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF PRICES RULING DURING THE YEAR ENDED 30th JUNE, 1914.
Item.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1914.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1921.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1922.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1923.
Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.
 £££££££
Butter2,241,6568,447,1983,407,9938,055,8285,066,81511,490,8447,198,773
Cheese3,371,5408,376,4954,277,7536,027,2863,912,7286,433,8124,125,920
Beef, frozen829,3172,316,0851,496,869769,574739,0191,003,8041,194,132
Lamb, frozen1,053,1314,850,5423,230,7895,782,2723,797,4475,871,7883,262,950
Mutton, frozen1,240,7386,651,7714,261,5123,575,9542,788,6851,888,8481,256,155
Meat, preserved609,528471,830408,022211,870209,705170,284157,228
Hides454,308533,844428,147371,225432,519502,986453,873
Skins, rabbit80,203541,793186,702419,298174,039549,543201,561
Skins, sheep (without wool)965,4501,875,835788,013976,0072,449,075913,377822,048
Wool9,087,4388,637,5156,670,80211,051,95212,999,53611,359,13710,163,548
Phormium557,179443,624298,893269,453212,842262,251219,427
Tallow924,6861,499,934903,110876,433864,124814,625806,665
Kauri-gum172,717418,968280,240471,022291,005584,298414,035
Gold592,624836,911784,078547,443508,954601,247569,198
Timber, sawn308,760622,939294,610526,524249,679438,414206,576
       Totals22,489,27546,525,28427,717,53339,932,14134,696,17242,885,25831,052,091
Other N.Z. produce..3,375,931..3,683,317..3,335,350..
       Grand totals..49,001,215..43,615,458..46,220,608..

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS.

In 1901 a group of Pacific islands was annexed to New Zealand, and has since been administered by the Dominion. The islands are fertile and rich in tropical products, so that there is a growing trade between them and the Dominion proper. This trade is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the Dominion, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. Separate returns are made of the transactions between the Dominion and its dependent islands, and these are summarized below.

TOTAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND TO COOK AND OTHER ANNEXED ISLANDS, 1903-22.
Year.Exports.
 £
190327,965
190428,644
190529,098
190635,452
190738,288
190839,284
190940,204
191060,647
191156,131
191275,774
191372,046
191459,056
191555,459
191652,831
191753,449
191879,309
191988,902
1920117,820
192182,398
192281,309

The principal items exported to the islands in 1922 were—

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS, 1922.
Article.Quantity.Value.
Produce of New Zealand.Other.Total.
  £££
Butter172 cwt.1,742..1,742
Fish688 lb.39841880
Beef368 cwt.655..655
Meats, potted and preserved2,709 cwt.9,447..9,447
Milk and cream29,896 lb.1,360431,403
Biscuits200,704 lb.4,871..4,871
Flour3,422 centals3,23363,239
Rice543 cwt...723723
Sugar3,061 cwt.4,9012165,117
Tobacco4,420 lb...1,5761,576
Apparel..1,3856272,012
Boots and shoes73 doz. prs.59148639
Drapery..1311,9452,076
Cotton piece-goods....1,9401,940
Rugs..8427849
Bags and sacks2,431 doz.1821,1081,290
Cordage and rope146 cwt.5564560
Benzine4,832 gallons..629629
Kerosene11,468 gallons..889889
Other oils4,257 gallons6732738
Paints and colours137 cwt.36506542
Hardware and ironmongery..1281,1091,237
Iron and steel (manufactured)..1211,1141,235
Nails351 cwt.10561571
Timber—    
Kauri589,417 sup. ft.9,406..9,406
White-pine54,098 sup. ft.782..782
Rimu378,444 sup. ft.4,335..4,335
Other37,858 sup. ft.85720877
Furniture and upholstery..329207536
Wrapping-paper213 cwt.486375861
Cinematograph-films309,351 lin. ft...1,9021,902
Medicinal preparations, &c...109538647
Arms, ammunition, and explosives..46567532
Matches and vestas2,490 gr. boxes..897897
Soap..2,282872,369
Motors for road traffic and materials thereof..26669697

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Cook Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with “Islands attached to New Zealand.”

SUBSECTION C. — IMPORTS.

METHOD OF RECORDING.

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. Prior to 1916 the import value taken was the c.i.f. or landed value in New Zealand, freight into the Dominion being thus included. For free goods and goods liable to specific duties this landed value in New Zealand was shown, but the landed value for ad valorem goods was taken as the fair market value of the goods when sold for home consumption in the principal markets of the country whence imported, and at the time when exported, plus 10 per cent. From and including the year 1916, however, the value shown for all merchandise imported is the fair market value for home consumption in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus 10 per cent.

DEVELOPMENT OF IMPORTS.

The earliest trade in New Zealand, as in most colonies, consisted more of exploitation and appropriation by visiting traders than of regular exchange. The whalers and sealers brought with them sufficient provisions to last their season, and they were never more than passing visitors to the Islands. The first genuine import trade sprang up when the Maoris became sensible of the great wealth to be won by bartering their flax for iron and other treasures of the white man. A new element was introduced when the Maori adopted the musket in preference to the old hand weapons, for the possession of firearms became a necessary precaution against the danger of extermination. Intertribal warfare was conducted on an ever-increasing scale, and muskets were the most prized of all possessions, so that when the chief Hongi returned from his visit to England in 1821 he changed all his valuable presents into firearms as soon as he reached Sydney.

With the incoming of the regular colonists, trade assumed its more modern form, and the import of firearms was quickly overshadowed by the more peaceful requirements of the settlers. It was many years before the Maori finally gave up the appeal to force in order to sustain his claims or his rights; but since the second Maori War in the “sixties" the Natives have settled more and more into European habits.

Permanent settlement in 1840 rendered necessary the continued and increasing import of clothing, metals, and manufactures to sustain the colonists and to develop the colony. For many years after the first landing imports were greatly in excess of exports, and this excess represents the import of capital which was necessary to put the young colony on a firm footing. Especially in the early years New Zealand, while supplying foodstuffs from her own resources, has been dependent upon the outside world for a great proportion of the manufactures necessary for development, and also of the luxuries and amenities of modern life.

The gold rushes brought a huge increase of population and also of imports, and reference to Subsection A of this section will show the effect of the stimulus given by the gold-discoveries. In the later “sixties" imports were declining; but the borrowing policy pursued in the “seventies" resulted once more in an increase of imports for a time. Violent fluctuations succeeded, with a general tendency to diminish until, in sympathy with the increased exports, the value of imports rapidly increased from 1895. The worst check was received in 1909, following the bad year of exports in 1908. The figures for 1917 also showed a substantial fall, largely due to the shortage of shipping and restriction of exports from Europe. Imports, however, have increased enormously during the last decennium, and, as shown in the succeeding table, imports advanced from £22,288,302 in 1913 to £35,012,561 in 1922, or a percentage increase of 57. The value per head of mean population was, on the other hand, only 34 per cent. greater in 1922 than in 1913.

The nature of the imports has changed little from the time of the first settlement in New Zealand, though new commodities have naturally been introduced, the principal groups of commodities being clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, and motor vehicles. The proportions of these imports have changed little for many years, except that motor vehicles and oils (including motor - spirits) have increased very rapidly in recent years.

The following table shows the total imports for New Zealand during the last decade:—

IMPORTS, 1913-22.
Year.Total.Per Head.
Including Specie.Excluding Specie.Including Specie.Excluding Specie.
 £££s.d.£s.d.
191322,288,30221,653,632201712053
191421,856,09621,144,2272001119710
191521,728,83420,658,72019152181510
191626,339,28325,045,4032319222157
191720,919,26520,742,130190818175
191824,234,00724,131,7922119521177
191930,671,69830,309,1672616926105
192061,595,82861,553,85351121151123
192142,942,44342,744,122351934186
192235,012,56134,826,0742719427164

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.

In 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports were compiled for the first time upon a new plan, a statistical classification being adopted which assembles the items in well-defined classes. The advantages of a stereotyped classification of this kind over an alphabetical arrangement of items are obvious. In the preparation of the classes adopted a good deal of weight has been attached to the recommendations of the Dominions Royal Commission which toured New Zealand in 1913. In a memorandum prepared for the Commission Professor A. L. Bowley submitted a scheme for uniformity of statistical work within the Empire, and suggested that New Zealand statistics should follow as closely as possible the lines laid down by Australia. The advantages of similarity of treatment in Australia and New Zealand are apparent, and in the classification of imports and exports, as in other matters, the statistics of New Zealand have been made comparable with those of Australia as far as possible.

The 1922 totals for the various classes of imports are presented below.

IMPORTS BY CLASSES, 1922.
No.Class.Value in 1922.
  £
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)214,867
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt2,913,664
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same675,304
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors722,741
VTobacco and preparations thereof1,328,746
VILive animals33,942
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs41,641
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres492,376
IXAApparel3,791,876
IXBTextiles4,882,322
IXCManufactured fibres427,515
XOils, fats, and waxes2,324,333
XIPaints and varnishes370,552
XIIStones and minerals used industrially716,726
XIIISpecie186,487
XIVAMetal unmanufactured, partially manufactured, and ores331,577
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines4,249,178
XVMachinery and machines2,769,325
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)67,602
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes475,385
XVIIATimber550,682
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures152,312
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials716,182
XIXAPaper729,483
XIXBStationery702,590
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods661,929
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments365,100
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares1,098,024
XXIIBManures248,572
XXIIIMiscellaneous2,771,528
      Total35,012,561

The decrease in value of all imports in 1922 as compared with 1921 is reflected in a large number of the classes, although some classes show minor increases, noticeably non-alcoholic beverages, tobacco, and apparel. The largest group of imports in 1922 was textiles (Class IXB), which occupied second place in 1921. Metal manufactures other than machinery and machines (Class XIVB), which was the largest group in the list in 1921, was second in 1922. Class IXA advanced another step from fourth place to third, whilst Class XV, which is usually very high, declined to fifth position. Group II is rapidly assuming an important position as regards the amount contributed, the total value of goods coming under this heading amounting to £2,913,664 in 1922. This group also improved its position on the list, and in 1922 occupied fourth place.

A somewhat different and more detailed system of classification, which allows of information being shown not only for groups of items, but also for the principal definite items, has been adopted for the following table:—

MAIN GROUPS OF IMPORTS, 1918-22.
Group of Principal Articles imported.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

* Includes methylated spirits, perfumed spirits, and spirits of wine.

 £££££
Apparel (including hats and caps)1,558,3851,780,8713,670,5082,122,0611,982,915
Boots and shoes589,642589,7661,443,879531,135729,622
Drapery, haberdashery, linens, woollens, and other textiles3,715,0454,251,1028,944,6254,854,8814,425,230
Hosiery311,356434,225704,314355,702641,589
Silks468,629504,171805,294328,960589,963
     Total Totals6,643,0577,560,13515,568,6208,192,7398,369,319
Iron and steel (pig, wrought, wire, &c., and galvanized)613,7091,762,9453,736,6672,565,1081,683,981
Railway and tramway plant52,214270,900342,4291,150,2321,481,104
Machinery702,0441,208,7392,131,6932,970,3942,027,197
Sewing and knitting machines65,78272,256132,995128,46161,323
Hardware and ironmongery208,158417,7431,000,793922,039428,709
Tools and implements (including agricultural)219,074519,241870,116824,109379,473
Nails58,130224,175141,521129,01495,166
Other metals and metal manufactures753,9661,174,4741,740,2031,967,0831,254,372
     Total Totals2,673,0775,650,47310,096,41710,656,4407,411,325
Sugar904,9571,114,0841,819,1382,066,6831,434,186
Tea415,244423,293959,943338,853547,121
     Total Totals1,320,2011,537,3772,779,0812,405,5361,981,307
Beer10,9206,49531,98011,3539,287
Spirits*868,645467,7661,321,710869,299623,033
Wine68,908112,546361,960106,84990,421
Tobacco690,9241,013,8882,013,1721,048,6331,328,746
     Total Totals1,639,3971,600,6952,728,8222,036,1342,051,487
Paper472,050672,4741,054,1021,152,777658,521
Printed books288,070324,170524,462427,318454,264
Stationery210,047302,764485,328461,339250,461
     Total Totals970,1671,299,4082,063,8922,041,4341,363,246
Miscellaneous (specified articles)—     
   Arms, ammunition, and explosives156,017228,475971,358505,601370,372
   Automobiles, motor-cars, and motor-cycles, and materials for1,323,4882,244,7415,256,8092,227,0301,527,326
   Bags and sacks254,518326,920399,019341,370234,378
   Bicycles and tricycles14,69514,25560,26317,57919,296
   Bicycle and tricycle fittings90,192104,658259,47098,35687,435
   Candles26,23720,28846,20330,17034,773
   Canvas130,177216,924253,55190,34128,285
   Carpeting and druggeting59,307135,820495,962488,068335,017
   Carts, carriages, and materials for40,21467,318402,254149,58766,167
   Cement5272,21917,719106,3837,974
   China, porcelain, earthenware, and parian ware103,513159,386495,713500,067460,281
   Coal202,102382,016514,2491,321,040681,080
   Drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares994,1731,099,4541,482,1721,082,4361,098,024
   Fancy goods and toys292,539382,356711,266505,791520,404
   Fish, potted and preserved133,321121,599259,68262,65692,916
   Floorcloth and oilcloth29,54066,266128,89386,78441,780
   Fruits (including fresh, preserved, bottled, and dried)519,166367,7191,107,744611,271703,916
   Furniture, cabinetware, and upholstery75,41721,264167,35633,20351,811
   Glass and glassware134,921227,815604,975507,269247,927
   Leather and leather manufactures344,454405,0191,210,235412,896466,576
   Manures267,323319,620759,606367,074248,570
   Musical instruments and materials for99,692127,528302,833162,299158,657
   Seeds262,973151,065313,154204,492122,277
   Oil1,448,3181,305,0432,958,1352,804,7092,234,666
   Timber152,525174,666618,692813,816550,682
   Woolpacks and wool-pockets119,955198,90994,68775,50555,886
     Total Total miscellaneous (specified articles)7,275,3048,871,34319,892,00013,605,79310,446,476
Other imports (excluding specie)3,610,5263,789,7367,425,0213,806,0463,202,914
     Total Total imports (excluding specie)24,131,79230,309,16761,553,85342,744,12234,826,074
Specie imported102,215362,53141,975198,321186,487
     Total Total imports24,234,00730,671,69861,595,82842,942,44335,012,561

It is not possible to classify imports so completely as exports. There are two big groups of items, however, which are of dominating importance, and are, moreover, fairly homogeneous. The first, “Clothing and textiles,” comprises practically all woven articles; but the second, “Metals and machinery,” is not altogether complete, since there are many items in the “Miscellaneous" group which are metal manufactures. The other three groups are well defined, and the value imported in each is, on the whole, steady.

The grand total of £61,595,828 shown for 1920 was easily a record, the figure being £30,924,130 in excess of, or almost double, that of the previous year. Although the figure for 1922 shows a decrease of nearly eight millions as compared with 1921, it is still substantially larger than that for 1919, which had a higher value than any previous year. It should be remembered that part of the increase since the war is attributable to the higher prices ruling; but, nevertheless, it is evident that the effect of higher prices on imports could not account for the whole of the increase, but that the quantity of goods must have considerably increased. It will be observed that this increase is not confined to any one group, but is apparently spread over the whole number. Although a great many of the individual items show comparatively large increases, the most noticeable is the advance made by motor-cars and accessories. Whereas prior to 1911 the value of these never exceeded £300,000, it gradually increased until in 1920 it amounted to £5,256,809. In 1922, however, this item was valued at only £1,527,326, which is the lowest amount recorded since 1918.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.

The import trade of the Dominion, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is yet confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States. In the days of the first settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, tended to decrease steadily till from 60 per cent. in 1862 it had fallen to about 15 per cent., a figure which, except for a few variations, has remained fairly constant.

Most of the goods brought to New Zealand from overseas come from the United Kingdom, which in normal times supplies about 60 per cent, of the total imports. The proportion has fallen a good deal in recent years—in the “eighties" and “nineties" the figure was, on the average, nearer 70 per cent. than 60 per cent.

The cause of this decline is to be found in the development of trade with other countries in quite recent years, particularly with the United States, Japan, Canada, and in a less degree with Belgium, Italy, Sweden, and other European countries. The United States was sending goods to New Zealand practically from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent., though the proportion has now for some years been steadily climbing again, and has, indeed, actually surpassed its old level. Although in 1922 more than 14 per cent. of the imports came from the United States, this percentage is low when compared with the proportions obtained in the five preceding years.

India captured the New Zealand jute-market in the early “eighties,” and since then there has been a regular import of corn-sacks, woolpacks, &c. In former times the colony imported its sugar from Mauritius, but after 1890 Fiji supplanted Mauritius, so that the imports from the Pacific islands are swelled to 4 per cent., while Mauritius practically disappears from the list of countries. Similarly the import of tea from China gave way about the same time to imports from Ceylon.

The present position is illustrated by the tables which follow. The imports of goods from the eight principal countries show a decrease over the previous year's figures, with the exception of Ceylon, the importations from that country showing a slight increase. Measuring the value of goods credited to each country as a percentage of total imports, Japan shows by far the greatest decrease over the period 1920-22.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, 1903-22.
Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan.
 ££££££££
19037,512,6682,154,96668,329252,570138,959461,9881,441,35886,192
19047,982,3401,893,036113,485276,106172,759516,5391,527,91584,629
19057,795,2841,815,71796,119297,128179,809456,6291,438,50179,260
19069,003,2292,775,312157,088290,725189,288378,0501,405,78199,653
190710,278,0193,127,553215,232370,655220,102625,6441,425,59694,298
190810,441,8372,841,426268,259345,180210,675557,7091,643,93788,211
19099,287,7862,764,210198,384367,999230,499590,2141,166,06386,865
191010,498,7712,359,393261,402399,991248,476580,0841,399,737103,113
191111,787,3002,944,991283,410326,360275,672728,8061,682,129123,248
191212,499,7872,583,887394,249395,298289,008764,7902,049,618154,587
191313,312,1932,914,848452,519421,209275,350846,4932,107,990151,106
191411,985,9463,376,371479,140486,978394,444738,7512,282,966187,501
191511,141,0673,554,535797,816527,942408,6971,128,9592,600,248304,322
191613,869,4554,002,171757,286572,257366,7531,053,7543,969,925562,974
19178,817,5133,660,931757,041612,063353,6131,203,3723,900,658628,822
19188,977,7255,133,349930,964712,633319,498939,3414,980,7481,214,865
191911,839,4305,081,9681,622,234772,838383,209980,1867,576,3141,258,016
192029,806,41610,555,6672,386,915900,577725,2781,824,01211,100,2591,470,071
192121,448,8176,486,8471,687,595593,151316,8131,909,1027,746,457593,348
192219,416,4764,213,0851,545,037437,851499,7051,459,3454,948,778485,327

The next table gives greater detail, and shows all the main countries which shipped goods to New Zealand, arranged in geographical order.

IMPORTS FROM MAIN COUNTRIES, 1918-22.
Country.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
 £££££
United Kingdom8,977,72511,839,43029,806,41621,448,81719,416,476
British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.     
Europe—     
   Gibraltar524312..
   Mal92401112461,039
 97641422481,039
Asia—     
   Burma92,56644,233121,39458,12237,075
   Ceylon319,498383,209725,278316,813499,705
   Hong Kong22,46110,25234,70718,34915,382
   India712,633772,838900,577593,151437,851
   Sarawak and Brunei357..2,4612,292..
   Straits Settlements83,69318,44289,38434,62767,725
   Other15064975315309
 1,231,3581,229,0381,874,7761,023,6691,058,047
Africa—     
   Egypt4,39953,674107,3451,041495
   South African Union43,85662,628189,76734,864152,386
   Other5067415273615,743
 48,761117,043297,16436,641168,624
America—     
   British West Indies4,4088,7088,58210,2657,247
   Canada via East Coast225,993849,7011,580,8411,086,8291,038,912
   Canada via West Coast704,971772,533806,074600,766506,125
   Other4,6884,300211581191
 940,0601,635,2422,395,7081,698,4411,552,475
Pacific islands—     
   Australia5,133,3495,081,96810,555,6676,486,8474,213,085
   Fiji939,341980,1861,824,0121,909,1021,459,345
   Tonga3,1503,9801,0143,85219,115
   Western Samoa20,35924,11624,85511,48618,445
   Other16136628,62647,94287,690
 6,096,3606,090,61612,434,1748,459,2295,797,680
Foreign Countries and Possessions.     
Europe—     
   Belgium2377285,482369,034132,705
   Denmark30,72457,91446,53571,91631,063
   France33,78341,12392,873184,470100,654
   Germany393235,46223,63115,476
   Greece..50..5,3083,606
   Italy57,53075,365277,648129,19084,020
   Netherlands23,27443871,22986,61556,337
   Norway22,6326,679102,02447,89031,396
   Portugal2,4681,8332,9041,215716
   Russia891181,2467,488157
   Spain9,5074,5651,2462,9124,377
   Sweden69,85889,819158,870197,570128,520
   Switzerland42,48248,89370,30269,28441,927
   Other8649,1708057,026
 292,750327,2611,124,9911,197,328637,980
Asia—     
   Asiatic Turkey5,22851146,73681,54035,732
   China115,356105,970219,485136,590112,052
   Dutch Borneo18,48011,02426,35619,33530,598
   Japan1,214,8651,258,0161,470,071593,343485,327
   Java146,780240,270425,095159,772139,153
   Philippine Islands35,55032,47972,44722,94617,983
   Sumatra52,16997,141151,632236,966569,912
   Other1,0991,1393,0059312,090
 1,589,5271,746,5502,414,8271,251,4231,392,847
Africa4169631093,174378
America—     
   Argentina806281,231632116
   Brazil1,439..6071,743441
   Chile3,758273,64023,492
   Cuba1,6323,93116,1103,8212,212
United States of America—     
   Via East Coast1,766,1314,938,4828,161,3355,789,0163,494,449
   Via West Coast3,214,6172,637,8322,938,9241,957,4411,454,329
   Other3,6368,7381,5918462,591
 4,991,2937,589,63811,123,4387,753,5014,957,630
Pacific islands—     
   Hawaii2,0734,32411,3841,8905,005
   New Caledonia10,17917,44022,81411,26910,409
   Society Islands13,3818,87915,0045,9585,837
   Tuamotu Archipelago37,94565,20974,01852,7398,041
   Other1918631283
 63,59795,853124,08371,86829,375
     Total Grand totals24,234,00730,671,69861,595,8284,2942,44335,012,561

In 1914 a change was made in the system of compilation of trade statistics, and for the first time statistics of imports were obtained for countries of origin as well as countries of shipment. Before 1914 it was the practice to credit imports to the country from which the goods were shipped to the Dominion, and considerable care was taken to ensure that the original port of shipment was ascertained. But there was no means of discovering where the goods were actually produced. Importers are now required to declare the country of origin as well as the country of shipment of all goods imported. The following table permits the study of imports under both headings:—

IMPORTS FROM VARIOUS COUNTRIES IN 1922.
Country.Imports according to
Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
Value.Per Cent. of Total.Value.Per Cent. of Total.
 ££££
United Kingdom19,416,47655.4618,296,17352.26
British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.    
Europe1,039..1,724..
Asia—    
   Burma37,0750.1138,5910.11
   Ceylon499,7051.43501,4191.43
   Hong Kong15,3820.0415,3850.04
   India437,8511.25441,5811.26
   Straits Settlements67,7250.1968,1340.20
   Other309..422..
Africa—1,058,0473.021,065,5323.04
   Egypt495..6,0660.02
   Seychelles14,1070.0414,1070.04
   South African Union152,3860.44180,6720.51
   Other1,636..5,7980.02
 168,6240.48206,6430.59
America—    
   British West Indies7,2470.0217,7140.05
   Canada via East Coast1,038,9122.971,556,2134.45
   Canada via West Coast506,1251.451,556,2134.45
   Other191..453..
 1,552,4754.441,574,3804.50
Pacific islands—    
   Australia4,213,08512.033,293,6329.40
   Fiji1,459,3454.171,448,9984.14
   Nauru (Pleasant Island)62,3070.1862.3070.18
   Ocean Island23,7720.0723,7720.07
   Tonga19,1150.06590..
   Western Samoa18,4550.0510,6700.03
   Other1,601..20,9310.06
 5,797,68016.564,860,90013.88
Foreign Countries and Possessions.    
Europe—    
   Belgium132,7050.38314,3450.90
   Czecho-Slovakia5,7980.0264,6790.19
   Denmark31,0630.0939,2060.11
   France100,6540.29687,0741.96
   Germany15,4760.0423,5370.07
   Greece3,6060.018,9990.03
   Italy84,0200.24165,9420.47
   Netherlands56,3370.16149,6610.43
   Norway31,3960.0934,1870.10
   Portugal716..9,6660.03
   Rumania40..7,1360.02
   Russia157..4,8380.01
   Spain4,3770.0124,6670.07
   Sweden128,5200.37174,5910.50
   Switzerland41,9270.12380,9701.09
   Other1,188..9,6060.02
 637,9801.822,099,1046.00
Asia—    
   Asiatic Turkey35,7320.1065,5680.19
   China112,0520.32132,9390.38
   Dutch Borneo30,5980.0930,6810.09
   Japan485,3271.39504,9551.43
   Java139,1530.39139,7190.40
   Philippine Islands17,9830.0518,0660.05
   Sumatra569,9121.63570,1451.63
   Other2,0900.015,8430.02
 1,392,8473.981,467,9164.19
Africa378..3,7230.01
America—    
   Brazil441..8,1300.02
   Chile3,4920.015.9070.02
   Ecuador377..4,6800.01
United States of America—    
   Via East Coast3,494,4499.985,379,37215.36
   Via West Coast1,454,3294.165,379,37215.36
   Other4,5420.018,5230.03
 4,957,63014.165,406,61215.44
Pacific islands—    
   Hawaii5,0050.014,7330.01
   New Caledonia10,4090.0310,4090.03
   New Hebrides83..1,8490.01
   Society Islands5,8370.024,8220.02
   Tuamotu Archipelago8,0410.028,0410.02
 29,3750.0829.8540.09
   Grand totals35,012,561100.0035,012,561100.00

Direct shipments from the United Kingdom, it will be seen, exceeded by £1,120,303 the imports of goods produced in that country. In view, however, of the considerable quantity of British goods that enter New Zealand by way of Australia it would not be correct to take that figure as measuring the re-export trade done by Great Britain in goods from abroad intended for the Dominion.

Australia acts as a re-exporting centre for a certain proportion of goods received from Ceylon and India, just as Hong Kong does for Chinese goods. The British West Indies still produce considerably more of the imports than they ship direct. The figures for Canada are practically level, the 1922 imports showing a small balance in favour of goods of Canadian origin. In the case of the United States, goods to the value of, roughly, £430,000 were imported indirectly in 1922.

The goods produced in European countries are often shipped via the United Kingdom, and, as might be expected, the total produce of these countries in every instance greatly exceeds the value shipped direct from their ports. Asiatic countries generally show similar results. Hong Kong and Australia take part of the Eastern entrepot trade.

In the “Exports" subsection it has been shown that New Zealand is a primary-producing country—i.e., her exports consist principally of raw materials. It was also pointed out that the largest proportion of imports consisted of manufactures. The following table, grouped in the same manner as the export table referred to, illustrates this statement. Manufactured articles imported amounted to £25,475,166, of which the Mother-country supplied £15,668,109, or 61.50 per cent. The figures given refer to countries of origin.

Country.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Bullion and Specie.Total.

* Re-imports.

 ££££££
United Kingdom1,742,840596,35415,668,109100,460188,41018,296,173
British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.      
Europe—      
   Gilbraltar....4....4
   Malta..171,6985..1,720
Asia—      
   Aden..236..10..246
   British North Borneo Protectorate..19102....121
   Burma5,02912533,4316..38,591
   Ceylon494,1921,4285,799....501,419
   Cyprus10........10
   Hong Kong10,5751,3173,493....15,385
   India54,7869,012368,6219,162..441,581
   Malay States....15....15
   Straits Settlements61,6735,2671,1877..68,134
   Weihaiwei....30....30
Africa—      
   Anglo-Egyptian Sudan....1,605....1,605
   British East Africa Protectorate1,158..96....1,254
   British West Africa Protectorate495..983....1,478
   Egypt2,800..3,162104..6,066
   Northern Rhodesia....2....2
   Seychelles....14,107....14,107
   South African Union26,90312,936136,4914,342..180,672
   Zanzibar1,384..75....1,459
America—      
   Bermuda2........2
   British Guiana99........99
   British West Indies15,320532,30239..17,714
   Canada88,7801,406,089167,05754,2711,556,213
   Newfoundland....352....352
   Pacific islands—      
   Australia919,9991,059,9591,283,89427,7602,0203,293,632
   Fiji1,444,6052774,10610..1,448,998
   Malden Island....1,557....1,557
   Nauru Island....62,307....62,307
   New Zealand*2,17452412,1384,479..19,315
   Norfolk Island....2....2
   Ocean Island....23,772....23,772
   Papua..515....56
   Solomon Islands (Prot.)......1..1
   Tonga34023119....590
   Western Samoa9,514833323....10,670
Totals, British countries4,882,9143,094,49217,629,813153,432244,70126,005,352
Country.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Bullion and Specie.Total.
Foreign Countries.      
 ££££££
Europe—      
   Austria2..1224..128
   Belgium1,38713,579299,152227..314,345
   Czecho-Slovakia8654962,9171,127..64,679
   Danzig....15....15
   Denmark15,954314,3678,882..39,206
   Esthonia....457....457
   Finland....2,3061,191..3,497
   France64,7258,523609,0864,740..687,074
   Germany143..22,445949..23,537
   Greece7,487211,491....8,999
   Hungary3........3
   Italy43,5802,790119,336236..165,942
   Jugo-Slavia6..101....107
   Latvia....164....164
   Luxemburg....1,684....1,684
   Netherlands77,07089667,9013,794..149,661
   Norway7,4711,60625,110....34,187
   Poland....5891,280..1,869
   Portugal4,9713,851844....9,666
   Rumania7,134..2....7,136
   Russia3..4,103732..4,838
   Spain15,7996,5512,3107..24,667
   Sweden3,1999,841161,49259..174,591
   Switzerland14,759956364,912343..380,970
   Turkey1,42075187....1,682
Asia—      
   Asiatic Turkey64,945298325....65,568
   China43,5241,85087,5587..132,939
   Cochin-China395..5....400
   Dutch Borneo....30,681....30,681
   Formosa89........89
   French Indo - Chinese Protectorate14..88....102
   Japan3,38035,909462,4683,198..504,955
   Java90,42934348,947....139,719
   Minor Dutch East Indies74481,723....2,178
   Persia....566....566
   Philippine Islands1,5561,54514,965....18,066
   Siam775..8....783
   Siberia..1,466259....1,725
   Sumatra261..569,884....570,145
Africa—      
   Abyssinia150........150
   Algeria....47....47
   Canary Islands176..657....833
   Madagascar2825102....389
   Madeira22..1,2831..1,306
   Morocco631..33532..998
America—      
   Alaska1,814........1,814
   Argentina45891176....1,445
   Brazil7,179333618....8,130
   Chile....5,907....5,907
   Colombia....630....630
   Costa Rica665........665
   Cuba2,62992..5..2,726
   Danish West Indies....17....17
   Ecuador4,486..194....4,680
   Mexico..3052415..569
   Panama Canal Zone....16300..316
   Paraguay....5....5
   Peru....70....70
   Salvador....3....3
   Uruguay....10....10
   U.S. of America476,22136,3454,833,97932,5372905,379,372
   Venezuela239..113..253
Pacific islands—      
   Hawaii4,186..50938..4,733
   New Caledonia2..10,407....10,409
   New Hebrides1,848..1....1,849
   Society Islands8115983,35162..4,822
   Tuamotu Archipelago....8,041....8,041
Totals, foreign countries972,373129,4147,845,35359,7792909,007,209
Totals, all countries5,855,2873,223,90625,475,166213,211244,99135,012,561

In order to give more detailed information concerning the trade of New Zealand with other countries the following tables have been compiled, giving for each of the last three years the main items of import from all the principal countries with which New Zealand trades. The information is shown both according to country of shipment and for country of origin.

Account has been taken only of those items of a minimum total value of approximately £10,000, so that the tables are not made too voluminous by the additions of great numbers of small items. The full details will be found in the Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping for the year 1922.

PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.
Article.Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
1920.1921.1922.1920.1921.1922.

* Not available.

* Formerly included in “Other.”

United Kingdom.
 ££££££
Cocoa-butter, &c.44,32428,19841,67144,44419,87916,893
Confectionery218,80258,31982,804199,84655,19970,702
Dried fruits8,1429,53330,593......
Maizena and cornflour43,61118,08434,38343,61118,08434,381
Infants' and invalids' foods24,06311,99519,44024,06512,11719,440
Mustard43,87533,74618,96343,87533,74618,964
Nuts, edible44,80010,93336,5225701,1851,197
Oilmen's stores48,55710,48318,31745,89210,19317,845
Pickles and sauces26,9944,52210,36127,0134,76311,142
Salt90,96472,10098,68690,96472,10098,954
Cocoa-beans, uncrushed10,8573,09511,045......
Cocoa and chocolate102,31818,33656,02985,70314,01546,918
Brandy78,15625,45534,6206....
Gin, geneva, and schnapps96,09921,02230,91745,87012,17919,859
Whisky805,754621,483453,495876,890675,889485,014
Spirits (other than beverages)75,36243,42628,37668,37433,33127,391
Wine, fermented153,18322,35016,90117,72910,38011,640
Cigarettes949,045254,975545,455950,393254,972545,508
Tobacco273,628249,214212,751276,695249,295212,754
Horses2,2349,66911,4302,1679,66911,430
Cork, cut52,84630,70114,93829,52117,27210,152
Engineers' waste14,34420,30612,93014,46520,36412,930
Seeds—      
   Grass and clover89,57141,43417,69338,32725,7979,212
   Other111,00765,34655,470106,41264,24252,494
Starch14,7098,54514,33814,4388,60414,284
Tanning-materials, crude34,83522,27612,85433,58322,20410,767
Yarns97,53089,553156,283101,75392,524156,373
Apparel and ready-made clothing2,006,0041,186,2711,151,9191,969,0311,149,6411,074,471
Boots and shoes and parts thereof273,049259,650584,724272,048257,529582,004
Corsets38,71269,06026,55438,90365,88526,228
Furs and fur trimmings54,83836,75141,87652,67934,31734,766
Gloves135,74851,33460,37074,92433,77732,089
Haberdashery141,722117,263114,887126,621107,44498,174
Hate and caps173,562123,18763,775161,801117,38256,757
Hatmakers' materials118,13494,84363,47384,71170,51728,527
Hosiery491,353266,882363,986489,070263,563386,458
Lace and laces91,18737,63159,31366,95126,70842,903
Millinery142,608114,820143,275114,71490,075112,174
Ribbons and crape117,59898,922151,2746,4082,0624,265
Tailors' trimmings191,941124,58753,203191,637125,26653,011
Umbrellas and materials for making21,42513,16315,09921,87713,13212,155
Carpets, carpeting, and floorcloth359,076437,651310,776357,294429,715309,499
Drapery430,220238,607411,784356,417204,304350,789
Felt sheathing9,6775,80617,7169,7765,80617,777
Matting and mats26,18828,55614,12325,98228,46814,154
Oilcloths and linoleum75,81881,36040,76575,69181,35940,765
Textile piece-goods—      
   Canvas, sailcloth203,59076,69526,592208,43378,03426,884
   Cotton3,466,7132,022,7261,803,6833,566,4532,015,4431,815,639
   Hessians and scrim122,67570,77538,453123,37972,02738,775
   Leather cloth12,6749,02117,26912,9029,03317,308
   Linen90,58069,38224,88494,07770,71126,013
   Silks, satins, velvets395,120118,445285,624116,61745,484105,624
   Woollen2,358,7691,117,505778,6022,335,7261,111,685793,337
   Other90,20120,89715,84287,18020,90715,272
Sewing silks and cottons240,091204,816228,549244,140207,005229,693
Cordage and rope166,290105,28069,320175,554111,29674,128
Twine107,82485,94056,347108,41286,00356,334
Mineral oils20,84713,99310,31518,42712,2058,384
Vegetable oils221,466124,87868,020221,004114,00267,138
Paraffin-wax17,17710,08414,13012,55110,07913,059
Paints and colours—      
   Paints ground in liquid151,411117,46933,533151,446116,98533,268
   Whitelead ground in oil121,406119,031
   Mixed ready for use96,50769,42376,33193,48868,79875,620
   Other31,03825,66321,78830,64624,13020,326
Varnishes, lacquers, and goldsize26,48519,29525,88626,82819,30225,820
Coal..197,053169,229..197,053169,229
Stone26,29321,56114,81125,52919,88113,986
Specie—      
   Bronze9,72511,13312,4229,72511,63312,452
   Silver29,450180,030157,48531,050185,830174,035
Iron and steel (unmanufactured)262,142239,187206,509268,817234,405206,573
Bolts and nuts96,99396,91941,30397,29197,19141,263
Brass manufactures11,35413,94410,95311,71314,22510,833
Bridge and structural metal-work869..31,200869..31,200
Chains and chain cables32,43530,94916,10332,59531,11516,138
Copper manufactures33,10966,10826,60634,27166,43826,864
Cutlery113,57381,87427,877114,89982,75027,859
Hardware and ironmongery587,250595,394282,704597,267597,463280,331
Iron and steel—      
   Hoop70,75251,75936,29071,09951,62036,282
   Plate and sheet1,305,009489,078543,1441,320,267495,381546,319
   Tubes, pipes, and fittings323,145398,618274,198329,601401,841278,797
   Other101,397100,05233,678103,136100,10534,576
Lamps (not electric), lanterns, and lampwick40,83625,23215,90240,79024,40415,782
Meters50,84064,14666,58248,95562,17165,555
Nails41,84533,11733,69641,41532,75531,152
Plate and plated ware167,294157,380107,616170,316159,224108,719
Printing-materials10,39412,10910,82411,40412,95511,898
Railway and tramway plant161,918657,466880,168166,087661,081879,921
Rivets and washers35,12429,09719,35735,24528,46819,421
Stoves and ranges5,7035,69915,7105,7605,57615,603
Telephones and accessories therefor27,58331,64996,58627,70532,57320,447
Tinware and tin manufactures231,149217,122109,562235,138229,127111,229
Tools, implements, &c.261,833177,959102,119260,602178,22299,832
Wire—      
   Copper29,801208,82552,22232,888181,30054,594
   Fencing209,45395,703105,778199,25694,186104,108
   Netting174,48750,56956,917178,26550,85856,903
   Other46,26858,49953,37047,62159,04851,941
Other metal manufactures343,732367,708252,712355,449375,690247,617
Agricultural implements, &c.70,33057,13835,13075,86758,08735,010
Dairying machinery6,99712,14335,4855,84013,70216,482
Dredging machinery2,84917,95412,5912,84918,55912,591
Electrical machinery512,940869,398723,657505,193867,735695,781
Engines—      
   Gas and oil88,04787,44140,70686,93887,37540,016
   Steam37,24562,14584,95138,29566,29384,409
Gas-making machinery1,14947,56424,9101,14947,56424,910
Locomotives16,975158,863498,64316,975158,863498,643
Mining machinery17,10124,42910,14921,31825,11710,196
Printing machinery17,25447,70422,83021,13951,85823,482
Sewing machines96,60180,53437,39490,18878,69236,887
Tools—Engineers' and metal- and woodworkers', &c.73,715100,08036,15276,665102,07236,283
Turbines, steam and water, and Pelton wheels953,89122,270953,89113,808
Winches, cranes, capstans, and windlasses6,3216,79760,2596,3216,81760,259
Woollen-mill machinery36,435109,87828,94936,810109,66728,865
Other classes of machinery and machines185,048240,584114,104198,801247,605114,104
Materials for and parts of machinery and machines66,43255,19137,74066,63353,76139,613
Indiarubber hose, tubing, and piping14,35413,75711,39014,54913,82111,450
Belting, leather and other96,14670,07842,64196,65871,95943,020
Leather263,50157,977185,103252,96257,850177,260
Saddlery and harness281,13582,96334,452281,53182,90434,439
Furniture, cabinetware, and upholstery50,32834,89323,26849,15833,92921,975
China, porcelain, and parian ware68,74491,270102,42372,06790,542100,433
Earthenware198,889259,022261,484204,141262,596259,108
Glass and glassware152,238161,748146,748135,598134,845124,387
Tiles45,23760,29630,26643,21660,63130,228
Butter-paper, &c.7,4368,14610,1152,4441,8024,519
Cardboard-boxes, materials for28,68131,72223,25022,57927,11518,951
Paperhangings69,15947,64540,05368,88347,81639,873
Printing-paper173,609178,991107,705174,122178,464109,440
Writing-paper125,390176,66473,658126,995175,48973,922
Books, papers, and music, printed358,965296,499302,727390,082315,686321,577
Calendars and showcards8,59412,47310,6738,67112,51510,380
Envelopes**24,725**24,717
Ink13,4248,51910,24113,4528,54410,201
Manufactured stationery71,20368,92649,53574,19871,05049,344
Fancy goods and toys240,401161,941193,869213,276135,878146,285
Jewellery162,180111,52280,407163,489110,01098,388
Sporting, gaming, and athletic requisites86,70992,31993,80284,82792,04692,508
Timepieces35,73922,13311,5375,3887,9725,772
Tobacco-pipes and smokers' requisites100,45771,95050,54058,46645,46328,999
Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films10,43717,59710,5869,79618,51910,231
Photographic materials and goods51,61638,13934,66151,98039,55735,347
Surgical and dental instruments83,32347,02452,26679,34049,37850,975
Acids50,42424,96919,03949,81025,62219,261
Cream of tartar47,9574,70413,0385,0238577,940
Cyanide of potassium and of sodium20,23029,36815,93920,27030,50515,939
Dyes31,47834,61838,79446,41947,83651,726
Disinfectants32,04617,09823,67231,64617,40923,684
Insecticides and tree-washes86,79346,46770,16387,18548,66370,368
Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries215,862151,074147,868227,104168,287148,840
Perfumery79,30862,28564,71572,99650,03459,412
Soda64,28239,10280,36764,55939,85782,386
Manures61,9156,21127,54360,5026,20021,118
Arms, ammunition, and explosives846,904473,047206,033850,895471,378212,298
Asbestos37,80522,90714,40636,09520,44211,698
Blue, laundry33,00414,82322,94833,00414,82322,964
Brushes, brushware, and brooms71,66955,10356,77468,15152,28952,143
Brushmakers' materials17,56710,03713,2933,8395,2755,444
Candles19,92524,59824,43020,28224,60024,430
Educational apparatus and materials14,71420,69011,53814,71620,45611,401
Musical instruments—      
   Pianos42,57235,52041,88442,47536,23341,712
   Others80,72858,23456,08879,97457,49151,423
Matches and vestas32,22140,52733,27330,22436,06029,637
Packing, engine19,50417,49413,18523,16818,01713,067
Polishes and dressings40,91924,75133,57041,01224,86333,695
Soap77,80420,88243,10278,99021,01441,831
Vehicles—      
   Bicycles and materials for308,705124,05887,194299,386123,64581,184
   Motors for road traffic and materials for759,345609,312341,053653,371526,667240,204
British West Indies.
Cocoa-beans, uncrushed4,3206,1094,09410,1217,1988,525
Rum4951,1052,64612,2933,9922,287
Canada. Fish
118,67130,21664,954118,83731,03865,049 
Confectionery49,50012,42213,45949,50412,42613,459
Fruit8,97613,7879,3638,97613,7879,363
Seeds3,04610,7546,4571,54411,2596,457
Apparel and ready-made clothing93,53159,85051,95793,84760,13352,237
Boots and shoes and parts thereof41,02035,17337,23243,11840,10143,884
Corsets45,38751,05722,81245,38751,52223,328
Furs and fur trimmings23,9509,4377,56925,0389,4377,594
Hosiery36,57622,90532,93136,54623,15333,045
Cotton piece-goods4,72457615,8114,65358116,309
Paints and colours65,1305,41331065,5915,413334
Iron and steel (unmanufactured)48,63816,6386,17348,89916,6486,173
Fencing-staples10,1427,9536,95510,1427,9536,955
Hardware and ironmongery22,28628,79415,63822,63928,73615,638
Iron and steel—      
   Tubes, pipes, and fittings41,857150,18059,14756,754155,38159,932
   Other11,44213,30792011,46413,6421,251
Nails39,89320,22433,81239,90120,30833,812
Tools, implements, &c.7,4146,91310,9177,4146,91610,921
Wire—      
   Fencing28,73610,99341,76928,73610,99341,769
   Other9,15517,70719,8819,26817,71719,911
Agricultural implements, &c.37,36767,86822,88955,05070,65023,014
Dairying machinery207,6819,947207,6819,947
Electrical machinery12,58619,30132,54312,61019,32332,551
Tools—Engineers' and metal- and woodworkers', &c.1,7181,84417,9191,7371,84417,919
Belting, leather and other2,9222,4807,7752,9412,7668,236
Leather21,6715,30814,90922,2927,79015,548
Timber18,35662,43746,56018,16962,43746,884
Wood, cane, and wicker manufactures38,95627,43937,28441,05226,89737,112
Cement5,79718,498205,79718,49820
Cardboard boxes, materials for20,19911,0074,82720,21711,0074,827
Paperhangings48,06355,45818,79048,58655,45818,874
Printing-paper333,793370,460270,817336,540371,269271,115
Wrapping-paper52,77569,42638,10753,24570,26538,220
Writing-paper21,11221,8274,06521,12422,4294,223
Stationery12,82620,8568,07912,85821,3088,211
Photographic materials and goods9554,88120,6529555,00420,652
Calcium carbide7,47512,7864,0527,50612,7864,396
Musical Instruments35,9379,9309,11835,93710,0699,342
Vehicles—      
   Bicycles and materials for21,6612,9961,14721,8933,0001,147
   Motors for road traffic and materials for774,364240,300427,107786,727253,713427,809
Burma.
Waxes75,03946,10420,92576,64446,10421,988
Candles18,1915,4599,95318,1915,4599,953
Ceylon.
Coconut, desiccated38,39910,73714,44538,82110,75214,446
Cocoa-beans, uncrushed9,7414,7967,3029,7414,7967,302
Tea667,294296,140470,896669,518298,694471,859
Hong Kong.
Jams, jellies, &c.14,51811,2808,25414,57111,3028,254
India.
Coffee and chicory9,0004,1456,5689,1084,6036,695
Tea93,95325,53639,75493,95425,74340,484
Shellac14,7748,5199,14015,6598,5879,142
Bagging and sacking10,2605,6418,64915,0065,7159,649
Hessians and scrim117,71247,65133,527125,43652,47734,152
Bags and sacks—      
   Corn-sacks210,958254,088187,268212,869259,684187,268
   Jute and hessian bags156,79774,73540,288166,17274,82940,501
   Woolpacks92,07975,50555,88693,73675,50555,886
Vegetable oils52,03110,8396,85852,45610,8456,858
Straits Settlement.
Fruits, bottled and preserved4,2467,58622,0194,3427,58622,019
Sago and tapioca44,26716,94022,68046,97417,05422,680
Spices27,8636,01512,58827,9966,06912,593
Seychelles.
Guano....14,107....14,107
South African Union.
Wine, fermented76,53210,27217,68077,55510,83717,680
Tanning-materials, crude7,6985,1898,71716,4445,41910,889
Arms, ammunition, and explosives17,5521,333106,10423,5271,489106,104
Australia.
Fish19,4911,4356871880108
Confectionery171,07657,33850,978166,76153,89248,257
Fruits............
   Bottled and preserved in syrup138,01127,49019,293135,95127,49219,293
   Dried—      
     Total Currants116,0645,77449,204116,0645,66449,204
     Total Raisins254,86388,714128,698254,86388,689128,117
     Total Others56,1192,4108,0856,0041,5365,314
   Fresh—      
     Total Oranges36,83346,76036,65436,81646,76036,469
     Total Mandarins and grape-fruit**21,446**21,446
     Total Other59,24360,31620,11958,63560,31620,119
Rice, dressed64,62134,79129,45654,15434,35629,456
Salt54,25124,76512,10053,78624,76511,832
Vegetables23,71816,89615,48723,58816,87815,274
Whisky94,54163,01935,18918,4484,3233,670
Spirits of wine13,5357,83810,50113,2597,69910,499
Wine, fermented120,19567,82452,22891,16853,08742,175
Tobacco and preparations thereof397,796340,416410,628380,145339,434409,776
Horses27,3277,63914,64211,7226,68911,467
Wool3532,55114,7293532,55114,729
Seeds45,57811,2339,45037,7159,8767,378
Tanning-materials, crude65,87934,22818,90251,43433,43415,623
Apparel and ready-made clothing221,504119,29575,615191,27885,98730,479
Boots and shoes and parts thereof1,001,366177,80946,241989,010169,42041,071
Hosiery34,73221,112180,60726,07212,77426,269
Drapery20,0355,90610,4445,0541,9874,628
Textile piece-goods—      
   Cotton204,34149,13655,80630,0043,9271,295
   Silks, satins, and velvets21,5014,35910,84212576273
   Woollen42,05617,75250,1329,6621,0215,154
   Other47,28013,6795,82218,0082,7531,422
Mineral oils78,57682,90134,91318,27727,6076,304
Vegetable oils114,75511,10420,11087,0855,91711,336
Stearine18,86517,19312,17418,86017,19312,174
Paints and colours209,51679,86130,970205,13077,76930,265
Coal493,401814,237511,525493,401814,237511,525
Lead, pig and bar (unmanufactured)49,36616,75325,47149,36616,75325,471
Tin (unmanufactured)89,47725,20030,17587,93525,10430,155
Hardware and ironmongery70,90836,35824,33442,52428,43717,003
Iron and steel—      
   Tubes, pipes, and fittings70,78066,50412,44147,74155,2616,081
   Other62,30522,9818,31023,52714,1372,544
Lead manufactures38,34025,98021,23438,25625,89221,234
Railway and tramway plant119,539223,64253,632114,167219,83956,466
Wire—      
   Copper14,21653,00325,87511,02351,16823,500
   Other106,75025,8147,54090,55021,9134,827
Other metal manufactures248,598202,74887,020184,393142,27458,831
Dairy machinery50,04743,55725,61041,35936,73515,649
Electrical machinery59,01160,21632,53422,39336,10412,252
Tools—Engineers' and metal- and woodworkers', &c.38,70524,66011,76327,80715,9649,547
Other classes of machinery and machines154,813133,73665,79858,29573,04638,454
Materials and parts of machinery and machines21,59513,03914,4795,7903,5976,103
Indiarubber hose, tubing, and piping30,22940,82428,00729,18940,38127,331
Belting, leather and other20,24715,24110,44418,37512,4989,369
Leather292,51470,97092,813276,82756,33872,281
Timber321,739627,326438,781318,533625,237436,228
Wood, cane, and wicker manufactures57,81047,81433,26848,62444,18229,942
Glass and glassware95,813108,03136,21985,935105,43033,329
Paper89,19330,38518,68338,89315,8787,949
Stationery173,521152,062130,499122,306116,11499,013
Fancy goods and toys65,50524,75717,45453,90319,97612,216
Jewellery179,510107,74869,938112,67656,8329,591
Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films23,88941,87036,3804,2924,4961,740
Photographic materials and goods48,90643,34743,51935,86230,53639,996
Dyes40,57036,94428,97511,8668,0406,086
Disinfectants7,9978,48212,5917,3037,76412,448
Liquefied and compressed gases47,51145,55919,98743,83339,18519,760
Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries157,999150,186109,838109,870108,06192,382
Perfumery25,65717,88119,35020,45714,19717,206
Manures310,60988,45621,241299,43085,96220,645
Arms, ammunition, and explosives19,1256,44741,2318,0545,92033,964
Brushes, brushware, brooms, and brushmakers' materials21,62610,49910,24415,8549,4178,060
Musical instruments50,88231,61821,98119,99412,1649,368
Polishes and dressings17,09510,45311,76816,7929,98611,314
Soap71,80835,94917,42067,15334,22916,961
Vehicles—      
   Bicycles and materials for113,39052,87235,874108,80150,63733,846
   Motors for road traffic and materials for473,638267,06649,309330,242177,56734,148
Fiji.
Fruits, fresh107,378129,81288,064107,378129,80288,064
Sugar1,683,3481,773,0311,355,2571,683,3481,773,0311,355,257
Gilbert and Ellice Islands.
Phosphates27,7721,27123,77027,7221,27123,770
Nauru (Pleasant) Island.
Phosphates....46,12262,30746,12262,307
Tonga.
Specie (silver..3,30014,200......
Western Samoa.
Cocoa-beans, uncrushed20,9439,3229,51320,9439,3229,513
Belgium.
Gloves..191983,0652,4995,151
Cotton piece-goods3192,8472,60929,34837,87711,514
Iron and steel (unmanufactured)1,38312,0097,2931,38319,4878,419
Wire3318,9584,31533111,0356,946
Electrical machinery88015,8898,05088015,90029,244
Glass and glassware204,756120,04520,667219,211141,22133,527
Butter-paper55925,5958,2694,72031,98015,995
Jewellery..8811,921..88112,724
Manures46,18172,15528,46846,18172,15530,620
Czecho-Slovakia.
Glass and glassware..741,3031,3122,1568,496
Fancy goods and toys953871,3372,8724,74518,966
Musical instruments..101,2151,9674,1696,535
Denmark.
Rennet27,42732,30814,34337,65833,93815,108
Seeds2,6216,7304,43625,52611,7107,765
Dairying machinery8,24320,7807,44611,92321,2169,358
France.
Brandy20,81032,4964,801103,94558,66940,836
Wine5,8374,2081,447115,03816,8326,673
Apparel and ready-made clothing1,5073,14968534,00124,17543,166
Furs and fur trimmings1062163541,6191,3867,174
Gloves2,85136398344,60910,52615,588
Haberdashery69732110111,8984,1168,752
Lace and laces3584328118,4046,2807,303
Millinery751,5469321,60222,38723,073
Ribbons and crape4541,27219050,68627,35451,853
Drapery1,62092623146,95017,01023,509
Textile piece-goods—      
   Cotton..346210,2664,41211,937
   Silks, satins, and velvets9661,112948161,44641,92275,843
   Woollen201,03111746,59216,01320,789
Fancy goods and toys1,2502,42861627,92924,93029,357
Tobacco-pipes and smokers' requisites1392,3222,44444,17629,17727,831
Cream of tartar4201,34920,24234,1587,68030,564
Manures7,9264,0956,6188,6854,6957,352
Vehicles—      
   Bicycles and materials for1212294610,9362,3567,017
   Motors for road traffic and parts thereof32,75894,85141,257166,520189,726145,685
Germany.
Manures4,8326,76213,2325,9686,76213,700
Greece.
Dried fruits..5,3063,5313855,4167,487
Italy.
Nuts edible11,1376,35322,57451,1902,98534,055
Peel6,8807146,0667,6397146,148
Gloves8363384219,3864,8465,823
Haberdashery4,3664,57473510,81210,8416,860
Hats and caps28,65025,5623,23549,71029,9947,232
Silks, satins, and velvet piece-goods33467816,9084,22515,457
Marble11,33216,3367,10617,89818,3668,690
Vehicles—Motors for road traffic and parts thereof172,56254,12830,649241,99965,23731,261
Netherlands.
Cocoa-butter, &c.1,38616,81016,8022,13224,78241,551
Cocoa and chocolate1,7624,7332,56018,8619,73813,537
Gin, geneva, and schnapps37,88717,5494,06393,10326,77116,307
Electrical machinery9,94412,6486,97926,58022,92517,570
Cardboard boxes, materials for4,6318,5765,4919,15312,8849,445
Jewellery1,140..6,5191,140..7,435
Norway.
Fish50,0576,7247,19874,6277,6827,470
Calcium carbide13,6919,03811,51714,5629,65511,523
Spain.
Nuts, edible511,4471,03710,1174,5059,921
cork, cut5146791,72820,56813,3466,551
Sweden.
Wood-pulp32,3838,0659,39632,3838,0739,396
Hardware and ironmongery2,77310,3795,8113,23812,0927,278
Dairying machinery67,93972,50562,05972,80574,45783,683
Electrical machinery6326,1398,5609106,62711,565
Matches and vestas13,5819,10411,92724,19611,85414,296
Switzerland.
Confectionery12,09614,8128,00224,00617,11814,305
Apparel and ready-made clothing9832,00356716,05119,80124,964
Hatmakers' materials1,32836660912,66916,32817,783
Lace and laces32289037014,5497,3517,392
Ribbons and crape7021,1469365,79072,53897,152
Drapery1,5411,11634635,47218,87637,728
Silk, satin, and velvet piece-goods851808383103,73930,36290,234
Turbines, steam and water, and Pelton wheels..550525..5508,669
Timepieces46,85935,49324,53581,52550,61834,053
Asiatic Turkey.
Dried fruits—      
   Dates38,80933,72115,65790,73140,93041,461
   Raisins..37,21414,122..37,21414,579
   Other7,57310,3345,10512,37112,1477,370
China.
Rice40,71730,22410,63248,65230,43310,632
Nuts, edible4,2335,07315,5745,1925,39715,592
Tea7,9133,2507,1528,0883,2507,315
Hatmakers' materials6,3244,5935,42311,3246,49412,575
Lace and laces51,92920,60019,11155,39021,03619,287
Silk, satin, and velvet piece-goods24,10012,23822,96331,83815,13427,818
Brushmakers' materials8,0205,6071,34517,7569,3156,199
Dutch Borneo,
Mineral oils5,5325,6845,9537,3367,0745,976
Paraffin-wax14,44811,25919,30315,28617,54919,363
Japan,
Apparel and ready-made clothing76,82318,83420,88479,73919,21525,223
Haberdashery20,5204,6037,98622,2595,2238,491
Textile piece-goods—      
   Cotton202,94459,48075,702206,75461,44177,631
   Silks, satins, velvets348,677187,279255,602359,247188,400259,150
Timber173,87724,60333,991175,61024,60335,224
Glass and glassware74,40319,6167,01876,43119,9507,356
Fancy goods and toys92,80912,91019,77694,50613,46520,463
Java,
Sugar71,651109,03756,85371,651109,03756,853
Tea187,92211,09227,290187,92211,09227,292
Kapok135,76927,81646,851135,89227,96646,851
Philippine Islands,
Hemp47,34216,63314,81247,34216,63314,812
Sumatra,
Mineral oils150,245236,839568,243150,245236,839568,243
Brazil,
Nuts, edible275673664,9063,9335,217
Chile,
Nitrate of soda3,459..3,49214,0662,4945,908
Cuba,
Cigars16,1102,3762,20318,2884,2762,506
Ecuador,
Cocoa-beans, uncrushed5903273771,1079244,486
United States of America,
Fish13,4123,4379,68515,3423,7789,718
Sausage casings and skins79,66535,70538,97580,54935,89939,382
Fruits—      
   Bottled and preserved in syrup19,8064,78224,14420,7714,78224,144
   Dried—      
     Total Apples and apricots6,9839,41711,9797,0679,41711,979
     Total Prunes33,14416,83129,72833,14416,83129,728
     Total Raisins86,36155,879100,11186,36155,879100,330
     Total Other17,8171,7377,25117,9881,7387,292
   Fresh—      
     Total Lemons13,0029,98013,09813,0299,98013,098
     Total Oranges35,77817,10124,56335,79517,10124,748
Sugar19,37015,92715,66619,68616,64815,682
Vegetables13,9643,36813,19613,9843,36813,405
Tobacco318,842180,902142,686324,775180,902144,421
Seeds34,53546,94319,64736,62247,26520,483
Apparel and ready-made clothing117,31435,94865,832124,67860,661100,568
Boots and shoes, and parts thereof113,89354,56953,683118,86056,70356,300
Corsets17,9289,24415,87017,9479,24415,853
Haberdashery18,5989,6387,55327,64613,9188,341
Hate and caps50,6627,13120,15150,7337,17720,357
Hosiery131,62443,36161,447139,82550,718184,965
Carpets, carpeting, and floorcloth77,1489,16917,32677,1489,16917,333
Textile piece-goods—      
   Cotton291,299115,932123,331313,010119,400137,178
   Leather cloth11,5354,77811,36513,7274,77611,548
   Silks, satins, and velvets13,6153,63913,18315,3463,80013,471
Sewing silks and cottons26,2517,45414,73127,1207,59214,800
Mineral oils—      
   Benzine781,206440,286136,612781,376440,332136,621
   Gasolene411,911269,71678,230411,911269,71678,230
   Kerosene309,621248,051184,216310,258248,061184,478
   Lubricating153,173195,949115,210205,554245,999142,264
   Motor-spirit n, e, i497,7271,078,620921,354497,7291,078,620921,354
   Other8,58114,0476,45116,32524,6179,264
Vegetable oils48,93317,09731,60262,62822,29637,001
Paints and colours87,44333,11528,12289,52433,50928,427
Varnishes, lacquers, and goldsize14,90813,66210,99614,94513,71511,108
Hardware and ironmongery188,415161,29170,098201,296164,87977,004
Iron and steel tubes, pipes, and fittings30,02645,91311,18930,63046,77411,723
Lamps (not electric), lanterns, and lamp-wick18,38320,19910,12618,68320,45610,192
Meters19,79333,95819,60420,03834,38820,050
Nails18,56850,04323,75319,60750,41423,772
Railway and tramway plant33,55789,75538,75133,86688,94338,751
Telephones and accessories thereof7,52647,43719,5948,22148,40119,367
Tools, implements, &c,182,181168,67383,951186,092171,21787,161
Wire215,407185,36424,614236,624188,35426,172
Other metal manufactures359,038328,266134,769409,298352,198142,150
Agricultural implements, &c,96,99199,79120,40277,904104,41420,672
Cash registers12,24217,29724,17215,62917,29724,172
Dairying machinery14,44714,02610,66515,06314,08810,894
Dredging machinery..137,02549,346..137,02549,621
Electrical machinery318,092451,527219,044342,404464,520230,757
Engines—      
   Gas and oil49,11048,2379,91651,62648,88510,016
   Steam10,6014,7445,83110,6014,7446,019
Mining machinery10,74721,63617,36411,19721,68118,681
Printing machinery19,72632,36245,78725,70939,27746,451
Sewing-machines14,11521,6958,79931,37729,11415,182
Tools—Engineers' and metal- and wood-workers', &c,52,10485,39635,90458,64191,30137,568
Typewriters31,61221,31616,28339,07824,36219,572
Other classes of machinery and machines247,554182,52292,587262,939190,04697,383
Materials for and parts of machinery and machines60,99140,53521,04175,75450,36426,775
Belting, leather and other22,08321,65411,57423,42422,23711,765
Leather122,06422,11748,367140,32334,29067,789
Timber102,41095,81129,812104,08897,90630,842
Wood, cane, and wicker manufactures70,14157,99532,87074,84058,74034,844
Glass and glassware72,17793,62032,29077,03395,17234,259
Cardboard boxes, materials for62,20337,84121,35967,06238,57322,864
Fancy goods and toys62,54224,31525,42866,11025,43026,863
Timepieces55,69046,11827,09155,73046,26228,372
Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films65,05674,12157,16285,433109,044110,022
Optical instruments14,04315,37011,12015,20716,16112,168
Photographic materials and goods64,39835,1678,37076,70746,05912,001
Surgical and dental instruments42,35149,37629,34157,55462,82734,679
Cream of tartar67,14529,30163,76571,84229,30663,765
Dyes27,0119,1318,28836,75517,69012,821
Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries46,80836,43738,15773,25255,88248,214
Perfumery66,70422,62431,62268,46223,46433,020
Sugar of milk37,67473,01512,07437,67473,01512,074
Sulphur18,37517,22532,91218,39417,29532,912
Mantres14730,66621,46614730,66621,466
Arms, ammunition, and explosives81,50917,90310,55981,86917,93610,612
Musical instruments—      
   Pianos61,9459,64611,29362,27210,00911,553
   Others28,58313,85915,22648,03123,04922,364
Soap30,4707,43115,40432,4647,83815,498
Vehicles—      
   Bicycles and materials for147,55057,37654,880149,90858,52856,499
   Motors for road traffic and materials therefor2,763,634834,533565,2742,797,395885,296576,259
Hawaii,
Fruits, bottled and preserved10,8831,5913,93612,2211,5913,936
New Caledonia,
Guano22,81411,25810,38722,81411,25810,387
Society Islands,
Beeswax850813851850813851
Vanilla-beans3,6041,0602,4683,6041,0602,479
Tuamotu Archipelago,
Rock phosphates74,01852,7398,04174,01852,7398,041

IMPORTS FROM COOK ISLANDS.

A small group of Pacific islands was annexed to the Dominion on the 11th June, 1901, and has since been administered as the “Cook and other Pacific islands.”

Trade with these islands from 1902 onwards has net been included in the export and import totals for the Dominion, but has been shown separately in official publications. The following table shows the growth of the import trade from the group in each year since 1902:—

Year.Imports.
 £
190232,163
190338,708
190445,517
190544,179
190663,477
190761,922
190867,483
190973,469
191090,039
191192,382
1912105,943
1913109,095
191494,620
191587,890
191663,702
191772,470
191870,374
191988,820
1920105,146
1921102,113
1922131,639

The principal articles imported for the last five years are as follows:—

Article.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Fruits, fresh—£££££
   Bananas24,99820,09116,77931,03742,328
   Oranges28,06033,90258,55035,14152,494
   Tomatoes, plums, &c.2,1368,36713,66615,35912,520
   Other1397675852,219682
Coconuts7741,7911,6311,4831,540
Potatoes..1353601,034707
Coffee, raw39693833065425
Copra10,91815,4268,51810,51214,912
Hats and caps1,9142,6201,9583,9112,486
Cinematograph-films400760290..3,048

SUBSECTION D.—TARIFF AND REVENUE.
TARIFF DEVELOPMENT.

The first Customs Ordinance in New Zealand was proclaimed in 1841. This Ordinance, which repealed the New South Wales Ordinance then in force in these Islands, was the first of two long series of enactments dealing with Customs law and the tariff of Customs duties.

The tariff of 1841 covered only a few items, and may be given in full as a type of all the early tariffs. It is noteworthy that, following the old mercantilist policy of colonial administration, preference was given to certain products of the Mother-land. The full schedule of duties was as follows:—

 £s.d.
Spirits or strong waters, not being the produce of the United Kingdom, of any British possession in America, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land, per proof gallon050
Spirits or strong waters, the produce of the United Kingdom, of any British possession in America, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land, per proof gallon040
Wine, for every hundred pounds' value1500
Tobacco, unmanufactured, per pound009
Tobacco, manufactured, except cigars and snuff, per pound010
Cigars and snuff, per pound020
Tea, sugar, flour, meal, wheat, rice, and other grain and pulse, for every hundred pounds' value500
On all other goods (except goods the produce and manufacture of the United Kingdom, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land), for every hundred pounds' value1000

In 1844 alterations were made in the direction of increasing most of the duties, while the preference to the United Kingdom was dropped. A very interesting item was the duty of 30 per cent. imposed “on all guns or weapons of any description, or gunpowder, or any munition of war,” evidently imposed to check the growing import of firearms for the Maoris. The rate of duty on all unspecified goods, except personal baggage, living animals, and specie, was 5 per cent.

In 1846 preference was again introduced by the imposition of a duty of 12 ½ per cent. on all foreign unspecified goods, while similar British goods paid only 10 per cent. At the same time there appears the germ of the later free list, five items—glass bottles, bullion, live animals, books, and seeds and bulbs—being proclaimed free of duty.

The tariff of 1851 was the first elaborate scale of duties, and is noticeable for the liberal use of ad valorem duties, mainly at the rate of 10 per cent., though cottons, woollens, &c., were charged by the yard, calico by the bolt, and trousers by the pair.

The general tariff of 1864 comprised many items, but the duties were levied for revenue primarily; the rates were low, and were mostly specific duties, even drapery being charged at per cubic foot. Amendments of the tariff, mostly small and affecting only a few items, followed rapidly in 1866, 1867, 1871, 1873; but in 1878 some sweeping changes were made, particularly the reduction on sugar from ld. per pound to ½d., and similar reductions on many foodstuffs, while tools were also made free of duty. Another Act in 1879 added a few dutiable articles—in this case, however, chargeable with ad valorem duty; and the Act of 1881 was similar. All these changes were revised and consolidated in the Customs Duties Consolidation Act, 1882, which also extended the range of the tariff a good deal. The tariff of 1888 was distinguished by a more liberal use of ad valorem duties, the most usual rate being 20 per cent., as against 10 per cent. in the earliest years, while a primage duty was also levied.

With the year 1895 the tariff took on its distinctive modern form, marked by the preponderance of ad valorem duties and a definitely protective intention. The scope of the tariff was greatly widened so as to enumerate in detail a number of new items, and there were many reductions, principally of the duties on foodstuffs such as dried fruits and cocoa.

The process of subdivision and protection then begun was continued in 1900, when further steps were taken in the direction of a free breakfast-table, and another notable remission was made, the duty on kerosene being abolished.

In 1907 the Customs tariff was completely revised and some important alterations were made. Among articles placed upon the free list were: Sugar, molasses and treacle, currants, raisins, figs, dates, prunes, unground spices, mustard, maizena, cornflour, almonds and nuts (excepting walnuts), carbonate and bicarbonate of soda, tartaric acid, infants' foods, forfar, dowlas and flax-sheeting, vegetable oils, fencing staples and standards, sheet lead; gas, electricity, and water meters; rubber and pneumatic tires for carriages. Children's boots (Nos. 0-6) and tea in bulk were admitted free if of British manufacture or growth.

Increased rates of ordinary duty were imposed on certain articles, among which were: Flavouring-essences n.o.e., medicinal preparations, drugs and druggists' sundries, candles, paraffin-wax, hosiery; cash-registers, cartridges (shot, 10-24 bore), cartridge-cases, certain sizes of iron and fibre pipes, mouldings and panels.

Tea, the produce of British dominions, if in packages of 5 lb. in weight or over was admitted free; when put up in packages under 5 lb. there was a duty of 2d. per pound. The preferential duty on tea of foreign growth was 2d. per pound if in packages of 5 lb. in weight or over, and ⅖d. per pound if in packages of a less weight than 5 lb.

The Customs Duties Amendment Act, 1909, imposed a surtax of 1 per cent. on the amount of duty payable on tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes, and of 2 ½ per cent. on the amount of duty payable on all other dutiable goods. This surtax remained in operation until the 31st March, 1911.

In 1915 again changes were made in the rates of duty levied on certain articles, in order to meet the extraordinary expenses of the war. The duty was raised on spirits from 16s. to 17s. per gallon; gas and oil engines were made subject to 10 per cent., plus an additional preferential 10 per cent. if foreign, instead of being free and 20 per cent. preferential as before; electric motors, transformers, and lamps were charged 10 per cent. plus 10 per cent., instead of 10 per cent. plus 5 per cent.; and motor-cars were charged 10 per cent. plus 10 per cent. preferential surtax, whereas before the chassis was free and the body was liable to 20 per cent. duty. On the other hand, the 20 per cent. on bicycles was reduced to 10 per cent.

At the same time a primage duty of 1 per cent. was levied on all goods imported, with the exception of a few small classes of exempted articles. In addition, power was taken to gazette at any time an extra surtax of 50 per cent. on any goods which might be specified, being the produce or manufacture of any country then (October, 1915) at war with His Majesty. Power was also taken to impose an excise duty on aerated waters, cordials, and other beverages, subject to a report by an officer of Customs to be appointed as a Commission to inquire into the advisability of controlling and regulating this manufacture. Increases were also made in certain excise duties in 1915, and again in 1917.

In August, 1917, also, as part of the scheme of additional war taxation, further increases were made in the rates of duties to be levied on certain items of import. These increases were somewhat more accentuated in some cases by the Finance Act, 1917, which received the assent of the Governor-General on the 15th September of that year. The rates of duty as thus amended remained in force until the coming into operation of the 1921 tariff revision.

CUSTOMS TARIFF AT PRESENT IN FORCE.

During the earlier months of 1921 a Tariff Revision Committee was set up by the Government for the purpose of taking evidence and revising the tariff then existing, which had been in force with little amendment since 1907. On the Committee's report the Government based a new tariff, including excise duties on beer and tobacco, and this was brought into immediate operation by resolutions of the Legislature on the 3rd November, 1921. The tariff was subsequently included in a Customs Amendment Act passed later in the year.

Briefly, the main objects of the revision were to secure a larger revenue to the Dominion and to give a measure of protection to local industries. In attaining the first-named object the endeavour was to avoid increases in the rates of duty on items that would directly affect the cost of living, and articles in the nature of luxuries were accordingly made subject to the heavier duties. Substantial increases, referred to below, were made in the excise duties on tobacco and beer.

The 1921 tariff is extended in detail to a greater extent than the repealed scale of duties, the number of items being increased from 483 to 566. An outstanding feature was the introduction of an intermediate tariff. Under the old conditions there were two scales—the general tariff on all dutiable goods and the additional preferential duties which were usually added to importations from foreign countries. Now there are three rates of duty—viz., “general,” “intermediate,” and “British preferential.” The general tariff, which applies to foreign goods, is in effect the general duty plus the preferential duty under the repealed legislation, while the British preferential tariff of 1921 corresponds to the general duty under the older scale. A common ad valorem rate of duty under the repealed tariff was—General, 20 per cent.; additional preferential, 10 per cent.: this had the effect of placing a duty of 20 per cent. on British goods and 30 per cent. on foreign. Under the 1921 tariff articles affected are usually dutiable at—General, 35 per cent.; British preferential, 20 per cent.: the effect being to leave the duty of 20 per cent. on British goods as formerly and to increase the rate on foreign importations from 30 per cent. to 35 per cent. The intermediate tariff is intended to apply to countries entering into reciprocal relations with New Zealand, and will allow of the Dominion's goods being accorded preferential treatment in other countries disposed to reciprocate.

A feature of the 1921 Customs legislation is the provision for the imposition of an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This ranges from 2 ½ to 20 per cent. ad valorem, according as to whether the depreciation at the date of exportation from the country of origin or intermediate country, as the case may be, is from 10 to 20 per cent. or from 80 to 90 per cent. A further noteworthy feature of the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, is a provision for a special dumping duty which may be imposed by the Minister of Customs on goods imported into New Zealand of a class or kind produced in New Zealand if the selling-price to an importer is less than the current domestic value of the goods, and will have a prejudicial effect on an industry established in the Dominion. In such a case the special duty shall not exceed the difference between the actual selling-price and the current domestic value. No such dumping duty will, however, be levied where the imposition is not required in the public interest.

The rates of duty levied by the tariff now in force are divided into two classes, specific and ad valorem. In addition to these the primage duty of 1 per cent. on the value of all imports (with a few exceptions) is retained. The specific class includes—Spirits, 36s. per gallon, which is double the rate previously in force; perfumed spirits, 70s. per gallon for British goods, and 90s. per gallon for foreign. Cigars, 12s. per pound; cigarettes under 2 ½ lb. per 1,000, 25s. 6d.; tobacco, fine cut, 10s. per pound; also 2s. per pound on unmanufactured and 4s. 8d. per pound on manufactured tobacco. Wine, sparkling, pays 16s. per gallon; other kinds, 6s. Ale and beer are charged 2s. per gallon. The duty charged on cocoa, chocolate, chicory, and roasted coffee is 3d. per pound British, and 5d. foreign. The ad valorem duties range from 6 to 60 per cent., this latter figure being charged only on apparel made in a foreign country to the order of a resident of New Zealand. Motor vehicles and parts (including tires, which were formerly free) are dutiable under the British preferential tariff at 10 per cent., and under the general tariff are charged 25 per cent.; in addition, bodies are charged a further £5 to £22 10s. each.

Of the items dealt with in the tariff that which most nearly concerns the people as a whole is tea, a commodity which has fluctuated considerably in the tariff scale. Originally 5 per cent. ad valorem, the duty was raised in 1856 to 3d. per pound, two years later to 4d. per pound, and in 1864 to 6d. per pound. This rate remained till 1895, when the duty was reduced to 4d., followed in 1900 by a further reduction to 2d., British tea being in 1903 placed on the free list. In 1907 the charge of 2d. per pound was reimposed in the case of British tea put up in packages under 5 lb., and at the same time an additional preferential duty of 2d. per pound if in packages of 5 lb. or over and ⅖d. per pound if in packages under 5 lb. was imposed on tea of foreign growth. Under the tariff of 1917 tea paid a general rate of 3d. per pound if in bulk and 5d. per pound if in packages under 5 lb., with an additional preferential duty of 2d. per pound for all foreign tea. These same rates were virtually retained in the 1921 tariff, which provided for duties of 3d. and 5d. per pound on tea in bulk and in packages under 51b. in weight respectively if coming under the British preferential tariff, and a duty of 5d. and 7d. under the general tariff. In 1923, however, the 3d.-per-pound duty on bulk tea from British countries was abolished, and a reduction of 3d. per pound made in all other cases.

A few further amendments to the Customs tariff were made in 1923, the principal of which was the temporary imposition (from the 17th July, 1923, to the 30th September, 1924) of a duty of 5/16d. per pound on refined sugar of No. 22 colour or over, and on invert sugar and invert syrup whether of British or of foreign origin. Under the 1921 tariff, sugar, treacle, molasses, and syrup were admitted free if of British origin, but were charged id. per pound if of foreign origin. After the 30th September, 1924, these items will be free in all cases.

EXCISE DUTIES.

The excise duties arc collected on two classes of manufactures—viz., beer and tobacco and its preparations. The more important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3 ¾d. per gallon when the specific gravity does not exceed 1,047, and increasing by 1/16d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by ⅛d. thereafter. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts determined in relation thereto. On the 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3 ¾d. to 4 ¾d. per gallon, and further (on the 15th September, 1917) to 5 ¾d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon. The Finance Act, 1921 (No. 2), repealed the excise duties then in force, and substituted, as from the 4th November, 1921, a rate of 11 ½d. per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts used does not exceed 1,047, and this is increased by 1/16d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047.

The excise duties on tobacco and the preparations thereof are second in importance. Cut tobacco is charged 2s. 4d. per pound; fine-cut tobacco suitable for the manufacture of cigarettes, 6s. 3d. per pound; other kinds, ls. or 2s. 2d. per pound. These rates replaced (on the 4th November, 1921) the previous excise duty of ls. per pound on tobacco. Under the Finance Act, 1917, cigars and snuff paid 4s. per pound, and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand was 5s. 6d. per pound on machine-made and 4s. per pound on hand-made cigarettes. These rates were not increased in 1921. All packages of manufactured tobacco must be labelled before leaving the manufactory, and it is necessary to obtain warrants to use cutting-machines for cutting duty-paid manufactured tobacco for sale (or to be used in the manufacture of cigarettes by hand) and to manufacture cigarettes by hand, under certain conditions.

Excise duties were formerly levied on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. By the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, this practice no longer operates. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, a special reduced schedule of duties is provided on alcohol imported for use in warehouses manufacturing these articles. In practice this means that alcohol used in manufacturing processes in New Zealand pays duties at the usual rate, and receives, on proof of use in the preparation of the specified articles, a refund of duty to the reduced rates payable. These rates are as follows: On alcohol used in the manufacture of perfumed spirits, 36s. per gallon; toilet preparations, 30s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 16s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon; and in similar preparations containing less than 50 per cent. the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.

In 1856 the first Gold Duty Act was passed, empowering the Governor to collect an export duty on gold at the rate of 2s. 6d. per ounce. This rate was amended by various Acts; but in 1890 the Gold Duty Abolition Act was passed, and a system of rating in mining districts substituted for the export duty as far as the South Island was concerned. The Gold Duty Act, 1908, consolidated and repealed all previous enactments. An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pine and kauri) by Acts of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The rate is 3s. per 100 superficial feet for flitches, and 5s. per 100 superficial feet for logs.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.

In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties produced a greater proportion of the revenue than it does to-day. There has been a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the table given below will show that, even in the last twenty years, this tendency has been very noticeable.

AMOUNT OF CUSTOMS AND EXCISE REVENUE, EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL TAXATION AND TOTAL REVENUE OF NEW ZEALAND.
Year ending 31st March.Total Revenue.Total Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.
Amount.Percentage of Total Revenue.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 £££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19047,130,1173,649,6012,698,04637.8473.93
19057,347,1973,754,3792,728,19337.1372.67
19067,650,0983,841,5962,795,54636.5472.77
19078,478,9574,264,5553,048,62235.9671.49
19089,063,9894,645,7543,217,53835.5069.26
19099,001,1854,377,7612,917,46232.4166.64
19109,238,9174,180,5162,786,49030.1665.63
191110,297,2734,837,3223,145,92930.5565.03
191211,061,1615,296,5903,398,14330.7264.16
191311,734,2765,606,8293,531,76130.1062.99
191412,229,6615,918,0343,553,78529.0660.05
191512,451,9455,880,8113,294,94326.4656.03
191614,507,5307,266,9663,524,06324.2948.49
191718,355,19410,549,6544,037,62822.0038.27
191820,206,22212,340,8533,601,38317.8229.18
191922,352,37213,801,6434,104,74918.3729.74
192026,081,34016,251,7695,185,38819.0831.91
192134,260,96122,184,4148,769,25125.6039.53
192228,127,00716,364,9025,554,33419.7533.93
192327,579,44315,594,2886,644,42024.0942.54

In this table the financial year has been taken for purposes of comparison with total revenue and total taxation, figures concerning which are not available for calendar years. In subsequent tables the Customs-taxation figures relate to the calendar year, which is the statistical year for trade purposes. Though the Customs revenue has increased greatly, the table shows that other forms of taxation and other sources of revenue have increased still faster, so that the proportion of taxation and of revenue furnished by the Customs duties has decreased considerably over the period. This relative decrease has been due in part to the extension of the governmental services in the Dominion increasing the revenue apart from taxation, to the greater use of direct taxation, and to the remissions and reductions of duty which have been made from time to time. These reductions have been mainly in foodstuffs, so that the tariff has tended towards the ideal of a free breakfast-table. War conditions necessitated in 1917 a partial reversal of this principle, whereby non-alcoholic beverages again became the subject of taxation, and the rates of duty then imposed mainly remained unaltered in the 1921 tariff. The 1923 reduction in the case of tea has been already referred to.

The tables hereunder show the amounts and percentages collected at intervals of five years, 1891-1911, and in each year since 1913, in respect of (1) foods and nonalcoholic drinks, (2) clothing and textiles, (3) alcoholic drinks and tobacco, and (4) all other articles. Excise duties on alcoholic liquors, tobacco, &c., are not included, nor are surtax and primage for the years during which these duties have been in force.

PRINCIPAL CLASSES OF IMPORTS FROM WHICH CUSTOMS REVENUE DERIVED.
Year.Amount of Duty derived fromTotal.
Foods and Nonalcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 £££££
1891312,809276,072651,680320,1411,560,702
1896329,622322,947715,019400,2641,767,852
1901321,625434,112928,176512,8532,196,766
1906369,964610,8731,130,837787,4292,899,103
1911147,456682,7101,286,6011,048,8903,165,657
1913146,938790,8621,408,9771,078,6493,425,426
1914165,998822,3731,459,464906,7803,354,615
1915155,292727,8691,515,903745,2643,144,328
1916170,009985,3351,390,3221,036,2273,581,893
1917174,430794,4431,397,267805,4003,171,540
1918278,939935,2031,342,443801,9533,358,538
1919248,7621,097,4631,629,6801,245,1574,221,062
1920438,7402,432,7042,084,1962,424,0457,379,685
1921237,8781,297,1211,930,8981,826,3575,292,254
1922287,2761,354,7181,857,5861,624,3805,123,960
PERCENTAGE OF EACH CLASS TO THE TOTAL DUTY COLLECTED.
Year.Percentage of Total Duty collected on
Foods and Non-alcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
189120.0517.6941.7520.51
189618.6418.2740.4522.64
190114.6419.7642.2523.35
190612.7621.0739.0127.16
19114.6621.5740.6433.13
19134.2923.0941.1331.49
19144.9524.5143.5127.03
19154.9423.1548.2123.70
19164.7527.5138.8128.93
19175.5025.0544.0625.39
19188.3127.8439.9723.88
19195.8926.0038.6129.50
19205.9532.9628.2432.85
19214.4924.5136.4934.51
19225.6026.4436.2631.70

The Customs and excise duties received during the last five years are shown in more detail in the table given below, which also shows the rate of revenue per head of mean population, inclusive and exclusive of Maoris, for each year considered.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE REVENUE, 1918-22.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

* Minus quantity.

Customs Duties.£££££
Spirits522,401622,811861,943914,596646,556
Wine31,69838,83956,08056,02323,651
Ale, beer, &c.3,2372,9975,5933,7851,936
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff369,817472,256600,685461,148466,356
Tobacco413,226490,483554,704493,039714,974
Coffee, cocoa, &c.8,01213,09715,4553,3007,755
Tea129,145116,432138,829107,135121,406
Other goods by weight144,385148,522264,062161,000156,904
Other goods ad valorem1,613,9082,215,4714,707,3622,944,0662,826,931
Other duties122,709100,154174,972148,162133,105
Primage227,626281,292573,792372,684307,442
Depreciated-currency duty......      6,77724,386
     Totals, Customs duties3,586,1644,502,3547,953,4775,671,7155,431,402
Excise Duties.£££££
Tinctures—New Zealand12,07811,49518,79314,581-17*
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff—New-Zealand-manufactured86614,66759,31941,30866,508
Tobacco—New-Zealand-manufactured1,7451,5781,7531,3558,802
Beer—New Zealand261,536337,811363,597393,953604,612
     Totals, excise duties276,225365,551443,462451,197679,905
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Revenue from Customs duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)350318961354128469
Ditto (including Maoris)32331566804810432
Revenue from excise duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)05006507507401010
Ditto (including Maoris)0490620720710105

The following table furnishes a general view of the ratio of Customs revenue to imports since 1895, which is taken as the base year:—

CUSTOMS REVENUE COMPARED WITH IMPORT VALUES FROM 1895.
Year.Imports.Revenue.Percent age of Revenue on Total Imports.Index Numbers of Customs Revenue compared with Imports.
Value.Value per Head.Amount.Actual Value per Head.Value per Head at 1895 Ratio.
 ££s.d.££s.d.£s.d.Per Cent. 
18956,400,12994101,619,97026926925.311000
18967,137,320101111,765,0732911211124.73977
18978,055,22311331,912,1612130216623.74938
18988,230,60011371,961,7262133216723.83942
18998,739,633111312,042,0022145219023.36923
190010,646,0961318102,170,3542161036420.39805
190111,817,915153102,191,79821643161118.55733
190211,326,723143112,285,04321733111020.17797
190312,788,6751511102,501,8963103181119.56773
190413,291,694151472,650,189329319819.94788
190512,828,8571414112,652,666310314820.68817
190615,211,403161982,899,10334946019.06753
190717,302,861181663,079,422370415417.80703
190817,471,28418992,903,086315413716.62656
190915,674,71916272,653,617214741816.93669
191017,051,58317362,954,9892196461117.33685
191119,545,87919523,165,65732549216.20640
191220,976,57420393,335,71934352215.90628
191322,288,302201713,425,42634155715.37607
191421,856,096200113,354,61631651615.35606
191521,728,834191523,190,883218150114.68580
191626,339,283231923,823,01139661414.51573
191720,919,26519083,368,403313416416.10636
191824,234,007211953,586,164350511214.79584
191930,671,698261694,502,3543189615914.06556
192061,595,8285112117,953,4776135131312.91510
192142,942,44335195,671,7154128817613.28522
192235,012,561271945,431,40246971515.51613

With regard to the foregoing table, it may be explained that the figures given in the column “Value per head at 1895 ratio” indicate the amount of revenue per head of population which would have been obtained had the same high ratio of Customs taxation been levied as prevailed in 1895. The last two columns in the table show clearly the substantial decline in the proportion which the Customs revenue bears to the value of the imports, and demonstrate that the increase, both total and per capita, in the Customs revenue is not due to heavier imposts, but has actually been achieved in spite of very considerable reductions in the scale of duties. In 1895 the proportion of revenue to the total imports was one-fourth; in 1922 it was less than one-sixth.

In the following table the Customs revenue collected in 1922 over each class of the statistical classification is given, together with the percentage of revenue to imports in each case.

CUSTOMS REVENUE BY CLASSES OF IMPORTS, 1922.
Class.Articles.Total Imports by Country of Origin.Customs Duty collected (excluding Primage Duty).Percentage of Customs Duty to Imports.
  £££
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)214,86732,88815.40
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt2,913,664122,4534.20
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same675,304131,93519.54
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors722,741676,25693.57
VTobacco and preparations thereof1,328,7461,181,33088.91
VILive animals33,942530.16
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs41,6418762.10
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres492,37635,1177.13
IXAApparel3,791,876865,12322.82
BTextiles4,882,322489,59510.03
CManufactured fibres427,51512,9853.04
XOils, fats, and waxes2,324,33338,2861.64
XIPaints and varnishes370,55248,26213.02
XIIStones and minerals used industrially716,7264,0910.57
XIIISpecie186,487....
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partially manufactured, and ores331,5773,6611.10
BMetal manufactures, other than machines and machinery4,249,178278,9116.56
XVMachines and machinery2,769,325162,4295.87
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)67,6023,2434.80
BLeather and manufactures thereof (including substitutes)475,38550,49310.62
XVIIATimber550,6829,0201.64
BWood, cane, and wicker manufactures152,31227,79918.25
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials716,182114,82916.03
XIXAPaper729,48317,2602.37
BStationery702,59062,8908.95
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods661,929133,04620.10
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments365,10026,7597.33
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares1,098,024126,15511.49
BManures248,572....
XXIIIMiscellaneous2,771,528468,21516.89
      Totals35,012,5615,123,96014.63

A little more than one-fifth of the Customs revenue collected during 1922 was furnished by tobacco, which was also the chief source of revenue in 1918 and 1919. Up to 1917, however, and also in 1921, spirits and alcoholic liquors proved the most productive class.

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

The next table gives the imports of free and dutiable goods arranged according to the statistical classification. The main features of the table are the overwhelming proportion of dutiable goods in the classes containing beverages (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic), tobacco, foodstuffs of animal origin, paints and varnishes, and apparel, and the high proportion of free goods in stones and minerals (mainly coal), specie, raw metals, paper, oils, fats, and waxes, and manures.

FREE AND DUTIABLE GOODS BY CLASSES, 1922.
No.Class.Value of Imports.Percentage of Total.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.
  £££  
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)28,390186,477214,86713.2186.79
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt2,313,778599,8862,913,66479.4120.59
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making the same54,173621,131675,3048.0291.98
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors537722,204722,7410.0199.99
VTobacco and preparations thereof..1,328,7461,328,746..100.00
VILive animals17,08610,85633,94250.3449.66
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs37,0304,61141,64188.9311.07
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres322,277170,099492,37665.4534.55
IXAApparel450,1743,335,7023,791,87612.0387.97
IXBTextiles2,267,6082,614,7144,882,32246.4453.56
IXCManufactured fibres365,33262,183427,51585.4314.57
XOils, fats, and waxes2,068,593255,7402,324,33388.9911.01
XIPaints and varnishes46,979323,573370,55212.6787.33
XIIStones and minerals used industrially701,15515,571716,72697.822.18
XIIISpecie186,487..186,487100.00..
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partially manufactured, and ores316,07415,503331,57795.324.68
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines2,695,6401,553,5384,249,17863.3936.61
XVMachinery and machines1,683,8531,085,4722,769,32560.8039.20
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)61,5466,05667,60291.018.96
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof (including substitutes)155,050320,335475,38532.6167.39
XVIIATimber427,392123,290550,68277.6122.39
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures46,412105,900152,31230.4769.53
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials188,111528,071716,18226.2673.74
XIXAPaper649,83179,652729,48389.0810.92
XIXBStationery471,799230,791702,59067.1532.85
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods120,636541,293661,92918.2281.78
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments179,160185,940365,10049.0750.93
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares627,878470,1461,098,02457.1842.82
XXIIBManures248,572..248,572100.00..
XXIIIMiscellaneous630,5032,141,0252,771,52822.7577.25
      Totals17,368,05617,644,50535,012,56149.6050.40

By classifying the different rates of duty as is done in the following table it will be found that even if specie is excluded, on the average rather over half the imports into New Zealand are duty-free, while the value of goods which are liable to specific duties is about one-eighth. The most usual ad valorem rate during the period covered by the table has been 20 per cent., followed by 25 per cent. Imports at the 30-per-cent. rate, which formerly occupied third position, have sunk to insignificant proportions under the 1921 tariff, while an entirely new rate, 35 per cent., has come into prominence.

IMPORTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO RATE OF DUTY, 1918-22.
Nature of Duty.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.

* Minus quantity.

 £££££
Free (excluding specie)13,272,26216,302,65529,915,63823,901,68817,181,779
Specific duties4,236,4394,256,33710,747,6595,393,7494,397,812
Ad valorem duties—     
   5 per cent.29,25581,422101,342228,8415,862
   10 per cent.353,161751,2491,735,0991,245,9991,502,501
   15 per cent.350,902599,5451,015,283311,7611,437,818
   19⅖ per cent.5169191,321..108
   20 per cent.2,672,9504,167,88810,887,6427,251,4144,707,786
   22½ per cent.85,123154,313139,15993,054..
   24 per cent.21,62331,18767,94617,808..
   24¼ per cent.503482,152..465
   25 per cent.1,561,6401,803,4294,258,6342,491,5173,691,131
   30 per cent.1,412,2731,792,6902,790,2481,701,33288,040
   33 per cent.........115
   33¾ per cent.8,6308,72619,1806,844..
   35 per cent.........1,115,020
   37½ per cent.515,354703,783920,480403,019..
   40 per cent.2,2923,4044,6103,191574,674
   45 per cent.........121,121
   50 per cent.........1,860
   60 per cent.10442821199-18*
     Totals, ad valorem7,013,87310,099,33121,943,30713,754,87913,246,483
Specie102,215362,53141,975198,321186,487
     Grand totals of imports24,234,00730,671,69861,595,82842,942,44335,012,561

Prior to 1922 the value of boots imported was included under both specific and ad valorem duties: 1918, £390,782; 1919, £349,156; 1920, £1,052,751; 1921, £306,194.

The table following shows for the years immediately preceding and following the general tariff revisions of 1895 and 1907, and for 1922, the value of free and dutiable imports, the percentage admitted free of duty, and the duty per cent. on dutiable imports and on all merchandise imported:—

1894.1896.1906.1908.1922.

* Including excise duties levied on certain imports manufactured in bond.

Merchandise—£££££
   Free1,871,7722,263,0915,476,9498,658,11117,181,674
   Dutiable4,118,4054,772,2888,826,2218,589,05117,644,400
Imports (less specie)5,990,1777,035,37914,303,17017,247,16234,826,074
..Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Percentage of free merchandise31.2532.1738.2950.2049.33
 £££££
     Total net duty received*1,572,4671,767,8522,903,1312,907,1515,506,695
Duty per cent. of imports—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
(a.) On dutiable imports38.1837.0432.8933.8531.20
(b.) On all merchandise26.2525.1320.3016.8615.81

It is seen that the percentage of merchandise imported free of duty in 1922 was practically half, as was the case in the year after the tariff revision of 1907. The average rate of duty levied, whether taken as a percentage of all imports or of dutiable goods only, is less than in the year following any previous revision.

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.

Preference to British countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand—that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since the 1st September, 1922, and is referred to more particularly below.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items.

The following table shows the extent of the imports which are affected by preference, by giving the percentage of the total imports and of foreign imports so affected. It will be seen that the proportions have increased generally after the tariff changes of 1907, 1917, and 1921.

IMPORTS AFFECTED BY PREFERENTIAL SURTAX.
Year.Value of Imports.Imports on which Surtax was paid.Percentage of
Total.British Empire.Foreign Countries.Total Imports.Foreign Imports.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
190413,291,69411,029,6942,262,000487,8673.6721.57
190512,828,85710,709,6422,119,215599,7644.6828.30
190615,211,40312,890,0162,321,387620,6004.0826.73
190717,302,86114,942,1832,360,678658,0273.9827.87
190817,471,28414,780,2762,691,008895,0075.1233.26
190915,674,71913,554,9622,119,757842,4075.3739.74
191017,051,58314,465,8242,585,7591,000,2675.8738.68
191119,545,87916,497,3403,048,5391,159,3425.9338.03
191220,976,57417,073,2723,903,3021,337,1826.3734.26
191322,288,30218,348,2493,940,0531,325,0575.9533.63
191421,856,09617,646,7844,206,3121,228,2075.6229.20
191521,728,83417,727,1374,001,6971,321,8536.0833.03
191626,339,28320,833,4615,506,8222,071,1757.8637.61
191720,919,26515,591,3085,327,9572,251,42810.7742.26
191824,234,00716,017,5548,216,4533,457,00414.2742.07
191930,671,69819,519,61911,152,0794,794,24915.6342.99
192061,595,82843,861,29917,734,5297,610,75612.3542.91
192142,942,44331,160,29911,782,1444,122,2969.5934.99
192235,012,56126,005,3529,007,2094,902,50814.0054.42

The system of recording imports was changed in 1914, and for that and subsequent years statistics are available of the countries of origin as well as the countries of shipment, so that it is now possible to get better comparisons of the value of goods produced each year in the various countries with which New Zealand trades. In the table on the previous page the imports credited to any country prior to 1914 were these shipped to New Zealand from that country, but for 1914 and later years the figures relate to country of origin.

For the purpose of studying better the scope and effect of the preferential surtax, imports for the last three years have been classified in the next table into four groups, viz.:—

  1. Goods duty-free, whether of British or of foreign origin:

  2. Goods duty-free if of British origin, but dutiable if of foreign origin:

  3. Goods dutiable and with same rates of duty whether of British or of foreign origin:

  4. Goods dutiable but with additional preferential duty when of foreign origin.

TABLE SHOWING THE IMPORTS OF GOODS OF BBRITISH OR FOREIGN ORIGIN CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF DUTY PAYABLE DURING THE YEARS 1920, 1921, and 1922.
1920.1921.1922.
British.Foreign.British.Foreign.British.Foreign.
 ££££££
Free in any case18,698,9718,381,61314,571,1966,833,3866,146,6573,631,713
Free when of British origin, but dutiable when of foreign origin2,877,029355,6652,695,427345,1957,589,6361,215,220
Dutiable with same rates whether of British of foreign origin4,625,4401,741,6592,996,021826,4622,041,635472,988
Dutiable with a higher rate of duty when of foreign origin17,659,8597,255,59210,897,6553,777,10110,227,3743,687,288
     Totals43,861,29917,734,52931,160,29911,782,14426,005,3529,007,209

Taking the year 1922, it is found that of foreign goods imported 40 per cent. were free of duty, as compared with 58 per cent. in 1921, while a further 5 per cent. (7 per cent. in 1921), though dutiable, paid no higher rate than if they had been of British origin. This leaves 55 per cent. (35 per cent. in 1921) with the disadvantage of the differential duty. Of a total of £26,005,352 in 1922 of British origin, £17,817,060 had the advantage conferred by the preferential rates. This is equivalent to 64 per cent., as against 44 per cent. in 1921.

RECIPROCITY WITH SOUTH AFRICA.

As stated above, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with British South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was terminated on the 1st August, 1922, but by a subsequent Order in Council, gazetted on the 18th November, 1922, was reinstated as from the 1st August, 1922, in a revised form, the duties on tobacco and wine being increased.

The main item of import benefited by the reciprocal arrangement is wine. Sparkling wine is admitted at 9s. 6d. per gallon, as against 15s. under the general and British preferential rates. On still wine the rate is 3s. 6d. per gallon, as compared with 6s. Other items specially provided for are tobacco, feathers, fish, fruit, maize, and tea; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits, a reduction of 3 per cent. is made.

The following table shows the growth of the volume of imports from South Africa during the last ten years. It also discloses a tremendous decrease in the exports to South Africa between the earlier and later years of the decennium, with, however, an improvement in 1922.

Year.Imports.Exports.
According to Country of Shipment.According to Country of Origin.

* Not available.

 £££
19137,796*61,651
191433,22998,48760,826
191543,65455,82611,279
191671,300105,0006,681
191756,39298,5381,588
191843,856110,645718
191962,628169,2222,241
1920189,767263,6535,571
192134,86484,7042,906
1922152,386180,67217,993

Although goods of South African origin to the value of £180,672 were imported in 1922, only £28,489 of this received the benefit of the reciprocal tariff, the remainder either having reached New Zealand after transhipment from some other country or being duty-free in any case. As an example of the latter class may be mentioned unmounted precious stones, the imports of which in 1922 amounted to £27,992, as compared with £54,797 in 1921, £110,890 in 1920, and £87,414 in 1919.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the principal items coming within the scope of the reciprocal tariff:—

PRINCIPAL IMPORTS FROM BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA AFFECTED BY RECIPROCAL TARIFF.
Class.Item.Article.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
   £££££
II80Maize..4,8203,4461,1121,896
IV166 & 167Wine11,09032,02677,55510,83717,680
V171Tobacco, cut8131,3831,0291844,905
IXA234Apparel14891,554156297
266Ostrich-feathers62832867..
XXIII849Candles2,4551,848......

RECIPROCITY WITH COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA.

Prior to the amendment of the Customs tariff in 1921 Australian goods entering the Dominion were accorded British preferential treatment, although articles of New Zealand origin or manufacture entered Australia under the general tariff. From the 22nd December, 1921, however, goods produced in the Commonwealth were placed on the general tariff, and were required in consequence to pay the same duties as were levied on foreign goods. Since the 1st September, 1922, a tariff agreement, confirmed by the Tariff Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act, 1922, has been in operation by which, with the object of promoting trade between the Commonwealth and the Dominion, New Zealand and Australia grant mutual concessions in the matter of Customs duties.

In addition to these reciprocal arrangements, which have operated from the 1st September, 1922, the tariff agreement provides further that goods which are imported into Australia and are subsequently transhipped to New Zealand, and which, if they had been imported direct from the country of origin into New Zealand, would have been entitled to be entered under the British preferential tariff, shall be admitted to the Dominion under the British preferential tariff. A similar provision relates to goods imported into the Dominion and transhipped to the Commonwealth. These concessions have operated from the 1st May, 1922.

The main reciprocal agreement covers 129 items, in some cases the reduction of the rate of duty amounting to less, and in some more, than that accorded British goods under the ordinary scale of preferential duties. In any instance where the rate of duty has not been lowered at least to the extent provided for British goods, the reason may generally be found in the fact that protection is sought for the development of a secondary industry in the country retaining the higher rate of duty. Then, apart from the 129 items which are thus specifically mentioned, all other goods which are produced or manufactured in either Australia or New Zealand are admitted to the other country concerned at British preferential rates of duty.

It is difficult to indicate concisely the items of trade upon which the agreement will produce the most marked effect, for the reason that one primary object of the reciprocal arrangement is to encourage expansion of trade in some classes of goods which at present do not figure very largely in commercial activities between the Commonwealth and the Dominion. The effect on future trade is therefore to a degree problematical. Conclusions based on present trade relations are similarly liable to be erroneous.

Nevertheless it is of interest to consider the trade position as it has developed of recent years, and to examine in connection with the main items the alterations that have been effected in the rates of duty. The table on the opposite page has accordingly been prepared to indicate the amendment, on the one hand, in the rate of duty on importations into Australia of New Zealand goods, and, on the other, in the rate imposed on imports into New Zealand of articles of Australian origin or manufacture under the tariff agreement.

The item which figures most largely in the trade of both countries is timber (rough-sawn). Australian-produced timber now enters New Zealand free, in lieu of the former general duty of 2s. per 100 superficial feet. New Zealand timbers, similarly, now enter the Commonwealth free, the rates superseded varying from 1s. per 100 superficial feet on timber for the manufacture of boxes (mainly white-pine) to 4s., 5s. 6d., and 7s. per 100 superficial feet on larger sizes. All agricultural and dairying machines, which were formerly dutiable in both countries, have, with one or two exceptions, been placed in the free list under the new agreement. The duty on imports from Australia of grain and pulse in an unmanufactured condition has been reduced from 2s. per cental to 1s. 6d. per cental, and boots, shoes, &c, from Australia benefit also by a reduction of duty from 45 per cent. ad valorem to 35 per cent. ad valorem.

In the table now presented the average annual value of exports to, and imports from, Australia over the three calendar years 1919, 1920, and 1921 are shown. From these figures an idea may be formed of the extent to which the various items will be affected by the reciprocal arrangements.

MAIN ITEMS AFFECTED BY AUSTRALIAN TARIFF AGREEMENT.
Article.Exports to Australia.Imports from Australia.
Average Yearly Value, 1919-21.Australian Duty.Average Yearly Value, 1910-21.New Zealand Duty.
Old.Reciprocal.Old.Reciprocal.
 £  £  
Horses, other than for stud purposes Chocolate confectionery—17,345FreeFree5,716£1 eachFree.
   (1) In plain trade packages....3d. per lb.16,9255d. per lb.3d. per lb.
   (2) In fancy retail packages....20% ad val.16,70135% ad val.20% ad val.
Fish, fresh, or preserved by cold process15,4801 ½d. per lb.Free..15s. per cwt.Free.
Fish, preserved in tins or other airtight process10,1242 ½d. per lb.Free23d. per lb.Free.
Fruits, preserved in syrup..VariousVarious58,21740% ad val.35% ad val.
Grain and pulse, not prepared or manufactured39,2131s. 6d. per cental1s. 6d. per cental432,8342s. per cental1s. 6d. per cental.
Hops11,5321s. per lb.9d. per lb.7831s. per lb.9d. per lb.
Milk, dried16,6054d. per lb.25% ad val.4740% ad val.25% ad val.
Milk, preserved, condensed, or evaporated20,1992 ½d. per lb.25% ad val.22,66340% ad val.25% ad val.
Onions2,431£6 per ton£1 per ton16,846£1 10s. per ton£1 per ton.
Soaps9240% and 45% ad val.30% ad val.55,31345% ad val.30% ad val.
Vegetables, fresh16,0282s. per centalFree18,48035% ad val.Free.
Wine, Australian (not sparkling)......58,2315s. per gal.4s. per gal.
Wine, Australian (sparkling)......2,27415s. per gal.10s. per gal.
Apparel and ready-made clothing n.e.i.15055% ad val.25% ad val.111,41640% ad val.25% ad val.
Hats and caps n.e.i...45% ad val.30% ad val.66,86840% ad val.30% ad val.
Leather belting..40% ad val.15% ad val.12,41125% ad val.15% ad val.
 ....or 3d. per lb...or 5d. per lb.or 3d. per lb.
Leather bags, trunks, portnanteaux—      
   (1) Under 10 in. in length..50% ad val.25% ad val.5,33335% ad val.25% ad val.
   (2) 10 in. and over in length750% ad val.25% ad val.10,92240% ad val.30% ad val.
Boots, shoes, clogs, &c.345% ad val.35% ad val.494,13645% ad val.35% ad val.
Timber, rough-sawn535,789Various (1s. to 7s. per 100 sup. ft.)Free137,9472s. per 100 sup. ft.Free.
Nails (excluding horse-shoe)1£8 per ton£2 per ton22,204£4 per ton£2 per ton.
Paints, ground in oil or turpentine..Various20% ad val.42,38825% ad val.20% ad val.
Varnishes, lacquers, gold-size, and terebene..Various20% ad val.22,12725% ad val.20% ad val.

SUBSECTION E.—TRADE OF PORTS.
INTRODUCTORY.

IN the earliest statistical publication for New Zealand as a whole—covering the period 1853-56—and in its successors up to and including 1867, much more prominence was given to the overseas trade of individual New Zealand ports than to the countries with which the young colony was trading. Even the total trade with individual countries was not published, the only distinction made in this connection being as to trade with (1) the United Kingdom, (2) British possessions, and (3) foreign countries.

In 1868, however, a complete change was made, and detailed statistics of imports from and exports to individual countries were instituted. From this year the port details were reduced step by step until, in place of the elaborate detailed statements for each port, two tables showing for each port only the exports to and imports from each country were presented in the annual statistical volume. Later—in 1914—the system of details for each port was partially reverted to, particulars of items imported and exported being given for Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Dunedin separately, and all other ports in conjunction.

PORTS OF ENTRY.

New Zealand has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes, eleven in the North Island and ten in the South. It is interesting to compare the present list with that of ports for which statistics were compiled in the “fifties.” Of the latter no fewer than seven do not appear among the present-day ports of entry, though oversea vessels occasionally arrive direct at some of them. The list of ports of entry in 1853 and 1922 is as follows:—

1853.
Mangonui.
Russell.
Whangarei.
Hokianga.
Kaipara.
Auckland.
Kawhia.
Napier.
New Plymouth.
Wanganui.
Wellington.
Nelson.
Lyttelton.
Akaroa.
Chatham Islands.
Otago (Dunedin).
Bluff.
1922.
Kaipara.
Auckland.
Tauranga.
Tokomaru Bay.
Gisborne.
Napier.
Waitara.
New Plymouth.
Patea.
Wanganui.
Wellington.
Wairau (including Picton).
Nelson.
Westport.
Greymouth.
Hokitika.
Lyttelton.
Timaru.
Oamaru.
Dunedin.
Invercargill (Bluff).

OVERSEA IMPORTS.

Dealing with the overseas trade of the Dominion, the following table gives the actual amount of imports cleared for home consumption in New Zealand at the several ports of entry for the five years 1918-22:—

IMPORTS BY PORTS, 1918-22.
Ports.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
 £££££
Auckland7,217,7329,567,40918,732,08214,677,69412,496,209
Kaipara1,3875,9551,4524,9613,459
Tauranga3,1952,9746,1776,16213,343
Gisborne141,334165,390331,414233,380160,932
New Plymouth219,654230,089499,009463,682467,081
Patea30,36952,95277,21359,94131,114
Wanganui250,721317,007573,814461,695288,591
Wellington8,378,55710,626,87321,037,63913,196,78810,187,390
Napier414,158575,4931,130,157878,581591,099
Wairau (incl. Picton)31,10143,76365,58561,03847,349
Nelson87,771110,014207,019148,715141,463
Westport32,93435,86763,69341,85258,483
Greymouth50,18377,616129,219133,986153,488
Hokitika5,7415,84610,26810,3148,353
Lyttelton3,781,1154,584,8229,774,2616,761,3205,672,470
Timaru298,863353,868717,133531,089376,350
Oamaru45,19256,630123,801109,304101,033
Dunedin2,842,1463,331,6557,057,8234,530,9953,592,777
Invercargill401,854527,4751,058,069631,246621,577
     Totals24,234,00730,671,69861,595,82842,942,44335,012,561

As importing ports-Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Dunedin are far in advance of the other ports. In both 1921 and 1922 Auckland, which from 1915 onwards had occupied second place, displaced Wellington from the first position. Auckland and Wellington each has a higher total than the whole of the South Island ports.

OVERSEA EXPORTS.

From 1914 to 1921 the Customs Department allocated exports as far as possible to the appropriate district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or not, and no complementary figures are available to show the export trade from each individual port for this period. From the 1st January, 1922, however, the system in force was changed to allow of exports being credited to the final port of shipment, as was the case prior to 1914.

The export districts to which New Zealand produce and manufactures were credited during the eight years ending with 1921 are as under:—

Auckland: Including the counties of Mongonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Hobson, Whangarei, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata, Eden, Manukau, Raglan, Waikato, Ohinemuri, Thames, Hauraki Plains, Coromandel, Kawhia, Waipa, Great Barrier, Piako, Matamata, Rotorua, Whakatane, Franklin, Opotiki, Waitomo, Ohura, and West Taupo; but including Kaipara exports.

Kaipara: Including the exports through the Port of Kaipara.

Tauranga: Including the County of Tauranga.

Gisborne: Including the counties of Waiapu, Matakaoa, Waikohu, Uawa, and Cook. Tokomaru Bay: Including as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of Tokomaru Bay. Up to the end of 1920 was included in Gisborne.

New Plymouth: Including as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of New Plymouth.

Waitara: Including as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of Waitara.

Patea? Including as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of Patea.

Wanganui: Including the counties of Waitotara, Waimarino, Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina, Oroua, Kairanga, Manawatu, and Kaitieke.

Wellington: Including the counties of Pahiatua, Akitio, Eketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Castlepoint, Wairarapa South, Featherston, Hutt, Makara, and Horowhenua.

Napier: Including the counties of Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, East Taupo, Waipawa, Patangata, Waipukurau, Dannevirke, Woodville, and Weber.

Wairau (including Picton): Including the counties of Awatere, Sounds, and Marlborough.

Nelson: Including the counties of Waimea, Murchison, Takaka, and Collingwood.

Westport: Including the County of Buller.

Greymouth: Including the counties of Inangahua and Grey.

Hokitika: Including the County of Westland.

Lyttelton: Including the counties of Kaikoura, Amuri, Cheviot, Waipara, Tawera, Ashley, Kowai, Oxford, Rangiora, Eyre, Selwyn, Ellesmere, Halswell, Heathcote, Malvern,. Paparua, Springs, Waimairi, Mount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa, Ashburton, and Chatham Islands.

Timaru: Including the counties of Geraldine, Levels, Mackenzie, and Waimate.

Oamaru: Including the County of Waitaki.

Dunedin: Including the counties of Vincent, Maniototo, Waihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka, Bruce, and Clutha.

Invercargill: Including the counties of Southland, Wallace, Fiord. Lake, and Stewart Island.

The system of showing exports according to the district of production was introduced in 1914 on account of complaints from the smaller ports as to the injustice done them when goods produced in their surrounding districts were shown as an export of one of the larger ports to which they had been sent by railway or coastal vessel. The system, however, did not prove satisfactory in practice, and the former method of showing exports according to the port at which the goods were placed on board the exporting-vessel was reverted to.

The two tables following give for the latest five years available (1) overseas exports according to district of production, and (2) overseas exports according to the port at which they are actually placed on board the overseas vessel. Tauranga, which is omitted from the second table, was not a port of entry prior to 1915, and had no overseas exports recorded for 1922.

OVERSEAS EXPORTS BY DISTRICTS OF PRODUCTION, 1917-21.
District.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £££££
Auckland5,712,4676,027,9889,847,2969,383,60311,943,224
Kaipara96,12193,46354,50780,61172,773
Tauranga67,48274,72243,3265,436127,082
Tokomaru Bay1,699,7811,228,4493,466,5022,333,212322,546
Gisborne1,633,241
New Plymouth1,038,7691,113,5572,133,6011,869,1852,985,942
Waitara345,450214,097555,265486,12886,295
Patea976,9221,329,1002,369,5811,813,5222,371,832
Wanganui1,986,9831,900,4673,975,3544,037,1163,759,494
Wellington6,954,2635,846,3429,506,9577,268,7786,045,828
Napier3,216,0552,364,7344,504,3873,515,5462,672,404
Wairau (incl. Picton)298,223287,399836,317460,235587,194
Nelson219,191165,255482,660297,812328,792
Westport47,85038,83242,09956,89486,898
Greymouth320,469194,971330,820467,776315,323
Hokitika48,01939,80747,88572,601126,566
Lyttelton3,926,2413,225,4286,702,1306,029,5424,487,376
Timaru925,788831,7642,214,2371,862,2761,578,764
Oamaru201,052351,713539,539429,547360,176
Dunedin1,720,3091,786,0683,366,7313,104,9262,284,783
Invercargill1,754,8971,281,6962,874,5802,767,1922,566,110
Parcels-post31,215120,43676,301100,00886,184
     Totals31,587,54728,516,18853,970,07546,441,94644,828,827
OVERSEAS EXPORTS BY PORTS, 1910-13 and 1922.
Port.1910.1911.1912.1913.1922.
 £££££
Auckland3,960,6553,280,8783,381,9384,024,7409,595,225
Kaipara142,797150,740146,47979,28327,339
Tokomaru Bay1,189,2631,008,7271,192,0671,216,354337,149
Gisborne1,939,140
New Plymouth620,785528,436575,583631,2581,038,469
Waitara332,913235,841348,453310,462..
Patea586,729556,498795,071692,336160,336
Wanganui401,655470,944579,727532,2851,547,243
Wellington4,530,9233,812,7694,692,4285,322,80811,842,144
Napier1,885,9391,308,0321,768,1711,949,2882,577,431
Wairau (incl. Picton)305,459300,314345,061303,686416,617
Nelson150,397147,397167,961160,216302,205
Westport66,48161,63850,72740,34546,934
Greymouth386,030435,639344,537375,451191,969
Hokitika33,49130,98031,03214,04725,581
Lyttelton3,145,4712,751,0122,904,1482,983,2665,034,968
Timaru1,290,4511,140,2121,148,3851,205,2412,285,747
Oamaru211,982126,235251,176209,298455,205
Dunedin1,564,7731,348,2751,595,1761,582,0202,442,453
Invercargill1,338,8251,294,4021,413,0291,302,7762,392,770
Parcels-post35,19039,52139,43251,56267,324
     Totals22,180,20919,028,49021,770,58122,986,72242,726,249

The west-coast ports of both Islands, as well as Nelson and Wairau in the northern portion of the South Island, send much of their produce to Wellington for loading on to the overseas vessels, and it will be observed that all of these ports show considerable decreases as a result of the reintroduction of the system in force prior to 1914.

PORT TONNAGE STATISTICS.

Neither under the system in force from 1914 to 1921, when exports were shown according to district of production, nor under the present system of allocating the goods to the port at which they are placed on board the exporting-vessel, was it possible to properly show the total work and progress of each ports since overseas trade only was dealt with, and goods passing over two wharves could only be shown under one without duplication in the trade statistics of the Dominion. Moreover, by dealing only with values the progress of a port could not be accurately estimated from year to year owing to the extent to which these total values were affected by the variation in price of the goods included. The work of a port is properly gauged by the tonnage handled; the revenue is levied on a tonnage basis, and a proper estimate of the progress and development of a port from year to year is better obtained by a study of the statistics of tonnage handled than of values. In comparing one port with another, however, care must be taken to observe whether there is any great difference in the character and value of the cargo handled, and allowance made accordingly: a port which handles principally coal, timber, or cement is not properly comparable with a port handling principally butter and cheese.

Consequently, to meet the lack of proper statistics for the close observation and study of individual ports a system was introduced in 1922 to show on a tonnage basis the total exports of each port, whether placed on the overseas vessel there, sent to a central port for shipment overseas, or despatched coastwise to another port for consumption in New Zealand. The inclusion of the coastal trade is of especial value. The statistics of overseas trade, on either of the systems hitherto followed, covered considerably less than half of the total seaborne trade of the Dominion, and the smaller ports were placed under an even greater disadvantage than the larger ports, on account of the greater disparity between coastal and direct overseas trade in the case of the former. The usefulness of a port, and the importance of the service rendered by it to the district, are determined not by its foreign trade but by its total trade; it is quite as necessary and valuable to the district to provide the facilities required for the home coastal trade as for the foreign trade.

In order to obtain statistics of the total trade of each port, a system of monthly returns from the various port authorities has been instituted, showing under some forty headings the quantity of goods handled, distinguishing inwards and outwards cargo, coastal and overseas and transhipments. For obvious reasons, total values of goods shipped coastwise cannot be obtained, and the statistics are compiled and published on a tonnage basis.

The following schedule shows the items covered by the returns, and gives the measurements adopted for the conversion of the various items to a uniform tonnage basis:—

BenzineActual measurements.
Bran, sacks12 to ton.
Bricks320 to ton.
ButterActual weight.
Candles1 ½ cubic feet per box.
Casks (quarter)10 cubic feet.
Cement, bags18 to ton.
Cement, casks6 to ton.
Chaff, sacks25 to ton.
CheeseActual weight.
Coke in bags20 to ton.
Cop ..... sacksActual weight.
Drums, 5-gallon cubic feet.
Flour, 200-lb. sacks10 to ton.
Frozen meatActual weight.
Fruit, freshActual measurements.
Fuel oilsActual measurements.
Grain, 4-bushel sacks10 to ton.
Hides in sacks10 to ton.
Hogsheads16 cubic feet each.
HoneyActual weight.
KeroseneActual measurements.
Live-stock— 
   Great cattle2 to ton.
   Small cattle20 to ton.
Oatmeal, 200-lb. sacks10 to ton.
PeltsActual weight.
Pollard, 200-lb. sacks 10 to ton. PotatoesActual weight.
Preserved meatsActual measurements.
Pumice, sacks— 
   Rough20 to ton.
   Ground10 to ton.
Quarter-casks10 cubic feet.
SaltActual weight.
Seed, 4-bushel sacks10 to ton.
SkinsActual measurements.
Sugar, 70-lb. bags32 to ton.
TallowActual weight.
Timber— 
   Hardwoods320 sup. feet to ton.
   Softwoods480 sup. feet to ton.
Vehicles— 
   Push-cycles1/4 ton.
   Motor-cycles1/2 ton.
   Side-cars1/2 ton.
   Horse vehicles— 
     2-wheeled2 tons.
     4-wheeled4 tons.
   Motor-cars5 tons.
   Motor-lorries and charabancs8 tons.
Wheatmeal200-lb
sacks10 to ton.
Wool to ton.

Detailed tables are published for each of the forty-six ports in the “Annual Statistical Report on Trade and Shipping.” In addition, successive issues of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics contain cumulative figures of the total tonnage handled at each port, and details of items for the eighteen more important ports. Space will not permit the inclusion in the Year-book of all these details, but the following table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards, distinguishing between overseas and coastal and giving the transhipments separately.

The huge proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is very noticeable:—

Port.Inwards.Transhipments (included once only).Outwards.Total.
Coastal.Overseas.Coastal.Overseas.

* Coal, coke, live-stock, and timber only.

 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Russell7,270....5,4747,31420,058
Hokianga4,338100..3,49012,12320,051
Mangonui1,543..2802..2,347
Whangarei27,876....100,371..128,247
Kaipara4,0742,6121531,9751,62610,440
Mangawai1,421....1,042..2,463
Auckland538,052542,03560,358214,355117,0641,471,864
Onehunga22,808....34,325..57,133
Whitianga824....4,742..5,566
Great Barrier389....408..797
Kawhia1,873....931..2,804
Raglan2,010....1,118..3,128
Thames9,635....2,875..12,510
Tauranga20,767..1,1639,879..37,809
Opotiki6,234....3,915..10,149
Whakatane9,459....5,403..14,862
Tolaga Bay1,688....1,517..3,205
Tokomaru Bay5,9452798011,1216,47514,621
Gisborne49,0751,0481,46817,22132,598101,410
Wairoa15,329..3,5675,270..24,166
Waikokopu2,525....552..3,077
Napier62,56536,54718,23428,67950,873196,898
Mokau231....218..449
Waitara399....492..891
New Plymouth54,79628,77910215,84915,328114,854
Pates5,324....13,694..19,018
Wanganui74,25715,450..17,31344,428151,448
Foxton7,795....3,068..10,863
Wellington336,590308,715329,785109,122122,4701,206,682
Wairau4,430..1155,22239,770
Kaikoura3,523....2,333..5,856
Picton17,531....40,0838,14765,761
Nelson54,07455613,22525,5314,12397,509
Waitapu2,067....2,729..4,796
Motueka7,234....9,918..17,152
Westport*47....524,82818,715543,590
Greymouth29,527910..298,39847,017375,852
Hokitika182....161..343
Lyttelton203,272218,3072,214149,75185,116658,660
Akaroa1,096....307..1,403
Timaru37,67215,8717554,39845,274153,290
Oamaru8,3427,75121240,7025,81862,825
Otago81,076129,8597,31885,70631,971335,930
Invercargill1,844....76..1,920
Bluff20,95048,359..18,59145,077132,977
Half-moon Bay505....405..910
     Totals1,754,4641,357,178438,7921,864,360701,5606,116,354

The above table shows the quantity of cargo placed on board the overseas vessels at the respective ports, and a table will be found in the shipping section of the Year-book showing the number and tonnage of overseas vessels calling at each port. These tables give a good indication of the extent to which each port enters directly into the overseas trade of the Dominion. The following table shows for each port the tonnage of the nine principal commodities exported overseas by the Dominion, and clearly indicates from which ports they originate, thus showing the extent to which the various ports handle our overseas exports, although the goods may be sent outwards coastwise for transhipment at another port. The tonnage of transhipments included in the totals given in the table is shown in italics above the figures for each port.

TOTAL OUTWARDS CARGO (INCLUDING TRANSHIPMENTS) HANDLED I AT THE VARIOUS PORTS OF THE DOMINION, SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS SEPARATELY.

(Transhipments included shown in italics above the figures for the appropriate port.)

Port.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.CheeseTallowHides, Skins, and Pelts.Coal.Hemp Fibre and Tow).Timber.All other Goods.Total.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Russell4942,788351..2732781,150756,0291,35012,788
Hokianga299..361141341....13,90186715,613
Mangonui..................22
100..244....12......448804
Whangarei918..2,184246216613,3045728983,367100,371
Kaipara................153..153
146......411650632,3891,0493,754
Mangawai12........3....5314961,042
Auckland1,321266,9553,030311,0286,5981,3681,46338,53860,358
15,4467,65030,5419,9333,8985,99915,7372,56229,609270,402391,777
Onehunga94..4314..7252..56333,09134,325
Whitianga8..79..65....4,5131314,742
Great Barrier17..............6385408
Kawhia340..151....6......434931
Raglan144..157........19427561,118
Thames8..1205685430..1452,0492,875
Tauranga3..........151..529571,163
130..1,554..463381511,0842,5075,23211,042
Opotiki413..5822241853......2,6253,915
Whakatane156..5591,0922891....13,4765,403
Tolaga Bay1,265..36..1533......1681,517
Tokomaru Bay778..........1..1210801
2,6334,330....4264181..125778,397
Gisborne977..13....34......4441,468
15,22616,51189211,7831,497....3,68411,69351,287
Wairoa..3,567................3,567
3,1583,5677251455204..296..1,0348,837
Waikokopu493....48..3......8552
Napier5,5734,301..12054982,8259192333,88018,234
31,39026,3059492,9452,9263,9841,0233,59325,56297,786
Mokau74..38....359....44218
Waitara............1..27464492
New Plymouth..55    47......102
6167,9846,5409,9061,1581,12747..413,86031,279
Patea3381,1262,5188,545279349......53913,694
Wanganui17,01813,1842,3594,2631,3851,712230..11,5919,99961,741
Foxton16............429512,5723,068
Wellington6,0897948,93122,7768331,633206,4662,5861,36578,312329,785
38,33637,91720,70137,6087,1119,073206,5839,7473,777190,524561,377
Wairau................15100115
735........7..16164,5665,340
Kaikoura970..45314454....918552,333
Picton4,1682,12972407246373..3974040,39848,230
Nelson175..2396573211,230272410,84913,225
4,2695957237661864202,6523812333,10742,879
Waitapu291..23129..268..7301,4142,729
Motueka99..67....16..1479,7159,918
Westport............538,456..3,1591,928543,543
Greymouth1,394..35928186776248,1916789,0105,251345,415
Hokitika..................161161
Lyttelton388..54484126716316409902,214
21,01922,5412,2951,3743,7373,82049059650181,096237,081
Akaroa18........2......287307
Timaru12........45......1875
8,85715,9063256101,574667....571,80399,747
Oamaru............212......212
4,470567....23385212....41,16546,732
Otago..........55..23877,1537,318
11,9016,8241,6913,0401,7993,0767421828796,085124,995
Invercargill............6..56576
Bluff11,5439,8571,1258,5081,7401,002943712,16927,25963,668
Half-moon Bay4........1......400405
     Totals15,1158,74316,19226,9481,0843,381217,6934,9393,444141,253438,792
199,026179,78176,98588,09629,59134,7151,031,73216,536179,4931,168,7573,004,712

Chapter 12. SECTION XII.—SHIPPING.

REGISTERED VESSELS.

THE number and tonnage of the registered vessels belonging to the several ports of registry in the Dominion on the 31st December, 1922 (distinguishing sailing-vessels and steamers), were as under:—

Port.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.Totals.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
Auckland876,6585,31023624,09612,24032330,75417,550
Napier4266253294,0242,292334,2902,545
Wellington154,9584,5763914,9757,6705419,93312,246
Nelson35654184,7632,346214,8192,400
Lyttelton103,4803,3892211,8716,7093215,35110,098
Timaru1733690194248821,6751,178
Dunedin177,0906,8986565,23738,5968272,32745,494
Invercargill134231481,09851991,440833
     Totals13823,58321,484418127,00670,860556150,58992,344

Auckland is the port, of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito" fleet, the average net tonnage of the 323 vessels on the Auckland register being under 60 tons. At Dunedin many of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered. Shortly after the outbreak of the late war, however, several of the principal vessels of this company were transferred to the London register, the large decrease in 1914 as compared with 1913, shown in the next table, being due to this cause.

Port.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.Totals.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
191322533,93131,619391220,186127,691616254,117159,310
191419722,71420,984384135,83877,901581158,55298,885
191519623,54621,762385126,54971,695581150,09593,457
191619023,66421,853390124,83370,442580148,49792,295
191718424,35622,404376115,68365,092560140,03987,496
191817825,20023,158379116,55165,388557141,75188,546
191917424,35422,216382116,26164,943556140,61587,159
192016323,33421,223384116,61164,837547139,94586,060
192116125,46123,201401122,37168,705562147,83291,906
192213823,58321,484418127,00670,860556150,58992,344

The number of sailing-vessels on the register has decreased rapidly during recent years, there having been a continuous decline since 1907, in which year 323 sailing-vessels were on the register.

OVERSEA SHIPPING.

The number and tonnage of oversea vessels fell steadily throughout the war, and only a partial recovery was effected in 1919. During the year 1920, however, a total of 744 vessels direct from oversea ports was entered inwards, this number constituting a record, as did also the total tonnage for the year—viz., 2,062,370. A fall occurred in 1921, and a further fall in 1922, but in each of these two years the aggregate tonnage was greater than in any year prior to 1920.

Of late years the tendency has been for vessels of a larger size to be employed in the New Zealand trade, in order to cope with the growing imports and exports of the Dominion and for the purposes of the passenger traffic. The increase over a period of years is thus more noticeable on a comparison of tonnage than by comparing the number of vessels. The number of vessels entered inwards and cleared outwards in 1912 was 1,343, of an aggregate tonnage of 3,340,722 tons—an average of 2,487 tons. The 1,140 vessels in 1922 aggregated 3,572,967 tons, the average being 3,134 tons. Dealing with steamships only (1,154 in 1912 and 1,103 in 1922), the average tonnage is found to be 2,807 and 3,225 tons respectively. The number of sailing-vessels arriving and departing decreased from 189 in 1912 to only 37 in 1922, the aggregate tonnage falling in the same time from 101,254 to 15,645 tons.

The number and tonnage of vessels entered and cleared during each of the last ten years, separating steam from sailing, are as shown in the following table:—

OVERSEA SHIPPING, 1913-22.
Year.Entered.Cleared.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.
Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.
1913563821,692,92946,056559761,658,45741,350
1914567791,676,84048,009582751,735,60146,380
1915581571,613,67927,746585641,604,05031,883
1916520541,418,99129,526534561,461,59729,996
1917485581,378,67627,100486611,353,97527,907
1918458851,225,48154,067464801,264,10546,522
1919472921,427,75953,124475991,444,20661,050
1920665792,025,17537,195637701,942,90333,352
1921611671,891,30948,927610681,895,41948,922
1922552191,774,8868,101551181,782,4367,544

NATIONALITY OF VESSELS.

The next table shows the number and tonnage of British, colonial, and foreign vessels entered and cleared in each of the ten years 1913 to 1922:—

Year.British.Colonial.Foreign.Total.
Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.Vessels.Tons.
Entered.
1913171765,943430905,0344468,0086451,738,985
1914191791,529398847,9105785,4106461,724,849
19153141,145,809290439,2923456,5246381,641,425
1916255998,388283388,9613661,1685741,448,517
19172491,008,759262336,0273260,9905431,405,776
1918193838,198289374,1306167,2205431,279,548
19192661,114,479239285,3835981,0215641,480,883
19203631,477,965302403,02579181,3807442,062,370
19213531,386,467280438,68045115,0896781,940,236
19223561,369,799200360,3651552,8235711,782,987
Cleared.
1913171748,769420886,4404464,5986351,699,307
1914194826,358407867,1845688,4396571,781,981
19153171,138,873293437,3883959,6726491,635,933
19162591,027,088294400,6463763,8595901,491,593
1917253995,346261327,8223358,7145471,381,882
1918203872,204289377,3835261,0405441,310,627
19192731,139,812239286,0626279,3825741,505,266
19203451,421,814291393,09171161,3507071,976,255
19213561,388,147267417,78655138,4036781,944,341
19223501,365,722203369,4911654,7675691,789,980

British vessels have shown a great increase in tonnage over the period under review. Foreign tonnage rose considerably after the war, but fell by half between 1921 and 1922. Colonial tonnage also fell in 1922, mainly on account of industrial disturbances which temporarily caused a cessation of shipping between Australia and New Zealand. The decrease in the colonial tonnage after 1914 is mainly due to the transfer of many of the larger New-Zealand-owned vessels to the London registry early in the war.

Of the colonial vessels entered inwards in 1922, 63, with an aggregate net tonnage of 77,085 tons, were of New Zealand registry. The foreign vessels entered inwards consisted of 9 American (35,447 tons), 3 Japanese, 1 Dutch, 1 Norwegian, and 1 Swedish.

DIRECTION OF OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during the years 1912 and 1922 are given below:—

Country.1912.1922.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom92481,120103519,50570375,36199543,821
Christmas Island24,946............
India518,523....39,347....
Straits Settlements........25,17022,427
Seychelles Islands1997....12,991....
South African Union21,651............
Canada25100,2411353,37644193,1611270,148
Australia406792,676449931,815344872,175384974,872
Fiji2745,9072438,1092457,7052354,190
Gilbert and Ellice Island........25,71212,719
Maiden Island53,65832,1731917....
Nauru (Pleasant) Island........513,86912,719
Norfolk Island28062806........
Solomon Islands........14032806
Tonga1929,6532031,589........
Western Samoa23572199........
France............12,829
Netherlands12,726............
Norway74,226............
Sweden11,070......2,874....
China....13,90512,859....
Japan26,359115013,31126,592
Dutch Borneo........12,43812,313
Java23,797............
Minor Dutch East Indies........34,740....
Sumatra........25,157....
Madagascar21,796............
Brazil1787............
Chile412,377310,004....12,991
United States of America46135,2921745,41151211,22329111,483
Bismarck Archipelago....21,651........
Marshall Islands....1787........
New Caledonia43,19268,77255,6151884
New Hebrides........1403....
Society Islands1417,0501316,35175,72675,726
Tuamotu Archipelago........11,83012,357
Tutuila............23,103
Antarctica25501400........
Whale fisheries32,33553,627........
     Totals6771,672,0926661,668,6305711,782,9875691,789,980

COASTWISE SHIPPING.

The extensive coast-line and numerous harbours of New Zealand facilitate travelling and the distribution of goods by sea. The total tonnage of coastwise shipping, as shown below, includes that of oversea vessels which, after entry at the first port of arrival, proceed to other ports within the Dominion for the purpose of delivering and loading cargo, each movement until the final sailing being recorded as coastwise shipping.

COASTWISE SHIPPING, 1913-22.
Year.Entered.Cleared.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.
Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.
191321,9373,76411,332,143173,49421,9223,73311,330,078172,715
191423,0193,88012,217,206175,75723,0263,84612,154,108179,761
191521,8903,20410,918,580133,10221,9273,20210,899,058133,519
191621,2283,0929,919,576129,25321,1563,1319,713,698127,182
191718,5032,2838,172,12493,84518,4032,2958,164,40795,808
191817,4921,9676,942,341113,12417,4931,9237,041,489103,059
191917,6311,9767,274,63591,49417,6331,9747,277,28190,593
192017,8571,5478,068,61075,24117,8701,5428,097,96873,982
192116,7361,6198,051,11786,66216,7721,5928,012,15782,710
192217,7061,6538,851,42981,20117,7301,6618,850,16782,223

Despite the difference of ten years (during which a large increase in shipping, commensurate with the Dominion's developments in other directions, might have been expected), there is a big drop shown in the coastwise shipping handled in 1922 as compared with 1913. Coastwise shipping naturally reflects on a larger scale the effects of the war noticeable in overseas shipping. That this is so will be more readily understood if it be observed that the normal rate of progress from year to year is much greater in the overseas shipping.

SHIPPING TRADE OF PORTS.

New Zealand has twenty-one ports of entry for Customs purposes, and there are numerous other ports around the coast. A vessel arriving from overseas may call at several ports in the Dominion to discharge and load cargo, and is recorded as an overseas arrival at the first port of call, and as an overseas departure from the port from which it finally sails. Its movements from one port to another in New Zealand are treated as coastwise shipping.

Of the twenty-one ports of entry, four had not a single vessel recorded as an overseas arrival or departure in 1922, and one other (Tauranga) had no arrivals. The figures in the following table must simply be taken as showing the extent to which various ports are made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure, and not as indicating the relative overseas trade of the various ports.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING, 1912 AND 1922, BY PORTS OF FIRST ARRIVAL AND FINAL DEPARTURE.
Port.1912.1922.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Kaipara6,57931,5706531,873
Auckland820,230525,321920,747620,006
Tauranga......2,357
Tokomaru Bay........
Gisborne8,0655,71818,26620,298
Napier10,01318,73040,16711,882
Waitara5,212......
New Plymouth4,717..31,87437,540
Patea........
Wanganui2,8153,05911,2134,795
Wellington463,304616,581480,450731,865
Picton and Wairau8,0882,6893,7758,648
Nelson1,83656813,3091,860
Westport5,98929,5318,30512,028
Greymouth21829,11150327,833
Hokitika........
Lyttelton66,05165,86190,14593,018
Timaru4,91618,93623,81724,223
Oamaru..6,9181,3054,042
Dunedin87,747119,29054,215126,123
Bluff176,312194,74784,24361,589
     Totals1,672,0921,668,6301,782,9871,789,980

Complementary to the statistical tables of overseas shipping entered and cleared, a table of coastwise shipping has hitherto been published annually in the successive volumes of Trade and Shipping Statistics, and the two sets of figure's taken in conjunction have shown the total shipping of each port. A drawback of the table of coastwise shipping, however, is that it has made no distinction between vessels engaged merely in the coastal trade and overseas vessels moving' from port to port. To remedy this deficiency a new sories of tables was instituted in 1922, showing for each of fifty-one ports the total shipping entered and cleared, and distinguishing between overseas and coastal vessels, irrespective of whether the former had been entered or cleared overseas or coastwise. From this series of tables may be seen at a glance not only the total shipping of each port, but the number and tonnage of vessels calling there which are engaged in the overseas trade.

A summary is here given showing for each of the fifty-one ports referred to the number and tonnage of overseas and coastal vessels entered during 1922. The total tonnage shown (11,017,612) slightly exceeds the aggregate of the totals already given for overseas and coastwise arrivals (10,715,617), due partly to the inclusion in the present table of a number of small ports not taken into account in the computation of the coastwise shipping, and partly to the differences in the periodicity and mode of collection.

NUMBER AND TONNAGE OF OVERSEAS AND COASTAL VESSELS ENTERED AT EACH PORT, 1922.
Port.Overseas.Coastal.Total.
Number.Tonnage.Number.Tonnage.Number.Tonnage.
Whangaroa11,51319645,19019746,703
Russell1133,30713736,34314869,650
Herekino....1616
Whangape2527311,675332,202
Hokianga97,5706610,5897518,159
Mangonui....10523,41410523,414
Whangarei1823,2971,058187,5931,076210,890
Kaipara86,578554,5166311,094
Mangawai....482,353482,353
Auckland3871,234,1355,692568,1736,0791,802,308
Onehunga....35090,31635090,316
Whitianga11,195968,400979,595
Great Barrier....516,258516,258
Kawhia....5322,2925322,292
Raglan....5313,2265313,226
Thames41,40362167,22362568,626
Coromandel....1128,5381128,538
Tauranga11,51932448,83932550,358
Opotiki....579,029579,029
Whakatane....997,393997,393
Tolaga Bay....6324,9096324,909
Tokomaru Bay1256,59722275,526234132,123
Gisborne47185,241410158,057457343,298
Wairoa....29721,42329721,423
Waikokopu....387,545387,545
Napier84357,628662161,279746518,907
Mokau....3244832448
Waitara....4461144611
New Plymouth39129,576220118,166259247,742
Patea....16815,88116815,881
Wanganui34119,16240078,778434197,940
Foxton....607,860607,860
Wellington3711,507,0632,4661,200,9302,8372,707,993
Wairau....14611,59314611,593
Havelock....211,631211,631
Kaikoura....11115,74211115,742
Picton2473,839460128,868484202,707
Nelson1737,9761,182222,762199260,738
Waitapu....31115,98931115,989
Motueka....36624,03936624,039
Westport100126,848413179,933513306,781
Greymouth8784,017257106,654344190,671
Hokitika....1724017240
Lyttelton201798,4231,306824,2741,5071,622,697
Akaroa....525,816525,816
Timaru94280,584260157,467354438,051
Oamaru2650,400180105,929206156,329
Otago149564,660309186,927458751,587
Invercargill....321,816321,816
Bluff101272,39517038,566271310,961
Half-moon Bay....891,134891,134
     Totals1,8285,955,45319,9695,062,15921,79711,017,612

Wellington ranks as the first port of the Dominion as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Otago, Napier, and Timaru in that order. The same order of ports is disclosed by the figures for overseas vessels on the basis used in the table, which gives entirely different results from the previous table, wherein the tonnage of overseas vessels entered is counted only for the port of first entry in the Dominion. Wellington and Lyttelton are the termini of the daily inter-Island ferry service, and to this fact is due a large part of the coastwise shipping credited to these two ports.

Overseas vessels are shown to have called at twenty-five ports during the year, including nine which were not first ports of call for a single overseas vessel. The total entries of the 571 overseas vessels during the year were 1,828, which gives an average of somewhat over three ports called at on each visit to the Dominion. Many vessels—as, for instance, those engaged in the transport of timber and coal, and those merely touching at a New Zealand port while en route between Australia and America—call at only one port in the Dominion, while, on the other hand, vessels engaged in the Home trade generally call at half a dozen or more ports.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.

The examinations for masters, mates, engineers, &c., of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the Imperial Board of Trade, with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions; but the British Board of Trade recognizes the following New Zealand certificates only as of Imperial validity: Master, extra; master, ordinary; master, steamship; first mate, only mate, and second mate, ordinary and steamship; first- and second-class marine engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the British Board of Trade.

New methods of examination were adopted by the Board of Trade in 1918, and corresponding regulations were made in New Zealand and came into force on the 1st October, 1918.

During 1922-23 some 448 candidates sat for examinations. Of the 328 who passed, 158 were masters, mates, and engineers of seagoing ship; 1 was master of a cargo-vessel of under 25 tons; 20 were masters, mates, and engineers of steamers plying within restricted limits; 50 were engineers of seagoing motor-propelled boats; and 99 were engineers of such boats plying within restricted limits.

SURVEY OF SHIPS.

The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1908, and its amendment of 1909, provide for an annual survey by Government surveyors of all vessels, with a view to ensuring their seaworthiness. Certificates of survey were issued in 1922-23 to 282 steamers, 512 oil-engine vessels, and 34 sailing-vessels.

LIGHTHOUSES.

The long coast-line of the Dominion is marred in many places by hidden rocks or reefs and other perils to navigation. This has compelled the erection of some sixty-five lighthouses of various types. No fewer than fifteen of these are situated in the stormy area of Cook Strait and the bays opening therefrom, reaching from where the red and white rays of Cape Farewell light give warning of the seven-mile-long sandspit at the northern extremity of the South Island to the bluff shore marked by the Cape Palliser light at the southern point of the North Island.

The buildings are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations. In some thirty-three cases the light apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its rays through a combination of surrounding lenses. The Aga light is used in twenty-six lighthouses, while the remainder have incandescent lights, port lights, or Wigham beacon-lamps.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen Island, which, placed some 70 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32 1/2 miles. Next in order come the Cape Brett light (altitude 510ft.), visible at 30 1/2 miles; Godley Head (altitude 450 ft.), visibility 29 miles; Cuvier Island light (altitude 390ft.), Manukau (altitude 385 ft.), and Mokohinou (altitude 385 ft.), all of which have a visibility of 27 miles. Seventeen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over.

The majority of lighthouses are equipped with flags and lamps, the keepers being competent to receive or transmit messages. Lights outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities are maintained by the Marine Department.

The average cost of erection and equipment of the coastal lighthouses was about £6,000 per light. The two most costly were Cape Brett Lighthouse (£11,237) on the Auckland Peninsula, and Dog Island Lighthouse (£10,481) in Foveaux Strait. The cost of maintenance of all lighthouses under the control of the Marine Department was for 1922-23: Salaries, £17,728; oil, £1,479; stores and maintenance, £6,806; miscellaneous, £1,721: total, £27,734. Light dues collected during 1922-23 totalled £39,689.

WRECKS.

In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in or near the coast of New Zealand a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer where the damage has resulted from his wrongful act or default.

Should any wreck occur on the coast the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

During the year 1922-23 eighty-five inquiries into shipping casualties were held. The principal casualty was the wreck of the s.s. “Wiltshire" on Great Barrier Island. No lives were lost in any of the eighty-five casualties.

A summary of shipping casualties in or near New Zealand coasts in the past year is as follows:—

 No.Tonnage.
Strandings—  
   Total wrecks37,822
   Partial loss33,953
   Slight damage136,564
   No damage106,552
Collisions—  
   Total loss13
   Slight damage178,379
   No damage104,858
Fires—  
   Total loss18
   Slight damage733,309
   No damage315,292
Miscellaneous177,701
     Totals8594,441

Chapter 13.

SECTION XIII.—RAILWAYS.

RAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860 only. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton. The first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863, so that to Canterbury Province belongs the honour of first having railway communication within its borders. Four years later the Lyttelton Tunnel (1 ½ miles long) had been pierced and the line completed. Meanwhile other lines were being proceeded with inland towards the Canterbury Plains. Following the lead of Canterbury Province, the Provincial Council of Southland commenced in 1863 a line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour, which was opened on the 5th February, 1867. Driven by the necessity for efficient military transport, the Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

The effect of the various short railways being constructed by different authorities is apparent in the divers gauges adopted. The General Government recommended the adoption of a 5 ft. 6in. gauge; nevertheless the Canterbury lines were using a 5 ft. 3 in. gauge, while the Auckland and Otago lines had the standard English gauge of 4 ft. 8 in.

Happily, these troubles were solved by the historic Railways Act of 1870. At this date only forty-six miles of railway were in operation. This Act, which was part of the public-works policy of the late Sir Julius Vogel, provided a general railway policy for the colony. Six years later, when the abolition of provinces placed the earlier-constructed lines in the hands of the General Government, railway mileage had risen to 718 miles.

Although practically all the railways are State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companies. The former line, of which some eighty-seven miles were in use, was taken over by the Government on the 27th May, 1895. The latter, from Wellington to Longburn, a distance of eighty-four miles, was acquired by the State by purchase in December, 1908.

STATE RAILWAYS.

At the present time there are some 3,028 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into nine distinct sections, as follows:—

Section.Length. Miles.
North Island main lines and branches1,140
Whangarei80
Kaihu20
Gisborne49
     Total, North Island1,289
Section.Length. Miles.
South Island main lines and branches1,429
Westland157
Westport36
Nelson61
Picton56
     Total, South Island1,739

Government railways are constructed by the Public Works Department, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and a steel rail of 70 lb. weight per lineal yard is the standard for the permanent-way, and is in use on 1,354 miles of line. Some 1,518 miles are still in 53 lb., 55 lb., and 56 lb. steel rails, and most of the remainder is of lighter material. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,100 to the mile, are principally Australian hardwoods or New Zealand silver-pine or totara.

ROLLING-STOCK.

All carriages and wagons required for use on the State railways have, since 1901, been manufactured in the railway workshops of the Dominion, with the exception of 2,500 four-wheeled wagons imported from England in 1921-22. Most of the locomotives also are now built in the Dominion, partly in the railway workshops and partly by an engineering firm at Thames. The Railways Department commenced building new engines in 1889 in the Addington Workshops (Christchurch). Since that year building operations have been gradually extended, the work being restricted to two of the four principal workshops of the Department. One of these, Addington, has specialized in tender-engines, while the other, Hillside (Dunedin), has confined itself to the construction of tank engines. Up to the present time 200 new locomotives have been built by the Department, of which 77 were tender-engines and 123 tank engines. The weights of the tender-engines in working trim vary from 63 to 94 tons, while those of the tank engines run from 29 ½ to 71 tons.

A new passenger locomotive, Class AB, was brought into operation during 1915, and has been adopted as a standard type. This is a simple superheated tender-engine of the “Pacific" type—weight in working trim, 79 tons; tractive power, 20,000 lb. The AB locomotive is of sufficient power to be also easily adapted for use as a goods engine. The standard goods locomotive used is of the four-cylinder balanced compound type, weighs 94 tons, and has a tractive power of 29,840 lb. Standard carriages are 50 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate forty-four passengers, and lighted by the Pintsch-gas system. The Westinghouse brake is fitted to all rolling-stock with the exception of that on the Kaihu, Picton, Nelson, and Westport Sections.

Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways in each of the last ten years is given in the following table:—

Year ended 31st March.Locomotives.Passenger Vehicles.Wagons and Brake-vans.
19145341,36320,251
19155571,39721,226
19165851,45221,994
19176071,48022,380
19186241,48822,517
19196201,48922,658
19206161,49222,937
19216081,49223,119
19226371,49623,974
19236391,49826,106

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.

The following statement shows the number of miles of Government railways open in the Dominion, the number of train-miles travelled and of passengers carried, and the tonnage of goods traffic for the last twenty years:—

Year ended 31st March.Length open (Miles).Train-mileage.Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods and Live-stock.*

* The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given.

     Tons.
19042,3285,685,3998,306,383129,9194,259,217
19052,3746,107,0798,514,112140,4534,185,468
19062,4076,413,5738,826,382147,9894,415,166
19072,4586,755,4549,600,786165,5044,824,563
19082,4747,051,2749,756,716185,1745,070,176
19092,6747,458,23610,457,144192,5475,135,408
19102,7177,889,16611,141,142199,3715,490,018
19112,7538,141,07511,200,613222,1045,863,674
19122,7988,371,68711,891,134236,9575,887,908
19132,8519,016,22413,123,879265,2596,246,128
19142,8549,319,26813,355,893287,0376,019,633
19152,9459,383,42013,565,772302,9126,453,472
19162,9609,356,52214,201,506330,6226,370,945
19172,9609,146,33114,173,115355,8326,239,172
19182,9837,468,64611,408,156322,4875,742,968
19192,9837,477,58311,374,521351,1245,613,739
19202,9967,408,60812,760,814400,6216,000,279
19213,0099,303,39215,315,640464,6916,487,279
19223,0218,717,26514,262,440472,8656,321,351
19233,0288,346,73114,256,610485,6816,618,588

The figures for passengers in the foregoing table are exclusive of season-ticket holders. If these be included the total number of passengers in 1922-23 becomes 28,221,362, as against 28,121,763 in 1921-22.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.

The total cost of construction of open lines up to the 31st March, 1923, was £40,275,161. The amount spent on lines in course of construction and not handed over to the Working Railways Department for traffic purposes was £6,575,910, making the total capital invested in State railways £46,851,071. The figures for each of the last five years are given.

CAPITAL INVESTED IN STATE RAILWAYS, 1918-19 to 1922-23.
1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
 £££££
Lines open for traffic36,167,68136.390.11537.235.25439.309.09740.275.161
Lines under construction3.093.2013.607.2254.190.2425.380.6516.575.910
     Totals39.260.88239.997.34041.425.49644.689.74846.851.071

So varied are the geographical features of the Dominion that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. The numerous mountain-chains and the innumerable rivers fed by the heavy rainfall make railway-construction in general both difficult and expensive, as the next statement shows:—

COMPARISON OF COST AND REVENUE OF EACH SECTION, 1922-23.
Section.Capital Cost of Open Lines to 31st March, 1923.Capital Cost per Mile (Open Lines).Net Revenue, 1922-23.
Per Mile of Open Line.Per Cent. of Capital Cost.

* Loss.

North Island—££££
   Whangarei898,35711,229-232.78*-2.07*
   Kaihu100,5035,02513.650.27
   Gisborne694,68314,17788.880.63
   Main lines and branches18,601,78816,317826.065.06
     Totals20,295,33115,745719.724.57
South Island—    
   Westland2,268,81614,451109.200.76
   Westport606,38116,8441364.288.10
   Nelson444,8167,292-113.97*-1.56*
   Picton687,49912,27729.820.24
   Main lines and branches15,782,93611,045168.901.53
     Totals19,790,44811,380173.861.53
Lake Wakatipu steamer service44,271....-10.73*
Stock of stores, &c.145,111......
     Grand totals40,275,16113,301404.663.04

The cost of construction has been relatively greater in the North Island than in the South, but the net revenue per mile of open line and per cent, of capital cost has in recent years been considerably greater in the North than in the South. The Westport Section shows a greater capital cost per mile than any other section, but it gives in general the highest percentage of net revenue.

REVENUE.

The railways of New Zealand have been looked upon more as adjuncts to the settlement of the country and the development of its natural resources than as an investment from which large profits should directly accrue. For many years a profit of 3 per cent, was regarded as sufficient, and any excess over this rate was followed by reductions in passenger charges or in freights. Consequent on the extension of settlement and the soundness of the Dominion's industries, a higher rate than 3 per cent, has been aimed at in recent years. The rate looked for in 1909-10 was 3 per cent., in 1910-11 4 per cent., followed in 1911-12 by a return to 3 ¾ per cent. These rates were obtained, as will be seen from the table following. The rates for 1913-14 and 1914-15 fell below expectations, a result due in the earlier year to the extended strike which obtained during nearly three months of the year and to the outbreak of smallpox in the North Island, and in the later year to the outbreak of the European War. In 1915-16 and 1916-17, however, there were considerable increases, bringing the revenue up to 4 ¾ per cent, and 5 ¼ per cent, respectively. The returns for the next three years all fell slightly below the figure for 1916-17; in 1920-21 there was an abrupt fall to somewhat less than 3 ½ per cent., and in 1921-22 the unprecedentedly low figure of slightly over 1 per cent, was reached, a state of affairs brought about by high running-costs, the competition of motor transport, and especially the state of depression which was in evidence during the year. The year 1922-23 shows a considerable improvement over the proceeding period, the return being slightly over 3 per cent.

Information as to the revenue of the railways during each of the last twenty years is given in the following table:—

RAILWAY REVENUE, 1903-4 to 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Gross Revenue fromTotal Gross Revenue.Net Revenue.Percentage of Net Revenue to Capital Cost.
Passenger-fares.Parcels, Luggage, and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Rents and Miscellaneous.
 £££££££s.d.
1904704,660110,1511,293,16972,6612,180,641741,9173118
1905738,158115,0511,277,97678,0462,209,231716,331360
1906786,873142,6421,346,03874,1512,349,704728,465349
1907892,053151,9131,498,68681,9482,624,600812,118391
1908912,978176,8761,582,32889,7562,761,938812,179368
19091,011,658187,0401,630,704100,1242,929,526814,711327
19101,171,040192,5851,772,547113,6183,249,7901,080,3163160
19111,223,412193,7891,961,078115,9033,494,1821,190,910413
19121,319,114203,3342,032,785121,2763,676,5091,210,6133197
19131,461,873215,2092,157,686136,2343,971,0021,265,393409
19141,450,480236,7612,209,398146,6894,043,3281,163,0053123
19151,482,382227,5212,249,399146,1554,105,4571,185,0023107
19161,722,702236,7052,423,493165,4564,548,3561,637,4734144
19171,873,048243,8322,498,862185,0684,800,8101,873,9465511
19181,802,597254,1102,465,241165,7524,687,7001,644,79341111
19191,950,281258,5252,608,336171,4904,988,6321,680,05741211
19202,303,987290,4532,956,237201,8105,752,4871,647,4204108
19212,658,079335,7543,676,665238,0336,908,5311,271,931384
19222,418,227339,4823,646,594239,2886,643,591405,864114
19232,420,620393,3223,671,008242,8526,727,8021,225,3053010

The revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1922-23 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £1 16s. 6d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total revenue was equal to £5 1s. 6d. per capita.

A table is added showing information as to railway revenue in each of the Australian States for the year ended 30th June, 1922. Figures for New Zealand for the year ended 31st March, 1923, are also given.

REVENUE OF GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1921-22.
State.Miles of Line open.Train-miles run (,000 omitted).Gross Revenue (,000 omitted).Net Revenue.
Amount (,000 omitted).Per Train mile.Per Cent, of Capital.

* Loss.

† Year ended 31st March, 1923.

   ££s.d. 
Queensland5,7999,6345,15534400.81
New South Wales5,11621,88715,2134,097394.89
Victoria4,31715,85710,7912,76534.39
South Australia2,3575,6303,29776023.85
Western Australia3,5384,5652,82849922 1/12.72
Tasmania6371,4335885000.87
Federal lines1,733731323-138*-3-1.23*
Totals for Australia23,49759,73738,1958,37723.43
New Zealand3,0288,3476,7281,225211¼3.04

EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure on State railways open for traffic during the year ended 31st March, 1923, amounted to £5,502,497, or -81.79 per cent, of the gross revenue, as compared with 93.89 per cent, in 1921-22 and 64.91 per cent, in 1917-18. The figures for each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Expenditure.
Amount. £Per Cent. of Revenue.
19041,438,72465.98
19051,492,90067.58
19061,621,23969.00
19071,812,48269.06
19081,949,75970.59
19092,114,81572.19
19102,169,47466.76
19112,303,27265.92
19122,465,89667.07
19132,705,60968.13
19142,880,32371.24
19152,920,45571.14
19162,910,88364.00
19172,926,86460.97
19183,042.90764.91
19193,308,57566.32
19204,105,06771.37
19215,636,60181.59
19226,237,72793.89
19235,502,49781.79

The expenditure under various heads for each of the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Maintenance of Way.*Locomotive Power.Carriages and Wagons.Traffic.Lake Wakatipu Steamers.Head and Departmental Offices.Total.

* Including “Signal and Electrical"—£67,425 in 1922-23.

 £££££££
1914763,207921,564232,745838,2227,046117,5392,880,323
1915738,550954,868228,145870,3926,085122,4152,920,455
1916740,349934,737225,968889,9916,377113,4612,910,883
1917720,840937,780238,868904,3186,602118,4562,926,864
1918710,655962,222283,248954,1427,664124,9763,042,907
1919752,5581,075,489306,3081,032,6096,985134,6263,308,575
1920837,9101,397,993387,4981,301,9357,964171,7674,105,067
19211,053,0492,124,877531,9351,712,37610,458203,9065,636,601
19221,184,2272,567,382566,7821,703,04913,339202,9486,237,727
19231,108,3172,121,532535,6221,527,03314,100195,8935,502,497

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.

The number of men employed in operating the State railways at the 31st March, 1923, was 15,728. The staff is divided into two divisions—namely, the first or clerical division, and the second or out-of-door division—and is further classed in four branches, as shown in the following table, which gives the number of employees in March of each of the last ten years:—

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES, 1913-14 to 1922-23.
As at 31st March.General.Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive.Total.
19146004,6763,9524,94814,176
19156324,7534,0655,16414,614
19166935,0413,9315,30314,968
19176754,7983,5864,64913,708
19186604,6123,4104,32013,002
19196614,5053,3473,87812,391
19208764,7403,3644,40513,385
19219274,9303,5764,81914,252
19229745,1383,8555,69515,662
19231,0385,0893,7965,85515,728

Railway employees are under a system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since then.

Appeal Boards (one in each Island) have been constituted to hear and redress grievances of men dissatisfied with decisions respecting the withholding of annual increments, promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline involving fines in excess of £2. Each Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railway service elected by the members thereof. The Minister of Railways has the power of veto in respect of any decision of the Board.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railway service was established in 1903. Full information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Pensions, Superannuation, &c.”

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.

The history of railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from accidents of a serious nature. A table is given dealing with railway accidents during each of the last ten years.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS, 1913-14 to 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.To Passengers.To Employees.To Others.Fatal.Serious.Minor.Total.
1914181,008252741,0201,051
191515973282879811,016
19162891927336935974
19172585222248867899
191811765292213770805
191933715292322732777
192022827394234812888
1921109874124449701,038
192281,2151622431,1741,239
1923181,4486064351,4271,526

Of the persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1922-23, 11 were passengers, 14 employees, and 39 neither passengers nor employees. Of the non-fatal accidents, 110 were classified as train accidents, 345 as accidents on line (other than train-running), 114 as shunting accidents, 302 as accidents on wharves and in sheds, and 591 as accidents in railway workshops.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.

Private railways have a total mileage of 135 miles. A complete list is as follows:—

Railway.Location.Length of Railway.
  M.C.L.
Waipa Railway and Collieries (Limited)Ngaruawahia5500
Taupo Totara Timber Company (Limited)Putaruru50400
Waihi Gold-mining Company (Limited)Waikino5720
Sanson TramwaySanson-Himatangi1700
Castlecliff RailwayWanganui-Castlecliff3400
Napier Harbour Board's linePort Ahuriri12450
Waronui Coal CompanyMilton5330
Taratu Coal CompanyLovell's Flat7470
Kaitangata Coal CompanyStirling5450
Dunedin City Corporation's Ocean Beach RailwayDunedin (about)3140
Nightcaps Coal CompanyWairio-Nightcaps23363
Ohai RailwayFrom Wairio5600
Westport Harbour BoardWestport - Cape Foulwind and quarries16140
Denniston Incline (Westport Coal Company's line)Waimangaroa-Conn's Creek120
Paparoa Company's Railway(Worked by N.Z.R.)16821
Reefton Coal CompanyReefton2200
Tongariro Timber CompanyKakahi......
     Total mileage..135334

Chapter 14. SECTION XIV.—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC.

POST-OFFICES.

AT the 31st December, 1922, there were 2,109 post-offices in New Zealand, this number being exclusive of 34 receiving offices and 10 travelling post-offices. At the same date there were 1,923 street letter-boxes in the Dominion. The number of post-offices, reckoning only those which are combined receiving and delivering offices, has shown a decrease in each of the last five years, the figures for which are—

Year.Number of Post-offices.
19182,288
19192,240
19202,207
19212,178
19222,109

POSTAL BUSINESS.

The following table, showing the number of articles posted and delivered during each of the last ten years, gives an indication of the extent to which the people of New Zealand utilize the postal facilities:—

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Pattern-packets.Parcels.Newspapers.
1913223,961,20010,462,89456,127,6844,275,83443,572,759
1914233,901,32010,585,04265,709,9085,055,14743,779,983
1915242,547,8599,242,79257,693,1305,724,57641,311,535
1916242,121,3618,133,69748,868,5376,085,10341,807,999
1917245,796,9457,549,86744,934,2186,314,87540,366,792
1918242,527,3697,145,60642,301,2306,376,46935,476,212
1919247,143,1837,292,92244,320,3856,193,47535,498,263
1920259,743,2346,937,55449,619,1616,588,29337,859,247
1921253,767,1316,548,65553,635,9516,464,24438,680,982
1922239,997,0816,277,42867,578,4356,700,12135,635,219

The average number of letters, &c., actually posted in the Dominion per head of mean population in the last ten years is as shown in the next table:—

ARTICLES POSTED PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION, 1913-22.
Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Parcels.Newspapers.Total.
1913101.914.3628.1417.81152.22
1914105.014.5133.3718.15161.04
1915111.533.7731.4016.94163.64
1916109.543.2025.8017.20155.74
1917110.273.0024.4716.60154.34
1918112.572.9423.5715.14154.22
1919111.332.9924.2714.64153.23
1920109.092.6225.0414.18150.93
192199.462.3426.7913.49142.08
192293.492.2730.9212.41139.09

During recent years the Post Office has made very substantial extensions in the establishment of rural-mail deliveries. Many of these are performed by officers mounted on motor-cycles. By means of such deliveries it has been possible to give settlers living in the back country an efficient service.

PARCEL-POST.

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and without the Dominion have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to almost all the important countries of the world, and up to 28 lb. in weight for inland parcels for or from places served the whole way by railway or steamer.

The following table shows the number of parcels exchanged with the United Kingdom, the Australian States, &c., in 1922:—

Country.Number of Parcels.
Received.Despatched.
 Number.lb.Number.lb.
United Kingdom and foreign countries (via London)181,1411,046,27018,69472,617
United States of America55,643375,5323,76415,050
Canada7,58854,7561,1113,851
Victoria18,85877,4013,85412,594
New South Wales30,219123,0437,59024,441
South Australia8551,8785441,529
Queensland9712,4348362,237
Tasmania3918205231,484
Western Australia6281,3884291,206
Fiji3861,1471,4945,264
Ceylon5012,518109414
Cape of Good Hope8862,521101369
Natal....308944
India2,06417,5437444,187
Tonga602338463,305
Tahiti684558415,855
Hong Kong5122,9573511,480
Straits Settlements320931237847
Solomon Islands3311
New Hebrides....429
Uruguay....38170
China1,51413,139....
Pitcairn Island....80343
Norfolk Island....518
Ellice Island....211
Aden31129....
     Totals302,639 *1,725,09842,506158,246

The declared value of the parcels received from places outside the Dominion during 1922 was £1,332,719, on which the Customs duty amounted to £276,865.

NEWSPAPERS.

There are (July, 1923) 297 publications on the Register of Newspapers for New Zealand. Of these, some 61 are published daily, 18 being morning papers and 43 evening papers. Twenty-four appear three times per week, 30 twice per week, 70 weekly, 1 every ten days, 8 fortnightly, and 103 monthly.

MONEY-ORDERS AND POSTAL NOTES.

The number of offices open for the transaction of money-order business at the end of 1922 was 850.

During 1922, 659,943 money-orders, for a total sum of £4,278,529, were issued at the various post-offices. The money-orders from places beyond New Zealand and payable in the Dominion numbered 35,470, for the amount of £192,971.

The number of offices open for the sale of postal notes at the 31st March, 1923, was 1,083. During the preceding twelve months 2,434,506 postal notes were sold, value £747,025. The notes paid numbered 2,433,547, of a total value of £730,759.

British postal orders issued in the Dominion during the year ended 31st March, 1923, numbered 104,309, of a value amounting to £61,538. Those paid numbered 22,341, and represented £13,381.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

Up to the 31st March, 1923, a total sum of £5,502,002 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1922-23 was £512,656.

There were 11,912 miles of telegraphic and inter-urban telephone pole line open at the end of March, 1923, carrying 48,616 miles of wire. Of the latter, 7,788 miles were in use exclusively for telephone toll traffic, 12,946 exclusively for telegraphic traffic, and 30,912 simultaneously for toll and telegraphic traffic, making totals of 38,650 available for toll traffic and 43,858 for the transmission of telegrams. A total of 8,666 miles of wire have been gained to the 31st March, 1923, for the purpose of telegraphic transmission, by the superimposing of existing telephone circuits.

During the year ended 31st March, 1923, telegrams and toll communications to the number of 13,513,208 were transmitted, 13,342,823 of these being “paid" messages, and the balance free Government telegrams. The revenue from telegrams was £699,444, to which should be added £595,967 revenue of telephone exchanges and £13,396 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £1,309,347.

A table is given showing the growth of telegraph business since 1866.

Year endedNumber of Telegrams and Toll Messages forwarded during the Year.Revenue (including Miscellaneous Receipts)Value of Government Messages.Total Value of Business done during the Year.
Private and Press.Government.Telegraph.Telephone.
    ££££
30 June, 186624,7612,74627,4075,562..4836,045
30 June, 1876890,382160,7041,051,08662,716..16,15478,870
31 Dec., 18861,583,717252,5491,836,266106,639..27,281133,920
31 Mar., 18961,899,632224,5792,124,21197,17825,93325,844148,955
31 Mar., 19065,351,084289,1355,640,219184,36989,54224,168298,079
31 Mar., 191610,708,910127,84110,836,751549,627287,5479,085846,259
31 Mar., 191710,734,168140,95210,875,120527,249317,27510,774855,298
31 Mar., 191811,510,710114,01011,624,720516,865344,3686,949868,182
31 Mar., 191911,989,882101,13512,091,017615,786373,1695,036993,991
31 Mar., 192014,957,615116,45215,074,067619,188419,3185,8301,044,336
31 Mar., 192113,884,466116,38514,000,851704,228533,5357,0361,244,799
31 Mar., 192212,782,037152,42812,934,465697,864614,3678,4581,320,689
31 Mar., 192313,342,823170,38513,513,208713,380595,9679,7271,319,074

Prior to the 1st September, 1869, inland telegrams were charged for on a mileage basis. From that date a uniform rate was fixed of 2s. 6d. for ten words and 6d. for each additional five words. From the 1st April, 1870, the minimum charge was reduced to 1s. From the 1st November, 1873, the rate was further reduced to 1s. for ten words and 1d. for each additional word, address and signature, hitherto charged for, being free up to ten words. From the 1st July, 1877, there was introduced the “urgent" code, at double the ordinary rate. From the 1st July, 1878, a “delayed" system was introduced, the rate being fixed at 6d. for ten words, exclusive of address and signature, up to ten words and ½d. for each additional word. From the 1st February, 1892, the number of words allowed for the minimum charge in each case was increased to twelve, with free address and signature up to six words. From the 15th August, 1892, the ordinary rate was fixed at 1s. for eighteen words, including address and signature. From the 1st June, 1896, the rate was fixed at 6d. for twelve words, including address and signature, and 1d. for each additional word, and “delayed" telegrams were abolished. From the 1st November, 1906, the charge for additional words was reduced to ½d. each. From the 23rd September, 1915, the ordinary rate was increased from 6d. to 8d. for twelve words (“urgent,” 1s. 2d.); and on the 1st August, 1920, it was further increased to 1s. for twelve words and 1d. for each additional word; (“urgent" 2s., and 2d. for each additional word); Sundays and holidays, double rates. From the 1st November, 1920, there was introduced a system of night letter-telegrams, to be delivered by post on the morning following the day of presentation. The rate (since altered) was 1s. 6d. for thirty-six words and ½d. for each additional word. From the 1st February, 1923, the rate for ordinary telegrams was reduced to 9d. for twelve words, the charge for each additional word remaining at 1d. (“urgent" 1s. 6d., and 2d. for each additional word). From the same date the night letter-telegram rate was reduced to 9d. for twenty-seven words and 1d. for each additional three words.

TELEPHONES.

At the 31st March, 1923, there were 320 telephone exchanges in the Dominion, being an increase of 19 during the year.

The telephone-exchange system in use is generally of the magnete type, branching multiple switchboards being installed in the principal exchanges. In three installations the common battery system is in operation.

Automatic-telephone exchanges (Western Electric type) were opened at Masterton on the 31st May, 1919, Courtenay Place and Wellington South on the 18th October, 1919, Blenheim on the 28th April, 1920, Hamilton on the 29th August, 1920, Kelburn on the 17th August, 1921, Oamaru on the 28th January, 1922, Khandallah on the 30th June, 1922, and Palmerston North on the 12th November, 1922. The installations at Courtenay Place, Wellington South, Kelburn, and Khandallah form part of the Wellington urban network, which will eventually include additional exchanges in Featherston Street and the Hutt Valley.

The installation of automatic exchanges (Western Electric type) is now proceeding at several Auckland stations where the system will eventually embrace the whole of the urban area. At Wanganui the installation of an automatic exchange (Strowger type) is progressing, and is expected to be completed at the end of 1923. At other centres at which it has been decided to install automatic exchanges buildings are being erected to accommodate the necessary equipment.

The following statement shows the automatic-exchange equipment installed and in use in the Dominion on the 31st March, 1923:—

Exchange.Number of Exclusive Lines installed.Number of Party Lines installed.Number of Exclusive Lines in Use.Number of Party-line Subscribers.Total Number of Subscribers connected.Number of Extensions Telephones.Total Number of Automatic-telephone Stations.

* Auxiliary apparatus.

Fifty-four lines used for exclusive subscribers.

Auckland Exchange area—       
   Fort Street*1.900..1.891191.9103412.251
   Remuera*600..5992601100701
   Mount Eden*500..497650339542
Christchurch Exchange area—       
   Hereford Street*1.500..1.269..1.2691011.370
   St. Albans*500..499..49912511
   Sydenham*300..263..26329292
Wellington Exchange area—       
   Courtenay Place3.2001002.888..2.8887233.611
   Wellington South860100698260958751.033
   Kelburn800..724..72445769
   Khandallah..200541712255230
Single-office exchanges—       
   Blenheim7001006526071295807
   Hamilton1.4001001.3912521.6432271.870
   Masterton8001007981109082011.109
   Oamaru6001006002662676702
   Palmerston North1.6002101.4802701.7502782.028
..15.2601.01014.3031.17615.4792.34717.826

The demand for telephone connections at the four centres has been exceptionally heavy; and, as the original manual boards could not be further extended, auxiliary branch exchanges—both automatic and manual—have been installed as a temporary relief of the situation.

The number of telephone connections at 31st March, 1923, was 102,032, including 15,366 extensions. Service telephones numbering 1,544 and 2,663 telephone-bureau stations (including slot telephones) are included. The average distance of subscribers from the exchanges with which they are connected is 70 chains for the Dominion as a whole, and 82 chains for the average of the four chief centres.

The following table indicates the phenomenal growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service during the last ten years:—

1914.1916.1918.1920.1922.1923.Percentage Increase as compared with 1914.

* Prior to 1917 bureau stations were accounted for differently.

Exchanges23825928029130132035
Paying subscribers37,48644,83653,50164,39676,30782,459140
Bureaux and service connections*4,4035,2743,4343,5123,6663,856..
Slot telephones93198261295339351277
Extension telephones7,4338,66810,56712,52014,37115,366107
   Telephone-station totals49,41558,97667,76380,72394,683102,032107

The distribution of telephones to the population of the Dominion and of the four principal centres on the 31st March, 1923, was as follows:—

 Inhabitants per Telephone.
Dominion12
Auckland14
Wellington9
Christchurch12
Dunedin12

The “party" line system of telephone service is being largely availed of, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from the exchange. In March, 1923, the number of party-line connections was 6,643, with a total of 24,153 subscribers.

The first coin-in-slot telephones erected in the Dominion were installed at Wellington on the 17th August, 1910. There are now 351 such instruments in use in the Dominion, the charges for which are as follows:—

One penny285
Twopence42
Threepence16
Sixpence8

The revenue of slot telephones during the year ended 31st March, 1923, was £22,021.

The telephone-exchange system included on the 31st March, 1923, 6,872 miles of pole line and 229,882 miles of wire, of which 147,464 miles were in use.

Originally the system was worked by single aerial earth-connected wires, but these were replaced some years ago at the more important exchanges by aerial and subterranean lead-covered cables, and the circuits made wholly metallic. The system of subterranean and aerial cabling is now being extended to the smaller exchanges, and work in connection with the conversion of earth-working exchanges to motallic-circuit exchanges is proceeding.

An analysis of the wire in use in connection with telephone exchanges is as follows:—

 Miles.
In lead-covered cables— 
   Underground57,794
   Aerial39,649
Open aerial— 
   Metallic circuit45,027
   Earth-working4,992
 147,462

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &c., of the several telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1923, was £3,379,962, equal to an average cost of £38 19s. 11d. for each connection. The telephone-exchange receipts for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923, were £595,967, which amount was exceeded by the working-expenses by £23,338.

RADIO COMMUNICATION.

GOVERNMENT STATIONS.

The first wireless-telegraph station opened for communicating with ships at sea was that at Wellington, on the 26th July, 1911. Details of the seven stations now under the control of the Post and Telegraph Department are—

Station and Call-sign.Hours of Service.Wave-length, in Metres (Normal in Heavy Type).Daylight Range (in Knots) on Normal Wave-length.

* From 1st May to 31st October of each year the attendance is 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.

Radio-Awanui(V.L.A.), 173° 18' E., 34° 54' S.8 a.m. to 11 p.m. Continuous listening service450, 600, 2,000S.W. 500; L.W. 1,200.
Radio-Awarua (V.L.B.), 168° 23' E. 46° 30' S.6 a.m. to 8 p.m.*450, 600, 2,000S.W. 500; L.W. 1,200.
Radio-Apia, Samoa (V.M.G.), 171° 49' W., 13° 51' S.Continuous450, 600, 1,800, 2,000S.W. 500; L.W. 1,500.
Radio-Wellington (V.L.W.), 174° 46′ 39" E., 41° 17′ 5″ S.Continuous450, 600300
Radio-Chatham Islands (V.L.C.), 43° 57′ 2″ S, 176° 31′ 04″ W.4 p.m. to midnight450, 600, 1,600300
Radio-Auckland (V.L.D.), 174° 46′ 8″ E.; 36° 50′ 37″ S.Continuous450, 600300
Radio-Rarotonga, Cook Islands (V.M.R.), 159° 48' 30" W., 21° 12' S.6 p.m. to 2 a.m. (Saturdays and holidays, 6 p.m. to midnight)450, 600, 1,700300; 450 on 1,700 metres.

The Rarotonga station is of the Marconi synchronous gap type; the remainder use the Telefunken quenched gap (500 cycles) vertical spark system. The aerial system in most cases comprises an umbrella aerial, with earthed counterpoise for long waves and a T aerial for short waves.

By means of the radio-stations at Awanui and Apia communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands.

The radio business transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the last five years was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Forwarded.Received.
Messages.Words.Value.Messages.Words.Value.*

* Amount earned by New Zealand.

   £  £
19194.48293.5075.2456.570235.8896.227
192011.589192.8229.11419.109248.0635.272
192111.267181.8537.20120.756246.4074.861
192212.152223.5626.50320.086226.8864.328
192311.940230.4815.62819.715215.0133.792

The foregoing table does not include free (service) messages.

The general rate for transmission of radio-telegrams has been fixed at 5d. a word for all vessels on the Australian or New Zealand register.

The New Zealand coast stations are all reliably connected with the land-line systems. Complete arrangements exist for the prompt transmission of wireless telegrams over them, and for ensuring that distress-signals shall be immediately communicated to the proper authorities.

PRIVATE STATIONS.

Private radio-stations are regulated by the Radio-Telegraph Regulations for amateur, experimental, and broadcasting stations which were gazetted on the 18th January, 1923.

Three types of private radio-stations are recognized—viz., amateur stations, experimental stations, and broadcasting stations.

Amateur stations are defined as those which are erected and operated solely for personal interest or for experimental purposes. Licenses for three kinds of amateur stations are permitted to be issued, namely: (1) Amateur radio-stations licensed for reception only (receiving stations); (2) amateur radio transmitting and receiving stations, Grade I; (3) amateur radio transmitting and receiving stations, Grade II.

The licenses for amateur receiving stations are designed to provide for reception from radio-telephone broadcasting stations as well as for experimental reception, while the licenses for amateur transmitting stations, Grades I and II, are intended to provide experimental transmission facilities for those interested in radio science, and are issued according to the qualifications of the applicant and the object in view.

The licenses for “experimental stations” are intended to provide facilities for the work of pure research in radio science by universities and other scientific institutions and bodies.

The regulations governing radio-telephone broadcasting are designed to render the broadcasting of music, lectures, news, and other items of interest as widely available as possible, not only to the more thickly populated areas but also to scattered communities. At the same time an endeavour is made to reduce to a minimum the objectionable features of interference which have marred the success of such services in other countries.

Both the North and the South Island are mapped out into suitable areas in which broadcasting stations of a certain power and using a certain fixed wavelength are to operate. The location of the broadcasting areas was determined by the technical conditions governing the operation of such stations, and by a careful study of such features as distribution of population, topography of the country, and the isolation of various areas from other means of communication.

OCEAN CABLES.

The Pacific cable, opened for traffic between New Zealand and Australia and, Fiji on the 9th April, 1902, was completed to Bamfield, Vancouver Island, on the 31st October following, and opened for international business on the 8th December, 1902.

The route is from Auckland to Vancouver, via Norfolk Island, Fiji, and Fanning Island. The Australian connection is at Norfolk Island. The deep-sea portion of the Vancouver - Fanning Island cable is stated to be the longest in the world. Following the opening of the cable, a much faster service with America and Europe has resulted.

Direct communication between Auckland and Sydney was established on the 31st December, 1912, thus giving the Pacific Cable Board an alternative route to Australia.

During the year 1922-23 the Pacific route took 67.4 per cent, of the outward business, and the Eastern route 32.6 per cent., the messages sent by the two routes numbering 157,895 and 76,455 respectively.

The length of submarine cable in use in the Dominion, apart from ocean-cable services, is 416 knots.

STAFF.

The huge volume and multifarious business of the Post and Telegraph Department entails the employment of a numerous staff. The Secretary, under the Ministerial control of the Postmaster-General, is the administrative head.

A return of the staff as at 31st March, 1923, is as follows: Permanent, 7,542; temporary, 1,256: total, 8,798.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the financial year 1922-23 are shown in the following table:—

RECEIPTS.
Item.Postal.Telegraph.Total.
 £££
Postages1,289,496..1,289,496
Money-order and postal-note commission47,057..47,057
Money-order commission received from foreign offices922..922
Private box and bag rents and rural-delivery fees37,184..37,184
Miscellaneous receipts3,76213,93517,697
Paid telegrams..699,444699,444
Telephone exchanges..595,968595,968
     Totals1,378,4211,309,3472,687,768
PAYMENTS.
Item.Postal.Telegraph.Total.
 £££
Salaries578,193852,9421,431,135
Conveyance of mails by sea61,632..61,632
Conveyance or inland mails147,569..147,569
Conveyance of mails by railway103,183..103,183
Money-order commission credited to foreign offices2,451..2,451
Maintenance of telegraph and telephone lines..161,879161,879
Miscellaneous104,239102,906207,145
     Totals997,2671,117,7272,114,994
Balance of receipts over payments381,154191,620572,774

The figures of receipts and payments in 1881-82, 1891-92, 1901-02, 1911-12, and each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Receipts.Payments.
 ££
1882234,529233,291
1892320,058268,343
1902488,573465,756
19121,087,710988,911
19141,269,9211,173,314
19151,359,0591,246,850
19161,695,7571,296,522
19171,809,3171,370,810
19181,837,2601,489,446
19191,972,5391,702,048
19202,106,9951,944,161
19212,590,4412,591,786
19222,811,5352,451,572
19232,687,7682,114,994

SCOPE OF SERVICE.

In addition to its ordinary business, the Post and Telegraph Department performs an enormous amount of work for almost every other Department of State. The monetary value of this business reaches many millions of pounds annually, and the operations range from the receipt of land and income-tax payments (£2,925,483) during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923, to the sale of fishing licenses (£1,648), and from the payment of pensions (£2,473,534) to the performance of marriage ceremonies.

Chapter 15. SECTION XV.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.
INTRODUCTORY.

THE total area of the Dominion, excluding the Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901, is 66,292,232 acres. Of this total, 43,653,163 acres were returned in 1923 as being in occupation, including reserves and Native lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Native land held on the communal system.

OCCUPATION OF LAND.

According to information published by the Lands Department, the following is the condition of the land in the Dominion:—

 Acres.
Total area held on freehold20,939,019
Total area reserved for public purposes7,220,166
State forests1,631,516
Provisional State forests5,619,466
Total area of Crown leases18,120,591
Total area of Crown land available for future disposal2,916,439
Total area of Native land5,987,820
Land unfit for settlement, including rivers, lakes, roads, &c,,3,857,215
     Total66,292,232

The numbers of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation in groups of sizes, as returned at the last five collections, are given below:—

OCCUPIED LANDS.—HOLDINGS.
Area, in Acres.Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
(inclusive)          
1 to 1015,67415,55415,74615,62915,45019.4819.0618.7818.4118.07
11 to 5013,29113,36713,66213,89814,03016.5216.3816.2516.3716.40
51 to 1009,52410,03910,70811,07311,39311.8412.3112.7413.0413.32
101 to 20012,74513,07913,80114,01514,19315.8416.0316.4116.5116.59
201 to 3208,2778,5008,7188,7398,86110.2810.4210.3710.2910.36
321 to 64010,03110,16610,37510,37810,41512.4612.4612.3412.2312.18
641 to 1,0004,1334,0804,1864,2304,2595.135.004.984.984.98
1,001 to 5,0005,6995,7225,7935,8445,8227.087.016.896.886.81
5,001 to 10,0005625505516655690.700.670.660.670.67
10,001 to 20,0002872993133013010.360.370.870.350.35
20,001 to 50,0001831741631681670.230.210.190.200.20
Over 50,000 acres62626059590.080.080.070.070.07
     Totals80,46881,59284,07684,89985,519100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Seventy-five per cent, of the holdings are seen to be not more than one-half a square mile in area. These, however, represent only 13 per cent, of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion, and from the two following tables showing areas of holdings in occupation by size-groups, and the percentage each group represents of the total area in occupation, it is seen that 68 per cent, of the occupied land is held in areas of over 1,000 acres, and 42 per cent, in areas of over 5,000 acres.

OCCUPIED LANDS.—AREAS.
Sizes of Holdings, in Acres.Aggregate Area of Group.
1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
(Inclusive)Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1 to 1072.52472.19173.45273.44573.073
11 to 50373.737376.722386.046392.768397.253
51 to 100741.469780.437830.488860.009881.756
101 to 2001.895.1191.942.2522.041.4122.072.3572.094.165
201 to 3202.129.4492.186.2332.238.5962.240.6642.270.585
321 to 6404.576.7824.641.7794.734.5344.737.6404.745.854
641 to 1.0003.365.1453.301.2923.376.2213.417.3383.428.628
1,001 to 5,00011.199.38511.305.73311.432.48511.453.33511.393.459
5,001 to 10,0003.905.0733.824.6233.826.9813.891.8743.893.329
10,001 to 20,0004.033.0384.235.6894.424.3734.252.7544.235.050
20,001 to 50,0005.654.0735.371.2154.991.5605.094.0885.170.089
Over 50.000 acres5.396.9125.434.9135.190.6095.042.0655.069.922
Totals43,342,70643.473.07943.546.75743.528.33743.653.163
Sizes of Holdings, in Acres.Percentage of Total Area occupied.
1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
(Inclusive)     
1 to 100.170.170.170.170.17
11 to 500.860.870.880.900.91
51 to 1001.711.801.921.982.02
101 to 2004.374.474.694.764.80
201 to 3204.915.035.145.155.20
321 to 64010.5610.6810.8710.8810.87
641 to 1.0007.767.597.757.857.85
1,001 to 5,00025.8426.0026.2526.3126.10
5,001 to 10.0009.018.808.798.948.92
10,001 to 20,0009.319.7410.169.779.70
20,001 to 50,00013.0512.3511.4611.7111.84
Over 50,000 acres12.4512.5011.9211.5811.62
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Taking the years 1918 and 1923, it is now possible to show the increase or decrease in the percentages of numbers and areas of holdings according to size-groups.

OCCUPIED LANDS.—INCREASE OR DECREASE IN PERCENTAGES OF NUMBERS AND AREAS OF HOLDINGS BY SIZE-GROUPS.
Size of Holdings, in Acres.1918.1923.
Per Cent, of Total.Increase or Decrease compared with Percentages of 1918.
Number.Area.Number.Area.
(Inclusive)    
1 to 1019.630.17-1.56..
11 to 5016.510.86-0.11+0.05
51 to 10011.831.71+1.49+0.31
101 to 20015.844.37+0.75+0.43
201 to 32010.254.89+0.11+0.31
321 to 64012.4010.47-0.22+0.40
641 to 1,0005.147.71-0.16+0.14
1,001 to 5,0007.0225.49-0.21+0.61
5,001 to 10,0000.719.14-0.04-0.22
10,001 to 20,0000.369.47-0.01+0.23
20,001 to 50,0000.2313.26-0.03-1.42
Over 50,000 acres0.0812.46-0.01-0.84

The following table gives the numbers and average areas of holdings for each land district in the Dominion as ascertained at the 1923 collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics.

As regards counties, Waimairi County is the most closely settled, the average area of holdings being 17.77 acres, while Fiord County shows the largest average—viz., 18,000 acres. There are no counties in the North Island having an average in excess of 2,500 acres, but in the South Island there are no fewer than six — viz., Awatere, Amuri, Tawera, Mackenzie, Lake, and Fiord.

The average area of holdings for the Dominion is 510.45 acres, and this average is exceeded by twenty-three counties out of seventy-seven in the North Island, and by twenty-six out of fifty-two in the South Island. The average area for the North Island is 368.10 acres, and for the South 718.82 acres.

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBERS AND AVERAGE AREAS OF HOLDINGS FOR EACH LAND DISTRICT IN THE DOMINION.
Land District.Number of Holdings.Total Area occupied.Average Area of Holdings.
  Acres.Acres.
North Auckland13,6983,025,246220.85
Auckland12,0954,104,464339.35
Gisborne2,8412,746,993966.91
Hawke's Bay4,3662,153,840493.32
Taranaki6,6281,731,858261.29
Wellington11,1814,940,444441.86
Nelson3,9251,330,331338.94
Marlborough2,0192,492,1261,234.34
Westland1,5041,805,0261,200.15
Canterbury13,4078,118,509605.41
Otago7,9997,979,298997.54
Southland5,8563,225,028550.72
     Totals, Dominion85,51943,653,163510.45

TENURE OF OCCUPIED LANDS.

Land in occupation in each land district, tabulated according to tenure, is given in the following table:—

OCCUPIED LANDS.—TENURE, 1923.
Land District.Total of Holdings.Freehold (occupied by Owner).Leased from Private Individuals or Public Bodies.Leased from Natives.Held from Crown under different Tenures (not including Land held on Deferred Payment).

* Of which 1,837,401 acres were returned as leased from private individuals, and 839,707 acres from public bodies.

 AcresAcres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland3,025,2462,377,214173,05880,717394,257
Auckland4,104,4642,746,672218,013289,412850,367
Gisborne2,746,9931,401,757207,340557,411580,485
Hawke's Bay2,153,8401,395,357136,83864,677556,968
Taranaki1,731,858907,401244,13885,979494,340
Wellington4,940,4443,256,164470,358445,113768,809
Nelson1,330,331619,74556,88213,763639,941
Marlborough2,492,126814,08362,23419,8921,595,917
Westland1,805,026175,40524,3583,8961,601,367
Canterbury8,118,5093,203,689592,80910,1384,311,873
Otago7,979,2981,658,394276,0066,9546,037,944
Southland3,225,0281,523,284215,0745,5221,481,148
     Totals43,653,16320,079,1652,677,108*1,583,47419,313,416

The acreage in the last column does not agree exactly with the figures published in the report of the Lands and Survey Department, for the reason that, although these figures include Crown reserves leased, they do not include Crown lands not in occupation at the time of collecting the agricultural and pastoral statistics. Further, all land held on deferred payment is shown as freehold, irrespective of whether in process of purchase from the Crown or not; also, the figures given below are as at the 31st January, whilst the figures published by the Lands and Survey Department are as at the 31st March.

In point of area the most important Crown-lands tenure is “pastoral run,” the area for 1923 being 9,883,585 acres. Considerable areas are also held under the following tenures: Small grazing-runs, 2,787,024 acres; lease in perpetuity, 1,693,528 acres; occupation with right of purchase, 1,381,639 acres; renewable lease, 2,028,060 acres.

Further details of tenure, &c., of Crown lands will be found in Subsection B of this section.

Lands in occupation are, however, not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown. It must also be remembered that of the freehold land in the Dominion a considerable area is unoccupied and unused.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS.

A special classification of holdings (according to purpose for which principally used) is made triennially. The following table gives a comparison of the last two triennial classifications—viz., 1919-20 and 1922-23. Figures exclude borough holdings and holdings under 1 acre in extent.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS, 1919-20 AND 1922-23.
Classification.1919-20.1922-23.
Number of Holdings.Area.Number of Holdings.Area.
  Acres. Acres.
Agricultural10,1462,220,20710,4892,129,802
Dairying29,1114,244,98638,8186,267,597
Pastoral and other (including unspecified)42,33537,007,88636,21235,255,764
     All holdings81,59243,473,07985,51943,653,163

Maori holdings are classified in the same way each year, and a comparison of the last two years is given, 1919-20 being given in addition for comparison with the above. It should be noted that Maori holdings include those held and worked by full-blooded, three-quarter-caste, and half-caste Maoris. Maori lands held on the communal system are excluded.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS (MAORIS ONLY), 1919-20, 1921-22, AND 1922-23.
Classification.1919-20.1921-22.1922-23.
Number of Holdings.Area.Number of Holdings.Area.Number of Holdings.Area.
  Acres. Acres. Acres.
Agricultural18012,7041215,5031444,789
Dairying757104,335839135,791947143,024
Pastoral and other (including unspecified)1,848778,5511,700660,9651,527582,207
     All holdings2,785895,5902,660802,2492,618730,020

CONDITION OF OCCUPIED LAND.

The land in occupation in the Dominion at the 31st January, 1923, is classified according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.
In grain and pulse crops814,071
In grasses and clovers (for hay and seed) and green and root crops1,038,134
In fallow152,843
In grasses and clovers, not cut for hay or seed16,258,651
In vineyards and orchards31,038
In market gardens, nurseries, and seed-gardens4,384
In private gardens and pleasure-grounds60,868
In plantations57,500
     Total area in cultivation18,417,489
Unimproved land25,235,674
     Total area in occupation43,653,163

Further details of land in cultivation and of the various crops grown are given under their respective headings in Subsection B of the next section. Unimproved lands are not again referred to, and accordingly a table is appended showing by land districts more detailed information as to the condition of unimproved occupied land.

UNIMPROVED OCCUPIED LAND, 1922-23.
Land District.Phormium Tenax.Tussock and other Native Grasses.Fern, Scrub, and Second Growth.Standing Virgin Bush.Barren and Unproductive Land.Total Unimproved Occupied Land.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland2,210205,882817,540368,35179,0061,472,989
Auckland7,714229,6311,086,194617,05248,4041,988,995
Gisborne551147,396215,953396,05017,253777,203
Hawke's Bay2,031386,455291,93936,11218,230734,767
Taranaki205,84883,969291,8384,499386,174
Wellington13,149552,727318,944412,95886,4231,384,201
Nelson1,266350,550142,504433,17037,514965,004
Marlborough1,0351,349,136242,804199,486313,6032,106,064
Westland5,178159,22984,5941,135,770268,7091,653,480
Canterbury7574,334,97197,983225,258675,5375,334,506
Otago1,2045,594,356408,139280,559303,5646,587,822
Southland4,3411,423,201162,512154,44399,9721,844,469
     Totals39,45614,739,3823,953,0754,551,0471,952,71425,235,674

The diagram on the next page shows clearly the condition of land in occupation at the 31st January, 1923. Of the total of 43,653,163 acres, unimproved land amounted to 25,235,674 acres, and improved land to 18,417,489 acres. As might be expected in a pastoral-dairying country like New Zealand, permanent pasture (16,258,651 acres) forms a considerable portion of the land occupied. Grain and pulse crops, grasses and clovers (cut for hay or seed), and green and root crops aggregated 1,852,205 acres, or about 4¼ per cent, of the total area occupied. The various subdivisions of these crops are given in smaller diagrams alongside that giving the broader general divisions.

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Prior to 1870 conveyancing in New Zealand was based upon the English laws of real property as existing at the date of the constitution of the colony, varied in some important particulars by the Conveyancing Ordinance of 1842 and other colonial legislation, now embodied in the Property Law Act, 1908. Considerable areas of land in all parts of the Dominion are still held and dealt with under this system. Although provision is made for the registration of deeds affecting such land, registration is no guarantee of their validity, and a purchaser has to rely for the security of his title upon the skill and care of his legal adviser.

By the Land Transfer Act, 1870, the system of title by registration was introduced. The title to land under this system is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land Transfer Department assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it.

Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production.

The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees.

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the last six years is given in the following statement:—

Year ended 31st March.Deeds recorded.Fees. £
191813,67313,226
191912,79813,148
192024,65025,157
192138,12232,251
192225,35221,956
192323,17620,897

LAND TRANSFER.

The land-transfer system in New Zealand originated, as stated above, with the Land Transfer Act, 1870. This re-enacted with amendments is now the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

The land subject to the Land Transfer Act comprises all land alienated from the Crown since 1870, all land included in any order under the Native Land Acts vesting such land in any person in freehold tenure, and all land vested in any person in fee-simple by virtue of any Act of the General Assembly, besides land which has been brought under the Act on the application of the proprietors after investigation and acceptance of the title by the Department.

Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last five years is given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March.Applications.
Number.Area.Value.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
191929113376,441776,403
192049717585,2371,343,243
192161920870,5361,767,397
192249119731,7861,181,317
192340713034,515815,855

The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last ten years. Included in the totals are those certificates issued in lieu of Crown grants, 788 being the number for 1922-23.

CERTIFICATES OF TITLE ISSUED.
Year ended 31st March.Number.
191412,867
191511,074
191610,525
191710,350
191810,230
19197,988
192011,637
192116,010
192219,653
192314,045

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last five years:—

TRANSFERS REGISTERED.
Year ended 31st March.Number.Area.Consideration-money.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£
191922,49621,1561,992,31225,197,384
192045,128107,4323,775,25162,446,574
192155,74616,1544,557,32881,790,063
192233,78410,6521,984,69535,436,823
192331,017,9552,499,12329,980,153

Information as to mortgages registered under the Land Transfer Act is contained in the section of this book dealing with “Mortgages.”

SUBSECTION B.—CROWN LANDS.
ADMINISTRATION.

THE Crown lands are administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1908, the Land for Settlements Act, 1908, and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, by the Minister of Lands at Wellington, his executive officer being the Under-Secretary of Lands, who is the permanent head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into twelve land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner of Crown Lands and a Land Board. The Commissioner's office is known as the principal land office, and in some of the larger districts there are one or more local land offices. It is with these land offices that the selector has to transact all business, from the first consultation of the maps to the final receipt of the Crown title.

The names of the land districts and of the towns where the principal office of each is situated are as under:—

Land District.Principal Land Office situated at

* Constituted from 1st April, 1923.

North AucklandAuckland.
AucklandAuckland.
Gisborne*Gisborne.
Hawke's BayNapier.
TaranakiNew Plymouth.
WellingtonWellington.
Land District.Principal Land Office situated at
NelsonNelson.
MarlboroughBlenheim.
WestlandHokitika.
CanterburyChristchurch.
OtagoDunedin.
SouthlandInvercargill.

Commissioners of Crown Lands are executive officers of the land districts, having large discretionary powers under the Act. Each is the Chairman of the Land Board of his district, and transacts all its routine business in the sale, letting, and occupation of Crown lands. The Commissioners deal with trespassers and intruders (persons and cattle), removing the former and prosecuting the owners of the latter; they recover all penalties, ascertain the boundaries of Crown lands, enforce all contracts for the disposition of Crown lands, recover rents and other moneys, deal with determinable contracts, prosecute and defend suits, and do whatever is necessary in the course of their duties.

LAND BOARD.

A Land Board consists of five members—viz., the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district (who is ex officio Chairman), three members nominated by the Governor-General, and one member elected by the Crown tenants of the district.

The Boards transact all business connected with the sale, letting, disposal, and occupation of Crown lands, and all matters connected with the management and control of the public lands in their hands. They are the sole judges of the fulfilment of conditions in leases and licenses, and they can declare them forfeit. All meetings are open to the Press and public, with certain limitations.

APPLICATIONS FOR LAND.

A selector may purchase for cash, or may select for occupation with right of purchase or for renewable lease. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and must apply for Crown land solely for his- own use and benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person, whilst, including the land he applies for, he is not to be the owner, holder, or occupier under any tenure of more than one year's duration, either severally or jointly or in common with any other person or persons, of any land anywhere in New Zealand exceeding in the whole 5,000 acres of land, computed as follows:—

  1. Every acre of first-class land is reckoned as 71/2 acres;

  2. Every acre of second-class land is reckoned as 21/2 acres;

  3. Every acre of third-class land is reckoned as 1 acre.

The annual rental payable for occupation-with-right-of-purchase selections is 5 per cent, on the cash price of the land, and for lands selected for renewable lease the annual rental is 4 per cent, on the cash price of the land.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.

Crown land may be selected and occupied under the following tenures and systems:—

  1. Town, suburban, and village lands—

    1. For cash and deferred payment, by public auction;

    2. By lease for terms up to ten years;

    3. By renewable lease for thirty-three years.

  2. Rural land (unimproved), (under optional system)—

    1. For cash, by application;

    2. Occupation with right of purchase for twenty-five years;

    3. Renewable lease for sixty-six years.

  3. Village settlements—

    Under the three foregoing tenures of optional system.

  4. Improved-farm settlements (rural land)—

    Under special conditions, and either (a) on occupation-with-right-of-purchase license or (b) on renewable lease.

  5. Special settlements (rural land)—

    On renewable lease for sixty-six years and under special regulations.

  6. Land-for-settlement estates (improved rural and pastoral land)—

    1. Under renewable lease for thirty-three years, with limited right to acquire freehold;

    2. For cash or on deferred payments, by auction.

  7. Pastoral land—

    1. By small-grazing-run lease for twenty-one years, with right of renewal (maximum area, 20,000 acres);

    2. By pastoral license on terms up to thirty-five years.

  8. Land within mining districts—

    1. On pastoral licenses under special regulations, with right to acquire the freehold or exchange to a renewable lease;

    2. On occupation leases under special regulations, with similar rights as to purchase of freehold and exchange.

  9. Miscellaneous—

    1. Temporary occupation on terms up to five years;

    2. Sale or occupation for special purposes;

    3. Outlying land.

CONDITIONS OF OCCUPATION AND LEASES.

Full particulars are given in the Crown Lands Guide, issued periodically and obtainable at any land office, as to the conditions of lease and occupation. A certain amount of improvements is required to be effected on rural land purchased for cash or held under occupation-with-right-of-purchase or renewable-lease tenures, and residence is compulsory for certain periods on most Crown leaseholds. Rebate of rent is given in many cases when the half-yearly instalment of rent is paid within thirty days of its becoming due. Applications for mortgage, transfer, and sublease of a Crown leasehold have to be approved by the Land Board of the district under most of the tenures.

DISPOSAL OF ENDOWMENTS AND RESERVES ADMINISTERED BY LAND BOARDS.

National endowments may be disposed of under renewable lease, small-grazing-run lease, or pastoral license. These lands are occupied on the same conditions as ordinary Crown lands, with the exception that the freehold cannot be acquired while such lands continue to be included in the endowment. Under section 11 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1920, the Governor-General is authorized to remove from the endowment certain lands comprised therein, including lands occupied by discharged soldiers under any tenure, and small grazing-runs held under leases issued under the Land Act, 1892, or the Land Act, 1908, up till the 10th December, 1918. Upon the removal of such lands from the endowment the occupiers thereof can acquire the freehold in manner prescribed by section 11 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1920.

Education endowments are available for leasing under the Education Reserves Amendment Act, 1910 (modifying the Education Reserves Act, 1908), which permits of a lease being granted under the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, as well as under the Land Act, 1908. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

Public reserves not vested in trustees or a local authority may be leased under the. Public Reserves and Domains Amendment Act, 1911, for any term not exceeding twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LANDS OPENED FOR SELECTION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1923, an area of 235,193 acres of land was offered for selection under the various tenures provided by the Land Act, Land for Settlements Act, and Education Reserves Acts.

Under renewable lease an area of 60,388 acres was offered, 36,106 acres being national endowment, 17,475 acres land for settlements, and 6,807 acres ordinary Crown lands. The pastoral-run area comprised 125,717 acres.

In addition to the above a total area of 29,588 acres of Crown, settlement, and national-endowment lands was set apart for selection by discharged soldiers, under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act and the Land for Settlements Act, and the special tenures of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. Fuller particulars regarding these lands will be found at the end of this subsection.

The total selections during the year covered an area of 481,649 acres, by 1,426 selectors. These figures include, however, 233 purchases of small town, suburban, and rural lands, aggregating 8,140 acres, offered for sale at auction. The ordinary Crown lands holdings represented 155,930 acres; land for settlements and Cheviot Estate, 30,399 acres; national endowment, 272,158 acres; and educational, 23,162 acres. Selections by discharged soldiers are included in the foregoing totals.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.

Areas under this heading include all lands sold for cash or selected on the deferred-payment system, small grazing-runs, and leases under the following tenures: Renewable lease, occupation with right of purchase, mining districts land occupation leases, educational-endowment leases, and pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations. A five-years summary of selections is as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Sold for Cash.Deferred-payment Licenses.Leases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small Grazing-runs.Totals.
1919127445731745
1920253941,007111,365
19213011291,260171,707
192221821377991,219
19232331215964954

The acreage represented by the selections included in the foregoing table is as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Sold for Cash.Deferred-payment Licenses.Leases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small Grazing-runs.Totals.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
19192,225632136,7542,532142,143
19203,9572,110247,925128,437382,429
192117,9974,433304,58278,029405,041
192211,4101,443165,44221,161199,456
19238,1401,74185,7074,34799,935

CROWN LAND HELD OR MADE FREEHOLD.

The following table shows in a condensed form the area of Crown land held at 31st March, 1923, the yearly rental payable, and the area made freehold to that date:—

Tenure.Total Number of Selectors. Total Area held.Total Yearly Rental or Instalment payable.Total Area made Freehold.
Number of Purchasers.Area.
  Acres.£ Acres.
Cash lands........13,234,168
Deferred payment1,620290,73154,69910,2301,216,402
Perpetual lease19712,3181,1793,085860,418
Occupation with right of purchase4,5091,381,639110,9584,2371,115,578
Lease in perpetuity7,8251,693,528198,6982,960513,480
Renewable lease7,2342,028,060462,18420237,885
Agricultural lease12319141,408140,896
Mining districts land occupation leases69620,3011,6391003,214
Homestead......6180,453
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations815187,8204,6866915,625
Small grazing-runs8732,787,024104,4424352,847
Pastoral runs6459,883,58591,021....
Miscellaneous leases and licenses6,3201,135,98940,4798010,138
     Totals30,74619,421,3141,069,99922,47517,281,104
Thermal-springs leases (Rotorua)3342,5422,103....
Education endowments—     
Primary3,359766,677108,211386
Secondary44740,2077,593....
     Totals4,140809,426117,912386
     Grand totals34,88620,230,7401,187,91122,47817,281,190
Other endowment lands756350,65216,68345,019

The next table shows the area of Crown land made freehold during the year ended 31st March, 1923, together with the amount of purchase-money. The information is given for the various tenures under which the land was held immediately prior to the freehold being acquired by the occupier.

CROWN LAND MADE FREEHOLD, YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Tenure.Area.Amount realized.
 Acres.£
Cash lands sold8,14079,593
Freehold acquired under following tenures—  
Deferred payment (Acts of 1877 and 1885)304100
Deferred payment (Acts of 1912 and 1913)3,73319,352
Perpetual lease4,9753,599
Occupation with right of purchase26,28423,317
Lease in perpetuity5,9385,796
Renewable lease3,5204,643
Mining districts land occupation lease331525
Pastoral licenses in mining districts600417
Small grazing-runs....
Miscellaneous....
     Totals53,825137,342.

SUBDIVISION OF LAND.

Much of the land legislation of recent years has been in the direction of preventing large areas of good land from being acquired or retained by a single individual. The Land Laws Amendment Acts of 1912 and 1913 went further in the direction of encouraging or compelling subdivision of land held in large areas. Part III of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1912, makes provision for an agreement being made between the Minister of Lands and the owner in fee-simple of any land for the subdivision of that land, and for the disposal by public tender of the allotments by way of sale or by way of lease with right of purchase.

Section 49 provides for similar agreements between the Minister and the owners of Native freehold land in respect of the disposition by sale or lease of that land.

In Part VI of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1913, provision is made whereby the Minister of Lands may at any time in writing notify an owner of land that such land or a portion thereof is required for purposes of settlement. The owner of land is required, within six months after such notice has been gazetted, to notify the Minister whether he elects (a) to himself subdivide and offer the land for sale in subdivisions, or (b) to enter into an agreement with the Minister as above, or (c) that the land shall be taken compulsorily under the Land for Settlements Act.

In Part VII of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1913, provision is made for compulsorily taking private land (not within a borough or town district) in cases where in the opinion of the Board of Land Purchase Commissioners such land has been acquired by way of aggregation, and where such aggregation is contrary to the public interest. Compensation is payable for all land so taken.

LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS.

The purchase of private lands by the Crown for closer settlement purposes is authorized by the Land for Settlements Act, 1908, and amendments thereof. In each land district is a local Land Purchase Board, of which the Commissioner of Crown Lands is the Chairman, and its recommendations are dealt with by the Dominion Land Purchase Board (Wellington), consisting of the Land Purchase Controller (Chairman), the Under-Secretary of Lands, the Surveyor-General, and a nominated member.

The number of estates offered during the year ended 31st March, 1923, was 28, of an area of 49,535 acres. In addition a number were submitted direct to the Commissioners of Crown Lands of the several districts and considered by the local Boards. The figures given herein do not include any purchases under section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917. The area purchased during the year was 720 acres, of a value of £11,279.

The total number of estates purchased since the inception of the land-for-settlements scheme is 624, of a total area of 1,980,045 acres, the aggregate amount of purchase-money being £12,944,251. The figures for each land district are—

SUMMARY OF ESTATES ACQUIRED UP TO THE 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Land District.Number.Area.Purchase-money.

* Including North Auckland, now a separate district.

  Acres.£
Auckland*92385,3291,481,837
Hawke's Bay60301,4702,291,637
Taranaki2527,628369,818
Wellington143157,3352,226,840
Marlborough20223,277734,665
Nelson1448,821150,473
Westland25,1258,343
Canterbury172447,3493,444,252
Otago71293,0741,778,600
Southland2590,637457,786
Totals6241,980,04512,944,251

The transfer of certain areas from Crown to settlement lands, and the adjustment of areas to account for ascertained surpluses or deficiencies, bring the total area to 2,171,728 acres at the 31st March, 1923. Of this, 189,717 acres have been sold for cash or made freehold, the total purchase-money being £743,067; and 30,650 acres are occupied by roads or by reserves unlet. At the 31st March, 1923, 6,966 selectors were holding a total of 1,788,073 acres, the annual rental for which amounts to £586,095; and the remaining 163,288 acres were unlet. The figures for each land district are as follows:—

POSITION OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS AT THE 31ST MARCH, 1923.
District.Net Area acquired, including Ascertained Surplus.Area occupied by Roads and Reserves unlet.Area of Land unlet, including Land forfeited, surrendered, or resumed and not relet, and also Land not yet offered for Selection.Total Area purchased for Cash or made Freehold to Date.
Number of Purchasers.Area.Price realized.
 Acres.Acres.Acres. Acres.£
North Auckland40,9928493,2091701,70522,140
Auckland354,88213,22794,094619118,146260,665
Hawke's Bay301,3372,8294,32211921,816139,330
Taranaki28,2312465,797381,38432,560
Wellington141,4321,1396,1861266,90477,924
Nelson66,42291716,16461,6352,953
Marlborough235,1772,6942,152356,45721,096
Westland5,12578..2192116
Canterbury604,7584,5031,39623214,371112,020
Otago296,1723,16828,746495,96729,325
Southland97,2001,0001,2227911,14044,938
     Totals2,171,72830,650163,2881,475189,717743,067
District.Total Land leased at 31st March, 1923Rent and other payments received during the year.Total receipts from Inception to 31st March 1923.
Number of Selectors.Area.Annual Rental.
  Acres.£££
North Auckland24435,22914,9378,321108,579
Auckland936129,41444,11238,819704,447
Hawke's Bay848272,371109,35983,569383,438
Taranaki13820,80513,86811,471129,360
Wellington878127,20292,38759,790604,664
Nelson5447,7074,7982,50038,436
Marlborough490223,87436,96031,458536,470
Westland314,85553752011,927
Canterbury1,900584,488169,587143,1482,360,408
Otago1,099258,29179,10963,4771,074,706
Southland34883,83720,44116,533320,915
     Totals6,9661,788,073586,095459,6066,273,350

LAND-SETTLEMENT FINANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

On the 1st January, 1910, the Land Settlement Finance Act, which is described fully in the 1915 issue of this book, came into force. The associations incorporated now number forty-six. There were no transactions during the year 1922-23.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, and amendments, any person is entitled to the benefits of the Act who has been a member of a New Zealand Naval or Expeditionary Force, has served beyond New Zealand in connection with the late war, has returned to New Zealand and has received an honourable discharge, together with any person who immediately prior to the commencement of the war was a bona fide resident of New Zealand, and has also served during the war with some portion of His Majesty's Naval or Military Forces (not being Forces raised in New Zealand) and has received an honourable discharge therefrom. In addition, all discharged members of an Expeditionary Force who, having been classed as medically fit for service beyond the seas, have served as members of that Force in a camp of military training and remained attached to that camp on the 12th November, 1918 (being the date of the cessation of hostilities with Germany), are entitled to apply for advances or private land under section 2 or 3 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917.

TENURES UNDER WHICH LAND MAY BE SELECTED.

There is power to dispose of land under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act, 1908, and the Land for Settlements Act, 1908—i.e., for cash, or occupation with right of purchase, or on renewable lease under the former Act, and renewable lease under the latter Act; also under the “special tenures” of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, which are cash, deferred payment, or a renewable lease with a purchasing clause. The various tenures mentioned may be explained as under, and are given under two headings—viz., “Ordinary Tenures” and “Special Tenures.”

(A.) Ordinary Tenures.

Cash.—In all cases of purchase of land for cash the applicant is required to pay one-fifth of the purchase-money at the date of the sale, and the balance, with the Crown-grant fee, within thirty days from the date of the approval of the application.

Occupation with Right of Purchase.—Term, twenty-five years; rental, 5 per cent, on the capital value of the land; right of purchase after the license has been held six years, provided the residence and improvement conditions have been complied with. If the licensee does not acquire the freehold prior to the expiration of the term of twenty-five years he has a prior right to a renewable lease.

Renewable Lease under the Land Act.—Term, sixty-six years, with a perpetual right of renewal; rental, 4 per cent, on the capital value of the land. There is a right to the freehold.

Renewable Lease under the Land for Settlements Act.—Term, thirty-three years, with perpetual right of renewal; rental, 4 1/2 per cent, on the capital value of the land. Right of purchase at any time during the currency of the lease. Purchase of the freehold may be made on the deferred-payment system if desired.

(B.) Special Tenures.

Cash.—The remarks already under “Cash" heading apply to cash selections under “Special Tenures.”

Deferred Payment under Special Tenures.—Term, such period as the Board may determine, usually nineteen years; licensee to deposit 5 per cent, of the purchase-money, and thereafter pay the balance of 95 per cent, by equal annual payments, together with interest at 5 per cent., payable half-yearly, on all outstanding balances. The licensee has the right to pay off the whole or any part of the outstanding money at any time during the currency of the license.

Renewable Lease with Purchasing Clause under Special Tenures.—Term may be for any period not exceeding thirty-three years in the case of settlement land, and sixty-six years in the case of Crown land, with perpetual rights of renewal for thirty-three years or sixty-six years as the case may be. Freehold may be acquired any time during the currency of the lease. Purchase of the freehold may be made on the deferred-payment system if desired.

PRIVATE LAND.

Under section 3 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, one or more discharged soldiers may apply to the Land Board with a view to the acquisition by the Crown on their behalf of any private land. The Land Board, however, cannot deal with such application until an offer in writing to sell the land to the Crown has been submitted to the Board by the owner of the land. It can then consider the application and offer, and forward them to the Minister of Lands with such recommendations as it thinks proper. The Minister may thereupon refer the offer to the Land Purchase Board for consideration, and if the land or any part thereof is acquired by the Crown it may then be disposed of under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act to the applicant.

SOLDIERS' DWELLINGS.

The Minister may set land apart for the purpose of soldiers' dwellings, and may erect suitable buildings thereon. The land and dwellings may then be disposed of to discharged soldiers in the same manner generally as in the case of workers by the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910.

TRANSFERS.

No transfer of land selected under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act will be permitted for a period of ten years, except with the approval of the Land Board and the Minister of Lands.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE.

Section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, provides that financial assistance may be given to discharged soldiers for the following purposes: (a) The purchase of private or Native land; (b) the acquisition by assignment or transfer of the lease of any land; and (c) the discharge of any mortgage affecting any land owned by a discharged soldier or held by him under license or lease from a Land Board. The maximum amount for any of these purposes that may be advanced to any one person is £2,500, with a further advance of £750 for improvements, stock, &c., where necessary. Repayment of advances may be secured by flat mortgage for ten years, with interest at 5 per cent., or by instalment mortgage extending over a period of thirty-six years and a half, with an annual charge of 6 per cent., which includes interest and sinking fund.

If assistance is required for the purchase of a residential site with dwelling thereon an advance not exceeding £1,000 may be made, or, in the event of the site being owned by the applicant, an advance not exceeding £900 may be made towards the erection of a dwelling thereon. Repayment of advances may be secured by flat mortgage for ten years, with interest at 5 per cent., or by instalment mortgage extending over a period of twenty-five years and a half, with an annual charge of 7 per cent., which includes interest and sinking fund.

In addition, financial assistance may be given to discharged soldiers who own freehold land or are the lessees or licensees of any land administered by a Land Board, for any of the following purposes: The clearing, fencing, draining, and general improvement (including erection of buildings) of the land, and the purchase of plant, stock, implements, seeds, trees, &c. Except in the case of a house to be built on other than rural land, the maximum total amount that may be advanced for all the foregoing purposes is £500 (not more than £250 of this being for a dwelling and other buildings), unless there be special circumstances in which the amount would be madequate, when the Minister may authorize an additional advance not exceeding £250.

Advances are secured by a mortgage over the land, with the addition, at the option of the Minister, of a bill of sale over the stock, implements, &c. The rate of interest is 5 per cent.

Advances for improvements or buildings may be made by progress-payments up to 75 per cent, of the value of any work done.

Applications for assistance, giving full particulars, must be made to the Land Board for the district in which the land affected is situated. Before making its recommendation the Board will require the applicant to appear personally before it, or before such person as it may appoint. No application for an advance to assist in the purchase of land can be considered unless accompanied by an option to purchase the fee-simple, or lease, or license, as the case may be.

At the 31st March, 1923, advances amounting to £21,278,221, to 21,584 settlers, had been authorized. Advances actually made to the same date reached a total of £20,970,703, of which £2,173,133 has already been repaid.

The following table shows the total area proclaimed under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915. Of the total area proclaimed, ordinary Crown lands amounted to 575,527 acres, Cheviot Estate to 3,356 acres, land for settlements to 387,713 acres, and national-endowment land to £430,743 acres.

District.Under Section 3 of the Act. (Ordinary Tenures.)Under Section 4 of the Act. (Special Tenures.)Total Area proclaimed.
For the Year ended 31st March, 1923.Total to 31st March, 1923.For the Year ended 31st March, 1923.Total to 31st March, 1923.For the Year ended 31st March, 1923.Total to 31st March, 1923.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland43923,5955,73042,5996,16966,194
Auckland..61,573234147,558234209,131
Hawke's Bay..27,26320,352172,38320,852199,646
Taranaki..15,65785838,18185853,838
Wellington..2,490344106,976344109,466
Nelson..35,380..33,499..68,879
Marlborough....82120,67482120,674
Westland..27,752..480..28,232
Canterbury..254,40113346,480133300,881
Otago..239,78017775,617177315,397
Southland..10,824..14,177..25,001
     Totals439698,71529,149698,62429,5881,397,339

During the year ended 31st March, 1923, 284 applications were made under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, and allotments were made in the case of 146 applicants. The following table shows the number of applications for land in each of the several land districts of the Dominion, and also the number of applications granted, together with the areas so allotted:—

District.Applications.Allotments.
Number.Area.
   Acres.
North Auckland31245,429
Auckland90333,967
Hawke's Bay50205,707
Taranaki44499
Wellington61272,998
Nelson......
Marlborough671,483
Westland11111
Canterbury3522878
Otago684,041
Southland......
     Totals28414625,113

SUBSECTION C.—NATIVE LANDS.

NATIVE lands and Native affairs generally are administered by the Native Department as indicated below.

The Native Land Court is a Court of record, and deals, inter alia, with the investigation, partition, and exchange of Native lands, succession, probate and letters of administration, consolidation of interests, incorporation of owners, and other matters.

Maori Land Boards, of which there are seven, are concerned with the confirmation and approval of alienations, the disposal of lands vested in them by way of sale or lease, and the administration of Native blocks as farms.

The Board is composed of a President, who is the Judge of the Native Land Court District, and the Registrar, who is also the administrative officer of the Maori Land Board.

Native land vested in a Maori Land Board or the Native Trustee cannot be dealt with by the individual Native. In addition there are other classes of Native lands subject to statutory restrictions. In an ordinary case where the owners in a title number not more than ten they may be dealt with individually, but if more than ten, then the “assembled-owners" provision of dealing by resolution through the Maori Land Board must be resorted to. The Native Land Act provides safeguards for the Native owner in disposing of his land, and special requirements are necessary as to execution, and the Native alienating must in no case be rendered landless thereby. Before entering into negotiations it is advisable to make the fullest search into the title, and inquiry as to the proper method of execution and completion.

The terms “partition" and “individualization,” as applied to Native Land Court dealings, are often confused. To individualize is to partition in severalty, and not merely to define relative interests, which may be done without partition. To partition is to cut out certain interests in a block of land, and may not necessarily be for an individual. The term “customary land,” which is also sometimes misunderstood, is applied to land not yet clothed with a Native Land Court title. Customary land is also known as “papatupu land.”

The purchase of lands on behalf of the Crown is conducted by a Native Land Purchase Board.

Maori Councils elected for defined districts, and composed of Natives and an “official member” (usually a European), supervise matters generally affecting the Maori settlements and kaingas, more particularly as regards sanitary arrangements.

The Native Trustee, a statutory officer, administers all reserves held for Natives, and grants leases of them. The beneficial owner of Native reserves has no personal power of alienation.

The Native Trustee also, where necessary, acts as trustee for owners of Native land under legal disability, and is sometimes called upon to administer estates of deceased Natives.

NATIVE LAND COURT.

Particulars of the business dealt with by the Native Land Court during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923, are as follows:—

Number of sittings112
Number of cases notified21,768
Number of cases for which orders were made7,549
Number of cases dismissed2,824
Number of cases adjourned sine die11,665
Number of partitions made Area affected (acres)911
 180,456
Number of investigate of title Area affected (a12
 2,028
Number of succession orders made7,871
Number of other orders made2,638

From the Native Land Court an appeal lies to the Native Appellate Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.

The total area vested in and administered by the various Maori Land Boards up to the 31st March, 1923, was 775,249 acres.

During the year 110 acres of vested land were disposed of by lease, while 1,081 acres were revested in the Native owners.

With regard to Native freehold land, the Boards during the year approved of 245 leases, comprising 18,773 acres, and confirmed 1,101 transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 39,893 acres of freehold land.

NATIVE-LAND PURCHASE.

During the year some 63 blocks, comprising 14,944 acres, were proclaimed Crown land. The actual purchases made during the year, including individual interests, totalled an area of 51,523 acres. The total area of Native land alienated by way of sale since the coming into operation of the Native Land Act, 1909, is approximately 2,790,139 acres. Of this total an area of some 1,298,723 acres has been acquired on behalf of the Crown for settlement purposes, at a purchase price of £3,129,370.

EXTENT OF NATIVE LANDS.

The total area of lands held by Maori owners at the 31st March, 1923, is estimated at 4,654,138 acres, of which 4,380,916 acres are situated in the North Island.

In many cases Natives are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying purposes, and some of the leases granted by Maori Land Boards are to Natives. The Maori Land Boards and East Coast Commissioner also farm blocks for them. A drawback to success by individual Natives is often met with in the difficulty of adequately financing their farming ventures, but some effort is being made through the Native Trustee to assist such cases with advances out of Maori-owned funds.

Various returns disclose that there is under Maori ownership upwards of 500,000 sheep, 50,000 cattle, 13,000 horses, and 10,000 pigs.

Chapter 16. SECTION XVI.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

THE Dominion of New Zealand is a country specially favoured for primary production. The soil covering is varied in character, a considerable portion of it being of exceptional fertility; but even the poorer soils are largely capable of profitable utilization by reason of the comparatively mild and equable weather conditions. The best grasses and fodder plan's flourish in the congenial environment, and the country has gained a world-wide reputation for the quality of its pastures. Numerous streams intersect the country, and present to the farmer a great potential source of cheap power, which is already being used in individual cases for shearing sheep, separating milk, crushing grain, cutting firewood, and lighting the home.

A conspicuous feature of New Zealand farming is that the stock do not require to be stalled in the winter, though the pastures are more or less supplemented by fodder crops in the colder months of the year. This fact, combined with the factor of soil-fertility, enables the New Zealand farmer to produce stock at a much smaller cost than the farmer in countries where artificial feeding has to be employed or where droughts periodically occur.

New Zealand is primarily a grazing-country, and, while more of the land is every year being given up to the cultivation of fodder crops, its future will, no doubt, be inseparably associated with stock-raising, principally of dairy cattle and sheep. Though less than a century has elapsed since the colonization of New Zealand, sixteen million acres of land in the Dominion have been sown down in English grasses. A great proportion of the crops grown in the Dominion are for the production of such commodities as meat, wool, and dairy-produce.

Grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are grown on a fairly large scale in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island. Barley is also grown, but to a very much smaller extent. Much of the crop of oats produced is chaffed for stock-feeding purposes within the country. Root crops, principally turnips, are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock-fattening purposes, more particularly in the South Island. Owing to the comparative difficulty of growing large areas of turnips free from disease, other stock-foods are coming into prominence. Mangolds are being cultivated to a larger extent, and farmers are beginning to realize the great value of lucerne. Ensilage-making, particularly in the stack form, is increasing in the dairying districts. Quite a feature of milk-producing operations is the growing of green fodder crops to maintain the milk-supply during the drier months of the year. It will be seen that live-stock in New Zealand is for the most part maintained on food produced on the farm itself.

THE NORTH ISLAND.

The North Island of the Dominion is remarkable for the congenial environment it furnishes for many phases of primary production. In no part is the winter really severe, and the question of stalling stock during the colder months of the year has not to be considered. It is more a grazing than an agricultural country, and practically all the cereal crops raised are used for feeding farm stock. The dominant industries are dairying and sheep-farming. There is probably no finer sheep-country in the world than the limestone downs of the province of Hawke's Bay. It may be said with every confidence that there is more butterfat produced to the acre on many farms in the Taranaki District than on any equal area in the world when it is considered that all the food provided for the stock is produced on the farm itself. The standard of dairy-farming is steadily improving, not only by reason of special fodder being provided for the drier parts of the summer and the colder months of the year, but on account of the fact that the farmer is coming to realize the value of herd testing and culling.

In various parts of the Island fruitgrowing, principally of apples, pears, and peaches, is being placed on a sound commercial basis. In the northern portion citrus fruits can be successfully produced, and, with the adoption of better storage and marketing methods, lemons in particular are being cultivated on a considerable scale. Outdoor grapes are freely grown. Both the North and the South Islands have established an export trade in apples, and to a less extent in pears.

During recent years the Waikato district and the Auckland Province in general have shown themselves to be admirably adapted to the dairy industry, and dairying has made remarkable development. The Auckland District, in fact, has become easily the largest exporter of butter in the Dominion, while it also leads in the production of milk-powder.

With the adoption of improved methods in the treatment of the land, and the demonstration of correct manurial treatment, farming in the Auckland Province has been placed on a much more stable basis. Assisted by a favourable climate, of which a short and mild winter is a feature, stock-raising of all descriptions is being carried on with conspicuous success. The country is eminently adapted for the production of root and fodder crops, and stock can be brought to maturity and fattened for the market at a minimum of cost.

THE SOUTH ISLAND.

The South Island was the portion of the Dominion where agriculture proper was first established, the settlement of the land being greatly facilitated by the fact that on the eastern, southern, and northern portions large fertile plains, rolling downs, and hills were available devoid of the forests which in a very large portion of the North Island have had to be cleared before the land could be utilized by the farmer. Agricultural operations in the South have been maintained at a high standard for many years, principally in Otago and Canterbury, many of the pioneers of which districts were British yeomen farmers who brought with them the best methods of the Old Land. So in the breeding of live-stock, many of the original holders of land in the South, and the shepherds and herdsmen they employed, were well trained in stock-management by live-stock breeders of the Mother-country. The South Island may be fairly said to have been the nursery of the live-stock of the Dominion, and the high quality of the stock bred in the country is in a large measure due to the capacity of the men who founded and developed the flocks and herds in the eastern and southern districts. Growing of the finer wools, and of fat lambs for the frozen-meat industry, are features of primary production in the South Island, while the dairy industry is also well represented, especially in Otago and Southland. Draught horses of a very fine stamp are also bred on a considerable scale in some districts.

While the climate in the southern districts of the South Island is not so congenial as that in the northern, there are only a few portions where the winter is at all rigorous. The Nelson Province, in the north-west corner of the Island, is noted for its climate, which is remarkably equable in character. Nelson has a sunshine-record which is equalled in but few parts of the Temperate Zone. The district is specially suitable for fruitgrowing, which is being developed on a rapidly expanding commercial scale. At the other end of the Island, in Central Otago, a peculiar configuration of the country enables fruitgrowing to be prosecuted with great success. The winter is comparatively severe, but the warm summer sun and the absence of wind make it an ideal environment for fruitgrowing.

In some sections, particularly in Canterbury, Otago, and Marlborough, grain-growing is prosecuted on a considerable scale. The Canterbury Plains, extending a hundred and fifty miles north and south and running inland for forty miles from the sea, represent an area of over 3,000,000 acres. This forms the principal grain-growing aŕea. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated to a large extent. In Otago and Southland oats are the grain principally produced. In some of the richer lands the yield of wheat has reached very high figures, even up to 80 or 90 bushels per acre, while over 100 bushels to the acre have been recorded for crops of oats. In root crops up to 70 tons per acre of turnips have been secured, while the yield of mangolds has frequently reached 90 tons.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture the Department of Agriculture is a service which is mainly concerned in advancing the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock, Dairy, and Horticulture, also a Chemist and a Biologist in charge of sections.

While the service is mainly educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Live-stock Division, all meat exported is inspected by qualified officers. Cattle are inspected for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles; sheep and swine also receive attention; slaughterhouses are licensed and controlled; and all stock exported and imported is examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in swine husbandry and wool growing and handling. The Division is provided with a well-equipped laboratory mainly devoted to veterinary research, &c.

Dairy-produce is inspected and graded prior to shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture in butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk-samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers.

Supervision is exercised over the control of noxious weeds and the suppression of rabbits, and assistance is rendered in connection with the system of co-operative field experiments. A special staff is employed to grade New Zealand phormium fibre prior to export.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work and instruction to beekeepers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It inspects orchards and apiaries, and generally controls diseases of plants and bees.

The Chemistry Section carries out analyses of soils, limestones, fertilizers, water, &c. The Biology Section investigates and gives advice in agricultural botany, plant-pathology, entomology, and related subjects. Well-equipped laboratories form part of the organization of both sections.

There are several experimental farms and horticultural stations which carry out experiments and demonstrations of national as well as local import, including the breeding of purebred cattle and sheep. Several of the farms were established to solve local problems, and the objective in each case has been attained. The principal establishments are those of Ruakura (Hamilton), Weraroa (Levin), Moumahaki (Waverley), Te Kauwhata (Lower Waikato), and Ashburton. Other experimental areas are operated at Puwera (Whangarei), Albany (Auckland), Marton, Gore, Winton, and Galloway (Central Otago).

The agricultural instructional work covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or by letters of advice. Thousands of farmers visit the experimental farms and areas. Comprehensive educational displays are frequently made at winter shows, largely illustrative of the experiments conducted by the Department. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. A monthly journal, the New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, is published at a low rate of subscription, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer can obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination-capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described, and remedies suggested—all these services being rendered free of charge.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

By an Act of Parliament passed in 1913 provision was made for the establishment of a Board of Agriculture, consisting of not more than twelve members appointed by the Governor-General, of whom not more than four were to be appointed on the recommendation of the agricultural and pastoral societies of the North Island, and an equal number on the recommendation of such societies in the South Island. The functions of the Board are to advise the Minister of Agriculture on matters relating to the development of agricultural and other rural industries in New Zealand. In particular, but without limiting the application of the term “agricultural and rural industries,” the functions of the Board extend to the following matters:—

  1. (a.) The aiding, improving, and developing of agriculture and all rural industries, including fruit-culture, horticulture, forestry, dairying, the breeding of stock and poultry, beekeeping, and the flax industry;

  2. (b.) The prevention and control of disease in stock and poultry, the control of rabbits and noxious weeds, and the dipping of sheep;

  3. (c.) The establishment of agricultural colleges and agricultural education generally; and

  4. (d.) The aiding or facilitating of the carriage and distribution of produce.

COLLECTION OF AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL STATISTICS.

In the years previous to and inclusive of 1908-9 complete agricultural and pastoral statistics were collected annually by sub-enumerators appointed by the Department of Agriculture; in 1909-10 full statistics were not collected, but the areas under the principal grain and root crops were ascertained, and an estimate was made of the yields; for 1910-11 complete information was obtained in connection with the 1911 census. In the four succeeding years returns were collected by post regarding the acreage and yield of the principal crops; but this method of collection was found to be less satisfactory than the personal visit, and the figures for these years are probably not quite accurate.

Beginning with the 1915-16 season, a new and comprehensive system of collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics was instituted. Under this system complete collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics are made annually by the Census and Statistics Office through the agency of officers of the Police Department. Practically every holding of 1 acre or over (with the exception of those within borough boundaries and Maori lands held on the communal system) is canvassed personally. Interim returns of principal crops and live-stock are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and when the collection is completed the full statistics are published in the “Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics.”

In addition to the main collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics the following supplementary inquiries are undertaken: Areas sown or intended to be sown in wheat and oats (taken at the end of September); stocks of flour, wheat, and oats in the hands of millers, merchants, storekeepers, and farmers (at the end of November); estimated yields of wheat and oats (early in February); and returns of wheat and oats threshed (throughout the threshing season). The results of these first three inquiries are gazetted, and they are also, together with the figures of threshings, published from time to time in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. In the spring of 1922 a special inquiry was made in regard to the area put down or to be put down in potatoes, and a pre-harvest estimate of area under that crop was prepared. The result, though not then published, was sufficiently encouraging to enable this information to be published in future years with some degree of confidence.

FARM MACHINERY AND EMPLOYEES.

Summarized statistical information concerning agricultural and pastoral production will be found in Subsections B and C respectively of this section. Farm machinery and farm employees are probably best dealt with together (the more particularly as part of the machinery in use cannot be definitely allocated to one branch or the other of farming), and are accordingly referred to in this subsection.

Information concerning farm machinery is of value as showing in some measure the degree of reliance placed upon mechanical labour. The number of persons employed upon farms (including working proprietors or managers) is also given in the appropriate tables.

DAIRYING MACHINERY.

The number of milking plants shown in the returns for 1923 was 13,553, as against 12,468 in 1922. Cream-separators numbered 40,916, being an increase of 2,055 over the number shown for 1922 (38,861). Some 49,606 cows could be milked simultaneously by the machinery in use in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1923, as against 45,819 in 1922. The approximate number of cows milked by machinery on 31st January, 1923, was 611,287, as against 533,345 in 1922.

DAIRYING MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1922-23.
Land District (excluding interior Boroughs).Persons employed on Holdings used principally for Dairying Purposes (including Working Proprietors or Managers).Milking Plants.Cream-separators.
Males.Females.Total.Number.Cows capable of being milked simultaneously.
North Auckland10,1904,98115,1711,7906,3567,028
Auckland12,4455,80818,2533,89514,5646,270
Gisborne1,1223891,5111737201,178
Hawke's Bay1,8247652,5895261,7461,806
Taranaki7,7363,69111,4272,6119,7811,653
Wellington7,5842,84010,4242,1637,6424,166
Nelson1,3803981,7782497981,635
Marlborough3812296101896231,101
Westland650324974103344486
Canterbury3,6471,6415,2887672,5757,752
Otago2,6641,6104,2743151,2234,500
Southland3,6072,6586,2657723,2343,341
     Totals, 1922-2353,23025,33478,56413,55349,60640,916
     Totals, 1921-2247,29821,36368,66112,46845,81938,861

PASTORAL MACHINERY.

The number of shearing plants returned in 1923 was 5,317, controlling 17,394 stands. As against this, the number of shearing plants was 5,468 in 1922, and the number of stands 17,788. Wool-presses totalled 8,179 in 1923, as against 8,253 in 1922.

PASTORAL MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1922-23.
Land District (excluding Interior Boroughs).Persons employed on Holdings used principally for Pastoral and other (including unspecified) Purposes (including Working Proprietors or Managers).Shearing-machines.Wool-presses.
Males.Females.Total.Plants.Stands.
North Auckland3,1775813,758273700286
Auckland3,3466523,998334935495
Gisborne3,0273293,3565232,703593
Hawke's Bay3,0774353,5126602,465754
Taranaki1,7923662,158275850405
Wellington7,1851,4868,6711,7325,2942,067
Nelson1,4092091,61895214255
Marlborough1,5062731,779169555402
Westland465100565132543
Canterbury6,8511,5828,4338072,3631,450
Otago5,0862,1617,247306944958
Southland2,9761,3284,304130346471
     Totals, 1922-2339,8979,50249,3995,31717,3948,179
     Totals, 1921-2239,4278,89848,3255,46817,7888,253

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY.

Agricultural tractors numbered 439 in 1923 (412 in 1922), with a nominal horsepower of 7,634 (as against 6,949 in 1922). The number of reapers-and-binders was 15,380; of threshing-machines, 343; and of chaffcutters, 3,061. In 1922, reapers-and-binders numbered 15,645, threshing-machines 390, and chaffcutters 3,061. Particulars regarding other machinery used specifically for agricultural purposes are not collected.

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1922-23.
Land District (excluding Interior Boroughs).Persons employed on Holdings used principally for Agricultural Purposes (including Working Proprietors or °Managers).Agricultural Tractors.Reapers-and-binders.Threshing-machines.Chaffcutters.
Males.Females.Total.Number.Nominal Horse-power.
North Auckland803638663757527329567
Auckland324102426991,86097319311
Gisborne11519134122441151299
Hawke's Bay581816623141344426143
Taranaki171189101525388
Wellington746116862741,25888760356
Nelson1,073321,105234772854112
Marlborough40418558981357552158
Westland......232811110
Canterbury7,6721,7049,376771,3245,81174303
Otago2,0337542,787366583,02066807
Southland1,0555371,592315572,21128107
     Totals, 1922-2314,8233,59418,4174397,63415,3803433,061
     Totals, 1921-2215,1143,29518,4094126,94915,6453903,179

ENGINES.

Farm engines cannot be allocated to any definite branch of the farming industry. Information concerning the various classes of farm engines is given below for the season 1922-23, and 1921-22 figures are given for comparative purposes:—

FARM ENGINES AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1922-23.
Land District (excluding Interior Boroughs).Total Persons (including Working Proprietors or Managers) employed on Holdings, 1922-23.Stationary Engines.Portable or Traction Engines
Water-wheels or Motors.Electric Motors.Steam.Internal Combustion.
Number.Approximate Horse-power.*Number.Nominal Horse-power.Number.Nominal Horse-power.Number.Nominal Horse-power.Number.Nominal Horse-power.

* Being aggregate power of cases where specified.

North Auckland19,7952510339113372462,4167,62229146
Auckland22,677401887061,501632873,79110,96222248
Gisborne5,0013318212657447383,06939232
Hawke's Bay6,76340231451561285669513,2992501,017
Taranaki13,6035311,50888279422632,2966,466936
Wellington19,95761337572201557273,68012,2452141,290
Nelson4,501491881231301524721,34119109
Marlborough2,97811138416703003871,38421130
Westland1,5391457241451126396....
Canterbury23,097186688301686532911,6255,6051841,290
Otago14,3089452935105301528773,43099662
Southland12,1614526938148804358482,55062470
     Totals, 1922-23146,38011294,41813393,3247093,51418,20758,3699485,630
     Totals, 1921-22135,3959344,3797782,5817403,50017,55157,0041,0656,198

SUBSECTION B.—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.
GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS.

OF the total area of 18,417,489 acres under cultivation in 1922-23, 814,071 acres were in grain and pulse crops. If from this total be deducted areas under crops not intended for threshing, the total is reduced to 483,479 acres. The areas and the total and per-acre yields of grain and pulse crops for threshing are given below for each of the last ten years:—

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS, 1913-14 TO 1922-23.
Areas.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and Beans.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1913-14166,774361,74132,0225,942..
1914-15229,600287,56118,3475,477..
1915-16329,207212,68830,2048,0869,209
1916-17218,942177,33229,6486,35911,905
1917-18280,978156,20218,8608,15111,685
1918-19208,030172,68618,7539,79217,929
1919-20139,611179,80022,9079,06414,416
1920-21219,985147,55946,80211,51414,466
1921-22352,918170,65533,07810,52212,789
1922-23275,775143,09017,4739,73224,449
Total Yields.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and Beans.

* The figures shown for 1913-14 and 1914-15 do not represent actual results, but were obtained by applying to ascertained average yields per acre the areas stated by growers to be intended for threshing. It would appear, however, that in many cases farmers included under the heading “Oats for Threshing” areas which were intended or used for chaffing or other purposes. The yields given are therefore probably overstated.

 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
1913-145,231,70014,740,946*1,205,628307,736..
1914-156,644,33611,436,301*596,828275,274..
1915-167,108,3607,653,208820,174340,372163,273
1916-175,083,2775,371,249758,935274,332243,297
1917-186,807,5364,942,759568,702367,761312,582
1918-196,567,6296,884,609710,932413,595505,950
1919-204,559,9346,967,862815,807405,775369,306
1920-216,872,2625,225,1151,586,711500,845355,395
1921-2210,565,2756,752,6631,151,813488,452339,398
1922-238,395,0235,688,157598,040505,776697,548
Average Yields per Acre.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and-Beans.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
1913-1431.3740.7537.6551.79..
1914-1528.9439.7732.5350.26..
1915-1621.5935.9827.1542.0917.73
1916-1723.2230.2925.6043.1420.43
1917-1824.2331.6430.1545.0926.73
1918-1931.5739.8837.9142.1728.16
1919-2032.6638.7535.6144.7625.62
1920-2131.2435.4133.9043.5024.54
1921-2229.9439.5634.8146.4226.54
1922-2330.4439.7534.2351.9628.51

Information as to the area and yield of wheat and oats from the season 1868-69 to that of 1922-23 is given in the following table. Probably the most remarkable feature of this table is the decline in the production of oats (grain). Oats, however, are more generally grown for chaffing than for threshing, whilst the amount of wheat grown for purposes other than threshing is relatively insignificant. The production of wheat in the season 1921-22 reached eight figures in bushels for the fourth time in the history of the country, being exceeded only by the 1898-99 season. The total for 1922-23 has been exceeded on twelve occasions, while the oat crop for the year is the fourth lowest recorded since the late “seventies.”

AREA AND YIELD (TOTAL AND PER ACRE) OF WHEAT AND OATS FROM 1868-69 TO 1922-23.
Season.Wheat.Oats.
Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.

* Yield probably overstated for seasons immediately preceding 1915-16, due to total being obtained by applying ascertained averages to areas returned by farmers as sown for threshing. In view of results disclosed by collection under present system, it is evident that areas returned in previous years as intended for threshing were, in many cases, eventually utilized for other purposes.

 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1868-6964,5171,619,16925.1085,0562,655,29431.22
1869-7086,1632,349,91427.2799,4753,329,58633.47
1870-7177,8431,833,54823.55121,8293,802,72931.21
1871-72108,7202,448,20322.52139,1853,726,81026.78
1872-73131,7973,188,69624.1996,9582,618,08527.00
1873-74132,4283,391,63425.61109,4723,292,80730.08
1874-75105,6742,974,34028.14157,5455,548,72935.22
1875-7690,8042,863,61931.54168,2526,357,43137.78
1876-77141,6144,054,37728.63150,7184,707,83631.24
1877-78243,4066,336,36926.03190,3445,929,96231.15
1878-79264,8616,076,60422.94278,0318,365,58630.09
1879-80270,1987,610,01228.16330,20812,062,60736.53
1880-81324,9498,147,79725.07215,0306,891,96132.05
1881-82365,7158,297,89022.69243,3876,924,84828.45
1882-83390,81810,270,59126.28319,85810,520,42832.89
1883-84377,7069,827,13626.02262,9549,231,33935.11
1884-85270,0436,866,77725.43354,79412,360,44934.84
1885-86173,8914,242,28524.40329,4888,603,70226.11
1886-87253,0256,297,63824.89387,22811,973,29530.92
1887-88357,3599,424,05926.37336,47410,512,11931.24
1888-89362,1538,770,24624.22367,22510,977,06529.89
1889-90335,8618,448,50625.15426,07113,673,58432.10
1890-91301,4605,723,61018.99346,2249,947,03628.73
1891-92402,27310,257,73825.50323,50811,009,02034.03
1892-93381,2458,378,21721.98326,5319,893,98930.30
1893-94242,7374,891,69520.15376,64612,153,06832.27
1894-95148,5753,613,03724.32351,85210,221,39329.05
1895-96245,4416,843,76827.88364,78812,263,54033.62
1896-97258,6085,926,52322.92372,59711,232,80330.15
1897-98315,8015,670,01717.95354,8199,738,39127.44
1898-99399.03413,073,41632.76417,32016,511,38839.56
1899-1900269,7498,581,89831.81398,24316.325,83240.99
1900-1206,4656,527,15431.61449,53419,085,83742.45
1901-2163,4624,046,58924.76405,92415,045,23337.06
1902-3194,3557,457,91538.37483,65921,766,70845.00
1903-4230,3467,891,65434.26409,39015,107,23738.57
1904-5258,0159,123,67335.36342,18914,553,61142.53
1905-6222,1836,798,93430.60354,29112,707,98235.86
1906-7206,1855,605,25227.18351,92911,201,78931.83
1907-8193,0315,567,13928.84386,88515,021,86138.82
1908-9252,3918,772,79034.75406,90818,906,78846.46
1909-10311,0008,661,10028.00377,00013,804,00037.00
1910-11322,1678,290,22125.73302,82710,118,91733.41
1911-12215,5287,261,13833.69403,66819,662,668*48.71
1912-13189,8695,179,62627.28386,78613,583,924*35.12
1913-14166,7745,231,70031.37361,74114,740,946*40.75
1914-15229,6006,644,33628.94287,56111,436,301*39.77
1915-16329,2077,108,36021.59212,6887,653,20835.98
1916-17217,7435,051,22723.19177,5245,371,43630.29
1917-18280,9786,807,53624.23156,2024,942,75931.64
1918-19208,0306,567,62931.57172,6866,884,60939.88
1919-20139,6114,559,93432.66179,8006,967,86238.75
1920-21219,9856,872,26231.24147,5595,225,11535.41
1921-22352,91810,565,27529.94170,6556,752,66339.56
1922-23275,7758,395,02330.44143,0905,688,15739.75

WHEAT.

Wheat is principally grown in the central and southern portions of the South Island. Seventy-one per cent, of the grain produced now comes from Canterbury; Otago and Southland together produce 25 per cent., while the remainder of the South Island and the whole of the North Island contribute the remaining 4 per cent.

RELATION OF AREA TO YIELD OF WHEAT.

Reference to the diagram on the next page will give a clear conception of the relationship between area and yield of wheat for the period 1868-69 to 1922-23. It is seen that in later years the yield curve diverges considerably from that for the area, the tendency being upward. As a matter of fact, the average yield per acre for the ten seasons at the end of the curve is fully 2 bushels more than the average for the first ten seasons.

By referring to the two scales it is deduced that the heavy black line can be taken as representing not only the area sown (in acres), but also the yield which that area would have produced had a standard yield of 25 bushels per acre been maintained throughout. Prior to the 1899-1900 season the average yield per acre fell to, or below, 25 bushels per acre on fifteen occasions, whilst subsequent to that date the yield

was above 25 bushels per acre, except on only four occasions. This increase in the average yield has been ascribed to various reasons, the main one being the increased use of artificial manures. Whilst this reason is not without foundation, due weight must also be given to the economic law of marginal utility, whereby, following the varying fortunes of demand and supply, varying classes of land will be sown. When the demand is insufficient to induce farmers to grow on the poorer lands, the average yield must certainly, other things being equal, tend to be higher than would be the case where the demand (or anticipated demand) is greater. This law is well illustrated by the fact that the fifteen occasions upon which the demand (or anticipated demand) was sufficient to induce 300,000 acres or more to be sown include six occasions upon which the average yield fell below 25 bushels per acre. The average yield over the whole period amounts to 27.2 bushels per acre, whilst for the fifteen occasions upon which 300,000 acres or more were sown the average was 24.88 bushels per acre.

PRODUCTION PER HEAD OF POPULATION.

The area (for threshing) and the production of wheat per head of population (including Maoris) for the last ten years are now given. The population is taken at the 1st April, a date corresponding approximately to harvest-time.

Year.Per Head of Population.
Area.Production.
 Acres.Bushels.
1913-140.165.03
1914-150.205.78
1915-160.296.18
1916-170.194.42
1917-180.245.90
1918-190.185.57
1919-200.113.69
1920-210.175.42
1921-220.278.12
1922-230.216.33

Unless there is a considerable carry-over from the previous season, importation of wheat requires to be made when the production falls below about 6 bushels per head of population. In 1914, 121, 737 bushels of wheat were imported; in 1915, 522,617 bushels; in 1916, 51,512 bushels; in 1917, 719,977 bushels; in 1918, 1,370,542 bushels; in 1919, 1,336,222 bushels; in 1920, 1,905,163 bushels; and in 1921, 306,257 bushels. In 1922 the abnormal harvest of 10,500,000 bushels permitted almost 1,250,000 bushels to be exported, the imports in that year being insignificant.

CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT.

It is estimated that New Zealand annually requires an average of about 7,500,000 bushels of wheat, about 6,800,000 bushels of this total being milling-wheat, and representing approximately 140,800 tons of flour at the rate of 48 bushels of wheat to the ton of flour. Of the remaining 700,000 bushels of wheat about 400,000 bushels are annually required for seed purposes, and, roughly, 300,000 bushels are of threshing-millers' seconds. The latter would probably be used entirely for fowl-wheat. No information is available as to the amount of wheat rejected for milling purposes.

The following information is based on the production figures as ascertained at the five collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics previous to and including 1922, whilst due weight is given to imports and exports of wheat and estimated carryover. The calculations below give an estimated annual consumption of 7,475,723 bushels.

Wheat-consumption, 1918-22.
Year.Production of Wheat at Harvest.Excess of Imports over Exports of Wheat.*Total.

* Including flour converted on the basis of 48 bushels of wheat to ton of flour

Exports over imports.

 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
19186,807,5361,403,9688,211,504
19196,567,6291,187,8167,755,445
19204,559,9341,780,8636,340,797
19216,872,262304,3637,176,625
192210,565,2751,208,7849,356,491
Total for five years35,372,6363,468,22638,840,862
Average7,074,527693,6457,768,172
Less average net increase in carry-over292,449
Estimated average annual consumption7,475,723

Information concerning carry-over or surplus at the end of the season was first collected under the present system in 1916. At the 30th November, 1922, there was a surplus (allowing for flour) of 2,306,680 bushels, whilst the carry-over on the 30th November, 1917, was 844,433 bushels (or the equivalent), the surplus having thus increased during the five years by 1,462,247 bushels, or at the rate of 292,449 bushels annually.

The amount of wheat sown per acre for seed purposes varies in different districts, but after making due allowance for these differences it is estimated that on the average about 11/2 bushels are sown to the acre throughout the Dominion. The following table gives particulars upon which this estimate is based:—

District.Amount of Seed sown per Acre.Mean Sowings per Acre.Area under Wheat in 1922-23Estimated Sowings, 1922-23,
 Bushels,BushelsAcres,Bushels,
North Auckland, Auckland2 to 21/22-2504901,102
Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa11/4 to 13/41-6253,9986,497
Taranaki, Wellington (excluding Wairarapa)2 to 21/22-2504,70510,586
Nelson, Marlborough, Westland, Canterbury, North Otago1 to 13/41-375240-846319,121
South Otago, Southland2 to 32-50028,64871,620
Dominion totals1 to 31-467278,687408,926

Taking an average of the last five seasons it is found that 242,034 acres are annually put down in wheat for all purposes, and at the rate of 11/2 bushels per acre this would represent an average annual seed requirement of 363,051 bushels. A liberal estimate of the seed requirements of the Dominion would therefore be 400,000 bushels per year.

The amount of fowl-wheat annually consumed within the Dominion is extremely difficult to assess. Wheat for this purpose comes into competition with oats, and therefore price-variations must necessarily play a prominent part among the various factors concerned in the amount used for this purpose. Moreover, in years of plenty flour-millers will tend to be more strict in the application of standards, and thus much wheat (which in other years would be ground into flour) would be rejected. This wheat would probably all be sold subsequently as fowl-wheat. The proportions of millers' seconds and of firsts for the last five seasons are given below:—

Season.Proportion of Total Yield.
Firsts.Seconds.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
1918-1996.773.23
1919-2096.483.52
1920-2196.843.16
1921-2294.765.24
1922-2395.005.00

The average for the five seasons gives 4.03 per cent, as seconds, and this represents over 300,000 bushels annually. It is noteworthy that the proportion of millers' seconds is greatest when the harvest is poorest, and least when the harvest is exceptionally, good.

The total amount of wheat consumed annually within the Dominion has (as stated before) been put at 7,500,000 bushels. Of this, 400,000 bushels are estimated to be required for seed purposes, and certainly not less than 300,000 bushels are fowl-wheat—a total of 700,000 bushels. By deduction, the total amount of milling-wheat would therefore be 6,800,000 bushels, or 5 bushels per head of the present population (including Maoris).

WHEAT-PRODUCTION OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1922-23.

The area and yield of wheat in 1922-23 for each State of the Commonwealth of Australia and for New Zealand were as follows:—

State.Wheat Crop.
Area.Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
Queensland149,8031,901,24612.69
New South Wales (including Federal Territory)2,962,14028,594,0009.65
Victoria2,644,31435,697,22013.50
South Australia2,474,00028,775,20011.63
Western Australia1,550,77814,042,7269.06
Tasmania22,500450,00020.00
Totals for Commonwealth9,803,535109,460,39211.17
New Zealand275,7758,395,02330.44
Grand totals10,079,310117,855,41511.79

The average production per acre for the last ten seasons is—for New Zealand, 28.52 bushels per acre; and for Australia, 10.55 bushels per acre.

It may be said that although from twenty to thirty countries in the world generally produce more wheat than does New Zealand, only one or two European countries have a better record of production per acre. This says much for the fertility of the soil of the Dominion, for cultivation here is naturally less intensive than it is in the closely settled Continental countries.

OATS.

In point of area oats is the most important grain crop of the Dominion. About 80 per cent, is grown in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, 5 per cent, in the remainder of the South Island, and 15 per cent, in the North Island. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chaff without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends on market conditions. In 1915-16, 33.12 per cent, of the crop harvested was threshed; in 1916-17, 33.36 per cent.; in 1917-18, 33.41 per cent.; in 1918-19, 36.40 per cent.; in 1919-20, 35-82 per cent.; in 1920-21, only 25-67 per cent.; in 1921-22, 33.16 per cent.; and in 1922-23, 30-51 per cent.

The total and average yields per acre of grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the last eight seasons were as follows:—

Season.Grain.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.
Total Yield.Average per Acre.Total Yield.Average per Acre.
 Bushels.Bushels.Tons.Tons.
1915-167,653,20835.98572,4351.33
1916-175,371,43630.26432,8781.22
1917-184,942,75931.64419,4341.35
1918-196,884,60939.87461,7391.53
1919-206,967,86238.75467,6401.45
1920-215,225,11535.41557,0231.36
1921-226,752,66339.56538,1941.56
1922-235,688,15739.75480,1471.59

Export of Oats.

New Zealand has no regular export of oats, and in some years has practically no surplus available for export. In 1901 the export reached 10,514,924 bushels, in 1909 5,133,473 bushels, and in 1912 4,123,920 bushels, as compared with only 3,250 bushels in 1918. The quantity exported in each of the last ten years was as follows:—

Year.Bushels.
1913239,268
19141,323,362
1915682,652
1916220,265
19175,767
19183,250
1919144,827
1920227,027
1921431,472
1922685,680

OAT CROP OF AUSTRALIA.

The oat crop for 1921-22 in the States of the Commonwealth of Australia was as follows:—

 Acres.Bushels.Average per Acre. Bushels.
Queensland2,27434,40915.13
New South Wales69,6191,168,40616.78
Federal Capital Territory1761,4948.49
Victoria318,6816,082,25819.09
South Australia125,1481,297,64610.37
Western Australia162,8662,019,60312.40
Tasmania54,6421,543,61728.25
Totals for Commonwealth733,40612,147,43316.56

BARLEY.

The area under barley for threshing for the season 1922-23 was 17,473 acres, the crop amounting to 598,040 bushels, an average of 34.23 bushels per acre. In 1921-22 the area under barley was 33,078 acres, and the yield 1,151,313 bushels, or 34.81 bushels per acre.

MAIZE.

The returns for 1922-23 show that 9,732 acres of maize were sown for grain, being a decrease of 790 acres on the area for the previous season (10,522 acres). The yield for the 1922-23 harvest was 505,776 bushels of corn, an average of 51.96 bushels per acre, and in 1921-22 488,452 bushels, an average of 46.42 bushels per acre. Practically all the maize is grown in the North Island.

PEAS AND BEANS.

The area under peas and beans for threshing in the season 1922-23 was 24,449 acres, yielding 697,548 bushels. The area under these crops in 1921-22 was 12,789 acres.

New Zealand has a considerable export of peas and beans, the figures for the last ten years being—

EXPORT OF PEAS AND BEANS, 1913 to 1922.
Year.Bushels.
1913339,998
1914305,053
1915201,942
191684,168
1917111,175
Year.Bushels.
191890,495
1919451,595
1920208,414
1921224,080
1922201,478

CHAFF, HAY, ENSILAGE, AND GREEN FODDER.

Particulars of the areas under cereals, grasses, and clovers out for chaff, hay, or ensilage, or for use as green fodder, are next given for each of the last eight seasons, together with information as to yields. Similar information for seasons prior to 1915-16 is not available.

CEREALS AND GRASSES FOR CHAFF, HAY, OR ENSILACE, AND FOR GREEN FODDER.
Areas.
Season.Wheat for Chaff, &c.Oats for Chaff, &c.Barley for Chaff, &c.Maize for Ensilage. &c.Grasses and Clovers for Hay.Green Fodder.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1915-166,215429,4372,04062494,330229,498
1916-173,738354,5501,240711106,723218,452
1917-182,258311,316634613111,181180,867
1918-191,646301,724530272131,557149,622
1919-202,125322,174711589117,110166,758
1920-211,623410,059670667161,820185,284
1921-221,252344,0517931,039187,363201,351
1922-231,181302,216428739175,558249,417
Yields.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Hay.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
1915-167,440572,4353,3873,493177,165
1916-175,186432,8782,1515,107179,505
1917-183,549419,4341,2403,335180,436
1918-192,554461,7399381,378225,549
1919-203,172467,6401,1822,909184,115
1920-212,481557,0231,2204,418272,515
1921-222,443538,1941,4696,470336,273
1922-231,724480,1479014,231316,573

LINSEED.

The great increase in the area sown in wheat in the 1921-22 season led to a reduction in almost all other crops of importance. This reduction was very marked in the case of linseed for threshing, the area sown in the season 1921-22 being only 5,880 acres, as compared with 9,663 acres for the preceding season. A quick recovery to 10,645 acres was made in the season 1922-23. The following table summarizes the information available in regard to this crop:—

Season.Area sown.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.

* Not available.

 Acres.Tons.Tons.
1916-171,431**
1917-181,456**
1918-193,890**
1919-205,0462,2910.45
1920-219,6634,5520.47
1921-225,8802,8300.48
1922-2310,6455,1330.48

By far the greater portion of the linseed is grown in Canterbury (10,422 acres in 1922-23).

SEED AND ROOT CROPS.

The areas and yields of seed and root crops for each of the eight years 1915-16 to 1922-23 are next given. It should be understood that the areas shown for seed crops represent only those crops actually cut for seed.

SEED AND ROOT CROPS.
Areas.
Season.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Potatoes.Turnips.Mangolds.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1915-1643,09513,2935,7871,64388829,809572,13713,046
1916-1779,13516,1345,5142,9781,33026,156526,2839,073
1917-1870,22016,5954,3726,9073,72222,854450,8198,712
1918-1931,25019,3182,3296,6826,79819,169438,0458,233
1919-2039,58016,7893,4256,1812,28424,933542,3109,546
1920-2156,47117,5273,4696,3473,35622,068551,1909,170
1921-2251,35614,9876,2316,9103,03019,418508,52010,063
1922-2334,85013,4316,42313,4945,52620,197492,9749,694
Yields.
Season.Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Potatoes.

* Of 20 lb.

 Bushels.*lb.lb.lb.lb.Tons.
1915-16795,4161,577,2851,230,219385,638141,469128,807
1916-171,152,4871,907,0431,247,545443,861143,465133,642
1917-181,355,6122,410,5571,013,0421,076,360461,853100,596
1918-19646,1943,761,814551,5881,255,478958,360105,483
1919-20652,6722,201,729827,7691,146,882335,203144,705
1920-211,015,5072,724,816680,1161,554,770512,480126,648
1921-22952,9332,713,6401,650,3271,518,824362,812112,090
1922-23681,7091,971,1352,334,3862,570,650870,087113,826

POTATOES.

The area under potatoes in 1922-23 was 20,197 acres, yielding a return of 113,826 tons, or at a rate of 5.63 tons per acre, against 19,418 acres and 112,090 tons (or 5.76 tons per acre) in 1921-22.

These figures do not include areas of less than a quarter of an acre, so that a considerable quantity of potatoes grown for private use has not been taken into account.

The following table shows the average yield per acre of potatoes in each of the Australian States and in New Zealand from 1917-18 to 1921-22:—

AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE OF POTATOES, 1917-18 TO 1921-22.
State.1917-18.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Queensland2.061.721.772.171.76
New South Wales2.211.452.492.291.96
Victoria2.722.662.712.742.72
South Australia2.724.043.233.553.21
Western Australia2.522.973.693.143.77
Tasmania2.582.262.322.772.92
Federal Territory2.271.503.433.673.33
Commonwealth2.552.342.582.662.60
New Zealand4.385.505.795.725.76

TURNIPS AND MANGOLDS.

Turnips form a most important crop in a sheep-breeding country such as New Zealand, and in 1922-23 the area under this crop was 492,974 acres, while there were 9,694 acres of mangold

The figures for these crops for 1921-22 were 508,520 acres and 10,063 acres respectively.

GRASS-SEED.

The area under rye-grass for seed in the season 1922-23 was 34,850 acres, yielding 681,709 bushels of 20 lb., or an average of 19.54 bushels per acre, as against 952,933 bushels from 51,356 acres (average 18.47 bushels per acre) in 1921-22.

In cocksfoot there were 13,431 acres, which yielded 1,971,135 lb., or an average of 146.77 lb. per acre. The area in the previous season was 14,987 acres, and the total yield 2,713,640 lb., the average yield per acre being 180.91 lb. The area returned by farmers as being under cocksfoot is decreasing steadily, having been 41,918 acres in 1910-11. Much of the waste land of the Dominion is laid down in cocksfoot, including a large proportion of the land enclosed with the State railway-lines. Much of this is harvested, but no record of the amount obtained from this source is kept. Second or catch crops are taken account of in the yield figures, the total yield including crops obtained from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. The areas, however, do not include second crops, and average yields cannot therefore be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area shown.

HOPS.

There were 675 acres under hops in 1922-23, 670 acres of this area being in the Nelson Land District. The total produce amounted to 1,070,551 lb., an average of 1,586 lb. per acre.

MINOR CROPS.

Of the minor crops for threshing, vetches and tares were the most important in 1922-23, amounting to 1,315 acres. The area sown in rye was 828 acres. The following table gives details for the seasons 1921-22 and 1922-23:—

Area.Yield.
1921-22.1922-23.1921-22.1922-23
 Acres.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
Rye1,23382830,14817,081
Vetches, tares4161,3156,80026,629
Lupins26879701,05
Millet416545159
Unspecified43791,114756
Totals1,7592,31539,57746,520

Minor green and root crops (including certain “industrial" crops) amounted to 3,070 acres in 1922-23, as against 2,294 acres in 1921-22. The following table gives details for the two seasons:—

1921-22.1922-23.
 Acres.Acres.
Kumeras (sweet potatoes)145140
Pumpkins, marrows, &c. (for stock)7161,142
Carrots (for stock)8161,030
Millet11525
Linseed37..
Chicory1234
Tobacco111104
Osiers402
Unspecified302593
Totals2,2943,070

PHORMIUM TENAX.

Large areas (39,456 acres in 1922-23) in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium tenax, the fibre of which is largely used for ropemaking, &c. At the census of industrial manufacture for the year 1921-22 thirty-four mills were returned, employing 681 hands, the total value of the output being £260,267. The export of fibre and tow during each of the last ten years was as follows:—

PHORMIUM EXPORTED, 1913 TO 1922.
Year.Fibre. Tons.Tow. Tons.
191328,0926,299
191419,7024,226
191523,2203,465
191627,6744,578
191723,5162,500
191825,1671,815
191922,3473,262
192018,9493,126
19219,6431,534
19229,7271,698

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.

In 1922-23 there were 3,996 acres in market gardens, 388 acres in nurseries and seed-gardens, and 60,868 acres in private gardens and pleasure-grounds. The area in plantations (not virgin bush) was 57,500 acres.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.

The area in orchard in 1922-23 (exclusive of that within borough boundaries) was 30,843 acres; in 1921-22 there were 31,121 acres exclusive of boroughs.

The following table gives particulars, by land districts, of areas for private use and for commercial purposes:—

AREA IN ORCHARD, 1922-23.
Land District.For Private Use only.For Commercial Purposes.Total Area in Orchard.
Not bearing.Bearing.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland1,3481,3133,7916,452
Auckland9311396401,710
Gisborne24326167436
Hawke's Bay2436381,6272,508
Taranaki127136164
Wellington687264001,113
Nelson3411,6467,6799,666
Marlborough14479570793
Westland2922556
Canterbury9095241,4952,928
Otago4575333,7944,784
Southland220211233
Dominion5,6794,92920,23530,843

Commercial orchards are defined for statistical purposes as “those producing fruit for sale to the value of £50 and upwards annually, or, if not in full bearing, or if for any reason the crop has been a failure, that are calculated to produce fruit for sale to that value when in full bearing or in normal seasons, as the case may be.” Private orchards consist chiefly of small areas the produce of which is consumed principally on the holding, or, if sold, does not aggregate an annual value of £50. Larger areas which, through age, disease, or other cause, are incapable of producing a yearly revenue of the stipulated amount are also included in private orchards.

Large areas have of recent years been planted in fruit-trees, especially in the Nelson Land District, where tracts of land which until recently bore nothing but stunted manuka, and were looked upon as practically useless, have now been proved to be very suitable for growing fruit, particularly apples. A good market exists locally for choice, clean fruit, but, as the large areas recently planted come into bearing, growers are having to look to outside markets to take the surplus.

The Department of Agriculture assists orchardists by supplying information on fruitgrowing generally, and as to the most up-to-date methods to adopt for the control of diseases and insect pests, pruning, &c. Practical demonstrations of pruning, spraying, and the grading and packing of fruit are given regularly by the Orchard Instructors attached to the Department.

Extensive experiments have been carried out in the growing of tomatoes and the control of diseases affecting them, many thousands of pounds having been lost through failure of the tomato crops grown under glass during the last few years. The results of these experiments have proved of great value, and have enabled growers to adopt successful methods for the production of large and profitable crops. There are approximately 880 glasshouses in the Dominion used for the production of tomatoes, table grapes, &c.

The total acreage in vineyards outside of borough boundaries is 195 acres. The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay. The greater portion of the crop is used for wine-making, but a considerable quantity of outdoor-grown grapes is sold for table use.

Since 1913 the State has had authority to borrow money for the purpose of making advances for the establishment of cold stores for fruit and of fruit-canning works, and otherwise for the assistance of the fruitgrowing industry.

The Orchard-tax Act, 1916, provided for the levying, in each year from 1916 to 1921, of a tax of 1s. per acre on commercial orchards (with a minimum of 2s. 6d.), the proceeds to be paid over to the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, and to be expended in aid of the fruitgrowing industry. The operation of the Act was extended for a further period of five years by the Orchard-tax Amendment Act, 1921.

PASTURE GRASSES.

New Zealand is essentially suited for grazing purposes. Wherever there is light and moisture English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off, and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are few places where there is not some growth even in the coldest months of the year, enabling stock to winter on the pastures.

Sown-grass land, as might be expected, heads the list of cultivations. At the beginning of the year 1923 there were 16,258,651 acres under artificial (pasture) grasses Seeds for sowing pasture lands are used much as in Great Britain.

In addition to the artificially sown pastures, the returns for 1922-23 show that 14,739,382 acres in tussock or native grass belonged to the occupied holdings, and were available for stock-feeding by the sheep and cattle farmers.

SUBSECTION C.—PASTORAL PRODUCTION.
SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK.

THE numbers of live-stock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations are as shown in the following table. With the exception of the figures for sheep as disclosed by the special annual collection of sheep returns as at the 30th April, the figures relate to the 31st January.

1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
Horses363,188346,407337,259332,105330,818
Asses and mules296262245266205
Dairy cows826,135893,4541,004,6661,137,0551,248,643
Cattle (including dairy cows)3,035,4783,101,9453,139,2233,323,2233,480,694
Sheep shorn during season23,720,81823,075,25021,923,00921,100,55020 420,119
Lambs tailed during season10,485,3519,447,7529,614,54810,267,55010,895,521
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April25,828,55423,919,97023,285,03122,222,2523,081,439
Pigs235,347266,829349,892384,333400,889
Goats—     
Angora6,4465,4475,5335,9044,338
Other10,4789,08711,83411,57612,733

The following table gives the number of the principal kinds of live-stock in Australia and New Zealand for the year 1921-22:—

State.As atSheep.Cattle.Horses.Pigs.

* Sheep, 30th April, 1922; others, 31st January, 1922.

New South Wales30 June, 192237,025,7163,538,240668,501383,326
Victoria1 Mar., 192212,325,8181,750,369496,124230,770
Queensland31 Dec., 192118,402,3997,047,370746,281145,083
South Australia30 June, 19226,257,052419,197267,63987,667
Western Australia31 Dec., 19226,506,177893,108180,33463,001
Tasmania1 Mar., 19221,551,273216,70438,43949,743
Northern Territory31 Dec,, 19216,349568,03139,565452
Federal Territory30 June, 1922151,6868,2901,299343
Totals for Commonwealth..82,226,47014,441,3092,438,182960,385
New Zealand*22,222,2593,323,223332,105384,333

The following diagram will give an idea of the large increase in the number of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs in New Zealand since 1858:—

NOTE.—The base of each small rectangle represents an interval of one year, and the vertical height the number of animals, as follows: Sheep, one million; cattle, one hundred thousand; horses and pig each fifty thousand.

SHEEP.

The Dominion is eminently suited for sheep-breeding, practically every description of sheep finding a favourable local habitat. In the hilly and down country of the South Island the Merino has been bred for very many years, and was the original sheep depastured. In fact, the Merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock which has made Canterbury mutton famous on British meat-markets. In the early days of the Canterbury meat trade the English Leicester of the original type was the favourite ram for putting to the Merino ewe. Of later years the Lincoln has been largely employed to cross with the Merino, and black-faced rams have been further employed to put to the crossbred ewes. Systematic inbreeding of Merino-longwool half-bred sheep produced the now world-known Corriedale breed. In the North Island the Romney sheep, which suits the rather moist climate of this portion of the Dominion, has become the most popular sheep; it is also increasing in numbers in the South Island. The Lincoln and the Border Leicester are also favoured in both Islands, while the Southdown is taking the lead for fat-lamb production throughout the Dominion.

Interesting information in regard to the distribution of sheep in the Dominion can be obtained from the maps of the North and South Islands published in this volume. The eastern portions of the Dominion are shown to be most favoured for sheep-grazing.

The flocks of the North Island increased from 5,285,907 sheep in the year 1886 to 10,009,731 in 1906 and 13,880,799 in 1916, or at the rate of 89.37 per cent, in the first twenty years of the period, and of 38.67 per cent, between 1906 and 1916; but subsequent to 1918 there has been a decrease, which was not broken till 1923.

The number of sheep in the South Island has fluctuated considerably, decreases from previous years having lately been more numerous than increases. The greatest number (11,780,024) was attained in 1918, since when a steady decrease has been recorded until checked in 1923.

YearNorth Island.South Island.Total.
18865,285,9079,888,35615,174,263
191413,155,95811,642,80524,798,763
191513,315,91611,585,50524,901,421
191613,880,79910,907,35124,788,150
191714,567,12810,703,25825,270,386
191814,758,27811,780,02426,538,302
191914,211,94411,616,61025,828,554
192013,166,75010,753,22023,919,970
192112,774,32310,510,70823,285,031
192212,095,80510,126,45422,222,259
192312,809,66310,271,77623,081,439

In the table given above the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. In dealing with land districts, however, they are included with Wellington.

The following table shows the number of sheep and of breeding-ewes in the Dominion on the 30th April, 1923 and 1922. It will be noted that of the land districts Wellington had the most sheep in 1923; followed by Canterbury, Gisborne, and Hawke's Bay in that order.

Land District.Sheep on 30th April,Breeding-ewes on 30th April,
1922.1923.1922.1923.
North Auckland632,965616,749328,371347,723
Auckland818,691699,135450,472409,877
Gisborne5,203,2942,945,8312,999,5311,649,290
Hawke's Bay..2,769,053..1,574,909
Taranaki674,509703,944351,601378,883
Wellington4,857,5925,158,0452,675,5452,845,492
Nelson448,415405,914244,853231,152
Marlborough1,031,111980,870525,433517,564
Westland56,67554,37032,06233,896
Canterbury4,301,8384,393,9432,614,0522,738,559
Otago2,813,0442,921,6811,457,5101,506,894
Southland1,384,1251,431,904816,624828,764
Totals22,222,25923,081,43912,496,05413,063,003

There was again a considerable increase in the number of breeding-ewes, amounting to 566,949, and it is evident that the Dominion possesses the means of increasing the flocks very considerably, if circumstances warrant. The number of rams (stud and flock) in the Dominion on the 30th April, 1923, was 330,055, as against 322,072 in 1922, an increase of 7,983.

The following table shows the number of breeding-ewes and of rams in the Dominion for the last five years; the number of dry ewes is also given.

As at 30th April,Rams (Stud and Flock).Breeding-ewes.Dry Ewes.
1919321,30412,341,9001,811,397
1920306,62111,569,6751,824,194
1921322,14412,147,7881,345,819
1922322,07212,496,054960,068
1923330,05513,063,003817,932

The number of breeding-ewes has varied considerably from time to time, the maximum having been attained in 1917, in which year the number of rams in the Dominion was also the greatest. The number of dry ewes recorded on the 30th April, 1923, reached a very low figure, being 142,136 below the figure for the previous year.

The number of lambs returned in 1922 was the smallest since 1906, but a recovery was made in 1923, the total for that year being on a par with the total recorded for 1920. The figures for the last five years are as follows:—

 Number of Lambs.
As at 30th April, 19197.431.321
As at 30th April, 19206,317,738
As at 30th April, 19215,834,481
As at 30th April, 19225,716,461
As at 30th April, 19236,318,822

In sympathy with the decrease in sheep, the number of flocks has also fallen, as will be shown by the following table covering the last five years:—

NUMBER OF FLOCKS.
Size of Flocks.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
Under 50011,71912,28613,04513,06712,118
500 and under 1,0005,4665,2495,1674,8035,017
1,000 and under 2,5004,6374,4114,2364,0474,233
2,500 and under 5,0001,4401,3141,2761,2331,335
5,000 and under 10,000611636505492515
10,000 and under 20,000162139140139130
20,000 and upwards3025241925
     Totals (all flocks)24,06524,06024,39323,80023,373

The average size of the flocks is found to have been 1,073 sheep in 1919, 998 in 1920, 957 in 1921, 934 in 1922, and 988 in 1923.

The numbers of the different classes composing the flocks in April, 1923, were as follows:—

North Island.South Island.Total in Dominion.
Stud sheep (entered in Flock-book)—   
   Merino..29,21629,216
   Lincoln17,2802,02419,304
   Romney95,21139,576134,787
   Border Leicester1,34222,44523,787
   English Leicester1,50221,87123,373
   Shropshire3852,8743,259
   Southdown20,0697,96828,037
   Corriedale1,28236,03337,315
   Other breeds46312,92613,389
     Totals137,534174,933312,467
North Island.South Island.Total in Dominion.
Sheep of a distinctive breed, but not entered in Flock-book—   
   Merino58,520873,379931,899
   Lincoln117,43224,703142,135
   Romney2,416,252548,9872,965,239
   Border Leicester10,795114,432125,227
   English Leicester12,84884,33697,184
   Shropshire4,1877,01611,203
   Southdown42,18023,16965,349
   Corriedale34,174625,664659,838
   Half-bred3,8481,310,4551,314,303
   Other breeds3,27437,50540,779
     Totals2,703,5103,649,6466,353,156
Flock sheep—   
   Crossbreds and others not otherwise enumerated9,968,6196,447,1971,415,816
     Grand totals12,809,66310,271,77623,081,439

The most recent statistics (30th April, 1923) show that the Romney is still the predominating breed in all land districts with the exception of Marlborough and Canterbury, where half-breds occupy the premier position.

SHEEP IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The number of sheep in the Australian States and in New Zealand for the years 1905, 1910, 1915, 1920, and 1921 was as follows:—

1905.1910.1915.1920.1921.

* Includes Northern Territory.

Figures for April following.

Queensland12,535,23120,331,83815,950,15417,404,84018,402,399
New South Wales39,506,76445,560,96932,874,35933,691,83837,025,716
Victoria11,455,11512,882,66510,545,63212,171,08412,325,818
South Australia*6,339,5426,324,7173,744,7476,366,0066,263,401
Western Australia3,120,7035,158,5164,831,7276,532,9656,506,177
Tasmania1,583,5611,788,3101,624,4501,570,8321,551,273
Federal Territory....134,679159,990151,686
New Zealand19,130,87523,996,12624,788,15023,285,03122,222,258
Totals93,671,791116,043,14194,493,898101,182,586104,448,729

SHEEP FLOCKS OF THE WORLD.

The following figures, compiled partly from “The Statesman's Year-book" (1923 edition), partly from various publications of the International Institute of Agriculture, and partly from other sources, give some idea of the sheep flocks in the principal countries in respect of which the information is available:—

Country.Number of Sheep.

* Russia in Europe only, and not including Siberia, Poland, and the Cancasus.

New boundaries.

Australia (1921-22)82,226,470
Argentine Republic (1920)45,303,419
United States (1923)37,209,000
South African Union (1921)31,729,512
New Zealand (1923)23,081,439
British India (1919-20)21,983,573
Great Britain (1922)20,122,000
Spain (1922)19,377,427
Russia, Soviet (1921)18,200,000*
Italy (1921)12,060,000
Uruguay (1916)11,472,852
Rumania (1921)11,194,047
France (1922)9,782,420
Algeria (1919)9,139,722
Bulgaria (1920)8,632,000,
Brazil (1920)7,933,437
Jugo-Slavia (1922)7,011,204
Morocco, French (1922)6,318,925
Greece (1920)5,811,418
Germany (1922)5,566,086
Chile (1919)4,500,196
Portugal (1920)3,850,733
Canada (1922)3,262,626
Poland (1921)2,178,216
Tunis (1921)2,037,551
Sudan, French (1921)2,029,550
Hungary (1920)1,817,405
Sweden (1920)1,568,000
Latvia (1922)1,161,500
Mexico (1920)1,089,976
Lithuania (1921)1,056,000
Czecho-Slovakia (1920)982,258
Norway (1920)958,100
Egypt (1922)941,695

PRODUCTION OF WOOL.

Wool obtained from sheep shorn during the season 1922-23 amounted to 157,587,976 lb., whilst lambs yielded 5,150,850 lb. The following table shows the amount of wool produced in each land district in the Dominion during the season 1922-23, whilst figures for 1921-22 are also given for purposes of comparison:—

WOOL PRODUCED, 1921-22 AND 1922-23.
Land District (including Interior Boroughs).Wool obtained during Season 1921-23 fromWool obtained during Season 1922-23 from
Sheep.Lambs.Sheep.Lambs.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.
North Auckland4,669,687115,9844,441,060160,216
Auckland6,120,322354,3485,191,398367,742
Gisborne39,817,301920,90421,489,550981,490
Hawke's Bay20,713,813643,697
Taranaki5,921,169362,6195,180,424406,754
Wellington38,221,2042,225,33938,473,9152,510,675
Nelson2,369,16019,5752,230,97614,965
Marlborough7,243,88512,2566,869,03323,532
Westland296,7307,342294,8193,991
Canterbury26,583,29111,34426,825,03932,423
Otago16,729,4743,65417,686,5025,213
Southland7,875,0025188,191,447152
Totals155,847,2254,033,883157,587,9765,150,850

It should be noted that these figures cover only sheep shorn by farmers. Wool obtained by the various freezing companies from sheep consigned to them for slaughtering is not covered by this inquiry.

The following table gives the average weight of fleece for each land district in each of the last five years:—

AVERAGE WEIGHT OF FLEECE, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
Land District.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.lb.
North Auckland6.606.486.837.117.27
Auckland6.996.937.166.887.33
Gisborne7.897.588.157.958.08
Hawke's Bay8.48
Taranaki7.207.457.767.347.77
Wellington8.127.888.248.098.47
Nelson5.895.595.825.605.80
Marlborough7.296.867.617.137.32
Westland5.925.935.765.635.66
Canterbury7.297.087.056.927.24
Otago6.716.716.626.807.18
Southland6.656.536.156.436.58
Dominion7.457.257.487.397.72

The quantity of wool exported in 1922 was 321,533,215 lb., being more than double the amount exported in the previous year (158,714,828 lb.). The approximate annual production of wool for the last twenty years, taking the exports for the twelve months immediately preceding the commencement of shearing and adding thereto the quantity used in the Dominion for manufacturing purposes, is shown in the next table, but no addition has been made for wool on sheep-skins exported, nor for loss in scouring and washing.

Year ended 30th September.Quantity exported.Quantity purchased by Local Mills.Total.
 lb.lb.lb.
1903160,919,6935,294,652166,214,345
1904141,031,6995,191,451146,223,150
1905146,889,7673,651,343150,541,110
1906152,765,2324,372,472157,137,704
1907164,006,5794,116,722168,123,301
1908163,930,7224,779,198168,709,920
1909187,619,1815,202,821192,822,002
1910194,472,9345,642,113200,115,047
1911184,854,1496,048,164190,902,313
1912189,553,7236,284,114195,837,837
1913195,353,5336,823,545202,177,078
1914196,499,8966,846,960203,346,856
1915208,908,1186,628,019215,536,137
1916200,119,0168,772,467208,891,483
1917162,043,6347,590,445169,634,079
1918110,054,3157,488,932117,543,247
1919258,363,5246,720,400265,083,924
1920165,821,5088,599,212174,420,720
1921174,950,1905,307,495180,257,685
1922325,256,6138,483,140333,739,753

The following summary is interesting as showing the various classes of wool purchased by the New Zealand mills. For 1921-22 greasy wool represents over 99 per cent, of the total. More than half of the wool used at mills is shown to be half-bred, one-quarter Marine, and less than one-quarter crossbred;

Merino.Half-bred.Crossbred.Total.
 lb.lb.lb.lb.
Greasy2,049,4154,683,2021,494,1098,226,726
Washed........
Scoured50,3189741,76953,061
Sliped17,85146,920138,582203,353
     Totals, 1921-222,117,5844,731,0961,634,4608,483,140
     Totals, 1920-21862,9532,400,4712,044,0715,307,495

The percentages of greasy, scoured, and washed wool to the total quantities exported during the last ten years are—

Year.Greasy.Scoured and Sliped.Washed.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191383.2816.430.29
191483.4516.280.27
191578.6221.090.29
191679.2720.240.49
191781.7718.070.16
191877.9221.210.87
191971.7828.070.15
192065.5334.290.18
192174.5025.420.08
192270.9528.960.09

The following diagram shows the increase in the weight of wool exported since 1882, also the great expansion of the frozen-meat trade in the same period. The decrease during the war period is attributable to lack of shipping facilities.

CATTLE.

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in the Dominion by herds bred on sound lines, though the development of the beef-breeds of later years has received a check owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations. There are still very many fine Shorthorn herds of the beef type, while Hereford and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are also largely bred. There are herd-books for each of these breeds.

CATTLE.

The breeding of dairy cattle has made great progress in recent years. Herd-book societies are now well established for the Jersey, Friesian, Ayrshire, and Milking Shorthorn breeds, and the Red Poll breeders have recently formed an association. The various societies have heartily co-operated in a scheme for establishing registers of merit in connection with the certificate-of-record testing of purebred dairy cattle, thus giving a great fillip to the breeding of purebred dairy stock. The dairy-farmer is encouraged to use purebred bulls and thereby to assist materially in raising the standard of the dairy stock of the country. He is now coming to appreciate the value of herd-testing work, and thus, knowing the really profitable cows in his herd, will be anxious to secure a bull which will enable them to perpetuate their good qualities.

An important factor responsible for the improved position of dairy cattle in New Zealand is the milking-machine, which is making the farmer more independent of hired labour. With the higher price of land there is a gradual tendency towards smaller farms and the keeping of fewer but better cows. Also, there is a growing realization of the necessity for a more liberal system of feeding, particularly in the direction of growing special fodder crops to maintain the milk-flow at all seasons of the year. Generally, dairy-farming in New Zealand is being conducted on a sound basis, and the industry now ranks fully with meat and wool production in importance.

A policy which has been partly responsible for placing the breeding of dairy cattle on up-to-date principles has been the establishment of purebred herds at three of the State experimental farms, where they are bred according to an exact record of performance. High-priced stock have been imported in order that the foundation herds at the farms may be of the best quality. The yearling bulls from these State milk-record herds command high values. The appreciation of the farming community for this officially tested stock has been chiefly responsible for the gratifying manner in which private breeders of pedigree stock have participated in the certificate-of-record testing system of the Department of Agriculture and the herd-book societies. With regard to the testing of dairy-farmers' herds, the Department in the season of 1910-11 established a model herd-testing association in the Wairarapa district, carrying out the work of testing and of recording results free of all charge to the farmers taking part. This had the effect of creating at once wide interest in the important herd-testing movement, and the following season model associations were established in several leading dairying districts. This was intended not only to demonstrate the value of herd-testing when properly conducted and with full comparative records published at the end of the season, but also to encourage farmers to establish co-operative testing associations on their own account. The object was achieved, and many associations are now in operation. The larger number of these are supervised by the Department of Agriculture.

The total number of cattle in the Dominion at the enumeration of 1923 was 3,480,694, as against 3,323,223 in 1922. The figures for the two years, according to the classification in use, are as follows:—

 1922.1923.
Bulls two years old and over, for stud—  
   For beef purposes14,15213,674
   For dairy purposes44,02845,574
Cows and heifers two years old and over, for dairying—  
   In milk998,4001,106,936
   Dry118,428120,660
Cows and heifers two years old and over, other than for dairying474,090468,380
Heifers one and under two years old371,850403,326
Steers two years old and over540,742503,303
Steers and bulls one and under two years old207,647187,537
Calves (heifer and steer) under one year old520,610596,886
Cattle in boroughs, &c.33,27634,418
     Totals3,323,2233,480,694

The increase of 157,471 cattle was fairly evenly distributed, although of this number the increase for the North Island amounted to 139,898, as against 17,573 for the South Island. Out of a total of 3,480,694 cattle, the North Island had 2,774,068, or 79.60 per cent., while the South Island had 706,626, or 20.40 per cent. The figures for each land district were—

Land District.Number.
North Auckland481,253
Auckland662,409
Gisborne303,158
Hawke's Bay259,436
Taranaki388,880
Wellington678,932
Nelson64,934
Marlborough48,010
Westland45,359
Canterbury215,306
Otago148,954
Southland184,063
     Total3,480,694

The total number of dairy cows and heifers intended for dairying was 1,248,643, and of this number the North Island had 951,578, or 76.21 per cent., and the South Island 297,065, or 23.79 per cent.

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

In connection with the enumeration of live-stock in 1921 information was collected as to breeds of cattle, horses, and pigs in addition to the usual details of age, sex, &c. A summary of the results of this enumeration as regards cattle is given below:—

TABLE SHOWING DETAILS OF CATTLE IN THE DOMINION ON 31st JANUARY, 1921, classified according to BREED, SEX, AND AGE. (INCLUDING BOROUGHS.)
Breed.Bulls of All Ages for Stud.Cows and Heifers Two Years Old and over.Heifers under Two Years Old (including Heifer Calves).Steers Two Years Old and over.Steers under Two Years Old (including Steer Calves).Total Cattle.
Purebred—      
   Jersey4,0305,8082,8955121312,997
   Guernsey5163..226
   Alderney12......3
   Friesian1,4582,3591,1888785,091
   Ayrshire3971,293474412,169
   Red Poll344133..10118
   Highland1117..221
   Shorthorn (including Milking Shorthorns)1,9104,7051,782411478,585
   Hereford1,4202,1751,0683871715,221
   Polled Angus1,0071,4105594131943,583
   Devon518......23
Crossbred with predominating strain of—      
   Jersey and other Channel Island breeds9,972303,476126,40312,59916,742469,192
   Friesian5,164117,18347,98720,88618,911210,131
   Ayrshire1,11930,77010,1602,2122,25046,511
   Milking Shorthorn16,985579,873219,60131,51434,977882,950
   Red Poll524963474682721,635
   Danish Red1520080....295
   Other dairy breeds (including unspecified)16312,5314,5523,1812,80823,235
   Shorthorn6,865191,880110,665291,909209,347810,666
   Hereford5,907156,10778,465116,00983,045439,533
   Polled Angus2,72978,80235,42447,75535,434200,144
   Devon721,1114554063282,372
   Other beef breeds (including unspecified)374,0362,3235,0223,30414,722
     Total, purebred10,26817,8388,00990481837,837
     Total, crossbred49,0801,476,465636,462531,961407,4183,101,386
     Dominion totals59,3481,494,303644,471532,865408,2363,139,223

THE WORLD's CATTLE.

Such information as is available concerning cattle in the main countries of the world is appended hereto. Figures have been compiled mainly from the 1923 edition of “The Statesman's Year-book,” partly from various publications of the International Institute of Agriculture, and partly from other sources.

Country.Number of Cattle.

(a) New boundaries.

(b) Russia in Europe, and not including Siberia, Poland, and the Caucasus.

(c) Including Chosen (Korea), Taiwan (Formosa), Karafuto, and Kouang-Toung; in the case of Kouang-Toung, buffaloes are included as cattle.

(d) Cows.

(e) Including buffaloes.

(f) Cattle two years of age and over.

British India (1919-20)117,428,365
United States (1923)66,352,000
Brazil (1920)34,271,324
Argentine Republic (1920)27,392,126
Germany (1922)16,309,474
Australia (1921-22)14,530,081
France (1922)(a)13,575,840
Russia, Soviet (1921)(b)13,500,000
Canada (1922)9,819,969
South African Union (1921)8,557,089
Poland (1921)7,894,586
Madagascar (1921)7,829,183
Uruguay (1916)7,802,442
Great Britain (1922)6,869,000
Italy (1918)6,239,741
Rumania (1921)5,520,914
Paraguay (1915)5,249,043
Jugo-Slavia (1922)5,011,290
Czecho-Slovakia (1920)4,351,794
Cuba (1922)4,771,527
Turkey (1919)4,118,000
New Zealand (1923)3,480,694
Japanese Empire (1920)(c)3,330,872
Spain (1922)(d)3,296,573
Siam (1922)2,863,822
Sweden (1920)2,736,000
Denmark (1922)2,525,348
Hungary (1920)2,221,988
Chile (1919)2,163,141
Mexico (1920)2,162,984
Venezuela (1920)2,077,684
Netherlands (1921)2,062,771
Bulgaria (1917)(e)1,885,620
Austria (1919)1,719,000
Morocco, French (1922)1,558,253
Belgium (1922)1,516,769
Switzerland (1921)1,424,856
Ceylon (1921)1,386,000
Finland (1920)(f)1,197,177
Norway (1920)1,098,600
Algeria (1919)1,092,996
Sudan, French (1921)1,025,345

DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The Dairy Industry Act, 1908, a consolidation of previous legislation, provides for the appointment of Inspectors of dairy stock and factories or other places used for the manufacture of dairy-produce, and power is given to condemn or forbid their use, if necessary. The sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited, and provision is made for the inspection, grading, and shipping of all such produce exported. Provision is made for the framing of regulations for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture or sale of the produce, the registration of trade-marks or brands, and for inspection and grading. A fine not exceeding £50 may be inflicted for any offence under this part of the Act.

Authority is given for State advances to dairy companies, on the security of their assets, for the purposes of acquiring land or of erecting buildings and machinery for carrying on the manufacture of dairy-produce. Loans are repayable by equal half-yearly instalments within fifteen years, and bear interest at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum.

The Act also provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies, and shareholders are protected in the event of certain contingencies.

A short amending Act was passed in 1915, but does not affect the main points of the measure as summarized.

The following table shows the number of factories registered under the Dairy Industry Act, together with the amount of butter and cheese forwarded for export and the number of suppliers to such factories.

The table establishes the fact that the popular description of Taranaki as the “butter" province is no longer justified, pride of place in this connection being easily taken by Auckland. Taranaki, however, forwarded for export in 1922-23 almost twice the amount of cheese which was forwarded by her nearest competitor (Otago-Southland). Wellington comes third in both butter and cheese production. Disregarding dual-plant factories, the returns for last season indicated an average of 404.10 tons per factory for butter and 183.80 tons for cheese, whilst if dual-plant factories are included the averages are 319.03 tons and 161.95 tons respectively.

District.Number of Factories.Forwarded for Export, 1922-23.Number of Suppliers.*
Butter.Cheese.Dual Plant.Butter.Cheese.Butter.Cheese.

* Suppliers to dual-plant establishments have been included twice—once as suppliers to butter-factories, and once as suppliers to cheese-factories.

Not available.

    Tons.Tons.  
Auckland7152635,3078,38816,2631,719
Hawke's Bay111743,3982,8213,325828
Taranaki20892311,33422,2475,5253,792
Wellington176078,49511,0134,4852,012
Nelson6418344941,132401
Marlborough4615351,015790295
Westland73..46031677651
Canterbury121523,0691,9386,2971,050
Otago and Southland1780..3,24511,6897,4833,184
     Totals, 1922-231653264466,67759,92146,07613,332
     Totals, 1921-221563303943,39961,42242,28113,684
     Totals, 1920-211453443933,50361,515

The census of industrial manufacture showed that during the year ended 31st March, 1922, 1,182,862 1/2 cwt. of butter was produced by butter-factories in the Dominion. In addition to this, 22,578 1/4 cwt. of whey butter was manufactured, and for the twelve months ended 31st January, 1922, 52,188 cwt. of butter was produced on holdings of one acre and over, followed by 55,904 cwt. for the year 1922-23. The quantity of butter exported during the year ended 31st March, 1922, was 889,634 cwt.

Returns from cheese-factories give the quantity manufactured during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1922, as 1,268,534 cwt. The quantity of cheese exported during 1921-22 amounted to 1,396,844 cwt.

The total export of butter and cheese in the last twenty years, and the total quantity of each commodity sent to the United Kingdom, are tabulated below:—

Calendar Year.Total Export of Butter.Butter exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.Cwt.
1903285,106249,01674,78064,661
1904314,360299,17184,52682,046
1905305,722282,27588,56285,653
1906320,225306,739131,206129,321
1907328,441314,081236,833234,517
1908229,971211,242280,798276,212
1909321,108301,693400,607398,619
1910356,535345,400451,915449,167
1911302,387283,505439,174435,616
1912378,117316,857577,070572,562
1913372,258288,224611,663608,933
1914434,067361,381863,776859,986
1915420,144371,959817,258803,917
1916358,632336,412949,416942,773
1917254,397250,721885,751865,152
1918431,023415,250883,445844,198
1919345,818336,6061,572,3551,517,102
1920312,009282,6791,222,0701,220,409
1921898,478878,7371,368,7861,368,051
19221,120,2001,081,5121,161,1961,160,285

Exports of butter to countries other than the United Kingdom in 1922 include 14,083 cwt. to Canada, 10,225 cwt. to Australia, 5,762 cwt. to the United States, and 5,085 cwt. to Hawaii, besides smaller quantities to other countries.

The quantities of butter and cheese exported continued about equal till the close of the year 1895. During the period 1896-1907 butter assumed the lead, reaching its maximum of comparative importance in 1903, in which year the export was nearly four times that of cheese. A remarkable rise then took place in the cheese exports, and the increase in the exports continued so rapidly that 1919 saw the quantity of cheese nearly five times that of butter. Of later years, however, cheese exports have declined slightly in volume, and butter has made great strides, having more than trebled in four years. In 1922 quantities of butter and cheese exported were about equal.

DAIRY-PRODUCE EXPORT CONTROL.

Under the Dairy-produce Export Control Act, 1923, there is to be established a Board consisting of two Government nominees, nine representatives of suppliers to dairy factories, and one person to represent manufacturers of dairy-produce. A London agency of the Board was also constituted, to consist of such number of persons as may be decided upon by the Board—but at least one person must be appointed by the Government, through the Director-General of Agriculture. Broadly defined, the duties of the Board are to control the export and sale of butter and cheese in the interests of the producers, whilst the London agency is required to keep the Board informed as to current prices and other matters relating to the disposal of New Zealand dairy-produce in England. The funds of the Board are to be derived from levies on butter and cheese exported.

The operation of the Act was subject to veto by the majority of the dairy-producers of the Dominion as determined by popular vote, but the number of votes polled amounted to 22,284 for and 9,255 against the bringing of the Act into operation, there being thus a majority of 13,029 for the proposal.

CONSUMPTION AND EXPORT OF MEAT.

MUTTON AND LAMB.

Figures showing sheep and lambs slaughtered for food purposes during each of the last ten years, together with the exports of frozen mutton and lamb, are given in the tables following.

In addition to the figures of slaughterings given below there are the killings by farmers for their own use. During the 1922-23 season farmers killed 665,549 sheep and 50,263 lambs for food, and on the basis of these figures it is estimated that about 5,500,000 sheep, representing a weight of 330,000,000 lb., and 500,000 lambs, of a weight of 18,000,000 lb., were killed by farmers for local consumption during the ten years shown. This gives a total of approximately 1,200,000,000 lb., equal to an average annual consumption per head of population, including Maoris, of about 110 lb.

SHEEP.
Year ended 31st March.Sheep slaughtered for Food Purposes.Frozen Mutton exported.
Number.Approximate Weight.Number of Carcases, including Pieces at 60 lb. to a Sheep.Weight.
  Cwt. Cwt.
19144,019,8312,153,4812,557,6391,271,935
19153,999,4602,142,5682,522,4481,244,399
19164,018,5782,152,8092,939,6111,498,843
19173,601,2841,929,2592,409,8991,228,696
19183,631,3441,945,4162,150,5051,118,014
19194,381,0052,346,9671,300,047680,732
19205,512,4822,953,1164,127,8532,097,678
19214,615,5202,472,6005,488,9762,740,493
19224,127,2262,211,0143,340,5481,737,025
19232,913,5781,560,8452,530,2321,278,065
Totals for ten years40,820,30821,868,07529,367,75814,895,880
LAMBS.
Year ended 31st March.Lambs slaughtered for Food Purposes.Frozen Lamb exported.
Number.Approximate Weight.Number of Carcases.Weight.
  Cwt. Cwt.
19144,338,1801,394,4153,854,3481,186,638
19154,471,8611,437,3843,692,0031,120,682
19164,091,0851,314,9923,750,5901,152,736
19173,431,9431,103,1252,797,290838,569
19182,695,443866,3922,048,612623,022
19192,950,316945,316916,914277,822
19203,280,6011,054,4793,420,2201,070,340
19213,563,9701,145,5624,350,9641,342,193
19225,085,2691,634,5514,842,5451,491,450
19234,545,7931,461,1485,479,7801,670,722
     Totals for ten years38,454,46112,357,36435,153,26610,774,174

BEEF.

The following table shows the number and approximate weight of cattle slaughtered for food purposes in each of the last ten years, together with the weight of beef exported:—

Year ended 31st March.Cattle slaughtered for Food Purposes.Weight of Frozen Beef exported.
Number.Approximate Weight.
  Cwt.Cwt.
1914299,4092,138,636325,593
1915347,3532,481,093716,289
1916369,6472,640,336750,938
1917385,1292,750,9211,008,689
1918341,3002,437,857882,982
1919355,3572,538,264804,512
1920413,2062,951,471576,054
1921366,5652,618,321810,222
1922261,7181,869,414839,598
1923348,3992,488,564613,597
     Totals for ten years3,488,08324,914,8777,328,574

In addition to these figures there were 11,053 bullocks and cows and 4,202 calves slaughtered by farmers for local consumption during the twelve months ended the 31st January, 1923.

MEAT-EXPORT CONTROL.

Under the Meat-export Control Act, 1921-22, there has been formed a Meat-producers Board consisting of eight members. Five of these members represent producers of meat for export, two are appointed by the Government, and one represents stock and station agents. Briefly, the objects of the Board are to control the export of meat in the interests of the producers.

Since its inauguration the Board has performed a great deal of work, the benefit of which will probably be better seen in the course of another season or two. Matters which have received attention have been marking of parcels, grading of meat, loading and discharging frozen produce, regulation of shipments, freights (rail and sea), and freezing charges, besides other matters of prime importance to the producers of meat for export. In connection with marking parcels of meat, it was found that one shipment of 145,000 carcases required no fewer than 217 bills of lading and 915 different marks and numbers. Three hundred and eighty-one lots contained 100 carcases or fewer. The Board has now fixed the size of shipping-parcels of mutton and lamb at a minimum of 300 carcases. An attempt has been made to raise the standard of grading and to maintain greater uniformity at the various works. Shipments are regulated to avoid (so far as possible) causing a glut in the Home market.

In the 1922-23 season the Board succeeded in arranging for the freight-rates shown in the second column of the table following, as compared with those shown in the first column which were ruling previous to the Board's negotiations:—

 Freight to Old Rate. Per lb.*London. New Rate. Per lb.

* Plus 2 ½ per cent.

Net.

 d.d.
Mutton1 ⅝1 ¼
Lamb1 ¾1 ½
Veal1 ¾1 ½
Pork1 ⅝1 ⅛
Beef, quarters1 ⅝1 ⅛
Boned beef, cases1 ⅝1 ⅛
Boned beef, bags1 ¾1 ⅛
Frozen sundries, cases1 ⅝¾
Frozen sundries, bags1 ¾¾
Mutton, legs and pieces, cases1 ⅝1 7/16
Mutton, legs and pieces, bags1 ¾1 7/16

It is estimated that these reductions mean a saving of £575,000 to the meat-producers of the Dominion.

Other questions studied by the Board have been advertising and retailing in Great Britain, foreign markets, and insurance, practical results being evident in all cases. The “Eat more beef” campaign in New Zealand, inaugurated by the Meat-producers Board, was designed to assist the producer in two ways: (1) By causing a demand for beef at a remunerative price; and (2), by consuming less mutton in the Dominion, more was freed for export, the prices of mutton and beef in the Home markets being much more favourable for the former product than for the latter.

HORSES.

There were 330,818 horses in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1923, being a decrease of 1,287 on the total for the previous year. The following table gives details by land districts:—

Land District.Stations Three Years Old and over.Geldings Three Years Old and over.Mares Three Years Old and over.Fillies under Three Years Old.Colts or Geldings under Three Years Old.Other Horses, and Horses unspecified.Total Horses.
Dry.With Foal at Foot or to foal this Season.

* At the time of collecting the borough figures the classification for age was as to whether two years old and over, or under two years.

North Auckland13416,79013,8801,2021,00989219334,100
Auckland20220,28218,8421,7941,9631,72194645,750
Gisborne1158,3117,0951,2291,1981,06836119,377
Hawke's Bay917,2366,78267370161125316,347
Taranaki809,8129,6565365144348821,120
Wellington26917,40316,9291,7161,6171,38647639,796
Nelson602,9993,160256272198536,998
Marlborough393,0252,545413518358146,912
Westland139951,0098510197302,330
Canterbury24426,22124,3872,4403,2062,70583860,041
Otago11913,94813,9141,4831,7881,59312232,967
Southland8011,16811,1378941,29297869626,245
Totals1,446138,190129,33612,72114,17912,0414,070311,983
Boroughs, &c.*..............18,835
     Total, Dominion..............330,818

Details of breeds of horses, as ascertained at the collection of 1921, are as given in the following table:—

TABLE SHOWING DETAILS OF HORSES IN THE DOMINION ON 31st JANUARY, 1921, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO BREED, SEX, AND AGE. (INCLUDING BOROUGHS.)
Thoroughbred.Draught.Other Breeds (Harness and Saddle).Ponies under 14 Hands.Total Horses.
Stallions for stud3286653601201,473
Geldings two years old and over3,30073,86874,5983,705155,471
Dry mares two years old and over3,40159,61576,4684,973144,457
Mares with foal at foot or to foal this season8284,4575,89146011,636
Fillies under two years old5323,5454,8043179,198
Colts or geldings under two years old4382,9824,0832967,799
Other horses and horses unspecified3401,1794,9297777,225
Total horses9,167146,311171,13310,648337,259

The numbers of horses in each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year (31st January).Number of Horses.Numerical Decrease.Decrease per Cent.
1919363,18814,8623.93
1920346,40716,7814.62
1921337,2599,1482.64
1922332,1055,1541.50
1923330,8181,2870.39

ASSES AND MULES.

Asses and mules numbered 205 as at the 31st January, 1923, being a decrease of 61 on the figures for 1922.

PIGS.

There were 349,892 pigs in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1921. The following table shows the classification by breeds:—

Breed.Boars of All Ages for Stud.Sows of All Ages used or intended for Breeding.Other Pigs.Total Pigs.
Pure Berkshire4,95217,63462,24984,835
Pure Yorkshire5532,0964,1366,785
Other purebred pigs.2941,3734,6826,349
Crossbred pigs3,57629,126219,221251,923
Totals9,37550,229290,288349,892

After earlier vicissitudes, pig-breeding now shows signs of being in a more stable condition, increases in the total number having been recorded in each year since 1919. The number on the 31st January, 1923, was 400,889, as against 384,333 in 1922

POULTRY.

Land District.Pigs under One Year Old.Breeding-boars One Year Old and over.Breeding-sows One Year Old and over.Other Pigs One Year Old and over.Total Pigs.
North Auckland40,4931,5566,9415,87354,863
Auckland69,1682,33011,8255,08988,412
Gisborne11,5223992,1531,10915,183
Hawke's Bay11,1623871,95978714,295
Taranaki32,7361,4106,5227,49048,158
Wellington44,0161,7048,1773,32957,226
Nelson8,7532951,37997511,402
Marlborough5,2011801,0171,5547,952
Westland2,9251164633523,856
Canterbury43,8961,1356,3784,31955,728
Otago15,6525282,7361,12120,037
Southland11,2164002,0412,33515,992
     Totals296,74010,44051,59134,333393,104
Boroughs, &c.........7,785
     Grand total........400,889

During the ten years ended the 31st March, 1923, 2,013,154 pigs were slaughtered in New Zealand for food purposes, the weight of pork, bacon, and hams being 2,336,697 cwt. For the twelve months ended the 31st January, 1923, 59,117 pigs were slaughtered by farmers on holdings of 1 acre or more. During the ten-yearly period roughly 17,000 cwt. of hams and bacon were exported, leaving 99 per cent, for home consumption.

Figures showing the slaughter for each of the last ten years are given below:—

Year ended 31st March.Number of Pigs.Weight of Pork, Bacon, and Hams.
  Cwt.
1914191,797222,622
1915241,683280,525
1916219,041254,244
1917202,834235,432
1918179,540208,395
1919155,960181,025
1920200,952233,248
1921169,700196,973
1922230,446267,482
1923221,201256,751
     Totals for 10 years2,013,1542,336,697

GOATS.

The number of Angora goats in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1923, was 4,338, a decrease of 1,566 since 1922. Other goats increased during the period, the number in 1923 being 12,734.

POULTRY.

The number of poultry in New Zealand at the taking of the 1921 census was ascertained to be 3,991,009, an increase of 525,371 over the number for the year 1916 (3,465,638).

The figures of poultry for each of the last four censuses are as follows:—

Census Year.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.Total.
19062,784,269281,99944,30077,1013,187,669
19113,215,031329,23045,38997,9333,687,583
19163,141,354220,80846,95556,5213,465,638
19213,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009

In connection with the census of 1921, statistics were compiled as to the sizes of flocks of fowls, and the results are instructive as showing that, though poultry-farming as a definite branch of farming exists to some small extent, poultry-keeping is generally carried on merely as a side-line. The classification of flocks of fowls is—

Size of Flock.Number of Flocks.
Under 1243,913
12 and under 2554,130
25 and under 5032,180
50 and under 758,285
75 and under 1002,102
100 and under 1501,414
150 and under 200422
200 and under 250205
250 and under 300113
300 and under 400147
400 and under 50071
500 and under 60033
600 and under 70016
700 and under 80023
800 and under 90016
900 and under 1,0008
1,000 and under 1,25021
1,250 and under 1,5005
1,500 and under 1,7006
1,700 and under 2,0005
2,000 and under 2,2501
2,250 and under 2,5001
2,500 and under 3,000..
3,000 and over2
     Total143,119

The average number of fowls per flock was thus only two dozen. The total number of households keeping poultry of any kind was 145,993, of which no fewer than 61,459 were in boroughs.

BEES.

The dairying-lands of the Dominion are eminently suited for the rearing of bees, and a very high-grade product is put on the market from local apiaries. The export trade is, of course, small when compared with the main primary industries, but is capable of considerable development. Honey from the apiaries of the Dominion is much appreciated wherever it is known.

In New Zealand the Department of Agriculture devotes proportionately the same attention to detail in the case of honey for export as is given to butter and cheese forwarded for consumption beyond the Dominion. Honey must be forwarded to grading-stores at Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, Timaru, Dunedin, and Bluff for grading prior to export, and may be exported only through the ports of Auckland, Waitara, Wellington, Lyttelton, Timaru, and Dunedin. Stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee-moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register their apiaries triennially, and of late years have been called upon to supply certain statistics at the time of such registration.

In 1923 (up to the middle of September) 4,895 apiaries were registered by the Director of the Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture, the following table showing the classification as regards sizes:—

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF APIARIES REGISTERED IN EACH LAND DISTRICT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1923, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SIZE.
Land District.Size of Apiary.Total.
Under 5 Hives.5 Hives and under 10.10 Hives and under 25.25 Hives and under 50.50 Hives and under 100.100 Hives or more.
North Auckland380127101342820690
Auckland1818983678534539
Gisborne43181086489
Hawke's Bay912629186..170
6aranaki115734965194325
Wellington28111211672508639
Nelson1425939113..254
Marlborough42231775296
Westland40172714123113
Canterbury287166191957019828
Otago412175148382910812
Southland134846234179340
     Totals2,1489698724633301134,895

It is obvious that many small apiaries had not been registered up to September, 1923, the number of households keeping bees at the census of April, 1921, being 8,426. The figures given above may therefore be taken as representing considerably fewer beekeepers than actually exist in the Dominion. On the other hand, however, it is apparent that the great majority of the larger apiarists have registered, and it is therefore estimated that the figures giving the amount of honey and beeswax produced are within 10 or 12 per cent. of accuracy.

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF HIVES REGISTERED IN EACH LAND DISTRICT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1923, TOGETHER WITH THE AMOUNT OF HONEY AND BEESWAX PRODUCED DURING THE TWELVE MONTHS ENDED 31st MAY, 1923.
Land District.Hives registered, 1923.Honey produced, 1922-23.Beeswax produced, 1922-23.
Italian.Black.Crossbred.Total.
     lb.lb.
North Auckland3,5491,7433,2288,520286,4175,983
Auckland7,7901,9934,72114,504895,67215,576
Gisborne5373387911,66647,0891,592
Hawke's Bay4915248431,85848,2431,292
Taranaki3,0657731,4415,279142,3013,025
Wellington3,2461,3975,3459,988256,7656,606
Nelson1999176861,80250,3421,554
Marlborough3083606491,31746,590997
Westland4901,0668202,37694,4341,929
Canterbury3,9794,6466,85015,475627,84012,102
Otago2,2673,0763,3688,711264,1135,887
Southland8901,7402,4475,077170,2313,713
     Totals26,81118,57331,18976,5732,930,03760,256

The results of the last four quinquennial censuses may be briefly summarized as follows:—

Census.Number of Households keeping Bees.Number of Beehives.Honey produced during Year.Beeswax produced during Year.
   lb.lb.
190615,39674,3411,003,94031,682
191111,01171,6051,457,42928,061
19168,24457,5401,363,33431,032
19218,42685,8612,807,34651,180

Of the colonies in 1921, 29,672 were of black, 26,184 hybrid, 25,925 of Italian, and 4,080 of other (including unspecified) bees.

Exports of honey for the last five years were—

Year.Quantity, lb.Value, £
 lb.£
1918172,0145,964
19191,701,80159,846
1920935,81134,122
1921861,92128,428
19221,239,13546,816

Chapter 17. SECTION XVII.—FORESTRY.

FORESTRY LEGISLATION AND POLICY.

THE conservation of Crown timber lands in New Zealand was first enacted by the New Zealand. Forests Act, 1874, which was described as being “An Act to provide for the establishment of State forests and for the application of the revenue derivable therefrom.” The provisions of this Act were modified or added to by subsequent Acts, till in 1908 the legislation then in force was consolidated by the enactment of the State Forests Act, 1908. This Act provided, inter alia, for the appointment of one of the responsible Ministers of the Crown to be Commissioner of State Forests; the establishment of a State Forests Account and the borrowing of money to be paid to this account; the granting of licenses to cut timber; the appointment of forestry officers; the making of regulations; the establishment of schools of forestry; and the co-operation of the State with local authorities in afforestation. Under section 34 of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918, authority was provided for the cutting and selling of timber by the Commissioner of State Forests; the purchase of private lands; the proclamation of Crown lands as and for provisional State forests; the constitution of every afforestation purpose as a public work under the Public Works Act, 1908; the limiting of the export of timber; and the prohibiting of the sale of, and the granting of licenses to cut, standing timber on public or private lands of any tenure, except subject to such conditions as might be prescribed.

The State Forests Amendment Act, 1919, provided for the proclamation of national-endowment lands as provisional State forests. In the Finance Acts of 1916, 1918, and 1920 authority was provided for raising moneys (not exceeding £500,000 in the aggregate) for forestry purposes. Section 315 of the Land Act, 1908, provided for the leasing for farming purposes of open areas of State-forest reserves. Section 69 of the Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act, 1915, gave authority for the disposal of young forest-trees to farmers and the giving of advice on tree-planting. A new Forests Act, in which there is embodied the necessary provisions of the existing Acts, and containing additional provisions which experience had proved to be necessary, was passed in the session of 1921-22.

The administration of the State forests and of the afforestation activities was for many years under the control of the Lands and Survey Department, but in 1919 a separate Forestry Department was formed. This was reorganized in 1920 as the State Forest Service, and on the passing of the Forests Act, 1921-22, the Forest Authority was defined as the Minister of Forestry (also called the Commissioner of State Forests), the Director of Forestry, the Secretary of Forestry, and such Conservators, rangers, and other officers as may from time to time be appointed as officers of the State Forest Service.

The central management and administrative control of the service consists of the Director of Forestry (assisted by the Chief Inspector) and the Secretary of Forestry, with the Head Office at Wellington. Other personnel consists of five Conservators, Milling Expert, Engineer in Forest Products, Grazing Specialist, Surveyor, rangers, forest guards, and a clerical staff.

The present forest policy may be summarized as follows: (1) The assurance of ample timber-supplies at reasonable prices for both the present and the future population of New Zealand; (2) the protection and regulation of stream-flow by the maintenance of protection forests at the headwaters of all important streams; (3) the maintenance of forests as productive forest capital on non-agricultural areas which, if deforested, might be turned into useless impoverished wastes; and (4) the transference to forest management of all existing and future forests where stream-flow, soil-fertility, climate, and public health are dependent upon them.

THE FORESTS ACT, 1921-22.

The Forests Act, 1921-22, makes “provision for the management and protection of forests, and for other purposes in relation thereto,” and expresses the best of modern experience in the administration of national forests. Whilst the forest laws and codes of other English-speaking communities have been drawn upon, nevertheless the Act is essentially a forest law designed for New Zealand conditions. A clear line of authority and responsibility has been defined from the legislative head downwards. Power has been taken to appoint a consultative Advisory Board in order that ideals may be allied with practical needs. Ample power has been given for the dedication of permanent and provisional State forests, the creation of forest plantations, the formation and regulation of forest working-plans, and the definition of fire districts. A special feature of the Act is the provision for the management of Maori forests by the Forest Service. By the operation of the power contained in this portion of the Act the Native owners may secure a permanent and perpetual periodic revenue from any native bush which may be dedicated as “Maori forest.”

The Act, which became law on the 1st April, 1922, assures a unity of control and administration of the national forest estate; it eliminates overlapping of services, and ensures continuity of policy and a certain permanency of action.

AREA OF INDIGENOUS FORESTS, AND FOREST RESERVATION.

The total area of New Zealand proper is 103,284 square miles, and at the time when organized European settlement was first started (about 1840) there were about three-fifths (62,000 square miles) of this area under forest. The rapid advance of settlement (too often indiscriminate), the operations of sawmills, and the ravages caused by fires of kauri-gum diggers, mining prospectors, and other pioneers, have resulted in this area being rapidly reduced, so that at the present time it is estimated (in the absence of correct surveys) that the remaining total area of forest in New Zealand is only about 11,500,000 acres. A considerable proportion of this area, however, being ordinary Crown land, Native land, and privately owned land, will probably be deforested and surrendered for settlement. The area of permanent State forests is 1,631,516 acres, of provisional State forests 5,619,466 acres, and of the former specially created forest reserves 85,028 acres, making a total of 7,336,010 acres controlled by the State Forest Service. A considerable part of this area is, however, alpine meadow-land or subalpine scrub-land, and until further surveys have been made the area containing merchantable forest cannot be safely stated. During the year 1922-23, 66,060 acres of State forest were withdrawn and added to Tongariro National Park.

In addition to the State forests and provisional State forests, some 2,600,000 acres of forested Crown lands have been defined by the State Forest Service, but have not yet been dedicated as provisional State forests.

A commencement of the forest inventory and stock-taking of the Dominion's forest resources was made during 1921, and the field-work has now been completed. This economic survey embraces an investigation of all commercial and protective forests, their ownership, the quantity and quality of timber, distribution, accessibility, and value. This national inventory will serve as a starting-point from which to build specific working-plans so necessary to the adequate production of perpetual and sustained wood crops. The findings of the inventory make possible a very close prediction as to the life of the Dominion's virgin supplies, and this data, combined with statistics of the rate of growth and yield, will determine the effectiveness of the indigenous-forest asset in a scheme of permanent national forestry.

This most important project has already revealed the existence of large masses of merchantable - timber bodies in out-of-the-way corners. One definite forecast already clearly indicated is the widespread distribution and exceptional yield of the beech group. The forest inventory work has brought clearly to light the intimate relation between agricultural settlement, water-conservation, and stream-flow. In the Rotorua region, for example, it has been found that 95 per cent, of the forest-bearing land is unfitted for settlement, and a very large proportion of those forest lands may be regarded as absolutely necessary for soil-protective purposes.

DESCRIPTION OF FORESTS.

The forests of New Zealand consist of two classes—the rain forest and the southern-beech forest. With one or two exceptions most of the lowland forests belong to the first class. From the number of species, the abundance of lianes, perching plants, tree-ferns, filmy ferns, &c., the rain forests have the appearance and general character of tropical forests. The components of the rain forests vary, however, in different localities, and often one or two species dominate the association to such an extent as to warrant the application of a type name—e.g., “tawa association,” “tawhero association.”

The southern-beech forest is found generally on the higher elevations, but near Wellington, at the Marlborough Sounds, and at the south-east extremity of the South Island it descends to sea-level. As a rule it is composed of one or two of four species of southern beech (Nothofagus) (called “birch" by the settlers), but in some localities there is an admixture of rain-forest trees. Unlike the rain forest the southern-beech forest has few lianes (they are often absent) and tree-ferns, and comparatively little undergrowth. It has a close relationship to the southern-beech forests of western Tasmania and of Patagonia.

Though the forest-trees of New Zealand are ninety-nine in number, there are only about twenty of them which are of value as timber-trees; in fact, at present only six are being used to any extent by sawmillers, and of these five are coniferous (softwood) timbers. There are already indications that the high prices and growing scarcity of many of our best timbers will bring about the use of many of those now neglected. There are several timbers—e.g., puriri, kohekohe, pukatea—which possess very high qualities, but which are now to be obtained only in such small quantities that they are of little commercial importance. A short description of each of the chief forest-trees follows.

CHIEF FOREST-TREES.

KAURI (Agathis australis).—This is the largest tree of the New Zealand forest, and as far as volume of timber is concerned it is also one of the largest trees of the world. The average height of kauri is about 100 ft. The maximum diameter which has been measured is 22 ft., and a few trees now exist with diameters of 14 ft. The average diameter is, however, about 40 in. It grows only to the north of 38° south latitude. The timber is light yellowish-brown in colour; it is straight in the grain, strong, easily worked, and remarkably free from knots and defects; probably there is no more generally useful softwood in the world. Though formerly much used for house-building, its present high price confines its use to such purposes as railway-carriage building, cabinet and general joinery purposes. Mottled and figured kauri is much prized for cabinet-work. The kauri-tree yields a very valuable resin called kauri-gum. It is regrettable that the remaining stand of this valuable timber is now very limited.

TOTARA (Podocarpus Totara and P. Hallii).—Totara is found more or less throughout the whole of New Zealand, though in many localities it is rare. It is most plentiful in the forests of the central portion of the North Island. The average height is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber is reddish when first cut, seasoning to a reddish-brown. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle. Its great durability has caused it to be much used for railway-sleepers, wharf-piles, telegraph-poles, and posts. Its high price and its freedom from warping and shrinking are now, however, causing it to be used for such special purposes as window and door frames; it is also much used for veranda-posts, flooring, and steps.

RIMU, or RED-PINE (Dacrydium cupressinum).—This, the principal timber-tree of the New Zealand forest, is to be found more or less in all forests except the pure beech forests. The average height is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber when first cut is reddish-brown, which changes when seasoned to a light brown with darker and lighter streaks. It is fairly straight in the grain, and easily worked. It is the chief timber used in housebuilding. It is often beautifully figured, and such timber is used for furniture, doors, and panelling.

KAHIKATEA, or WHITE-PINE (Podocarpus dacrydioides).—This tree is found more or less in all forests (except the beech forests) from north to south of the Dominion; formerly it was found in almost pure stands in swampy areas, but most of these stands have now been exploited. The average height of the tree is about 120 ft.,

and the average diameter about 32 in. The sapwood, which comprises the greater part of the log, is white, and the heartwood yellow. The timber is straight in the grain, easily worked, and long clean lengths can be obtained. The yellow heartwood is durable, but the sapwood is very susceptible to the attacks of the farvæ of the white-pine borer. The timber is inodorous, and is used mainly for butter-boxes, cheese-crates, and other packages.

MATAI, or BLACK-PINE (Podocarpus spicatus).—The distribution of this tree ranges from the extreme north to the extreme south of the Dominion. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 24 in. The timber is light yellowish-brown in colour, straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle and rather heavy. In the ground it is of second-rate durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is used chiefly for weatherboarding and flooring.

SILVER-PINE (Dacrydium Colensoi).—The distribution of this tree ranges from Hokianga in the north to the extreme south of the Dominion. The average height of the tree is about 45 ft., and the average diameter about 18 in. Though the tree is small, there is a large proportion of heartwood. The timber is whitish when first cut, darkening to a light yellowish-brown; it is straight in the grain and easy to work. Owing to its extreme durability it has been used mainly for railway-sleepers, telegraph-poles, and posts; it is occasionally beautifully mottled, and is then used for cabinet-work. The remaining supplies are now very limited.

MIRO (Podocarpus ferrugineus).—This tree occurs throughout the country from sea-level to 3,000 ft., being most abundant in the south of the South Island. It is not found in pure stands, but is scattered in the rain forest. The average height is about 65 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The heartwood is brownish in colour, very fine in the grain, easily worked, and of exceptional strength, though not durable in the ground. The timber is used in house-building, and is often sold as rimu, to which it bears considerable resemblance.

KAIKAWAKA, or MOUNTAIN-CEDAR (Libocedrus Bidwillii).—Though the distribution of this tree is often local, its range extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the forests of South Otago. It is most plentiful on the west coast of the South Island. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., with an average diameter of about 18 in. The timber is dark red in colour, easy to work, light, and rather weak; it has considerable resemblance to totara, but it is not so strong, and generally not so durable. The timber has been used for telegraph-poles, shingles, and palings, and, with the lessened supply of totara, its use for these purposes will increase. Being difficult to burn, it is specified for the construction of fire-proof doors.

RED-BEECH (Nothofagus fusca).—This tree is more commonly known under the names red, brown, or black birch. Its distribution extends from near Mangonui in the north to the extreme south of the Dominion. In many places it is found in almost pure stands. The average height of the tree is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split, durable, and of about the same weight as English ash. Red-beech is liable to warp in seasoning, and for this reason it has not been much used for house-building; its chief use at present is for posts and mine-props, and it is used to a small extent for sleepers and bridgework. It is valuable for furniture and bentwood work. With the increasing scarcity of Australian hardwoods it is likely to have a much more extended use in the future.

SILVER-BEECH (Nothofagus Menziesii).—This tree is more commonly known under the names silver, white, cherry, or totara birch. Its distribution extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the extreme south of the Dominion, in some places being found as the dominant forest-tree. The average height of the tree is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 2 ft. The timber is of a pinkish colour when first cut, but it changes to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, strong, and of about the same weight as red-beech; it is, however, not durable in contact with the ground. It is now being used for furniture, bentwood work, agricultural implements, tool-handles, cheese-crates, clothes-pegs, dowels, and packing-cases, and its use for these and in other directions is sure to extend.

PURIRI (Vitex lucens).—The inland distribution of this tree extends from the North Cape to the vicinity of Te Aroha, but it follows the coast on the east as far south as Poverty Bay and on the west to New Plymouth. The average height of the tree is about 40 ft., and the average diameter about 22 in. The timber when seasoned is a dark rich brown; it is extremely hard, dense, strong, durable, and heavy. Owing to its interlaced fibres it is difficult to work. It has been so much used for railway-sleepers, posts, and house-blocks that the supply is now almost exhausted. It is an extremely beautiful tree, and, being of quick growth, it should be planted for ornamental purposes in frost-free localities.

TAWA (Beilschmiedia Tawa).—This tree is to be found in most forests of the North Island up to an altitude of about 1,700 ft. In the South Island it exists in small quantities in the coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is light brown in colour, rather hard, straight in the grain, but somewhat brittle. At present it is used to a small extent for inside lining and packing-cases only, but with preservative treatment its use could be much extended.

TARAIRE (Beilschmiedia Taraire).—This tree is plentiful in forests to the north of Auckland, but to the south it occurs occasionally only in forests as far south as the East Cape on the east coast and Raglan Harbour on the west coast. The average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter about 18 in. The timber is light brown in colour, straight in the grain, easily worked, and somewhat resembles plain oak in appearance. It has a limited use for furniture-making and picture-mouldings, but with preservative treatment its use could be much extended.

RATA (Metrosideros robusta and M. lucida).—The first-mentioned of these trees is found in most forests below 2,000 ft. in the North Island; it is rather rare in the South Island, being found only occasionally in the lowland forests of Marlborough, Nelson, and Westland. This tree generally starts as a “perching-plant" in the forks of other large trees, and therefrom sends down huge roots, which generally envelope and strangle the supporting tree. These roots generally (but not always) coalesce, and when they do they form a huge bole (with an average diameter of about 54 in.) which is generally hollow. The other rata, though found only rarely in the North Island, is plentiful in the South Island. It has the same habit of growth as an ordinary tree; its average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter is about 20 in. The timber of both trees is reddish-brown in colour, extremely hard, heavy, strong, and (out of the ground) very durable; it is highly valued as firewood, but is also used to a small extent for cross-arms for telegraph-poles and for wheelwrights' work. Its use could be much extended.

KAHAHI, or TAWHERO (Weinmannia racemosa).—This tree is to be found in most forests from north to south of the Dominion. Its habit of growth and size vary considerably in different localities; in some places it has a short irregularly formed bole which is often hollow, but in some localities (especially in the South Island) it forms a clean solid bole. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is dark brown or reddish in colour, and often has dark streaks running through it; it is strong and tough, but rather irregular in the grain; when worked up it has a very handsome appearance, but it is difficult to season without warping and checking. At present it is used to a limited extent only as rails for bush tram-lines, but owing to its abundance it has considerable possibilities, especially for manufacture of wood-pulp.

TANEKAHA, or TOATOA (Phyllocladus trichomanoides).—This tree is found in the North Island locally from the North Cape to Taranaki and Hawke's Bay; in the South Island it is found only in the northern parts of Marlborough and Nelson down to Westport on the west coast. The timber is yellowish-white, free from knots, close-grained, dense, heavy, and very strong, and shrinks very little in seasoning. It is of uncertain durability in the ground, but is very durable out of the ground. In the past it was used for bridge-building, sleepers, and mine-props. It is now used in railway-carriage construction. The bark is very valuable, containing as much as 28 per cent of tannin.

PUKATEA (Laurelia novae - zealandiae).—The pukatea was formerly abundant throughout the North Island, especially in swampy situations; though still well distributed, it is nowhere plentiful. In the South Island it is found in Nelson, Marlborough, and Westland, but is rare and local. It is a tall tree with an average height of about 90 ft. and an average diameter of about 2 ft. above its big supporting buttresses. The wood of the pukatea is pale brown in colour, often with darker or paler streaks, and often very ornamental. Though soft, it is strong, very tough, light, difficult to split, and takes a fine finish. In the ground it is of uncertain durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is a timber which has been much neglected, having been used only to a small extent for boatbuilding, weatherboards, furniture, and posts in sandy land.

MANUKA, or KANUKA (Leptospcrmum ericoides); TEA-TREE.—The distribution of the manuka extends from the North Cape to the Bluff. The manuka, according to locality, may be a shrub or tree, reaching occasionally 60 ft. in height and a diameter of 3 ft. The wood is red, dense, heavy, straight-grained, hard, very strong, tough, and elastic. Owing to its exceptionally good burning qualities it has been very much used for fuel, but settlers and miners have made considerable use of it for handles of axes, picks, bill-hooks, &c. It makes good wheel-spokes. There is another manuka (L. Scoparium) which is often called “red manuka,” but it seldom exceeds the size of a shrub.

BLACK-MAIRE (Olea Cunninghamii).—The black-maire occurs in all forests (except the beech forests) throughout the North Island, but it is only in the central portion that it is at all plentiful. In the South Island it is found only in the Marlborough District, and is there very rare. It occasionally reaches a height of 70 ft. and a diameter of 4 ft., but the average height and diameter are 40 ft. and 18 in. respectively. The wood is light brown, often with dark streaks, with considerable resemblance to that of its relative, the European olive. It is extremely dense, heavy, hard, strong, and (out of the ground) durable; it has been used to a small extent for framing for machinery and for bridge-building, but owing to its exceptional heat-giving property its chief use has been for firewood. It is quite suitable for all those turnery purposes for which the wood of the European olive is used.

REWAREWA, or HONEYSUCKLE (Knightia excelsa).—In the North Island this tree is common in most forests (it is absent from the beech forest), but in the South Island it is rare, and is found only in the forest on the lands bordering Cook Strait. The rewarewa occasionally reaches a height of 90 ft. and a diameter of 3 ft.; but the average height and diameter are respectively about 60 ft. and 20 in. The timber of rewarewa is yellowish-brown, and when cut on the quarter the medullary rays show as reddish-brown splashes; the timber is then extremely handsome. It is very strong, tough, and elastic. Its chief use is for cabinet-work, ornamental turnery, and inlaid work, and its use in these directions might be much extended.

MANGEAO, or TANGEAO (Litsea calicaris).—The mangeao is found from the North Cape to the East Cape on the east coast and Mokau on the west coast, but it is nowhere plentiful. It reaches a maximum height of 60 ft., with diameter of 3 ft., but the average height is 40 ft. and the average diameter 18 in. The timber is light brown in colour, tough, strong, and of great elasticity, and of about the same weight as English ash. It is used in coach and railway-carriage building and for ships' blocks, and only its scarcity prevents its wider use.

HINAU (Elaeocarpus dentatus).—The hinau is fairly common from the North Cape to South Otago. It is a tree from 40 ft. to 60 ft. in height, and from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter. The sap is white in colour, and the heartwood is dark brown; it is heavy, very strong, tough, and durable. The trees are very often hollow, and are seldom milled. Owing to the great durability of the heart timber it is much used for fencing-posts.

KOHEKOHE (Dysoxylum spectabile).—The kohekohe (occasionally called “cedar”) is abundant in forests near the coast of the North Island. In the South Island it is found only in the forests bordering the Marlborough Sounds and on D'Urville Island. The kohekohe reaches a maximum height of 60 ft., with a diameter of 3 ft.; the average height is about 45 ft., with a diameter of about 18 in. The timber is reddish in colour, rather soft, but strong and tough, very ornamental, and easily worked. It much resembles Honduras mahogany, and could be used for the same purposes. Unfortunately, kohekohe is not now found in large quantities, and the tree also suffers from heart-rot.

A list of economic uses of New Zealand timbers appears in the State Forest Service Circular No. 1, “Our Forest Resources.”

OUTPUT AND CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER.

The principal timbers milled in New Zealand, at present are rimu and kahikatea. The figures of the output of sawn timber by bush mills for the year 1915-16 and for each of the last three years for which statistics are available are as follows:—

Kind.1915-10.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
Rimu134,462,145141,825,326153,529,022157,345,928
Kahikatea85,353,95581,369,93173,168,75068,486,633
Matai11,609,66917,761,54221,329,04324,830,368
Kauri49,707,73826,094,82220,393,78821,435,728
Totara10,983,35220,507,16217,984,18919,570,561
Beech5,710,0603,435,3566,348,5944,863,184
Tawa623,342..728,291678,092
Rata31,300..49,50374,322
Puriri50,000....174,485
Silver-pine18,00024,00056,6671,900
Taraire490,077....188,481
Pukatea3,3005,000..97,831
Pinus radiata (insignis)25,0005,867,9519,711,91810,815,485
Bluegum....36,25135,583
Poplar....711,319814,943
Undefined9,500,3404,184,8623,620,4995,558,786
     Totals308,568,278301,075,952307,667,834314,972,310

A huge decrease in the output of kauri is disclosed, and that of kahikatea is also steadily falling off, while that of rimu and matai is steadily increasing. The year 1915-16 saw a modest beginning of the utilization of Pinus radiata (insignis) as a timber-tree in the Dominion, some 25,000 ft. having been milled in that year. Four years later the annual output had increased to nearly 6,000,000 ft., and by 1921-22 to nearly 11,000,000 ft.

During the year 1922 some 31,341,641 superficial feet of timber, valued at £550,682, was imported. The chief varieties were: Oregon pine (sawn, rough), 3,974,811 superficial feet, value £33,190; ironbark (logs and sawn timber), 13,601,957 superficial feet, value £228,943; and jarrah (logs and sawn timber), 4,764,603 superficial feet, value £75,605. Exports of New Zealand timber amounted to 44,186,848 superficial feet, of a value of £479,447, including kahikatea, 35,177,764 superficial feet (£363,668); rimu, 4,696,767 superficial feet (£40,601); and kauri, 3,017,607 superficial feet (£58,731).

FORESTRY RESEARCH.

A programme of silvical research of kauri, rimu, totara, and miro forests and trees was commenced some time ago, and was continued during the year 1922-23 with satisfactory progress results. Further investigations bearing on forest problems have been undertaken by Canterbury, Victoria, and Auckland Colleges. A technological testing programme of considerable magnitude of all the important indigenous timber-trees of New Zealand is being carried out in co-operation with Auckland University College. This branch of research is a most important one in New Zealand, for the annual timber-wastage amounts to 8,000,000 tons.

FIRE-PREVENTION.

One of the greatest problems of forest-conservation is that of fire-prevention, and in New Zealand the problem is probably greater than in countries of the Northern Hemisphere, the primitive taxed timber-trees of the Dominion being much more susceptible to death or damage by the agency of fire than are modern types of conifers.

The Forests Act, 1921-22, makes special provision for the prevention of and the coping with forest fires, and a commencement has been made with the creation of fire districts. A system of fire patrols, inaugurated during 1921-22 in hazardous districts in the Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, and Southland Provinces, was extended in 1922-23, and substantial assistance was rendered by settlers and others in the suppression and prevention of fires. The fire season, extending from October to April, was marked, as in the 1921-22 season, by frequent rains and periods of cold weather, which, combined with the preventive measures undertaken, contributed towards keeping down controllable losses to a minimum. Some 1,322 acres of State-forest land, valued at £31, including only 2 acres of actual forest, were burned during the season 1922-23.

AFFORESTATION.

The method first adopted in New Zealand for inducing the planting of forest-trees for production of timber was by means of “land grants"—a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. In Canterbury, where the system was adopted in the early “seventies,” an area of as much as two acres of Crown lands for one acre planted with trees was sometimes granted. Several large plantations that were established in Canterbury by this method may now be seen; and in some cases very good returns have during late years been obtained from the milling of these. The returns got from Pinus radiata (insignis) plantations have been extraordinarily good. The Selwyn and Ashburton County Councils planted a considerable area of their reserves with trees; and the Railway Department planted on the railway reserves in Canterbury and Auckland Districts a large quantity of trees with the idea of subsequently utilizing them for railway-sleepers, &c. In 1896 an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed, and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island, and at Rotorua in the North Island. Shortly afterwards afforestation was started on an extensive scale at these and other localities.

The total expenditure on State afforestation up to the 31st March, 1923, has been £601,727. None of the State plantations is yet sufficiently old to produce saw-timber, but a small revenue has been received from thinnings from the first-planted larch and eucalyptus. The rapid-growing Pinus radiata (insignis) has been extensively planted only during the last few years.

STATE PLANTATIONS.

The total area of State plantations is now 44,646 acres, of which 30,023 acres are in the Rotorua district, in three plantations—Whakarewarewa (8,037 acres), Waiotapu (7,010 acres), and Kaingaroa (14,976 acres).

The reserve known as Whakarewarewa Plantation is situated immediately behind Rotorua Nursery (where all trees required in the North Island plantations are raised), whence it extends in a southerly direction for a distance of seven miles. Waiotapu Plantation, which is twenty miles distant by road from Rotorua, comprises a large block of undulating country lying to the east of the Rotorua - Taupo Road. Joining this plantation on the east are the two reserves on the Kaingaroa Plains, distant from Rotorua some thirty miles, and comprising a comparatively small part of the extensive plateau which lies between the Rangitaiki River on the east and the Waiotapu Valley on the west. Here are situated the youngest portions of the State plantations and the present centre of the tree-planting activities.

Whilst a considerable number of species were experimented with in the initial stages of the work, the chief species used to any considerable extent in the Rotorua district were European larch, Austrian pine, Corsican pine, Western yellow-pine, and a variety of eucalypti. Of more recent years the species used for planting have been Douglas fir, Western yellow-pine, Pinus radiata, Corsican pine, and, to a smaller extent, Weymouth pine.

With the exception of a small plantation of 1,200 acres at Puhipuhi, North Auckland, where an area of cut-out kauri-forest land has been replanted with exotic trees, the remainder of the State plantations are in the South Island. The South Island plantations have an aggregate area of 13,423 acres, of which 4,376 acres are in the northern portion of the Canterbury Land District, 2,239 acres in Central Otago, and 6,555 acres in South Otago, whilst the balance of 253 acres consists of small experimental plots in various localities.

During the period over which State afforestation has been in progress in the South Island practically all the best-known commerce trees of the Northern Hemisphere have been experimented with, but many have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, until at the present time operations are being conducted with a comparatively small range of conifers of proved economic importance, which experience has shown will most readily adapt themselves to local conditions. The principal species now being raised for afforestation purposes are Pinus radiata, P. ponderosa, P. Laricio, and Douglas fir.

STATE NURSERIES.

To provide trees for the State plantations and also for distribution to local bodies and private individuals, four nurseries are maintained, the principal being that at Rotorua, where 82,064,927 trees have been raised since 1898. The South Island nurseries are situated at Hanmer, Tapanui, and Naseby. These, with three other nurseries now closed, had successfully raised 49,632,573 trees to the 31st March, 1923, the total for all State nurseries to that date being 131,697,500.

Of the total trees raised in nurseries to the 31st March, 1923, 106,782,172 had been utilized in the State plantations and 8,535,458 for distribution to local bodies and settlers, the balance remaining in stock in the nurseries.

During the year ended 31st March, 1923, the nurseries disposed of 5,260,661 trees, of which 3,785,030 went to the State plantations and 1,475,631 to settlers, &c.

PRIVATE AFFORESTATION.

In recent years considerable attention has been devoted to tree-planting by settlers and also by local authorities. In 1915 the Government inaugurated a system whereby trees are supplied by the State nurseries at cost price, and to date some 8,535,458 trees have been supplied, of which 1,475,631 represent the total for the year ended 31st March, 1923. In addition, many trees are obtained for private afforestation from the Dominion Federated Nurserymen's Association, and it is estimated that more than 4,000,000 trees were disposed of to private planters during the year from the two sources mentioned. The State Forest Service also supplied 750 lb. of tree-seeds to growers.

The Service, through its two tree-planting Inspectors, supported by the splendid tree-nursery facilities at Rotorua, Hanmer, and Tapanui, and the expert knowledge of its afforestation staff, is able to take a leading part in the stimulation of private tree-planting. One hundred and forty-eight tree-planting demonstration lectures were delivered during the year by the two forest-extension officers to over three thousand interested planters, and some sixteen thousand pamphlets and circulars were distributed, many letters of advice issued, and reports and planting plans prepared for private planters.

SAND-DUNE RECLAMATION.

A pressing and important economic problem is the reclamation and bringing into productivity of the several hundred thousand acres of New Zealand's coastal wandering sand-dunes. The menace of these useless sand-wastes to contiguous fertile lands along the west coast of the North Island is serious and actual. During the year 1921 a sand-dune-reclamation experiment station was established at the mouth of the Rangitikei River, about nine miles north of Foxton. The chosen area contains about 2,000 acres of west-coast littoral, and may be considered typical of the North Island conditions. One hundred acres have been planted with marram grass, 52 acres of sand-flats sown with marram-seed, and experimental plantings of trees have been made, Pinus radiata proving most successful and P. pinaster second. Several types of sand-arresting fences have been erected, their effectiveness is being recorded, and costs of construction have been carefully kept. As a result of this sand-dune-reclamation work, which will be continued for two or three more years, the State Forest Service will be able to present a definite procedure of construction, cost, method, and result for the purpose of bringing into national production at least 300,000 acres of land which to-day is not only worth nothing, but is ever encroaching on the most fertile and valuable agricultural lands in the North Island.

Chapter 18. SECTION XVIII.—FISHERIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN her fisheries, both sea and fresh-water, New Zealand possesses a most valuable asset, as her natural advantages in this connection are undoubtedly superior to any other country in the Southern Hemisphere. With its great extent of coast-line, splendid harbours, and numerous sheltered bays, and with an abundance and splendid variety of edible fishes, this Dominion must in time become a great fishing-centre in the South Pacific, providing for its people a regular and abundant supply of this necessary food, besides developing a large export trade in fresh, cured, and canned fish to other countries.

In all countries which possess large supplies of food fishes the harvest of the sea is recognized as a great and extremely reproductive one for the employment of capital, and there is no doubt that when the fishing industry of this Dominion is placed on a proper footing capital will be readily invested, and that it will at once become one of the important and profitable sources for the employment of labour. The value and importance of New Zealand's fisheries at the present time are as nothing compared with the possibilities which the future holds.

It is important to call attention to the fact that the resources of the sea, unlike food resources produced from the land, are not endangered in time of war and international trouble. A nation with well-developed sea-fisheries is never in danger of starvation. The vast schools of fish in the sea, unlike the resources of the land, are available at practically all times, and can be most economically and reliably utilized. Great international crises and dangers of war do not affect the inhabitants of the deep, which do not require constant human labour to cultivate. Agriculture, stock-raising, &c., demand such constant labour and so much investment of capital that in time of trouble the utilization of these resources may be seriously interfered with, and farms are liable to be laid waste, and the activities essential to their cultivation and utilization may be turned to military duties or to other purposes. It is not too much to say, therefore, that the fish resources are amongst the most valuable and most lasting of all national resources.

A list of ninety principal food fishes found in New Zealand waters was given in the 1923 number of the Year-book.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.

Provision exists in the Fisheries Act, 1908, whereby owners of boats and fish-curers may be required to make returns to the Marine Department in such form and in such manner as may be prescribed by the Governor-General in Council, but advantage of this provision has not yet been taken to enable information to be collected as to quantity of fish caught.

The Chief Inspector of Fisheries estimates that approximately 260,000 cwt. of fish, exclusive of oysters and the products of the whale-fisheries, was brought in from the fishing-grounds during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923, representing a wholesale value of about £275,000. In addition, the produce of the oyster-fisheries was valued at £25,169, and of the whale-fisheries at £8,938, while 1,368 cases of toheroa of a value of about £5,000 were canned. The figures for each fishing-port are as follows:—

Name of Port.Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.

* Information not available.

  Cwt.£
WhangaroaSnapper, hapuku, mullet, kingfish, flounders, and crayfish450844
MangonuiSnapper, blue cod, hapuku, flounders, tarakihi, kingfish, and mullet4075
HokiangaSnapper, mullet, kahawai, and flounders**
RussellMullet, snapper, flounders, trevally, hapuku, kahawai, and crayfish15,4607,600
Name of Port.Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.

* Information not available.

  Cwt.£
WhangareiTarakihi, flounders, mullet, snapper, hapuku, blue cod, crayfish, and garfish3,8751,715
KaiparaFlounders, snapper, and mullet6,0009,550
AucklandSnapper, mullet, trevally, tarakihi, kahawai, gurnard, hapuku, blue cod, barracouta, flounders, kingfish, and butterfish65,50082,861
ThamesFlounders, hapuku, butterfish, kingfish, mullet, barracouta, gurnard, and crayfish27,95732,080
TaurangaSnapper, hapuku, trevally, flounders, gurnard, blue cod, trumpeter, kingfish, mullet, and garfish2,0804,200
GisborneFlounders, gurnard, hapuku, red cod, soles, tarakihi, and moki2,5004,410
NapierFlounders, soles, turbot, hake, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, moki, trevally, hapuku, and kingfish15,83222,526
New PlymouthSnapper, hapuku, blue cod, flounders, gurnard, kahawai, and crayfish1,1201,660
WanganuiFlounders, mullet, kahawai, gurnard, snapper, blue cod, and barracouta108256
FoxtonFlounders, snapper, kahawai, hapuku, and whitebait4401,530
WellingtonHapuku, moki, warehou, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, flounders, soles, blue cod, butterfish, and crayfish**
PictonBlue cod, flounders, butterfish, moki, red cod, and crayfish3,0003,750
BlenheimFlounders, soles, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, kahawai, butterfish, hapuku, kingfish, red cod, and whitebait8611,640
NelsonFlounders, hapuku, blue cod, red cod, butterfish, snapper, gurnard, kahawai, moki, and crayfish1,1001,200
WestportHerring, hapuku, soles, flounders, snapper, red cod, kahawai, gurnard, ling, barracouta, blue cod, turbot, and whitebait9702,754
GreymouthBlue cod, snapper, flounders, and whitebait71400
HokitikaHerring, flounders, snapper, and whitebait5542,000
KaikouraHapuku, trumpeter, kingfish, butterfish, tarakihi, blue cod, and soles7,23411,860
RangioraHerring, flounders, and whitebait57350
KaiapoiKahawai, herring, flounders, and whitebait4802,800
SouthbridgeFlounders, herring, and red cod4002,000
LytteltonSoles, flounders, hapuku, gurnard, red cod, trevally, ling, and tarakihi2,2505,000
AkaroaBlue cod, red cod, flounders, hapuku, trevally, moki, butterfish, garfish, ling, barracouta, trumpeter, and hake4,0003,000
TimaruHapuku, ling, red cod, gurnard, kingfish, flounders, soles, brill, tarakihi, and barracouta**
OamaruBlue cod, red cod, warehou, ling, moki, barracouta, hapuku, and crayfish1,4951,692
MoerakiHapuku, blue cod, red cod, moki, barracouta, crayfish, and ling3,4024,635
OtagoHapuku, kingfish, ling, barracouta, blue cod, red cod, moki, bream, trumpeter, tarakihi, trevally, mullet, garfish, gurnard, kahawai, flounders, soles, brill, and skate49,24044,316
InvercargillFlounders, soles, mullet, red cod, hapuku, ling, kingfish, and blue cod**
BluffFlounders, herring, blue cod, hapuku, moki, and trumpeter6,64018,598
Stewart IslandBlue cod, trumpeter, butterfish, hapuku, moki, and red cod7,73211,870
Chatham Is...Blue cod, hapuku, trumpeter, and tarakihi3,6406,630

Included in New Zealand produce exported during the last five years were—

Item.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
 £££££
Fish19,20217,37727,52234,33743,356
Oysters1,1143421,3239651,713
Whalebone....3,100244..
Whale-oil12,61822,90823,3047,5052,310
Ambergris....1,700....
Other products of fisheries25....165..
Totals32,95940,62756,94943,21647,379

The value of fish imported in 1922 was £92,878.

VESSELS AND PERSONS EMPLOYED IN FISHING INDUSTRY.

A further table is given showing the number of steam trawlers, oil-engine trawlers, and other vessels employed in line and net fishing, with the number of fishermen employed, and approximately the total number of persons engaged in the fishing industry at each port for the year ended the 31st March, 1923:—

Name of Port.Steam Trawlers.Oil-engine Trawlers.Line- and Net-fishing Vessels.Number of Fishermen employed.Persons other than Fishermen employed.Total Number of Persons employed.
Whangaroa....65..5
Mangonui....22..2
Hokianga....1417..17
Russell....42125..125
Whangarei....10191433
Kaipara....36551570
Auckland8..3513075205
Thames....4710823131
Tauranga....2920525
Gisborne2..2538..38
pier12..411106116
Lew Plymouth....3145..45
Wanganui....913..13
Foxton....1430434
Wellington1..70150110260
Picton1..4786..86
Blenheim..5514..14
Nelson....2738..38
Westport1515201030
Greymouth2..715318
Hokitika....11..1
Kaikoura....1842446
Rangiora....1820..20
Kaiapoi....5959..59
Southbridge....1420626
Lyttelton132125328
Akaroa..21324..24
Timaru215235..35
Oamaru....816117
Moeraki....2834135
Otago41187171110281
Invercargill....40120..120
Bluff2..4910015115
Stewart Island....29731184
Chatham Islands....1132941
Totals36419101,8124252,237

OYSTER-BEDS.

The principal oyster-beds round the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland Peninsula. The Foveaux Strait beds are very extensive, and are considered to be inexhaustible. An official prospecting cruise was carried out in respect of these beds in 1904, resulting in a number of new beds being discovered and reliable information being ascertained concerning the areas and qualities of the various beds.

During the 1922 season 27,280 sacks of oysters, valued at £17,467, were picked from the Foveaux Strait beds. Of these, 2,390 sacks, valued at £1,494, were exported to Australia.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, including the leasing of the beds to individuals and the licensing of pickers to take oysters on payment of a fee, but owing to stripping of the beds close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. For some years an export duty of 6d. per hundredweight was payable on all North Island oysters exported, and in 1899 the export of rock-oysters and also of mangrove-oysters was absolutely prohibited. A further step towards conserving the beds was taken in 1908, when the picking and wholesale marketing of rock-oysters from the North Island beds was undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. A table is given showing the quantity and value of oysters picked and sold by the State during each of the last five years; also the cost of picking and selling, this item including interest and depreciation on the cost of the oil-launches used by the Inspectors. It will be seen that a profit accrues to the State, and the scheme has, moreover, resulted in the conservation and extension of the beds.

Season.Oysters sold.Prices realized.Cost of Picking and Selling.
 Sacks.££
191810,4227,5176,822
19197,2565,3313,765
19206,7975,9685,495
19217,1607,7634,531
19227,3237,7034,731

Various attempts were made several years ago by private persons to form artificial oyster-beds, but none of these met with success.

Realizing the necessity for extending and improving the oyster-beds in the Auckland District, the Marine Department in 1909 and 1910 commenced replanting the bays and foreshore on the Coromandel coast. These beds had been practically wiped out by the old system of licensed picking. The system adopted by the Department for stocking depleted areas consisted of taking rock covered with oysters of all ages from well-stocked beds and planting them in suitable places along the foreshore. The work done on the Coromandel coast has been very successful and several of the replanted beds are now well stocked with mature oysters. Within the last three years the formation of new beds has been undertaken. This consists of the building of hollow rock walls in sheltered bays and on tidal flats. In the spawning season the oyster-spat attaches itself to the under-side of the rocks, which are allowed to remain in that position until a month or two before the next spatting season comes round, when they are turned over and the other side of the rocks in turn becomes covered with spat.

During the last three years at Bay of Islands, Great Barrier, Whangarei, and Coromandel coast a total of seven miles of walls has been built. On a good part of this there is now a heavy fixing of young oysters, and the work done is promising very satisfactory results.

WHALING.

In the earlier part of the nineteenth century New Zealand was the centre of an important whale-fishery, many whaling-stations being established in the North of Auckland and in Cook and Foveaux Straits. The industry gradually declined in importance until at present only two or three stations remain. The whales caught are mostly of the hump-back variety. At Whangamumu, North Auckland, a whaling-steamer, fitted with the most modern appliances for killing and handling whales, has been placed in commission, and a very serviceable whaling plant has been established. Thirty-five whales were taken last season in this locality, yielding 178 tons of oil and 35 tons of bonedust, of a total value of £7,400. Whaling operations are also carried on from Kaikoura and Tory Channel, in Marlborough. The value of the product of the Marlborough whale-fisheries in 1922-23 (73 tons of oil and 6 cwt. whalebone) was £1,538, one “right" whale and twenty-three humpback being caught.

An attempt to revive the whaling industry on a large scale was made some few years ago, and a fleet of vessels was sent out from Norway, but their operations did not meet with the success anticipated.

SEALS.

A close season for seals existed in New Zealand from the end of August, 1894, until 1913, but owing to poaching, which it was found impossible to stop, the seals did not increase to any great extent. It was proposed a few years ago to grant licenses for the right to take seals, one of the conditions of which was that a royalty should be paid on each skin. Tenders were invited for the licenses, but none were received. At present the taking of seals is prohibited.

MARINE FISH-HATCHERY.

A site for a marine fish-hatchery was selected at Purakanui, Otago, in 1900, but this being found unsuitable for its intended purpose another site was chosen at Portobello, in Otago Harbour. The erection of the hatchery was carried out by a Board set up to superintend the work of the hatchery, funds being provided by the State, and grants being made by the Otago Institute, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and a number of acclimatization societies. The State makes an annual grant towards the maintenance of the hatchery, the buildings and equipment of which have also been added to from time to time.

Experiments have been carried out with a view to introducing English food fishes to New Zealand waters, and these have been fairly successful as regards the three species dealt with so far—viz., lobsters, edible crabs, and turbot. Much valuable work has also been done in the direction of hatching the spawn of various indigenous fishes and in making a study of their life-habits.

INLAND FISHERIES.

The early colonists who emigrated from Britain to New Zealand were much surprised to find a country with such splendid rivers and lakes, but with no fish of any commercial or sporting value in them. In a few years the question of introducing some of the British salmonidæ was considered, and as early as 1864 the matter assumed definite shape when the Otago Provincial Council took it up, and voted a sum for the importation of Atlantic salmon and English brown trout. There was, however, some delay in arranging for shipment, and it was not until 1868 that the first consignments of salmon and trout eggs arrived. Since that time the English brown trout (S. fario), Loch Leven (S. levenensis), American rainbow (S. irideus), American brook-trout (S. fontinalis), Quinnat salmon (O. tschawytscha), English perch and tench, have been successfully acclimatized.

As already stated, the first shipment of Atlantic - salmon eggs arrived in 1868, and from that year to 1902 altogether about fifteen consignments were brought out. Some of the earlier shipments arrived in bad condition, and none had a loss of less than 25 per cent. Up to 1908 there was no proof that these fish had been acclimatized, and the Government that year decided to make a vigorous and systematic effort to establish them in one of our best rivers. The Waiau, in Southland, was chosen as the most suitable, and a hatchery, capable of accommodating a million eggs, was erected on a cold-water creek near the lower end of Lake Te Anau. A quarter of a million eggs were obtained from eastern Canada in 1908, and one million from England in 1909, and the same number from England in 1911. In each case an expert was sent to pack the eggs and attend to them on the voyage out, with the result that each shipment arrived with a loss of not more than 1 per cent.

In the 1920-21 and 1921-22 angling seasons salmon-smolts were taken near the mouth of the Waiau. Inspection of the Upokuroro, the tributary into which most of the young fish hatched from the three shipments referred to above had been liberated, disclosed the fact that a number of salmon had spawned there, and three specimens caught on the spawning-beds were definitely identified as Atlantic salmon. In 1922-23 fifty-six Atlantic salmon were caught in the Waiau and its tributaries, and a quantity of eggs was collected with a view to stocking the Wanganui River.

The first importation of quinnat-salmon eggs was made in 1875, and from that date to 1880 several shipments were made. On the arrival of these consignments the eggs were parcelled out to the different acclimatization societies, and the young fish hatched were planted in rivers from the north of Auckland to the far south, but no results were obtained from these shipments.

In 1900 the Government decided to make a vigorous effort to establish this fish, and decided to confine its efforts to one of the rivers considered to be the most suitable, and the Waitaki was chosen, as in its general characteristics it bears a considerable resemblance to some of the salmon rivers on the Pacific Coast of America. The first shipment of eggs for the Government salmon-hatchery arrived in January, 1900. From that year to 1907 annual importations of half a million eggs each year were made, and, as they were specially packed and attended to by an expert during the voyage, they invariably arrived in splendid condition; the loss would not be more than 1/2 per cent. The result of the systematic effort made to establish the quinnat has been highly successful. In the seasons of 1905 and 1906 they were found spawning in the Hakataramea and other tributaries of the Waitaki, and in 1907 fifty thousand eggs were collected from salmon caught in the Hakataramea. Since then there has been a steady increase in the Waitaki every season, and they have now spread into all the snow-fed rivers north as far as the Waiau, North Canterbury. The Marine Department has continued collecting salmon-eggs every season for the purpose of stocking suitable rivers in other parts of the Dominion, and a consignment of 100,000 was also sent to Tasmania in 1923.

Recognizing that these salmon were sufficiently plentiful to allow them to be taken for market, the Department in 1922 made it legal for sea fishermen to take them for market at sea, with the exception of the close season from the 1st May to the 30th September.

It was also made legal for anglers holding a trout license to catch salmon in rivers, and, if they wished, to sell their catch. A vessel was hired for a week to do some experimental “trolling" off the North Otago and Canterbury coast, but the weather proved unfavourable, and no salmon were caught. Very few were taken by the sea fishermen during the autumn, but it is hoped to get them in quantities during the early summer months.

A number of anglers took advantage of the regulations permitting them to sell their catches, and New Zealand salmon were sold in the market and shops of Christchurch, Timaru, and Dunedin. The wholesale price in Christchurch varied from 10d. to 1s. 4d. per pound, and the retail price averaged about 1s. 6d. for fresh and 2s. for smoked salmon.

Ova of the sockeye or blue-back salmon were imported in 1902, and specimens of this fish were caught in 1907. A number exist in Lake Ohau, having acquired a land-locked habit. These fish run up creeks at the head of the lake and spawn there every season in March and April.

Several shipments of whitefish-ova have been made since 1898, the fry being liberated in Lakes Kanieri and Tekapo. Reports as to the fish having been seen are received from time to time, but so far as is known no whitefish have yet been caught.

MUNICIPAL FISH-MARKETS

Municipal fish-markets have been established at Wellington and Auckland with a view to bringing the fishermen and the public into closer contact, and enabling the former to dispose of his catch at a figure which ensures a good return to himself and is reasonable from the point of view of the public.

AUCKLAND.

The market is under the management of a Markets Committee appointed by the City Council. The office and premises are situated at Hobson Street Wharf, where the two Municipal trawlers discharge their loads of fish. Two motor-lorries are engaged delivering the fish to the various hotels and fish-shops in Auckland City and suburbs, while an increasing trade is also being done with country districts. At the market facilities are provided for handling and treating fish, and for the performance of necessary work in connection with the industry.

The market is open from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. daily, and a night staff is provided for receiving, cleaning, and smoking fish for the next day's business. The sales at the wholesale market for the year ended 31st March, 1923, totalled £30,430. In addition, at the retail premises in Queen Street, conducted by a manager, three salesmen, and a cashier, the turnover was £11,333.

The quantity of fish brought in by the Municipal trawlers was 19,196 baskets (approximately 100 lb. each) of mixed fish, largely snapper. The quantity of fish brought in by net and line fishermen was 308 tons 7 cwt.

WELLINGTON.

For several years a Municipal Fish-market was conducted by the Wellington City Corporation in a building situated on Jervois Quay, near the waterfront. The building is now conducted as a shop only.

Chapter 19. SECTION XIX.—MINING.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN no other country of equal size to New Zealand are indications of a greater number of economic minerals to be found, yet, with the exception of iron-ore, the known mineral reserves are not great in comparison with those in many other countries. The coal reserves of the Dominion are considerable, however, and their duration will be extended by the utilization of the enormous hydro-electric-power resources of the country.

The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, has for a number of years continued to decline in importance, in common with the experience of most other gold-producing countries. The causes of such decline are found in the approaching exhaustion of the most accessible known alluvial-gold deposits, and of ore from the zones of secondary enrichment, also the increased cost of material and labour.

The following statement shows the quantity and value of the production of mines and of stone-quarries under the Stone-quarries Act during 1921 and 1922:—

Mineral.1921.1922.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.

* In respect of gold, ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.

 Oz.£Oz.£
Gold and silver (estimated)*551,875547,105520,287574,988
 Tons. cwt. Tons. cwt. 
Quicksilver0 142310 14231
Tungsten-ore38 71,785....
Sulphur873 02,619....
Iron....81 0627
Asbestos0 550....
Stone..358,362..318,093
Pumice2,945 07,9583,020 09,320
Coal1,809,095 01,809,0951,857,819 01,857,819
     Totals..2,727,205..2,761,078

The production of gold and silver is of necessity taken together, as separate figures are not available. Kauri-gum, the fossilized resin of former kauri forests, is counted as a mineral, but the production figures are not available.

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals exported from the 1st January, 1853, to the 31st December, 1922, with separate details for the years 1921 and 1922.

1921.1922.Increase or Decrease.Total from 1st January, 1853, to 31st December, 1922.
 ££££
Gold612.168540,182Dec. 71,98690,164,457
Silver65,64755,222Dec. 10,4252,769,819
Quicksilver21674Inc. 6538,336
Tungsten-ore..528Inc. 528299,839
Kauri-gum367,197563,270Inc. 196,07320,068,287
Other minerals8,98818,393Inc. £,405472,791
Coal109,510253,762Inc. 144,2525,349,834
Totals1,163,5311,432,031Inc. 268,500119,133,363

GOLD-MINING.

Gold-mining operations in New Zealand are divided into three branches, viz.: (1) quartz-mining, (2) alluvial mining, and (3) dredging.

The actual figures of gold-production are not available owing to no distinction being made between gold and silver in the case of mines which produce both. The following statement shows the value of the bullion-production during 1922, also the number of persons employed, and the number of gold-mines and dredges:—

Production of Bullion.*Number of Persons ordinarly employed at Productive and Unproductive Mines.Number of Productive Mines and Dredges.
Quantity.Value.

* Including a proportion of silver.

Quartz-mining488,202439,4891,40520
Dredge mining15,46567,23912111
Alluvial mining16,62068,260502149
Totals, 1922520,287574,9882,028180
Totals, 1921551,875547,1052,012184

The bullion produced during the year from the quartz-mines in the Dominion was less in quantity by 39,653 oz. than that produced in 1921, though the value increased by £6,001. The yield from alluvial mining was less in quantity by 98 oz., and in value by £9,178. The production of gold by dredging increased markedly, the quantity of gold obtained being more than double that of the previous year, while the value shows an increase of approximately 86 per cent. This satisfactory increase is largely attributable to the successful operations of the Rimu Flat dredge at Rimu, near Hokitika. The results there obtained by the use of a modern dredge give promise of leading to a very great extension of gold-dredging in Westland and elsewhere.

Dividends paid by registered companies engaged in gold mining and dredging during 1922 aggregated £53,031, as against £56,728 in 1921.

QUARTZ-MINING.

The most important gold-mining operations in New Zealand consist in the working of quartz lodes and the extraction of the precious metals therefrom. Quartzmining is conducted in the North Island in the Ohinemuri County, and to a less extent in the Tauranga, Thames, and Coromandel counties. The mountain-ranges and hills of andesite and other volcanic rocks which form the Hauraki Goldfields are intersected by lodes containing gold and silver. In the South Island quartzmining operations are carried on in the Reefton and Blackwater districts, also to a small extent in the Wakamarina Valley (Marlborough). In Otago operations are generally confined to the working of quartz-mines in which scheelite is associated with gold.

ALLUVIAL-GOLD MINING.

Alluvial gold is found chiefly on the west coast of the South Island and in Otago, where mining operations have been conducted over an area of 17,000, square miles. On the West Coast the auriferous alluvium originated from the weathering and denudation of the gold-bearing lodes during countless ages. The rich leads or defined placers of auriferous wash are the result of concentration. The first transportation of auriferous gravel from the mountains was by streams, and following this the glaciers carried much material from the interior seawards. During the advance and retreat of these glaciers immense masses of drift were deposited all over the low lands and even high up on the lower hills. Since glacial times the rivers have continued the movement of auriferous gravel from the interior to the sea. In Otago the conditions are different—the alluvial gold rests in the hollows of the denuded surface of the schistose rocks, from which it has most probably been derived.

The method of working these deposits depends on the depth of the superincumbent strata and the elevation at which they occur; where there is ample fall and a good supply of water hydraulic sluicing has been generally adopted; but where the material is mainly or partly below water-level, and is comparatively free from hard boulders or hard matrix, hydraulic sluicing and elevating or dredging is employed.

GOLD-DREDGING.

This system of gold-mining, which originated in New Zealand, is generally employed upon rivers and streams and at places where the sluicing method may not be advantageously applied owing to the absence of water-supply or to excessive water in the deposits. Gold-dredging is rapidly declining in importance, the number of productive dredges having decreased from 167 during 1906 to eleven during 1922.

The greatest weekly output by a New Zealand gold-dredge was attained by the “Lady Ranfurly” during six days ended the 4th November, 1904, when operating on the River Molyneux (Clutha), 1,273 oz. of gold being obtained.

The following table shows the result of dredge-mining operations in New Zealand from 1913 to 1922 inclusive:—

Year.Total Number of Dredges working.Value of Production.Average Production per Dredge.Dividend-paying Dredges owned by Registered Companies.Number of Persons employed.
Number.Dividends.
  ££ £ 
191374195,8482,6461118,750621
191464191,1122,9861623,080491
191552164,6053,1652126,333427
191645125,3172,785109,915392
19173591,6662,61964,800260
19182863,6912,27454,925187
19191947,8382,46442,845138
19201234,6722,88911,400112
19211136,1793,2891600136
19221167,2396,112....121

GOLD-PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD.

The following figures showing the world's gold-production are taken from the Statistical Abstract of the United States:—

World's Gold-production, 1901-1921.
Year.Fine Ounces.
190112,625,527
190214,354,680
190315,852,620
190416,804,372
190518,396,451
190619,471,080
190719,977,260
190821,422,244
190921,965,111
191022,022,180
191122,348,313
191222,549,335
191322,249,596
191421,240,416
191522,674,568
191621,970,788
191720,289,546
191818,556,920
191917,664,910
192016,303,306
192115,959,643

SILVER.

Nearly the whole of the silver exported from New Zealand, amounting in value at the end of 1922 to £2,769,819, was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz-mines, principally from those of the Hauraki Goldfield, where the two precious metals are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alley varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in this country.

IRON-ORES.

Iron-ore occurs in New Zealand at Parapara, Golden Bay; on the seashore in Taranaki; at Kerr Point and Waitangi River, North Auckland; in the Raglan-Kawhia district; on Mount Peel, Nelson; on Mount Royal, near Palmerston North; on Table Hill, near Milton; in the Lake Wakatipu district; and in the Mount Cook district, Westland.

The most extensive iron-ore deposits occur near Parapara and Onakaka, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Province.

The limonite-deposit of this locality is of great extent, and is estimated in “Iron-ore Resources of the World,” published by the International Geological Congress, to contain 64,000,000 metric tons, of which about 30,000,000 tons occur in the Onakaka Block.

At Onakaka the ore and crystalline limestone flux occur at an altitude of about 1,200 ft. above the works, and they are conveyed thereto by aerial tramway 8,000 ft. in length.

During 1921 the Onakaka Iron and Steel Company was engaged upon the construction of a blast-furnace installation on its lease at Onakaka.

The present capacity of the plant is 30 tons of pig iron per day, but it could be altered at little cost in order to produce an output of 50 tons per day.

Between the 26th April and 5th May, 1922, the blast furnace was given a trial run, and produced during that time over 80 tons of pig iron. The early part of the run was taken up in “blowing in,” say, two to three days, and the last two or three days in “blowing down,” giving four to six days of actual normal smelting. The first half of the run was made with coke imported from Australia, and the second half with coke from Miramar gasworks made from Liverpool (N.Z.) coal. The latter gave results at least as good as those from Australian coke, and the consumption of coke in both cases was 22 cwt. per ton of pig iron produced. The pig iron was of good marketable quality, and was reported on favourably by users in different parts of the Dominion. The two important facts demonstrated by the test were—(1) That a good foundry pig iron could be produced by the Onakaka plant; (2) that the furnace could be run with Miramar coke as fuel and with a consumption of 22 cwt. of coke per ton of iron.

This company has now constructed coke-ovens with a view to manufacturing its own coke, if necessary, and is now erecting a wharf, to be completed about the end of October, 1923, which will allow coastal steamers to load or discharge within two miles of the works.

TABLE SHOWING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ONAKAKA PIG IRON (TAPPED 29TH APRIL, 1922), AND, FOR COMPARISON, THAT OF THE PRINCIPAL BRANDS OF FOUNDRY PIG IRON MANUFACTURED ELSEWHERE.
Brand of Pig Iron.Chemical Composition per Cent.Kind of Iron.
Iron.Graphite Carbon.Combined Carbon.Silicon.Phosphorus.Sulphur.Manganese.
Onakaka, sample 292.102.890.193.920.220.040.64Foundry.
Carron, Scotland (as imported to New Zealand)91.823.500.142.800.700.0351.00No. 1 foundry.
Ditto92.633.350.202.150.700.060.91No. 2 foundry.
Summerlee (as imported to New Zealand)92.033.000.252.750.800.030.85No. 3 foundry.
Lithgow (Hoskins), New South Wales, 1914......2.000.850.031.00Foundry.
Characteristic samples quoted in “The Manufacture and Properties of Iron and Steel,” by H. H. Campbell92.373.520.132.441.250.020.28No. 1 grey.
Characteristic samples quoted in “The Manufacture and Properties of Iron and Steel,” by H. H. Campbell92.312.990.372.521.080.020.72No. 2 grey.
Alabama..3.490.072.8 to 3.5......No. 1 foundry.
ANALYSES OF ORE, FLUX, AND SLAG.
 Iron-ore (Limonite).Crystalline Limestone (Flux).Slag from Furnace.

* Equivalent to metallic iron, 50.16 per cent.

Silica (SiO2)12.1310.2640.03
Alumina (Al2O3)2.792.1212.87
Ferrous oxide (FeO)....2.73
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)71.66*1.76..
Titanium dioxide (TiO2)0.200.170.49
Lime (CaO)0.1047.1040.27
Magnesia (MgO)0.331.241.19
Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5)0.230.070.10
Manganous oxide (MnO)0.72..0.45
Calcium sulphide (CaS)....2.54
Sulphur (S)0.130.21..
Loss on ignition12.0137.18..
..100.30100.11100.67

Along the seashore from Patea to New Plymouth occur large quantities of magnetic ironsand more or less titaniferous. This has originated through the disintegration of hornblende-andesites and their tufas, which occur very extensively near New Plymouth around the volcanic cone of Mount Egmont. It is quite impossible to give any definite idea of the quantity of this ironsand; undoubtedly, however, it exists in immense quantities, and is measurable in millions of tons.

The most extensive deposit of ironsand occurs near Patea, the quantity of which has been estimated to be at least 5,374,000 tons of high-grade ore in addition to a great quantity of low-grade ironsand.

Between the years 1869 and 1918 several attempts were made to smelt Taranaki ironsand.

Early in 1921 the Mines Department arranged for the shipment of 20 tons of Taranaki ironsands to Messrs. Thomas Summerson and Sons' works at Darlington, England, for the purpose of having tests made to ascertain the suitability by that firm's process of the sand for the production of pig iron and steel therefrom. The experiments, which were conducted under the supervision of Professor Harbord, representing the New Zealand Government, were made in an electric furnace. The results were not quite satisfactory, considered from a commercial point of view, as the cost of producing pig iron and steel was too high.

Professor Harbord's report shows that in his opinion the production of steel direct from the ore or in one furnace is not commercial, and that two furnaces are essential—one to reduce the ore, and the other to refine the metal produced and to convert it into steel.

The conclusion arrived at by Professor Harbord is that the conditions in New Zealand are such that a blast furnace and modern steel plant are not at present feasible, but if power, coke, coal, and limestone are obtainable at reasonable prices small quantities of pig iron and steel may be produced to partially meet the local requirements, and this would form the basis for building up a larger industry when the demand is increased sufficiently to justify expansion on a larger scale.

The report also shows that both pig iron and steel of satisfactory quality, containing little titanium, can be produced from titaniferous ironsands in the electric furnace.

The full text of the report appears in parliamentary paper C.-15, 1922.

Near the Breakwater, New Plymouth, the New Zealand Iron-ore Smelting Company (Limited), which was formed for working the beach ironsand, commenced smelting during the latter part of 1917, and after several trials pig iron was obtained in grades varying from white to grey. The company subsequently went into liquidation, and the furnace was removed to Onakaka.

The following is an analysis of the ironsand which, after magnetic concentration, was used in the blast-furnace charge:—

* Equivalent to phosphorus, 0.30 per cent.

£ Equivalent to metallic iron, 56.36 per cent.

Silica (SiO3)5.40
Alumina (Al2O3)1.53
Lime (CaO)1.81
Magnesia (MgO)2.80
Phosphoric anhydride*0.69
Titanium dioxide (TiO.)10.45
Ferrous oxide (FeO)28.71
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)48.61
..100.00

At Kerr Point the deposit of iron-ore consists of limonite, but does not probably exceed 100,000 tons. The iron-ore near the head of the Waitangi River is also limonite of excellent quality, but does not exceed 100,000 tons. The limonite-deposits in the Kawhia-Raglan district and on Table Hill, so far as known, are not large. Little authentic information exists concerning the iron-ore deposits at Mount Peel or at Mount Royal. In the Lake Wakatipu district from Moke Creek, through Benmore in the direction of Mount Gilbert, a band of hæmatite has been reported to occur, also at Maori Point, Shotover River. On the Westland side of Mount Cook large quantities of magnetite are disseminated through chlorite schist.

TUNGSTEN-ORE.

Scheelite, one of the principal ores of tungsten, was until recently mined at the gold-scheclite-quartz mines near Glenorchy, Paradise, Macrae's, Stoneburn, Hyde, and Barewood, Otago; also at Wakamarina Valley, Marlborough; at which places milling and concentrating plants are installed.

The following statement shows the quantity and value of scheelite exported in each of the last twenty years:—

Year.Quantity exported.Value.
 Tons.£
1903421,439
190417791
1905281,848
1906553,407
190713715,486
1908686,055
1909584,263
191014315,070
191113811,853
191213513,347
191322122,933
191420421,498
191519427,784
191626649,070
191716128,972
1918169 ½37,922
191913129,489
1920101,378
1921....
19227 ½ 1/0528
Totals to end of 19222,280 3/20297,051

Since the termination of the war there has been a considerable collapse in the tungsten-ore-mining industry owing to the great decline in price on the Home market due greatly to accumulated stocks. During the war the Empire's supply was commandeered, and the price increased to £3 8s. per unit (on a 65-per-cent. WO3 basis per ton); the price now quoted is less than a quarter of that. The industry is now practically dormant pending an improvement in prices.

COPPER.

Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities, but during the last fifty years attempts at their successful exploitation have been unprofitable, the total recorded copper-production at the end of 1922 amounting in value to only £19,390. Prior to the inauguration of systematic records there was a considerable production from mines on Great Barrier and Kawau Islands.

Copper-mines have been worked on Kawau and Great Barrier Islands in the Hauraki Gulf, and on the Dun Mountain, near Nelson. Underground prospecting has been carried on near Kaeo, Whangaroa; at Maharahara, near Woodville; and at Mount Radiant, near Karamea; but no conclusive results have been obtained.

MANGANESE-ORE.

Manganese-ore has been found at Otau, Wairoa, Bay of Islands, Purua Bay, Mangapai, Otonga, Waiheke Island, and Taieri Mouth. Many years ago a considerable amount of manganese-ore was mined at Tikiora, near the Bay of Islands At a later period operations were carried on at Waiheke Island, distant about twelve miles from Auckland. On that island manganese-ore may be traced for several miles, where it occurs in massive but bunchy form and of excellent quality, bulk analyses returning 56.5 per cent. metallic manganese. Some thousands of tons have been exported, but it is supposed that fluctuating prices prevented expansion of this industry. The total quantity of manganese-ore exported to the end of 1922 amounted to 19,366 tons, value £61,915.

CINNABAR.

After several unsuccessful attempts, extending over a number of years, to work cinnabar-deposits in the Auckland Province, satisfactory results have been obtained by the New Zealand Quicksilver-mines (Limited), whose mine and furnace are situated at Puhipuhi, about twenty-eight miles by road from Whangarei. This company, to the end of 1922, had produced 16 1/5 tons of quicksilver, valued at £8,103.

TIN.

Cassiterite in the form of “stream-tin" occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, where it has been worked to some extent. “Lode-tin" has been found in the same locality, and is now being prospected. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Reefton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.

In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand platinum is stated to occur in several places associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been mined and exported.

The Customs Department has not kept any separate record of the quantity and value of platinum entered for exportation, the value of this metal exported being included in a general total of exports by parcel-post, by which means platinum has generally been despatched from the Dominion.

In Southland native platinum occurs in auriferous wash, and is distributed on the beaches and coastal terraces from Blue Cliffs, west of Invercargill, to Longbeach, Waikawa River, east of Invercargill, over a distance of about ninety-two miles. It is probable that the platiniferous sands of Southland have been derived from serpentine or other olivine-bearing rocks, which are known to occur in Fiordland. In Russia and in Lapland platinum has been found in a matrix of serpentine (altered peridotite).

Native platinum has been obtained in payable quantities from claims at Cameron Creek, Groveburn, Orepuki, Pahi, Round Hill, Steel Head, Bushy Point, Waipapa, Otara Beach, Twelve-mile Beach, and Waikawa. The coarsest and heaviest samples have been obtained from west of Waiau River, that obtained east of Otara being extremely fine. Direct from the gold-saving mats at the alluvial workings at the Waikoau River, Rowallen, as high a proportion as 1 oz. platinum to 3 oz. gold has been obtained.

The platinum is collected by miners as a residue, after amalgamation, of alluvial gold, and is reduced by further washing to about a 50-per-cent, concentrate, the remainder of the concentrate being chiefly iridosmine (osmiridium).

During the earlier and more prosperous era of gold-mining alluvial miners did not save the platinum, as the banks would not give more than a few shillings per ounce for mat concentrates of platinum and osmiridium; consequently by far the greater proportion collected on the gold-saving matting at alluvial claims was thrown away. As years passed the price increased; during 1922 the price ruling on the London metal-market varied from £17 to £23 per ounce.

The following are the results of assays of concentrates taken direct from the gold-saving mats of Smith's Claim, Round Hill: No. 1 sample—Gold per ton of concentrate, 55 oz.; platinum per ton of concentrate, 72 oz. No. 2 sample—Gold per ton of concentrate, 15 oz.; platinum per ton of concentrate, 51.5 oz.

The following is the result of an assay of a sample of concentrate from rich wash from the Otara Claim: Osmiridium, 15 dwt. 7 gr. per ton; platinum, 7 dwt. 14 gr. per ton; gold, 4 dwt. 22 gr. per ton; monazite, 2.07 per cent.; thoria, 0.67 per cent.

SULPHUR.

Native sulphur in sufficient quantity to be profitably worked is known to occur only in the thermal districts of the North Island, near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island. With the exception of the small lake deposit on White Island, all the known native sulphur in payable quantity occurs in the form of pockets in pumice, or sinter around fumaroles or thermal springs (from which it has been sublimed in crystalline form), and as black sulphur. The fumarolic deposits, although of high grade generally, are inextensive when compared with those of massive form in seams or in veins as extensively worked in Japan, Sicily, and North America.

The sulphur exported to the end of 1922 amounted to 4,927 tons, valued at £13,241.

COAL.

Coal, varying in grade from anthracite to lignite, occurs in many parts of New Zealand. In proportion to the present yearly consumption of somewhat under 2,300,000 tons (10 to 15 per cent., of which is in normal times imported), the supply may be considered relatively large, but in comparison with probable future needs it is decidedly small. It is likely, indeed, that the proved bituminous-coal resources of the Dominion will be practically exhausted within a hundred years. The resources of brown coal are very much greater.

The following is an estimate of the proved and probable coal in New Zealand by the Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand:—

Class of Coal.Proved.Probable.Possible.
AnthraciteImperial Tons. Very little.Imperial Tons. Very little.Small.
Bituminous187,000,000477,000,000Moderate.
Semi-bituminous68,000,000196,000,000Moderate.
Brown194,000,000728,000,000Large.
Lignite161,000,000420,000,000Large.
     Totals610,000,0001,821,000,000Large.

No individual coal-seam has yet been traced for more than a few miles in any direction. The variations in thickness are extraordinary. There are many instances of seams 10 ft. to 20 ft. thick thinning to 1 ft. or 2 ft. in distances of a quarter of a mile or less. The following instances of thick seams may be mentioned: In the Waikato district (Auckland), 50 ft. to 60 ft. of brown coal; in the Buller-Mokihinui district (Nelson), 53 ft. of bituminous coal; in the Kaitangata district (Otago), 30 ft. or more of brown coal; at Coal Creek, near Roxburgh, Central Otago, 80 ft. (or, according to Professor Park, 100 ft.) of lignite; at Nightcaps (Southland), 36 ft. of brown coal.

In New Zealand the difficulties in settling the relative ages of the principal coalfields are such that for many years the subject has been a controversial one. The known facts may be summarized as follows: In south-east Otago (Waikawa, Catlin's River) and in Southland (Hokonui Hills) small seams of coal occur in Jurassic rocks, but in no case is a workable seam known to be present. The chief coal-bearing rocks are probably of early Tertiary age, but late Cretaceous coal-seams almost certainly occur. There are also considerable quantities of lignite of Miocene, Pliocene, and possibly even Pleistocene age.

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1922 is summarized as follows:—

Class of Coal.Output of Coal during 1922.Total Output to the End of 1922.
Northern District (North Island).West Coast District (South Island).Southern District (South Island).Totals.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.
Bituminous and semibituminous89,575878,863..968,43834,917,970
Brown430,578480279,275710,33317,290,650
Lignite..640178,408179,0483,342,687
     Totals for 1922520,153879,983457,6831,857,81955,551,307
     Totals for 1921514,607810,875483,6131,809,09553,693,488

The annual production of coal and the quantity of coal imported since 1911 are as follows:—

Year.Coal produced.Coal imported.Total Quantity of Coal produced and imported.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.
19112,066,073188,0682,254,141
19122,177,615364,3592,541,974
19131,888,005468,9402,356,945
19142,275,593518,0702,793,663
19152,208,624353,4712,562,095
19162,257,135293,9562,551,091
19172,068,419291,5972,360,016
19182,034,250255,3322,289,582
19191,847,848391,4342,239,282
19201,843,705476,3432,320,048
19211,809,095822,4592,631,554
19221,857,819501,4782,359,297

During 1922 the production of bituminous coal increased by 74,593 tons, and that of brown coal by 10,213 tons, while the output of lignite was reduced by 36,082 tons, making the net increase for the year 48,724 tons. Throughout the year ample supplies of coal were available for all purposes, and at many of the mines difficulty was experienced in disposing of the output even at considerably reduced prices. The year was marked by a comparative freedom from industrial strife at the mines. One other feature that deserves mention is the striking increase in the number of small mines being worked by co-operative parties, most of whom did well during the year.

The following statement shows the tons of coal raised, persons employed, lives lost by accidents in or about coal-mines, &c., in each of the last twenty years:—

YearOutput.Persons employed above and below Ground.Tons raised per each Person employed Underground.Lives lost.
Number.Per Million Tons raised.Per Thousand Persons employed.

* Year of Ralph's (Huntly) explosion.

Prior to 190317,143,153....174....
19031,420,2292,85266542.811.40
19041,537,8383,28860942.601.21
19051,585,7563,26965163.781.83
19061,729,5363,69268763.461.62
19071,831,0093,910662126.553.07
19081,860,9753,89464152.681.28
19091,911,2474,19163373.651.79
19102,197,3624,599634167.283.55
19112,066,0734,290706146.773.26
19122,177,6154,32868194.132.08
19131,888,0054,25059063.181.38
1914*2,275,6144,7346394921.5310.35
19152,208,6244,15671194.072.16
19162,257,1353,98875062.651.50
19172,068,4193,98371541.931.00
19182,034,2503,99470362.951.50
19191,847,8483,944648105.412.53
19201,843,7054,07863010.540.24
19211,809,0954,367574105.522.28
19221,857,8194,55655263.231.31
Totals to date55,551,307....364....

STATE COLLIERIES.

The Coal-mines Act of 1901 provided for the acquisition and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines.

Up to 1920 two State collieries—viz., Point Elizabeth and Liverpool—were worked, but during that year the former ceased operations owing to exhaustion of the seams.

A valuable extension of the Point Elizabeth coal-measure has been proved in the low coastal hills to the north of the Point Elizabeth Colliery, towards Nine-mile Creek. The underground development of this area, known as the James State Colliery, was continued during 1922, and the production stage was reached on the 31st March, 1923. In the course of development-work 2,889 tons of marketable coal were won in 1922-23, after allowing for mine consumption.

The Government was compelled to close the MacDonald Mine at Waikokowai owing to the enormous increase in the estimated cost of developing and equipping the colliery, including the erection of houses, drainage, and lighting, as well as the construction of a railway-line, and also owing to the acute financial position prevailing.

During 1922-23 the Liverpool Colliery produced 112,358 tons of marketable coal, a decrease of 21,278 tons on the previous year's production.

The disposal, inclusive of stock on hand at beginning of year, was as follows:—

Supplied toTons.
Depots21,081
Railways5,598
Other Government Departments8,241
Shipping companies26,286
Gas companies50,432
Other consumers4,660
Total116,298

The total sales of State coal from the Liverpool Mine for the year amounted to 112,515 tons, value £180,534, as compared with 130,733 tons, value £222,819, for 1921-22, a decrease of 18,218 tons, with a decrease in value of £42,285.

The average price realized by the mine on the total sales for the year was £1 12s. 1.09d. per ton, a decrease of 1s. 11.96d. on the previous year's average. This decrease is due to reductions in selling-prices consequent upon reduced wages and freights.

The total sales of State coal from the James Mine for the year amounted to 2,889 tons, value £4,710, giving an average of £1 12s. 7.27d. per ton.

The sales of coal, &c., through the medium of the depots totalled 87,042 tons, value £187,057, as against 87,871 tons, value £213,860, for 1921-22.

The profit at the mines was £8,607, and at the depots, &c., £1,814, making a total of £10,421, out of which £4,552 was applied to Sinking Fund Account, leaving £5,869 to be carried forward.

WORLD'S COAL-PRODUCTION.

According to the figures published in the Statistical Abstract of the United States, the world's coal-production in the ten years 1912 to 1921 was approximately as shown below. The quantity is stated in short tons (of 2,000 lb.).

 Short Tons.
1912     1,377,000,000
1913     1,478,000,000
1914     1,346,000,000
1915     1,169,600,000
1916     1,244,600,000
1917     1,312,500,000
1918     1,306,300,000
1919     1,107,100,000
1920     1,317,000,000
1921     1,120,000,000

PETROLEUM.

Drilling for petroleum has been carried on in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, and Westland. Throughout the Dominion twenty-six deep bore-holes in search of petroleum have been drilled or are in progress, the deepest being that of the Blenheim Oil Company at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which has attained a depth of 5,726 ft. Petroleum of good quality but in limited quantity has been proved at Moturoa, but up to the present time boring for petroleum in the Dominion has attained only a small and intermittent flow.

During 1922, 5,190 gallons of crude oil were produced by the Taranaki Oil-wells (Limited), and 3,500 gallons by the Blenheim Oil Company. No new drilling was done during the year.

The Kotuku Prospecting Syndicate, operating near Greymouth, drilled two holes to depths of 941 ft. and 612 ft. respectively, but with negative results.

Oil-prospecting operations throughout the Dominion have received very liberal financial assistance from the Government in the forms of bonus, subsidies, and loans.

KAURI-GUM.

The kauri-gum industry is under the administration of a separate Department controlled by a Superintendent. During 1922, 6,391 tons of kauri-gum, valued at £563,270, were exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1922 being 377,193 tons, valued at £20,068,287.

The European market for this fossil resin—used in the manufacture of varnish and linoleum—being greatly restricted by the recent war, new but smaller markets were obtained. The Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1914, providing for State purchase of gum from diggers and the disposal of the gum, served a useful purpose in enabling the industry to keep going in spite of the disorganization occasioned by the war.

PHOSPHATE ROCK.

At Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, considerable deposits of phosphate rock were discovered in 1902, and have since been actively worked. A thin bed of phosphatic rock has been identified at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, in Marlborough. A similar bed occurs near Port Robinson. Phosphatic nodules are found in the Kaikorai Valley (near Dunedin), at Weka Pass (North Canterbury), and elsewhere. A limestone containing 10.6 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate occurs in the neighbourhood of Onewhere, Waikato district. Other districts where phosphatic material of good quality, though, so far as known, not in commercial quantity, is found are Amberley, Dipton, Oamaru, Waimate, Wangapeka, Clarence Valley, Tutira Block (Mangaharuru Survey District, Hawke's Bay), and Whangarei.

Phosphatic minerals, the most common of which is the hydrous iron phosphate vivianite, have been discovered in numerous other localities besides those mentioned above, but commercially these occurrences are of little importance.

The only operations during 1922 in connection with the quarrying of phosphates were those of the Ewing Phosphate Company at Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, which produced 3,128 tons.

GREENSTONE.

The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu" of the Maori, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” whenever observed in situ, occurs as rounded segregations in tale or tale-serpentine rocks. These segregations vary up to 2 or even more in lateral dimensions. As a rule they average less than 1 ft. in width. So far as known, the mineral has been found in its original locus only in the Griffin Range, Turiwhate Survey District, North Westland.

Pounamu is a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches. With the wearing-away of the enclosing matrix the segregations are freed as rounded masses, and were once transported by the Arahura, Taramakau, and other glaciers, and are now found as boulders in the glacial debris along the lower streams of the Arahura and Taramakau Valleys. From boulders all greenstone ornaments have hitherto been manufactured.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.

New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, andesite, porphyrite, and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. Besides these rocks are the Whangarei limestone and Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there is a granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay, and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. The new Parliamentary Buildings at Wellington were constructed of this marble. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, North Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there is the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

Many of the principal buildings in New Zealand have been constructed in stone from local quarries.

During 1922 the value of stone, &c., produced was £318,093, as against £358,362 for the previous year.

The following is a table showing the number of quarries under the Stone-quarries Act, also the number of persons ordinarily employed thereat, and the annual output and value of crude stone during 1922:—

Provincial District.Number of Working Quarries under the Act.Number of Persons ordinarily employed.Output of Crude Stone
stone or Gravel for Macadamizing or Ballast.Stone for Harbour works.Building of Monumental stone.Limestone for Agriculture.Limestone for Cement or Mortar.Phosphate for Agriculture.MiscellaneousValue at Quarry.
   Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.Tons.£
Auckland91621319,620170,19042,55122,733175,147....153,470
Hawke's Bay13688,07925,1572006,000......5,699
Taranaki126812,25531,513..........6,993
Wellington3317771,05920,920..6,283......37,299
Canterbury139787,5114,0793,0644,540......29,892
Nelson Westland18556,391..9131,906....2206,486
Otago Southland3229775,79213,23213,96446,62535,0023,128..78,254
     Totals, 19222121,383580,707265,09160,69288,087210,1843,128220318,093
     Totals, 19212571,561667,239198,66011,632123,796180,7516,0122,190358,362

By section 2 of the Stone-quarries Amendment Act, 1920, the application of the Act was extended to include every place, not being a mine, in which persons work in quarrying stone and any part of which has a face more than 15 ft. deep, and also in any tunnel in the construction of which explosives are used. The Act, however, does not apply to any Government operations, or any road or railway cutting, or excavations for buildings.

ACCIDENTS AT MINES AND QUARRIES.

The following is a table showing the number and proportion of persons killed at coal-mines, metal-mines, and at quarries and places, under the Stone-quarries Act for the last ten years:—

Year.Coal-mines.Metal-mines.Stone-quarries.
Number of Deaths.Proportion per 1,000 Persons employed.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 1,000 Persons employed.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 1,000 Persons employed.

* Year of the explosion at Ralph's Colliery, Huntly.

191361.38102.0221.90
191449*10.3561.3421.00
191592.16102.3821.27
191661.5092.4221.23
191741.0072.0322.00
191861.5020.7721.40
1919102.5341.8210.71
192010.2410.51....
1921102.2810.4810.64
192261.3110.4721.44
PERSONS EMPLOYED AT MINES AND AT PLACE UNDER THE STONE-QUARRIES ACT.
1921.1922.Increase or Decrease.
Metalliferous mines2,0702,091Increase 21
Coal-mines4,3674,556Increase 189
Stone-quarries1,5611,383Decrease 178
     Totals7,9987,476Increase 32

STATE AID TO MINING.

In no other country does the State offer so liberal and varied assistance to miners and prospectors as in New Zealand. During and since the war State aid to mining in this Dominion has been given in several forms, as—

(1) Geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) Government prospecting-drills; (4) loans for mining operations; (6) schools of mines; (6) subsidized roads to mining-fields; (7) Government water-races.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND REPORTS.

Since the first discovery of coal and the precious metals in New Zealand the Government has employed skilled geologists, who have reported, after examination, on all the known mineral deposits. Since 1916 the Geological Survey Branch of the Mines Department has been enlarged, and has included on its staff the most eminent geologists of the Dominion.

During the past year detailed geological surveys were continued in the Dargaville, Waiapu, and North Taranaki districts. The total area surveyed was somewhat over 1,100 square miles. In each of the districts mentioned the field surveys were brought to a close, and full reports on the work done are now being prepared. Further examination of the Waiki Goldfield was undertaken, with results considered on the whole to be satisfactory. A detailed report thereon has been furnished and will shortly be published. In the South Island the asbestos-field at the head of the Takaka River near Mount Arthur was examined in some detail. The report supplied indicates that the asbestes-deposits offer considerable promise, provided the drawbacks due to their situation in rough high country difficult of access can be overcome. Steady progress has been made with the investigation of the fossil collections of the survey, a work which is considered highly important by scientific men; and a palæontological bulletin, No. 9 (“The Upper Cretaeeous Gastropods of New Zealand”), was issued during the year.

The other publications issued during the year included the annual report of the Survey, which contains a certain amount of scientific information as well as an account of the work done, and Bulletins Nos. 24 and 25. Bulletin No. 24 described the geology and mineral resources (chiefly coal and limestone) of the Mokau district, and gave also accounts of the Te Kuiti district and of the Waitewhena Coalfield, North Taranaki. Bulletin No. 25 dealt with the Collingwood district, the coal and marble deposits of which received full attention. The coal resources, though considerable, were found to be hardly as large as was hoped. On the other hand, an area north of the Township of Collingwood containing marbles of great possible value has been mapped and made known to those interested. The Parapara ironores, south-west of Collingwood, some miles outside the area handled in Bulletin No. 25, were described as long ago as 1907 in Bulletin No. 3 of the Survey.

FINANCIAL AID TO PROSPECTING.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, loans, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Native land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licenses for coal.

Assistance is offered to prospectors as under:—

  1. 1. Subsidies for prospecting (vide Regulation 127 under the Mining Act):—

    1. (a.) For prospecting new ground by parties of not less than two men, a subsidy not exceeding £1 10s. per week per man.

    2. (b.) For sinking in dry ground by parties of not less than two men—from surface to 15 ft., 1s. 6d. per foot; from 15 ft. to 30 ft., 2s. 6d. per foot; from 30 ft. to 60 ft., 3s. per foot; over 60 ft., 4s. per foot.

    3. (c.) For sinking in wet ground where slabbing in a necessary, double the foregoing rates. For sinking in solid rock by blasting, 7s. 6d. per foot; but if the cost exceeds £1 10s. per foot, then 10s. per foot may be paid.

    4. (d.) For tunnelling or driving through drift or blue reef—up to 400 ft., 1s. 6d. per foot; 400 ft. to 700 ft., 2s. 6d. per foot; 700ft. to 1,000 ft., 3s. per foot; over 1,000 ft., 4s. per foot.

    5. (e.) For tunnelling or driving through hard rock by blasting, a subsidy of 5s. per foot is offered; but if the cost exceeds £1 per foot, then 6s. 8d. per foot may be paid. When timbering by sets is necessary, then a subsidy not exceeding 2s. per foot of driving, or one-half the cost of the timber, may be paid.

    By amended regulation gazetted on the 9th September, 1920, the above subsidies were increased by 30 per cent.

  2. 2. Subsidies for prospecting deep levels for gold-quartz lodes down to a depth of not less than 1,000 ft., and for alluvial drift not less than 250 ft. (vide Regulation 125 under the Mining Act): Such subsidies up to half the estimated cost of the work, but not to exceed £10,000.

  3. 3. The identification and assaying, free of charge, of samples from bona fide prospectors, at the Dominion Laboratory, Wellington, or at the goldfields school of mines.

  4. 4. Any prospector desiring information regarding favourable localities, or the most suitable method of prospecting, or any other matter connected with mining, may.

    During the year ended 31st March, 1923, twenty-nine new applications by approved prospecting parties were granted subsidies amounting to £3,280. There was expended during the year £2,504, which included subsidies authorized but not expended during previous years.

    Upon subsidized prospecting operations ninety-nine persons were intermittently employed during the year; in five cases the results attained were satisfactory.

GOVERNMENT PROSPECTING-DRILLS.

Prospecting-drills of various types suitable for the conditions existing in the Dominion are lent to bona fide prospectors free of all charge except that of maintenance in good order and condition, as security for which a deposit of £50 is required. The Government pays the salary of the expert, drill-superintendent who has charge of the drill. The hirer is required to furnish to the Mines Department weekly journals of boring-results.

For boring in rock for coal and oil-shale seams or for mineral lodes (reefs) the following drills are available:—

  • Three Schram-Harker steam-power-driven diamond drills of 2,500 ft., 1,500 ft., and 600 ft. capacity respectively.

  • One Sullivan C.N. steam-power-driven diamond drill of 900 ft. capacity. The above drills produce cores of the rocks penetrated.

  • One oil-engine-driven percussion drill of 300 ft. capacity. This drill produces samples in the form of debris.

For boring in gravel or other alluvium for alluvial gold:—

  • Three Keystone percussion traction drills, driven by steam-power, of 150 ft. capacity in favourable ground.

Considerable use was made of the Government prospecting-drills during 1922, an aggregate of 3,673 ft. being drilled in sixteen holes for four hirers, as follows:—

Number of Holes drilled.Aggregate depth drilled.Mineral searched for.Type of Drill used.Cost per Foot.Results.
Drilling.Transport.
 Ft.  s.  d.  s.  d. s.  d. 
6553Building marbleDiamond2  8  to  4  0  ½2  3  ½Fairly satisfactory.
32,280CoalDiamond4  9.8  to  5  2.840  5  ½Coal in three holes from 10 ft. to 20 ft.
2175CoalPercussion....6 ft coal at 81 ft.; holes not completed.
5265Alluvial goldKeystone....Gold averaging 3 ½d. per cubic yard.

LOANS FOR MINING.

A number of loans of sums amounting to £10,000 have been made to mining companies and operators. In two cases only has the loan been repaid, and in no case has a profitable mine been developed by any loan.

SCHOOLS OF MINES.

For the education of prospectors and mining students seven schools of mines are subsidized or entirely supported by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Coromandel, Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Reefton, and Westport.

The expenditure on those schools by the Government during the year ended the 31st March, 1923, was £4,457, as against £5,848 during the previous year.

The attendance of mining students was poor, but numerous young people availed themselves of the facilities afforded by the schools for technical and secondary education.

SUBSIDIZED ROADS.

The expenditure on roads and tracks by subsidies and direct grants out of the Public Works Fund vote “Roads on Goldfields” during the year ended 31st March, 1923, amounted to £4,850, as compared with £11,329 during the previous year.

The expenditure on the maintenance of roads and works by subsidies and direct grants out of the Consolidated Fund during the year ended 31st March, 1923, amounted to £744.

GOVERNMENT WATER-RACES.

To enable alluvial-gold mining to be carried on in the neighbourhood of Kumara (Westland) and Naseby (Central Otago), the Government, during former years, constructed or acquired water-races of great capacity, at an approximate cost of about £350,000, and for a number of years the water from these races, which was supplied to parties of miners at a reasonable price, enabled considerable quantities of gold and silver to be won, and thus gave profitable employment to many persons. Of late years, however, the gold-production has greatly declined.

During the year ended 31st March, 1923, claims employing 23 miners were supplied with water from Government races, and gold to the approximate value of £5,743 was obtained. The expenditure upon the upkeep of the races was £2,085, and the cash received for sales of water £1,157.

FAVOURABLE FIELDS FOR PROSPECTING FOR GOLD.

Another form of Government assistance to mining consists of the publication of information as to localities recommended to the attention of prospectors. The undermentioned localities are so recommended:—

North Island.—Gold-silver Quartz Lodes.

Coromandel County.—Between Cabbage Bay and Tokatea, also from Mahakirau to Gumtown. In different parts of these localities loose specimen are has been found.

Numerous lodes varying in size have been discovered, some of which by assay contain payable values; but the source of the rich specimen ore referred to has not hitherto been located. At Mahakirau there is a small Government battery.

Thames County.—A large area of unprospected country occurs on the main range between Waikawau and Whangamata. The locality which offers the best prospects lies between Tararu and Tapu Creek. Some rich pockets have been found, but in most cases this ore is accompanied by lead and zinc, and the treatment plants installed, with the exception of that at the New Sylvia Mine, have failed to reduce this class of ore.

Thames Borough.—All the auriferous ground within this borough has been well prospected. Numerous shoots of exceedingly rich ore have been found above the 500 ft. level, but these invariably gave out at depth. The total value of bullion obtained within the borough exceeds £5,000,000. Prospecting by driving at the 1,000 ft. level proved nothing of value, and operations were stopped on account of large quantities of carbon-dioxide gas being given off in the workings, rendering mining dangerous. By cessation of pumping the mine-water has been allowed to rise to sea-level.

Ohinemuri County.— A large area of promising unprospected country exists behind the Talisman Mine and Te Aroha Mountain. Large lodes are known to exist, and it is possible that rich ore may be found.

Piako County.—The low levels of Hardy's Mine, Waiorongomai, expose a large mineralized lode which for 100 ft. assayed up to £3 per ton.

Tauranga County.—No attempt has yet been made to prospect the country surrounding the recently opened mine of Muir's Gold Reefs (Limited), near Te Puke. Quartz lodes outcrop on the main range two miles from that mine, the country there being similar to that at the mine.

South Island.—Gold-quartz and other Lodes.

Buller and Waimea Counties.—Between Karamea and Wangapeka, embracing all the country up to Collingwood. In the far north of this area a number of quartz lodes have been worked more or less in past years, and a variety of minerals has been found: this somewhat inaccessible region has not been systematically prospected, it being difficult to convey supplies.

Westland County.—The locality of the Upper Arahura River, including the Wilber-force River country. Auriferous quartz lodes have been found in this locality. The country is difficult of access, and, owing to its altitude, cannot be prospected during winter. The Bald Hill Range, in Totara Survey District, due east from Mount Greenland, deserves attention, as lodes are in evidence. At the head of Donnelly's Creek small quartz lodes have been worked. In the ranges eastward of Okarito, which are rough and difficult of access, some quartz lodes have been found, but owing to difficulty of access but little prospecting has been done, although there are reasonable prospects of the discovery of gold-quartz lodes.

Otago and Southland.—Gold-silver and Scheelite Lodes.

Payable returns were obtained from quartz-mines in the following localities in the early days of mining, and there are possibilities of new lodes or new lenses of known lodes being found at lower levels than hitherto developed:—

  • Taieri County.—Hindon and Barewood.

  • Tuapeka County.—Waipori.

  • Vincent County.—Bendigo, Carrick Range, and Old Man Range.

  • Lake County.—Macetown, Upper Shotover, and head of Lake Wakatipu.

Alluvial-gold Deposits.

Deep leads of auriferous-quartz drifts are known to occur in Central Otago, in the Maniototo County at St. Bathan's, Matakanui, Block No. 3, Hamilton, and Hyde. These leads may best be prospected by Keystone drills, which are lent free of charge by the Government to bona fide prospecting-parties. The conditions on which they may be had are obtainable from the Mines Department, Wellington.

BOARD OF EXAMINERS.

Examinations are held by the Board of Examiners annually of candidates for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, 1908, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers under the Coal-mines Act, 1908. Examinations of candidates for certificates as underviewers and firemen and deputies under the Coalmines Act, 1908, are held periodically when necessary. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners stating that his certificates of service comply with the Acts and regulations, and have been accepted by the Board.

COAL-MINERS' RELIEF FUND.

As required by the Coal-mines Act, 1908, the owner of every coal-mine contributes ½d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of the coal-miners who may be injured whilst working, and for the relief of families of coal-miners who may be killed or injured. The proceeds of this levy are administered partly by the Public Trustee, under the above title, and partly by miners' medical associations, under the title of “Sick and Accident Fund.”

The following is a statement of the Coal-miners' Relief Fund Account during the last two financial years:—

 Year ended 31st March, 1922.Year ended 31st March, 1923.
 ££
Contributions1,4131,277
Allowances on account of accidents1,1201,197
Balance carried forward12,34312,944

MINER'S PHTHISIS ACT, 1915.

The benefits under the Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, were extended by the Finance Acts, 1919 and 1920.

In order to qualify an applicant must be totally incapacitated for work owing to miners' phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in the mines of New Zealand.

The pension for a married man or widower with children under the age of fourteen years is £1 15s. a week, for a single man £1 5s. a week, and for the widow of a miner entitled to a pension and who dies of miners' phthisis 17s. 6d. a week during widowhood. It is further provided that a miner in receipt of a pension may be absent from New Zealand for a period not exceeding two years and still be entitled to a pension.

The following is a statement showing the amount of pensions payable, in force, and granted to the 31st March, 1923:—

Amounts paid since inception:—

Year ended 31st March, 1916 (five months)1,509
Year ended 31st March, 19178,066
Year ended 31st March, 191813,275
Year ended 31st March, 191913,276
Year ended 31st March, 192016,652
Year ended 31st March, 192126,972
Year ended 31st March, 192231,212
Year ended 31st March, 192333,447
 £144,409
Number of new grants for 1922-2396
Annual value of new grants£6,825
Number of pensions in force at 31st March, 1923544
Annual value of pensions in force at 31st March, 1923£33,826
Average pension payable per annum£62
Total number of pensions granted to 31st March, 1923964

Of the total number of pensions granted to 31st March, 1923, 179 were granted to unmarried miners, 344 to married miners, and 441 to widows of miners.

Chapter 20. SECTION XX.—INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE population of New Zealand is as yet insufficient to maintain a wide range of industrial manufacture, and consequently the Dominion's manufacturing field is for the main part limited to the treatment of the principal primary products. Statistics for past years, however, indicate brisk advancement among the principal branches of manufacture, as well as a tendency, with the increasing population, for greater diversity in the branches covered.

Statistics of industrial manufacture were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census—viz., in 1867, 1871, 1874, 1878, and 1881, and quinquennially thereafter. Commencing with the year 1918-19, the collection became an annual one.

Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of industrial manufacture a “factory" is defined as an establishment engaged in manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies, waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even although employing less than two hands and not using motive power: Tanneries; bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories; brickyards; and limeworks.

The definition is fairly comprehensive, and clearly includes such industries as, for instance, jewellery and watch repairing, boot, shoe, and saddlery repairing, and similar trades. In former years a number of small establishments thus engaged were included in the statistics, but it has now been decided to exclude such unless also engaged in actual manufacture employing at least two hands.

It has also been decided, for this year at least, to exclude establishments engaged in dressmaking and millinery (unless manufacturing wholesale for sale in retail shops), bespoke tailors, and establishments engaged in tea blending and packing, bottling liquor, stone quarrying and crushing, asphalting, or monumental masonry. The latter industries were excluded to bring the statistics into line with other parts of the Empire, and in any case the information which is collected from these concerns is, for obvious reasons, unsatisfactory. In addition, returns are not pressed for from plumbers or from builders who make joinery for their own building contracts.

This has had the effect of showing an apparent decrease in the number of establishments in some industries and also in the total of all industries; but in other respects the effect on the statistics is negligible, the number of employees and the value of materials used, products, &c., covered by the trades concerned being comparatively small. The comparative tables which follow have, where necessary, been adjusted to some extent by deducting from the totals figures for industries which appear in some years and not in others.

It should be noted that these statistics do not cover, and do not purport to cover, all establishments registered as factories in the Dominion, for the following reason: “One man” businesses are excluded with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories, brickyards, or limeworks; some small repair-shops (as explained previously) are excluded even although they may employ two or more hands; and in some cases where a factory has two or more branches it has been found impracticable to obtain separate returns, and all branches have been treated as one establishment.

In comparing previous years with the 1918-19, 1919-20, 1920-21, and 1921-22 collections the foregoing remarks should be borne in mind, and also the fact that in some of the earlier years, owing to the longer intervals between collections, greater prevalence of lax methods of book-keeping, less understanding of the requirements of the Statistical Office, and less appreciation of the necessity for and value of the statistics compiled no doubt to a certain extent impaired the accuracy of the published results.

NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS.

As previously stated, the omission of certain industries—dressmaking, millinery, bespoke tailoring, tea blending and packing, bottling liquor, stone quarrying and crushing, asphalting and monumental masonry—has resulted in an apparent decrease in the number of establishments in 1921-22 as compared with 1920-21, the comparative figures being—1920-21, 4,804; 1921-22, 4,180. In addition to this, omission of small repair-shops from collections subsequent to 1915-16 has resulted in an apparent decrease or comparatively small increase in the number of establishments as compared with that year.

The numbers and per-cent, increases or decreases in the principal industries since 1901 are as follows:—

Industry.1900-1. Number.1910-11.1921-22.
Number.Increase or Decrease per Cent.Number.Increase or Decrease per Cent.

* Comparison invalidated owing to inclusion in some years of small repair-shops.

Meat freezing and preserving344120.65047.1
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacturing24834037.143675.8
Sawmilling and sash and door making33453459.839718.9
Engineering37120224.3131254.1
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding18824128.226138.8
Coachbuilding16018012.518314.4
Motor engineering7171..473566.2
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring11979-33.658-51.3
Furniture and cabinet making14420743.826986.8
Woollen-milling1010..1220.0
Boot and shoe making12674*73*
Clothing-manufacture7171..213300.0
Flax-milling10181-19.834-66.5

The number of establishments is not a very satisfactory basis on which to judge the development of the various industries. In those industries where the initial capital outlay is large and the materials operated upon easily transferable (e.g., meat-freezing, &c.), there is a tendency for the establishments to expand within themselves, while in other cases, such as motor and cycle engineering, where the initial capital outlay is small and where each establishment supplies the needs of individual communities, a mushroom-like growth in the number of establishments is evident.

EMPLOYEES.

Prior to 1918-19 the number of productive employees only was asked for in the returns, but since that date all employees have been asked for under the following heads—viz., administrative, productive, and distributive. The following table showing comparative figures for the years 1900-1, 1910-11, and 1921-22, together with the increase or decrease per cent, for all and for the principal industries, is in respect of productive employees only.:—

Industry.1910-11910-11.1921-22.
Number.Number.Increase or Decrease per Cent.Number.Increase or Decrease per Cent.
All industries46,84756,234..61,542..
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others5,5908,603..474..
Comparative figures for industries common to all years41,25747,631+15.461,068+48.0
Principal Industries...........
Meat freezing and preserving2,2213,978+ 79.17,958+258.3
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,2211,560+ 27.83,486+185.5
Sawmilling and sash and door making6,8126,877+1.07,704+13.1
Engineering1,4422,442+ 69.42,666+84.9
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding3,1344,222+ 34.74,041+28.9
Coachbuilding1,1851,439+ 21.4976- 17.6
Motor engineering395315- 20.32,019+411.1
Tanning, fellmongering, and woolscouring1,9631,372-30.11,191-39.3
Furniture and cabinet making1,3101,689+ 28.91,854+ 41.5
Woollen-milling1,6931,410- 16.72,464+ 45.5
Boot and shoe making2,6962,072- 23.12,132- 20.9
Clothing-manufacture3,2992,952- 10.56,095+ 84.8
Flax-milling1,6981,244- 26.7669- 60.6

In the light of information now available it is obvious that on previous occasions employees other than those directly productive were often included in the returns of industrial manufacture, so that no strictly comparable figures are available. Employees returned in 1915-16 numbered 57,823, while productive employees were returned in 1921-22 as 61,542, an increase of 3,719, or 6.4 per cent. The increase is in reality greater, for the reason stated.

The returns for 1921-22 show that 70,316, or 5.31 per cent, of the total population, were engaged in manufacturing industries during that year, the sexes being distributed approximately in the proportion of one female to every five males. More than half of the total females were engaged in the printing, publishing, and bookbinding, woollen-milling, and clothing industries, and in the two latter they exceeded the males. In the last-mentioned industry, indeed, the proportion was seven females to one male.

Total employees, 1921-22, were classified as follows (all and principal industries):—

EMPLOYEES IN MANUFACTORIES, 1921-22.
Industry.Administrative.Productive.Distributive.Total.
Male.Female.Male and FemalePer Cent. of Total.Male.Female.Male and Female.Per Cent, of Total.Male.Female.Male and Female.Per Cent. of Total.Male.Female.Male and Female.
All industries2.4254342.8594.050.16411.37861.54287.65.2396765.9158.457.82812.48870.316
Principal Industries...............................
Meat freezing and preserving186402262.87.915437.95896.5529610.78.153928.245
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture329383678.93.388933.48684.2270152856.93.9871514.138
Sawmilling, sash and door making15761631.97.679257.70491.5528285566.68.364598.423
Engineering81231043.72.628382.66694.04817652.32.757782.835
Printing, publishing, and book, binding223552785.73.0769654.04183.341312153411.03.7121.1414.853
Coachbuilding276333.29581897695.684121.2993281.021
Motor engineering88321205.61.9131062.01994.4........2.0011382.139
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring422443.41.158331.19192.3487554.31.248421.290
Furniture and cabinet making355402.01.7341201.85492.679291085.41.8481542.002
Woollen-milling114150.61.1391.3252.46498.8136190.81.1631.3352.498
Boot and shoe making352371.61.3817512.13291.5118441626.91.5317972.331
Clothing-manufacture130351652.67345.3616.09595.681341151.89455.4306.375
Flax-milling4..40.6666366998.24481.26747681

The average number of employees per establishment at various enumerations is shown below. It should be borne in mind that the rejection of schedules from small establishments engaged in retail repairs only has decreased the number of establishments in 1920-21 and 1921-22, and consequently is responsible for a portion of the considerable increase in the number of employees per establishment. All administrative and distributive employees are also included in 1920-21 and 1921-22.

Industry.1900-1.1905-6.1910-111915-161920-21.1921-22.
All industries12.713.512.812.416.417.2
Principal Industries.      
Meat freezing and preserving67.188.199.9132.9169.2164.9
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture4.95.84.65.48.99.5
Sawmilling and sash and door making20.420.512.920.123.521.2
Engineering38.530.320.416.923.721.6
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding16.616.317.515.819.518.6
Coachbuilding7.48.07.94.47.05.6
Motor and cycle engineering5.64.74.43.84.84.5
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring16.513.517.320.121.422.2
Furniture and cabinet making9.18.98.17.18.87.4
Woollen-milling169.3154.9141.0189.7183.8208.2
Clothing-manufacture119.683.242.743.132.829.9
Flax-milling16.816.915.416.523.220.2

SALARIES AND WAGES.

Each collection since 1900-1 has shown a consistent increase in the average wage per worker. By 1919-20 the average wage had more than doubled that in 1900-1 for both male and female workers, and since then steady increases have been recorded. The relative rate of increase in the average wage is fairly uniform as between male and female workers during the period 1901-22, with a slight advantage in favour of the former. It is of interest, however, to note that while the average wage for female workers during 1905-6 showed an increase of approximately 33 per cent, over that in 1900-1, the average wage for males during the same period increased by only 8 per cent. Although the total wages paid during 1921-22 were less by over £1,000,000 than the wages paid during the previous year, the average wage per worker was greater in the former year than in the latter. This is mainly due to the exclusion for 1921-22 of the relatively lower-paid workers engaged in the dressmaking and other industries previously mentioned, but may also be regarded as proof of the fact that the general depression following the slump forced many workers out of the manufacturing industries

Males.Females.Males and Females.
Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 ££££££
All industries, 1900-12,972,19381.9330,45431.33,302,64770.5
All industries, 1905-63,979.59388.5478.02641.94.457.61979.1
All industries, 1910-114.865.426115.1706.84450.65.591.27099.4
All industries, 1915-165.868.788133.5785.71656.76.654.504117.1
All industries, 1920-2111.055.079203.81.514.82594.612.569.904178.9
All industries, 1921-2210.453.513208.41.066.46293.711.519.975187.2
Principal Industries, 1921-22.      
Meat freezing and preserving1.558.675196.94.733110.11.563.408196.5
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture672.721198.610.305105.2683.026195.9
Sawmilling and sash and door making1.782.610232.11.99980.01.784.609231.6
Engineering526.490290.33.19484.1529.684198.7
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding755.768245.7101.112101.8856.880212.0
Coachbuilding198.658207.41.994110.8200.652205.6
Motor engineering341.119178.39.45489.2350.573173.6
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring233.325201.52.67080.9235.995198.1
Furniture and cabinet making333.230192.212.627105.2345.857186.8
Woollen-milling223.101195.9131.51799.3354.618143.9
Boot and shoe making260.708188.872.89597.1333.603156.5
Clothing-manufacture156.652214.7500.19493.3657.846107.9
Flax-milling114.684172.2300100.0114.984171.9

In 1921-22 total salaries and wages paid on account of administration, production, and distribution were returned as shown in the next table. Percentages of total salaries and wages are given in each case for purposes of comparison (all and principal industries).

Administrative.Productive.Distributive.
Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent of Total.
 £ £ £ 
All industries826,5546.111,519,97584.21,330,8479.7
Principal Industries.      
Meat freezing and preserving76,8314.61,563,40894.89,4110.6
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture76,7069.4683,02684.053,7576.6
Sawmilling and sash and door making61,3903.11,784.60990.6124,5726.8
Engineering34,2866.0529,68492.210,3251.8
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding103,8129.9856,88081.788,1928.4
Coachbuilding8,7404.1200,65294.92,1691.0
Motor and cycle engineering28,1617.4350,57392.6....
Tanning, fellmongering, and woolscouring20,7847.7235,99587.812,1974.5
Furniture and cabinet making13,3841.8345,85797.321,4030.9
Woollen-milling6,0453.5354,61890.83,4426.7
Boot and shoe making12,6553.2333,60387.834,0819.0
Clothing-manufacture51,5067.1657,84689.822,0573.1
Flax-milling1,4920.1114,98499.81,3950.1

MOTIVE POWER.

A supply of cheap motive power is essential to industrial manufacturing success. New Zealand industries have in the past been somewhat handicapped in this respect as coal and oil, which were in the earlier days the only sources of power, were by no means cheap. The manufacturer's dilemma as to the means of obtaining a plentiful supply of cheap motive power is now being overcome by the development of hydro-electric power for which New Zealand is geographically ideal. The Government has in recent years developed this phase of the Dominion's resources, and in doing so has wisely provided a margin of power for attracting special industries depending on a supply of cheap motive power, as well as amply meeting present demands. The question also of providing large surplus power to attract special export industries by offering cheap electric power is realized to be an important one, and is receiving full consideration.

The following table shows the figures for the collections of 1900-1, 1905-6, 1910-11, 1915-16, and 1921-22:—

1900-1.1905-6.1910-11.1915-16.1921-22.
All Industries.     
Total horse-power39,11360,335100,587146,041219,700
Average per establishment10.714.422.931.2752.56
Average per productive employee0.81.71.82.533.57
Principal Industries (Total Horse-power).     
Meat freezing and preserving7,0579,49816,53128,76740,841
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture2,3393,7595,99512,89014,554
Sawmilling and sash and door making8,74413,27819,48416,81627,722
Engineering5411,1093,3333,3224,084
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding9561,5203,3704,2404,964
Coachbuilding1283956571,018821
Motor and cycle engineering95942395621,906
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,1089801,9271,8902,806
Furniture and cabinet making3697061,3391,8532,787
Woollen-milling1,5541,9452,6413,0803,766
Boot and shoe making1843286808311,057
Clothing-manufacture67135576488934
Flax-milling1,1903,0872,5163,3162,413

The total horse-power in use shows large increases from one census to another, and the figures for the latest collection show an increase of approximately 66 per cent, over those for 1915-16. The average horse-power per establishment and per productive employee shows increases commensurate with the total increase, and establishments which in 1900-1 had an average of 10.7 horse-power now have an average horse-power of 52.56. Again, the worker who in 1900-1 had the assistance of 0.8 horse-power had in 1921-22 the assistance of motive power up to 3.57 horse-power.

A comparison is now given between 1915-16 and 1921-22, showing the numbers of engines and motors of each kind in use in each provincial district and in the principal industries. The most remarkable feature is the growth of the use of electric power, most notably in Canterbury, where the power from the Lake Coleridge scheme has been made available.

Steam.Gas.Oil.Electric.Water.Other and Unspecified.Total.
1915-16.1921-22.1915-16.1921-22.1915-16.1921-22.1915-16.1921-22.1915-16.1921-22.1915-16.1921-22.1915-16.1921-22.
Provincial districts—              
   Auckland553615243195801157121,61137492..1,6272,585
   Taranaki33918617241828992558663....559556
   Hawke's Bay12612054631640761793..4..279402
   Wellington35546922226441825891,00311161..1,2191,834
   Marlborough314882031214215....5787
   Nelson93103314112143513914....180185
   Westland1121701824153289....142210
   Canterbury2291751237127374711,2062221....8721,510
   Otago2061865940213144479652383..7851,091
   Southland187194341420257316877....321408
Dominion (all industries)2,2312,2668097562393892,5165,23526322210..6,0418,868
Principal Industries.              
   Meat freezing and preserving348293466310135251,056343....9631,428
   Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture583577261913213330634333..692956
   Sawmilling and sash and door making502852399201398..12....525991
   Engineering432671471351252231217....264318
   Printing, publishing, and bookbinding74153112274142862324231..640803
   Coachbuilding1024030402963995......158160
   Motor and cycle engineering11307221100753021211....139486
   Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring534888684916424....118232
   Furniture and cabinet making2868761..258826241....207355
   Woollen-milling161657..2144612....3673
   Boot and shoe making565259..5701251......101139
   Clothing-manufacture33145..19126111....109271
   Flax-milling722124255125116....11458

As regards kind of power used, the most remarkable development is the large increase in electric motors. Where electric current is available new installations of power are almost invariably of this type, and with increasing facilities no doubt will become correspondingly preponderant. The subjoined table shows the number of engines or motors of each kind in use at five censuses, together with the percentage each represents of the total number of engines or motors in the respective years:—

Kind of Power.1900-1.1905-6.1910-11.1915-16.1921-22.
No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.
Steam1,35964.71,37259.92,21847.42,23136.92,26625.6
Coal-gas40719.445219.785318.280913.47568.5
Suction gas Oil311.5974.22.314.92394.93894.4
Electric150.7552.41,08423.22,51641.65,23559.0
Water21610.31978.62294.92363.92222.5
Others and unspecified733.41205.2651.4100.2....
     Totals2,101100.02,293100.04,680100.06,041100.08,868100.0

In 1922 it was decided to collect, in conjunction with the returns of industrial manufacture, statistics as to the quantity of coal used in the various manufacturing industries. The most noticeable feature of the result was that more than 67 per cent, of the coal used as above in the Dominion was shown as consumed in the North Island. The biggest contributing factor to this is undoubtedly the extensive use in the two main centres of the South Island of hydro-electric power. The most remarkable differences appear in tramways, electric supply, and gasworks. Tramways used in the North Island 67,858 tons, as against 2,534 tons used in the South Island; electric supply, 79,174 in the North, as against 14,066 in the South; and gas-supply, 170,506 tons in the North Island, as against 76,965 tons in the South Island.

The appended table shows the quantity of coal consumed in connection with principal manufacturing industries in New Zealand for the year ended 31st March, 1922:—

Industry.North Island.South Island.Total.
 Tons.Tons.Tons.
Meat freezing and preserving82,79732,919115,716
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture45,315 ½28,91774,232 ½
Grain-milling4,9127,11912,031
Brewing and malting5,2165,685 ½10,901 ½
Gas making and supply170,50676,965247,471
Electricity generation and supply79,17414,06693,240
Electric tramways67,8582,53470,392
Lime crushing and burning and cement-making38,16721,20859,375
Brick, tile, and pottery making20,79917,37938,178
Engineering, boilermaking, and other metal-working3,3728,741 ¾12,113 ¾
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring5,2916,54011,831
Woollen-milling4,15311,44815,601
Biscuits, confectionery-making, and sugar-boiling1,309 ¼5,8327,141 ¼
Soap and candle making3,6452,7586,403
Boiling-down and manure-making2,8293,826 ½6,655 ½
Sawmilling and sash and door making4,2523,6697,921
Flaxmilling, rope and twine making3,953 ½2,0526,005 ½
Other industries33,744 ¾13,220 ¾46,965 ½
     Totals577,294264,880 ½842,174 ½

MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.

The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the change made during the process of manufacture varies very considerably. For instance, materials used or operated upon in the tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring industry were in 1921-22 valued at £1,117,667, while those used in printing, publishing, and bookbinding were valued at practically the same (£1,125,142). If, however, value of output be considered, it is found that the figure for tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring (£1,625,861) is less than half of that for printing, &c. (£3,464,224), the added value in the former case being only £508,194, as against £2,339,082 in the latter.

The appended table gives the value of materials used in all and the principal industries as ascertained in 1900-1, 1910-11, and 1921-22:—

COST OF MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.
Industry.1900-1.1910-11.1921-22.

* Information not available.

 £££
All industries6,997,48020,810,21140,044,325
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others304,753721,024134,501
Comparative figures for industries common to all years6,692,72720,089,18739,909,824
Principal Industries.   
Meat freezing and preserving*6,533,3638,139,991
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,195,6003,304,99311,528,370
Sawmilling and sash and door making*1,253,153871,240
Engineering186,208315,371501,378
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding200,243314,7631,125,142
Coachbuilding88,229156,229231,824
Motor and cycle engineering26,82438,904386,717
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,391,3231,788,7721,117,667
Furniture and cabinet making101,595215,031436,304
Woollen-milling196,081248,187555,529
Boot and shoe making273,325334,880647,078
Clothing-manufacture241,854297,9131,296,771
Flax-milling53,06473,83570,061

The figures shown in regard to the manufacture of butter, cheese, and condensed milk do not represent the actual cost price of the milk and cream used in co-operative concerns, but are in such cases the proceeds from the sale of the manufactured products, less the expenses of manufacture, distributed amongst the suppliers of such milk and cream.

PRODUCTS.

The following table gives values of products of all and principal industries for the years 1900-1, 1910-11, and 1921-22, together with the percentage increase during each period:—

Industry.1900-1.1910-11.1921-22.
Value of Products.Value of Products.Increase per Cent.Value of products.Incr
 ££ £ 
All industries12,863,96931,729,002..67,146,269..
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others636,1051,645,518..298,432..
Comparative figures for industries common to all years12,227,86430,083,484146.066,847,837122.2
Principal Industries.     
Meat freezing and preserving3,720,4757,304,67696.310,530,10744.2
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,535,1503,919,184155.315,003,958282.8
Sawmilling and sash and doormaking1,268,6892,699,888112.84,772,32276.8
Engineering361,958751,485107.61,454,43893.5
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding.704,2851,377,92695.63,464,224151.4
Coachbuilding216,077396,01283.3605,46752.9
Motor and cycle engineering65,04792,14141.71,047,1311,036.4
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,888,1072,036,7707.91,625,861-20.2
Furniture and cabinet making241,024497,681106.51,028,144106.6
Woollen-milling359,382377,7135.11,229,829225.6
Boot and shoe making529,254619,87317.11,310,059111.3
Clothing-manufacture446,173507,12513.72,225,042338.8
Flax-milling203,492284,39939.8260,267-8.5

For comparative purposes value of output per productive employee is frequently calculated and given over a period of years, but owing to increased prices of commodities it would appear that such a procedure would show to a considerable extent fictitious increase in the productivity of labour. It has been thought advisable, therefore, to substitute for the unit “productive employee” an arbitrary unit “£100 expended in productive wages.” The results of this are now given from 1900-1 to 1921-22.

VALUE OF OUTPUT PER £100 EXPENDED IN PRODUCTIVE WAGES.
1900-1.1905-6.1910-11.1915-16.1920-21.1921-22.
 ££££££
All industries541526569683637580
Principal Industries.      
Meat freezing and preserving1,8131,1281,2801,637829673
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,5921,9692,3052,9393,2042,197
Sawmilling and sash and door making247255349204254267
Engineering283260289281288275
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding247266281287419404
Coachbuilding259254264297311302
Motor and cycle engineering303246330337299317
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,1851,7911,4811,8801,527690
Furniture and cabinet making264246279212312297
Woollen-milling321378275382411347
Boot and shoe making275292313336419393
Clothing-manufacture326293299384419338
Flax-milling201722512608240226

FIXED ASSETS (LAND, BUILDINGS, PLANT AND MACHINERY).

Although the amount of capital in each establishment has been collected for some years, the figures in this respect have been found to be inaccurate and have not yet been made use of. The chief factors militating against the collection of satisfactory information in this connection are the lax methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning the capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing. In the case of joint-stock companies the capital figures have been found to be reasonably accurate, and are shown on pages 18, 19, and 20 of the “Annual Statistical Report on Industrial Manufacture.” Information regarding fixed assets, however, is collected, and has been found to be much more accurate than that in respect of capital, although perhaps not so informative. The values of the fixed assets give some idea as to the permanency and stability of the manufacturing industries in New Zealand as well as affording the means of judging to some extent the amount of capital that has been sunk therein.

In connection with the following table it should be understood that the figures given are of necessity only approximate, the principal reason for this being that where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries an apportionment has to be made between the industries, and this cannot be done with absolute accuracy. Furthermore, in many instances fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an understatement owing to appreciated site-value, or an overstatement owing to insufficient allowance being made for depreciation, obsolescence, &c. Where premises occupied are rented or leased (particularly if only a portion) it has been found impossible to arrive at the correct value; in the latter case it must obviously be so. In such circumstances the practice has been to ascertain the annual rental value and capitalize this.

Comparisons with the figures shown for the flax-milling industry cannot be pressed too closely, as the value of land in this case includes to some extent the land from which the green flax was cut.

APPROXIMATE VALUE OF LAND, BUILDINGS, MACHINERY, AND PLANT, 1900-1, 1910-11, and 1921-22.
1900-1.1910-11.1921-22.
 £££
All industries7,959,63114,430,35541,384,219
Principal Industries.   
Meat freezing and preserving893,7201,741,1705,802,293
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture388,750954,1223,592,158
Sawmilling and sash and door making703,6201,806,6282,768,406
Engineering155,081514,809812,246
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding559,5381,302,4972,197,228
Coachbuilding150,811320,974372,253
Motor and cycle engineering65,403144,8771,691,814
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring235,952261,456403,851
Furniture and cabinet making170,338327,682694,436
Woollen-milling277,422289,089670,086
Tailoring211,016483,719356,865
Clothing-manufacture97,092194,481905,449
Flax-milling64,446342,638461,023

CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION.

As previously mentioned, a number of small repair-shops in some industries are now omitted from the statistics, and as these are practically all either under individual ownership or carried on as partnerships, this will account for a considerable portion of the apparently large decrease in the number of establishments thus organized. Details for the years. 1915-16, 1919-20, and 1921-22 are as follows:—

Character of Organization.1915-16.1919-50.1921-22.
No.Output.No.Output.No.Output.
  £ £ £
Individual2,2225,371,4791,6877,021,6991,3945,701,028
Private firm or partnership1,0423,881,7189525,668,3729324,809,592
Public registered company44521,623,87042827,891,08842624,372,677
Private registered company5956,833,22078814,972,33189715,013,276
Municipal Co-operative and miscellaneous3667,743,8971102,067,9661113,005,309
 ....39212,158,84042014,244,387
Totals4,67045,454,1844,35769,730,2964,18067,146,269

The figures for the three collections in 1915-16, 1919-20, and 1921-22 show that the excellent facilities offered by the limited-liability company have been taken advantage of by the larger manufacturing establishments. Although the majority of establishments were either individual or partnership concerns, the actual output of such concerns during each of the periods shown has been approximately only 20 per cent, of the total output. Public and private registered companies contributed more than 50 per cent, of the total output during the same periods.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIES.

Appended is a table showing the number of all and principal industries in each provincial district in 1921-22:—

Auckland.Taranaki.Hawke's Bay.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago.Southland.Dominion.
All industries1132235248931591331036254652494180
Principal Industries.           
Meat freezing and preserving10351011..78550
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture9867268710128343559436
Sawmilling and sash and door making122111976103442233030397
Engineering37673023317224131
Printing, publishing, and book-binding75131161374403314261
Coachbuilding5812937183301411183
Motor and cycle engineering104344912291010604035473
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring112591....178558
Furniture and cabinet making92191756175392310269
Woollen-milling1..11......44112
Boot and shoe making321..17..1..129173
Clothing-manufacture684161......42352213
Flax-milling6....1541111534

As illustrated in the table, more than half the total manufacturing establishments are situated in the more thickly populated Wellington and Auckland Provincial Districts. Among the smaller districts it is interesting to note that Taranaki has one butter, cheese, or condensed-milk establishment to every four total establishments, while in Westland out of every three establishments there is approximately one sawmill.

AGES OF INDUSTRIES.

A table is now given showing for all industries, and individually for the principal industries, the number of establishments instituted during the periods indicated:—

Prior to 1860.1860-69.1870-70.1800-891880-99.1900-9.1910-20.1921.Not stated.Total.
All industries5415823336642678615951124504180
Principal Industries.          
Meat freezing and preserving12..1655132650
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture....1246699205437436
Sawmilling and sash and door making36122524771942828397
Engineering412811132039618131
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding6282939394754121261
Coachbuilding281724233447622183
Motor and cycle engineering....1718653102151473
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring23516985..1058
Furniture and cabinet making2129172747131519269
Woollen-milling1..4411....112
Boot and shoe making..16861727..873
Clothing-manufacture741111212794632213
Flax-milling....23..492122

Out of the total manufacturing establishments in existence in New Zealand in 1922, only 54 were in operation in 1860, so that in the 62 years following that date, excluding those cases where the date of establishment is unknown, 3,676 establishments came into existence, at an average rate over the whole period of 58 per annum, or nearly 5 per month. The actual rate of increase, however, has been much greater from 1910 onwards. The growth of the meat-freezing, &c, and butter and cheese, &c., establishments can be traced to the inauguration of refrigeration in 1882, which was responsible for the coming into operation in the 1880-89 period of 16 of the former establishments and 24 of the latter.

GENERAL SUMMARY FOR ALL INDUSTRIES.

The following table gives a general summary of various particulars as at the 31st March, 1922:—

Number of Establishments.Average Number of Employees for Year ended 31st March, 1922.Total Amount paid in Salaries and Wages during Year ended 31st March, 1922.Total Horsepower available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Products.Approximate Value of Land, Buildings. Machinery, and Plant.

* Information not shown where the number of establishments is so small that individual particulars might be identified.

Animal food—  £ £££
   Meat freezing and preserving508,2451,649,65040,8418,139,99110,530,1075,802,293
   Ham and bacon curing3627654,5681,266461,359581,644176,612
   Fish curing and preserving119623,27112573,130130,11945,307
   Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture4364,138813,48914,55411,528,37015,003,9583,592,158
Vegetable food—       
   Grain-milling52688166,4714,4432,526,6323,156,530665,445
   Biscuit and confectionery manufacture581,886258,0571,589701,8581,238,025506,917
   Fruit-preserving and jam-making822939,133146173,794278,87676,839
   Sugar-refining1******
   Baking-powder manufacture3******
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants—       
   Brewing and malting531,047275,4482,173530,2051,286,186736,772
   Colonial-wine making3****** 
   Aerated-water and cordial manufacture124611121,118646122,698364,048286,713
   Coffee and spice grinding and preparing11749,09818954,94178,98939,263
   Tobacco-preparing and cigarette-making4838,5648297,756129,80349,922
   Sauce, pickle, and vinegar making1724741,324234102,753186,99886,857
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)—       
   Soap and candle making1840684,328641277,894550,798184,066
   Sausage-casing manufacture1933375,14536192,075280,68435,763
   Boiling-down and manure-making3236080,4771,408222,657390,210260,017
Working in wood—       
   Coopering and casemaking2828556,694832191,661324,45175,082
   Sawmilling and sash and door making3978,4231,970,57127,721871,2404,772,3222,768,406
   Woodware and turnery manufacture129691148,4501,928218,649475,309282,512
Vegetable produce for fodder—       
   Grain-crushing106114,66727895,02487,87265,178
Paper-manufactures—       
   Paper-milling3******
   Paper bag and box making1212314,9764520,32849,19447,996
Heat, light, and power—       
   Gas making and supply501,806358,367..674,9481,603,8933,459,597
   Electricity generation and supply791,020220,64474,711729,8631,035,3455,015,558
   Electric tramways112,832681,299..770,2131,474,0104,073,911
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c,—       
   Lime crushing or burning and cement-making23684151,2117,039174,679568,398753,508
   Brick, tile, and pottery making731,116237,6783,36350,390558,520541,255
   Leadlight-making and glass-bevelling1715832,23510356,411106,77051,147
   Electroplating106512,239865,25127,30036,265
   Concrete block or pipe and fibrous-plaster making2516135,86410948,751111,67565,445
Metals other than gold or silver—       
   Tinned-plate and sheet-metal working1201,086208,091664380,369740,499383,948
   Iron and brass founding, boilermaking43633138,7051,160189,295424,601235,464
   Engineering1312,835574,2954,083501,3781,454,438812,246
   Electrical engineering3126540,84513766,786140,10294,667
   Rangemaking628863,88131555,419164,50462,754
   Wireworking1914330,26717759,519114,00561,428
Precious metals—       
   Jewellery and watch making5425650,5939067,715158,330151,208
Books and publications—       
   Printing, publishing, and bookbinding2614,8531,048,8844,9641,125,1423,464,2242,197,228
Musical instruments—       
   Piano, &c., making and repairing127111,970514,87026,46733,015
Ornaments and minor art products—       
   Picture-frame making20508,2161713,82533,33851,239
   Basket, perambulator, &c., making3422834,0011841,076100,15169,197
Equipment for sports and games—       
   Billiard-table making3***** 
Designs, medals, type, and dies—       
   Engraving and stamp-making9528,992185,36723,13625,725
Ammunition and explosives—       
   Ammunition, explosives, and fireworks making1***** 
Machines, tools, and implements—       
   Agricultural-machinery making33900201,329367224,701591,240263,516
   Brush and broom making822638,95519051,708113,72158,864
Carriages and vehicles—       
   Coachbuilding1831,021211,561821231,824605,467372,253
   Motor and cycle engineering4732,139378,7341,906386,7171,047,1311,691,814
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware—       
   Saddlery and harness making7339176,72659131,378228,035157,688
   Leather-goods manufacture1616427,2504851,36897,83655,549
   Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring581,290268,9762,8051,117,6671,625,861403,851
Ships, boats, and their equipment—       
   Ship and boat building29806190,936562160,364381,695110,588
   Sail, tent, and oilskin making3422737,61797124,981175,578136,484
House-furnishings—       
   Furniture and cabinet making2692,002380,6442,787436,3041,028,144694,436
   Blindmaking5202,65486,66910,81611,295
   Mattress-making1017931,910169106,837180,54967,540
Chemicals and by-products—       
   Ink-manufacture2******
   Starch-manufacture3******
   Chemicals-manufacture1411823,86424372,260131,60172,491
   Paint and varnish manufacture6326,16316526,82140,29927,889
   Sheep-dip manufacture1******
   Match-manufacture2******
   Boot-polish manufacture5436,3981641,48355,70911,535
   Patent medicines and preparations manufacture2220530,11315587,427173,89953,462
Textile fabrics—       
   Woollen-milling122,498364,1053,766555,5291,229,829670,086
   Flock-milling4223,99617014,17922,7847,150
Apparel—       
   Boot and shoe making732,331380,3391,057647,0781,310,059356,865
   Hosiery-making927637,3155797,651178,25571,433
   Umbrella-making6464,807518,19724,35317,431
   Clothing and waterproof making2136,375731,4099341,296,7712,225,042905,449
Fibrous materials—       
   Rope and twine making922542,5511,307116,246229,48771,986
   Bag and sack making3******
   Flax-milling34681117,8712,41270,061260,267461,023
   Industries (included above) for which the number of schedules received was so small that operations of individual establishments might be identified..1,103214,2603,2462,222,1072,804,543607,172
   Miscellaneous (not included above)249213,11766123,715148,24067,446
     Totals4,18070,31613,677,376219,70040,044,32567,146,26941,384,219

Chapter 21. SECTION XXI.—WATER-POWER.

ALTHOUGH abundant water-power is available throughout New Zealand, comparatively little use had been made of it before 1900, but since then the development has been extensive, and promises to be still more extensive in the early future. In 1903 water-power to the extent of 9,911 horse-power was actually in use. By 1913 this amount had risen to 34,956 horse-power, and by 1923 to 54,2441/4.

The Public Works Act, 1908, vests the sole right to use the water-power of the Dominion in His Majesty, subject to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right to develop such power, or to delegate such power to any local authority, or, outside a mining district, to any person or company, subject to conditions. Advantage has been taken of this in several cases, the right in the case of local authorities being issued subject to a royalty of 1s. per year per kilowatt of maximum output, and in the case of private concerns developing water-power for electrical distribution, subject to a royalty of 4s. per year per kilowatt of maximum output.

POWER IN USE.

The following table shows the actual horse-power in use in the various districts at the 31st March in the years indicated:—

 1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
Auckland15,11315,47315,42317,1521/217,9101/218,2021/2
Hawke's Bay90941091371371,359
Taranaki3,2553,3743,1204,0541/24,2191/24,909
Wellington7498448598631/2825965
Marlborough and Nelson6366661531533/42401/42311/2
Westland3,6113,6114,1414,0341/24,0962,479
Canterbury12,46812,45511,49112,3241/216,22313,709
Otago10,62510,50410,71510,4471/210,4781/210,4631/2
Southland1,9391,9491,9721,9463/41,9563/41,9253/4
     Totals48,48648,97047,98351,1141/256,0861/254,2441/4

It will be observed from these figures that progress during the years 1918-19 and 1919-20 was exceedingly slow, but that 1920-21 and 1921-22 show a distinct forward movement, followed by a fall in 1922-23.

The following table gives the analysis of the purposes for which water-power was employed as on the 31st March. 1923:—

WATER-POWER IN USE OF THE 31ST MARCH, 1923.
District.Mining.Electric Supply.Flax-mills.Sawmills.Flour-mills.Dairying.Construction. works.Freezing-works.Paper-mills.Miscellaneous.Totals.
Auckland North..2,680......20......472,747
Auckland2,6601,70510171/2..18946..1,4585,9681/2
Auckland South..9,42530....211/2......101/29,487
Gisborne..1,250................1,250
Hawke's Bay..46..15..29......19109
Taranaki North..2,0571/2..3024742......1202,9731/2
Taranaki..1,36710....400......1581/21,9351/2
Wellington North..555..10..8........573
Wellington..193..20..49......130392
Nelson and Marlborough..37464758121/2......312311/2
Westland3121/21,257211531218600....1051/22,479
Canterbury..13,42527..539......4813,562
Canterbury South..5130..54........12147
Otago1010,1371/227121131/2........1631/210,4631/2
Southland683826294513..1,200450563/41,9253/4
     Totals3,050½44,224227333½359½1,3406941,2064502,359¾54,244¼

The following table gives details of the chief hydro-electric installations from which power is distributed for public supply. Of the twenty-eight stations mentioned, twenty are operated by local authorities, three by the State, and five by private companies.

Locality.Supply Authority.Power installed.Max, Load, Kw., Year ending 31st March, 1023.Distance transmitted: Miles.Voltage of Transmission.
H.P.Kw.

* Diesel auxiliary

Gas auxiliary.

Steam auxiliary.

§ Lake Coleridge plant.

|| Overload.

Waipori plant.

Wairua FallsWilsons (N, Z.) Cement Co.3,0802,0001,8002222,000
HorahoraPublic Works Department9,0006,3006,900||8750,000
TaurangaBorough Council1,1008005444111,000
RotoruaTourist Department380200200136,600
Havelock NorthTown Board2001767563,300
New PlymouthBorough Council1,260800800106,600
InglewoodBorough Council1301208533,200
Stratford*Borough Council12021016512,200
KapongaTown Board18014032..230
Hawera*Electric Light Company875625396205,500
PateaBorough Council120905673,000
WaverleyTown Board60401312,300
OhakuneBorough Council2201207732,400
RaetihiBorough Council160505553,000
TaihapeBorough Council1401001901460
MangawekaTown Board45403032,400
BrightwaterWaimea Electric Company1508055182,300
MurchisonCounty Council140905163,300
ReeftonElectric Supply Company9075901230
Lake KanieriCompany1,1007004601011,000
Canterbury§Public Works Department12,0009,0009,390||6566,000
FairlieCounty Council604014..400
OamaruBorough Council230270222..3,000
DunedinCity Council8,0006,0007,489||6035,000
GoreBorough Council320240151611,000
MatauraBorough Council1007548..440
WaikaremoanaPower Board1,0007005362311,000
WhakataneBorough Council300240552222,000

LAKE COLERIDGE WORKS.

The Aid to Water-power Works Act of 1910 empowered the State to establish hydro-electric-supply installations, and the first—at Lake Coleridge, sixty-five miles west of Christchurch—has been in operation for eight years. This plant has been designed for a total capacity of 12,000 kilowatts (16,000 horse-power), but natural features of the lake and adjacent rivers allow of a very large extension of the supply up to 36,000 h.p. During March, 1921, the Harper River was diverted into the lake, and the level of the water in the lake has been appreciably raised thereby, thus ensuring an ample supply to meet the present demands.

The transmission-line is constructed in triplicate to Christchurch, thus ensuring continuity of supply, two lines having a capacity of 12,000 kw. each, and the other a capacity of 5,000 kw. The installed plant capacity is 16,000 h.p., and preparations are being made for driving a second tunnel and the installation of two extra 10,000 h.p. units to bring the total capacity up to 36,000 h.p. The population being served is over 110,000, and a large demand for power is being made. Contracts have been made for the bulk supply to the Christchurch City Council and to Power Boards and other local bodies for retail distribution, for bulk supply to the Christchurch Tramway Board, and for power-supply to the large meat-freezing works and dairy factories, tanneries, flour-mills, woollen-mills, and other factories and industries of Canterbury. The contract entered into with the Christchurch City Council provides for a charge for the first 300 kw. (400 h.p.) of £8 13s. 4d. per annum per kilowatt of maximum load (equivalent to £6 10s. per horse-power), and all over 300 kw. at £5 per annum per kilowatt of maximum load (equivalent to £3 15s. per horse-power). This enables the Council to retail it to the public for lighting at 5d. per unit, flat rate, or 6d. per unit for forty hours of maximum demand and 1d. per unit thereafter, and at 11/2d. per unit for power in small units, and special rates ranging from ½d. to ⅓d. per unit for special contracts. The standard rate of sale by the Public Works Department to local authorities and wholesale consumers is £10 per K.V.A. year for the first 200 K.V.A., and £8 per K.V.A. year for all over 200 K.V.A.

The growth of the supply and the general financial results are as follows:—

Results of Operation forThird Year (ended March, 1918).Fifth Year (ended March, 1920).Sixth Year (ended March, 1921).Seventh Year (ended March, 1922).Eighth Year (ended March, 1923).
Capital outlay£389,754£422,076£499,957£671,608£848,033
Working-costs£14,449£17,760£21,341£25,911£19,271
Interest, 4 per cent,£14,871£16,863£18,639£20,981£35,275
Depreciation, 2 per cent,£7,013£7,623£7,946£8,424£9,307
Total costs£36,333£42,246£47,926£55,316£63,853
Total revenue£32,092£45,831£51,373£56,814£69,153
Maximum load, kw,—     
   Power-house5,4387,0667,4127,6009,390
   Substation4,8006,2606,7126,7208,420
Units output—     
   Power-house22,403,66033,010,13036,309,58037,929,75043,451,660
   Substation20,539,43029,572,16032,588,32033,947,10039,665,420
Total units sold19,844,67628,017,97631,402,35132,943,93437,561,627
Average weekly load factor, percent.—     
   Power-house58.059.961.462.953.5
   Substation58.458.660.562.053.6
Working-cost per unit sold0.175d.0.15d.0.15d.0.188d.0.123d.
Capital charge per unit sold0.265d.0.21d.0.20d.0.214d.0.284d.
Total cost per unit sold0.44d.0.36d.0.36d.0.403d.0.408d.
Revenue per unit sold0.388d.0.39d.0.39d.0.414d.0.441d.
Total cost per kw. substation maximum£7.57£6.75£.14£8.23£7.58

To the above costs must be added the cost of retailing by the various local authorities, and the gross results of distribution in the district for the year ended 31st March, 1923, are given in the following table:—

GROSS FINANCIAL RESULTS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAKE COLERIDGE POWER INCANTERBURY, 1922-23.
Distributing Authority.Number of Consumers.Capital Outlay.Revenue from Consumers.Paid of Electricity.Maintenance Expenses.Interest.Sinking Fund.Depreciation.Net Profit.

* After deducting amount of sales to other distributing bodies

Net loss.

Included in capital expenditure

  ££££££££
Public Works Department486848,03336,232*..19,27035,275..9,3075,300
Christchurch City Council17,448441,962107,097*22,48928,38314,308..26,83917,141
Halswell County Council1407,0131,02043218926350..86
Heathcote County Council74317,1244,4151,9091,03445034..988
Kaiapoi Borough Council3984,5002,2319311,48523645..465
Lyttelton Borough Council3155,0003,6126861,904250..500272
Riccarton Borough Council5567,8093,5498811,149305....1,214
Rangiora Borough Council2807,5512,135532272345148291547
Rangiora County Council23614,6001,945776256656105..152
Sumner Borough Council5529,7162,8037351,20643181188162
Tai Tapu Dairy Company1397,6412,4901,004730286..40763
Waimairi County Council2,31949,64112,1732,0673,3932,370525..3,818
Eyre County Council1165,50097238610327350..160
Banks Peninsula Power Board75881,3003,8741,2215893,577650..2,163
Springs-Ellesmere Power Board58857,1401,6508621,307519
Totals25,0741,564,530186,19834,01161,27059,0251,68837,53227,686

The column “Revenue from Consumers” omits, in the cases of the Public Works Department and Christchurch City Council, the revenue from the sale of energy to other local authorities for distribution, as this is resold and the actual revenue from the consumers is included in the revenue of the distributing local authority. The amounts thus paid for power in bulk for resale are shown in the column “Paid for Electricity.”

WAIKATO ELECTRIC-POWER SUPPLY.

In November, 1920, the Waihi Gold-mining Company's electric-power plant at Horahora was acquired by the State for £212,500. The necessary transmission-lines have since been erected, and the plant is now being extended. The capital account to the 31st March, 1923, stands at £395,022.

The main features of the plant acquired are the headworks and generating-station on the Waikato River at Horahora, seventeen miles from Cambridge, with a plant capacity of six generators each capable of generating 1,050 kw., or a total of 6,300 kw.; the transmission-line of three No. 0 S.W.G. copper conductors on steel towers from Horahora to Waikino (fifty-five miles); and the transformer-station at Waikino, for transforming the energy supplied to the Waihi Company's mine. Extensions of the power-house installation by the addition of two 2,000 kw. units are in hand and will be completed early in 1924.

As shown in the accounts herewith, the operations for the twelve months ended the 31st March, 1923, resulted in a gross revenue of £41,818, or £32,097 in excess of working-expenses. Interest on the purchase-money amounted to £19,208, and depreciation at 2 per cent, per annum, as required by law, to £6,620, leaving a surplus after paying working and capital charges of £6,269.

Results of Operation.First Year (ended March, 1921).Second Year (ended March, 1922).Third Year (ended March, 1923).
 £££
Capital outlay249,499353,808395,022
   Working-costs6,4527,9869,721
   Interest10,67513,18719,208
   Depreciation (2 per cent,)3,9604,5126,620
     Total costs21,08725,68535,549
     Total revenue14,80428,20741,818
Maximum load—Kw,Kw,Kw,
   Power-house, for year3,5005,8006,900
   Power-house, average weekly2,6754,0805,382
Output—Units,Units.Units.
   Power-house16,729,05025,659,55033,732,150
   Substations total....30,435,036
Total units sold15,376,00023,093,59530,030,369
Load-factor—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
   Power-house, annual54.550.555.8
   Power-house, average weekly71.071.371.2
..d.d.d.
Working-cost per unit sold0.1000.0830.078
Capital charge per unit sold0.2280.1840.206
Total cost per unit sold0.3280.2670.284
Revenue per unit sold0.2290.2930.334
Total cost—£££
   Per kilowatt (power-house annual maximum)6.024.435.15
   Per kilowatt (power-house average weekly maximum)7.856.296.61

The Public Works Department supplies two large gold-mining companies and half a dozen large factories direct. The balance of the reticulation is carried out by four Electric-power Boards and the Hamilton Borough Council. The general results of operation by all six distributing authorities is a net profit of £5.820 for the year 1922-23, as shown in the following table:—

WAIKATO ELECTRIC-POWER SUPPLY.—GROSS FINANCIAL RESULTS OF DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Distributing Authority.Number of Consumers.Capital Outlay.Revenue from Consumers.Paid of Electricity.Maintenance Expenses.Interest.Sinking Fund.Depreciation.Net Profit.

* After deducting amount of sales to other distributing bodies, totalling £17,639.

Loss.

  ££££££££
Public Works Department11395,02224,179*....9,72119,2086,6206,269
Thames Valley Power Board1,950333,58730,632..8,5695,57620,618..-4,131
Te Awamutu Power Board666119,8147,1452,1182,1254,1512,849..138
Central Power Board970115,0008,371..2,2161,8474,000..308
Cambridge Power Board60575,0004,771..1,8371,3664,640..-3,072
Hamilton Borough1,57444,03419,430..2,9516,3783,802..6,308
     Totals5,7761,082,45794,5372,11817,69829,03955,1176,6205,820

WAIPORI WATER-POWER SUPPLY.

The only other hydro-electric development of any size is the power-station of the Dunedin City Council on the Waipori River, thirty-two miles from the city. This plant was started in 1907 with two units of 1,000 kw. (1,340 h.p.) each. Two similar units were added in 1910, and two more were installed in 1913, which brings the total capacity up to 6,000 kw. (8,000 h.p.). Tenders have recently been let for one 3,000 kw. generator, bringing the capacity up to 9,000 kw. installed. The retail rates charged range from 5d. to 1d. per unit for lighting, and from 2d. to ½d. per unit for power purposes.

The output for the year 1922-23 was as follows:—

 Units sold. Number.Average Price per Unit. d.
Private lighting3,601,1943.83
Public lighting486,4202.46
Power and heating12,266,4580.78
Tramways3,738,2890.65
     Total supply20,092,3611.38

The total outlay to the 31st March, 1923, was £718,029, including distribution, stand-by plant, and public lighting; the total revenue for the year ended the 31st March, 1923, £115,748; and the total expenditure, including interest, sinking fund, depreciation, and renewal funds, £91,606, leaving a net profit of £24,142. The number of consumers supplied was 12,745, and the total capacity of all connections to the mains at the 31st March, 1923, was 30,800 kw.

STATE SCHEME FOR NORTH ISLAND.

A larger and comprehensive scheme is now under construction for the supply of electrical energy in the North Island, with the object of making it generally available, as far as possible, to all the towns and districts throughout the Island. It is anticipated that the productiveness of the country will be greatly increased, the dairying industry in particular being capable of expansion with the provision of cheap electric power.

A complete scheme was outlined in a report dated October, 1918, by Mr. Evan Parry, B.Sc., M.I.C.E., M.I.E.E., then Chief Electrical Engineer of the Public Works Department. He estimates the demand at 0.2 h.p. per head of population, exclusive of large blocks of power required for electro-chemical and metallurgical, industries; and, allowing for losses in transmission and distribution, the power required on this basis for the North Island is 160,000 h.p. This it is proposed to obtain from three sources—the Mangahao River, near Shannon (24,000 h.p.), Lake Waikaremoana (40,000 h.p.), and the Arapuni Rapids, on the Waikato, near Putaruru (96,000 h.p.). Of these the Waikaremoana scheme is capable of further development up to a total of 130,000 h.p., and Arapuni to a total of 160,000 h.p. In connection with Mangahao, contracts for the construction and erection of the pipe-lines and for the complete generating plant, &c., have been let.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE.

The complete estimate to provide for the general scheme of electricity-supply for the North Island, based on 12 per cent, in excess of pre-war costs, is as follows:—

Amount.Per Horsepower.
Generating-stations (total plant capacity, 160,000 h.p.)—££
..H.P.Cost. £Per H.P. £  
Mangahao24,000438,65418.30  
Waikaremoana40,000544,36913.16  
Arapuni96,0001,078,70010.80  
    2,061,72312.88
 160,000    
Main transmission-lines1,553,88011.22
Extra branch transmission-lines at lower voltage to main substations not on main lines241,360 
Main substations838,8085.24
Distribution-lines and secondary substations2,086,00013.04
 6,781,77142.38
Interest during construction271,2711.69
Assistance to local authorities and power-users100,0000.62
Working capital150,0000.94
     Total7,303,04245.63

The capital charges for interest, depreciation, and sinking fund at 71/2 per cent. will amount to £547,728 per annum. The working-expenses should not exceed £220,000 per annum, making a total annual expenditure of £767,728, requiring an average return of £5.9 per horse-power per annum of maximum load—i.e., about £8 per kilowatt.

A similar scheme has been drawn up for the South Island, costing about £5,000,000 for 110,000 horse-power.

GOVERNMENT DEVELOPMENTS.

The statutory authorizations to date for the development of hydro-electric power in the Dominion are as follows:—

Aid to Water-power Works Act, 1910—£
   Lake Coleridge electric-power works500,000
Electric-power Works Loan Act, 1919— 
   Arapuni electric-power works4,500,000
   Mangahao electric-power works1,600,000
   Lake Coleridge extensions257,500
   Horahora electric-power works412,500
   Waikaremoana—Surveys, &c,30,000
   Otago—Surveys, &c,30,000
Finance Act, 1920— 
   Waikaremoana electric-power works2,600,000
   Kaituna River150,000
   Lake Coleridge extensions720,000
   Surveys and investigations30,000
..£10,330,000

The total expenditure to the 31st March, 1923, including capital outlay, stocks, and debit balances on the trading accounts, is as follows:—

 £.
Lake Coleridge930,797
Horahora436,755
Waikaremoana77,041
Mangahao632,963
Arapuni78,839
Hutt River2,750
Kaituna River1,355
Other surveys5,187
General expenditure4,413
 £2,170,100

Of the above, the Lake Coleridge, Horahora, and Waikaremoana systems are in commercial operation, and Mangahao and Arapuni are under construction.

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.

The policy of the Government generally is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of the local authorities. Formerly the only local authorities available were the cities, boroughs, counties, and town districts, but with the extension of electric supply into the country areas a stronger organization became necessary, and this was provided under the Electric-power Boards Act of 1918. This Act provides for several local districts to combine for the purpose of electric-power distribution, and to set up a special Electric-power Board to carry out the work, with rating-powers over the district concerned.

Amendments to the original Act, based on the results of experience, were passed in 1919, 1920, 1921, 1922, and 1923.

The development of the reticulation by means of Electric-power Boards has made substantial progress during the year 1922-23. Nine additional districts were formed, and there are now thirty-one districts constituted, and ten actually carrying out the distribution and sale of electrical energy. The total area covered is 46,818 square miles, or 45 per cent, of the total area of the Dominion. The total population concerned is 582,091, or 45.5 per cent, of the total population of the Dominion; and the unimproved value of the land included in the electric-power districts and outer areas is £159,439,000, or 50 per cent, of the total unimproved value of the Dominion.

In addition to the thirty-one districts already formed, steps are being taken to form districts in Otago, Waitaki, Hawke's Bay, Poverty Bay, Marlborough, and Hokianga, including large areas in each case.

So far only one of the four main cities—viz., Auckland—has yet been included in a power district, but of the secondary towns, Palmerston North, Invercargill, Timaru, and Wanganui are included, and Napier will probably be included shortly. The advantage of Power Board organization is more obvious to country than to city ratepayers, and yet the above position indicates that the cities are realizing that it is to their advantage generally to be associated with the country in undertaking the work of reticulation of electric power on a comprehensive scale.

The Boards already formed are getting to work energetically in carrying out their functions. Six Boards—viz., Thames Valley, Cambridge, Central, Te Awamutu, Banks Peninsula, and Springs-Ellesmere—have carried out fairly complete reticulation of their areas, and are distributing power taken in bulk from the plants at Horahora and Lake Coleridge. The Auckland Board has taken over the city electric-power station, and is providing for large extensions of both plant and mains. Three—viz., Southland, Tararua, and Ashburton—while pushing on with their reticulation in anticipation of an early supply of hydro-electric power, are providing partial supply from existing stations in the town areas. Wairoa is taking power in bulk from Waikare-moana, and supplies the borough and a few large consumers in the neighbourhood. Three—viz., Wairarapa, Opunake, and Teviot—have small power-stations approaching completion, and will commence supply before the end of the year. Eight others—viz., Dannevirke, Horowhenua, Manawatu, Rangitikei, Hutt Valley, Central Hawke's Bay, Malvern, and South Canterbury—are arranging to take power in bulk from the Government hydro-electric sources, and are preparing their systems of reticulation with this end in view. The Buller District, though constituted, has not yet elected a Board. The other eight—viz., Westland, Reefton, Taranaki, Grey, Otago Central, Wairere, Hobson, and Tauranga—are making special arrangements in each case, which have not yet been finalized.

The following table gives details of the dates of constitution, the area, population, and rateable value included in each of the thirty-one power districts already formed, also the amounts of the loans already authorized, and the voting on each poll taken. The total amount of the loans authorized by the nineteen districts which have already taken their polls is £5,636,500. The population of the inner areas concerned is 417,764, so that the loans authorized amount to £13.5 per head of population, as compared with £14 last year. The unimproved valuation of the inner areas is £107,902,231, the loans authorized amounting to 5.2 per cent, of the unimproved rateable value of the lands pledged as security for the loans, as compared with 5.4 per cent, last year. The voting at the nineteen polls totalled 23,610 to 1,816—i.e., a majority of 93 per cent. In one case (Te Awamutu District) the poll was unanimous, and in the Taranaki poll, in which the opposition was the strongest, the majority was still 77 per cent.

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS OF NEW ZEALAND AS CONSTITUTED ON 1ST JULY, 1923.
Name of Electric-power District.Proclamation constituting District gazetted.Number of Member on Board.Approximate Area of District,.Population.Value of Rateable Property (unimproved).Amount of Loan.Voting for Loan Poll.
For.Agent
   Sq. Miles. ££  
Southland19/11/191210,85765,45914,301,4651,500,0006,516415
Thames Valley8/1/20122,30428,7210,967,483550,0001,50328
Te Awamutu8/1/20103079,2001,759,588120,000359..
Cambridge8/1/2081045,0001,683,63260,0001983
Banks Peninsula8/1/2073873,9354,344,873100,00033123
Wairarapa25/3/2091,99619,2529,370,503260,0001,704225
Central8/7/2073009,1003,667,904200,00051519
Wairoa29/7/20101,3544,3682,681,627100,00050431
Springs-Ellesmere8/7/2072725,5273,401,18760,00030216
Teviot22/7/207761,800169,13735,00019127
Opunake18/8/2172393,244916,11170,00017020
Ashburton17/11/21122,54217,22410,047,044296,5001,59096
Manawatu-Oroua1/12/21121,30137,51814,02 064500,0001,14496
Dannevirke11/8/211067312,0814,66713175,00065193
Horowhenua1/12/21963011,7953,403,255260,00097326
Wanganui-Rangitikei1/12/21122,62042,0147,976,750Poll notyet taken,
Tararua23/3/22101,26510,2664,059,459200,00071483
Auckland1/4/2212295145,87025,240,539600,0004,179288
Taranaki19/5/2271,63722,1905,974,732350,000635190
Hutt Valley6/7/22947123,4222,656,299200,0001,431137
Buller11/5/2251,9879,197696,374Poll notyet taken.
Westland28/10/2097503,272196,268Poll notyet taken.
Reefton30/6/215241,85064,476Poll notyet taken.
Central Hawke's Bay19/10/2291,2268,9806,653,485Poll notyet taken.
South Canterbury26/10/22125,10241,61815,483,654Poll notyet taken.
Grey26/10/22121,45012,000614,694Poll notyet taken.
Otago Central26/10/2272,6844,4891,034,934Poll notyet taken.
Wairere18/1/2374072,500872,434Poll notyet taken.
Hobson29/3/2387787,0171,389,487Poll notyet taken.
Tauranga14/6/2376397,7621,232,100Poll notyet taken.
Malvern28/6/2362,1415,4203,891,668Poll notyet taken.
     Totals....46,818582,091159,438,9395,636,50023,6101,816

The next table shows the capital expenditure incurred by each Board up to the end of the financial year 1922-23, the revenue and expenditure, and the amount of rates struck and collected.

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.—RETURNS FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Board.Main Supply commenced.Capital Outlay.Revenue.Expenditure.Profit.Loss.General Rate.Special Rates.Valuation Basis.
Sale of Electricity. (Gross.)Sale of Materials. (Profit.)Capital Charges.Power.General.Levied.Collected.Levied.Collected.

* Interest and sinking fund for year were paid out of loan, leaving a profit of £10,487.

Interest and sinking fund, £3,762, paid out of loan.

  ££££££££d.£d.  
Auckland1908914,024154,75813079,033..76,654..799....0.925NilCapital,
Southland..376,788..758......758............
Thames Valley1921333,58722,4348,198*20,6188,5695,576..*4,131..........
Te Awamutu1921119,3257,145..2,8492,1254,151..1,9800.142,081....Capital.
Cambridge192175,0004,771..4,6401,8371,366..3,072....0,05NilCapital.
Banks Peninsula192281,3003,853214,2271,221589..2,163..........
Wairarapa..22,032...................... 
Central1921122,0008,2671044,0002,2161,847308............
Wairoa192336,890809..700525528..9440.101,388......
Springs-Ellesmere192257,1401,650..8621,307..519..........
Teviot..10,565..................4.00NilUnimproved.
Opunake..22,000........................
Ashburton..1,360..............0.65Nil....Capital.
Manawatu..22,075..................0.75NilUnimproved.
Dannevirke..1,408..............0.33Nil1.03NilUnimproved.
Horowhenua..7,440..............0.10Nil....Capital.
Rangitikei............1,172..1,1720.042,925....Capital.
Tararua..19,1693,222....2,5431,622..9430.25Nil1.25NilUnimproved,
Taranaki..847........847..8470.14609....Capital.
Hutt Valley..964..............0.125Nil1.33NilUnimproved.
Reefton..176........147..1470.50379....Capital.
     Totals..2,224,090206,9099,211116,06719,89895,806..15,651..7,382......

Buller, Westland, Central Hawke's Bay, South Canterbury, Grey, Otago Central, Wairere, Hobson, Tauranga, and Malvern Boards not yet in operation.

The total capital outlay by the twenty Boards which have started construction is £2,224,090, but a great part of this is on works not yet in service. The gross revenue from the sale of electricity by the nine Boards which had commenced supply was £206,909, of which three-quarters was received by the Auckland Board. The general result is a loss over the whole business of the Power Boards of £15,651; but, as a substantial portion of the interest on lines still under construction was charged to capital, the total amount that it was necessary to raise by rating in order to cover the losses was only £7,382. With so many of the schemes in the very early stages of supply this result is quite satisfactory. The rating for the next few years will have to be substantially heavier unless provision is made to enable Power Boards to carry forward losses in early stages of their operations, to be paid out of the profits which can be anticipated after the first few years, as the Public Works Department has done in connection with Lake Coleridge and Horahora. But, even so, such losses in the early stages do not indicate any want of security in the business as a whole, but are inherent in the commencement of any concern depending to such an extent on a large initial capital outlay to earn a revenue which takes time to develop.

During last year ten of the Boards struck a general rate, which was collected in only five cases, and seven of the Boards struck special rates for the security for loans, none of which had to be collected.

Several of the Boards are passing through a critical stage owing to the high cost and high interest rates ruling in 1921 when they started construction-work, and to the fact that they have undertaken the construction of many lines without requiring the guarantees from consumers authorized by clause 7 (d) of the regulations. But costs and rates of interest are now substantially lower, and the other Boards are profiting by such experiences, and much better results will be attained by the Power Boards generally in future as the result of the experience of these earlier districts.

LOCAL ELECTRIC-SUPPLY SYSTEMS.

Including the Government plants, there are now sixty-three public electric-power stations in the Dominion.

Four new water-power stations started operations during the year—viz., Waikaremoana (700 kw.), Whakatane (240 kw.), Fairlie (40 kw.), Havelock North (176 kw.)—and one steam station (Hamilton) was closed down and supplied from Horahora, and one gas station (Wairoa) is now supplied from Waikaremoana.

Extensions were made during the year to Lake Coleridge (3,000 kw., water-power) and Auckland (3,000 kw., steam). The changes during the coming year will also be in the direction of increasing the large stations and closing down the small ones, giving greater economy in operation.

The total installed capacity has increased during the year by 5,840 kw., or 11 per cent, (from 51,749 kw. to 57,589 kw.), and the maximum load by 5,636 kw., or 111/2 per cent, (from 48,866 kw. to 54,502 kw.).

The proportion of installed plant is now as follows:—

 Station.Kilowatts.Proportion per Cent.
Water-power3129,38651.1
Steam-power923,92541.5
Gas-power213,4926.1
Oil-power27861.3
 6357,589100.0

showing a steady increase in the proportion of water-power.

The number of consumers supplied has increased from 88,838 to 106,790, an increase of 17,952, or 20 per cent., for the year. The units per consumer, exclusive of tramways, were 1,280, as compared with 1,210 last year.

The total population included in the various areas of electric-power supply is 767,600, or over 60 per cent, of the total population of the Dominion; so that the ideal of a supply being available to every home in the Dominion is well on the way to realization.

The maximum demand per head of population in the areas supplied, including tramways, is 0.071 kw., practically one-half of the allocation of 0.15 kw. or 0.2 h.p. per head of population, which is the basis of the design of the Government schemes. The units sold per head of population supplied, exclusive of tramways, were 178, as compared with 146 last year.

The total length of distributing-line is 3,758 route-miles, as compared with 2,814 last year, an increase of 944 miles, or 33 per cent. The number of consumers per route-mile is 28.4, as compared with 31.4 last year, the reduction being due to the large mileage of new lines erected during the year to which the full number of services are not yet connected.

The power-demand per route-mil of line is now 12 kw., the sales 36,200 units, and the revenue £288, exclusive of tramways in each case. These are substantially smaller than last year, for the reason indicated above, but are still remunerative returns over the whole business. Light country lines, on the other hand, will pay with a return of £50 per mile.

The revenue per kilowatt of output of all stations, excluding tramways, was £24.2, as compared with £24 last year. The water-power stations show a revenue of £20 per kilowatt, steam stations of £30.1 per kilowatt, and gas stations of £40.4 per kilowatt. These are valuable figures for use in forecasting the revenue from systems of various descriptions. The water-power systems include the largest proportion of large consumers, and the gas-engine stations the largest proportion of small consumers.

Out of the eighty-one distributing authorities, fifty showed a profit for the year amounting to £137,989, and thirty-one showed a loss amounting to £28,988. The general result is a net profit for the whole Dominion of £109,000 after paying working-costs (£553,540) and capital charges (£420,207) at the rate of 6.6 per cent, on the total capital outlay of £6,408,492. This shows a net profit of 1.7 per cent., as compared with 1.6 per cent, last year. The business on the whole is thus a thoroughly sound and remunerative one, as well as supplying a public necessity to 60 per cent, of the population of the Dominion.

ELECTRIC-POWER SUPPLY OF NEW ZEALAND FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Water.Steam.Gas.Oil.Total.

* Includes distribution.

Number of stations31921263
Average capacity (kilowatts)9382,658166393915
Number of consumers60,03733,56210,1323,059106,790
Installed capacity (kilowatts), (main plant only)29,38623,9253,49278657,589
Maximum load (kilowatts)—     
   General supply stations29,99511,6218,60459744,817
   Special tramway stations..9,375310..9,685
Units generated — General supply and tramways127,727,82031,295,8206,739,2561,609,381167,372,277
Special tramway stations..28,225,265....28,225,265
Annual load-factor (per cent,)48.632.426.430.841.0
Units sold—     
   General supply94,648,98922,634,8733,466,7391,231,557121,982,158
   Tramways11,325,7692,228,7751,015,849..14,570,393
Total units sold105,974,75824,863,6484,482,5881,231,557136,552,551
Total capital outlay*£4,340,177£1,377,290£617,196£73,829£6,408,492
Total capital per kilowatt installed*£148£94£177£94£111
Total annual working-costs£253,844£208,829£75,055£15,812£553,540
Total annual working-cost per unit sold0.57d,2.01d,4.02d,3.08d,0.97d,
Total annual working-cost per kilowatt, maximum load£8.5£18.0£28.8£26.5£12.3
Total annual capital charges£271,553£114,694£27,931£6,029£420,207
Total annual capital charge per unit sold0.68d,1.11d,1.49d,1.18d,0.74d,
Total annual capital charge per kilowatt, maximum load£9.0£9.9£10.7£10.1£9.4
Total annual percentage of capital outlay6.38.34.58.26.6
Total annual costs£525,397£323,523£102,986£21,841£973,747
Total annual cost per unit sold1.19d,3.12d,5.51d,4.26d,1.71d,
Total annual cost per kilowatt, maximum load-£17.5£27.9£39.5£36.6£21.7
Total annual revenue£602,069£349,911£104,876£25,892£1,082,748
Total annual revenue per unit sold1.36d,3.38d,5.61d,5.05d,1.91d,
Total annual revenue per kilowatt maximum load£20.0£30.1£40.4£43.4£24.2
Net profit£76,672£26,388£1,890£4,051£109,001

NOTE.—Figures for special tramway stations are not included in capital outlay, working-costs, capital charges, or revenue. The detailed figures for supply authority and power-station are given in the Public Works Statement for 1923.

DAILY LOAD CURVES.

The question of the daily load curve and the ratio of the average load to the maximum load or the load-factor is an important one in determining the selling-price of electric power. Each station must ascertain its own load-factor and determine its selling policy accordingly. But as a general guide the daily load curves of sixteen of the larger stations of the Dominion have, by the kind co-operation of the engineers to these places, been obtained for two days of the current year—viz., Friday, 23rd March (representing equinoctial conditions), and Friday, 22nd June (representing midwinter conditions). Friday has been selected as the late-shopping night in most places, thus representing the most extreme conditions of loading. These sixteen stations have an installed capacity of 51,683 kw., or 90 per cent, of the total installed capacity of the Dominion, so that the resultant curves may be taken to represent quite accurately the shape of the load curve of the combined output of the whole Dominion. Water-power and fuel stations are proportionately represented, including all the large stations of each type, and the diagram includes not only the total output, but the water-power and fuel-power outputs separately. The summation curves are plotted in the diagram on the opposite page, and the results are as follows:—

Installed.Maximum Load.Units.Daily Load-factor.
March, 23rd, 1923—Kilowatts.Kilowatts.  
   Water-power24,95023,156433,14777.9
   Fuel-power26,73318,068217,68250.2
     Totals51,68339,982650,82967.8
June, 22nd, 1923—    
   Water-power24,95025,840466,20575.2
   Fuel-power26,73321,180258,18550.8
     Totals51,68347,020724,39064.2

These are daily load-factors. The annual load-factors are, of course, substantially lower, being 48.6 per cent, for water-power, 32.4 per cent, for steam-power, and 41.0 per cent, for the whole output of the Dominion.

As shown by the curve, the load throughout the day hours, 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., is extraordinarily uniform. In summer there is a distinct drop at 5 p.m., before the lighting-load curves come on at 7 p.m. In winter, on the other hand, the peak occurs from 4 p.m. to 5 p.m., and is due to the overlapping of the lighting load with the industrial and tramway load for this period. It is largely with the object of reducing this overlapping peak that the adoption of a standard time—twelve hours instead of eleven and a half hours ahead of Greenwich mean time—has been proposed, and it would obviously reduce the cost of the electric-power supply accordingly.

There is an average difference between the total outputs for the 23rd March and the 22nd June during the daylight hours of 6,000 kw., which represents partly the normal growth in the period of three months, and the balance mainly the radiator or heating loads for practically the whole of the Dominion, which thus probably amounts to about 4,000 kw. The loading from midnight to 5 a.m. is surprisingly high—viz., 2,000 kw. on the steam plants and 12,000 kw. on the water-power stations. This is mainly taken by the mining load, about 4,000 kw.; cement-works, about 2,000 kw.; freezing-works, about 2,000 kw.; flour-mills, about 1,000 kw.; and the balance by pumping, street-lighting, battery-charging, water-heating, and other all-night uses.

UNDEVELOPED POWER.

In addition to the developed power in New Zealand there is a practically unlimited amount of undeveloped power. The following table gives the particulars of the more important available water-powers, showing also the nearest market, consisting of a city or an actual or potential port. A considerable number of these are suitable for general industrial development, but the largest ones, as a rule being in the unsettled portions of the South Island and near the deep-water sounds, are particularly suitable for utilization in connection with electro-chemical or electro-metallurgical industries.

NORTH ISLAND.
Source of Power.Position of Powerhouse.Available Flow: Cubic Feet per Second.Available Head: Feet.Average Power on 50 per Cent. Load-factor.Nearest City. Port, or Deep Water.Distance: Miles.
H.P.Kw.

* Signifies daily storage available to utilize 50 per cent. load-factor.

Signifies seasonal storage made available.

North Auckland District.       
Wairua FallsWairua Falls150*1303.2002.400Whangarei18
OmapereUtakura Stream11*5501.000750....
South Auckland District.       
KaitunaKaituna River50078465.00050.000Tauranga25
      Auckland125
Wairoa RiverWairoa420*805.6004.200Tauranga20
Waikato RiverAratiatia Rapids4.400170136.000100.000Auckland154
Waikato RiverOrakeikorako Rapids4.4003514.000100.000Auckland148
Waikato RiverAniwhaniwha Falls4.4008032.00024.000Auckland142
Waikato RiverAtiamuri Rapids4.4002510.0007.500Auckland139
Waikato RiverArapuni Gorge5.300165163.000120.000Auckland105
Waikato RiverHorahora Rapids5.3002713.00010.000Auckland97
Pokaiwhenua RiverHorahora Rapids165*1704.6003.400Auckland97
Marakopa FallsMarokopa904203.1002.300Te Kuiti27
Wairere FallsWairere Falls160*601.6001.200Te Kuiti22
Hawke's Bay District.       
WaikaremoanaUpper Waikaretaheki5301.10097.00075.000Gisborne50
WaikaremoanaLower Waikaretaheki53036032.00024.000Napier60
Te Reinga FallsTe Reinga Falls1241251.3001.000Gisborne35
Waikohu RiverWaikohu458476.0004.500Gisborne28
Wanganui District.       
Mangawhero RiverRaukawa Falls125901.000750Wanganui45
Mangawhero RiverWanganui River1256807.1006.950Wanganui24
Rangitikei RiverMakohine1.50030075.00056.000Wanganui48
Wangaehu RiverWangaehu River260701.5001.100Wanganui25
KarioiKarioi300*1808.8006.600Wanganui60
Taranaki District.       
Waitara RiverWaitara River4001404.6003.600New Plymouth12
WaiwakaihoWaiwakaiho1502506.2004.800New Plymouth4
Manganui RiverWaitara River41534026.00019.400New Plymouth25
Wellington District.       
Mangahao RiverShannon16089524.00018.000Wellington65
Makuri RiverMakuri Gorge100*3846.4004.800Pahiatua20
WaiohineWoodside120*1202.4001.800Masterton15
Hutt RiverMungaroa20033011.0008.300Wellington24
TauherenikauFeatherston150*44011.0008.300Wairarapa..
KourarauKourarau207552.6802.000Masterton12
SOUTH ISLAND.
Source of Power.Position of Powerhouse.Available Flow: Cubic Feet per Second.Available Head: Feet.Average Power on 50 per Cent. Load-factor.Nearest City. Port, or Deep Water.Distance: Miles.
H.P.Kw.

* Signifies daily storage available to utilize 50 per cent, load-factor.

Signifies seasonal storage made available.

ClarenceEricaburn6401588,3006,300Blenheim45
Waihopai RiverWaihopai Gorge130*962,0001,500Blenheim28
Nelson and Buller District.       
Boulder LakeAorere River50*2,60022,00016,000Golden Bay10
Rotoiti LakeBuller River20060020,00015,000Nelson50
Rotoroa LakeGowan River90040060,00045,000Nelson60
Inangahua RiverBlackwater River781258,0006,000Westport20
Four-mile CreekFour-mile Creek24*4502,0001,500Westport4
Westland District.       
Lake BrunnerStillwater1,75020029,00022,000Greymouth10
Kumara Water-raceKumara873302,4001,800Greymouth12
Otira RiverOtira407002,3001,700Greymouth52
Rolleston RiverOtira367002,0001,500Greymouth52
Kanieri LakeKanieri River1003302,8002,100Hokitika12
Toaroha RiverToaroha River15076010,0007,500Hokitika17
Whitcombe RiverHokitika River25080016,00012,000Hokitika20
Kakapotahi RiverKakapotahi River1005804,8003,600Hokitika26
Wanganui RiverHende's Ferry83058040,00030,000Hokitika30
Wataroa RiverWataroa1,36070080,00060,000Hokitika48
Canterbury District.       
Clarence RiverJollie's Press2001,16020,00015,000Christchurch90
Clarence RiverConway River1,1501,050100,00075,000Christchurch90
Waiau-ua RiverCulverden1,60020027,00020,000Christchurch75
Waimakariri RiverGorge Bridge1,000*9015,00011,000Christchurch30
Waimakariri RiverOtarama1,000*15030,15022,500Christchurch42
Lake ColeridgeRakaia River1004808,0006,000Christchurch65
Acheron RiverRakaia River504804,0003,000Christchurch65
Harper RiverRakaia River32048025,00018,000..65
Wilberforce RiverRakaia River1,10048044,00033,000Christchurch65
Rakaia RiverGorge Bridge2,600306,5004,800Christchurch50
Lake HeronRakaia River3002004,0003,000Christchurch88
Opihi RiverOpihi Gorge2004006,7005,000Timaru30
Pukaki LakePukaki5,00046050,00037,000Timaru85
Tekapo LakeFairlie5,100900400,000300,000Timaru40
Ohau LakeWaitaki River5,000300125,00090,000Timaru85
Otago and Southland Districts.       
Ahuriri RiverWaitaki River60020010,0007,500Oamaru62
Waitaki RiverWaitaki River15,0003037,00028,000Oamaru60
Waipori FallsWaipori River23070026,80020,000Dunedin30
Lee StreamOutram15*7501,8001,300Dunedin18
Deep StreamTaieri River1109008,4006,300Dunedin20
Taieri RiverDeep Stream70022012,0009,000Dunedin44
Talla BurnClutha River308902,2001,600Dunedin60
Teviot RiverRoxburgh1001,90030,00021,000Dunedin90
Manuherikia RiverChatto Creek2003505,8004,400Dunedin127
Lake HaweaLake Wanaka2,50020580,00060,000Dunedin170
ShotoverLake Wakatipu50025010,0007,500Invercargill112
Lake HallDoubtful Sound2202,62548,00036,000On seaboard..
Lake CecilLake Te Anau20090015,00011,200On seaboard..
Lake HildaLake Te Anau1,5501,19055,00041,080On seaboard..
Lake Te AnauGeorge Sound12,6306941,600,0001,200,000On seaboard..
Lake ManapouriSmith Sound8,400600840,000630,000On seaboard..
Bowen FallsMilford Sound70060035,00025,000On seaboard..
Lake MonowaiWaiau River50016016,00012,000Invercargill60
Lake HaurotoTewaewae Bay2,300514100,00075,000Invercargill51

WATER-POWER FOR MINING PURPOSES.

Water-power is extensively used for hydraulic mining in New Zealand, and to a smaller extent for hydro-electric transmissions and for water-motors installed to drive mining machinery.

During 1922 water was used for sluicing auriferous alluvium at 158 claims, employing 478 persons, in Otago and Southland and on the West Coast. The quantity of water utilized per claim ranges up to about 40 cubic feet per second. Most of the sources of water-supply are privately owned, but on the West Coast and in Central Otago the Government has constructed, and now maintains, very extensive water-races for the use of miners.

On the West Coast the Waimea-Kumara Government water-races, in length about thirty-nine miles, have a capacity of 182 cubic feet per second. The cost of construction has been approximately £223,262, and the value of gold obtained by use of water is about £1,417,253. In the Mount Ida district (Central Otago) the Government water-races, about twenty-two miles in length, have a capacity of 51 cubic feet per second; the cost of these races to the Government has been about £80,000. Of recent years the cash received for water sold has been less than the cost of the upkeep of the races.

There are three hydro-electric mining transmissions. On the Waikato River the Waihi Gold-mining Company installed a 9,000 h.p. plant at Horahora Falls, near Cambridge, a distance of fifty miles from the mines and reduction-works at Waihi and Waikino. The transmission pressure is 50,000 volts. This source of supply has been taken over by the Government, which now sells the power to the public.

At Kanieri Forks, near Hokitika, there is a hydro-electric power-station, formerly the property of Ross Goldfields (Limited). The water-supply is carried from Lake Kanieri, and from the Pelton wheels at the power-house 675 h.p. is obtainable. This power is now used by the Rimu Gold-dredging Company, also for lighting the Borough of Hokitika.

From the Fraser River, near Alexandra, Otago, water is taken by the Earns-cleugh Gold-mining Company for hydro-electric power for its two gold-dredges, 300 electrical horse-power being utilized.

AVAILABLE WATER-POWER AND TOTAL POWER DEVELOPED IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

The following tables, adapted from the Electrical World, of New York, January, 1923, give the population, area, total potential water-power and potential water-power per square mile, water-power and steam-power installed, units of output, and the horse-power and units per head of population, for various countries for the year 1920, as compared with New Zealand for the year 1923. These are important figures in considering the position of electric-power development as compared with other countries and the probable future development in New Zealand.

Of the sixteen countries listed, New Zealand stands second only to Switzerland in the amount of water-power available per square mile of area—viz., 47.8 h.p. per square mile. This indicates the great industrial possibilities of the Dominion in this direction.

With regard to the power actually developed, New Zealand stands twelfth as far as installed capacity is concerned, with 0.061 h.p. per head, and tenth in units used per head, with 131 units.

The Government programme is based on an ultimate demand of 0.2 h.p. per head. There are already five countries which were developed in 1920 to a higher proportion than this—viz., Norway, 0.545 h.p.; Switzerland, 0.345 h.p.; Canada, 0.335 h.p.; United States, 0.321 h.p.; and Sweden, 0.225 h.p., per head of population—so that the programme of 0.2 h.p. per head may be considered a reasonable one.

ELECTRICAL POWER (STEAM AND WATER POWER) IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

(Electrical World, January, 1923.)

(Figures for 1920.)

Potential Horse-power.

Country.Population.Area (Square Miles).Minimum Potential Horse-power.
Total.Per Square Mile.
New Zealand (figures for 1923)1,271,664102,2504,886,00047.8
Norway2,700,000124,4005,500,00044.2
Switzerland3,860,00015,9501,400,00087.9
Canada8,370,0003,730,00020,000,0005.4
United States of America105,766,0003,027,00030,500,00010.1
Sweden5,885,000173,0004,500,00026.0
Australia5,420,0003,153,041620,0000.2
Belgium7,600,00011,400Small...
Great Britain46,080,000121,331585,0004.8
Germany60,900,000208,7801,350,0006.5
France36,700,000213,0004,700,00022.1
South Africa6,000,000795,3001,600,0002.0
Italy40,000,000120,4503,800,00031.6
Denmark3,362,00015,500500,00032.3
Spain20,500,000196,7004,000,00020.3
Japan77,000,000236,0006,000,00025.4
Horse-power installed.
Country.Horse-power installed.Units Output (Millions)Horsepower per Head.Units per Head.
Water.Fuel.Total.
New Zealand (figures for 1923)39,00038,00077,0001670.061131
Norway1,330,000140,0001,470,0001,3310.545493
Switzerland1,200,000130,0001,330,0002,7000.345700
Canada2,470,000330,0002,800,0005,1250.335612
United States of America7,632,00024,541,00032,173,00049,8020.304472
Sweden1,200,000130,0001,330,0002,1440.226364
Australia67,000533,000600,0002600.11148
Belgium700799,300800,0007400.10597
Great Britain270,0003,730,0004,000,0006,4000.087139
Germany1,070,0003,460,0004,530,0008,6000.074141
France1,670,0001,000,0002,670,0005,4100.073147
South Africa7,000393,000400,0001,1940.067199
Italy1,330,000540,0001,870,0003,4000.04785
Denmark1,600132,400134,0601900.04057
Spain633,000167,000800,0001,0000.03949
Japan670,0001,730,0002,400,0006,9250.03190

Chapter 22. SECTION XXII.—PUBLIC FINANCE.

Table of Contents

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1910, and amending Acts. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post Office, the Government Insurance Office, the Public Trust Office, the Commissioners of the Public Debt Sinking Funds, the State Advances Office, the State Fire Insurance Office, and the deposits under the New Zealand Consols Act, are paid into one account at the bank called the “Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following funds or accounts in the books of the Treasury:—

  1. I. The Consolidated Fund.

  2. II. The Public Works Fund.

  3. III. Separate accounts or funds specially created.

The main Consolidated Fund Account records the ordinary public revenue and expenditure. There are certain subsidiary accounts to this fund which come under the third head in the above category. The Public Works Fund Account contains receipts from loans or transfers from the Consolidated Fund and the expenditure on public works, immigration, or special services legally chargeable to that account.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The revenue of any financial year is the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year; the expenditure is the money paid at the Treasury within the year, and the money paid by imprestees of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year. Imprests not accounted for at the end of a financial year are included in the accounts of the following year.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Acts lapse, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The usual practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year, and to vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.

In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees, temporary officers, and officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; on account of unauthorized expenditure; or chargeable against the accounts of local bodies. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the Head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the Head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.

The total revenue and expenditure of the Consolidated Fund Account for the financial years ended the 31st March, 1914 to 1923, is shown in the following table, together with the excess of revenue for each year and the amount of such excess transferred to the Public Works Fund in the succeeding year:—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.Excess of Revenue over Expenditure.Amount of Excess transferred to the Public Works Fund.

* Excess of expenditure over revenue.

 ££££
191412,229,66111,825,864403,797675,000
191512,451,94512,379,80372,142350,000
191614,507,53012,493,1072,014,423..
191718,355,19414,058,7704,296,424..
191820,206,22215,120,2885,085,934..
191922,352,37218,673,5993,678,773..
192026,081,34023,781,5242,299,816..
192134,260,96128,068,7306,192,231500,000
192228,127,00728,466,838339,831*..
192327,579,44326,263,7601,315,683..
     Totals, ten years216,151,675191,132,28325,019,3921,525,000

To the amount of excess revenue for the ten years must be added the sum of £709,509 brought forward from the financial year ended the 31st March, 1913, and an amount of £14,960, representing sinking funds set free (£2,607 in 1915-16 and £12,353 in 1916-17), making a total of £25,743,861. From this excess transfers to other funds have been made at various times, and to ascertain the balance carried forward as at the 1st April, 1923, deductions require to be made for these amounts—namely, £1,525,000 to the Public Works Fund during the ten years above, £17,381,771 for debt-reduction or capital purposes (£11,400 in 1913-14, £13,380,400 in 1919-20, £780,011 in 1921-22, and £3,209,960 in 1922-23), and £1,200,000 to the London Reserve Fund in 1920-21, a total of £20,106,771. Deducting this total from the sum of £25,743,861 referred to, there remains a balance of £5,637,090, which has been carried forward to the current year's account.

The total amount of excess revenue transferred to the Public Works Fund during the thirty-two financial years ended the 31st March, 1923, was £10,805,000.

All transfers from the Consolidated Fund to other accounts are not regarded as out of surplus revenue, some items being included in the total of expenditure in the Treasury accounts. Transfers included in expenditure in 1922-23 were—

 £
To Loans Redemption Account (for reduction of funded debt)141,171
To Electric Supply Account250,000
To Advances to other Governments Account22,693
To Westport Harbour Account17,885
To Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Account1,112
Total£432,861

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—REVENUE.

An analysis of the revenue received during each of the last ten financial years is made in the next table.

Revenue under the head of “Taxation" includes Customs and excise duties, land-tax, income-tax, death duties, a tax on bank-note issue, totalizator-tax, and amusements-tax. Revenue from “Crown Lands” consists of rents and national-endowment net revenue, but does not include proceeds of sales. The principal item included in the receipts from “Other Sources” is interest on public moneys, other items being departmental receipts, registration and other fees, marine charges, revenue from tourist and health resorts, &c.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—REVENUE, 1913-14 to 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Revenue derived fromTotal Revenue.
Taxation.Railways.Post and Telegraph.Crown Lands.Other Sources.
 ££££££
19145,918,0344,028,7391,269,922262,846750,12012,229,661
19155,880,8114,106,6751,359,060318,393787,00612,451,945
19167,266,9664,484,3371,695,757311,969748,50114,507,530
191710,549,6544,836,2751,809,317301,758858,19018,355,194
191812,340,8534,668,2731,837,260306,1361,053,70020,200,222
191913,801,6434,975,4451,982,539311,5581,281,18722,352,372
192016,251,7695,766,0152,036,565331,5971,695,39426,081,340
192122,184,4146,918,4922,478,532319,6412,359,88234,260,961
192216,370,5166,683,2362,748,480303,1782,021,59728,127,007
192315,594,2886,719,8642,705,030287,3432,272,91827,579,443
Totals, ten years126,158,94853,187,35119,922,4623,054,41913,828,495216,151,675

Up to the end of 1920-21 the total revenue shows in each year very large increases, and this feature is particularly apparent in the period immediately following the war. These increases were due in part to increases in taxation levied, as set out in the next subsection, but the exceptional increase in 1920-21 was due to the great increase in the total value of imports, and consequently in Customs revenue. A further reason was the increased charges for certain services to the public, notably railway fares and post and telegraph charges. The increased revenue from these latter sources was, however, comparatively small, and in no way kept pace with the heavily increased expenditure. The revenue for each of the years 1921-22 and 1922-23 was some £6,000,000 less than the abnormal total recorded in 1920-21, the fall being almost wholly accounted for by diminished receipts from Customs duty and income-tax, a return to more normal conditions as regards imports causing the decrease in Customs duty, and the rapid fall in the price of the Dominion's primary products being responsible for the great shrinkage in income-tax collections.

The total revenue per head of population (excluding Maoris), and the amounts per head derived from taxation and from other sources, during the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

REVENUE PER HEAD OF POPULATION, 1913-14 to 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Revenue per Head derived fromTotal Revenue per Head.
Taxation.Other Sources.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1914510051741174
19155756001175
1916612161171338
191791111720161311
191811397271864
1919127271322004
1920140989922106
192118901001028910
192213579101022165
192312711910721186

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure out of the Consolidated Fund is grouped under two main headings by the Treasury, “Permanent" and “Annual.” Permanent appropriations, as the name implies, are those fixed by special Acts of the Legislature. Annual appropriations are voted each year by resolution of Parliament, and include the cost of the business undertakings of the State. In the following table this grouping has not been adopted, as it is considered more desirable to show the growth of the main items of expenditure during the last ten financial years:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount expended onTotal Expenditure.
Working Railways.Post and Telegraph.Education.Interest, &c., on Public Debt.Other Expenses.
 ££££££
19143,004,1811,170,8831,206,6782,887,9813,556,14111,825,864
19152,881,0871,245,2241,288,7953,071,4483,893,24912,379,803
19162,964,0061,294,7121,441,3983,190,7983,602,19312,493,107
19172,871,9771,368,4901,525,1064,032,8854,260,31214,058,770
19183,067,6581,487,1451,640,9884,430,7794,493,71815,120,288
19193,415,5951,699,7011,737,0366,086,7695,734,49818,673,599
19204,305,9651,941,4942,190,5877,249,4268,094,05223,781,524
19216,211,0112,588,3602,633,9777,831,5938,803,78928,068,730
19226,473,2342,448,6882,652,2998,442,2788,450,33928,466,838
19234,946,1812,112,5432,581,6018,899,9577,723,47826,263,760

The effect of the steps taken towards economy in public expenditure is shown by a comparison of the figures for 1922-23 with those for 1921-22. The only item not showing a substantial decrease is public-debt charges, which, of course, grow with the public debt. The charges of the public debt are found to have absorbed 23.61 per cent. of the revenue in 1913-14 and 32.27 per cent. in 1922-23.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE, 1922-23

The total receipts of the Consolidated Fund for the financial year 1922-23, including a balance of £7,531,367 brought forward from the previous year, were £35,110,810, and the total expenditure for the same period was £26,263,760, or, inclusive of £3,209,960 transferred to other accounts, £29,473,720, leaving a balance of £5,637,090 to carry forward.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—RECEIPTS, 1922-23.

 ££
From taxation—  
   Customs revenue6,032,292..
   Excise duty612,128..
   Land-tax1,541,502..
   Income-tax3,831,932..
   Death duties1,829,852..
   Bank composition210,577..
   Totalizator revenue607,656..
   Amusements-tax137,546..
   Other taxation (duty on instruments, &c.)790,803..
  15,594,288
Railways..6,719,864
Postal..1,390,259
Telegraph..724,804
Telephone..589,967
Land revenue—  
   Crown-lands rents, royalties, &c.192,186..
   Net revenue from national-endowment lands95,157..
  287,343
Registration and other fees..179,033
Marine..50,579
Interest on public moneys..1,302,967
Local Bodies' Loans Act (refund of cost of roads and bridges from proceeds of disposal of lands)..22,575
Rent of buildings..20,346
Tourist and health resorts..39,823
Departmental and other receipts..657,595
     Total..£527,579,443

The amount of £95,157 shown as net revenue from national-endowment lands represents the money received from that source during the previous financial year. The method adopted is to place the amount received under this head each year to a separate account, and, after deducting necessary expenses, to transfer the balance to the Consolidated Fund Account. Of this balance 70 per cent. is expended on education and 30 per cent. on old-age pensions.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—EXPENDITURE, 1922-23.
 ££
Permanent charges—  
   Civil List28,833 
   Interest, sinking fund, and other debt charges8,899,957 
   Pensions2,477,975 
   Other1,500,539 
   Totals, permanent charges 12,907,304
   Annual appropriations—  
   Legislative Departments70,091 
   Treasury Department33,390 
   Land and Income Tax Department60,268 
   Stamp Duties Department74,851 
   National Provident and Friendly Societies Department19,992 
   Working Railways4,946,181 
   Post and Telegraph working-expenses2,112,543 
   Public buildings77,875 
   Government domains4,470 
   Maintenance and improvement of roads55,948 
   Maintenance of irrigation-works1,345 
   Native Department25,685 
   Department of External Affairs19,332 
   Department of Industries and Commerce95,321 
   Department of Justice47,300 
   Supreme and Magistrates' Courts95,315 
   Prisons Department77,301 
   Crown Law Office5,927 
   Police Department377,788 
   Cook Islands19,732 
   Pensions Department122,453 
   Mines Department26,823 
   Department of Internal Affairs344,783 
   Audit Department19,599 
   Public Service Commissioner's Office7,055 
   Printing and Stationery175,551 
   Mental Hospitals245,206 
   Department of Health233,823 
   Naval defence211,225 
   Defence285,113 
   Customs Department103,352 
   Marine Department117,204 
   Department of Labour38,096 
   Department of Lands and Survey152,377 
   Valuation36,739 
   Electoral101,320 
   Department of Agriculture208,197 
   Tourist59,647 
   Education Department2,581,601 
   Services not provided for65,637 
     Totals, annual appropriations 13,356,456
     Grand total, expenditure £26,263,760

In the table of expenditure above, the net amount of national-endowment residue (£95,157) has been allocated on the basis already referred to between the items “Pensions" and “Education,” in lieu of including it with other permanent charges.

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

Included in the figures dealt with under the head of “Public Works Fund” are the Public Works Fund General Purposes Account and the separate subsidiary accounts relating to the Railways Improvement Authorization Act, 1914, Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement, and electric supply. The receipts consist mainly of the proceeds of loans raised for the construction of public works. From time to time the fund has been aided by substantial transfers of surplus revenue from the Consolidated Fund Account. The receipts for the last ten years are shown in the next table:—

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS, 1913-14 to 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Amounts received.Recoveries on account of Expenditure of Previous Years.Receipts from Other Sources.Total Receipts.
From Loans.Transfers from Consolidated Fund.Receipts from Sales of Electric Energy.
 ££££££
19142,763,884675,000..9,05130,8163,478,751
19151,857,742350,000..13,4553,2942,224,491
19163,166,830....6,46013,8643,187,154
19171,095,000....5,7125,1251,105,837
19181,025,100..16,41543,4926,1881,091,195
19191,180,000..35,06320,1765,4411,240,680
19202,082,000..42,761112,8645,7642,243,389
19214,433,000500,00052,89619,6276,6335,012,156
19229,639,682..64,70011,616153,2349,792,916
19233,476,890250,00092,43140,175109,0693,968,565

The principal regular item under the heading of “Receipts from Other Sources” is receipts under sections 17 and 18 of the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 1910, which includes payments from the Consolidated Fund, payments from gold-mining companies, and an allotment from gold duty in fixed proportions but varying amounts, together with interest on securities. Another standing item covers receipts in connection with the Ellesmere and Forsyth reclamation; and, commencing with 1917-18, there have been miscellaneous receipts (other than from sales) under section 8 of the State Supply of Electrical Energy Act, 1917. Included in the figures for 1912-13 is the sum of £25,000, which was formerly held in the Deposit Account, for the purchase of permanent-way material; also £86,970, receipts under section 16 of the Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act, 1912. This column for 1913-14 includes a further amount of £21,890, receipts under the Act mentioned. Included in the amounts shown for 1921-22 and 1922-23 are sums of £68,416 and £98,828 respectively, representing interest on investments of the Electric Supply Account.

In addition to the amounts shown above, the sum of £9,280,000 was transferred during the years 1891-92 to 1912-13 from the Consolidated Fund Account to the Public Works Fund. The next table shows the expenditure at intervals of five years from 1884-85 to 1909-10 and for each of the last ten financial years upon services which are charged to the fund. As will be seen further on, the whole of what may be termed public works are not included in this account.

EXPENDITURE ON SERVICES PROVIDED FOR BY THE PUBLIC WORKS FUND.
Year ended 31st March.Immigration.Railways.Roads.Development of Mining.Telegraph Extension.Public Buildings.Light houses, &c.Other Services.Total.
 £££££££££
188557,148663,063317,0438,02925,799117,36134,033114,2511,336,727
1890867289,57284,12628416,34035,4739,43446,362482,464
1895101247,545164,8335,86519,22954,1903,1459,578504,486
1900385417,937285,53221,81526,771115,4279,026116,330993,223
19056,482811,994230,0126,25879,298116,6785,99097,4461,354,158
191017,0021,279,807367,23018,598123,422276,94916,683116,7062,216,397
191433,9141,144,756382,0974,889392,648369,6009,059423,8352,760,798
191533,2191,156,073514,7982,384288,395417,00017,131308,3642,737,364
191610,0101,205,287424,6376,602249,554335,77413,673337,6752,583,212
19176,533846,983219,7944,592203,311251,4313,768239,1011,775,513
19183,856607,931135,64227213,955229,2882,976208,1621,401,837
1919Cr. 12,018467,737226,073518198,611235,8465,392265,5021,387,661
1920Cr. 62,561842,082388,5621,173249,379469,1953,498341,4852,232,815
1921Cr. 7,8061,428,982538,5742,153336,468502,2114,838852,8203,658,240
1922247,5103,265,879564,1592,130579,899361,10918,7741,836,1766,375,636
192390,6122,164,934648,006Cr. 99512,656272,4209,7841,031,3664,729,679

The total for “Other Services” in the last few years has been greatly swelled by governmental activities in regard to development of water-power for electricity.

The receipts and expenditure of the Public Works Fund and its subsidiary accounts during the financial year ended 31st March, 1923, were as under:—

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS, 1922-23.
 ££
Balance, 1st April, 1920..4,521,259
Consolidated stock under Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 19212,800,000..
Debentures issued under Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 19219,700..
Inscribed stock issued under Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 192192,720..
Debentures issued under Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 1910, and Finance Act, 191934,000..
Debentures issued under Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 1910, and Finance Act, 192226,000..
Consolidated stock under Electric-power Works Loan Act, 1919500,000..
Inscribed stock issued under Electric-power Works Loan Act, 191910,470..
Debentures issued under Electric-power Works Loan Act, 19194,000..
 ..3,476,890
Transfer from Consolidated Fund to Electric Supply Account..250,000
Interest on overdue instalments of loans76..
Premiums477..
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years40,175..
Receipts in connection with Ellesmere and Forsyth Reclamation and Akaroa Railway Trust Account1,742..
Sales of electric energy92,431..
Miscellaneous receipts under the State Supply of Electrical Energy Act, 19172,388..
Interest on securities held by Investment Account under the State Supply of Electrical Energy Act, 191798,828..
Receipts under the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 19105,558..
 ..241,675
     Total..£8,489,824
PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—EXPENDITURE, 1922-23.
 ££
Public works, departmental111,326 
Railways2,164,934 
Public buildings—  
   General113,553 
   Courthouses2,018 
   Prisons23,113 
   Police-stations6,298 
   Postal and Telegraph77,211 
   Agricultural514 
   Mental hospitals13,853 
   Hospitals and charitable institutions21,135 
   Timber-supply, sawmills, &c.14,725 
Lighthouses3,260 
Harbour-works6,524 
Tourist and health resorts5,435 
Immigration90,612 
Roads, &c.643,156 
Roads on goldfields4,850 
Development of miningCr. 99 
Telegraph extension512,656 
Motor transport service22,679 
Contingent defence1,702 
Lands, miscellaneous26,204 
Irrigation and water-supply58,131 
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement66,708 
Development of water-power685,891 
Plant, material, and storesCr. 19,708 
Services not provided for41 
Charges of raising loans72,957 
  4,729,679
Cancellation of debentures, under Electric-power Works Loan Act, 1919500,000 
Balance, 31st March, 19233,260,145 
     Total£8,489,824 

The expenditure on roads out of the Public Works Fund does not comprise all of the moneys spent under that head by the General Government. Between 1896-97 and 1910-11 the sum of £469,236 was expended on construction of roads to open up Crown lands out of the moneys raised for loans to local bodies, and further sums have been spent from time to time for this purpose and for the opening-up of national-endowment lands out of the Land for Settlements and National Endowment Accounts respectively. Since 1910-11 this further expenditure, including £6,787 out of the National Endowment Account in 1916-17, has amounted to £694,851, the amount for the last financial year being £78,350.

The roading of lands purchased for closer settlement is made a charge upon the Land for Settlements Account, and is included in the value upon which the rentals of those lands are based. The reclamation by drainage and opening up by means of roads of an area of the Hauraki Plains is provided for out of moneys borrowed for that purpose and shown in a separate account.

SEPARATE SUBSIDIARY ACCOUNTS OR FUNDS.

The accounts included under this heading in some cases comprise revenue of different kinds mixed up with loan-money, while others are merely records of transactions which of their nature cannot be considered as properly belonging to the Public Account. Among the former may be counted the State Forests and State Coalmines Accounts, and among the latter the accounts of local bodies, which consist of revenue collected on behalf of and paid over to local authorities, and the Deposit Accounts, consisting partly of moneys held in trust and partly of moneys held in suspense for various reasons. As further indicating the function of these special accounts one or two of more recent creation may be mentioned: the War Expenses Account, which was called into existence by the war; the Waimarino Bush-fire Relief Account, which was created in 1918 for the purpose of providing funds for the relief of settlers who suffered loss through the disastrous bush-fires in the vicinity of Raetihi; the Education Loans Account, originated in 1919 for the purpose of raising money for acquisition of land and construction of buildings for educational purposes; and the Fishing Industry Promotion Account of the same year, making provision for assistance to the fishing industry by means of advances not exceeding £5,000.

While in some instances transactions in the accounts have been on a fairly large scale, yet from the nature of the subject it will readily be seen that most of the receipts and expenditure have been directly concerned with the special matters which were the objects of the creation of the separate funds. In the table following a summary is given of the receipts and expenditure of each separate account, together with the balances at the beginning and end of the financial year respectively. In order that the summary may the more completely indicate the main transactions of the whole of the public moneys, the main totals of the Consolidated and Public Works Funds, which have been treated earlier in this section, have also been included.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE OF ACCOUNTS, 1922-23, WITH BALANCES AT 1ST APRIL, 1922, AND 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Account.Balance, 1st April, 1922.Receipts.Expenditure.Balance 31st March. 1923.
In Cash.In Investments.
Consolidated Fund (proper)7,531,36727,579,44329,473,7204,424,1711,212,919
State Forests9,376280,967110,55412,945166,844
State Coal-mines55,191230,113254,95920,34510,000
State Coal-mines Sinking Fund..24,980....24,980
Scenery Preservation3,11310,0389,0114,140..
Nauru and Ocean Islands24,884176,325184,81416,395..
Local Bodies9,62525,04925,3949,280..
Deposits994,086718,2001,267,307122,909322,070
Public Works (General Purposes)429,6833,924,7573,912,886211,554230,000
Railways Improvement1,904,166..1,053,63644,530806,000
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement16,29465,55866,7096,6298,514
Electric Supply2,171,117978,2501,196,449149,1601,803,758
Cheviot Estate173,84025,56310,3367,427181,640
Land for Settlements383,138500,654763,19591,24729,350
Land for Settlements (Discharged Soldiers Settlement)10,903208,380208,55810,725..
Native Land Settlement40,446367,278377,51410,21020,000
Land for Settlements (Opening up Crown Lands)4388,42787,989481..
Conversion6,118....6,118..
Waimarino Bush-fire Relief39,5182,26441,782....
General Purposes Relief..41,3156,5147,30127,500
War Expenses3,710,4391,1091,202,57533,3102,475,663
Land Assurance..74,302718,34165,890
Westport Harbour5,51063,29368,803....
Hauraki Plains Settlement8,348111,570110,8699,049..
National Endowment97,465121,421107,52929,35782,000
Workers' Dwellings52,100..52,100....
Mining Advances5527,8945,8272,619..
Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings130339192277..
Fishing Industry Promotion1,2892041,493....
Education Loans9,598596,003361,9769,825233,800
National Endowment Trust871,313..1,400..
Housing15,34631,29046,636....
Bank of New Zealand875,000......875,000
Reserve Fund2,000,000......2,000,000
New Zealand Consols475,992....7475,985
Kauri-gum Industry1,94533,80133,6572,089..
Loans Redemption (net)157,959..107,93950,020..
Rangitaiki Land Drainage2,37065,44862,9274,891..
Fruit-preserving Industry1,2294,1305,359....
Discharged Soldiers Settlement832,7551,764,5022,241,475105,782250,000
Discharged Soldiers Settlement101,77554,164..5,939150,000
Loans Act 1920 Depreciation Fund..........
Swamp Land Drainage18,22245,08159,5893,714..
Main Highways..121,413..11,413110,000
Cold-storage Advances36,5326,23942,771....
Hunter Soldiers' Assistance Trust1831,225371,371..
Samoan Loan Suspense..10,00010,000....
Advances to other Governments10,006205,573195,59119,988..
     Totals22,217,74038,567,87543,768,7435,454,95911,561,913

The State Advances Account, which is administered directly by the Advances Board, is not included in the above statement, and only the balances of the Loans Redemption Account have been utilized. In addition there are the funds of the Government Life Insurance Department, the State Fire Insurance Department, and the Public Trust Office, which are administered by the Departments concerned. Reference to the working of these Departments will be found elsewhere in this book.

LOAN-MONEY.

The total revenue of all accounts is seen to have been £38,567,875, and the total expenditure £43,768,743, the aggregate credit balance being thus reduced by £5,200,868 during the year. The excess of expenditure over revenue is, however, accounted for by funds aggregating £5,168,386 being utilized for the redemption of debentures. The value of the debentures redeemed by this means, including £57,000 of State Advances debt, was £5,238,251, which is slightly more than the amount (£5,234,818) of new loan-money raised. The utilization of part of the accumulated surplus revenue thus had the effect of slightly reducing the Dominion's public debt, while still leaving the substantial balance of £17,016,872 to the credit of the various accounts.

The following table shows the year's receipts of loan - money by the various accounts concerned, together with the amounts paid out for redemption purposes:—

Account or Fund.Loan-money received.Amount paid out for Redemptions.
 ££
Consolidated..3,301,131
State Forests214,188..
Scenery Preservation9,000..
Deposits Account (unallocated)5,250..
Public Works (General Purposes)2,902,420..
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement60,000..
Electric Supply514,470500,000
Land for Settlements..250,100
Land for Settlements (Discharged Soldiers Settlement)164,000..
Discharged Soldiers Settlement304,43545,210
Native Land Settlement255,235..
War Expenses..1,033,945
Hauraki Plains Settlement88,000..
Mining Advances6,000..
Education Loans595,920..
Rangitaiki Land Drainage60,900..
Swamp Land Drainage45,000..
Cold-storage Advances..38,000
Samoan Loan Suspense10,000..
     Totals5,234,8185,168,386

The money used for redemption purposes was paid from the various funds concerned into the Loans Redemption Account, which, in addition to redeeming debentures to the amount of £5,238,251 by the moneys so obtained (£5,168,386), effected further reductions in the public debt by issuing fresh debentures for £3,130,322 in lieu of old debentures aggregating £3,227,950. The aggregate loan receipts during the year were thus £8,365,140, and the aggregate redemptions £8,466,201, making a total decrease of £101,061 in the public debt.

TRANSFERS BETWEEN ACCOUNTS.

In the grand totals of £38,567,875 and £43,768,743 shown previously as the revenue and expenditure for the year a considerable amount of duplication occurs owing to the transfer of money from one account to another. A record of transfers during the year is given in the next table:—

Account or Fund from which transferred.Account or Fund to which transferred.Amount.
  £
ConsolidatedElectric Supply250,000
ConsolidatedAdvances to other Governments22,693
ConsolidatedWestport Harbour17,885
ConsolidatedWaihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement1,112
ConsolidatedDischarged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act Depreciation Fund50,000
State Coal-minesState Coal-mines Sinking Fund24,580
Railways Improvement Authorization Act, 1914Public Works (General Purposes)1,000,000
Land for SettlementsLand for Settlements (Opening up Crown Land per Settlement)70,000
Waimarino Bush-fire ReliefGeneral Purposes Relief40,243
Hauraki Plains SettlementConsolidated714
National EndowmentConsolidated95,157
..Total1,572,384

The items shown above by no means represent the total transfers between accounts. As stated previously, sums aggregating £5,168,386 were transferred from various accounts to the Loans Redemption Account for the redemption of debentures. Again, payments aggregating £2,025,245 were made to the Consolidated Fund by loan accounts to recoup interest and sinking-fund charges borne by that fund, and other payments totalling £1,725 in respect of management charges of consolidated stock and other loan-money. These amounts are, however, not treated as receipts by the Consolidated Fund, being used merely to reduce the total expenditure of that fund in respect of these items. Other transfers not included above are the transference of the balances of four accounts to the State Advances Account, which is not included in the Treasury accounts. The four accounts referred to (which have ceased to exist as public accounts), and the balance transferred in each case, are—

 £
Housing12,682
Cold-storage Advances2,245
Fishing Industry Promotion1,101
Fruit-preserving Industry Advances3,710
     Total£19,738

REVENUE FROM INVESTMENTS AND ADVANCES.

Two important items of receipts6—viz., loan-money and transfers from other accounts—have been dealt with above. Another considerable item, and one of much interest, is the revenue obtained from the investment of securities and the lending of money by way of advances. It should again be pointed out that the public accounts of the Treasury do not cover the operations of the State Advances Department, and that consequently the figures shown below do not cover interest on and repayments of money advanced under the schemes of advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities, which are dealt with in Section XXIII of this book. The figures for the Housing, Cold-storage Advances, Fruit-preserving Industry Advances, and Fishing Industry Promotion Accounts cover only the period from the 1st April to the 31st October, 1922, these accounts having been merged in the State Advances Account from the latter date.

Account or Fund.Repayments of Principal.*Interest.Rents, Royalties, and Rates.Sales.
From Advances.From Investment Account and other Sources.

* Including recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years.

Contribution by British Phosphate Commission towards interest and sinking fund.

Excluding wharfage and port charges.

 £££££
Consolidated91,846..1,302,967213,780..
State Forests438..2,94063,372..
State Coal-mines....501..229,612
State Coal-mines Sinking Fund....400....
Scenery Preservation......1,02810
Nauru and Ocean Islands157....51,921124,247
Public Works (General Purposes)20,127..641,742..
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement......1,112..
Electric Supply20,049..98,840..92,431
Cheviot Estate....6,57518,989..
Land for Settlements877..8,893340,456147,637
Land for Settlements (Discharged Soldiers Settlement)361....43,132864
Native Land Settlement1,2431,0462,61532,26759,575
Land for Settlements (Opening up Crown Land for Settlement)......18,427..
Waimarino Bush-fire Relief520865879....
General Purposes Relief74239759....
Land Assurance Fund....44273,860..
Westport Harbour....269,22,935.. 
Hauraki Plains Settlement......19,5152,123
National Endowment....1,886119,535..
Mining Advances7231,170......
Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings..339......
Fishing Industry Promotion11688......
Education Loans....11....
National Endowment Trust........1,313
Housing......38730,903
Kauri-gum Industry........33,482
Rangitaiki Land Drainage......4,430..
Fruit-preserving Industry Advances1,9992,131......
Discharged Soldiers Settlement758,346654,19140,8746,156..
Discharged Soldiers Settlement....4,165....
Loans Act 1920 Depreciation Fund..........
Swamp Land Drainage....7210..
Main Highways....321....
Cold-storage Advances3,6381,853748....
Hunter Soldiers' Assistance Trust......1,225..
     Totals900,514661,9221,474,2211,034,279722,197

The large total of £4,793,133 is shown to have been obtained during the year from the sources indicated. Absolute accuracy in compiling the above statement is not claimed, as it has been found impossible in some cases to distinguish between revenue from rents and from sales. Again, while no sales revenue appears opposite the Consolidated Fund, this is merely because such revenue is not separately shown in the public accounts. A proportion of the revenue classed under some of the items of the fund (as, for instance, departmental receipts) would be represented by sales, and it is possible that some of the remaining groups are also understated. Under the heading of repayments for this fund are included recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years and receipts under section 76 of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1908, which provides for recoupment of the cost of roads and bridges out of the proceeds of disposal of land. The item “Rents,” &c., is composed of territorial revenue (rents and royalties), rents of buildings, and marine receipts on account of foreshore rents and royalties.

INTEREST AND SINKING-FUND PAYMENTS.

The following table gives details of interest and sinking-fund payments recouped to the Consolidated Fund by various accounts during the year:—

Account.Interest.Sinking Fund.
 ££
State Forests19,701936
State Coal-mines9,252..
Scenery Preservation:2,007..
Nauru and Ocean Islands30,000..
Electric Supply212,287..
Cheviot Estate8,866827
Land for Settlements372,23320,781
Land for Settlements (Discharged Soldiers Settlement)138,4549,980
Native Land Settlement125,0229,154
Land for Settlements (Opening up Crown Land for Settlement)7,9811,658
Waimarino Bush-fire Relief1,500..
General Purposes Relief1,500245
Westport Harbour37,6778,600
Hauraki Plains Settlement16,5091,279
Workers' Dwellings52,100..
Mining Advances2,209..
Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings17913
Fishing Industry Promotion126..
Housing9,051..
Kauri-gum Industry4,590245
Rangitaiki Land Drainage15,944..
Fruit-preserving Industry Advances1,455..
Discharged Soldiers Settlement869,15821,042
Swamp Land Drainage10,269..
Cold-storage Advances2,415..
     Totals1,950,48574,760

In addition, an amount of £20,179 was transferred from the Land for Settlements Account to the State Advances Account as a payment towards sinking fund.

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.
TOTAL TAXATION.

ALL revenue collected by means of taxation is applied to general purposes. Customs duties on imported goods, and excise duties on beer and tobacco, constitute the indirect taxation; while land and income taxes, death duties, a tax on bank-note issues, duties on cheques and on receipts for payments, a tax on totalizator investments, and an amusements-tax are the main sources of revenue by direct taxation.

Particulars of the collections during the last ten years, under the main headings, are shown in the following table:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount of Taxation derived fromTotal.
Customs and Excise Duties.Land-tax.Income-tax.Death Duties.Other Taxes.
 ££££££
19143,553,785767,451554,271613,751428,7765,918,034
19153,294,943799,641540,318796,232449,6775,880,811
19163,524,0631,048,3561,392,119610,350692,0787,266,966
19174,037,628713,1184,262,126570,040966,74210,549,654
19183,601,3831,385,7085,619,561805,511928,69012,340,853
19194,104,0161,512,6936,219,336869,3711,096,22713,801,643
19205,185,7281,557,9036,369,765978,0952,160,27816,251,769
19218,769,2511,688,9798,248,9451,106,9252,370,31422,184,414
19225,554,3341,637,8166,002,9871,512,7541,662,62516,370,516
19236,644,4201,541,5023,831,9321,829,8521,746,58215,594,288

The percentage under each heading to the total amount collected for each year is as under:—

Year ended 31st March.Proportion per Cent. derived from
Customs and Excise Duties.Land-tax.Income-tax.Death Duties.Other Direct Taxes.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191460.0512.979.3710.377.24
191556.0313.609.1913.547.64
191648.4914.4319.168.409.52
191738.276.7640.405.409.17
191829.1811.2345.546.537.52
191929.7410.9645.066.307.94
192031.919.5939.196.0213.29
192139.537.6137.184.9910.69
192233.9310.0036.679.2410.16
192342.619.8924.5711.7311.20

Some remarkable alterations in percentages are noticed during the last few years, these being due to war and post-war conditions and to consequential alterations in the relative incidence of taxation.

TAXATION PER HEAD.

The revenue from taxation per head of mean population during the last ten years is shown in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
 £s.d.£s.d.
19145525100
1915529575
19166646121
191793791111
1918101411139
1919111711278
1920131111429
1921171441890
1922121481357
192311171012711

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1923, the sum of £6,032,292 was collected, after deduction of drawbacks, for duty on imported goods, and £612,128 for excise duties, a total of £6,644,420. The amount of revenue derived from these sources for each of the last ten years is shown below:—

Year ended 31st March.Customs Duties.Excise Duties.Total.
 £££
19143,426,744127,0413,553,785
19153,167,283127,6603,294,943
19163,366,171157,8923,524,063
19173,849,675187,9534,037,628
19183,364,308237,0753,601,383
19193,830,682273,3344,014,016
19204,787,483397,9055,185,388
19218,408,726360,5258,769,251
19225,095,436458,8985,554,334
19236,032,292612,1286,644,420

The revenue from Customs and excise duties in 1912-13 was £3,531,761, and the increase for the ten years is therefore 88 per cent. In the ten calendar years corresponding to the above period the value of imports (excluding specie) increased from £20,576,579 to £34,826,074, or approximately 69 per cent.

The abnormally high Customs revenue collected in 1920-21 was the direct outcome of the large importations resulting from the fulfilment of delayed orders of a very considerable quantity and value. As was to be expected, the revenue fell almost to its former level in 1921-22, but increased again in 1922-23, the figure for which year, while much in excess of any year prior to 1920-21, was nevertheless two millions of pounds short of the total for the record year.

Generally speaking, in spite of slight increases in Customs and excise duties as part of the war taxation, the average rate of duty has not increased greatly during the ten years. The increase in the total duties collected is thus almost entirely due to the increased prosperity of the country as reflected by its trade.

For a fuller discussion of Customs taxation than can be given here the reader is referred to the section of this book dealing with “External Trade.”

LAND AND INCOME TAX.

Except in regard to minor details, the system of land and income taxation in force in 1915 had remained unaltered for many years. Probably the only noteworthy point was the gradual hardening-up of the graduated land-tax, designed to prevent aggregation of land and to compel the cutting-up of large estates rather than to secure additional revenue.

The war taxation of 1915, however, not only included increased rates of 33 ⅓ per cent. in the case of income-tax, ¼d. in the pound in the case of land-tax payable on mortgages, and 50 per cent. in the case of graduated land-tax, but also involved an important change of principle. Among the incomes previously exempt from income-tax were those derived directly from land, but in 1915 income-tax was made payable on such incomes.

With the exception of the abolition of the land-tax on mortgages and the substitution of an income-tax in its place, the principles of land-tax assessment were not altered in 1916, nor were the rates increased, but an entirely new scheme known as the excess-profits tax was brought into operation in respect of income-tax, the 1915 system remaining also, with increased rates, for ordinary income-tax. The excess-profits tax being found inequitable and otherwise unsatisfactory, a system of progressive land and income tax, with a special war-tax on incomes, was adopted in 1917.

In 1920 a complete revision of the rates of taxation was made. The new rates became effective on assessments for the year commencing on the 1st April. 1921, and for following years. A feature of the new legislation was the introduction of a deduction from the amount of tax payable of 10 per cent. in respect of tax assessed on “earned income.”

In 1923 further alterations were made, the principal being the restoration of the exemption from income-tax of income derived from the direct use or cultivation of land. Reductions in the rates of taxation were also made, and are referred to in detail under the heading of “Income-tax" further on.

LAND-TAX.

Land-tax is assessed on the unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. These exemptions are referred to hereunder.

The basis of taxation prior to 1917 was a double system of ordinary and graduated tax. For some years the ordinary rate had been 1d. for each pound of unimproved value, while the graduated tax ranged at a varying rate from 1/12d. to 5 ½d. in the pound, according as to whether the value of the land was from 5,000 to £200,000 or more. This system of taxation was abolished in 1917, and in its place was instituted a single progressive tax.

As the amended law operated for the four financial years 1917-18 to 1920-21, the scale of taxation ranged from 1d. to 7d. in the pound. The 1d. rate applied in cases where the unimproved value on which tax was payable did not exceed £1,000, and the rate was increased by 1/32600 of a penny for every pound in excess of £1,000 up to a maximum of 7d. These rates, however, proved to be merely nominal, as for the four years concerned a super-tax of 50 per cent. virtually increased the rates from a minimum of 1 ½d. to a maximum of 10 ½d. in the pound. A further 50-per cent. increase on the total amount assessed is imposed in the case of absentees, including shareholders in companies, but not in the case of companies themselves.

Further alteration in the rate of land-tax was made by the Legislature in 1920, and became effective for assessments after the 1st April, 1921. The scale of taxation of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,000 remained as before at the rate of a penny in the pound, but the rate thereafter was increased by 1/20000 of a penny for every pound in excess of £1,000 up to a maximum of 7 17/20d. For the year 1921-22 the rate of super-tax was reduced to 33 ⅓ per cent., and on the whole of the land-tax a rebate of 10 per cent. was allowed for prompt payment. The super-tax was continued for the year 1922-23 at the rate of 10 per cent. only, without any rebate, and for the year 1923-24 is removed altogether.

The special exemptions deductible from the unimproved value for the purpose of arriving at the assessable amount have not been materially altered by recent legislation. Under the law as it has operated since the 1st April, 1917, an owner of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,000 is allowed an exemption of £500, and where the unimproved value lies between 1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £2 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when 2,500 is reached. Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale is provided. Up to the 1st April, 1921, this was on the basis of £1,500 in cases where the unimproved value did not exceed £3,000, and the amount was diminished by £1 for every £2 above £3,000 where the unimproved value lies between £3,000 and £6,000. For assessments after that date, however, the law provides for an alternative exemption of £4,000 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £6,000, and the exemption of £4,000 is to be diminished by £2 for every £1 above the margin of £6,000. When the unimproved value lies between £6,000 and £8,000, where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is to be deducted instead. For the year commencing with the 1st April, 1923, no special exemption is allowed in the case of land not situated in a borough, which has been owned by a person for three years and not improved to the extent of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the unimproved value, when in the opinion of the Commissioner of Taxes it should have been so improved. In the case of such land, also, the rate of land-tax is 50 per cent. more than the ordinary rate.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, lessees and life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are to be assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and also severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital of one company is held by shareholders who also hold half of the paid-up capital in another company.

The total number of land-tax payers and the amount of revenue during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

LAND-TAX.—NUMBER OF PAYERS AND REVENUE RECEIVED.
Year ended 31st March.Number of Payers.Revenue.
  £
191440,889767,451
191544,270799,641
191645,4091,048,356
191735,859713,118
191851,2751,385,708
191953,4841,512,693
192053,8071,557,903
192154,3631,688,978
192254,7151,637,816
192355,9071,541,502

INCOME-TAX.

Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies and of absentees, and in other cases on incomes in excess of £300 per annum. Between £600 and £900 the exemption is reduced by £1 for every £1 above £600, and no exemption at all is allowed for incomes above £900. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation, and a further £50 is deductible from assessable income for each child under eighteen years of age. Prior to 1920 this deduction was £25, and the age-limit was sixteen years. Sundry other deductions are also provided for, of which that most generally applicable is a maximum exemption of 15 per cent. allowed for life-insurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation. and similar contributions.

For the four financial years 1917-18 to 1920-21 the rates of progressive income-tax ranged from 6d. to 3s. in the case of persons and firms, and from 1s. to 3s. for companies. The 6d. rate for persons and firms applied where the taxable income was not more than £400, and the 1s. rate for companies where the taxable income did not exceed £1,600, the rates being increased by 1/200 of a penny for every additional pound until the maximum tax of 3s. in the pound was reached. Income derived by holders of company debentures from such debentures bore a uniform tax of 1s., plus a special war-tax of 1s. 6d.

The special war-tax also applied to assessable income in excess of £300 of all other income-tax payers. For incomes up to £400 the rate of special war-tax was 9d. in the pound, and this was increased by 3/400 of a penny for every additional pound of income, but so as not to exceed 4s. 6d. in the pound. The maximum total rate of income-tax was thus 7s. 6d. in the pound.

New rates of income-tax were enacted in 1920. On the income of persons and firms the rate was fixed at 1s. in the pound up to a £400 limit of income, and between £400 and £6,000 the tax was increased by 1/100 of a penny for each pound of income in excess of £400. On incomes exceeding £6,000 the rate was made 5s. 8d. in the pound. increased by 1/200 of a penny for each pound in excess of £6,000, with a maximum tax of 7s. 4d. in the pound. In addition to these rates a supertax of 20 per cent. was levied in 1921-22, and the whole of the income tax was made subject to a rebate of 5 per cent. for prompt payment. Both super-tax and rebate were in 1922-23 discontinued.

A new principle of taxation was introduced in the 1920 Act with regard to “earned income,” which is defined to mean the salary or wages (including bonuses) received by the taxpayer in relation to his employment, and further includes all income derived by a taxpayer (other than a company or local body) by reason of his personal exertions. The tax on such income is, up to a limit of £2,000, subject to a reduction of 10 per cent.

For the year commencing with the 1st April, 1923, income-tax rates have been reduced by 20 per cent. in all cases.

Under the Act of 1920 a flat rate of 3s. in the pound was levied on income derived from company debentures, and of 2s. 6d. in the pound on income from debentures issued by local bodies in the Dominion. These rates still apply in respect of debentures issued prior to the 29th August, 1923, but for debentures (whether company or local body) issued after that date a uniform rate of 4s. 6d. in the pound has been fixed as from the 1st April, 1924.

It should be noted that the rates referred to—2s. 6d., 3s., or 4s. 6d., as the case may be — are maximum rates, and therefore that investment in local- or public-authority debentures is a favoured one so far as income-tax is concerned. A person whose income carries the maximum rate of tax, 5s. 10 ⅖d., would pay only 2s. 6d., 3s., or 4s. 6d., as the case may be, on such portion of it as is derived from debentures; the other hand, the person whose income from debentures is less than £300 would pay no income-tax at all; while a person whose income carries a less rate than 2s. 6d., 3s., or 4s. 6d., as the case may be, would be charged only such lesser rate on debenture interest. Any deduction for tax which may be made by the local or public authority is adjusted later by the Department.

A holder, if resident outside New Zealand, of stock or debentures issued by the Government of New Zealand, or any local or public authority, or by the Public Trustee as agent of a land-settlement association, the interest on which is payable out of New Zealand, is not liable in New Zealand for income-tax on such interest.

The following table shows the number of income-tax payers and the revenue received for each of the last ten years:—

INCOME-TAX.—NUMBER OF PAYERS AND REVENUE RECEIVED.
Year ended 31st March.Number of Payers.Revenue.
  £
191414,277554,271
191513,967540,318
191620,0721,392,119
191730,2304,262,125
191837,9495,619,561
191943,2806,219,336
192044,0846,369,765
192144,5978,248,945
192237,8136,002,987
192338,5713,831,932

The very striking increases of recent years in this source of taxation are due mainly to the large growth in both number and incomes of taxpayers brought about by the increased value of business, particularly during the year ended 31st March, 1920, on which the taxation for 1921 is based, and in part to the investigation work and closer inspection by the Land and Income Tax Department of taxpayers' returns.

Interesting statistics of incomes of taxpayers are given in Section XXXII of this book.

DEATH DUTIES.

The law dealing with these classes of duty is embodied in the Death Duties Act, 1921, which is principally a consolidation of enactments previously in force. The main heads of taxation are estate and succession duties, which are generally referred to by the collective title of “death duties.” In addition to these there is provision for a gift duty and a Native succession duty. The incidence of each is dealt with further on in this subsection. Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Commissioner of Stamp Duties, on assessment, interest at 6 per cent. per annum being payable on duty not paid within three months after the death of the deceased. Gift duties are payable at the time the gift is made, and Native succession duties before the registration of the succession order by the Native Land Court. Generally the decision of the Commissioner of Stamp Duties in regard to matters of fact incidental to the assessment of duty is final, but there is an appeal on points of law by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court.

The net revenue received from death duties, including gift and Native succession duties, during each of the last ten years was—

Year endedAmount.
31st March.£
1914613,751
1915796,232
1916610,350
1917570,040
1918805,511
1919869,371
1920978,095
19211,106,925
19221,512,754
19231,829,852

ESTATE DUTY.

When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person, estimated as at the date of his death, exceeds £1,000 an estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5,000 is exempt from estate duty, but the rate of duty on the whole estate must be determined before the deduction is made.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent. in cases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 15 per cent. for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increased the duty payable, and the rates, which are now embodied in the Act of 1921, run from 1 per cent. on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent. on estates of more than £100,000. The scale of duties is shown in the table below.

SCALE OF ESTATE DUTY.
Final Balance of Estate.Rate per Cent.
£ to £ 
1,000 to 2,0001
2,000 to 3,0002
3,000 to 4,0003
4,000 to 6,0004
6,000 to 8,0005
8,000 to 10,0006
10,000 to 15,0007
15,000 to 20,0008
20,000 to 25,0009
25,000 to 30,00010
30,000 to 35,00011
35,000 to 40,00012
40,000 to 45,00013
45,000 to 50,00014
50,000 to 60,00015
60,000 to 70,00016
70,000 to 80,00017
80,000 to 90,00018
90,000 to 100,00019
Exceeding 100,00020

SUCCESSION DUTY.

In addition to the estate duty referred to above, a succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will or by intestacy., An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of the late war is allowed an additional £5,000 exemption to the amounts shown below.

The rates of duty vary according to the nearness of kin of the beneficiary to the deceased person. The rates shown below were introduced in amending legislation in 1920, and, as in the case of the estate duties, are embodied in the 1921 consolidating Act.

SCALE OF SUCCESSION DUTY.
If Successor isValue of Estate.Rate per Cent.
 £ 
WifeUp to 10,000Nil.
10,000 to 20,0002
Over 20,0004
HusbandUp to 500Nil.
500 to 1,5001
1,500 to 2,5002
Over 2,5003
Brother or SisterUp to 500Nil.
500 to 20,0005
Over 20,00010
Child or lineal descendantUp to 1,000Nil.
1,000 to 5,0001
5,000 to 10,0002
10,000 to 15,0003
15,000 to 20,0003 ½
Over 20,0004
Other relative to 4th degreeUp to 500Nil.
500 to 10,0005
Over 10,00010
Other personUp to 500Nil.
500 to 20,00010
Over 20,00020

In respect to moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand, and where the beneficiary is not the husband or wife of the deceased or a relative of the deceased within the third degree of consanguinity, there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent. of the excess over £1,000.

NATIVE SUCCESSION DUTY.

Where any succession order is made by the Native Land Court on the death of a Native, no death duty in the ordinary way is payable on the property included in it, but a Native succession duty of 2 per cent. is payable on the value of the property, with a general exemption of £200.

GIFT DUTY.

A gift means any disposition of property which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £1,000. and exemption from gift duty is provided in cases of the voluntary discharge of a mortgage debt where the donor and beneficiary are not connected by ties of blood or marriage. The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made are required to be furnished for assessment of duty within one month of the date of the gift, and in default an additional duty of 50 per cent. is payable. Where duty is payable, the rate is based on the following scale:—

Value of Gift.Rate of Duty.
£1,000 to £5,0005 per cent.
£5,000 to £10,0007 ½ per cent.
Over £10,00010 per cent.

These rates, which were introduced in 1920, superseded the flat rate then in force of 5 per cent. on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value. The revenue from gift duty amounted to £48,556 for the financial year ended 31st March, 1923, the figures for the last six years being as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.£
191836,551
191931,736
192054,160
192174,885
192270,440
192348,556

These amounts, it should be noted, are included under the revenue shown previously under the head of “Death Duties.”

TOTALIZATOR-TAX.

The Government tax on totalizator investments is 2 ½ per cent. of the gross amount passed through the machine. Prior to the 1st March, 1910, the percentage was 1 ½.

From the 1st November, 1915, a tax of 1 per cent. was imposed on the total value of all stakes, and a tax of 2 ½ per cent. on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments. From the 22nd December, 1921, the tax on stakes was increased to 10 per cent., and that on dividends to 5 per cent. From the 1st April, 1924, the tax on stakes will be 5 per cent.

The following figures, taken from successive annual reports of the Inspector of Totalizators and covering the five years during which the system of inspection has been in operation, relate to the racing-year, which ends on the 31st July:—

Year ended 31st July.
1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.

* Retained by the clubs, except for the period 1st July to 21st December, 1921, during which the unpaid fractions were payable into the Consolidated Fund.

Number of racing-days236284288286287
Number of races1,8482,2352,2712,2632,269
 £££££
Amount of stakes383,070502,225610,675653,285612,667
Totalizator investments5,732,4808,792,57010,121,2128,141,4577,848,392
Amount paid in dividends5,002,7737,673,4048,834,2036,986,2386,675,907
Government taxes—     
   On totalizator investments143,312219,814253,030203,552196,210
   On dividends129,001197,841227,688303,301353,301
   On stakes3,8315,0226,10746,26561,267
     Totals276,144422,677486,825553,118610,778
7 ½ per cent. of totalizator in vestments retained by clubs429,936659,443759,091610,656587,729
Unpaid fractions*27,45842,06847,20037,70935,245

The totalizator revenue accruing to the State during the 1922-23 racing-year is seen to have totalled £610,778. For the financial year ended the 31st March, 1923, the amount was £607,657.

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.

A form of tax first introduced in 1917 is the amusements-tax, payable on payments for admission to entertainments. “Entertainment" is defined as “any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” No. tax is payable where the charge for admission is not more than 1s., but when the charge exceeds 1s. a tax of 1d. is imposed on each shilling or part of a shilling. In addition to the tax so calculated, a further sum of 1d. is payable where the price for admission exceeds 3s. 6d. These charges are operative from the 1st January, 1922, and are an increase in the rates which were in force from the initiation of the tax up to that date. Provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases—viz., shows promoted by agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, or poultry societies, meetings held for educational, scientific, or philanthropic purposes, and swimming-sports.

Since the introduction of the tax the following amounts have been collected:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount collected.
 £
191816,093
191939,845
192068,064
192179,921
1922103,815
1923137,546

LOCAL TAXATION.

Local governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes as set out in another section of this book. The amount of revenue collected for local purposes during ten years is shown below:—

Year ended 31st March.Local Revenue derived fromTotal.
General Rates.Special and Separate Rates.Licenses and other Taxes.
 ££££
19131,252,717546,582169,4681,968,767
19141,359,776645,862181,8962,187,534
19151,484,430655,495185,5692,325,494
19161,607,764747,391187,0652,542,220
19171,695,572838,967185,6112,720,150
19181,791,028883,513192,4822,867,023
19192,028,151911,455199,3663,138,972
19202,106,3971,037,816245,0783,389,291
19212,338,5391,211,051264,3203,813,910
19222,501,9491,277,946276,9904,056,885

Of recent years there has been great activity in local enterprise, the necessary funds being provided partly out of general rates, but mainly by borrowing, interest on loans and payments to sinking funds being secured in most cases by special rates. The increase in the amount of general rates collected during the ten years 1911-12 to 1921-22 was £1,345,231, or 116 per cent.; special and separate rates increased by £756,787, or 145 per cent.; and total rates by £2,102,018. or 125 per cent. Licenses and other taxes show an increase for the ten years of £163,884, or 145 per cent.

A table is given setting out in greater detail the taxation by local authorities during the year ended the 31st March, 1922.

REVENUE FROM LOCAL TAXATION, 1921-22.
Local Bodies.Rates.Licenses.Other Taxes.Total.
General.Special and Separate.
 £££££
Counties1,167,506242,30420,22733,0331,463,070
Boroughs951,271964,23578,894133,6622,128,062
Town districts45,30627,8594,7633,32381,251
Road districts74,27720,6761,4811,14997,583
River districts16,2005,599....21,799
Land-drainage districts21,6948,196....29,890
Harbour districts110,082......110,082
City and suburban drainage districts111,8695,673..458118,000
Tramway districts..2,665....2,665
Local railway districts1,596......1,596
Water-supply districts334715....1,049
Electric-power districts1,81424....1,838
     Totals2,501,9491,277,946105,365171,6254,056,885

The figures quoted above are exclusive of wharfage dues, charges, fees, and tolls received by Harbour Boards.

SUBSECTION C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS. INTRODUCTORY.

EARLY in the history of the settlement of New Zealand the necessity for financial assistance to open up the forest-clad rugged country was made apparent. In the year 1856 the first Loan Act was passed by the General Assembly, and under that authority £500,000 was raised. In addition to the requirements for necessary initial public works, the opposition to settlement by the Maoris, resulting in active hostilities, compelled considerable borrowing. At the conclusion of the Maori War the work of road and railway construction was mainly carried on under the administration of Provincial Councils, who exercised control over expenditure within their respective districts, the General Government being responsible for undertakings of a national character. Under this system of divided responsibility no general and comprehensive scheme of public works could be carried out.

Up to the end of the year 1870 the General Government had borrowed £4,543,316, while the debt of the Provincial Councils amounted to £3,298,575. In that year the General Government brought forward a public-works and immigration policy by which it was proposed to raise a loan of ten millions for the construction of main trunk railways, roads, and other public works of importance to the country as a whole, as well as for the promotion of settlement on a large scale, the expenditure to be spread over a period of ten years. This policy was accepted by the Legislature, and embodied in the Immigration and Public Works Act, 1870. The necessity for local railways and other works soon caused the original proposals to be exceeded, and to a far greater amount than was at first contemplated. Broadly stated, the system of opening up the lands in advance of settlement was adopted, the State retaining the ownership and control of facilities for transport and communication.

In 1892 the General Government began the repurchase of lands already alienated. The money required for this purpose has been borrowed, but the rentals obtained by the leasing of the lands are sufficient for the payment of interest and sinking fund on the amount raised. In 1894 the Advances to Settlers Act was passed, authorizing the raising of loans for advances on the security of real estate. This was followed by the Advances to Workers Act in 1906. Provision was also made for local bodies borrowing from the Advances Office, including power to borrow for workers' dwellings. Both interest and sinking funds are derived from special revenues produced by rentals and charges, and are thus not a charge on the Consolidated Fund. Until early in the war period money raised for the use of the State Advances Office formed a comparatively large part of the public indebtedness, amounting at the 31st March, 1914, to approximately 30 per cent. of the total debt.

By far the most rapid increase in the national indebtedness, however, has taken place as a result of activities necessitated by the European War. Of the total gross debt of 219 millions of pounds at the 31st March, 1923, no less than 124 millions have been incurred since 1914, including 80 millions attributable to loan-money required for the European War; and this latter amount does not include 10 millions raised by the Government for the settlement of discharged soldiers.

HOW LOANS MAY BE RAISED.

The Minister of Finance may raise loans when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion, and may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment of loans, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured.

During the war period provision was made for the issue to the public of. “Post Office investment certificates” of a nominal value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation was enacted which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates, with a currency of five years or more. Receipts from this source are utilized for the purposes of any loan which may be authorized by Parliament.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of the Dominion. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

INDEBTEDNESS—GROSS, NET, AND PER HEAD.

The gross and net indebtedness of the General Government, the amount of sinking fund accrued, and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (exclusive of Maoris), for each of the last twenty years, are given in the following table:—

As at 31st March.Estimated or Population.Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Gross Indebtedness per Head of European Population.Amount of Sinking Fund accrued.Net Indebtedness.Net Indebtedness per Head of European Population.
  ££s.d.£££s.d.
1904838,95457,522,215681141,500,68756,021,52866156
1905864,97159,912,00069541,650,71858,261,2826772
1906889,96862,191,040691771,661,51960,529,5216803
1907913,87364,179,04070472,042,06862,136,972671910
1908937,58766,453,897701761,268,36165,185,53669106
1909968,31370,938,53473521,479,22469,459,31071148
1910987,48174,890,6457516101,503,22573,387,4207464
19111,008,46881,078,122807111,754,48679,323,63678132
19121,031,50084,353,913811572,160,60382,193,31079138
19131,061,74890,060,763841652,603,64287,457,1218275
19141,089,82799,730,427911023,063,99291,689,8358428
19151,100,586100,059,910901843,178,05596,644,45587163
19161,100,406109,637,397991283,679,964105,957,4339659
19171,101,166129,836,1051171824,263,590125,572,51511409
19181,104,783150,840,0551361084,971,605145,868,45013208
19191,128,630176,076,260156025,951,056170,125,204150149
19201,187,139201,170,755169927,257,564193,913,191163611
19211,218,913206,324,319169558,763,072197,561,22216217
19221,248,216219,054,38517591110,655,394208,241,121166167
19231,271,741218,953,3241723411,879,256207,024,048162159

Loan-money aggregating £4,976,000 raised at the end of 1913-14, £237,400 on the 30th March, 1915, £25 in 1920-21, £157,870 in 1921-22, and £50,020 in 1922-23, was for the redemption of debentures falling due early in the succeeding financial year in each case. These amounts are included in the gross debt of the appropriate years, but not in the figures relating to net indebtedness.

NATURE OF PUBLIC-DEBT EXPENDITURE.

In considering the indebtedness of a country it is important to know whether the money borrowed has been utilized for productive or for unproductive purposes. New Zealand's public-debt expenditure is usually divided into four classes, as follows: (1) Directly reproductive undertakings; (2) investments; (3) indirectly productive public utilities; (4) unproductive.

Much of the money borrowed is obtained for specific purposes, and can be accurately placed in one or other of the four classes shown. On the other hand, however, general public-works loans are obtained to cover the cost of a number of undertakings ranging from railways (directly productive) to public buildings (unproductive). As the Public Works Fund receives from time to time transfers from the Consolidated Fund, and as no distinction is made between expenditure out of revenue and expenditure out of loan, it is necessary to allocate the loan-money over the various items according to the total expenditure on each. The result is accurate enough for practical purposes.

In considering the increase of the public debt, the position at the end of the financial year 1890-91 has been selected as the first basis of comparison, because that date marks the beginning of a period during which the functions of the State have been widely extended, most notably as regards financial assistance to settlers, workers, and local bodies, the repurchase of alienated lands, the working of coalmines, and the establishment of State fire- and accident-insurance offices. In every department these new activities, as well as the old, have been directly successful, while the indirect benefits are incapable of measurement. A considerable portion of the annual interest on the debt, although paid out of the Consolidated Fund, does not fall upon the whole of the taxpaying community, the revenue derived from several of the more important undertakings being sufficient to meet the interest on the money borrowed in respect of them.

The advent of the European War created a second point of demarcation in the history of the loan expenditure of the General Government, necessitating as it did the postponement of all public works, &c., except those of pressing necessity. Expenditure of an unproductive nature occasioned by the war was necessarily continued for some time after the Armistice, but the end of the financial year 1919-20 may be fairly regarded as concluding this period. Although in the years immediately following the period 1914-15 to 1919-20 considerable sums have been provided by loan-money for purposes directly arising out of the war—for example, discharged soldiers' settlement—yet the bulk of such money has been expended in undertakings in the nature of investments, and so should not be regarded as partaking of the nature of unproductive war expenditure.

ALLOCATION OF PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS.

Up to the 31st March, 1891, loan expenditure had been chiefly concerned with railways and roads, the taking-over of the loan liabilities of the Provincial Governments on their abolition, and the Maori War. The following table presents the position as existing on the 31st March, 1891, allocated as far as possible over the various classes of expenditure referred to earlier:—

ALLOCATION OF GROSS PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS AS AT 31st MARCH, 1891.
 ££
Directly reproductive.
Railways14,580,000..
Telegraphs and telephones769,000..
Lighthouses and harbours484,000..
 15,833,000
Investments.
Purchase of Native lands1,546,000..
Loans to local bodies325,000..
 1,871,000
Indirectly productive.
Roads and bridges; lands improvement5,106,000..
Development of mining571,000..
Immigration2,459,000..
  8,136,000
Unproductive.
Public buildings1,800,000..
Maori War2,357,000..
Defence1,638,000..
Deficiencies in revenue, charges and expenses of raising loans, provincial liabilities, &c.7,195,350..
 12,990,350
     Total..£38,830,350

A summary of the gross public indebtedness, grouping the transactions according to whether they occurred prior to the 31st March, 1914, from 1914 to 1920, or from 1920 to the present time, is now given.

ALLOCATION OF GROSS PUBLIC. INDEBTEDNESS.
Class of Undertaking.Up to 31st March, 1914.From 31st March, 1914, to 31st March, 1920.From 31st March, 1920, to 31st March. 1923.Total Gross Indebtedness at 31st March, 1923.

* Decrease.

Directly reproductive.££££
Railways28,421,3044,579,2156,970,68639,971,205
Telegraphs and telephones2,208,8841,352,4111,224,8434,786,138
Lighthouses and harbours612,97140,913910,4911,564,375
Tourist and health resorts168,99520,90941,469231,373
State coal-mines225,0002,601..227,601
State forests..130,000371,172501,172
Water-power development and electric supply218,920243,3713,519,6433,981,934
Swamp drainage..73,000195,000268,000
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers development100,00030,000196,000326,000
     Totals31,956,0746,472,42013,429,30451,857,798
Investments.    
Advances to settlers8,677,326605,871*45,0009,238,197
Advances to workers2,536,926*117,580*12,0002,407,346
Advances to local authorities2,568,068207,461..2,775,529
Mining advances15,00011,50029,20055,700
Kauri-gum industry advances..53,00022,00075,000
Fruit-preserving industry advances..69,610..69,610
Cold-storage advances..120,750*38,00082,750
Land for settlements (including opening up of Crown lands for settlement)7,482,0041,745,430*255,0948,972,340
Purchase of Cheviot Estate253,318....253,318
Discharged soldiers' settlement and lands for discharged soldiers' settlements..11,120,000*1,360,7849,759,216
Native-land settlement1,179,1501,525,431582,8963,287,477
Hauraki Plains settlement100,00085,000264,000449,000
Rangitaiki land drainage45,000205,000170,900420,900
General purposes relief..75,000..75,000
Purchase of Native lands2,715,217....2,715,217
Loans to local bodies3,507,000....3,507,000
Investments of New Zealand Consols475,992....475,992
Bank of New Zealand shares500,000375,000..875,000
Reserve Fund securities800,000..*800,000..
Fishing-industry promotion....5,5755,575
Housing and employers' workers' dwellings....416,375416,375
Nauru and Ocean Islands....600,000600,000
Samoan loan....87,00087,000
     Totals30,85,00116,081,473*332,93246,603,542
Indirectly productive.    
Roads and bridges;lands improvement7,975,3341,783,1921,514,51511,507,302
Irrigation and water-supply..59,672174,589
Development of mining896,99213,4796,896917,367
Immigration2,521,878*38,709302,7382,785,907
     Totals11,394,2041,817,6341,998,73815,210,576
Unproductive.    
Public buildings6,443,5561,721,3341,038,0939,202,983
Scenery-preservation74,00020,00069,000163,000
Maori War2,357,000*400..2,356,600
Defence (naval and contingent)3,720,01147,51621,4843,789,011
Great European War..80,089,025474,86080,563,885
Education loans....1,384,0221,384,022
Deficiencies in revenue, charges and expenses of raising loans, provincial liabilities, &c.7,953,981167,926*300,0007,821,907
     Totals20,548,54882,045,4012,687,459105,281,408
     Grand totals94,753,827106,416,92817,782,569218,953,324

It will be noticed that there is included in the total indebtedness of £94,753,827 existing at the 31st March, 1914, the amount of £38,830,350 (less redemptions that may have taken place in the meantime) already referred to as existing on the 31st March, 1891. The increase between 1891 and 1914 is accordingly £55,923,477, spread over the following classes of undertakings, viz.: Directly reproductive, £16,123,074; investments, £28,984,001; indirectly productive, £3,258,204; and unproductive, £7,558,198.

The increase of the gross public debt since the 31st March, 1891, amounts to £180,122,974. Excluding war expenditure, referred to later, the largest item in the increase is £14,421,072 raised for advances to settlers, workers, and local authorities. In addition to this latter amount, £3,507,000 was raised for loans to local bodies prior to the inauguration of the present system of making such loans through the State Advances Office. Another large item is the purchase and roading of land for settlement, the indebtedness on account of which, including Native land and the Cheviot Estate, aggregated £12,513,135 between 1891 and 1923. Of more recent growth is the expenditure on discharged soldiers' settlement (including ands for discharged soldiers' settlement), amounting to £9,759,216 on the 31st March, 1923. These items, as well as a number of smaller ones, represent investments by the Government bearing interest and lent on continually improving security, the principal being repaid by instalments. Other considerable items which may be considered as interest-bearing investments are those under the heads “Hauraki Plains settlement,” “Rangitaiki land drainage,” “Housing,” “New Zealand Consols,” and “Bank of New Zealand shares.” An item on which loan-money is being-liberally expended is water-power development and electric supply. During the last three years the gross indebtedness on this account has totalled £3,519,643. Such expenditure is, as in the case of railways. regarded as directly reproductive.

EUROPEAN-WAR INDEBTEDNESS.

The tabulated statement given above reveals the phenomenal increase in the public debt on account of the European War. Although no precise date can be given to indicate the definite termination of war borrowing, yet for the purposes of this discussion it has been deemed advisable to delineate the war period as covering the six financial years from 1914-15 to 1919-20. After 1919-20 the rate of unproductive expenditure was very considerably reduced, and the moneys borrowed by the Government have since been directed to undertakings mainly in the nature of investments. The tremendous, though necessary, increase in unproductive expenditure for the war period is more clearly illustrated in the following table, showing the percentages of the various classes to the total for each of the well-defined periods that have been referred to in the course of what has been noted above.

GROSS PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS AT VARIOUS PERIODS, SHOWING PROPORTION EXPENDED ON VARIOUS CLASSES OF UNDERTAKINGS.
Time (as at 31st March in Years shown).Indebtedness on account of
Directly Reproductive Undertakings.Investments.Indirectly Reproductive Undertakings.Unproductive Undertakings.

* Decrease in indebtedness.

 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Up to and as at 189140.784.8220.9533.45
Between 1891 and 191428.6551.826.011.52
Up to and as at 191433.6232.5612.1321.69
Between 1914 and 19206.0815.111.7177.10
Between 1920 and 192375.521.87*11.2415.11
Up to and as at 192323.6821.296.9548.08

The directly interest-earning portion of the debt as at 31st March, 1923, amounts to 44.97 per cent. of the total debt, and is represented by assets which are of much greater value than the amount of borrowed money spent upon them, a considerable amount of surplus ordinary revenue having been expended from time to time on railways and other public services, as well as other moneys of the nature of special receipts. The small proportion represented by unproductive loan-money raised during the period 1891 to 1914 (13.52 per cent.) is in strong contrast to the similar proportion for the period 1914 to 1920 (77.10 per cent.). It will be noted that for the period following the 31st March, 1920, this necessarily abnormal proportion of unproductive indebtedness has been reduced to 15.11 per cent. For the same period also directly reproductive indebtedness formed 75.52 per cent. of the total, as compared with the small ratio of 6.08 per cent. of the war period. the cumulative effect of war expenditure on the Dominion's present gross indebtedness is seen by a comparison of the position as at 31st March, 1891, 1914, and 1923. The diagram given below graphically illustrates for the various classes of indebtedness the features referred to.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1922-23.

On only two occasions in the history of New Zealand has a reduction in the gross public debt been effected during the financial year. The first occasion was in 1890-91, when the debt was reduced by £117,282, and the second in 1922-23, when another slight reduction (£101,061) was recorded.

Loan-money aggregating £8,365,140 was raised during 1922-23, and a total of £8,466,201 was redeemed. The new money was raised for the following purposes:—

Public Works Fund—£
   General Purposes Account2,902,420
   Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Account60,000
   Electric Supply Account514,470
Education Loans Account595,920
Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account304,435
Native Land Settlement Account255,235
State Forests Account214,188
Land for Settlements—Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account164,000
Hauraki Plains Settlement Account88,000
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Account60,900
Swamp Land Drainage Account45,000
Samoan Loan10,000
Scenery Preservation Account9,000
Mining Advances Account6,000
Miscellaneous, for stamp duty on loan transactions5,250
 5,234,818
For redemption of loans3,130,322
     Total raised£8,365,140

The amount of £8,466,201 was paid off from the Redemption Fund and surplus revenue, as follows:—

Transfers from—£
   Ordinary Revenue Account3,160,030
   Ordinary Revenue Account (for funded debt)141,171
   Electric Supply Account500,000
   Land for Settlements Account250,100
   Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account45,210
   Cold-storage Advances Account38,000
   War Expenses Account1,046,740
   Advances to Settlers Account45,000
Advances to Workers Account12,000
 5,238,251
Debentures redeemed by issue of securities in redemption3,227,950
     Total paid off£8,466,201

Allocating the various increases and decreases over the classes and headings used in discussing the total public debt, the following distribution is arrived at:—

Class of Undertaking.Increase.Decrease.
Directly reproductive:—££
   Railways72,407..
   Telegraphs and telephones260,963..
   Lighthouses and harbours4,980..
   Tourist and health resorts2,766..
   State forests214,397..
   Electric supply14,991..
   Swamp drainage45,000..
   Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers development60,000..
     Total675,504..
Investments—££
   Advances to settlers..45,000
   Advances to workers..12,000
   Mining advances6,000..
   Cold-storage advances..38,000
   Land for settlements..282,094
   Discharged soldiers settlement and land for discharged soldiers settlement423,486..
   Native-land settlement232,896..
   Hauraki Plains settlement88,000..
   Rangitaiki land drainage60,900..
   Reserves Fund securities800,000 
   Samoan loan10,000..
     Total..355,812
Indirectly productive—  
   Roads, bridges, and lands improvement340,729..
   Irrigation and water-supply29,591..
   Development of mining2,418..
   Immigration46,126..
     Total418,864..
Unproductive—  
   Public buildings138,671..
   Scenery-preservation9,000..
   Defence866..
   Naval defence..4,938
   Great European War..1,279,658
   Education loans596,442..
   Deficiencies in revenue, &c...300,000
Total..839,617
Grand total..101,061

An event of importance in connection with public-debt operations during 1922-23 was the funding of the debt (£27,532,164) owing to the Imperial Government, mainly in respect of the late war. Particulars of the funding arrangements and of the annual charges involved are given further on in this subsection.

CHARACTER OF STOCK.

The whole of the public debt, as stated in the foregoing tables, comprises in scribed stock and debentures with varying periods of currency. The following table shows the relative increase of the different classes of securities during the last ten financial years:—

Year ended 31st March.Inscribed Stock.Debentures.Total.
 £££
191466,076,25033,654,17799,730,427
191568,008,38932,051,521100,059,910
191668,689,63040,947,767109,637,397
191768,689,93561,146,170129,836,105
191877,760,48573,079,570150,840,055
191987,373,48088,702,780176,076,260
192095,095,914106,074,841201,170,755
1921100,830,507105,493,812206,324,319
1922108,592,018110,462,367219,054,385
1923114,594,007104,359,317218,953,324

FLOTATION OF LOANS.

Until comparatively recent years the large proportion of the productive power of the Dominion diverted to the construction of railways, roads, &c, and engaged in the preparation of land for farming necessitated the borrowing of capital from abroad; but of late the accumulation of savings, chiefly of small sums deposited in the savings-banks, has enabled the Government to raise considerable amounts from time to time locally. This was more particularly the case in connection with war loans, some 55 millions of pounds of which were raised in the Dominion.

Between the 31st March, 1913, and the corresponding date in 1923 the amount raised (and remaining outstanding) in London increased from 69 to 111 millions, while that raised in New Zealand increased from 17 to 106 millions. The amount raised in Australia is negligible and is decreasing. The following table shows, of the total amount outstanding in each of the last ten years, the amount raised in London, Australia, and New Zealand:—

PUBLIC DEBT: WHERE RAISED.
Year ended 31st March.Inscribed Stock.Debentures.
London.Australia.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 ££££££
191465,600,259..475,99113,024,0504,286,80016,343,327
191567,532,398..475,9918,877,6033,979,00019,194,918
191668,213,639..475,99113,251,1093,520,65024,176,008
191768,213,943..475,99215,663,8753,385,65042,096,645
191868,213,943..9,546,54220,493,8753,385,65049,200,045
191968,213,943..19,159,53727,494,3863,385,65057,822,744
192068,213,943..26,881,97227,494,3863,385,65075,194,804
192168,213,943..32,616,56431,627,4721,655,45072,210,890
192274,112,943..34,479,07531,806,2162,287,44076,368,711
192378,941,260424,95035,227,79731,727,0081,734,54070,897,769

The percentage of the total debt raised in each of the markets and outstanding in 1912-13 and 1922-23 was—

Market.1912-13.
Per Cent.
1922-23.
Per Cent.
London76.5450.54
New Zealand18.7843.47
Australia4.680.99
 100.00100.00

DATES OF MATURITY OF LOANS.

The amounts of loan-money that have matured or will mature during the current financial year, with the months when due, are as follows:—

Due Date.£

* Overdue.

1914, July2,100*
1918, January1,000*
1920, December460*
1921, January1,000*
1923, January1,000*
1923, April788,000
1923, May1,005,300
1923, June2,205,190
1923, July550,000
1923, August1,719,100
1923, September48,350
1923, October151,200
1923, November83,400
1923, December72,600
1924, January512,025
1924, February1,741,600
1924, March1,654,100

A summary of the whole of the loans outstanding on the 31st March, 1923, showing the amounts falling due in each financial year is given.

Due Date: Year ending
31st March.
Amount
£

* Overdue.

† Repayable by annual instalments. The whole amount should be paid off by 1958.

19152,100*
19181,000*
19211,460*
19231,000*
192410,530,865
192511,583,597
192614,581,922
19274,967,180
19285,900,126
19294,070,050
193032,064,202
19318,497,220
1932896,640
19334,618,570
1934600
193617,530
19371,000
19383,000
193924,775,515
194026,170,662
1941551,355
19424,527,120
1945200,000
194616,890,889
1948895,000
19491,923,600
19501,106,500
19525,899,000
196310,884,628
Funded debt27,390,993
     Total£218,953,324

INTEREST.

Of the total amount of public debt outstanding at the end of March, 1923, only £30,374,667, or 14 per cent. of the total, bears interest at a lower rate than 4 per cent., as against 48 per cent. of the total at 31st March, 1914. Four per cent. is payable on £56,623,737, 4 ½ per cent. on £74,910,752, and 5 per cent. on £11,912,780, while a rate of £4 19s. 5.88d. per cent. is payable on the funded debt of £27,390,993. A higher rate than 5 per cent. is payable on £16,734,835. The following are the rates of interest payable on the whole public debt:—

Rate of Interest.Amount at each Rate.

* Including £27,390,993 at £4 19s. 5.88d. per cent.

 £
6 per cent.7,589,820
5 ½ per cent.5,833,495
5 ¼ per cent.3,311,520
5 per cent.39,303,773*
4 ½ per cent.74,910,752
4 per cent56,623,737
3 ¾ per cent.792,500
3 ½ per cent.19,919,377
3 per cent.9,662,790
Overdue5,560
Redemption bills (3 per cent. discount)1,000,000
Total£218,953,324

The total amount of interest payable to bondholders on the full amount of the public debt (excluding interest on £5,560 shown as overdue) is £9,557,384, which gives an average rate of £4 7s. 4d. per £100. On the total public debt outstanding on the 31st March, 1891, the average interest charge was £4 10s. 3d. per £100. The increase per £100 in 1922-23 as compared with 1913-14 was 10s. 11d.

The foregoing refers to interest payable to bondholders only, and has nothing to do with sinking-fund requirements, which are included in the whole annual charge of the public debt.

The actual payments during the last twenty years for interest and sinking fund out of the Consolidated Fund are shown in the following table, together with the rate per head of population and the percentage of ordinary and territorial revenue absorbed by the public-debt charges:—

Year ended 31st March.Amounts actually paid out of the Consolidated Fund.Rate per Head of Mean Population.Percentage of Revenue absorbed by Public-debt Charges.
Public Debt.Treasury Bills.Total.
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.Interest.

* Including repayment of £141,171 funded debt.

 ££££££s.d. 
19041,875,37653,4081,928,78429,1791,957,96327427.89
19051,914,29654,9331,969,22924,5001,993,729261027.38
19062,006,53756,1672,062,70424,5002,087,20427727.52
19072,043,99097,3512,146,34125,7512.172,09228225.86
19082,085,01881,8422,166,86020,5592,187,41927324.15
19092,149,73991,4382,241,17717,1882,258,36527525.09
19102,282,18295,1242,377,30620,1562,397,46229025.95
19112,381,00054,1042,435,10423,3482,458,45229323.87
19122,446,493198,3882,644,88111,4592,656,340212124.02
19132,506,025202,7572,708,7828,2312,717,0132111123.15
19142,649,796221,7262,871,51216,4682,887,980213823.61
19152,788,513247,5703,036,08335,3653,071,448216124.67
19162,888,533257,0363,145,56945,2293,190,798218021.99
19173,701,040326,9244,027,9644,9214,032,885313421.97
19183,935,118494,6994,429,8179624,430,77940421.93
19195,409,210677,5596,086,769..6,086,76959027.23
19206,352,344897,0827,249,426..7,249,42665327.80
19216,805,4221,026,1717,831,593..7,831,593610322.86
19227,382,6991,051,4148,434,1138,1658,442,278617030.02
19237,899,123995,697*8,894,8205,1378,899,95771632.27

The above amounts do not comprise the whole of the interest and sinking fund paid in respect of moneys raised by way of loans. For loans raised for the purposes of State advances to settlers, workers, local authorities. &c., and under the Land for Settlements Acts, the interest, although made a charge upon the Consolidated Fund, is recovered from the receipts derived from the leasing of the lands or from instalments paid by borrowers. Other loan-money coming within the same category is that raised for State coal-mines, Native-land settlement, the purchase of the Cheviot Estate, the Rangitaiki land drainage, the Hauraki Plains settlement, the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement, and a number of other purposes.

The amount of interest charged and recovered during last year in respect of the loan-money raised for such purposes was £1,950,485. The details are given in Subsection A of this section.

Such interest does not become a burden upon the taxpayer, and consequently is not included in the figures upon which the rate per head of mean population is calculated.

SINKING FUNDS.

From time to time in the earlier financial history of the Dominion sinking funds were created in respect of various loans. These loans have now all been paid off, with the exception of an item of £2,100 which matured on the 15th July, 1914, as part of a loan of £266,300 raised under the New Zealand Loan Act, 1863, but which has not yet been paid off. A sinking fund of £2,207, which covered this loan, is held by the Consolidated Fund to meet the debentures when presented.

More recently provision was made for sinking funds for the repayment of loans raised for local bodies and for war and defence loans. A sinking fund was also provided for in the case of the loans raised under the Naval Defence Act, 1909. All of these funds are invested with the Public Trustee.

Another class of sinking fund which has come into existence in later years may more correctly be termed an “internal reserve fund,” because the accumulations are immediately converted into capital, although kept apart in the accounts. Part of the surplus revenue of the various accounts of the State Advances Department, equal to 1 per cent. of the loan liabilities at the end of each financial year, is set apart as a sinking fund. Under the same head also fall the sinking funds for the liquidation of the amounts borrowed for State coal-mines, electric-power works, swamp-land drainage, Rangitaiki land drainage, and the Nauru and Ocean Islands Accounts. The sinking fund for the wiping-off of the Samoan loan is held by the Treasury.

The whole of the public debt for which no special sinking fund exists has been provided for by the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, referred to in detail below.

On the 31st March, 1923, the accrued sinking funds amounted to £11,879,256, made up as follows:—

 £
New Zealand Loan Act, 18632,207
Government loans to local bodies799,601
War and defence loans192,691
War loans (1914-18)4,160,066
Naval Defence Act,1909973,343
State advances to settlers1,387,119
State advances to workers61,488
State advances to local authorities283,067
Land for settlements1,056,140
Native-land settlement11,977
Guaranteed mining advances811
Hauraki Plains settlement2,176
Opening up Crown lands for settlement3,416
Rangitaiki land drainage904
Public Debt Extinction Act, 19102,633,386
State Coal-mines Act, 190829,532
Westport Harbour Loans281,332
Total£11,879,256

PUBLIC DEBT EXTINCTION.

A scheme making provision to repay the existing public debt, with application to future borrowings, was embodied in the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910. This Act provides for the setting-apart each year, on the certificate of the Controller and Auditor-General, out of the Consolidated Fund an amount equal to the sum which, if invested for seventy-five years at a rate equivalent to the average net interest earned by the funds invested under the Act during the previous three years, would repay the whole of the public debt as at the preceding 31st March. In this manner, for every loan raised in the future an additional proportional amount will be contributed to the fund to enable such new loan to be extinguished at the expiry of seventy-five years from the date of issue.

The fund is administered by a Board constituted under the Act, and must be invested in loans to settlers, to workers, and to local authorities. The accumulated capital of various funds invested with the Public Trustee at the date of the passing of the Act, however, remains invested with him, and interest thereon is paid to the Consolidated Fund each year. It is expressly forbidden to invest any of the moneys in New Zealand Government securities. If at any time the funds cannot be invested as above stated the Board may purchase at or below par and cancel any New Zealand Government stock or debentures charged upon the consolidated revenue. In order to preserve the continuity of the fund it is provided that in the event of any stock or debentures being redeemed before the expiry of the seventy-five years there shall be paid annually out of the Consolidated Fund into the Sinking Fund Account a sum sufficient to compensate for the loss of earnings of the money so expended. There is also a provision that if the earnings of the fund should fall below the determined rate of interest any deficiency must be made good out of the Consolidated Fund Account.

The most prominent features of the scheme are—(1) the mode of investment, which is intended to prevent any improper use being made of the accumulations;(2) the provision for preserving the continuity of the fund by the adjustment of the annual contributions; and (3) the automatic action of the fund whereby the total debt existing at any given date will be extinguished in seventy-five years from such date.

The contributions to the fund to the 31st March, 1923, amounted to £1,959,130, interest, &c., bringing the amount to the credit of the fund to £2,633,386. The payments to the fund in each of the last ten years have been—

Year ended 31st March.£
1914151,572
1915169,404
1916161,870
1917171,301
1918155,038
1919143,301
1920140,076
1921152,295
1922203,132
1923216,913

The amount required to be set aside during the financial year 1923-24 is £210,405.

The average net rate of interest earned for the three years ended the 31st March, 1923, has been ascertained to be £4 8s., as against £4 6s. 6d. per cent. for the triennium ended 31st March, 1922.

The sum of £462,014 was at the 31st March, 1923, invested in mortgages to settlers, £67,950 to workers, and £1,875,696 to local authorities. The two former amounts bear interest at 5 per cent., reducible to 4 ½ per cent. if instalments are paid within fourteen days of due date. On the amount advanced to local authorities interest is at the rate of 4 ½ per cent., with the exception of an insignificant proportion on which the rate is 4 ⅛ per cent.

WAR LOANS SINKING FUND.

A War Loans Sinking Fund was established for the special purpose of providing, for the extinguishing of loans raised for the European War expenses; the provisions of the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, do not apply to such moneys. Provision is made for the Minister of Finance to pay out of the Consolidated Fund each year a sum equal to 1 per cent. of the total capital moneys borrowed and outstanding at the 31st March in the preceding year. Such payments are invested by the Public Trustee, together with accumulations thereon. Interest on the investments of the sinking funds is received at the rate of 4 ½ per cent., and it is calculated that each war loan will be extinguished in approximately thirty-nine years from the date of raising.

A statement is given showing for each year since the initiation of the scheme the payments to sinking fund, the interest on the amount invested, and the accumulated sinking fund.

Year ended 31st MarchPayment to Fund.Interest credited.Accumulated Sinking Fund.
 £££
191621,053..21,053
191781,595859103,507
1918267,2554,972375,734
1919461,85225,925863,511
1920684,60055,7701,603,881
1921800,890102,3942,507,165
1922815,386128,5563,451,107
1923553,455155,5044,160,066

The reduction in the payment for 1922-23 is due to the funding of the debt owing to the Imperial Government (referred to below) and the consequent withdrawal of the funded debt from the War Loans Sinking Fund provisions.

AMORTIZATION OF FUNDED DEBT.

At the 31st March, 1922, £27,532,164 of New Zealand's public debt was owing to the British Government, all but £1,191,919 of this being on account of war expenditure.

Section 8 of the Finance Act, 1922, authorized the Minister of Finance to arrange with the Imperial Government for the funding of this debt, and arrangements were accordingly made, and were embodied in a memorandum of agreement dated the 6th September, 1922.

The funding was carried out on an annuity basis of 6 per cent., the total payment each year being £1,651,930. Interest is at the rate of £4 19s. 5.88d. per cent., the balance of the 6 per cent. going to reduction of the debt.

The first half-yearly payment of £825,965 was made to the British Government on the lst December, 1922, calculated as follows:—

 £
Half-year's interest at £4 19s. 5.88d. per cent.684,794
Balance—repayment of principal141,171
 £825,965

Under the agreement the amount of £27,532,164 will be automatically discharged from the public debt in about thirty-six years. The amount payable for amortization in 1923-24 is £292,964, and will gradually increase per annum as the interest-payment reduces on the lessening debt. An important condition of the agreement with the British Government is that the whole or any part of the funded debt may be redeemed at any time.

Particulars of the funded debt, with amounts repaid to 31st March, 1923, and the annual charges on account of interest and repayment, are as follows:—

PUBLIC DEBT FUNDED IN TERMS OF FINANCE ACT, 1922, SECTION 8.
Amount of Debt funded.Total Debt repaid to 31st March, 1923.Annual Charge.
Interest.Repayment of Debt.Total.
 £££££
Public Revenues Amendment Act, 1914, section 8 (war expenses)2,067,41110,601102,04621,999124,045
Public Revenues Amendment Act, 1915, section 5 (war expenses)8,105,99241,563400,10586,254486,359
Finance Act, 1916, section 354,736,84224,288233,80750,404284,211
War Purposes Loans Act, 19174,830,00024,766238,40551,395289,800
Finance Act, 1918, section 106,600,00033,842325,77170,229396,000
Naval Defence Act, 1909963,1314,93847,53910,24957,788
Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1910191,0109799,4282,03211,460
Land for Settlements Act, 190837,7781941,8654022,267
Totals27,532,164141,1711,358,966292,9641,651,930

The provisions of the Public Debt Extinction Act and those relating to sinking-fund requirements in connection with war loans and loans under the Naval Defence Act do not apply to the funded debt.

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCK.

The highest and lowest London prices for the New Zealand 4-, 3 ½-, and 3-percent. stock, taken over a range of twenty years, are quoted.

QUOTATIONS, NEW ZEALAND STOCK.
Year.4-per-cents. (1943-63.)4-per-cents. (1929.)3 ½-per-cents. (1940.)3-per-cents. (1945.)
Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.
1903....110 ⅛105104 ¾99 ½9688
1904....107 ½104 ½101 ½96 ¾9086 ¼
1905....110 ¼105 ¼100 ⅛97 ⅝89 ⅞89 ½
1906....110 ¾104 ⅝102 ½98 ⅜91 ¼87 ¼
1907....108 ¾103 ¼1019889 ¾84
1908....109 ⅝105 ⅛10198 ¼90 ½85 ¾
1909....108 ⅜104 ¾99 ¾97 ⅜88 ⅜85 ⅝
1910....106 ¾1039994 ¼88 ⅜84 ¾
1911....106 ¾102 ⅛98 ½95 ¼87 ⅜85
1912....10510097 ¾90 ⅜87 ¾79 ½
191310196 ⅜102 ½95 ½91 ⅞87 ¾80 ¾76 ¼
1914100 ⅜96 ¼103 ⅛9892 ¾8783 ½77
191597 ½9599 ⅛9587 ½83 ¼77 ¾76
191695 ⅛779583 ¾83 ⅜697662
191782 ⅝7686 ½81 ¼74 ½6964 ⅜60
191885 ½78 ¼90 ⅞847971 ¾68 ¾61 ¾
19198677 ⅛90837968 ⅛69 ⅛60
192079 ½68 ¼86 ¼7970 ¾64 ½62 ½56 ¼
192175 ⅞68898272666557 ½
19228972 ⅝95 ½88 ⅝82 ⅞71 ⅝74 ½64

PUBLIC DEBT OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The following figures show the gross and net public debt of each State of the Australian Commonwealth, and of the Commonwealth itself, on the 30th June, 1922, and of New Zealand on the 31st March, 1923:—

State.Gross Indebtedness.Accrued Sinking Funds.Net Indebtedness.Indebtedness per Head.
Gross.Net.

* Deduction made for debts counted twice in gross figures.

 ££££s.d.£s.d.
New South Wales180,796.323417.067180.379.256843883199
Victoria109.099.1992.754.540106.344.659699367142
Queensland85.691.228393.61585.297.61310920108114
South Australia54.388.6881.263.44853.125.24010713910538
Western Australia54.959.7788.370.16046.589.61816117813746
Tasmania21.945.411948.37620.997.03510216998710
Total, Australian States506.880.62714.147.206492.733.421910888911
Commonwealth416.070.509957.752415.112.7577414774112
Total Commonwealth and States922.951.13615.104.958893.422.839*16515316092*
New Zealand218.953.32411.879.256207,024,048*17234162159*

The figures of net indebtedness per head give almost identical results for Australia and New Zealand, with the former still slightly the lower. If the Commonwealth figure be added to that of each individual State it is found that only New South Wales and Victoria have lower per-head rates than this Dominion.

SUBSECTION D.—FINANCES OF LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.
INTRODUCTORY.

A STUDY of the finance of local governing bodies from their incipient stages to the present time reveals a process of evolution from a state of semi-dependence on the Central Government to a stage where, with the exception of subsidies on rates and occasional grants for special works, all expense is borne locally. While local bodies were the proper authorities to deal with such matters as the construction of roads and bridges, it was recognized that work of this nature was to a large extent of national significance, and governmental aid was freely accorded. This is evidenced by a consideration of the fact that under various Acts, including the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, advances were made under which the recipient body, although bound to pay a half-yearly interest for a number of years, the period varying inversely with the rate of interest, was relieved from all further liability, ipso facto, on payment of the last instalment. With the increase in population and growth of prosperity, however, the opinion grew that local authorities should, in all fairness, bear the greater part of the expense of their own activities. This resulted in the withdrawal of such advantageous conditions, and at the present time, although the credit of the State is still available for the benefit of those local bodies requiring loans, and such assistance as indicated above is given, they are to all intents and purposes self-supporting.

The sources from which the various classes of local bodies secure the moneys necessary to exercise their functions vary greatly according to the nature of the statutory duties of the local body concerned. Generally, however, receipts fall under one of three main classes—viz., rates, licenses and fees, and receipts which cannot properly be regarded as revenue. These three classes are dealt with in detail further on in this subsection, where the nature and relative importance of each is more particularly referred to.

SYSTEM OF RATING.

The local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or the capital value shall be in force in the district. The system of rating on the unimproved value can be adopted only by a poll of the ratepayers, and after three years the ratepayers may, by another poll, revert to the system previously in force in the district.

Section 29 of the Rating Amendment Act, 1910, as amended by section 7 of the Amendment Act of 1913, provides that when the union of two or more boroughs takes place the rating system in force in the borough having the largest population shall be observed throughout the united borough, unless otherwise agreed between the Councils of the boroughs concerned.

The system of rating in the Dominion is upon the basis that 1s. in the pound on the annual value is deemed to be equivalent to ¾d. in the pound on the capital value of rateable property; or where in a district not rating on the annual value it is necessary for any purpose to ascertain the annual value of any rateable property, then the annual value thereof is equal to 6 per cent. on the capital value of such property. Rating on the unimproved value must be so adjusted as to equal as nearly as may be, but not to exceed, in producing-capacity the limit of rating-power on the capital or annual value, as the case may be, a rate on the annual value being for this purpose first transposed into one on the capital value on the basis above mentioned.

Prior to 1911 the system of rating on the unimproved value did not apply to water rates, gas rates, electric-light rates, sewage rates, or hospital and charitable-aid rates, which could be levied on the annual or capital value only; but by the Rating Amendment Act, 1911, it was provided that the system should apply to these rates. This provision is not retrospective, but a poll in any district where the system was previously in force is, on petition, to be taken on the proposal that it shall apply to them.

The annual value is deemed to be the letting-value, less 20 per cent. in case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per cent. of land, but in no case is the rateable value to be less than 5 per cent. of the value of the fee-simple. The capital value is deemed to be the selling-value of the land, including improvements, at the time of valuation. The unimproved value is deemed to be the selling-value of the land at the time of valuation, excluding the value of any existing improvements.

MAXIMUM RATING-POWERS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

Local authorities are largely dependent for funds to carry out their activities on revenue from rates, and even loans raised for special purposes are ultimately liquidated by such revenues—known then as special rates. As, however, the revenue from rates is not usually received till about half of the financial year has elapsed, the law has for many years allowed local bodies to borrow money in anticipation of the year's revenue. This borrowed money in many cases tended to become a permanent debt, and from time to time power had to be given to local bodies to raise a loan for the purpose of paying off such debts. This was done in 1913, but since then the debts again accumulated, and many local bodies were in financial difficulties. Consequently, in 1921, the Legislature dealt with the matter by passing the Local Bodies' Finance Act, which compelled any local body which had an overdraft or temporary deposits to capitalize its liability, forming what is known as an “antecedent liability,” and to pay off this liability either (a) by seven annual instalments out of revenue, or (b) by a direct loan, or (c) by levying a special rate in each of seven years sufficient to cover each annual instalment. The powers of a local body to borrow by overdraft or by temporary deposit were also limited to three-fourths of its total revenue for the preceding year, and at the end of a year there is not to be owing a greater sum than the amount of revenue then outstanding. This will, of course, compel local bodies to live within their income, and will also ensure that money borrowed by overdraft or temporary deposit will simply be a temporary expedient in anticipation of revenue.

A synopsis of the statutory rating-powers of the various local authorities is now given. Generally, in addition to the statutes specified below, the provisions of the Rating Act, 1908 (and amendments), are applicable.

BOROUGHS.

Under the Municipal Corporations Act, 1920, cities and boroughs have conferred on them the following rating-powers, which represent the maximum a Council is empowered to levy in any one financial year:—

General Rate.—2s. 6d. in the pound on the annual value, or 2d. in the pound on the capital value of all rateable property, or its equivalent on the unimproved value. In divided boroughs the rate levied may vary in different wards, but must not in any case exceed the above limit.

General Separate Rates for Special Works.—3/4d. in the pound in any one year on the capital value, or 1s. in the pound on the annual value, or its equivalent on the unimproved value of the rateable property. These rates can be made only on a petition of a majority of the ratepayers, and are known as general separate rates, in contradistinction to particular separate rates now immediately referred to.

Water-supply.—Ordinary supply, 10s. per annum where the annual value does not exceed £12 10s.; in excess of £12 10s., 6 per cent. Where rating on unimproved value in respect of water-supply is in force the charge must not exceed the equivalent of 1d. in the pound on the capital value, with a minimum of 10s. Half-rates only are to be levied on stores or warehouses, and all land and buildings to which water can be but is not supplied, situate within 100 yards from any part of the waterworks. The rate or charge for extraordinary supply may be fixed by the Council.

Lighting Streets and Public Buildings.—6d. in the pound on the annual value.

Sanitation.—A rate, or in lieu thereof a uniform annual fee, may be levied of such an amount that the total proceeds of such fee shall be sufficient to meet the estimated expenditure on the service for the year.

Drainage.—6d. in the pound on the annual value of property served by a public drain.

Library.—1d. in the pound on the annual value.

Harbour.—Any Council appointed a Harbour Board may, for the purpose of constructing or maintaining harbour-works, levy a rate not to exceed in any one year 3/8d. in the pound on the capital value.

In addition to the rating-power referred to above, certain Acts of the Legislature have conferred powers on Borough Councils to levy further separate rates for the purposes now indicated.

Hospital and Charitable Aid.—Under the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1909, section 41, a rate sufficient to produce the amount of contribution for which the borough may be liable.

Fire.—By the Fire Brigades Act, 1908, section 21, a Borough Council within a fire district may, in order to raise the amount required to be contributed to the Fire Board, levy a separate rate, on the value of the buildings only, within the fire district.

Small-birds Nuisance.—Borough Councils are by the Injurious Birds Act, 1908, section 18, empowered to raise funds for the destruction of injurious birds by levying a general rate not exceeding 1/16 d. in the pound on the capital value, or its equivalent on the annual or unimproved value.

Health.—The Health Act, 1920, section 140, enables a separate rate to be levied to meet the expenses of carrying out the provisions of the Act.

Special Rates (Payment of Loan Charges).—Rates under this head are termed “special,” and are levied for the purpose of producing interest, or interest and sinking fund, upon any special loan. They are not limited by statute. A special rate shall be made a continuing rate for a period of years equal to the currency of the loan. With certain exceptions no special loan may be raised without the consent of a majority of the ratepayers affected. Special rates are subject to the provisions of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913.

In certain exceptional cases a Council's power may be subject to one or more of the three conditions referred to below.

Increase of Rating-power authorized where Revenue lost in consequence of the Reduction or Prohibition of Licenses.—A Borough Council which suffers loss of revenue from license fees under the Licensing Act in consequence of the reduction or prohibition of licenses in the district may, by section 41 of the Licensing Act, 1908, make good such loss by an equivalent sum to be levied and collected by an increase of the general rate in the district.

Rates on Native Land.—By the provisions of section 3 of the Rating Amendment Act, 1910, Native land that has become freehold and is held under individual title is liable to full rates, subject to certain exemptions. Lands held by Natives under Native custom are, however, totally exempt from rating.

Rating of Mining Property in the South Island.—All mining property held by an occupier in any borough within a mining district in the South Island of the Dominion is liable to be rated by the Borough Council in the same manner as other rateable property in the district, but subject to special provisions of the Rating Act, 1908, sections 45 to 47.

TOWN DISTRICTS.

The maximum general and separate rates that may be levied by the Board of a town district in any one year are set forth in the Town Boards Act, 1908, and amendments, indicated below.

General Rate.—By the Finance Act, 1921, section 34, a Town Board may levy a rate of 2d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent on the unimproved value, or 2s. 6d. in the pound on the annual value. In the case of town districts which are also subject to county control, however, the County Council has power to levy in addition a general rate up to 1 ½d. in the pound on the capital value.

Particular Separate Rates.—On petition from a majority of the ratepayers in any portion of the district for a special work to be undertaken, the Board may by special order define such portion and make and levy a separate works rate not exceeding in any one year 1s. in the pound on the annual value or its equivalent.

The provisions of the Municipal Corporations Act, 1908, relating to water-supply, lighting, sanitation, drainage, and library rates, as already referred to under the head of “Boroughs,” apply equally to town districts. In like manner Town Boards may levy separate hospital and charitable-aid, fire, small-birds nuisance, and health rates under the statutory provisions indicated.

Special Rates.—The powers of Town Boards are the same as Borough Councils.

In the same way as they operate in boroughs the provisions relating to the rates on Native land, rating on mining property in the South Island, and the increase of the rating-power consequent on prohibition of licenses, apply to town districts.

COUNTIES.

Most of the provisions relating to the rating-powers of County Councils are included in the Counties Act, 1920. These are now briefly referred to.

General Rate.—In counties where there are no road or town districts a maximum rate of 3d. in the pound, or where there are road or town districts 3d. in the pound in outlying districts, and in all other parts of the county 1 ½d. in the pound on the capital value of rateable property, or its equivalent on the unimproved or annual value. The total amount of the general and separate rates together, however, must not exceed the maximum rate above, with the exception that the drainage rate may be additional to the maximum mentioned.

Special-works (Separate) Rates.—These rates may be levied on the county or a portion of the county upon a majority petition of ratepayers; the total amount that may be levied in one year is ¾d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent.

Particular separate rates which may be levied by County Councils refer to the following matters:—

Water-supply and Drainage.—For the purposes of any constructional work a rate of 1d. in the pound on the capital value on the county or subdivision, as the case may be. To provide for maintenance after construction a rate of ¾d. in the pound may be levied.

Sanitation and Harbours.—The provisions relating to boroughs apply, mutatis mutandis, to counties.

Library.—Id. in the pound on the annual value or its equivalent. The rate is levied by virtue of the Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act, 1908, and only applies where the library is managed by the County Council.

Other Separate Rates.—The expenses of a county in connection with lighting, &c., which come within its jurisdiction are met from either the General Account of the county or the Separate Accounts of the ridings. In regard to hospital and charitable-aid, health, injurious-birds, and fire rates, the provisions of the statutes as noted above under the head of “Boroughs" apply.

Special Rates.—The provisions of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913, apply in the same manner as indicated for Borough Councils above. Special rates to provide interest, or interest and sinking fund, on loans are not limited by statute as to amount.

Bridge Rate.—In addition to other special rating-powers referred to, a special rate of ½ d. in the pound on the capital value may be levied under section 5 of the Local Bodies' Loans Amendment Act, 1922, for reconstruction of bridges.

In the same way as they operate in boroughs the provisions relating to the rates on Native land, rating on mining property in the South Island, and the increase of the rating-power consequent on prohibition of licenses, apply to counties.

ROAD DISTRICTS.

For the main statutory provisions in regard to the rating-powers of Road Boards it is necessary to refer to the Road Boards Act, 1908. A summary of these, as amended by various statutes, is given below.

General Rate.—1 ½d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent on the unimproved value, or 2s. in the pound on the annual value, as the case may be. In the event of a Receiver being appointed, the power is extended by ⅜ d. in the pound if the Counties Act is suspended, or 3/16d. in the pound if the Act is in force, upon the capital value.

Separate Rates (in Subdivided Road Districts).—May be levied over any or every subdivision of the district, but must not, together with the general rate, exceed the limit of 1 ½d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent.

Special Rates for Particular Works.—3/4 d. in the pound on the capital value over the whole or any portion of the district.

Water-supply for Domestic Use and Irrigation.—Water-supply is according to the scale prescribed for boroughs, as indicated above. This applies only to certain Road Boards specially authorized. With regard to irrigation, the provisions of the Water-supply Act, 1908, and amendments, provide that where the Counties Act is not in operation, or is suspended, two or more adjoining road districts may amalgamate for the purpose of forming a water-supply district, with the full rating-powers of such districts. Any Road Board which had constructed water-races or irrigation-works prior to 1891 may continue to exercise in this respect the same rating-powers as a County Council.

Library.—1d. in the pound on the annual value or its equivalent, only where the public library is managed by the Road Board in terms of the Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act, 1908.

Harbour.—Should a Road Board be declared a Harbour Board it may, by consent of the ratepayers, levy a special rate for the construction or maintenance of harbour-works, such rate not to exceed in any one year ⅜d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent.

Other Particular Separate Rates.—The provisions of special statutes with regard to hospital and charitable-aid, health, injurious-birds, and fire rates apply to road districts in the same manner as to boroughs.

Special Rates.—The powers of Road Boards are the same as Borough Councils.

In the same way as they operate in boroughs the provisions relating to the rates on Native land, rating on mining property in the South Island, and the increase of the rating-power consequent on prohibition of licenses, apply to road districts.

ELECTRIC-POWER DISTRICTS.

General and Separate Rates.—The Electric-power Boards Act, 1918, and amendments provide that when the expenditure of a Board exceeds the amount of income in any year, the balance, or part of it, may be raised by a general or separate rate over the whole or part of the district. The Power Board may collect the rate itself, or may request the local authority in whose district the rate is levied to recover the amount on its behalf.

Special Rates.—The provisions of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913, apply to Power Boards, and the Power Boards Act, 1918, also allows of a uniform rate being levied over the whole district to secure money borrowed for the preliminary work and expenses of a Board.

HARBOURS.

For any purpose connected with a harbour, or for interest, or interest and sinking fund, on loans, authority is contained in section 221 of the Harbours Act, 1908 (as amended in 1910), to levy a rate not exceeding the maximum specified in any special Act authorizing the Board to levy a rate, or, if no such limit is fixed, a maximum rate of ¾ d. in the pound on the capital value, or its equivalent on the annual or unimproved value.

RIVER DISTRICTS.

General Rate.—By section 87 of the River Boards Act, 1908 (and amendments), a River Board may levy a general rate of 1 ½ d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent leviable on a uniform scale or graduated according to the classification of lands in the district.

Separate Rates.—These shall not, together with the general rates levied, exceed the amount limited in respect to general rates.

Special Rates.—Not limited by statute as to amount; may be levied to secure the interest and provide a fund for the repayment of loans.

LAND-DRAINAGE DISTRICTS.

General Rate.—The Land Drainage Act, 1908, section 31, provides for the levying of a general rate, according to the classification of the lands in the district, not exceeding 1 ½d. in the pound on the capital value. By the Amendment Act of 1913 this rate may be increased to 3d. in the pound on a ratepayers' petition representing a majority of three-quarters in number and half in rateable property.

Special Rates.—As in the case of river districts.

WATER-SUPPLY DISTRICTS.

Special Rate.—By the Water-supply Act, 1908, section 34, a special rate may be levied on all lands in a water-supply district or subdivision to pay interest and provide for the repayment of any loan. The rate is levied according to a classification of the rateable lands.

RABBIT NUISANCE.

General Rate.—Under the Rabbit Nuisance Act, 1908, section 98, a Rabbit-proof Fencing Board may levy a general rate of ¼d. in the pound on the capital value of all rateable property in the district under the control of the Board. Section 5 of the Rabbit Nuisance Amendment Act, 1918, provides that a Rabbit Board may levy a rate of 1d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent of all rateable property within the rabbit district, with a maximum of 1s. per acre for each holding affected, the proceeds of such rate to be expended in the destruction of rabbits.

Special Rates.—These are not limited by statute as to amount; may be levied to secure the interest and provide the repayment of loans.

SYSTEM OF RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE OF LAND.

The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, was passed by the General Assembly to afford local bodies the opportunity of adopting the principle of rating which is expressed in the title of the measure. The Act is now incorporated in the Rating Act, 1908. It is entirely at the option of the bodies to adopt the system, and provision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. The Act provides that a proportion of the ratepayers on the roll, varying from 25 per cent. where the total number does not exceed 100, to 15 per cent. where the number exceeds 300, may by demand in writing, delivered to the chairman of the district, require that a proposal to rate property on the basis of the unimproved value may be submitted to the ratepayers, whose votes shall be taken between twenty-one and twenty-eight days after delivery of the demand. The poll is to be taken in the same manner as in the case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1908.

Under the original Act it was necessary for a minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers to vote, and a majority of their votes carried the proposal. Now the question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a bare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

The valuation roll is supplied to the local authority by the Valuer-General under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1908, and the definitions of “capital value,” “improvements,” “unimproved value,” and “value of improvements” found in that Act apply also to rating on unimproved value. Provision is made for adjustment of rating-powers given under previous Acts by fixing equivalents. Thus a rate of 1s. in the pound on the annual value under former Acts is to be considered equal to ¾d. in the pound on the capital value.

The adjustments are to be made so that the rates on the unimproved value shall be such as to produce as much as, but not more than, the rates under the Rating Act, 1908. For instance, supposing a local authority has a rating-power up to ¾d. in the pound on the capital value, then it can levy any rate in the pound on the unimproved value of land in its district so long as the producing-capacity of such rate is not greater than would be the producing-capacity of a ¾d. rate on the capital value of the district. When a fixed rate, under the older system of rating, is security for a loan, the Controller and Auditor-General is given power to interfere and fix the new rate himself if of opinion that the new rate on the unimproved value does not afford equally good security as the one to be given up.

It should be noted that some local authorities automatically adopt rating on unimproved value. For example, a town district, borough, or another county, formed from part of a county which itself rates on unimproved values, automatically rates on the system in force in the county; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their Councils agree to the contrary.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE.

Local districts in which a poll on the question of rating on unimproved value has been taken since the 31st March, 1914, are as shown below up to the 31st March, 1923. The result of all polls prior to the 31st March, 1914, are given on pages 876-79 of the Year-book for 1914.

RESULTS OF RATING POLLS, 1914-23.
Local District.Date of Poll.Result of Poll.Votes recorded.
For.Against.Informal.

* For rescission.

At that time a town district.

Avondale Borough17 Feb., 1923Carried2821505
Avondale Road District1 June, 1918Rejected2313001
Bay of Islands County17 Nov., 1920Carried490187..
Cambridge Borough9 Sept., 1919Carried153612
Cambridge Borough*8 Nov., 1922Rating on U.V. remains901661
Carterton Borough26 Nov., 1919Carried277133..
Christchurch City*4 Mar., 1915Rating on U.V. remains1,9142,086..
Ellerslie Town District8 Mar., 1916Carried175251
Featherston County16 Feb., 1915Carried3151642
Geraldine Borough29 April, 1921Carried17910014
Great Barrier County11 May, 1914Carried637..
Greytown Borough27 June, 1922Rejected621984
Hauraki Plains County10 Mar., 1921Carried30114..
Havelock North Town District3 Nov., 1920Carried10779..
Huntly Town District20 Oct., 1915Carried301..
Inglewood County16 Mar., 1921Carried160252
Manawatu County29 Jan., 1919Carried6771933
Mangaorongo Road District13 Mar., 1918Carried451..
Mangapapa Town District13 Oct., 1915Rejected10916414
Mangapapa Town District1 July, 1920Carried244804
Manurewa Town District19 Nov., 1921Rejected66108..
Mataura Borough*3 Nov., 1915Rescission carried1361292
Mataura Borough12 Dec., 1919Rejected1181455
Mataura Borough21 Feb., 1923Carried1861661
Milton Borough*1 Nov., 1922Rating on U.V. remains13721610
Moa Road District26 Mar., 1919Carried205321
Mosgiel Borough*28 Mar., 1916Rating on U.V. remains115240..
New Plymouth Borough30 April, 1919Carried781595..
Ngaruawahia Borough21 Mar., 1921Carried477..
Normanby Town District*24 May, 1919Rating on U.V. remains33411
Northcote Borough30 April, 1919Rejected123140..
Northcote Borough22 Aug., 1922Carried260150..
Onehunga Borough9 Mar., 1915Carried5633917
Ostend Road District20 Dec., 1922Rejected2950..
Otaki Borough4 Mar., 1919Carried132441
Otamatea County6 May, 1922Carried505312..
Otautau Town District*8 Mar., 1916Rescission carried40331
Otorohanga Native Township30 Oct., 1914Carried435..
Paeroa Borough30 April, 1919Carried15571..
Raglan Town District15 Nov., 1916Carried5419..
Rangiora Borough*19 June, 1919Rescission carried1511451
Rangiora Borough7 Mar., 1923Carried26687..
Rodney County21 April, 1921Carried520433..
Taihape Borough26 Mar., 1919Carried14121..
Taradale Town District15 Sept., 1919Carried12839..
Taranaki County20 Mar., 1920Carried5301093
Tauranga Borough6 Oct., 1920Rejected1472956
To Awamutu Borough19 Nov., 1919Rejected89127..
Te Awamutu Borough14 Feb., 1923Rejected120198..
Thames Borough19 June, 1919Carried26050..
Thames Borough*12 Dec., 1922Rating on U. V. remains2364078
Timaru Borough27 April, 1921Carried1,53283873
Uawa County26 May, 1920Carried26089..
Waiatarua Drainage District24 Dec., 1918Carried191..
Waitomo County8 June, 1922Carried7527311
Westport Borough25 April, 1917Carried46734530
Whakatane Borough21 Sept., 1915Rejected701051
Whakatane Borough30 April, 1919Carried1639210
Whakatane County8 Nov., 1919Carried319166..
Whangarei County11 Nov., 1914Carried73623622

The unimproved value of land is the basis on which some 36 per cent. of the local authorities (excluding harbour boards) assessed their rates for the 1921-22. A comparative table is—

SYSTEMS OF RATING IN FORCE, 1921-22.
System of Rating.Total.
Unimproved Value.Capital Value.Capital and Unimproved Values.Annual Value.Acreage Basis.Nil.

* Annual also.

Includes two on unimproved basis also.

Counties41764....8129
Boroughs60222*35....117
Town districts2931..6....66
Road districts455........59
River-protective districts1317112337
Land-drainage districts2133........54
Water-supply districts..6........6
City and suburban drainage districts..21......3
Tramway districts11........2
Local railway districts..2......13
Totals169245840212476

Although the figures referred to indicate that the number of local authorities rating on the unimproved value is approximately 36 per cent. of the total, yet on a population basis the figures reveal that in reality a larger proportion of the ratepayers are being so rated. The position in regard to the four major classes of local bodies at 1st April, 1922, was as follows:—

POPULATION RATED ON UNIMPROVED VALUE.
Districts.Rating on Unimproved Value.Total for Dominion.Ratio of Unimproved Value to Dominion.
No.Population.No.Population.No.Population.
 ........Per Cent.Per Cent.
Counties (excluding all town districts)44158,576129486,94634.132.6
Boroughs67432,031118708,48956.860.9
Town districts (dependent)165,1963412,91347.140.2
Town districts (independent)1417,6123634,67838.950.8

In addition to the foregoing, one road district with a population of 1,699 (1921 census) rated on unimproved value. Thus 49.5 of the people of New Zealand are rated on the unimproved value.

FINANCIAL STATISTICS OF LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.

The figures given in the following tables are for the year ended 31st March, except in the case of certain harbour boards whose own financial year is taken in each case. The financial year of the Wellington Harbour Board ends on the 30th September (six months before the usual financial year); for the Coromandel, Greymouth, Half-moon Bay and Horseshoe Bay, Kaikoura, Kawhia, Mangonui, and Wairoa Harbour Boards the year ends on the 31st March, but in all other cases the harbour board year ends on the 31st December, or three months prior to the usual financial year.

RECEIPTS.

Local governing bodies received by way of rates in the financial year 1921-22 a total amount of £3,779,895, of which £2,501,949 consisted of general rates and £1,277,946 of special and separate rates. The sum of £105,365 was raised by licenses, and £171,625 by other taxes, making £4,056,885 altogether, which sum is equivalent to £3 5s. 10d. per head of the mean European population, as compared with £3 1s. 10d. for 1920-21, an increase of 4s.

Revenue derived from rates increased from £1,799,299 in 1912-13 to £3,779,895 in 1921-22. Revenue from the Government increased in the same period from £225,262 to £317,530. Receipts other than “revenue" were £2,383,123 in 1912-13, and £5,486,912 in 1921-22; but these figures vary from year to year according to circumstances, such as large operations by way of construction of works, for which money has to be specially raised.

The receipts of local governing bodies, divided into the various groups shown above, are given for each of the last ten years.

Financial Year.Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Fees, Rents, and other Sources.Government.Total Revenue
 ££££££
1912-131,799,2992,306,424225,2624,330,9852,383,1236,714,108
1913-142,005,6382,484,893234,2194,724,7502,411,5757,136,325
1914-152,140,0862,622,221239,0765,001,3832,595,7067,597,089
1915-162,355,1552,705,562262,0835,322,8002,469,2757,792,075
1916-172,534,5393,001,324242,6185,778,4811,411,4227,189,903
1917-182,674,5413,034,894248,8555,958,2901,250,0477,208,337
1918-192,939,6063,184,741267,3306,391,677942,7807,334,457
1919-203,144,2134,219,608266,9747,630,7953,329,00310,959,798
1920-213,549,5905,048,791287,5838,885,9643,429,66212,315,626
1921-223,779,8955,757,252317,5309,854,6775,486,91215,341,589

A summary of receipts for the year 1921-22 is given on the next page. The total revenue of the local bodies for the financial year was £9,854,677, and they further received a sum of £5,486,912 which could not properly be termed “revenue,” making altogether a grand total of receipts amounting to £15,341,589. The rates formed 38.35 per cent. of the revenue proper; licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 58.42 per cent.; and 3.23 per cent. was granted by the General Government.

While the revenue proper of the counties amounted to £1,835,210, of which £1,409,810, or 76.82 per cent., was raised by way of rates, the road boards' revenue was only £123,265, of which £94,953, or 77.03 per cent., represented the result of their rating. It is seen that these bodies rely on their taxing-powers for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, on the other hand, whose revenue totalled £5,819,843, rates accounted for £1,915,506, or only 32.91 per cent. of the total. Receipts by way of licenses, rents, &c., yielded the considerable sum of £3,867,426, representing 66.45 per cent. of the aggregate income.

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS, 1921-22.
Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Rents, &c.Government.
 £££££
Counties1,409,810190,655234,745898,1952,733,405
Boroughs1,915,5063,867,42636,9113,023,6108,843,453
Town districts73,16540,6425,015126,555245,377
Road districts94,95315,23413,07858,511181,776
River districts21,79918,7052110,46050,985
Land-drainage districts29,8901,463..58,76890,121
Water-supply districts1,0492,896....3,945
Tramway districts2,665273,496..141,250417,411
City and suburban drainage districts117,5423,619131,898153,060
Railway districts1,59619,981..221,579
Harbour districts110,0821,279,16227,759636,2212,053,224
Electric-power districts1,83843,973..501,442547,253
     Totals3,779,8935,757,252317,5305,486,91215,341,589

RATES.

As stated above, rates contributed in 1921-22 the sum of £3,779,895 to the revenue of local governing bodies. General rates levied brought in £2,501,949, and special and separate rates £1,277,946. Of the latter, £964,235 was received by boroughs and £242,304 by counties. The whole of the rates in harbour districts were general rates, while all those collected by Tramway Boards came under the heading of “special and separate.”

General rates bring in about two-thirds of the total revenue from rates.

RATES LEVIED BY LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES, 1912-13 TO 1921-22.
Financial Year.General.Special and Separate.Total.
 £££
1912-131,252,717546,5821,799,299
1913-141,359,776645,8622,005,638
1914-151,484,591655,4952,140,086
1915-161,607,764747,3912,355,155
1916-171,695,572838,9672,534,539
1917-181,791,028883,5132,674,541
1918-192,028,151911,4552,939,606
1919-202,106,3971,037,8163,144,213
1920-212,338,5391,211,0513,549,590
1921-222,501,9491,277,9463,779,895

Separate rates are of two classes—"general" and “particular.” General separate rates are levied for the construction, maintenance, &c., of any public work, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for engaging in any undertaking for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district. Particular separate rates are levied in respect of water-supply, lighting, sanitation, and libraries. Special rates are those levied as security for the repayment of loans.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1921-22 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £4.42 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). In boroughs it was £11.85; independent town districts, £8.95; and in town districts forming parts of counties, £6.63.

LICENSES, TOLLS, RENTS, ETC.

Rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publicans' licenses, auctioneers' and hawkers' licenses, abattoir fees, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, tolls, &c. Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are—Rents; fines and penalties; market dues; sales of material; sale of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works; tramway receipts; interest on deposits; wharf dues, &c.

RECEIPTS FROM GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

Revenue received from the Government comprises—Rates on Crown and Native lands; timber and flax royalties; goldfields revenue and gold duty; fees and fines; subsidy on rates; one-third of receipts from lands sold on deferred payment and from perpetual leases; one-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs; other. In addition there are special grants from the General Government for various local works of a public or semi-public character. These are not considered revenue, and are included with “Receipts not revenue.”

A further class of receipts from the Government is provided by loans under the various Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts and from the New Zealand State Advances Office.

A statement of all receipts by controlling bodies of local districts from the Government during the last five financial years is given in the next table:—

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS FROM GOVERNMENT.—QUINQUENNIAL SUMMARY.
Year ended 31st March.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
 £££££
Rates on Crown and Native lands2021,9148,1439,8347,990
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment and from perpetual leases35,73135,09420,46742,73744,381
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs5,3917,7225,6557,5686,068
Timber and flax royalties4,2885,1003,9614,9005,197
Goldfields revenue and gold duty34,34025,82226,56520,67217,095
Subsidies on rates160,032168,835177,074192,241200,722
Fees and fines2,3594,5643,0674,0103,729
Other receipts6,55518,27918,12821,03032,348
     Total Revenue Account248,898267,330263,060302,992317,530
Loans from Government under Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts and from New Zealand State Advances Office118,373208,158515,3631,130,3711,005,160
Grants for special works, &c.87,362156,354248,110304,233338,594
Total receipts from Government454,633631,8421,026,5331,737,5961,661,284

Of the total of £1,661,284 for 1921-22, no less than £782,547 went to counties, boroughs received £571,403, while harbour districts accounted for £143,410.

EXPENDITURE.

The expenditure of local governing bodies during each of the last twenty years is as follows:—

Financial Year.Expenditure. £
1902-32,867,506
1903-43,230,712
1904-53,497,321
1905-63,601,506
1906-73,897,515
1907-84,491,113
1908-94,800,711
1909-104,898,482
1910-115,360,261
1911-126,074,372
1912-136,537,769
1913-146,796,314
1914-156,806,567
1915-166,920,736
1916-176,758,593
1917-187,103,073
1918-197,320,277
1919-2010,883,586
1920-2112,761,690
1921-2215,091,875

The expenditure of the various classes of local governing bodies during 1921-22 is shown below in more detail:—

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—EXPENDITURE, 1921-22.
Public Works.Hospitals and Charitable Aid.Management.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Other.Total Expenditure.

* Included in Public Works.

 ££££££
Counties1,913,961305,360253,516231,36537,5862,741,788
Boroughs6,186,118202,775279,379938,697871,4188,478,387
Town districts190,9616,94718,32423,8276,962247,021
Road districts143,33111,11916,81111,4698,254190,984
River districts33,001..8,5359,2955,74256,573
Land-drainage districts70,526..5,22211,3492,24489,341
Water-supply districts1,609..2,3626322744,877
Tramway districts367,751..*33,12040,817441,688
City and suburban drainage districts40,265..10,82272,5417,956131,584
Railway districts18,740....2,70230021,742
Harbour districts1,328,258..171,280372,034185,6192,057,191
Electric-power districts573,289....51,7845,626630,699
     Totals10,867,810526,201766,2511,758,8131,172,79815,091,875

It is seen that during the year the total expenditure was £15,091,875, of which £10,867,810, or 70.81 per cent., was expended on public works and £1,758,815, or 11.65 per cent., on debt charges. The item “management expenses” does not rank very high in the aggregate, though the table following shows that in some classes of local bodies the expenses of management account for a fair percentage of the revenue:—

Management Expenses as Percentage of
Revenue.Total Receipts.Expenditure.
 £££
Counties13.819.279.25
Boroughs4.803.163.30
Town districts (Independent)14.806.596.72
Town districts (Dependent)17.9513.5611.45
Road districts13.639.248.80
River districts21.0616.7415.08
Land-drainage districts16.655.845.79
Water-supply districts59.8759.8748.43
City and suburban drainage districts8.937.078.22
Harbour districts12.098.348.33

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure out of loan-money during the last ten years, classified under various heads:—

EXPENDITURE OUT OF LOANS.—BOROUGHS ONLY, 1912-13 TO 1921-22.
Year ended 31st March.Streets, Footways, and Bridges.Drainage and Sanitation.Waterworks.Tram ways.Abattoirs, Slaughterhouses, and Pounds.Lighting and Power Services.Other Public Works.Management, Interest, and Sundries.Total.
 £££££££££
1913182,251205,373169,44761,22415,596134,873103,98516,433889,182
1914244,619131,547129,60147,4273,074199,75758,36820,491834,884
1915153,20968,06170,30628,8895,463201,65158,98225,098611,659
1916175,24898,36686,86445,3903,860235,07178,39817,818741,015
191798,59592,67784,01221,49714,970130,48960,90216,794519,936
191872,29086,34645,9176,880..104,35957,08612,571385,449
191992,92362,71040,593..67168,27634,0145,163304,350
1920109,85877,47149,3831,231,571..84,283100,2482861,653,100
1921227,774118,73095,10793,1135,141158,473128,1528,437834,927
1922229,495217,503174,514116,79952605,019107,14247,3471,497,871

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The assets and liabilities of local governing bodies at the end of the financial year 1921-22 are as shown in the table following. The figures shown in the column “Other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete. In quite a number of cases no assets whatever are shown, while in the majority of the others nothing is included for the reserves held. These totals can only be taken as a very approximate indication of the property held in addition to the actual cash assets.

Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets (as estimated in published Balance-sheets).Loans (excluding Government Loans and those from the State Advances Office).Loans from State Advances Office. (Net Indebtedness on 31st March, 1922.)Inscribed Stock, i.e., Loans from Treasury under Loans to Local Bodies Acts. (Estimated Present Indebtedness.)Liabilities other than the Loans included in preceding Columns (Bank Overdrafts, Outstanding Accounts, &c.).
 ££££££
Counties958,9761,144,3891,734,9471,678,285701,124170,563
Boroughs1,986,08320,316,75315,766,3921,777,362507,306474,628
Town districts55,580426,708356,690182,1276,65737,479
Road districts49,53994,34689,847129,53625,41510,643
River districts19,27765,62061,55139,00733,60714,263
Land-drainage districts37,97745,10561,864151,25453,5002,578
City and suburban drainage districts44,725604,9191,203,314163..13,943
Tramway districts432,9641,133,919987,206....1,539
Water-supply districts4461,3608,846..56525
Railway districts3,17176,70549,113....923
Harbour districts1,199,72811,417,9917,390,189139,361..281,231
Electric-power districts696,891707,9641,480,177....48,473
     Totals5,485,35736,035,77929,190,1364,097,0951,328,1741,056,288

In the following table details of the estimated assets of boroughs are given for the four years 1919-22. Particulars for earlier years are not available.

ESTIMATED ASSETS OF BOROUGHS, 1919-22.
Assets.Year ended 31st March.
1919.1920.1921.1922.
 ££££
Reserves, public parks, gardens, &c.1,672,4591,544,2061,631,2771,840,149
Endowments2,649,6312,110,3032,226,9992,236,505
Town halls, libraries, and fittings319,482728,513799,310855,144
Other premises, plant, tools, and implements1,168,890818,118815,872886,734
Gasworks926,974979,5511,112,3731,200,539
Electrical works1,811,9791,971,6392,290,7273,125,991
Tramways1,339,6222,373,4932,818,6503,129,018
Abattoirs and saleyards189,476178,866197,437188,468
Drainage, sewerage, and water systems3,330,6493,986,6464,673,6024,963,930
Other assets1,300,8092,260,7751,803,6271,890,275
     Totals14,709,97116,952,11018,369,87420,316,753

During the four years 1919-22 the fixed assets of boroughs have accordingly increased by approximately £5,600,000, or 37 per cent. The growth is seen to pertain chiefly to gas and electrical works, tramways, and drainage and water systems, thus indicating the modern trend of municipal activity.

LOANS OF LOCAL BODIES.

The outstanding loans of local bodies at the end of each of the last twenty years are shown in the following table:—

As at 31st March.Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Loans from State Advances Office.Inscribed Debt.Total Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt.Gross Debt.Net Debt.Gross Debt.Present Indebtedness.Gross Debt.Net Debt.
 ££££££££
19038,217,1967,338,676....1,669,4801,354,5169,886,6768,693,192
19048,898,9107,975,320....1,857,1521,493,05510,756,0629,468,375
190510,018,2429,005,196....2,038,4941,621,49112,056,73610,626,687
190610,718,0519,722,081....2,155,1141,679,95812,873,16511,402,039
190711,616,04810,536,565....2,287,1051,748,08613,903,15312,284,651
190812,532,33411,343,352....2,399,0171,798,83414,931,35113,142,186
190913,303,62212,184,409....2,617,1351,943,72815,920,75714,128,137
191014,937,68513,765,802....2,872,2322,119,02317,809,91715,884,825
191115,727,61314,462,770405,195404,1632,972,7952,173,29319,105,60317,040,226
101216,590,87715,161,7271,195,6801,186,6112,985,9982,169,44720,772,55518,541,224
191317,483,33215,882,9261,740,9251,711,7972,988,2982,168,25222,212,55519,791,022
191418,923,48217,202,7642,063,0052,007,7972,842,1502,079,57023,828,63721,100,025
191519,454,47517,602,6692,399,4202,312,7542,780,4921,975,86024,634,38721,803,381
191620,754,16818,822,8962,680,2452,562,9702,728,1741,872,99026,162,58723,196,157
191721,432,76719,277,706,2,836,0552,676,4072,690,4121,795,08026,959,23423,708,368
191822,260,53719,782,8452,962,1902,762,9002,630,2441,681,33027,852,97124,210,714
191922,673,71219,922,1533,095,7402,846,8372,554,4011,552,42328,323,85324,321,413
192024,608,29321,917,2353,406,2903,108,4582,471,1911,466,72730,485,77426,492,420
192126,186,96023,230,0843,852,4653,492,3742,425,6231,415,56732,165,04828,138,025
192220,266,20427,018,3704,557,5454,097,0952,381,7901,328,17437,205,53932,443,639

The net indebtedness of local governing bodies on account of outstanding loans has increased in the twenty years 1901-2 to 1921-22 from £7,016,632 to £27,018,370, exclusive of moneys borrowed from the Government, which represented a further indebtedness of £5,425,269 at the end of March, 1922, made up as follows: Inscribed debt—i.e., debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, converted, and amounts borrowed from the Treasury under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts, £1,328,174; and loans from the New Zealand State Advances Office, £4,097,095.

Of the total net indebtedness of £32,443,639 at the 31st March, 1922, boroughs were responsible for no less than £16,960,804, which represents 10.49 per cent. of their rateable capital value. In the case of counties, which have a much less per capita expenditure on public works, the percentage is only 1.36. As may be expected, it is higher in independent town districts, the figure being 6.98.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross debt of local governing bodies and the annual charge thereon for the years 1893-94 to 1921-22:—

Year ended 31st March.Estimated or Census Population.Gross Debt.Annual Loan Charge.
Amount.Rate per Head.Amount.Rate per Head.
  ££s.d.££s.d.
1894676,7477,253,07210144425,7130127
1895689,4757,422,30610154431,9310126
1896703,1877,547,51110148439,2530126
1897717,6497,675,814101311439,0570123
1898731,7137,783,44510129442,6760121
1899746,6737,995,40010142446,69701111
1900758,6168,149,272101410453,18601111
1901772,7198,785,3031174474,1630123
1902789,9949,245,36411141497,5650127
1903814,8429,886,6761228516,6700128
1904838,95410,756,06212165556,1930133
1905864,97112,056,73613189617,1470143
1906889,96812,873,1651494654,5000149
1907913,87313,903,1531543704,3350155
1908937,58714,931,35115186752,9490161
1909968,31315,920,75716810803,1940167
1910987,48117,809,9171809895,0590182
19111,008,46819,105,603181710960,8100191
19121,031,50020,772,55520291,064,251108
19131,061,74822,212,555201851,104,4741010
19141,089,82723,828,637211741,195,2881111
19151,100,58624,634,38722781,238,065126
19161,100,40626,162,587231561,339,420144
19171,101,16626,959,23424981,393,394154
19181,104,78327,852,97125431,459,606165
19191,128,63028,323,853251111,489,890165
19201,187,13930,485,774251371,633,341176
19211,218,91332,465,048261281,755,9511810
19221,248,21637,205,539291622,133,7641142

It is evident that since 1900 the increase has been continuous, the rate for 1922 being practically three times that of 1900. The accompanying diagram indicates the movement more clearly.

The loans outstanding, other than Government loans, at the end of the financial year 1921-22 are shown below, classified according to various rates of interest and as to whether raised in New Zealand or abroad:—

Rate of Interest: Per Cent.Raised in New Zealand.Raised Abroad.Total.
 £££
Under 4 per cent.8,221..8,221
4 per cent.2,759,809..2,759,809
4 ¼ per cent.911,4002,088,5002,999,900
4 ⅓ per cent.90,0001,027,5001,117,500
4 ½ per cent.3,751,8841,923,3505,675,234
4 5/8 per cent.11,000..11,000
4 ¾ per cent.311,340166,250477,590
5 per cent.3,892,2131,472,0855,364,298
5 ⅛ per cent.121,500..121,500
5 ¼ per cent.4,999,07211,4255,010,497
5 ½ per cent.1,541,00395,1001,636,103
5 3/6 per cent,10,000..10,000
5 ¾ per cent,348,260..348,260
6 per cent,1,420,3211,938,9003,359,221
6 ½ per cent,809,694150,000959,694
7 per cent,210,377197,000407,377
     Totals21,196,0949,070,11030,266,204

A further table is given showing for each of the last twenty years the amount of the debt raised in New Zealand and elsewhere, other than loans from the General Government. Columns are added showing the interest payable and the average rate of interest per cent. It will be noticed that the amount of outstanding loans shown to have been raised in New Zealand was only a small percentage of the total at the end of the first of the twenty financial years shown, but increased gradually at first, and rapidly later, till at the end of the year 1912-13 it was nearly £3,000,000 in excess of the amount raised abroad. During 1913-14, however, the New Zealand amount decreased slightly, while the loans raised abroad showed a large increase. From 1914-15 the proportion raised in New Zealand mounted rapidly, until at the 31st March, 1922, it represented 70 per cent. of the total.

INDEBTEDNESS AND INTEREST CHARGES.
Financial Year.Raised in New Zealand.Raised Abroad.Total Indebtedness.Interest.Average Rate per Cent.
 £££££
1902-32,880,5965,336,6008,217,196409,2384.91
1903-43,369,4105,529,5008,898,910439,8794.94
1904-53,479,6425,638,60010,018,242487,1454.86
1905-65,250,5515,467,50010,718,051515,1884.81
1906-76,145,5485,470,50011,616,048548,3874.72
1907-87,246,8345,285,50012,532,334587,5644.69
1908-97,785,9225,517,70013,303,622616,3304.63
1909-107,967,3856,970,30014,937,685684,6304.58
1910-118,254,3137,473,30015,727,613715,2894.55
1911-129,574,5277,016,35016,590,877748,8054.51
1912-1310,134,7827,348,55017,483,332787,8274.51
1913-1410,106,0828,817,40018,923,482855,0634.52
1914-1510,998,7758,455,70019,454,475870,9924.48
1915-1612,793,5437,960,62020,754,168948,5114.57
1916-1713,218,6178,214,15521,432,767983,4084.59
1917-1814,096,1878,164,35022,260,5371,034,2724.64
1918-1914,749,7637,923,94022,673,7121,048,9994.63
1919-2016,854,7257,753,57924,608,2951,137,0574.62
1920-2117,737,8918,449,06926,186,9601,221,5494.66
1921-2221,196,0949,070,11030,266,2041,462,0394.83

The average rate of interest showed a steady fall until 1914-15, since when it has risen considerably.

The total indebtedness at the end of 1921-22, excluding loans from the State Advances Office and the inscribed debt under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts (the latter including stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act), was £30,266,204, as shown above. Against this were sinking funds amounting to £3,247,834, leaving the net indebtedness, other than to the State, £27,018,370. The annual charge for interest was £1,462,039, and for sinking fund £295,505. The net indebtedness to the State Advances Office was £4,097,095, representing loans originally amounting to £4,557,545. The instalments of principal and interest on this amounted to an annual charge of £287,029. The section of this book dealing with State advances contains further information regarding State advances to local authorities.

The estimated net indebtedness under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts, including inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, was £1,328,174 at the end of the year. This debt is decreasing yearly, and will be extinguished in course of time. The amount outstanding is repayable by annual instalments of £89,191.

RELATIVE GROWTH OF LOAN INDEBTEDNESS AND ASSETS.

From a consideration of the tables given previously it is evident that liabilities on account of loans have increased considerably during the last few years. No survey of the finances of local bodies is complete, however, from this aspect alone. It is necessary to consider in what manner the loan-money has been expended, and the benefits that have accrued to the community therefrom. In the case of boroughs, which are responsible for approximately half the debt, it seems that an increasing tendency to engage in public-utility services of the social monopoly type has accompanied their development. A progressive increase throughout the municipalities of the Dominion in such assets as electrical works, gasworks, water-systems, tramways, reclamations, and a multiplicity of similar undertakings is the outcome of loan-money raised.

The table given below shows (a) for all local bodies, and (b) for boroughs only, the relative increase in the net indebtedness on account of loans, and in assets, during the last ten years. In the case of boroughs the amount of inscribed debt, which is not available for the earlier years of the table, has been omitted. The net liability under this heading amounted at the 31st March, 1922, to £507,306.

Some indication of the character of the assets included below is given in the table showing details of assets of boroughs on page 535.

COMPARATIVE TABLE SHOWING NET INDEBTEDNESS ON ACCOUNT OF LOANS, AND ASSETS, DURING THE DECENNIUM 1913-22.
Year ended 31st March.All Local Bodies.Boroughs only.
Net Loan Indebtedness.Index No.Assets.Index No.Net Loan Indebtedness.Index No.Assets.Index No.
 £ £ £ £ 
191319,458,004100021,726,17810009,255,733100010,229,8381000
191420,042,526103024,888,273114510,234,148110513,068,5681277
191521,388,635109926,149,182120310,492,268113313,900,5491358
191622,732,452116828,468,179131011,406,126123215,286,3251494
191723,183,581119129,946,457137811,831,780127816,335,7311597
191823,634,702121429,263,695134612,194,940131716,584,7741621
191924,321,413124928,606,307131212,275,657132615,800,4584
192026,492,420136131,940,487147013,721,374148218,176,0501776
192128,138,025144636,546,900168214,275,988154219,682,2781924
192232,443,639166741,521,136191116,156,017174522,302,8362,180

The index numbers show the proportionate increases for each year over 1913, which is taken as the base year. It is evident that while the increase in loans has been considerable, the growth of assets has been greater still. In the case of boroughs, for example, assets have increased by over £12,000,000 during the decade, while the burden of debt shows an advance of slightly under £7,000,000.

Chapter 23. SECTION XXIII.—STATE AID TO SETTLERS, WORKERS, AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

As has been shown in Subsection C of the preceding section, an appreciable proportion of the public debt of New Zealand is represented by money borrowed by the State not for its own requirements, but for the purpose of lending out at easy rates of interest for various defined purposes.

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c., for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes vary considerably in detail, but all lie in one of two main classes—those in which the money is advanced on security, and those on which the expenditure is incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, discharged soldiers, and local authorities are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlements (including the settlement of discharged soldiers) and the erection of dwellings for purchase by workers the principal of the latter. The system of land-purchase is dealt with in the section of this book dealing with land tenure and settlement, and information concerning other principal branches of State financial assistance is given below.

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS.

The Advances to Settlers Office was established by an Act passed in 1894. An administrative officer called the Superintendent was appointed early in the following year, and a Board set up to advise and co-operate with the Superintendent. Advances can be granted only with the consent of the Board.

The capital fund was limited to £3,000,000, which was to be raised within two years after the passing of the Act at an annual rate of interest not higher than 4 per cent. The first issue of £1,500,000 realized £94 8s. 9d. per £100 stock. The minimum advance was fixed at £25, and the maximum at £2,500 (now £3,500), repayable in thirty-six years and a half by half-yearly instalments of 3 per cent. on the amount borrowed.

The legislation has been amended at different times, and is now embodied in the State Advances Act, 1913, and its amendments. It authorizes the borrowing of moneys for the purpose of lending to settlers, workers, and local authorities. Each year there may be borrowed for advances to settlers £3,000,000, to workers £1,500,000, and to local authorities £1,000,000.

Money is advanced to settlers on first mortgage of lands and improvements held under the following classes of tenure, free from all encumbrances, liens, and interests other than leasehold interests:—

  1. (a.)

    1. (1.) Freehold land in fee-simple under the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

    2. (2.) Freehold land in fee-simple the title to which is registered under the Deeds Registration Act, 1908.

  2. (b.) Crown land on perpetual lease under the Land Act, 1885.

  3. (c.) Crown land held under Part III or Part IV of the Land Act, 1892, or of the Land Act, 1908.

  4. (d.) Crown land held on lease as a small grazing-rum under the Land Act, 1885, the Land Act, 1892, or the Land Act, 1908.

  5. (e.) Crown land held on agricultural lease under the Mining Act, 1891.

  6. (f.) Crown land held on lease (not being for mining purposes) under the Westland and Nelson Coalfields Administration Act, 1877.

  7. (g.) Native land held on lease under the West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 1881, or under the West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 1892.

  8. (h.) Land held on lease under the Westland and Nelson Native Reserves Act, 1887.

  9. (i.) Land held under the Thermal Springs Districts Act, 1881, or the Thermal Springs Districts Act, 1908.

  10. (j.) Educational and other reserves held under leases administered by the Land Boards.

  11. (k.) Crown land held by license on the deferred-payment system under Part III of the Land Act, 1885.

  12. (l.) Land held under lease from a leasing authority as defined by the Public Bodies' Leasing-powers Act, 1908, or the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, and providing for the payment by the incoming tenant of valuation for improvements made upon the land.

  13. (m.) Land held under lease from a Maori Land Board under the Maori Land Settlement Act, 1905.

  14. (n.) Crown lands held on lease for agricultural purposes under the Mining Districts Land Occupation Act, 1894, or Part VIII of the Land Act, 1908.

  15. (o.) Crown lands held on license for residence-sites under the Mining Act, 1891, or the Mining Act, 1905.

  16. (p.) Crown lands held on lease under section 45, Part III, of the Mining Act, 1898, and section 45, Part III, of the Mining Act, 1908.

  17. (q.) Maori lands which have been transferred in trust for leasing to and are held under leases from a Maori Land Board under the powers contained in the Maori Lands Administration Act, 1900, and its amendments.

  18. (r.) Land held under certain classes of lease granted by a Borough Council under the Municipal Corporations Act, 1908, or the Municipal Corporations Act, 1920.

  19. (s.) Land held under certain leases granted by the Wanganui River Trust.

  20. (t.) Land held under lease granted by a leasing authority as defined by the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, in any case where the lease is for any term not less than fourteen years, with a recurrent right of renewal for further terms of not less than fourteen years.

  21. (u.) Crown land or settlement land held on lease or license under section 4, Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915.

  22. (v.) Crown land held on lease or license for pastoral purposes under Part VI of the Land Act, 1892, or Part VI of the Land Act, 1908.

Loans can be granted only on the instalment system and for periods not exceeding thirty-six and a half years—.

  1. (a.) On all freeholds, up to three-fourths of the value of the security:

  2. (b.) On leaseholds, up to three-fourths of the value of the lessee's interest in the lease.

Where an advance is required for the purpose of erecting a building, the amount of the loan granted by the Board may be advanced in progress-payments from time to time as the erection of the building proceeds. An inspection and report must be made by an officer of the Valuation Department prior to payment of any progress-payment on account of the loan, and for each such inspection a fee of 15s. is payable by the applicant.

No loan of less than £25 or more than £3,500 can be granted. Applications for loans not exceeding £500 shall have priority over applications for larger sums. If the applicant has already obtained any advance under the Act and is desirous of obtaining a further advance, the amount of the application, added to the amount of the advances already obtained, must not exceed £3,500. The property which the applicant offers as security for the loan must consist of one or more holdings of the several classes of tenure mentioned previously, and must, of course, be of the necessary value; and, if the property is leasehold, all the covenants and conditions of the lease, including the payment of rent, must have been regularly complied with.

All applications must be accompanied by a valuation fee according to the following scale:—

 £s.d.
Not exceeding £1000150
Exceeding £100 but not exceeding £2501116
Exceeding £250 but not exceeding £500220
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £3,5002126

Mortgages are repayable by half-yearly payments of principal and interest combined. They may also be wholly repaid at any time. Interest is charged at the rate of 5 per cent., reducible to 41/2 per cent., save on advances authorized for the purpose of repaying mortgages, in which case the rate is 6 per cent., reducible to 51/2 per cent., provided that in each case payment is made not later than fourteen days after due date and no arrears in respect of instalments or other payments under the mortgage remain outstanding.

The following tables show, taking a loan of £100 as an instance, how much of each instalment is applied to repaying the principal, and how much is in payment of interest. They show also the amount of rebate in respect of each instalment and the balance of principal remaining due after payment of the respective instalments until the loan is entirely repaid.

TABLE OF PRESCRIBED HALF-YEARLY INSTALMENTS FOR EVERY ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF THE LOAN AT 5 PER CENT.
Half-year.Half-yearly Instalment.Apportioned thus:½ per Cent. Rebate of Interest.Balance of Principal owing.
On Account of Interest at 5 per Cent.On Account of Principal
Thirty-six-and-a-half-years Term.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.s.d.£s.d.
1300210001005099100
230029901035098199
330029601004119893
4300293010911197186
530029001104119776
6300288011141096102
730028501174109647
83002810111141095128
930027100122499506
103002760129499480
11300272012104993152
1230026110131489321
133002670135489288
14300263013947911411
1530025100142479109
163002560146479063
17300252014104689115
1830024901534688102
193002450157458807
203002400160458747
213002370165458682
22300232016104485114
2330022901734384141
2430022401784383165
25300211101814282184
26200216018642811910
2730021001904181010
283002060196418014
29300200100407914
30300119610031178010
313001190110311761910
32300118611631075181
33300118012031074104
3430011751273973139
35300116101323872107
3630011631393771010
373001158144377026
38300115114113668177
3930011451573567120
40300113101623566510
41300113216103464190
4230011261763363116
433001119183326233
44300111118113160144
453001104198305948
46300197110521157143
47300181011122115631
483001811111121054112
4930017311292952185
5030016611362851411
5130015811442749107
5230014911532647154
53300131111612545193
543001301170244423
5530012111711224244
5630011111811214055
5730010211910203857
58300019220101113649
593000181211111034210
603000171221118311911
61300016024017291511
623000141125116271010
633000139263142547
6430001272751322172
653000115287122087
66300010329910171810
67300090211001115710
6830007821240912156
6930006521370810111
703000512141106770
713000382164044108
723000242178031130
73113100010113001..
Thirty-years Term.
134821000148509954
2348297015141198103
3348292015641197149
4348281001510411961811
534828501634109628
634828001684109560
734827701714994811
834827201764993115
9348269017114892136
1034826401844891152
113482510018104790164
1234825401944689170
13348241101994688173
143482451034587170
1534823111094586163
1634823411444851411
17348221011104384131
183482231254383108
193482191211428279
20348212136418143
21348207141418002
223482001484078156
23348119415431177102
24348118915113107643
25348118116731074178
2634811751733973105
2734811691711387226
28348116018837701310
293481154194366946
30348114711013567145
313481131011010356637
32348113111173464120
33348112311253362197
3434811151133326164
35348110711413159123
36348199114113057174
37348181111592115617
38348180116821054111
393481711177285274
4034816211862750810
413481521196264894
423481422062546810
43348132216244474
443481222262342410
45348111237214013
463481002482037167
4734801810251011135109
48348017926111933310
4934801672811830159
503480154294162865
513480141210715251510
523480121021110132340
533480117213112201011
54348010321451017166
553480810215100111508
563480762172091236
573480602188079410
5834804730105649
5934803131704332
6034801633202..
Twenty-years Term.
1319821001985098104
231982931105411961911
3319828611124109589
431982791111149931610
5319826111129489241
6319826111374790106
7319825311454688161
8319824511534587010
931982361162448548
1031982271171438377
1131982181180428197
123198209118114179108
1331981199119114077109
1431981189201131075910
153198117921113973711
16319811682303871411
17319811572413769010
18319811462523566158
1931981135263346495
2031981123275336220
21319811112873159135
22319819102910305737
233198187211121054126
2431981742124295202
2531981602138274966
26319814821502646116
27319813321652443151
2831981110217102240173
29319810521932037180
3031980181130911134173
31319801753231931150
323198015113391728113
33319801433551525510
343198012837013211810
35319801103881118102
363198093310501114199
3731980763122091177
3831980583140077137
393198031031510053179
4031980111317002..
TABLE OF PRESCRIBED HALF-YEARLY INSTALMENTS FOR EVERY ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF
Half-year.Half-yearly Instalment.Apportioned thus:½ per Cent. Rebate of Interest.Balance of Principal owing.
On Account of Interest at 5 per Cent.On Account of Principal
Thirty-years Term.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.s.d.£s.d.
131233000123509979
23123219701285098151
33123219301304119821
431232181001354119788
53123218501310410961410
63123218001434109607
731232177014841095511
831232172015149941010
93123216901564993154
103123216301604892194
113123215901664892210
123123215301704791510
13312321490176479084
143123214301804689104
153123213801874688119
163123213201914587128
173123212701984586130
18312321201034485129
1931232114101143841110
20312321091164383104
2131232101122428282
2231232951210418154
2331232891364180110
2431232801434078177
253123274141131177128
2631232671583117670
27312325101653107507
2831232501733973134
293123242181387253
30312323418113770164
313123226199376967
323123217110836671511
3331232081117356644
3431231199112634641110
353123118911363362184
363123117911463261310
37312311681157315983
383123115811673057118
39312311661179211551311
4031231135118102953151
41312311232002851151
423123111021327491310
43312319102252647115
443123186239254578
453123173250234328
46312315102652240163
473123146270213836
48312313029311135193
49312311721081103387
50312310121221830165
51312301862139172828
523123016102155152573
533123015221711322102
543123013621891219115
553123011930610161011
56312309113240101387
573123081342081045
583123061362066183
593123042381043102
603123021310202..
Twenty-years Term.
14663001665098136
246621921744119762
3466218418241095180
446621761904109490
5466216819104992192
646621591109489185
74662141011184789169
8466213101128468841
94662121111374586106
1046621110114844841510
11466210101158438302
1246629101168428136
1346628811710417958
144662761190407768
154662642023107566
16466252214397352
174662311227387127
1846622823103768189
194662142523566137
20466200266346471
21466118727113361192
2246611722943159910
234661158210103056190
24466114221242105468
254661127213112951129
26466111021582748173
274661942172254601
2846617721811244312
294661510308224006
304661403262036180
3146612134511033137
32466102364183073
33466018238416261811
3446601623104142387
35466014131251219162
36466011113147101617
37466097316110101248
38466074319207856
3946605041605440
4046602644003..

The mortgagor may at any time repay the whole balance of principal owing with interest to date of payment, and obtain a discharge of the mortgage on payment of the fee prescribed for such discharge.

The mortgagor may also from time to time pay, in addition to the half-yearly payments, sums of £5 or a multiple of £5, which, at the next instalment due date, may be applied in one of the following methods, according as he directs:—

  1. (a.) In payment of the half-yearly instalments (consisting partly of interest and partly of principal) as they fall due, until the deposit is exhausted; or,

  2. (b.) In payment of as many future half-yearly instalments of principal (but not of interest) as it will cover, and, as far as such instalments are concerned, the corresponding interest will not be charged. On the next half-yearly date, however, the mortgagor will be required to continue his payments as before, the advance payment having the effect of reducing the period during which he would have to pay such instalments. For instance, a mortgagor has a loan of £100 for a term of 361/2 years. On the due date of his eighth half-yearly instalment he pays, in addition to the amount due, a sum of £5. This is applied in payment of his ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth instalments of principal—12s. 2d., 12s. 6d., 12s. 10d., 13s. 1d., 13s. 5d., 13s. 9d., 14s. 2d., making a total of £4 11s. 11d.; and the corresponding interest—£2 7s. 10d., £2 7s. 6d., £2 7s. 2d., £2 6s. 11d., £2 6s. 7d., £2 6s. 3d., £2 5s. 10d. (which has not begun to accrue)—is not charged. A balance of 8s. 1d. remains in his favour. Then on the next due date he has to make the half-yearly payment as usual (less 8s. 1d.), but, instead of being the ninth, it counts as the sixteenth instalment, and by this means the whole loan is repaid three and a half years earlier than it otherwise would be.

On the due date of any instalment, after at least one-tenth of the loan has been repaid by means of the half-yearly instalments or of moneys repaid in advance, or both, the mortgagor (provided he is not in arrear with any instalment or other payment due under the mortgage) may, with the consent of the Superintendent, readjust the loan by treating the balance of principal then unpaid, if not less than £100, as a fresh loan duly granted on that date for a fresh term. Under this arrangement the mortgagor will be relieved of paying interest on the original amount of the loan, and will pay only on the balance of principal owing.

Following is the scale of fees payable for preparation of mortgages:—

Mortgages under the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

Law-costs of perusing title, preparing, completing, and registering mortgage (to be deducted from the advance):—

 £s.d.
If advance be not exceeding £250076
Exceeding £250 but not exceeding £5000100
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £7500150
Exceeding £750 but not exceeding £1,000110
Exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £1,500160
Exceeding £1,500 but not exceeding £2,0001116
Exceeding £2,000 but not exceeding £3,5001176

With cash disbursements, which are the same in every case, namely:—

 £s.d.
Mortgage forms020
Search fee (with an additional 2s. for every certificate of title after the first)020
Registration (with an additional 2s. for every certificate of title after the first)0100

Mortgages under the Deeds Registration Act, 1908.

Law-costs of perusing title, preparing, completing, and registering mortgage (to deducted from the advance):—

 £s.d.
If advance be not exceeding £1500180
Exceeding £150 but not exceeding £250106
Exceeding £250 but not exceeding £500156
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £7501130
Exceeding £750 but not exceeding £1,000230
Exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £1,5002130
Exceeding £1,500 but not exceeding £2,0003130
Exceeding £2,000 but not exceeding £3,5004130

With cash disbursements:—

Mortgage form010
Fee chargeable by solicitor not residing in registration centre for employing agent to register mortgage050
Fee for partial or total discharge of mortgage050
Fee for execution of consent by the Superintendent to any document050
Fee for production of title-deeds held by the Superintendent050

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS ON STOCK AND FARM IMPLEMENTS.

Advances may also be made on the security of stock and farm implements. Every advance shall be secured by a mortgage of land or chattels either with or without any collateral security to be approved by the Board of the Office. Not more than £500 may be advanced to any one borrower, the term of the loan not to exceed five years.

The principal moneys comprised in any advance are repayable by instalments as follows:—

  1. (a.) 10 per cent, at the end of the first year.

  2. (b.) 15 per cent, at the end of the second year.

  3. (c.) 20 per cent, at the end of the third year.

  4. (d.) 25 per cent, at the end of the fourth year.

  5. (e.) 30 per cent, at the end of the fifth year.

Interest on the amount of the loan for the time being outstanding shall be payable at the rate of 7 per cent, per annum, reducible to 61/2 per cent, per annum provided that the half-yearly instalments of principal and interest are paid within fourteen days of due date.

Every application must be accompanied by a valuation fee according to the following scale:—

 £s.d.
On application for loan not exceeding £ 250220
On application for loan exceeding £250 but not exceeding £5002126

The fees for searching Chattels Register-book, and of preparing, completing, and registering instrument by way of security (exclusive of cash disbursements), are—

 £s.d.
For advance not exceeding £250110
For advance exceeding £2501176

STATISTICAL.

From the inception of the scheme of advances to settlers in 1894, applications have been received to the number of 74,872 for loans totalling £33,157,298. The Advances Board authorized loans of £22,197,865 to 56,892 applicants, the total actual payments to 31st March, 1923, being £21,576,915, of which £13,319,519 has been repaid in respect of principal, leaving £8,157,396 still outstanding. A table is given showing the business to date and for each of the last ten years.

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS, 1913-14 TO 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £££
19143,6041,400,2482,390878,855978,395710,590
19153,8701,826,2652,100749,0401,136,475754,810
19162,507982,8002,022746,630814,555713,177
19171,619660,9751,412515,270589,975643,751
19181,228511,532984353,465367,160501,009
19191,326579,022986363,875350,140529,023
19202,8411,520,1282,2191,031,855808,1801,118,486
19212,5051,661,9742,0851,107,4301,060,2601,065,003
19222,1971,321,4801,524773,375805,975552,269
19233,6782,649,6692,1401,209,035945,900611,480
Totals to 31st March, 192374,87233,157,29856,89222,197,86521,576,91513,319,519

Not all the advances to settlers are made by the Advances to Settlers Branch of the State Advances Office. Part of the business shown in the above table relates to the Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch and the Advances Office Sinking Fund Branch. The advances to settlers authorized by the three branches during 1922-23 are as follows:—

Branch.Advances authorized.
Number.Amount. £
Advances to Settlers1,580827,750
Public Debt Sinking Funds392271,255
Advances Office Sinking Fund168110,030
     Totals2,140£1,209,035

The advances authorized in each provincial district during the year, and the total to 31st March, 1923, are next shown.

Provincial District.Advances authorized, 1922-23.Total Advances authorized
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £
Auckland772421,91019,3617,066,493
Taranaki12678,7305,6812,675,414
Hawke's Bay16387,2503,0201,138,215
Wellington589351,81513,6035,681,858
Marlborough4221,7051,389592,635
Nelson3114,9151,018328,815
Westland177,325992271,865
Canterbury256141,2405,6502,058,450
Otago—    
Otago portion6231,2852,7751,094,720
Southland portion8252,8603,4031,289,400
     Totals2,1401,209,03556,89222,197,865

Dealing now only with the operations of the Advances to Settlers Branch, it is seen that during the year 1922-23 the advances authorized numbered 1,580, representing a total amount of £827,750. The number of borrowers and the sums actually advanced during the year, classified according to amount, were—

Category.Number of Advances.Amount advanced. £
Not exceeding £500593205,575
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £1,000494327,080
Exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £2,0003547,655
     Totals1,122£580,310

The nature of the security upon which these advances were made was as follows:

Security.Number of Advances.Amount advanced. £
Freehold845430,775
Leasehold266142,055
Freehold and leasehold combined117,480
     Totals1,122£580,310

The advances outstanding, classified according to amount, are as follows:—

Category.Number of Advances.Amount outstanding. £
Not exceeding £50014,2913,147,014
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £1,0002,6472,113,566
Exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £2,0001,0371,503,564
Exceeding £2,000 but not exceeding £3,00088226,148
     Totals18,063£6,990,292

The nature of the security for the total amount of advances outstanding on the 31st March, 1923, was—

Security.Number of Advances.Amount outstanding. £
Freehold11,1365,096,425
Leasehold6,7241,767,603
Freehold and leasehold combined203126,264
     Totals18,063£6,990,292

The average freehold advance is £458, the average leasehold advance £263, and the average of advances secured on both freehold and leasehold combined £622. Corresponding figures for the year ended the 31st March, 1922, are—Freehold, £470; leasehold, £266; and combined freehold and leasehold, £615.

The number and amounts of current advances on rural and on urban and suburban land are—

 Number.Amount. £
On rural land11,0564,510,688
On urban and suburban land7,0072,479,604
     Totals18,063£6,990,292

The average rural advance is £408, and the average urban and suburban advance is £354.

The gross profits for the year ended the 31st March, 1923, were £51,579, and the cost of management and expenses of the branch £19,886, being 0.203 per cent., or 4s. per £100 of the capital employed. The net profits amounted to £29,255.

The sinking fund established under the State Advances Act, 1913, after redemption of loans totalling £45,000, amounts to £1,403,177.

The liabilities and assets at the 31st March, 1923, of the Settlers Branch of the State Advances Office were—

Liabilities.£s.d.
Sundry loans9,238,1951510
Temporary advances from Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch194,00000
Temporary advances from Advances Office Sinking Fund Account415,50000
Advances Suspense Account17,95000
Fire Loss Suspense Account1,779105
Suspense Account3,312511
Reserve Fund25,00000
Sundry creditors2,252198
Interest payable on loans, accrued but not due75,05593
Income-tax Suspense Account16,033164
Sinking Fund962,81283
 £10,981,89258
Assets.   
Investment Account—Total principal owing by mortgagors6,990,292510
Interest due40,737126
Interest on mortgages, accrued but not due76,80359
Temporary advances to Local Authorities Branch145,50000
Temporary advances to Workers Branch845,00000
Temporary investments1,160,00000
Interest on temporary investments, accrued but not due18,41383
Insurance Premiums Account17962
Office Furniture and Equipment Account2,2121211
Sundry debtors2100
Realization Account2,45173
Sinking Funds—   
Advances Office Sinking Fund Account1,387,11968
Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch16,05836
Cash in bank at 31st March, 1923296,8031610
..£10,981,89258

ADVANCES TO WORKERS.

The system of advances to workers, instituted in 1906, is on much the same general lines as that of the advances to settlers. Advances are made on first mortgage of lands and improvements held under the various classes of tenure enumerated on page 540. The scales of charges and of payments of principal and interest, and the provisions for paying off the whole or part of the principal outstanding, apply to the workers' scheme as well as to the settlers'.

A worker is defined as a person of either sex engaged (whether as an employee or on his or her own account) in manual or clerical work who is not in receipt of an annual income exceeding £300, increased by £25 in respect of each child or other person dependent on him, and is not the owner of any land other than that offered as security.

Originally the scheme of advances to workers was confined to persons in receipt of not more than £200 per annum, and the maximum amount that could be advanced to any applicant was £450. Legislation passed in 1923, however, greatly enlarged the scope of the scheme.

Not more than £1,250 may now be granted to any one borrower; and an advance must not exceed 95 per cent, of the total value of the security in the case of freehold land, or 95 per cent, of the value of the lessee's interest in the case of leasehold land, or, where the loan is to provide for the erection of a dwellinghouse, 95 per cent, of the cost of the dwellinghouse inclusive of the cost of the land and improvements. No advance can be made to any applicants who do not take up their permanent residence on the property. Married applicants must make the declaration on the application form jointly with wife or husband, as the case may require.

Where an advance is required for the purpose of erecting a dwelling, the application form must be accompanied by evidence in the form of sale-note, receipt, agreement, or otherwise as to the purchase price of the section and tender accepted or contract entered into for the erection of the dwelling. The amount of the loan granted by the Board may be advanced in progress-payments as the erection of the building proceeds. An inspection and report must be made by an officer of the Valuation Department prior to any progress-payment being made on account of the loan, and for each such inspection a fee of 10s. 6d. must be paid by the applicant. The Department requires that not less than three inspections be made, and that the fencing be completed before all the loan is paid over.

The total of the advances to workers up to the 31st March, 1923 (including moneys repaid and again advanced), was £5,579,095.

The applications received for loans during the year ended the 31st March, 1923, numbered 3,678, the aggregate amount required being £2,649,669. Advances authorized during 1922-23 numbered 1,748, representing a total amount of £871,805.

The total number of loans and the aggregate amount authorized in each provincial district are as follows:—

Provincial District.Advances authorized, 1922-23.Total Advances authorized to 31st March, 1923.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £
Auckland710352,9105,6281,958,770
Taranaki3919,170555174,890
Hawke's Bay10749,1551,379484,770
Wellington404206,1754,5991,592,670
Marlborough2711,530499155,675
Nelson93,69525766,615
Westland....19442,030
Canterbury342176,2854,1911,458,835
Otago—    
   Otago portion5627,3301,174355,390
   Southland portion5425,555549163,095
     Totals1,748871,80519,0256,452,740

Dealing only with the operations of the Advances to Workers Branch and excluding the Advances Office Sinking Fund and Public Debt Sinking Fund, it is noticed that the advances actually paid during the year numbered 1,206 for an aggregate of £623,925. The tenures upon which these loans were made were—

Tenure.Number of Loans.Aggregate Amount. £
Freehold1,152598,510
Leasehold5425,415
Totals1,206£623,925

The net amount outstanding at the end of the financial year was £3,253,026, secured upon the following tenures:—

Tenure.Number of Loans outstanding.Aggregate Amount outstanding. £
Freehold9,9433,120,706
Leasehold595132,320
Totals10,538£3,253,026

The gross profits for the year ended the 31st March, 1923, were £15,559, and the cost of management and expenses of the branch £3,830, being 0.117 per cent., or 2s. 4d. per £100 of capital employed. The net profits amounted to £11,228. The Sinking Fund, after redemption of loans totalling £187,000, amounts to £67,952.

The following table gives particulars of the transactions for each of the last ten years, and the total transactions since the passing of the Government Advances to Workers Act on the 29th October, 1906:—

ADVANCES TO WORKERS, 1913-14 TO 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £££
19141,599528,2401,200339,200272,86080,933
19151,492462,0651,129337,690313,025110,110
19161,079383,365953297,630275,680115,535
1917734266,740658210,995214,965127,450
1918555197,738411129,710125,855139,485
1919562214,415372119,55587,590147,791
19201,660746,5861,083420,465225,055368,597
19211,9201,053,5121,556718,630660,790388,469
19221,417830,810987449,220407,580207,843
19233,6782,649,6691,748871,805724,830234,092
Totals from inception to 31/3/192325,97110,694,54719,0256,452,7405,579,0952,183,263

The financial position of the Advances to Workers Branch of the State Advances Office as on the 31st March, 1923, is shown in the following table:—

ADVANCES TO WORKERS BRANCH: LIABILITIES AND ASSETS, 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Liabilities.£s.d.
Sundry loans2,407,346111
Temporary loans from Settlers Branch845,00000
Interest payable on loans, accrued but not due25,074175
Advances Suspense Account42,808100
Income-tax Suspense Account5,10778
Sundry creditors32649
Suspense Account368120
Reserve Fund8,754186
Sinking Fund49,727180
 £3,384,5111911
Assets.   
Investment Account—Total principal owing by mortgagors3,253,025191
Interest due11,768135
Interest on mortgages, accrued but not due35,97598
Loan Charges Account10,999170
Insurance Premiums Account128120
Sundry debtors5131
Realization Account6239
Sinking Funds—   
   Advances Office Sinking Fund Account61,487192
   Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch6,464147
Cash in bank at 31st March, 19234,592182
 £3,384,5111911

The administration of the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910, and the Housing Act, 1919, was transferred to the State Advances Department in 1923, as part of a scheme to consolidate the various systems of State advances. The purchaser of a dwelling-house pursuant to an agreement under either of the Acts mentioned may, on application in that behalf made by him on the prescribed form, agree with the Superintendent to surrender his rights under the agreement and to accept a loan under Part III of the State Advances Act, 1913. On any such surrender the Superintendent shall cancel the agreement.

In any such case the land and dwellinghouse to which the agreement relates shall cease to be subject to any restrictions under the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910, or section 21 or section 22 of the Housing Act, 1919, and the land shall not thereafter be deemed to be set apart for the purposes of the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910, or of Part I of the Housing Act, 1919 (as the case may be).

On the cancellation of any such agreement as aforesaid the land to which the agreement relates shall be transferred or granted in fee-simple to the purchaser, subject to a mortgage to secure a loan under Part III of the State Advances Act, 1913, of such amount, not exceeding 95 per cent, of the purchase-money mentioned in the agreement, as the Board may approve.

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

During the twelve years which have elapsed since the system of State advances to local authorities was initiated 2,606 applications under this head have been received for loans totalling £10,103,402. Loans authorized, 2,004 in number, have aggregated £5,865,059, of which £5,348,355 has been actually advanced. Repayments to the 31st March, 1923, have totalled £573,274, leaving an indebtedness of £4,775,081 in respect of principal moneys. Figures for each of the last ten years and to date are as follows:—

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES, 1913-14 TO 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £££
1914167166,1657284,970259,43029,600
191577222,07048254,430237,28529,800
1916170263,858164238,970285,41035,192
1917118154,025103127,135152,31038,874
1918110171,110109158,055128,15041,681
1919125225,988119214,300130,57546,615
19202841,041,380229717,160311,88049,034
19213101,865,460194689,225444,82553,926
1922213573,805246725,730780,410138,591
1923253526,310213478,035711,37578,694
Totals from inception to 31/3/232,60610,103,4022,0045,865,0595,348,355573,274

As in the case of advances to settlers and workers, advances to local authorities are made from three distinct sources—viz., the funds of the Advances to Local Authorities Branch of the State Advances Office, the Public Debt Sinking Funds, and the Advances Office Sinking Fund. Of the £711,375 advanced in 1922-23 as shown above, only £191,365 came from the Local Authorities Branch, the Advances Office Sinking Fund contributing £26,725, and the Public Debt Sinking Funds £493,285. Of the amount outstanding at the 31st March, 1923, the Public Debt Sinking Funds claimed £1,875,696, and the Advances Office Sinking Fund £325,413.

A statement of the liabilities and assets of the Local Authorities Branch as at the 31st March, 1923, is appended.

Liabilities.£s.d.
Sundry loans2,775,52905
Loan-moneys — Unexpended balances3,9871210
Temporary advances from Settlers Branch145,50000
Suspense Account2288
Sundry creditors2500
Interest on loan-moneys, accrued but not due36,385167
Sinking Fund72,20508
 £3,033,65582
Assets.£s.d.
Investment Account. less total repayments2,573,971146
Interest on debentures—   
Overdue5,42143
Accrued but not due21,015148
Loan Charges Account31,271145
Interest accrued but not due on temporary investments89873
Sinking funds—   
Advances Office Sinking Fund Account283,066124
Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch14,762133
Profit and Loss Account82,19263
Cash in hand and in bank at 31st March, 192321,05513
 £3,033,65582

Chapter 24. SECTION XXIV.—PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

THE law relating to old-age, military, and widows' pensions is contained in the Pensions Act, 1913 (a consolidation of previous enactments), in the Pensions Amendment Act, 1914, and in the Finance Acts of 1919 and 1920. The history of legislation dealing with old-age pensions is given in the 1919 and previous issues of this book. The first payments were made in the year 1898.

The qualifications for the old-age pension are briefly as follows:—

  1. (1.) The applicant, if a male, must have reached the age of sixty-five, or, if a female, must have reached the age of sixty, except in cases where the applicant is the parent of two or more children under fourteen years of age for the maintenance of whom he (or she) is responsible. The pension age in such cases is sixty for men and fifty-five for women, and the pension payable may be any sum up to £13 per annum, in addition to the ordinary pension payable as set out hereunder.

  2. (2.) The applicant must have resided continuously in New Zealand for the past twenty-five years. Continuous residence is not interrupted by absences not exceeding two years. An additional six months' period of absence is allowed for every additional year's residence in excess of the twenty-five years immediately preceding the date of application, provided that the applicant has resided in New Zealand during the twelve months immediately preceding the date of application. In the case of a seaman continuous residence is not interrupted by absences on board a ship registered in New Zealand, provided the applicant establishes the fact that his home is in New Zealand.

  3. (3.) The applicant must not during the past twelve years have been imprisoned for four months or on four occasions for an offence punishable by twelve months' imprisonment.

  4. (4.) The applicant must not during the past twenty-five years have been imprisoned for five years for any offence.

  5. (5.) The applicant must not during the past twelve years have deserted his wife (or husband, as the case may be) and children.

  6. (6.) The applicant must have lived a sober and reputable life during the past year.

  7. (7.) The yearly income of the applicant, if single, must not reach £78, and, if married, £130.

  8. (8.) The net value of accumulated property must not be £390 or over.

  9. (9.) The applicant must not have deprived himself or herself of property or income to qualify for a pension.

All residents of New Zealand who fulfil the necessary conditions are eligible for the old-age pension, with the exception of—

  1. (1.) Maoris who receive votes other than pensions out of the grant appropriated by the Civil List Act, 1908.

  2. (2.) Aliens.

  3. (3.) Naturalized subjects who have not been naturalized one year.

  4. (4.) Chinese or other Asiatics, whether naturalized or not, and whether British subjects by birth or not.

The term “alien" is deemed not to include a woman who ceased to be a British subject by reason of marriage with an alien who is since deceased, or from whom she is legally separated.

The original Act of 1898 provided for a pension of £18 per annum, or 6s. 11d. per week. This amount was, however, increased to £26 per annum (i.e., 10s. a week, or £2 3s. 4d. a month) by the Amendment Act of 1905. Under the Finance Act, 1917, every person in receipt of an old-age pension was paid an additional 5s. a week, or £13 per annum, by way of war bonus, and, in terms of the provisions of the Finance Act, 1920, this bonus was incorporated in the statutory pension, which is now 15s. a week, or £39 per annum. The full pension of £39 is reducible by—

  1. (1.) £1 for every complete £1 of income over £39.

  2. (2.) £1 for every complete £10 of net accumulated property.

  3. (3.) £1 for every year or part of a year by which the age of the applicant is less than sixty-five years.

The income of a married applicant for pension purposes is considered to be half of the joint incomes of husband and wife. The joint incomes of a married couple must not exceed, with pension added, the sum of £130.

Income includes free board and lodging up to £26 per annum, but does not include—

  1. (a.) Sick allowance or funeral benefit paid by a friendly society.

  2. (b.) Any money received on the sale or exchange of land or property.

  3. (c.) Capital expended for the benefit of the applicant or the wife or husband of the applicant.

  4. (d.) Money or money's worth received on the intestacy or under the will of a deceased husband or wife.

  5. (e.) Any money received under an insurance policy on the destruction or damage by fire or otherwise of a building or other property.

An additional exemption of one of the following is also allowed, whichever provides for the greater amount of pension:—

  1. (a.) Relief by way of charity up to £52 in any year.

  2. (b.) Any pension payable under the Miner's Phthisis Act. 1915.

  3. (c.) Relief by way of gifts or allowances from any relative up to £52 in any year.

  4. (d.) Any pension payable under the War Pensions Act, 1915.

  5. (e.) Any other moneys received by the applicant not exceeding £39 in any year.

The income chargeable is that received during the twelve months preceding the date of application, the Magistrate dealing with the application having power to exempt all personal earnings earned at a rate not exceeding £2 a week, provided it is shown to his satisfaction that owing to loss of employment or any other cause such earnings have ceased. Income being received when an application is lodged at the rate of the disqualifying amount—i.e., £78 for a single person and £130 for a married person—is a bar to the granting of a pension.

Net accumulated property is the capital value of all real and personal property owned by an applicant, other than life-assurance policies and annuities, or other life interests in the capital sum of which the applicant has no interest beyond the income derived therefrom, less the following deductions:—

  1. (1.) The amount of mortgage existing on the property.

  2. (2.) £390 from the home, including furniture and personal effects.

  3. (3.) £50 from any other property.

The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for pension purposes is half of the total net accumulated properties of both.

The pension is not affected by any increase in the value of property used exclusively as a home, which is taken at the valuation obtaining at the date of the original grant of the pension.

The number of old-age pensions in force on the 31st March, 1923, was 21,181, an increase of 690 on the figure for the previous year. The annual liability was £770,295, being an average of £36 7s. 0d. per pension. The total payment in respect of old-age pensions during the year was £755,324. A decennial summary is—

At 31st March.Pensioners.Amount paid
during Year. £
191418,050416,776
191519,352460,814
191619,804479,339
191719,697480,230
191819,960643,177
191919,872743,063
192019,993732,968
192119,837731,343
192220,491743,620
192321,181755,324

The total payments to the 31st March, 1923, aggregated £10,159,075, and the total amount credited against this figure in respect of national endowments is £358,445.

WIDOWS' PENSIONS.

The Widows' Pensions Act, 1911, came into operation on the 1st January, 1912. The scope of this Act has been widened from time to time by various amendments.

Applicants for widows' pensions must be British subjects of good character, with at least one child under fourteen, and applications require to be lodged with the local Registrar of Pensions, and to be investigated by a Magistrate, who alone has power to grant pensions. The term “widow" includes a woman whose husband is detained in a mental hospital.

The maximum pension payable is £39 per annum to a widow with one child under fourteen years of age, with £19 10s. per annum added for each additional child under fourteen. The term “child" includes a stepchild or a child legally adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant.

The number of widows' pensions in force on the 31st March, 1923, was 3,411, covering in addition 9,693 children. The annual value of these pensions was £195,747, and the gross payments during the year were £188,021.

The figures for the last five years are as follows:—

Year ended
31st March.
Number at End of Year.Annual Value.
£
Annual Payments.
£
19193,211112,61880,773
19203,444185,968136,815
19213,421198,767187,430
19223,343207,029186,457
19233,411195,747188,021

The average pension as at 31st March, 1923, was £57 7s. The total widows' pension payments since the inauguration of the scheme in 1912 have been £994,594.

MAORI WAR PENSIONS.

The Military Pensions Act, 1912, was enacted to provide for payment of an annual pension of £36 (now £49) to veterans of the Maori War who have been awarded the New Zealand War Medal for active service in that war. This Act is now embodied in the Pensions Act of 1913, which consolidates the law relating to old-age, widows', and Maori War pensions.

The qualifications of an applicant are as follows:—

  1. (1.) He must have resided in New Zealand for the ten years immediately preceding the date of his application.

  2. (2.) He must not have been imprisoned during the same period for any offence punishable by imprisonment for two years.

  3. (3.) He must not during the same period have deserted or failed to provide for his wife and children.

  4. (4.) He must be of good character and sober habits.

The number of pensions in force on the 31st March, 1923, was 669, representing an annual value of £32,781, which is equal to an average pension of £49. The payments on account of military pensions during the year aggregated £34,004. The figures for five years are—

Year ended 31st March.Number at End of Year.Annual Value.
£
Annual Payments.
£
19191,04047,81450,488
192093943,29445,085
192181139,73940,213
192274036,26037,737
192366932,78134,004

The number of pensioners of this class is rapidly decreasing, having fallen from 1,323 in 1916 to 669 in 1923, while the annual value fell during the same period from £47,623 to £32,781.

MINERS' PENSIONS.

The Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, as amended by the Finance Acts, 1919 and 1920, provides for a pension to any miner who is totally incapacitated for work owing to miner's phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand.

The rates of pension payable are—

  • To a single man or to a widower without children under fourteen, £1 5s. a week.

  • To a married man or to a widower with children under fourteen, £1 15s. a week.

The qualifications for this class of pension are—

  • The applicant must have been a British subject for one year.

  • The applicant must have resided in New Zealand for five years immediately prior to his application.

  • The applicant must have been employed as a miner in New Zealand for two years and a half.

  • The applicant must not have deserted wife or children, nor have been convicted for any offence punishable by imprisonment for two years.

  • The applicant must be of sober habits and good moral character.

The widow of any miner who is entitled to a pension under the Act and dies of miner's phthisis is entitled to claim a pension of 17s. 6d. a week during widowhood. The reasonable cost of the burial of a miner dying of miner's phthisis is also payable.

The number of pensions in force at 31st March, 1923, was 544, representing an annual liability of £33,826, the average pension being £62 4s. Pension payments during the year totalled £33,447, bringing the aggregate from the commencement of the scheme to £144,409. Against this the amount of £27,206 has been credited in respect of gold duty.

WAR PENSIONS.

The War Pensions Act, 1915, as amended, provides for the payment of pensions on certain conditions—

  1. (1.) To disabled members of the New Zealand Forces:

  2. (2.) To dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of the New Zealand Forces.

    “Member of the Forces” may include—

  1. (a.) A member of any New Zealand Expeditionary Force raised for service beyond New Zealand in the late war:

  2. (b.) A member of any New Zealand Naval Force raised for service beyond New Zealand in the late war:

  3. (c.) A member of the New Zealand Army Nursing Service who, while domiciled in New Zealand, served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in the pay of the New Zealand Government:

  4. (d.) A member of the New Zealand Defence or Naval Forces temporarily attached to any other portion of His Majesty's Forces who served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in receipt of pay from the Imperial Government:

  5. (e.) Any person, not being a member of any New Zealand Expeditionary or Naval Force, who, while domiciled in New Zealand, served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in receipt of pay from the New Zealand Government:

  6. (f.) Any person, not being a member of any New Zealand Expeditionary Force, who was engaged on active military service in any capacity in New Zealand in connection with the late war.

A “dependant" may be wife, child, father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, stepfather, stepmother, grandchild, brother, sister, or mother-in-law, and, except wife or child, must have been wholly or in part dependent upon a member of the Forces at any time during the twelve months immediately preceding the date on which the said member joined the Forces.

A “dependant" may, however, include a father or mother who was not actually dependent during the said twelve months, but is without adequate means of support.

A “child" means a person under the age of sixteen years, being a son, daughter, stepson, stepdaughter, or illegitimate child of a member of the Forces, or a child legally adopted by such member before he became a member of the Forces.

The death or disablement of any member of the Forces must have occurred in the course of his military service in connection with the late war, but may have taken place either in New Zealand or after departure from New Zealand.

The pension may be refused to a disabled applicant if any wilful misconduct contributed to the disablement.

The full scale of pensions was published in the 1920 issue of this book.

The gross annual value of the pensions in force at the 31st March, 1923, was £1,349,857. A summary follows:—

SUMMARY OF ANNUAL LIABILITY AT 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Class of Pension.Number.Annual Value.Average Pension.
  ££
Soldiers (permanent)5,686279,76049
Soldiers (temporary)11,892586,92349
Dependants (temporary)90869,30876
Widows of soldiers1,969210,569107
Other dependants of deceased soldiers6,005203,29734
Totals26,4601,349,85751

Information as to number and rate of war pensions in force at 31st March, 1923, is given in the following table:—

WAR PENSIONS IN FORCE AT EACH RATE ON 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Rate (nearest £1).Soldiers (Permanent).Soldiers (Temporary).Wives and Parents (on Account of Disablement).On Account of Death.
Widows (including Children's Pensions).Parents and other Dependants.
£ £     
261-300......3..
234-260249127..
201-23373962..
191-200616..24..
181-190537892589..
171-18012..8..
161-170..3..77..
151-16011524177..
141-1503254717..
131-14077665..
121-1305225611380..
111-1202526664
101-11060119124306
91-1001041012677
81-90424213699
71-80444445229461177
61-7024935628359
51-609751,25418871463
41-5020915419153
31-401,0391,94373451,669
21-301,5386,028832833,467
6-2045532616491
Totals5,68611,8929081,9696,005

The total payments on war pensions to the 31st March, 1923, were £8,824,436, the figures for each year being—

Year ended
31st March.
Pension
Payments.
£
191613,910
1917180,389
1918515,445
19191,199,755
19201,812,419
19211,886,952
19221,726,174
19231,489,392

SOUTH AFRICAN VETERANS' WAR PENSIONS.

Section 13 of the Finance Act, 1919, provides that every person permanently resident in New Zealand who on the passing of that Act was in receipt of a pension or allowance under Part IX of the Defence Act, 1909, in respect of military service in South Africa shall be entitled to a pension under the War Pensions Act, 1915, in the same manner as if he had been a member of the Forces within the meaning of that Act. Any pension under this section shall not be of such amount that the total amount receivable (including any Imperial pension) would be more than the pension payable if he had been a member of the Forces within the War Pensions Act, 1915.

The total number of pensions in force under this heading at the 31st March, 1923, was seventy-five, corresponding to an annual liability of £3,173. The amount actually paid out on claims during the year was £3,058.

EPIDEMIC PENSIONS.

To relieve distress arising out of the influenza epidemic of 1918 a system of pensions was instituted. The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1923, was 569, representing an annual liability of £43,120, the average pension being £76. The amount paid during the financial year 1922-23 in respect of epidemic pensions was £52,371.

The number of pensions is rapidly decreasing, having fallen during the past year by 114, or since the 31st March, 1920, by 370.

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS.

In addition to the various classes of pensions enumerated in the foregoing part of this section, the Pensions Department is now charged with the payment of pensions under the Civil Service Act, 1908, and other miscellaneous pensions and annuities.

The total number and the gross annual value of pensions in force under the Civil Service Act at the 31st March, 1923, were 88 and £22,954 respectively. The total payments during the year amounted to £26,937. There were at the same date 90 various other forms of pensions and annuities, of a total annual value of £7,638, the amount actually paid out during the year being £7,262.

A summary showing the total amount of pensions administered by the Pensions Department during the two years ended 31st March, 1922 and 1923, follows:—

Class of Pension.Annual Value.Gross Payments.
1921-22.1922-23.1921-22.1922-23.
 ££££
War1,513,2631,349,8571,726,1741,489,392
Old-age751,121770,295743,620755,324
Widows'207,029195,747186,457188,021
Maori War36,26032,78137,73734,004
Miners'31,50533,82631,21233,447
Epidemic54,99443,12065,48652,371
Boer War..3,173..3,058
Civil Service Act..22,954..26,937
Other pensions and annuities4467,6384337,262
Totals2,594,6182,459,3912,791,1192,589,816

SUPERANNUATION FUNDS.

The question of providing pensions for the public and semi-public servants of the Dominion on their retirement has received a good deal of attention in recent years. The schemes now in force embrace the State Railways, Public Service (including Police), and Teachers, while the various local bodies are empowered to establish schemes under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908.

PUBLIC SERVICE SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Public Service Superannuation Act, 1907, now embodied in the Public Service Classification and Superannuation Act, 1908, which with its amendments includes all branches of the Public Service except the Railways Department and so much of the Education Department as is included in Part IX of the Education Act, 1908 (mainly Inspectors and teachers of public schools), came into force on the 1st January, 1908. The scheme, although optional on the part of public servants permanently employed at that date, is compulsory on all persons appointed thereafter.

The Police Provident Fund, which was established on the 1st December, 1899, under the Police Provident Act, 1899, was merged in the Public Service Superannuation Fund on the 1st April, 1910.

The principal benefits are—

  1. (1.) A pension for every year of service equal to one-sixtieth of the average annual salary for the last three years, payable (a) after forty years' service, or (b) at age sixty-five, or (c) on retirement owing to ill health. The maximum pension is not to exceed two-thirds of the salary, or, in the case of entrants after the 24th December, 1909, £300 per annum.

  2. (2.) A pension of £18 per annum to the widow of a contributor or pensioner during widowhood, and £13 per annum for each child under the age of fourteen.

Females may retire after thirty years' service or at the age of fifty-five, while the retiring-age may be reduced in certain cases for both males and females. Special pensions may be given in the case of members of the Police Force for injuries received on duty.

The contributions vary with the age on joining the fund: For ages under thirty they are 5 per cent, of the salary; ages thirty and under thirty-five, 6 per cent.; thirty-five and under forty, 7 per cent.; forty and under forty-five, 8 per cent.; forty-five and under fifty, 9 per cent.; fifty and over, 10 per cent.

On the 31st March, 1923, there were 14,989 contributors paying £217,409 per annum into the fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 2,258, and were entitled to £224,598 per annum, made up as follows:—

 Number.Pension.
£
Retired for age or length of service1,137197,037
Retired for ill health1531,070
Police injured on duty5557
Widows4838,694
Children4806,240
 2,258£224,598

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the fund at the 31st March, 1923, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution:—

Rate per Cent, of Contribution.Number.Annual Salary.Annual Contributions.
Male.Females.Total.
    ££
58,9881,88910,8772,428,241121,412
61,4801841,664521,40631,284
71,0731191,192396,32627,743
868787774259,59420,768
934131372133,73812,036
10103711041,6604,166
Totals12,6722,31714,9893,780,965217,409

Accumulated funds at the 31st March, 1923, amounted to £1,869,028.

The report of the Superannuation Board for the fifteen months ended 31st March, 1923, shows that officers who retired during the period, and who possessed compensation rights under the Civil Service Act, 1866, would have been entitled to receive the sum of £79,529, the amount of compensation accrued to the date when they joined the Superannuation Fund, had they not become participants in the benefits of the fund. The total amount of such compensation for which the fund became liable since the initiation of the scheme is £501,827. To this amount must be added accretions to the date of retirement, approximately £120,000, for which the Consolidated Fund would otherwise have been liable, and the whole may be fairly set against the total subsidies paid to the fund, amounting to £846,500.

The Government subsidy to the fund was originally £20,000 per annum, rising in 1910 to £22,500, and in the next two years to £23,000. In 1913 it was increased to £48,000, and in 1919 to £86,000. The actuarial report for the triennium 1917-19 shows that on the basis of valuation adopted the subsidies paid for 1911 and 1912 were too low by £25,000 per annum; for the three years 1914-16, too low by £18,000 per annum; and for 1917 and 1918, too low by £38,000 per annum; making a total shortage to 1919 of £180,000, or, with accumulations at 4 per cent, to 1922, £237,264. The valuation of the fund as at the 31st December, 1919, gave the following results:—

  £
Present value of the liability for benefits..7,486,981
Present value of contributions receivable from members£2,055,794..
Funds in hand1,288,198..
 ..3,343,992
Present value of total liability of State..4,142,989
Less present value of existing subsidy of £86,000..2,150,000
Value of future subsidies to be provided for by the State over and above present subsidy of £86,000..£1,992,989

The actuarial report estimated that, apart from making provision for the shortages of past years, an additional £24,000 should be paid by way of subsidy for each of the three years 1920-22. Extraordinary retirements in 1922 were estimated to require a further £15,000 in that year, or £5,000 per annum, and it was pointed out that at least £10,000 per annum should be added to the subsidy to meet the deficiency in past subsidy-payments.

It should be pointed out that, while the rates of interest earned by the fund were £5 3s. 3d. per cent, in 1917, £5 4s. 1d. per cent, in 1918, and £5 5s. 10d. per cent, in 1919, the valuation of the fund was made on the basis of interest at 4 per cent., it not being considered prudent to anticipate a higher rate for the long period covered by a pension fund.

TEACHERS' SUPERANNUATION FUND.

Since the passing of the Public Service Classification and Superannuation Amendment Act, 1908, the benefits from the Teachers' Superannuation Fund have been brought into line with those of the Public Service Superannuation Fund. Existing contributors had, however, the right of electing to remain subject to the provisions formerly in force.

There are a few slight differences between the Public Service and the Teachers' Funds, the chief being that (1) the service of the teachers need not be continuous; (2) no pensions are payable on retirement for ill health unless the service exceeds fifteen years; and (3) in the case of reduction of status owing to age or infirmity there is no provision for the pension to be computed on the higher salary as in the Public Service Fund.

Under the provisions of section 54 of the Finance Act, 1922, the financial year now closes on the 31st January instead of on the 31st December as formerly.

The total subsidies paid to the fund by the Government amounted on the 31st January, 1923, to £335 583. On the 31st January, 1923, there were 6,296 contributors, the annual contributions amounting to £100,309 after allowing for rebates totalling £4,209.

The retiring and other allowances were 984, representing a charge of £100,641 per annum, made up of—

 Number.Amount of Pension.
  £
Retired for age or length of service64284,664
Retired for ill health10812,217
Widows1412,551
Children931,209
 984£100,641

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Government Railways Superannuation Fund was established on the 1st January, 1903, by the Government Railways Superannuation Fund Act, 1902, now embodied in the Government Railways Act, 1908.

The pension is here also one-sixtieth of the annual rate of pay for every year of service, but the retiring-age is sixty for both males and females, instead of ages sixty-five and fifty-five respectively as in the Public Service. The only other differences of importance are that the annual allowances to widows and children are paid only on the death of contributors before retiring on a pension, and that the pension is computed on the last salary, except where the contributor has served in a lower grade within the previous five years, in which case the average for seven years taken.

The total amount standing to the credit of the Government Railways Superannuation Fund at the close of the financial year ended 31st March, 1923, was £584,219, an increase of £40.688 on the balance to the credit of the fund for the previous year. The gross income for the year was £230,689, and the outgo £179,251. Of the latter amount, £143,336 represents grants to 1,280 members of the Railway service who have either retired voluntarily or have been retired medically unfit, and allowances amounting to £15,112 were paid in respect to 42 7 widows and 573 children, dependants of deceased contributors to the fund who were members of the service at the time of their death. The income from the actual contributions of members of the fund totalled £130,627, or £32,758 less than the estimated annual liability. The receipts are, however, augmented by the Government subsidy of £75,000, and amounts received by way of interest on funds invested and fines imposed under the regulations, together with a donation. These amounted to £25.062.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES SUPERANNUATION.

The Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, which came into force on the 10th October, 1908, applies to Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, Road Boards, Harbour Boards, Charitable Aid Boards, tramway companies, or any body possessing rating-powers over any district.

Statistical information as to the various funds which have been initiated under the authority of this statute is not available.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.

The National Provident Fund was established by Act in 1910, and come into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The fund is administered by a Board composed of the Minister of Finance as Chairman and four members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is the Superintendent of the fund.

The system is open to any person between the ages of sixteen and fifty years residing in New Zealand whose average income during the three years prior to joining has not exceeded £300 per annum. There is no medical examination on entry, and the method of joining is extremely simple, the applicant having merely to fill in a form at a postal money-order office or local office of the fund, and pay a first weekly contribution.

The following benefits are payable:—

  1. (1.) After contributing for twelve months, a payment not exceeding £6 for medical attendance and nursing on the birth of a contributor's child or children.

  2. (2.) After contributing for five years, an allowance, after three months' incapacity to work, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child of a contributor under fourteen years of age; payable independent of any allowances due from friendly societies. No contributions payable while in receipt of incapacity allowance.

  3. (3.) After contributing for five years, an allowance, on the death of a contributor, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age, and 7s. 6d. for the widow so long as any child is under fourteen years of age.

  4. (4.) On reaching age sixty, a pension of 10s., 20s., 30s., or 40s. per week, according to the scale of contributions. The receipt of a pension under the National Provident Fund Act does not affect a person's claim to the old-age pension under the Pensions Act.

The maternity allowance is payable only if the combined income of a contributor and wife or husband does not exceed £300 per annum at the time of claim, but this limitation does not debar from the other benefits. The incapacity allowance is not to exceed the pecuniary loss which, in the opinion of the Board, the contributor has probably suffered during incapacity, and the income of a contributor during incapacity, independent of the fund, is not to exceed the rate of £4 per week.

The contributions for each 10s. of weekly pension range from 9d. per week in the case of persons joining at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age fifty.

In the event of a contributor leaving the fund or dying, all contributions (less any benefits received) are returnable. If a contributor dies before the first five years are completed his representatives receive the contributions ho has paid, less anything he received during lifetime. Should he die after age sixty, before receiving in benefits a sum equal to the contributions paid in during his lifetime, the difference is returnable to his representatives; and, further, if the allowances paid for widow and children do not exhaust the contributions his representatives are entitled to the residue. If a contributor dies before sixty, leaving a widow and no children, all the contributions are returnable, less benefits paid out.

The benefits under the Act are guaranteed by the State, which subsidizes the contributions to the extent of one-fourth of the amount paid into the fund.

An important extension of the fund was authorized by the amending Act of 1914 whereby the employees of local authorities, &c. could he enrolled in the fund for superannuation purposes.

A further amendment was incorporated in the Finance Act, 1916, whereby members of approved friendly societies were granted maternity allowances and offered annuities on reduced terms and under special tables.

The numbers of contributors for the various pension rates as at 31st December, 1922, were as follows, male and female contributors being shown separately:—

Pension Rate.  Males.  Females.  Total.
10s.15,1951,10316,298
20s.2,9023103,212
30s.30135336
40s.34037377
Other1,806891,895
Totals20,5441,57422,118

During the year 1922 maternity allowances aggregating £38,876 were paid out, including £31,604 claimed for members of approved friendly societies. In addition, £4,826 was granted by way of allowances to widows and children, £5,580 on retirement, and £1,595 in respect of incapacity.

The growth of the National Provident Fund scheme for the twelve years it has been in existence is indicated in the following table:—

At End ofNumber of Contributors.Annual Rate of
Contribution payable.
Amount of Fund.
  ££
19115503,1721,826
19122,66011,72710,038
19135,79122,71929,327
19146,85826,52053,718
19158,10131,87583,000
19169,84738,664122,361
191712,12456,707176,210
191813,41069,486246,901
191916,15491,450338,729
192019,724129,003473,361
192121,713142,269632,525
192222,118144,971793,144

The Revenue Account of the fund for the year ended the 31st December, 1922, is as follows:—

REVENUE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR 1922.

Revenue.£
Amount of fund at beginning of year632,525
Contributions131,542
Interest36,807
Fines773
Government contribution under Act33,237
Refund of maternity claims by the State38,876
Overpaid contributions20
Benefits refunded99
 £873,879
Expenditure.£
Maternity claims (section 18)7,272
Maternity claims (approved friendly societies)31,604
Refund of contributions on lapse, reduction, and withdrawal27,876
Incapacity allowances1,595
Refund of contributions on death1,935
Allowances to widows and children4,826
Allowances on retirement5,580
Refund of overpaid contributions20
Refund of contributions unclaimed or impounded27
Amount of fund at end of year793,144
 £873,879

The balance-sheet of the fund as at the end of the year 1922 is also given.

BALANCE-SHEET AS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1922.

Liabilities.£
Fund as per Revenue Account793,144
Claims due and in course of payment*6,161
Refunds in suspense28,870
Suspense Account3,697
One-half contributions of soldiers overpaid by State47
Contributions prepaid4,385
 £836,304
Assets.£
* Included in Revenue Account. 
In hands of Public Trustee— 
    Invested747,175
    Uninvested8,911
Balance with Post Office4,903
Balances in transit6,558
Contributions outstanding or in course of transmission* 
    Contributions due but not over-due11,410
    Contributions overdue3,594
Government subsidy due under Act*33,237
Refund due in respect of maternity claims*5,652
Fines due449
Interest due3,378
Interest accrued but not due*11,037
 £836,304

ACTUARIAL INVESTIGATION.

The third actuarial investigation of the National Provident Fund was made as at 31st December, 1919, when the valuation balance-sheet disclosed the following position:—

Liabilities.
MAIN FUND AND APPROVED-FRIENDLY-SOCIETIES SECTION.
 ££
Value of allowances already granted to widows and children14,698 
Value of deferred pensions to survivors of existing contributors648,471 
Value of return of contributions (less benefits) on death or withdrawal, in respect of past and future contributions208,648 
Value of allowance benefits (widows', children's, and incapacity), immediate to 4,672 members, and vesting five years after entry in the case of 10,220 members207,077 
Value of return of balance of contributions where allowances or pensions fall short of the total contributions paid, and of sundry minor benefits3,850 
  1,082,744
LOCAL-AUTHORITIES SECTION.
Value of allowances already granted14,903 
Value of prospective pensions in respect of past and future service420,176 
Value of prospective pensions to widows and children55,431 
Value of return of contributions on death or withdrawal22,762 
Value of return of balance of contributions where allowances or pensions fall short of the total contributions paid, and of sundry minor benefits10,475 
  523,747
  £1,606,491
Assets.
  £
Accumulated funds 338,729
Value of future contributions 1,013,439
Value of future State subsidies (assumed to be received a year later than contributions) 248,389
Balance (deficiency) 5,934
  £1,606,491

The assets and liabilities are seen to be virtually equal, the debit balance, however, having increased from £234 at the first triennial investigation (as at 31st December, 1913) to £5,934. The amounts required to provide maternity allowances are voted by Parliament annually, and these allowances are accordingly regarded as being outside the actuarial aspects of the scheme.

Chapter 25. SECTION XXV.—VALUATION OF LAND.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT.

The system of separately assessing the value of the land itself and the value of the buildings and improvements effected thereon was first put into practice in New Zealand for the purposes of State taxation on the passing of the Land-tax Act, 1878, under which a tax was levied on land-values, the impost being 1/2 d. in the pound on the capital value of real estate, less the assessed value of the improvements.

The Land-tax Act, 1878, was superseded by the Property-tax Act, 1879, which provided for the levy of a uniform tax of 1d. in the pound on the capital value of all property—real and personal—above the amount of £500 in value.

The Property-tax Act, 1879, was in its turn superseded by the Land and Income Assessment Act, 1891. Under this enactment a land-tax was imposed on land and mortgages of land, with an exemption for improvements on land up to £3,000. An exemption from income-tax was also allowed on all incomes derived from land and mortgages of land.

Two years later, under the provisions of the Land and Income Assessment Acts Amendment Act, 1893, all improvements on land were entirely exempted.

An endeavour to extend the principle of general exclusion of improvements to local taxation resulted in the passing of the Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, which gave local authorities the option of deciding that equivalent rates on the unimproved values of lands in their jurisdiction should be substituted for the rates levied on the full capital values or on the annual values.

The valuing of land up to the year 1896 was not conducted on a uniform basis. Each State Department and each local authority worked quite independently, and employed as valuers whom it thought fit. The Land-tax Department periodically employed a small army of temporary valuers when it required a new valuation of lands for taxation purposes, and each local authority had its own particular method of making up its roll for the levying of rates. Estimates of values arrived at by various authorities varied to a dangerous degree. Some values were very high, being based on speculative prices, while many were extremely low. Frequently the same property had several values assigned to it.

In order to overcome as far as possible the obvious defects of the old system it was decided to establish a new system of valuation, by which all valuations required by State Departments—whether for loan, taxation, or other purposes—and by local authorities that rate on the capital or unimproved value, should be made by valuers employed by the State at fixed salaries and responsible to the Government alone.

The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896, was in due course introduced and passed. This Act provided for the setting-up of a separate Department of State charged with the duty of estimating the values of real estate in the Dominion for taxation and other purposes of the General Government and for local rating purposes.

The whole of the existing law relating to the valuation of land in New Zealand is continued in the Valuation of Land Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of the Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896, and the Acts amending the same), the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1908, and the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1912, and the regulations made under these Acts.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General. The actual work of valuation is done by District Valuers and assistant valuers. The former are permanent officers, while the latter are temporarily employed to make valuations at such times and on such terms and conditions as are found necessary. Assistant valuers are remunerated by fees.

A valuation made by an assistant valuer or local valuer is subject to endorsement by the District Valuer before it is accepted by the Valuer-General.

The essential qualifications of a valuer who is employed in a country district are local knowledge of land-values and a practical knowledge of farming pursuits, both agricultural and pastoral, and of values of improvements. A valuer who is employed in a city or suburban district must have a special knowledge of building-construction and of the values of all kinds of improvements in addition to a knowledge of land-values.

The Dominion is divided for administrative purposes into convenient valuation districts, to each of which is assigned a District Valuer, whose functions are not, however, confined to a specific district, but may be exercised in such districts as the Valuer-General from time to time directs.

The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the “capital value” of the property.

The definition of “land" in the Valuation of Land Act, 1908, as amended by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1912, is as follows: “'Land' means all land, tenements, and hereditaments, whether corporeal or incorporeal, in New Zealand, and all chattel or other interests therein, and all timber or flax growing or standing thereon: Provided that native bush or trees which have been planted for shelter or ornamental or utility purposes shall not be included in the definition of land.”

“Unimproved value” is defined in the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1912, as follows: “‘Unimproved value’ of any land means the sum which the owner's estate or interest therein, if unencumbered by any mortgage or other charge thereon, might be expected to realize at the time of valuation if offered for sale on such reasonable terms and conditions as a bona fide seller might be expected to impose, and if no improvements (as hereinafter defined) had been made on the said land.”

Under the New Zealand law the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value.” Any increased value, however, which is represented by the improvements effected by the individual possessor, either past or present, does not form part of the “unimproved value.”

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept isolated “boom" prices, values involved in exchanges of land, or special prices paid for land under exceptional circumstances, as a standard of value, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling-value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1912, defines “improvements" as follows:" ‘Improvements’ on land means all work done or material used at any time on or for the benefit of the land by the expenditure of capital or labour by any owner or occupier thereof in so far as the effect of the work done or material used is to increase the value of the land, and the benefit thereof is unexhausted at the time of valuation; but does not include work done or material used on or for the benefit of the land by the Crown or by any statutory public body, except so far as the same has been paid for by the owner or occupier either by way of direct contribution or by way of special rates on loans raised for the purpose of constructing within a county any road, bridge, irrigation-works, water-races, drainage-works, or river-protection works: Provided that the value of improvements made out of loan-moneys raised for the purpose of constructing within a county any road, bridge, irrigation-works, water-races, drainage-works, or river-protection works as aforesaid shall not exceed the amount of principal estimated by the Valuer-General to have been repaid by the owner in respect of any such loan by way of special rates.”

Subject to the limitations contained in the above definition, all buildings, fencing, planting, draining, constructing of private roads and water-races, clearing of timber &c. permanent grassing, and all other work of a permanent nature effected upon or for the benefit of land are improvements. No work can, however, be considered an improvement if the benefit thereof is exhausted at the date of valuation.

The Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1912, defines “value of improvements” as “the added value which at the date of valuation the improvements give to the land.”

“Capital value” is defined in the Valuation of Land Act, 1908, as follows: “‘Capital value’ of land means the sum which the owner's estate or interest therein, if unencumbered by any mortgage or other charge thereon, might be expected to realize at the time of valuation if offered for sale on such reasonable terms and conditions as a bona fide seller might be expected to require.”

The capital value is the fair selling-value in the open market, but not the auction value or value derivable at a forced sale.

Land containing or supposed to contain oil, coal, or other mineral deposits is valued as for the surface use only, and is of the same unimproved value as similar land in the neighbourhood, always without any regard to speculative mineral value, until the oil or minerals are produced, when the profits (if any) will be duly valued.

THE VALUATION ROLL.

The Valuation of Land Act directs that a valuation roll shall be prepared for each district setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:—

  1. (a.) The name of the owner of the land and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:

  2. (b.) The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Eating Act:

  3. (c.) The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. (d.) The nature and value of the improvements on the land:

  5. (e.) The unimproved value of the land:

  6. (f.) The capital value of the land:

  7. (g.) Such other particulars as are prescribed.

The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

The district valuation rolls may be revised by the Valuer-General as at such date or dates as the Governor-General in Council from time to time directs, and the revision may relate either to all the properties on a valuation roll or to any of them. There are no fixed periods between one general revision and the next—the periods vary from two years in recently settled districts to three years or more in old-established districts. The necessity for revision really depends upon the extent to which values have moved since the last revision.

After the values in a district have been revised a new valuation roll is prepared and the Valuer-General addresses to each person whose name appears thereon a notice setting forth the values at which his property is entered, and naming a date on or before which all objections to the values must be lodged. An objection to the valuation must be made in writing.

THE ASSESSMENT COURT.

The Valuer-General refers objections to values to the District Valuer to enable him to review valuations before the sitting of the Assessment Court. If after careful reconsideration by the District Valuer it is decided that an objection shall be allowed or a reasonable compromise effected, the valuation is altered accordingly. On the other hand, if the Valuer-General is in possession of evidence that the valuer's estimates are fair, but the objector will not accept them, the objection is heard and determined by the Assessment Court.

The Assessment Court consists of three members, of whom one—the President—is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Of the other two members of the Court, one member is appointed by the Governor-General in Council for each land district under the Land Act, 1908, and the other member by the local authority of the district whose roll has been revised, or by two or more local authorities acting in unison, provided the appointee is not a member or a paid officer of any local authority. If the local authority fails to appoint an assessor, then the appointment is made by the Governor-General in Council. If the objection is allowed, the reduction is immediately entered on the valuation roll. If the objection is disallowed, the owner may, within fourteen days after the hearing by the Assessment Court, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the objector) considers to be the fair selling-value as specified in his notice, or the land to be acquired on behalf of His Majesty at that value.

If the Valuer-General is of opinion that the Assessment Court has made an unfair reduction in a valuation he may, within fourteen days of the hearing, require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair selling capital value, and, failing such consent being given within thirty days after notice is delivered at his address, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of His Majesty.

The decision of the Assessment Court on any objection before it is subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on a question of law. On all other questions the decision of the Assessment Court is final.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND IN NEW ZEALAND.

General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897-98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole Dominion have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures have been revised to include the latest valuations of small divisions.

In the twenty-four years from 1878 to 1902 the value, both of unimproved land and of improvements, increased by slightly over 50 per cent. In the twenty years from 1902 to 1922, as the effect of a long period of prosperity, the total valuations have more than trebled.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES, 1878-1922.
Year.Capital Value
(Land and Improvements).
Unimproved Value of Land
(included in previous Column).
 ££
187899,566,67962,573,868
1882101,000,000..
1885113,270,649..
1888111,137,71475,497,379
1891122,225,02975,832,465
1897138,591,34784,401,244
1902154,816,13294,847,727
1905197,684,475122,937,126
1907236,644,536149,682,689
1908253,440,172161,324,763
1909271,513,022172,759,948
1910277,630,083175,289,861
1911293,117,065184,062,798
1912315,503,213199,184,261
1913340,559,728212,963,468
1914365,342,237228,493,376
1915371,076,683230,705,147
1916389,164,729241,322,255
1917405,466,071251,087,708
1918421,383,373269,921,812
1919445,533,445275,988,409
1920470,093,697290,880,264
1921518,584,318317,631,245
1922544,503,376329,174,337

Information covering the last ten years as to the gross capital and unimproved values in the North and South Islands and in the whole Dominion is given in the following table, which also shows the separate totals for counties, boroughs, and town districts (independent of county jurisdiction).

GROSS VALUES, 1913-22.
Year.Number.North Island.South Island.*New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
Counties.
  ££££££
1913124130,946,88287,361,65587,335,15664,912,274218,282,038152,273,929
1914125136,142,91290,361,87793,708,09369,484,292229,851,005159,846,169
1915125137,669,16891,079,54394,296,27569,841,015231,965,443160,920,558
1916125146,242,11897,379,01596,811,08471,199,250243,041,202168,578,265
1917125154,477,641102,981,689100,636,68874,108,106255,114,329177,089,795
1918125164,928,221109,611,569103,714,87976,670,835268,643,100186,282,404
1919131182,705,967120,687,776108,086,61580,086,519290,792,582200,774,295
1920134192,504,367126,201,659114,988,29785,947,072307,492,664212,148,731
1921134206,439,797134,007,675125,642,53193,566,567332,082,328227,574,242
1922134210,502,471135,866,105127,069,78294,059,679337,572,253229,925,784
Boroughs,
191311676,763,29841,734,84842,207,28017,354,970118,970,57859,089,818
191411784,945,58247,017,46345,875,02319,367,115130,820,60566,384,578
191511787,671,60948,150,30946,638,66319,396,948134,310,27267,547,257
191611692,902,16050,443,30948,313,99920,050,324141,216,15970,493,733
191711596,207,34551,510,81948,770,85220,018,500144,978,19771,529,319
191811897,648,13951,772,26949,660,41920,358,456147,308,55872,130,725
191911798,520,64451,910,88650,615,52620,737,636149,136,17072,648,522
1920116103,409,09353,707,07752,511,73021,877,277155,920,82375,584,354
1921117119,091,89661,297,94560,050,05225,330,805179,141,94886,628,750
1922118137,157,30970,173,03562,096,94925,594,465199,254,25895,767,500
Independent Town Districts,
1913242,487,0871,228,438820,025371,2833,307,1121,599,721
1914333,808,3681,880,433862,259382,1964,670,6272,262,629
1915343,916,1011,854,576884,867382,7564,800,9682,237,332
1916354,273,9751,989,761621,393260,4964,895,3682,250,257
1917364,732,9482,207,633640,597260,9615,373,5452,468,594
1918364,820,0832,255,646611,632253,0375,431,7152,508,683
1919374,941,5192,301,302663,174264,2905,604,6932,565,592
1920395,979,3572,851,680700,853295,4996,680,2103,147,179
1921366,663,7463,126,936696,296301,3177,360,0423,428,253
1922366,944,4013,175,747732,464305,3067,676,8653,481,053
Grand Totals,
1913..210,197,267130,324,941130,362,46182,638,527340,559,728212,963,468
1914..224,896,862139,259,773140,445,37589,233,603365,342,237228,493,376
1915..229,256,878141,084,428141,819,80589,620,719371,076,683230,705,147
1916..243,418,253149,812,085145,746,47691,510,170389,164,729241,322,255
1917..255,417,934156,700,141150,048,13794,387,567405,466,071251,087,708
1918..267,396,443163,639,484153,986,93097,282,328421,383,373260,921,812
1919..286,168,130174,899,964159,365,315101,088,445445,533,445275,988,409
1920..301,892,817182,760,416168,200,880108,119,848470,093,697290,880,264
1921..382,195,439108,432,556186,388,879119,198,689518,584,318317,631,245
1922..354,604,181209,214,887189,899,195119,959,450544,503,376329,174,337

The values shown in the preceding table are, as stated, the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. A summary of rateable values for the year 1922 is next given.

RATEABLE VALUES, 1922.—SUMMARY.
North Island.South Island.*New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
 ££££££
Counties202,810,926130,281,124121,853,36390,591,230324,670,289220,872,354
Boroughs123,324,49962,231,10855,775,69023,191,781179,100,18985,422,889
Town Districts6,449,1003,002,720682,137285,8587,131,2373,288,578
  (Independent)
Totals
332,590,525195,514,952178,311,190114,068,869510,901,715309,583,821

As has been pointed out above, the figures shown for 1922 and other years subsequent to 1898 do not represent general revaluations of the whole Dominion in the years shown. Revaluations are made, district by district, as circumstances permit, or as progress of the district renders advisable. An analysis of the gross capital value shown for the year 1922 gives the following results:—

GROSS CAPITAL VALUES.—YEAR OF VALUATION.
Last revised as at April in YearCounties.Boroughs.Town Districts (Independent).Total.
 ££££
1897161,627....161,627
189817,98474,966..92,950
1904167,62631,442..199,068
1905..310,975..310,975
1906..248,302..248,302
1907..1,286,672..1,286,672
1908..1,281,40159,1281,340,529
1909..679,354..679,354
1910..252,258..252,258
19111,411,4827,591,208..9,002,690
1912..1,362,164357,8931,720,057
19134,690,4364,937,34434,3829,662,162
19147,477,9764,044,912815,08912,337,977
19153,911,966482,395..4,394,361
191614,628,68812,545,717115,29027,289,695
191722,634,1334,785,32071,04827,490,501
191839,820,1733,330,129787,31443,937,616
191966,273,1783,692,555..69,965,733
192044,733,33019,715,7602,181,29966,630,389
192197,339,05581,251,7362,647,957181,238,748
192234,304,59951,349,648607,46586,261,712
Totals337,572,253199,254,2587,676,865544,503,376

It should be explained that in these few cases where a borough, town district, or local division of a county has been valued partly in one year and partly in another, and information is not available as to the amounts represented by the valuations in the respective years, the whole district has been included in the latest of the years shown. Napier Borough, for instance, was revised partly in 1914 and partly in 1917, but is wholly included in the 1917 figures shown above.

Those districts which have not been revalued during, say, the last ten years may be regarded as having made little or no progress since the last valuation, which has accordingly been allowed to stand. Fiord County, with a gross capital value of £144,293 and a rateable capital value of only £15,851, has not been revalued since 1897, nor have certain islands.

The gross capital and unimproved values for each county, borough, and independent town district as in 1922 are next given. The particulars for component parts of administrative counties—viz., road districts, dependent town districts, and portions of outlying country—are given in the Annual' Statistical Report on Local Government.

COUNTIES.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH COUNTY IN NEW ZEALAND.
County.Capital Value
(Land and Improvements).
Unimproved Value
of Land (included
in previous Column).
 ££
Mongonui961,108569,888
Whangaroa287,661181,549
Bay of Islands1,725,4281,024,142
Hokianga1,271,690772,246
Whangarei4,767,6412,313,822
Hobson2,141,4451,277,538
Otamatea1,725,462960,930
Rodney1,794,294935,079
Waitemata3,843,2292,625,392
Eden4,541,3002,571,021
Manukau4,068,5542,940,193
Franklin5,627,2483,794,482
Great Barrier Island133,758108,440
Islands—  
    Little Barrier, Waiheke, &c.393,649249,631
Waikato4,740,3653,378,396
Raglan3,689,8732,369,049
Waipa6,005,8624,094,545
Coromandel697,248398,437
Thames655,844442,392
Hauraki Plains1,916,4251,562,835
Ohinemuri721,067454,950
Tauranga1,807,6931,062,216
Piako3,526,8252,407,360
Matamata3,107,3621,941,576
Rotorua1,033,112628,678
Whakatane2,226,8441,503,070
Opotiki2,411,7511,326,549
Taupo626,250427,606
Taumarunui693,221597,887
Ohura1,982,6721,177,382
Kawhia994,365583,838
Waitomo3,539,8352,178,247
Otorohanga2,266,9791,535,473
Island—  
    Motiti33,12019,150
Matakaoa1,072,191592,542
Waiapu3,819,5812,032,103
Uawa1,537,2801,022,760
Waikohu5,124,0273,124,919
Cook6,578,7624,405,614
Wairoa3,843,1172,461,367
Hawke's Bay10,870,2288,180,493
Waipawa2,959,4282,100,181
Waipukurau912,913681,603
Dannevirke3,365,2332,214,998
Woodville2,044,2921,474,150
Patangata4,624,2283,602,033
Weber742,743490,097
Clifton879,366512,757
Taranaki1,430,475841,307
Inglewood980,729493,250
Egmont1,806,380948,807
Stratford3,343,1302,107,250
Whangamomona1,039,813559,799
Waimate West2,101,1161,542,172
Eltham3,049,6801,785,138
Hawera4,316,8803,116,558
Patea3,626,0942,387,730
Waitotara2,706,8781,833,613
Waimarino2,445,6691,427,059
Wanganui3,105,4651,849,324
Rangitikei10,045,1336,300,229
Kiwitea3,418,9272,233,484
Pohangina1,781,0591,141,806
Kaitieke1,479,370964,147
Manawatu3,599,9622,567,401
Oroua3,162,0992,117,618
Kairanga4,809,2133,363,477
Horowhenua5,446,2553,769,406
Islands—  
    Kapiti, Mana, and Somes17,98413,378
Chatham Islands285,872195,901
Pahiatua2,545,7561,434,132
Akitio1,187,712609,001
Castlepoint833,467538,112
Eketahuna1,850,8541,006,378
Mauriceville541,829304,002
Masterton4,335,2442,727,656
Wairarapa South3,022,8761,770,233
Featherston4,683,7602,991,050
Hutt2,388,2721,308,520
Makara1,067,82504,462
Collingwood450,61277,192
Takaka706,891393,230
Waimea3,173,3161,764,066
Sounds793,775478,652
Marlborough5,066,9093,711,813
Awatere2,241,5561,759,594
Buller1,445,765765,503
Murchison783,692478,494
Inangahua679,183337,590
Grey1,926,609625,063
Westland1,165,796819,157
Kaikoura1,682,9471,232,978
Cheviot1,792,7451,469,520
Amuri2,613,7222,126,630
Waipara4,343,4643,737,186
Ashley1,160,923932,212
Kowai1,696,8841,401,876
Oxford1,155,155951,869
Rangiora1,788,4221,455,583
Eyre1,722,5151,394,375
Waimairi4,037,0452,306,860
Paparua2,271,7571,568,003
Malvern2,593,1312,056,725
Tawera580,129483,579
Heathcote1,160,341612,025
Halswell855,754682,884
Selwyn1,728,1771,396,977
Springs1,269,3401,040,495
Ellesmere2,900,3272,362,887
Mount Herbert770,585640,183
Wairewa1,558,9741,289,359
Akaroa2,789,4442,383,310
Ashburton11,711,6439,842,211
Geraldine3,532,3642,871,518
Levels3,665,6382,965,430
Mackenzie2,980,2202,299,070
Waimate6,787,5945,501,071
Waitaki5,418,6394,121,113
Maniototo1,468,2871,034,790
Waihemo816,400598,711
Waikouaiti1,250,344802,651
Peninsula532,116291,530
Taieri2,306,9861,658,875
Tuapeka2,450,3911,682,843
Bruce1,783,1931,186,182
Clutha3,165,3661,986,296
Islands—  
    Quarantine and Goat3,454900
Vincent1,637,1831,069,324
Lake554,027407,485
Fiord144,293137,513
Wallace3,704,6292,559,785
Southland14,683,7519,677,610
Stewart Island167,626129,120
Islands—  
    Antipodes, &c.13,88013,880

BOROUGHS.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH BOROUGH IN NEW ZEALAND.
Borough.Capital Value
(Land and Improvements).
Unimproved Value
of Land (included
in previous Column).
 ££
Whangarei1,153,173545,598
Dargaville482,395232,450
Birkenhead732,295356,740
Devonport2,226,7881,000,061
AUCKLAND CITY  
    City Portion25,332,15016,335,917
    Parnell Portion1,289,558616,960
    Grey Lynn Portion1,335,141516,921
    Arch Hill Portion229,170105,045
    Eden Terrace Portion325,867139,587
    Point Chevalier Portion416,575197,085
    Epsom Portion1,322,019606,360
    Remuera Portion2,661,6391,202,674
        Total of City32,912,11919,720,549
Newmarket736,435378,475
Onehunga1,186,545513,185
Takapuna1,696,7611,028,974
Northcote350,918185,658
Mount Albert2,812,7551,181,325
Avondale665,170375,835
Mount Eden2,621,7451,033,745
Otahuhu513,570275,905
Pukekohe813,612485,362
Hamilton4,299,8162,349,716
Cambridge719,633353,123
Ngaruawahia191,18894,103
Te Awamutu610,440342,580
Thames898,889331,531
Tauranga322,350143,566
Paeroa390,555192,729
Waihi309,70041,635
Morrinsville563,275293,315
Te Aroha349,455160,620
Rotorua785,247460,489
Whakatane473,392236,258
Opotiki363,223184,934
Taumarunui414,637201,204
Te Kuiti561,587332,200
Gisborne4,915,9402,265,920
Wairoa678,500364,720
Napier3,580,8231,677,391
Hastings2,834,0001,522,633
Dannevirke1,248,012502,200
Woodville169,85360,768
Waipawa266,989141,632
Waipukurau347,881160,209
New Plymouth3,631,8521,719,820
Hawera1,595,123744,847
Patea154,46057,491
Waitara252,25884,516
Inglewood215,13788,222
Stratford960,411457,864
Eltham452,020193,828
Wanganui5,448,8482,875,299
Marton675,737224,534
Raetihi256,958118,953
Ohakune140,27547,928
Taihape623,270330,502
Feilding1,037,902443,302
Palmerston North5,549,0812,423,267
Foxton288,284115,725
WELLINGTON CITY  
    City Portion23,322,42913,690,416
    Wadestown Portion580,149234,243
    Northland Portion675,932222,257
    Melrose—  
        Kilbirnie Portion3,433,428976,290
        Island Bay Portion1,073,922348,377
        Ohiro Portion1,955,180564,486
    Onslow Portion776,604291,205
    Karori Portion633,914296,156
    Miramar Portion1,383,062510,714
        Total of City33,834,62017,134,144
Shannon189,83487,876
Levin570,669219,219
Otaki340,670174,647
Pahiatua248,302100,928
Masterton2,149,621855,265
Carterton293,294103,172
Greytown205,46286,017
Lower Hutt1,588,690822,293
Petone1,538,325675,697
Eketahuna157,67266,135
Featherston175,45846,781
Eastbourne383,407144,425
Richmond228,273117,503
Nelson City1,912,940851,579
Picton304,279154,846
Blenheim1,412,269592,019
Motueka318,440156,859
Westport736,201358,484
Greymouth848,785268,107
Brunner74,96615,386
Kumara31,4426,145
Hokitika263,07277,631
Ross24,9487,299
Runanga56,76018,884
Rangiora522,550183,515
Kaiapoi191,24358,753
CHRISTCHURCH CITY  
    St, Albans Portion3,534,5501,290,779
    North Richmond Portion360,850116,900
    Richmond Portion264,91597,140
    North-east Portion852,857378,915
    North-west Portion2,373,5551,286,465
    South-east Portion1,992,870980,423
    South-west Portion4,677,5252,779,343
    Sydenham Portion2,321,565827,645
    Opawa Portion216,53099,030
    St, Martin's Portion117,33056,525
    Twickenham-Fisherton Portion253,87573,750
    Linwood Portion1,668,870582,510
    Avonside Portion176,14570,245
    Spreydon Portion910,680334,620
    Woolston Portion698,486269,291
        Total of City20,420,6039,243,572
New Brighton582,566276,911
Sumner711,365321,845
Lyttelton988,107272,707
Akaroa165,14374,541
Ricearton627,156198,050
Ashburton703,221274,394
Timaru3,552,2801,578,750
Geraldine171,79555,170
Temuka370,145130,980
Waimate443,878129,540
Oamaru1,433,755505,030
Hampden30,9219,647
Naseby20,8632,583
Palmerston94,78924,356
Waikouaiti105,96739,843
Port Chalmers372,621120,852
West Harbour225,02273,807
DUNEDIN CITY  
    Valley Portion820,916284,609
    Maori Hill Portion755,960239,990
    Roslyn Portion1,424,805475,770
    Mornington Portion902,055258,505
    Leith Portion3,913,4041,814,441
    Central Portion4,723,1952,192,645
    Caversham and South Dunedin Portion2,086,785660,960
    Anderson's Bay Portion592,030211,955
        Total of City15,219,1506,138,875
St. Kilda1,072,550311,900
Green Island395,3585,305
Mosgiel272,84095,680
Roxburgh42,7605,969
Lawrence111,33929,761
Tapanui42,8059,075
Milton203,79355,946
Balclutha301,730111,137
Kaitangata112,52131,538
Cromwell81,90416,212
Alexandra96,05315,070
Arrowtown21,5193,375
Queenstown65,59614,565
Gore930,830328,286
Mataura206,72274,848
Winton115,84239,365
Invercargill4,095,5041,740,106
South Invercargill306,931136,221
Riverton146,93848,540
Bluff307,322103,100

TOWN DISTRICTS.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH TOWN DISTRICT (OUTSIDE THE JURISDICTION OF ANY COUNTY) IN NEW ZEALAND.
Town District.Capital Value
(Land and Improvements).
Unimproved Value
of Land (included
in previous Column).
 ££
Hikurangi90,82531,020
Warkworth98,33029,150
Helensville208,82582,375
New Lynn331,875153,945
Glen Eden112,41562,475
Ellerslie333,355147,965
Waiuku210,265126,260
Papatoetoe437,435234,040
Manurewa283,865157,155
Papakura260,450138,140
Tuakau145,99579,045
Huntly229,92596,225
Te Puke273,775145,502
Matamata450,325256,750
Mangapapa435,006179,420
Taradale228,099134,941
Havelock North298,765137,051
Manaia115,29044,324
Waverley101,71641,932
Gonville887,165294,373
Castlecliff401,053199,230
Rangataua34,38210,238
Mangaweka57,89422,295
Hunterville96,04537,325
Bull's59,12824,449
Manunui71,04825,748
Martinborough179,74753,710
Johnsonville206,354101,012
Upper Hutt275,049129,633
Tahunanui115,99646,900
Tinwald133,64074,665
Pleasant Point105,90551,570
Nightcaps66,76515,895
Otautau132,49850,197
Lumsden53,98115,203
Wyndham123,67950,895

Chapter 26. SECTION XXVI.—BANKING.

BANKS OF ISSUE.

THE Banking Act, 1908, consolidates the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in the Dominion. The Act provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed, and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. Every bank trading in the Dominion is required to furnish quarterly statements of its business, for publication in the Gazette. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court, unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for bank holidays, and for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of ten years from the date or due date of such documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1908, consolidates the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The Companies Act, 1908, with the exception of Part IX (re companies incorporated outside New Zealand), and also of the provisions relating to branch registers, does not apply to banking companies formed within and operating only within the Dominion.

There are six banks of issue trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand, being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of the Dominion. The Bank of New Zealand has branches in London, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa, while its branches and agencies within the Dominion number 205. The other five banks have between them 240 establishments within the Dominion, making a total of 445, or an average of one bank to every 2,844 inhabitants, excluding Maoris.

CAPITAL AND RESERVE FUNDS.

The paid-up capital of the above banks, their reserve funds, and the rate and amount of their last dividend as on the 31st December, 1922, were as follows:—

Bank.Paid-up Capital.Rate per Cent. per Annum of Last Dividend and Bonus.Amount of Last Half-yearly Dividend and Bonus.Reserve Fund.

* Dividend for full year.

† Interest payable for half-year.

Bank of New Zealand—£Per Cent.££
    4-per-cent. stock guaranteed by New Zealand Government529,988..10,5992,105,818
    “A" preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)500,0001050,000*
    “B" preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)625,0001062,500*
    Ordinary shares2,250,00013 1/2300,000*
Union Bank of Australia (Limited)3,000,00015225,0003,651,817
Bank of New South Wales5,864,36010271,6093,675,000
Bank of Australasia4,000,00010 and bonus of 3 per cent.260,0003,546,763
National Bank of New Zealand (Limited)1,250,00012 per cent. per annum for half-year, and bonus of 2 per cent.80,0001,278,621
Commercial Bank of Australia (Limited)—    
    Ordinary351,52715 per cent. per annum for half-year.21,34142,209
    Preference2,117,3504 (preference only)42,347

DEVELOPMENT OF BANKING.

A consideration of the table below indicates that the development of banking in New Zealand since the year 1857 has been very great. Such a growth has been possible only through a corresponding expansion of trade and industry concomitant with a progressive increase in the population of the country. The figures for each year given below have been arrived at by taking the average of the four quarterly returns of the banks of issue. Deposits include amounts on fixed and current deposit and Government deposits. Advances comprise notes and bills discounted and debts due to the banks (exclusive of debts abandoned as bad). Formerly the amount of Colonial Government securities was included under advances, but this practice has from 1921 been abandoned in order to secure uniformity with other countries, and the figures for preceding years have been brought into line.

DEPOSITS, ADVANCES, ASSETS, AND LIABILITIES, 1857-1922.
Year.Deposits.Advances.Assets.Liabilities.
 ££££
1857343,316..419,860432,494
18703,127,7694,334,8206,315,3543,819,670
18808,538,93511,228,86514,220,2759,550,177
189012,368,61013,996,08617,735,25913,356,598
190015,570,61011,343,41117,314,53516,964,582
191024,968,76118,439,99926,398,92726,742,081
191845,562,93931,711,35048,570,12652,048,732
191950,489,44431,717,72048,615,20957,861,393
192059,405,34138,241,93256,111,43367,818,469
192149,397,41150,607,54168,701,28258,808,439
192245,913,39444,768,17861,797,57053,868,834

In 1880 deposits represented an average of £18 per head of the mean population; in 1890, £19.92; in 1900, £20.39; in 1910, £25.15; and in 1911, £26.37. In 1912, however, the average fell to £24.66, and in 1913 (the strike year) a further fall was recorded, the rate per head being £24.08. The years 1914 and 1915 showed a recovery, the rates being £25.35 and £28.59 respectively, while for 1916 the rate jumped to £34.34. In 1917 it rose to £39.06, and each successive year showed a substantial increase on the previous year until 1920, when the rate was £49.81. A sharp fall to £40.35 was recorded in 1921, followed by a further decrease to £36.68 in 1922. This is the lowest average realized since 1916. The ratio of advances to deposits, which was 131.50 per cent. in 1880, reached its maximum in 1883, when it stood at 171.16 per cent. The proportion since that year fell, till in 1903 it was only 70.67 per cent. The 1916 ratio (65.97 per cent.) was lower than in any previous year. The percentage for 1917 (67.19), though still very low, showed an increase on the figure for 1916, while the 1918 figure was as high as 69.59. A fall to 62.82 was recorded in 1919, but in 1920 the percentage rose to 64.37, and in 1921 to the phenomenal figure of 102.45. The figure for the year 1922 is still very high, but nevertheless shows a slight reduction as compared with that of the previous year.

In 1886 the average amount of advances made by the banks was £15,834,877, equal to £27.19 per head of the mean population. The advances gradually declined in amount and proportion to population until 1891, when they were in value £11,448,745, or £18.18 per head. In 1897 advances stood at £10,020,640, or £13.88 per head, which is the lowest average since the year 1872. There was then a continuous rise both in amounts of advances and in rates per head of population until 1908, for which year the figures were £21,172,808, or £22.40 per head. After 1908 the amounts fluctuated, but the tendency was still to rise. During the two years 1917 and 1918 the total amount advanced by the banks increased by nearly seven millions, totalling in the latter year £31,711,350. Subsequent years showed further increases, the amount for 1921 reaching the record figure of £50,607,541. Advances made in 1922 show a considerable drop as compared with the previous year, the total amount advanced aggregating only £44,768,178, the decrease over the year being £5,839,363. The amount per head of mean population equalled £35.76, as against £41.35 in 1921. The inflation of deposits and advances during recent years is, of course, a direct result of war conditions.

The largest amount of discounts in any year was £6,061,959, in 1879, a rate of £13.53 per head. In the previous year had occurred the highest rate—£14.22 per head. From 1879 there was a fall, year by year, until 1896, when the sum was £1,756,791, or £2.49 per head, since when there have been further successive falls in the amount per head, which reached the low figure of £1.14 in 1918, rising, however, to £1.26 in 1919, £1.47 in 1920, and £2.01 in 1921, but fell away again in 1922 to £1.31.

LIABILITIES.

The liabilities of the banks of issue for the last ten years are shown in the table following, the figures given referring to New Zealand business only. The liabilities shown represent the average of the four quarters of the year.

LIABILITIES, 1913-22.
Year.Notes in Circulation.Bills in Circulation.Balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Total Liabilities.
 £££££
19131,674,333108,51875,06125,733,18727,591,099
19141,998,38696,01273,44427,640,50729,808,349
19152,846,277105,76162,58131,433,65334,448,272
19164,049,52796,46873,70737,757,91741,977,619
19175,410,957105,89594,39642,930,71348,541,961
19186,266,768123,34495,68145,562,93952,048,732
19197,087,545173,722110,68250,489,44457,861,393
19207,890,418239,877282,83359,405,34167,818,469
19217,569,319191,2731,650,43649,397,41158,808,439
19227,019,220266,963669,25745,913,39453,868,834

ASSETS.

The average assets, as shown below, include Colonial Government securities, which in 1922 amounted to £5,154,769.

ASSETS, 1913-22.
Year.Coin and Bullion.Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due, exclusive of Bad Debts.Balances due from other Banks.All other Assets.Total Assets.
 ££££££
19135,204.2661.951.66520.950.63352.0662.550.30230.708.932
19145.712.7511.843.21722.407.02957.9132.481.40232.502.312
19156.781.0061.471.80822.167.162231.8932.557.61433.209.483
19167.393.9171.484.35623.427.562147.5144.562.13737.015.486
19178.072.2791.414.58527.433.16496.7127.962.87544.979.615
19188.085.9611.261.20330.450.147153.0918.619.72448.570.126
19198.017.1591.446.29930.271.421211.2918.669.03948.615.209
19207.728.9421.753.07236.488.860344.4519.796.10856.111.433
19217.660.5322.463.39648.144.1451.634.9758.798.23468.701.282
19227.822.5621.643.73043.124.4481.143.9578.044.87361.779.570

DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES.

The total amount of deposits, the amount per head of mean population, the total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits, taking the average of the four quarters for each of the last ten years, are as follows:—

DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES, 1913-22.
Year.Deposits.Advances.
Total Amount.Per Head of Population.Total Amount.Ratio to Deposits.
 ££s.d.£Per Cent.
191325,733,187241722,902,29888.99
191427,640,507257024,250,24687.73
191531,433,65328111023,638,97075.20
191637,757,9173461024,911,91865.97
191742,930,713391228,847,74967.19
191845,562,939416131,711,35069.59
191950,489,444443631,717,72062.82
191059,405,3414916338,241,93264.37
192149,397,411407250,607,541102.45
192245,913,3943613644,768,17897.51

Deposits per head of population in banks of issue in each of the Australian States during 1921 and the four preceding years are shown. Figures for New Zealand are given by way of comparison.

DEPOSITS PER HEAD IN BANKS of ISSUE IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1917-21.
State.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Queensland432249133504243936157
New South Wales441994572480450175153
Victoria4699481055313957111155184
South Australia36147426115266463544100
Western Australia2712931983358380236166
Tasmania3025334031199361263647
Northern Territory641210714671191751187211
    Total, Commonwealth421514551481494913551183
New Zealand391241614436491634072

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES.

The overdraft rates and the rates of discount current in the Dominion were 1/2 per cent. higher in 1920 than the corresponding rates ruling prior to the European War. A further increase of 1/2 per cent., following a period when importations had been made on a larger scale than at any previous time in the Dominion's history, was made in January, 1921, the demand on banks for money being very considerable. Another aspect of the position, which is apparent from the figures given earlier in this section, was the rapid diminution—from twenty millions to two millions—in the excess of deposits (other than Government) over advances during the closing six months of 1920. It is not surprising accordingly to find a further increase in the overdraft (and the discount) rates as from March, 1921. There was no further alteration in the rate until January, 1923, when the overdraft rate was reduced to 6 1/2 per cent. Since that date the rate has remained the same.

Below is given the overdraft rates charged on “best" accounts, and the rates of discount current in New Zealand for best mercantile paper of a currency not exceeding three months:—

 Overdraft Rate per Cent.Rate of Discount per Cent.
At end of 19135 ½5
At end of 192065 ½
At end of 192176 ½
At end of 192276 ½
January, 1923, to date (October, 1923)6 ½6 ½

ISSUE OF NOTES.

The Banking Act, 1908, deals with the issue of notes generally. The Governor-General may empower any bank to issue and circulate notes, subject to the provisions and restrictions contained in the charter or letters patent under which such bank is incorporated; all such notes to be payable in gold only at the office of the bank at the place of issue, and to be a first charge on all assets of the bank.

The private Acts of the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand (Limited) contain the following clause: “That the total amount of promissory notes payable on demand, issued and in circulation within the Dominion, shall not at any time exceed the amount of coin, bullion, and public securities which shall for the time being be hold by the same corporation within the Dominion; nor shall the proportion of coin be less than one-third part of the amount of the coin, bullion, and public securities so held by the said corporation within the Dominion.”

On the 5th August, 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the late war, an amendment to the Banking Act was passed empowering the Governor-General in Council, from time to time, to make a Proclamation declaring “that the notes payable on demand by any bank therein named, and then issued or thereafter to be issued or reissued within New Zealand under any lawful authority in that behalf, shall during the period limited by the Proclamation be everywhere within New Zealand a good and legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable.” Conditions governing the issue of such Proclamation are laid down, and the bank may be required to give adequate security that it will redeem the notes in gold on the expiration of the period covered by the Proclamation. Provision is also made for payment by the State Treasury in case of default by the bank. During the period any such Proclamation is in force gold must not be exported except with the consent of the Minister of Finance, and any gold exported or attempted to be exported in breach of this provision is to be forfeited.

Immediately on the passing of the amendment referred to, a Proclamation was gazetted declaring notes of all six banks of issue doing business in New Zealand to be legal tender from the 6th August to the 6th September, 1914. Further extensions were made from time to time until the end of 1922, when the notes of the six banks were declared legal tender until the 10th January, 1925.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

In connection with the Post Office in New Zealand a savings-bank has been conducted since the 1st February, 1867. The minimum deposit receivable, except in certain specified cases, is 1s., and no interest is given on any sum less than £1 or in excess of £5,000. Interest on sums up to £500 is paid at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum, and on sums between £500 and £5,000 at the rate of 3 1/4 per cent. for the amount over £500.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at 31st March, 1923, was 840.

There were 78.490 new accounts opened during the year ended the 31st March, 1923, and 66,630 accounts were closed during the period. The total number of open accounts at the 31st March, 1923, was 690,790, or one to every 1.84 of the population, excluding Maoris.

The deposits received during the year amounted to £26,682,427, and the withdrawals to £27,769,263. The total sum standing at credit of all accounts on the 31st March, 1923, was £44,360,393, which gave an average of £64 4s. 4d. to the credit of each open account. Information for each of the last ten years is given below.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK, 1913-22.
Year.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Fifteen months ended 31st March, 1921.

† Year ended 31st March following.

The minus sign (-) represents excess of withdrawals over deposits.

  £££££
1913458,59411,286,70211,041,454245,248555,90817,131,414
1914483,26211,904,32310,603,0181,301,305615,31019,048,029
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1916538,07215,576,40812,957,4202,618,988817,85625,603,209
1917566,35117,106,52914,461,1692,645,360947,82129,196,390
1918590,20518,101,10514,938,8423,162,2631,059,47233,418,125
1919630,78329,758,44725,962,3773,796,0701,178,93538,393,130
1920*664,81944,302,85241,162,4863,140,3661,818,53543,352,031
1921678,93029,125,99730,236,231-1,110,2341,599,90743,841,704
1922690,79026,682,42727,769,263-1,086,8361,605,52544,360,393

The Post Office Savings-bank commenced operations on the 1st February, 1867, and the progress of the establishment since that date is shown on the next page in graphical representation, the curves representing number of open accounts, total amount to credit, and average amount to credit respectively.

This diagram shows clearly the large increase in the business of the Post Office Savings-bank during recent years.

The amount standing to credit of depositors has increased from £1,813,085 in 1887 to £44,360,393 at 31st March, 1923, and in no year since 1887 has there been a decrease as compared with the preceding year. There was a corresponding steady increase in the average amount standing to the credit of each depositor up to the 31st March, 1921, since when a slight fall has occurred.

The huge increase in the amount at deposit in recent years has been accompanied by an even greater proportionate increase in interest payments, owing to the rate of interest having substantially advanced. The total interest credited to depositors from 1st February, 1867, to 31st March, 1923, has aggregated £16,892,122, a sum equal to over one-third of the total amount remaining on deposit at 31st March, 1923.

The number of open accounts at the end of each of the last five years, classified according to amounts at credit, is as follows:—

CLASSES OF ACCOUNTS OPEN, 1918 to 1922-23.
Amount.1918.1919.1920.*1921.*1922.*
* At 31st March year following.
Not exceeding £20385,812394,280429,806447,883465,924
Exceeding £20 and up to £5061,46668,33169,13067,81266,492
Exceeding £50 and up to £10048,17856,82852,11450,48848,815
Exceeding £100 and up to £20045,25850,11147,74746,52044,333
Exceeding £200 and up to £30020,98525,34024,32923,83122,951
Exceeding £300 and up to £40011,51813,79614,98414,43113,693
Exceeding £400 and up to £5006,2557,9948,7539,0908,959
Exceeding £500 and up to £6004,1805,3316,2256,6256,537
6006,5538,77211,73112,25013,086
        Totals590,205630,783664,819678,930690,790

Accounts above the £600 mark at 31st March, 1923, included 3,836 between £600 and £700, 2,465 between £700 and £800, 1,744 between £800 and £900, 1,294 between £900 and £1,000, and 3,747 over £1,000.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings-bank Fund on the 31st March, 1923, represented a nominal value of £44,201,794. Most of this fund is invested in Government securities. A summary of the investments is as follows:—

 £
In New Zealand Government securities43,200,393
In local bodies' securities525,950
In other securities475,451
 £44,201,794

PRIVATE SAVINGS-BANKS.

There are five savings-banks not connected with the Post Office. The total amount deposited in them during the year ended the 31st March, 1923, was £4,076,876, of which the deposits by Maoris comprised £261. The withdrawals reached the sum of £3,511,038. The total amount to the credit of depositors at the 31st March, 1923, was £4,663,701, of which sum £615 belonged to Maoris. Figures for ten years are as follows:—

PRIVATE SAVINGS-BANKS, 1913-14 TO 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
The minus sign (-) represents excess of withdrawals over deposits.
  ££££
191474,1201,478,3091,461,51016,7991,792,108
191575,9411,358,8761,340,76018,1161,876,725
191678,0241,449,9381,327,364122,5742,072,602
191781,9001,631,0651,374,114256,9512,412,465
191885,1911,764,7231,551,836212,8872,720,709
191989,2032,058,3601,775,531282,8293,111,529
192095,4723,308,6282,981,887326,7413,557,895
1921100,3423,555,8713,410,456145,4153,841,084
1922104,3953,191,1813,265,338-74,1573,917,428
1923110,0774,076,8763,511,038565,8384,663,701

It is interesting to note that although during 1922-23 withdrawals from the Post Office Savings-bank showed an excess over deposits, four of the private savings-banks showed just an opposite effect, the total excess of deposits over withdrawals aggregating for all the private savings-banks £565,838.

The following table shows the results of the transactions of each of the private savings-banks during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923. The figures relating to Maoris, which are insignificant in amount, have been included.

Bank.Date of Establishment.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.
The minus sign (-) represents excess of withdrawals over deposits.
   ££££
Auckland184794,2963,273,9542,814,415459,5393,509,438
New Plymouth18502,528106,47874,46832,010102,681
Hokitika18661,36434,39038,871-4,48182,951
Dunedin18647,668393,389350,31643,073765,633
Invercargill18644,221268,665232,96835,697202,998
Totals..110,0774,076,8763,511,038565,8384,663,701

SAVINGS-BANKS DEPOSITS IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The deposits in the savings-banks of the Commonwealth on the 31st December, 1922, and of New Zealand on the 31st March, 1923, are shown in the table following. The Australian figures are taken from the Quarterly Summary of Australian Statistics issued by the Commonwealth Statistician. In calculating the deposits per head of population in New Zealand Maoris have been omitted from the population, although the total amount on deposit includes deposits by them. The amount deposited by Maoris is very small in proportion to the number of Maoris in the Dominion.

State.Number of Depositors.Amount on Deposit at End of Year.Average Amount per Depositor at End of Year.Deposits to Credit per Head of Population.
  ££s.d.£s.d.
New South Wales1,216,55961,938,4985018328103
Victoria1,153,61352,580,909451173312
Queensland346,02919,962,094571392553
South Australia420,87916,970,56940653311
Western Australia229,5267,735,4813314022110
Tasmania124,2804,276,662348319106
Northern Territory86936,2194113710310
Total, Commonwealth3,491,755163,500,432461662904
New Zealand690,79044,360,393644434178

SUMMARY OF ALL DEPOSITS.

The average deposits standing to the credit of depositors in the banks of issue for the quarter ended 31st March, 1923, was £48,659,637, and if to this be added the deposits in the Post Office and private savings-banks at the same date the grand total amounts to £97,683,731, representing an average of £76 16s. 2d. per head of population, or, including Maoris, £73 14s. 1d. per head. In addition there are the deposits with the building societies, referred to further on in this book, and there are also deposits with financial companies of which no particulars are collected.

Chapter 27. SECTION XXVII.—INSURANCE.

SUBSECTION A. — LIFE INSURANCE.
INTRODUCTORY.

THE statutory provisions affecting life insurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908, and Amendment Act, 1921-22. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Two classes of companies are recognized—namely, local and foreign, the latter including all offices the principal place of which is situated beyond the Dominion. In both instances securities are required to be deposited with the Public Trustee before business can be carried on. Before the passing of the amending Act of 1921-22 the maximum deposit required from a New Zealand company was £20,000, with a minimum of £5,000, regulated according to the volume of business done, while for a company incorporated overseas the maximum went to £50,000. Both classes of offices, however, are now on the same basis. Every life company carrying on business at the time of the coming into operation of the amending Act, or which commences business thereafter, must deposit with the Public Trustee money or securities of the statutory character, to the value of £5,000; and, in addition to that, for every £100,000 or part thereof that the total amount assured by its policies current in New Zealand exceeds £100,000, a further £5,000 until a maximum of £50,000 is reached. In other respects New Zealand and overseas companies are placed on the same footing as regards deposits.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making such funds available only for liabilities arising from life business.

The law bearing on industrial assurance has received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of insurance the premiums must be payable at shorter intervals than three months. Provision is made for the control by regulation of the activities of this class of business. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements.

Annual returns of life assurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance. It is from these returns that the statistical matter following has been compiled.

The outstanding features of life-assurance business as disclosed by the tables introduced in the succeeding pages is the remarkable increase that has taken place in the amount of new assurances effected during the last four years under review. The growth characterizes both the ordinary life department and the industrial side. No doubt this is in a large measure a reflection of the prosperous condition of the country. A further reason for the growth of new business is probably furnished by the diminished purchasing-power of the sovereign, and the consequent depreciation of the value of policies on a pre-war basis. It is well known, too, that with the increased probate and succession duties payable on large estates life-insurance policies are a means used to provide ready cash when other assets may not be convertible at an advantage. It may be added, in passing, that the substantial growth of business evident is general not only in New Zealand, but also in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

There were at the close of 1921 twelve life-assurance offices represented in New Zealand. Of these only two were purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office and the Provident Life Assurance Company. Six of the other societies have their head offices in Australia, two in England, and two in the United States of America. The Provident Life Assurance Company and four of the Australian offices transact both ordinary life and industrial business. Several of the companies, including the New Zealand Government Office, have branches for assurance against accident. This class of insurance is dealt with in Subsection B of this section.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in the Dominion.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.

Details of the policies issued and discontinued during the year 1921 by the respective offices are contained in the following table. Dealing with the policies issued and discontinued during the year, the aggregate net increase in the sum assured is £3,548,316, and in the annual premiums payable thereon £113,963.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—POLICIES ISSUED AND DISCONTINUED, 1921.
Office.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.
NumberSum assured.Annual Premiums.NumberSum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££
Australian Temperance and General3,002552,87722,3521,547267,16310,845
Australian Mutual Provident4,5952,168,08768,0012,492827,80929,765
Australian Provincial1,231355,50614,791607172,1696,503
Colonial Mutual1,568307,09211,879678121,6614,660
Equitable Life of United States......10634,8091,525
Mutual Life and Citizens'1,387440,90014,3451,270321,51911,126
National Mutual1,911721,22428,4531,351412,58516,626
New York Life41,105116106,458399
Norwich Union443416,61411,602202145,0343,471
Provident Life798183,4034,44738885,9262,124
Yorkshire12008350018
New Zealand Government Life4,9861,631,25050,7343,118834,30925,703
Totals19,9266,778,258226,72811,7723,229,942112,765

In the case of the new business transacted, the average sum assured under each policy issued was £340, and the average premium £3 6s. 10d. per cent.

The next table presents an interesting review of the progress of ordinary life-assurance business over a period of ten years. The amount of new policies issued shows a considerable increase since 1917, with, however, a slight falling-off in 1921. Discontinuances in 1921 exceeded those of 1920, due to an increase in the number of lapsed policies, but the net result of the year's operations has allowed of a considerable amount being added to the accumulated funds of the companies. It should be added, however, that this follows on a period when, as a result of the ravages of influenza and the toll of war, the discontinuances by death were particularly heavy, amounting in the aggregate to £966,866 for 1918, as compared with the 1921 figure of £394,672.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—PROGRESS OF BUSINESS, 1912-21.
Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
191216,5874,203,766127,20310,1602,364,59079,278150,07937,162,9181,164,699
191314,5143,993,777119,09710,9392,590,00884,748153,65438,566,6881,199,047
191413,6383,810,384117,88811,0742,722,28887,539156,21839,654,7841,229,398
191515,5243,947,566131,53211,1742,635,20486,262160,56840,967,1471,274,667
191614,3363,717,981141,53110,6592,531,71385,342164,24542,153,4141,330,855
191712,2723,303,123131,94412,3742,571,10690,523164,14542,885,4331,372,278
191816,5175,233,669228,53311,5712,776,081153,529169,09145,343,0201,447,284
191918,5816,411,362245,93910,6642,681,975114,757177,00849,072,4081,578,464
192019,9986,856,128225,68010,8162,738,50291,390186,19053,190,0341,712,754
192119,9266,778,258226,72811,7723,229,942112,765194,34456,738,3521,826,715

The number of ordinary life policies in force at the end of 1911 was 143,652, representing a sum assured of £35,323,742; so that the increases in number and value during the decennium have been 35.28 per cent. and 60.62 per cent. respectively, as compared with an increase of total population of 29.24 per cent. in the same period.

A statement of the income and outgo of all the companies operating in the Dominion, so far as ordinary business only is concerned, further illustrates the increase in the business for the ten years. The ratio of management expenses to premiums and to the total receipts is also given.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—INCOME AND OUTGO.
Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
19121,756,1831,127,743628,440184,10815.9010.48
19131,794,3531,101,013693,340182,66615.4110.18
19141,911,4461,311,661599,785179,26114.809.38
19151,922,4851,397,434525,051176,71514.059.19
19162,016,6071,558,320458,287174,68313.208.66
19172,091,5121,804,647286,865173,40712.638.29
19182,225,8972,054,409171,488215,35114.559.67
19192,348,2631,716,049632,214253,25716.1810.78
19202,513,7071,527,017986,690278,88616.5011.09
19212,648,7151,661,405987,310286,83316.0010.83

A summary of the receipts and expenditure under the various heads is now given in a five-years table. New premiums, which amounted to £136,565 in 1916, have during the period under review increased by 51.7 per cent. On the expenditure side the payment of death claims, which was unusually high during the war period, shows a return to normal conditions in 1920 and 1921. Expenses of management show a slight decrease on the previous year.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS), 1917-21.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Revenue.£££££
Renewal premiums1,250,7531,279,7661,320,0231,477,4031,585,101
New premiums122,566200,388245,238212,370207,196
Consideration for annuities14,32618,87828,86944,04325,665
Interest703,805720,865746,745764,677826,475
Increase in value of investments....59915,096..
Other revenue626,0006,7891184,278
Total revenue2,091,5122,225,8972,348,2632,513,7072,648,715
Expenditure.     
Claims by death887,3651,181,478791,216582,253577,031
Claims by maturity342,148372,261400,666423,672485,363
Annuities33,58533,64734,43736,01238,289
Surrenders153,392140,917169,099147,559183,343
Cash bonuses16,20620,61714,52714,97235,853
Management173,407215,351253,257278,886286,833
Taxes96,03587,39042,40439,70247,635
Depreciation in investments102,5092,7489,2973,5913,674
Other expenditure....1,1463703,384
Total expenditure1,804,6472,054,4091,716,0491,527,0171,661,405

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.

Looking now at the other phase of life assurance, the next table shows for 1921 to what extent industrial business was undertaken by each of the offices transacting this class of assurance in the Dominion.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS, 1921.
Office.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££
Australian Temperance and General9,557470,61231,3675,816258,63419,433
Australian Mutual Provident5,911391,45820,0602,780179,2919,620
Colonial Mutual6,151310,03217,0372,957153,8278,434
Mutual Life and Citizens'1,796110,7275,7392,348102,8665,863
Provident Life4,384176,93310,2343,599127,0406,819
Totals27,7991,459,76284,43717,500821,65850,169

A summary of the progress of industrial business is given in the following table, covering the ten years 1912 to 1921. This class of insurance has only during the last decade attained any magnitude in New Zealand.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE.—PROGRESS OF BUSINESS, 1912-21.
Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  ££ ££ ££
191227,731908,67854,50119,506637,51737,23080,4192,158,273130,691
191325,031867,07054,14617,847603,18135,91087,6032,422,161148,928
191423,715760,86351,95717,830584,11937,72193,4882,598,905163,164
191522,937752,72954,90516,685540,37936,53799,7402,811,255181,533
191625,608845,04260,29515,681476,28635,333109,6673,180,011206,495
191724,733888,91564,55115,577536,85337,425118,8233,532,075233,620
191826,9061,020,00873,32616,038553,82740,378129,6913,998,256266,568
191929,7831,283,48987,81918,399670,17747,860141,0754,611,568306,527
192029,7241,463,72093,03918,299761,35049,586152,5005,313,938349,979
192127,7991,459,76284,43717,500821,65850,169162,7995,952,042384,249

The decrease in the sum assured in respect of policies issued during the year amounted in 1921 to £3,958, and in the annual premiums to £8,602. Between 1912 and 1921 the amount held at risk has increased by £3,793,769.

The total income and outgo for industrial assurance, summarized for the ten years 1912-21 are as follows:—

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—INCOME AND OUTGO.
Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 ££££Per Cent.Per Cent.
1912126,89779,50547,39259,35749.4246.78
1913145,283103,58741,69662,27745,2242,87
1914158,9749,55364,42165,51343.0541.21
1915177,31993,97383,34666,04139.2237.24
1916200,903109,45291,45171,77837.7935.72
1917232,895128,468104,42777,92135.4933.46
1918264,000156,618107,38288,07135.5133.36
1919303,568180,070123,498107,50437.8235.41
1920347,825195,038152,787121,60037.5234.95
1921394,098194,798199,300130,64535.9633.15

A table giving for each of the last five years the main details in connection with the income and outgo referred to above is appended, and affords interesting comparisons in the fluctuation of the various heads of receipts and expenditure. Premium receipts show a steady increase over the whole period. In 1916 this source of income produced £189,951, and the increase over the five years is accordingly 91 per cent. The expenses of management, which in this class of business are relatively high, amounted in 1921 to 35.96 per cent. of the premium receipts, as compared with 51.88 per cent. ten years earlier.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS), 1917-21.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Revenue.£££££
Premiums219,579248,035284,243324,031363,227
Interest12,04114,43017,04621,33028,172
Other revenue1,2751,5352,2792,4642,699
Total revenue232,895264,000303,568347,825394,098
Expenditure.     
Claims by death31,62946,14237,26129,06727,323
Claims by maturity7,36313,65024,86931,31527,072
Surrenders2,2591,5814,1652,5673,236
Management77,92188,071107,504121,600130,645
Taxes3,1304,3132,5473,1873,327
Depreciation in investments483401507849744
Other payments5,6832,4603,2176,4532,451
Total expenditure128,468156,618180,070195,038194,798

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The balance-sheets of the companies transacting industrial business do not in every case apportion their liabilities and assets over ordinary and industrial business, although this course will in future be rendered necessary to conform to the legislation of 1920. The figures presented below accordingly refer to both classes of insurance, and, as indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

Dealing first with liabilities, the position of the various offices over a period of five years is shown.

LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND LIABILITIES, 1917-21.
Office.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.

* Includes accident.

Includes fire, marine, and accident.

 £££££
Australian Temperance and General293,283345,300409,064511,499644,602
Australian Mutual Provident6,103,4526,242,7596,400,6586,689,3326,979,937
Australian Provincial..30,75249,20283,332131,334
Colonial Mutual*369,280401,782651,767475,924389,452
Equitable Life of U.S.A.81,38183,36483,93658,23876,774
Mutual Life and Citizens1,461,0601,495,4001,485,1901,504,9131,534,366
National Mutual1,395,2831,471,8531,564,4271,829,4961,920,020
New York Life68,61068,70470,73976,93279,493
Norwich Union40,01351,18451,96366,84969,029
Provident Life170,969187,846207,576234,169108,466
Yorkshire39,95543,80247,48756,30871,843
New Zealand Government Life5,602,8715,672,9815,728,6815,927,5576,090,101
Totals15,626,15716,095,72716,750,69017,514,54918,095,417

The aggregate capital and liabilities at the end of 1921 as compared with 1920 were as follows:—

 1920.1921.
 ££
Paid-up capital66,88675,846
Life assurance and annuity funds16,675,74617,242,391
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds329,405341,046
Claims admitted but not paid254,825213,397
Other liabilities187,687222,737
Totals£17,514,549£18,095,417

The assets, which in every case balance the liabilities, are as follows:—

LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND ASSETS, 1917-21.
Assets.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £££££
Mortgages on property7,483,6606,903,2386,206,2615,858,4395,970,656
Loans on policies2,167,4182,097,9402,039,2932,068,8752,381,471
New Zealand Government securities2,681,9633,810,3865,167,4366,181,8186,300,763
Indian and colonial securities23,59169,88191,1568,83115,000
Railway and other stocks658,393670,913921,503953,8061,032,507
Landed and house property449,189455,216470,067511,583467,041
Other investments376,694374,593372,941311,578308,780
Loans on personal security1,8692,3502,4901,4643,091
Agents' balances6,7455,79112,4869,70814,101
Outstanding premiums148,079151,819161,837172,032196,441
Interest accrued, &c.204,911200,363199,776201,491241,280
Cash258,858277,892170,259248,987235,059
Other assets1,164,7871,075,345935,185985,937929,227
Totals15,626,15716,095,72716,750,69017,514,54918,095,417

It will be seen that a continued falling-off in mortgages has obtained, the decrease for 1921 as compared with 1917 being 1,513,004. A similar decrease in loans on policies is also evident, although to a less degree. The most striking feature of the figures, however, is the phenomenal increase in the amount invested in securities of the New Zealand Government, which from 1917 to 1921 increased by no less a sum than £3,618,800. This is an illustration of the greater extent to which the New Zealand Government has borrowed locally during the last few years than previously.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.

The Life Insurance Department of the Government of New Zealand was founded in 1869, at a time when New-Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities for the insurance of their lives. The institution possesses the unique advantage of being based on the solid principle of State security, payment of all policies being guaranteed by the Government of the Dominion. Industrial insurance is not transacted by the Department.

At the end of 1922 there were 59,487 policies in force, bearing an annual premium income of £483,734. The number of new policies issued in 1922 was 3,797, on which annual premiums to the amount of £40,071 are payable.

The following table gives a synopsis of the activities of the Department for the last five years in so far as the amount of business transacted is concerned:—

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—PROGRESS, 1918-22.
Year.New Business.Policies in Force at End of Year.
Number of Policies.Premiums.Sum assured.Number of Policies.Premiums.Value of Business.
Sum assured.Bonuses.Total.
  ££ ££££
19184,23546,7781,252,53853,803404,96513,257,6821,512,86114,770,543
19194,98358,5691,617,75955,770423,06514,123,7281,423,01615,546,744
19204,87251,2211,659,66057,321449,12314,924,1471,335,16316,259,310
19214,96350,7341,631,25059,189474,15115,721,0881,558,64617,279,734
19223,79740,0711,286,60959,487483,73415,995,2351,453,86617,449,101

The figures of income and outgo of the Department in 1922 reflect a very satisfactory year's operations. The new business of over one million and a quarter, while less than that of last year, compared well with the standard of previous years.

The total income of the Department for 1922 was £778,915—viz., premium income, £473,141; interest income (less land and income tax), £294,914; annuity purchase-money, £10,593. Each of these items of income, as well as the total, constitutes a record in the Department's operations. The total income for 1922 was £23,396 in excess of the figure for the preceding year.

With regard to the outgo for 1921, there is a return to normal conditions in the claims by death of policyholders. The outgo on this account is smaller than for any year since 1913. During the year 1922, 813 policies matured, for £195,849, and 563 policies became claims by death of the holders, the total amount payable being £202,231. Expenses of management totalled £57,318.

The total assurance, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from a special investment reserve of £196,468, amounted at the end of 1922 to £5,922,825, an increase of £196,468 during the year.

The Department's balance-sheet on the 31st December, 1922, showed that the total assets amounted to £6,276,019, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the previous year for purposes of comparison:—

Class of Investment.At 31st December, 1921.At 31st December, 1922.
Amount.Percentage of Total Assets.Amount.Percentage of Total Assets.
 £ £ 
Mortgages on freehold property2,743,40545.12,743,87043.7
Loans on policies794,54613.0854,24013.6
Government securities1,960,40032.21,982,90031.6
Local bodies' debentures224,9093.7233,0253.7
Landed and house property136,0162.2136,8952.2
Miscellaneous assets145,9182.4162,9412.6
Cash in hand and on current account84,9071.4162,1482.6
Totals6,090,101100.06,276,019100.0

A statement of the liabilities and assets as at the 31st December, 1952, is also given.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1922.

Liabilities.£
Total Assurance, Annuity, and Endowment Funds (as per Revenue Account)5,922,825
Claims admitted, proofs not yet completed51,343
Annuities732
Commission1,385
Medical fees471
Premium and other deposits6,830
Sundry accounts owing2,760
Officers' Fidelity Fund900
Investment Fluctuation Reserve288,773
 £6,276,019
Assets. £
Loans on policies..854,240
Government securities..1,982,900
Municipal Corporation debentures..141,127
County securities..5,138
Harbour Board debentures..33,800
Town Board debentures..29,193
Road Board debentures..21,800
Drainage Board debentures..1,967
Landed and house property..134,090
Landed and house property (leasehold)..1,612
Mortgages on property..2,743,870
Properties acquired by foreclosure..1,194
 £ 
Overdue premiums on policies in force8,210..
Outstanding premiums due but not overdue47,870..
 ..56,080
Overdue interest12,812..
Outstanding interest due but not overdue8,944..
Interest accrued but not due75,047..
 ..96,803
Agents' balances..6,042
Sundry debtors..4,015
Cash in hand and on current account..162,148
  £6,276,019

The triennial valuation of the Department's liabilities and assets as at the 31st December, 1920, revealed a surplus of assets over liabilities amounting to £238,704. Of this sum £217,706 was allotted in the shape of compound reversionary bonuses' upon the sum assured and the bonuses in force, thus giving increasing bonuses to those policyholders who had maintained their previous bonuses intact. The resultant bonuses in the General Section ranged from £1 per cent. per annum of the sum assured in the case of new policies to £1 15s. per cent. per annum in the case of policies with longer durations.

As between the Temperance and General Sections, the more favourable mortality in the Temperance Section resulted in policies in that section becoming entitled to bonuses at a rate 5 per cent. higher than similar policies in the General Section.

The total surpluses distributed since the commencement of business amount to £2,234,382, which sum has been converted into reversionary additions to the sums assured, amounting to £3,907,698.

The actuarial investigation discloses the progress of the Department during the triennium 1918-20, and the figures are given below in conjunction with those for the four preceding triennia.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—TRIENNIAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Triennium.New Business of Triennium.In Force at End of Triennium.
Number of Policies.Sums assured.Annual Premiums.Number of Policies.Sums assured.Reversionary Bonuses.Annual Premiums.
  ££..£££
1906-89,7392,261,76772,80347,03310,955,7491,068,950331,830
1909-1110,4762,487,47277,47749,37611,514,6571,168,620348,285
1912-1411,7213,197,69489,71552,27312,550,4651,246,610370,882
1915-1710,1292,709,16390,01753,05812,884,5311,304,243387,377
1918-2014,1894,529,993156,56857,32114,924,1471,335,163449,123

From the above it will be seen that there has been a considerable increase in the amount of new business.

The rate of interest realized on the mean funds of the Department, after deduction of land and income tax from interest, was as follows for each of the six years 1916-21:—

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—RATE OF INTEREST.
 £s.d.
19164151
19174162
19184138
1919524
19204192
1921513

SUBSECTION B.—ACCIDENT INSURANCE.
INTRODUCTORY.

IN terms of the Accident. Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident-insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal contingencies for which policies may be issued are in respect of—

  1. (1.) Accident, disease, or mental or physical disability;

  2. (2.) Employers' liability;

  3. (3.) Charges under the Workers' Compensation Acts for damages incurred in the course of employment.

As a security to the public transacting business with accident-insurance offices, a substantial deposit is required to be made with the Public Trustee by any company whose head office is situated overseas. No deposit is necessary in the case of companies incorporated in the Dominion under the New Zealand laws. The amount of the deposit required is dealt with in the next subsection in discussing the cognate matter of fire insurance, to which reference should be made.

The principal Act provides for annual returns to be deposited with the Minister of Finance, and, as in the case of life insurance, these are utilized as a means of statistical information.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1921 was 35. The principal registered offices of these companies were distributed as follows: England, 18; Australia, 7; Hong Kong, 1; New Zealand, 9. Returns for the financial years ended during 1921 have been received from all offices, the figures in each case being confined to accident business done in the Dominion.

The total premiums received for 1921 amounted to £706,014, and of this amount £325,914, or 46.16 per cent., represented the business of the nine companies established within the Dominion. The claims paid by the same offices amounted to £155,382, or 46.08 per cent. of the total. It will accordingly be seen that the local companies accounted for nearly half of the accident insurance of the Dominion. The following table gives a summary of the income and outgo of the various offices for 1921, distinguishing the amount received for premiums and the amount paid out on claims:—

ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1921.
Name of Company.Income.Outgo.Per Cent. of Total
Expenditure to Premiums.
Premiums.Total Receipts.Claims.Total Expenditure.
British Companies.££££ 
Alliance15,32215,3225,20812,97084.65
Atlas7,0147,0142,7836,23588.89
Australian Provincial Association6,4176,4173,6638,651134.81
British Traders'9,5009,5005,5589,38298.75
Colonial Mutual4,9255,4771,4073,71075.33
Commercial Union27,33727,33715,55930,391111.17
Eagle, Star, and British Dominions18,95418,9548,69516,62787.72
Guardian12,08912,0894,9189,62479.60
Insurance Office of Australia18,51618,5167,29620,229109.25
Liverpool and London and Globe13,13913,1396,76812,39094.29
London and Lancashire18,82019,0709,37716,90589.82
Motor Union5,5175,5177,10510,485190.04
Mutual Life and Citizens'20,00920,0438,16216,58982.90
North British and Mercantile7,2417,2412,1615,06869.99
Northern11,26812,0815,61610,01688.88
Norwich and London24,13924,35212,86222,14291.72
Ocean42,98442,98419,65637,63287.55
Phœnix7,1937,1932,2935,08970.74
Queensland19,29719,7229,42115,40779.84
Royal20,49020,4909,30716,95282.73
Royal Exchange17,70617,70610,47516,80794.92
Sun7,1567,1562,1765,34374.66
Union6,9026,9022,3014,77569.18
United6,3866,3862,3245,53086.59
Victoria19,82119,82112,82322,860115.33
Yorkshire11,95811,9583,8947,61263.65
Totals380,100382,387181,808349,42191.92
New Zealand Companies.     
Farmers' Co-operative7,2507,2512,8786,92695.53
National32,88032,88018,62432,00697.34
New Zealand95,23495,23445,21877,03780.89
Provident Life2,6332,7791,1042,08779.26
Sawmillers' Mutual9,86910,2215,8057,96580.70
South British100,006100,00646,01076,10976.10
Standard40,03240,03217,11937,02292.48
Taranaki Farmers'2,0782,0781,8382,730131.37
New Zealand Government Insurance Department35,93241,70716,78627,51576.57
Totals325,914332,188155,382269,39782.66
Grand totals706,014714,575337,190618,81887.64

In 1921 the ratio of the total expenses to premiums received averaged 87.64 per cent., or to total receipts, including premiums, 86.59 per cent. The expense ratio is lower in the case of New Zealand offices than for British offices.

The table next presented gives in a summary form the aggregate receipts and expenditure for the last decade. During that period the amount of accident business put through the books has practically doubled. The number of offices transacting business increased by eight.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR 1912-21.
Year.Number of Offices.Receipts.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other Receipts.Total.Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other Expenses.Total.
  ££££££££
191227321,8044,898326,702146,13743,09131,63533,195254,058
191327336,0235,928341,951146,50245,71933,71534,660260,596
191427337,19014,004351,194162,70846,26434,96643,574287,512
191527337,7336,907344,640172,04945,94136,71536,929291,634
191630349,2306,059355,289168,32150,61340,67542,595302,204
191731351,1035,377356,480179,51451,87941,13448,450321,027
191834359,9623,711363,673183,29152,98440,04850,401326,724
191935449,7846,270456,054228,03264,97647,33658,192398,536
192034533,3167,235540,551240,33784,29951,82278,483454,941
192135706,0148,561714,575337,190108,28972,611100,728618,818

Since 1918 the premium income has increased from £359,962 to £706,014—practically doubling itself. The increase in the 1921 figure over that of the previous year was as much as £172,698. As against this must be considered the augmentation in claims, which have grown from £183,291 in 1918 to £337,190 in 1921.

An interesting review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of ten years are shown in percentages of income to outgo under six different heads. In this connection the fact that the Government Insurance Department systematically tabulates the experience of the whole of the workers' compensation insurance business in New Zealand upon a scientific actuarial basis has placed that office in a position to regulate effectively the premiums charged in the Dominion in respect of this class of business, keeping them at a rate that is reduced as far as can be consistently done.

ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—EXPENSE RATIO, 1912-21.
Year.Ratio per cent. of
Claims to Premiums.Commission to Premiums.Salaries to Premiums.Other Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses to Total Receipts.
191245.4113.399.8310.3278.9577.77
191343.6013.6110.0310.3177.5676.21
191448.2513.7210.0412.9285.2781.87
191550.9413.6010.8710.9386.3584.62
191648.2014.4911.6512.2086.5485.06
191751.1314.7711.7213.8091.4390.05
191850.9214.7211.1314.0090.7789.84
191950.7014.4410.5212.9488.6187.39
192045.0615.809.7214.7285.3084.16
192147.7615.3410.2814.2787.6486.59

It will be noted that in no year during the past decade has there been a less expenditure in proportion to the total business than in 1913. From that date until 1917 the percentage of claims and the expenditure under other headings constantly increased, but a falling-off in 1918 and subsequent years ensued until 1921, when the percentage showed an upward trend again.

The appropriation for unexpired risks at the end of 1921 amounted for all offices to £243,132, as compared with £194,310 at the end of 1920 and £155,580 at the end of 1919.

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

The Accident Branch of the Government Insurance Department was opened in 1901. General accident business is undertaken, but the branch was opened more especially with a view to relieve employers of labour of the liability imposed upon them by the Workers' Compensation for Accidents Act.

The Department's policies cover the full liability of an employer to his workmen under the Workers' Compensation Act, and the liability under common law to the extent of £1,000 per man. Personal-accident policies are also issued securing amounts for accidental death and permanent total or partial disablement, and weekly allowances during temporary disablement.

The premium income and claims of the Accident Branch since the commencement of business have been as follows:—

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.
Year.Gross Premium Income.Claims.
* From 7th June to 31st December.
 ££
1901*11,8562,428
190214,1007,364
190324,38113,230
190423,76812,105
190523,97011,242
190620,81513,720
190721,47711,288
190820,89811,926
190926,33712,805
191021,36412,522
191120,75610,497
191223,51312,016
191323,67711,492
191422,2849,633
191523,4669,092
191622,37810,698
191722,1159,270
191821,82310,830
191925,41413,150
192030,26814,975
192136,28816,786
192233,98320,330

The funds, assets, and liabilities of the Government Insurance Department belonging to its Accident Insurance Branch are kept separate and distinct from the main life-insurance business, and powers are vested in the Governor-General to make regulations in regard to tables fixing rates of premium and other details for the conduct of the Accident Insurance Branch.

The funds at the end of 1922 stood at £21,069, as against £11,472 at the end of 1921. The Reserve Fund now stands at £115,020. The total assets at the end of the year amounted to £169,215.

The liabilities and assets on the 31st December, 1922, were as follows:—

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

Liabilities.£
Accident Funds, as per Revenue Account21,069
Claims admitted (proofs not yet completed)12,000
Commission356
Premium and other deposits75
Sundry accounts owing2,466
Officers' Fidelity Fund300
Reserve for unearned premiums14,929
Investment Fluctuation Reserve3,000
Reserve Fund constituted under section 20 of the Government Accident Insurance Act, 1908115,020
 £169,215
Assets. £
Debentures Issued under authority of the Finance Act, 1915..10,000
New Zealand inscribed stock—War loans..100,500
New Zealand inscribed stock..3,000
Mortgages on property..40,720
 £ 
Outstanding interest due but not overdue220..
Interest accrued but not due1,597..
 ..1,817
Agents' balances..559
Sundry debtors..2
Cash in hand and on current account..12,617
  £169,215

The investments in inscribed stock were increased by £6,000 in 1922, and these, together with debentures under the Finance Act, 1915, represent 74 per cent. of the total invested funds.

SUBSECTION C.—FIRE INSURANCE.
INTRODUCTORY.

IN the Dominion's legislation four separate classes of fire-insurance offices are distinguished—namely, (1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) British offices similarly established; and (4) mutual fire-insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

The Companies Act, 1908, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum incorporation can only be effected with unlimited liability. Insurance companies established or incorporated overseas require to have a like paid-up capital intact. The transaction of business by such companies is, however, subject to special legislation as set out below. Mutual associations are dealt with by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows at least 100 owners of isolated or farm property to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Such associations effect insurance on the premium-note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

INSURANCE COMPANIES' DEPOSITS.

Prior to the passing of the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act, 1921-22, and the Amendment Act, 1922, no deposit whatever was required by companies carrying on the business of fire insurance, and practically none was required in respect of the business of employers' liability insurance. Now, however, deposits in cash are to be made with the Public Trustee by fire and accident offices, varying according as to whether the company concerned is established or incorporated in a British country (other than New Zealand) or has its chief office in a foreign country. No deposit is required from a company constituted in New Zealand under the New Zealand laws.

The actual amounts of the deposits required to be made in accordance with the statutory provision of the principal Act were: For British companies carrying on operations in New Zealand—in respect of fire-insurance business, £15,000; in respect of employers' liability business, £15,000; and in respect of all other classes of business (except life and marine), £5,000. Foreign companies were required to deposit a sum of £35,000, which covered all classes of business (except life and marine). Overseas companies becoming established in New Zealand after the passing of the principal Act are required to make deposits on a somewhat higher scale than the foregoing. British offices must deposit the sum of £22,500 on account of fire business, the same amount for employers' liability insurance business, and £5,000 in respect of all other classes (other than life and marine) of insurance business. A newly established foreign company must deposit the sum of £50,000, and this covers all classes of business other than life and marine.

Other general statutory provisions in regard to the investment and management of deposits apply equally to British and to foreign companies. Deposits by companies carrying on business at the 31st December, 1922, amount to close on a million pounds—viz., £865,000 by twenty-seven British companies and £70,000 by two foreign companies. Interest on such amounts is payable to the respective companies at the rate from time to time payable on investments held in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office.

COLLECTION OF STATISTICS.

Statistics of fire insurance are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Office. The principal heads of inquiry relate to—(a) Stability of the company as shown by the balance-sheet for whole-world business; (b) the extent to which the office has assets in the Dominion; (c) the amount of business transacted during the year under review; (d) fires and losses; (e) revenue and expenditure; and (f) working-expenses. Statistics were first collected for the financial year of each company ended nearest the 31st December, 1918, and further annual collections have since been made. Care should be exercised in drawing conclusions from the figures given in the following pages, as the statistics cover a more or less exceptional period in the finances of the country.

OFFICES OPERATING IN NEW ZEALAND.

For 1922 statistics were collected from 41 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: England, 19; New Zealand, 12; Australia, 7; Hong Kong, 1; United States of America, 2. Included in the 12 New Zealand companies were 4 mutual fire-insurance associations and the State Fire Office.

The Hartford Fire Insurance Company, the Southern Union General Insurance Company of Australasia, and the New Zealand Medical Assurance Society appear for the first time in the statistics given below. The companies commenced fire business in New Zealand in December, 1927, January, 1922, and September, 1921, respectively.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire-insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders, which is not available to other phases of insurance transacted. The amount of funds (other than life) both in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, more than 200 millions.

FIRE INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS, 1922.
Liabilities.Total Assets.
Overseas Companies.Local Offices.Mutual Associations
 ££££
Paid-up capital22,206,9091,854,763122,66024,184,332
Reserves139,052,3893,405,05919,948142,477,396
Other liabilities45,941,219992,22333646,933,778
Totals207,200,5176,252,045142,944213,595,506
Life funds144,676,070....144,676,070
Grand totals351,876,5876,252,045142,944358,271,576

New Zealand assets of all offices transacting business amounted in 1922 to more than five and a half millions. In the three years' table given on the next page the figures for 1921 and 1922 reflect a considerable falling-off in funds lent out on mortgage, while, on the other hand, investments in Government securities show a continued increase. Cash and other assets in New Zealand also show a remarkable increase over the period, due to a great extent to the cash deposits required since the passing of the Insurance Companies Deposits Act aforementioned.

FIRE INSURANCE.—ASSETS IN NEW ZEALAND, 1920-22.
Assets in New Zealand.1920.1921.1922.
 £££
Houses and landed property461,981494,048556,784
New Zealand Government securities—Ordinary234,750289,175346,298
New Zealand Government securities—War loan1,588,9981,739,9051,872,264
New Zealand local-authority securities435,404486,562512,186
Mortgages, &c.495,410327,939328,382
Cash and other assets in New Zealand788,6321,365,9652,143,334
Total New Zealand assets4,005,1754,703,5945,759,248

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.

Looking now at the general progress of fire-insurance business in the Dominion, a comparison of recent operations is afforded by the table below for 1920, 1921, and 1922.

FIRE INSURANCE.—AMOUNTS UNDERWRITTEN, PREMIUMS, AND LOSSES, 1920-22.
1920.1921.1922.
* Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.
Offices in New Zealand.   
Number of separate companies383941
Number of towns in which branches established135138148
Number of towns in which agencies exist7,0878,1278,708
Number of separate agencies in New Zealand9,2029,91510,852
Amounts underwritten.   
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£255,707,380£286,706,704£293,646,272
Number of policies representing the foregoing*540,651570,622583,792
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year*£298,399,319£328,354,197£328,417,438
Number of policies representing the foregoing*616,180628,201636,671
Premiums.   
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year£1,777,465£1,943,954£1,924,476
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten0.600.590.59
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£1,622,048£1,768,416£1,785,308
Losses.   
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned3,0543,7254,030
Gross losses£448,656£738,638£739,076
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.150.220.22
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)27.6641.7741.40
Average loss per fire£147£198£181

A remarkable increase is apparent in the amount of new and renewal business underwritten. The figures for 1921 and 1922, which exceed the huge sum of 300 millions, show an increase of 10 per cent. over the figure for 1920, and of 33 per cent. over that for 1919.

The table set out below shows for the years 1898 to 1922 the premium income and the fire losses, together with the percentage of loss in each year, in five-yearly periods, and in ten-yearly periods. As previously stated, statistics of fire insurance have been collected only since 1918, and the figures prior to that date have kindly been supplied by the Council of Fire Underwriters' Associations of New Zealand, and refer only to those insurance offices in New Zealand which are members of the Council of Fire Underwriters' Associations. The official figures from 1918 to 1922 (inclusive) refer to all offices, and these facts must not be lost sight of when comparisons are being made.

FIRE INSURANCE: PREMIUM INCOME AND LOSSES, 1898-1922.
Year.Premium Income.Fire Losses.Percentage of Loss.
Yearly Periods.Five-yearly Periods.Ten-yearly Periods.
* Five years.
 ££   
1898382,284302,49079.162.2163.36
1899399,110185,21046.4
1900432,944254,00658.6
1901453,583385,60985.0
1902490,722215,50043.8
1903527,861223,00042.265.40
1904565,000427,87475.7
1905494,822322,49665.2
1906508,222407,86980.3
1907538,076341,44463.4
1908578,222544,60694.266.7657.87
1909596,769415,95169.6
1910637,856368,88757.8
1911688,820424,19461.6
1912733,945406,38555.3
1913790,525450,97057.051.24
1914813,469434,31053.3
1915854,509433,46750.7
1916912,222373,89640.9
1917969,186531,12154.8
19181,241,829472,24738.035.9035.90*
19191,351,083390,59828.9
19201,622,048448,65627.7
19211,768,416738,63841.8
19221,785,308739,07541.4

INCOME AND OUTGO.

A statement of the total income and outgo, both gross and net, of all offices in respect of New Zealand business is now given. the gross reserve for unexpired risks, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the net. The amount of fire premiums receivable are exclusive of reinsurance premiums from other offices. These were £245,556 in 1922, as compared with £259,257 in 1921.

FIRE INSURANCE.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1920-22.
1920.1921.1922.
Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.
* Included in New Zealand Government taxes.
Income.££££££
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at beginning of year601,902407,812732,266483,793806,027534,076
Reserve, additional to foregoing19,37319,37318,33918,33920,74920,749
Amount of fire premiums receivable during year1,777,4651,174,3351,943,9541,293,7411,924,4761,300,001
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c.73,34473,34478,26878,26890,68590,685
Rents11,94311,9439,5719,57115,95515,955
Other revenue2,9102,9103,7573,7572,0532,053
Totals2,486,9371,689,7172,786,1551,887,4692,859,9451,963,519
Outgo.      
Amount of fire losses incurred during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage and amounts covered by reinsurance448,656292,289738,638473,643739,076486,609
New Zealand Government taxes127,822123,526167,748162,342150,630141,842
Local-authority rates3,0673,0672,7512,7512,8802,880
License fees**5,4095,1945,2144,983
Fire Board levies30,44925,16837,40531,41237,51829,749
Rents18,22716,61319,79817,53222,28920,130
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, sub-agents, and others213,639127,418241,262151,162244,066156,027
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses200,593179,450215,673186,681221,895193,316
Other expenses of management112,76698,471128,923107,237121,693102,298
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year732,266483,793806,027534,601797,640536,225
Reserve, additional to foregoing18,33918,33920,74920,74929,49629,496
Other expenditure1,6031,6037377371,7171,717
Totals1,907,4271,369,7372,385,1201,693,7412,374,1141,705,272

In so far as the income was concerned, there was an increase of only £6,260 in the net premiums in 1922. The total net income increased by £76,050 in 1922, as compared with £197,752 in 1921 and £213,016 in the preceding year. With regard to outgo, losses in 1921 and 1922 show a very great increase as compared with the previous year, and this is reflected in the percentage which the gross loss bears to the total premiums received.

The reserve set aside to meet unexpired risks has, except in six instances, been 40 per cent. of the net premium income.

The net premiums and net losses are set out for each office in the following table. The total receipts and expenditure are also given in each case.

FIRE INSURANCE.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, 1922.
Name of Fire-insurance Office.Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.Fire losses.Total.
Overseas Companies.££££
Alliance47,89667,24618,89254,718
Atlas37,87853,80419,08159,533
Australian Alliance5,3787,4411,6956,400
Australian Provincial3,3904,2602,0736,941
British Traders'18,64527,0144,73325,602
Commercial Union54,37076,00115,46362,978
Eagle, Star, and British Dominions40,13760,36814,05255,863
Excess22,33931,15210,17128,411
Guardian29,70945,67713,01444,197
Hartford4,3714,8441,1865,619
Home10,72717,6905,35917,664
Insurance Office of Australia12,45216,6935,66218,263
Liverpool and London and Globe33,37448,23613,33046,625
London Assurance Corporation7,68510,2562,6689,065
London and Lancashire23,05633,2409,21131,322
North British and Mercantile13,62119,5687,68219,096
Northern Assurance23,52138,3929,40433,255
Norwich Union23,92843,7468,16137,041
Ocean12,46016,9254,18412,854
Phœnix42,72961,16516,15051,810
Queensland27,06640,7658,79732,358
Royal27,27838,4618,81733,011
Royal Exchange53,09997,45417,428101,121
Southern Union1,1111,2103462,725
Sun44,46661,58425,33863,751
Union17,01824,6086,37318,402
United31,27143,4409,75442,344
Victoria47,68166,24015,38960,822
Yorkshire13,32319,9394,99923,246
Total (overseas companies)729,9791,077,419279,4121,005,037
Local Companies.    
Farmers' Co-operative11,92322,5152,82716,979
National65,394101,57424,67981,053
New Zealand Medical903913..690
New Zealand143,954225,11659,332184,241
South British134,855229,58449,929170,366
Standard60,73884,45021,81675,509
State Fire142,592211,04846,091164,645
Wairarapa Automobile442480..204
Total (local companies)560,801875,680204,674693,687
Mutual Associations.    
Hawke's Bay Farmers'124166300440
Otago Farmers' Union1,5781,9723651,308
Taranaki Farmers'4,0594,7231,1582,837
Wellington Farmers'3,4603,5607001,963
Total (mutual associations)9,22110,4212,5236,548
Total (all offices)1,300,0011,963,520486,6091,705,272

A favourable result accrued to fire offices in the Dominion as a result of business for the two years 1919 and 1920, and this was so notwithstanding the increased costs of management under every head. For 1921 and 1922, however, considerably heavier fire losses have resulted in comparatively bad years of business.

The next table, covering the last three years, shows the percentage of working-expenses to premium income (net and gross) and total net income. The ratios are given both with and without taxes included as a working-expense, and although it is recognized that taxes are in no sense a working-expense, yet they are undoubtedly a heavy recurring call on the profits of an institution. The expenses are increased by at least 10 per cent, on this account.

FIRE INSURANCE.—WORKING-EXPENSES, 1920-22.
Items.1920.1921.1922.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income38.3438.7839.31
Net working-expenses (including taxes) to net premium income48.8551.3250.22
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (excluding reinsurances from other offices)32.5633.5034.15
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)28.6929.5630.30
Gross working-expenses (including taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)35.0337.1736.82
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to total net income (excluding reserve for unexpired risks at beginning of year)35.1236.2136.28
Net working-expenses (including taxes) to total net income (excluding reserve for unexpired risks at beginning of year)44.7547.9346.35

FIRE LOSSES.

The net fire losses for 1922 were £486,609, as compared with £473,643 for 1921 and £292,289 for 1920. In 1922 there were 3,298 fires and 55 conflagrations (cases where three or more buildings are affected). The corresponding figures for the previous year were 3,001 and 66. The total gross loss in 1922 was £739,076, representing 41.40 per cent, of the premiums (less refunds to insured other than fire offices) charged, and 0.22 per cent, of the total risk covered. The corresponding figures for 1921 were £738,638. 41.77 per cent., and 0.22 per cent. The following table shows for each of the four principal urban areas and the remainder of the Dominion the fires and losses for 1922:—

FIRE INSURANCE.—FIRES AND LOSSES, 1922.
Separate Fires.Conflagrations.Buildings affected.Gross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.
Urban areas—   ££Per Cent.
    Auckland4023424565,13968,99312.21
    Wellington3618412554,04549,9879.02
    Christchurch2594286348,91754,07215.50
    Dunedin2115236403,21918,9404.70
Rest of Dominion2,065302,3231,815,361547,08430.04
Totals3,298553,6813,686,681739,07620.05

The lower loss ratio in the cases of the principal urban areas as compared with the rest of the Dominion is to be expected in view of the greater fire-brigade facilities for handling fires in the larger centres. Companies usually allow this factor to influence the premium required.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.

In the year 1903 an Act was passed “to establish a State Fire Insurance Office and to make other provisions for the insurance and protection of insurable property in New Zealand against loss or damage by fire.” This Act came into operation on the 4th January, 1905, when the State Fire Insurance Office opened for public business.

As a consequence of the operations of the State Fire Office the rates on trade risks and the like have been reduced by 10 per cent., and those n dwellings, offices, and similar risks by 33 1/3 per cent.

Under the State Fire Insurance Amendment Act, 1922, provision is made that when the Board considers that the funds of the Office are sufficient to meet liabilities it may direct that a rebate be allowed to insurers in respect of premiums thereafter becoming payable. This provision has been availed of by the Board, and an announcement has been made of a rebate of 15 per cent, on all premiums on current policies falling due from the 1st August, 1923, to the 31st July, 1924.

Debentures to the amount of £2,000 were raised under the authority of the Act governing the Office, but have now been redeemed. That the Office has been accorded an increasing share of public support is evident from the fact that although at the close of the year 1909 the net income amounted to only £35,480, and there was a deficit on the Profit and Loss Account of £1,441, yet at the close of the year 1922 the net income was £156,476, and the total accumulated profits were £342,970.

The premium income, after deducting premiums on reinsurances, during the ten years 1913-22 has been as follows:—

Year.Amount of Net
Premium Income.
 £
191359,418
191464,646
191571,166
191677,609
191785,321
191890,077
1919100,764
1920124,538
1921136,429
1922142,592

RESULT OF OPERATIONS DURING 1922.

The expansion of business during 1922 has not been as great as for 1920 and 1921. The total amount underwritten, however, shows an increase of £1,115,479, and the gross surplus in 1922, after paying losses and working-expenses, is £69,238. The net surplus (inclusive of income-tax charges), after appropriating an additional sum of £2,465 to Unearned Premiums Reserve, amounted to £46,403, as compared with £39,325 for 1921. The total accumulated profits at the close of 1922 amounted to £342,970, as against £296,567 a year earlier.

The net income from all sources amounted to £156,476, as against £150,073 for 1921, showing an increase of £6,403. The net premium income for 1922 showed an increase of £6,163.

The net losses were £46,091, as compared with £38,126 for 1921, the ratio to premium income being 32.32 per cent, and 27.95 per cent, respectively.

The balance-sheet of the State Fire Insurance Office as at the 31st December, 1922, is appended.

Liabilities.  
Capital authorized by the State££
Fire Insurance Act, 1908100,000..
Less not raised100,000..
 ..Nil.
Reserve Fund..296,567
Investments Fluctuation Reserve Fund..10,000
Reserve for unearned premiums..57,037
Premiums and other deposits..906
Outstanding fire losses..2,484
Government taxes..20,369
Interest accrued but not due on mortgages..7
Other amounts owing by the Office—  
    Reinsurance premiums due£11,590..
    Commission1,537..
    Rent19..
    Printing, stationery, and advertising39..
    Postages and sundry charges597..
 ..13,832
Fire-insurance funds, as per Revenue Account..46,403
  £447,605
Assets.  £
Government war-loan securities....138,325
Other Government securities....55,550
Local-authority securities....4,800
Fixed deposits and at short call....20,000
Mortgages on property....2,628
Land and buildings..£133,466..
    Less mortgages taken over on Office premises purchased..2,475..
 ....135,991
Office equipment....1,107
Outstanding premiums....7,736
Interest accrued but not due....2,455
Rent accrued but not due....113
Cash in Bank of New Zealand at
Wellington, or in
transit to Wellington
..£77,921 
Imprest Account balances—   
 £  
Read Office535....
Auckland139....
Christchurch48....
Dunedin30....
Palmerston North34....
New Plymouth94....
Hamilton10....
Invercargill89....
  979 
   78,900
   £447,605

The ratio of working-expenses to premium income, exclusive of income-tax, was 28.86 for 1922 and 31.07, for 1921. These figures are considerably lower in each instance than the average for all offices in the Dominion.

The accumulated funds at the close of 1922 amounted to £410,006, and for 1921 £361,138, a substantial increase of £48,868.

FIRE BRIGADES.

At the 31st December, 1922, there were 160 fire brigades (including branches) in New Zealand, with a total of 417 officers and 2,057 men. Figures for each of the last five years are—

Year.Stations.Officers.Men.Total Personnel.
19181533901,8882,278
19191564172,0592,476
19201594252,0382,463
19211564001,9842,384
19221604172,0572,474

Chapter 28. SECTION XXVIII.—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments of 1911, 1914, 1915, and 1922. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with a central Government officer entitled the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general oversight by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies. The powers, duties, and obligations of societies are set out, as is also a schedule of offences and of penalties therefor.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was embodied in the Finance Act, 1916 (Part IX), and extended and amended by the National Provident Fund Amendment Act, 1919. Information concerning the scheme is given in Section XXIV of this book, in the article dealing with the National Provident Fund.

LODGES AND MEMBERS.

At the 31st December, 1922, there were 890 lodges, courte, &c., on the Register of Friendly Societies, a net increase of fifteen during the year. The figures for the various orders are as follows:—

Name of Order.Registrations at 1st January, 1922.Established.Closed.Registrations at 31st December, 1922.
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows21652219
Independent Order of Oddfellows11051114
National Independent Order of Oddfellows3....3
British United Order of Oddfellows1....1
Ancient Order of Foresters15731159
Ancient Order of Shepherds1....1
United Ancient Order of Druids13521136
Independent Order of Rechabites691169
Sons and Daughters of Temperance11....11
Hibernian Australasian Catholic Benefit Society662266
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia13....13
Grand United Order of Oddfellows..4..4
Isolated friendly societies483150
Working-men's clubs16....16
Independent Order of Good Templars11....11
Specially authorized societies18..117
Totals8752510890

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c., are required by law, but it would appear that many lodges do not comply with the requirements. For the year 1922 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 746 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 80,777 at the end of the year, as compared with 731 lodges and 77,814 members for 1921. The following table shows the membership at the beginning and end of the year, with the accretions and losses of members during the year, in respect of the 746 lodges returned in 1922:—

Number of members, 1st January..77,814
Number admitted by—  
    Initiation, &c.7,618 
    Clearance900 
  8,518
  86,332
Number who died649 
Number left by—  
    Clearance946 
    Arrears, &c.3,960 
 ..5,555
Number of members at 31st December..80,777

The above figures show an increase in membership equal to 3.81 per cent., as compared with 4.86 per cent, for 1921.

The figures of membership of lodges furnishing returns during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Number of Lodges tabulated.Number of Members.
191368173,691
191471774,074
191572873,027
191672770,360
191773068,771
191873167,527
191973570,598
192073274,210
192173177,814
192274680,777

The figures are of use for comparative purposes, in spite of the comparatively large proportion of ledges which do not furnish returns, as it is found that with few exceptions the same lodges are the delinquents each year. The fall in membership during the war has now been made up, and it will be noticed that, although the number of societies returned in 1921 was one less than in 1920, there was an increase of 3,604 in membership. The figures for 1922 reveal a fairly substantial increase in the number of lodges furnishing returns, but the increase in membership is not as great as would be expected, the number being only 2,963 in excess of the previous year.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

The total funds of the societies and branches as on the 31st December, 1922, amounted to £2,593,692, made up as follows: Sick and Funeral Funds (inclusive of amounts transferred to special funds out of surplus), £2,427,973; Medical and Management Funds, goods, &c., £165,719. Dividing the total funds by the number of members at the end of the year it is found the average capital per member is £32 2s. 2d.

The total funds and the average capital per member at the end of each of the last ten years were as under:—

Year.Total Funds.Average Capital.
 ££s.d.
19131,643,1772260
19141,744,45623110
19151,852,3552574
19161,954,94027158
19172,052,75329170
19182,100,4433121
19192,184,653301811
19202,321,1763157
19212,445,8433188
19222,593,6923222

These sums are held against the societies' liabilities under their sickness and funeral insurances, and actuarial valuations made by the Friendly Societies Office from time to time indicate how far they are sufficient or otherwise.

The following statement shows the disposal of the total funds (including those of the central bodies) as on the 31st December, 1922:—

Funds.£
Sick and Funeral Funds2,308,155
Surplus Appropriation Funds, &c.119,818
Management Funds, goods, &c.106,446
Widow and Orphans' Funds19,788
Distress, Benevolent Funds, &c.39,485
 £2,593,692
Assets.£
Investments at interest2,228,143
Value of land and buildings230,272
Cash not bearing interest87,883
Value of goods15,890
Owing by Management Funds25,304
Other assets6,200
 £2,593,692

The net income from investments credited to the Sick and Funeral Funds for 1922 amounted to £120,938, the average rate being £5 11s. 2d. per cent., as against £5 9s. 4d. in 1921.

Name of Society.Total Worth of Sick and Funeral Funds as onAmount of Interest.Average Rate per Cent.
1st January, 1922.31st December, 1922.
 £££ 
M.U.I.O.O.F.835,693877,28245,6365.47
I.O.O.F.151,723165,1847,7655.02
N.I.O.O.F.5,3275,3812073.94
B.U.O.O.F.4,2664,5002656.23
A.O.F.509,540541,54127,9325.46
A.O.S.1,3031,350685.26
U.A.O.D.400,673440,94924,2635.94
I.O.R.107,234113,4616,1765.76
S.D.T.27,00028,3331,5025.58
H.A.C.B.S.51,45056,7562,9115.53
T.A.F.S.A.29,39030,7211,6915.79
S.U.O.O.F...38....
Other societies40,41242,6592,5226.26
Totals2,164,0112,308,155120,9385.56

The receipts and expenditure of the Sick and Funeral Funds for the year 1922 totalled £361,514 and £217,370 respectively, made up as follows:—

SICK AND FUNERAL FUNDS, 1922.

Receipts.£
Members' contributions141,737
Interest and rent120,938
Repayments by central body40,599
Other receipts58,240
 £361,514
Expenditure.£
Sick-pay94,547
Funeral donations28,793
Contributions and levies to central body80,623
Other expenditure13,407
 £217,370

Members' contributions averaged £1 15s. 9d. per member, and interest and rent receipts amounted to £1 10s. 6d. per member, reckoned on the mean number of members for the year. Sickness benefits paid averaged £7 8s. 3d. per member sick, or £1 3s. 10d. when averaged over all members, while funeral benefits represented 7s. 3d. per member.

The receipts of the Medical and Management Expenses Funds for 1922 totalled £167,304, and the expenditure was £166,071, the details being as follows:—

MEDICAL AND MANAGEMENT EXPENSES FUNDS, 1922.

Receipts.£
Members' contributions151,820
Interest and rent4,444
Other receipts11,040
 £167,304
Expenditure.£
Medical attendance and medicine103,389
Management expenses42,881
Levies to central body12,405
Other expenditure7,396
 £166,071

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

A comparison of the latest available statistics showing the number of members of friendly societies, the amount of their accumulated capital, and the average capital per member in each of the Australian States, and in the Dominion of New Zealand is given in the next table. It is seen that the average amount of capital per member in the Dominion greatly exceeds the amounts credited to any of the Australian States.

State or Dominion.Date of Return.Number of Lodges.Number of Members.Amount of Funds.Capital per Member.
    ££s.d.
New South Wales30/6/19212,061200,5342,432,6511227
Victoria31/12/19211,464143,8203,375,0502394
New Zealand31/12/192274680,7772,593,6923222
South Australia31/12/192160070,1551,586,09422122
Queensland31/12/192150456,5741,096,7911979
Tasmania31/12/192117922,888290,521121311
Western Australia31/12/192124018,945313,13116107

Chapter 29. SECTION XXIX.—BUILDING SOCIETIES.

THE law relating to building societies incorporated in the Dominion is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908, and is mainly a consolidation of legislation that has been operative since 1880. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies, and before a society can be incorporated the formalities prescribed by the Act and regulations must be completed. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must before registration be certified to as conforming to legal requirements by a Revising Barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. A fee of £5 5s. is payable by the society concerned for this service, but no second fee is payable for amendments made within five years following. The fee payable to the Registrar of Building Societies on incorporation is £3 3s., but no stamp duties are payable on any instruments or documents made under the Act.

Building societies are afforded all the powers of an ordinary mortgagee, and where a mortgagor makes default in payment of moneys the society may exercise the usual power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

The provisions of the Mortgages Extension (Moratorium) Acts apply to mortgages of building societies, and for an outline of the provisions of the law on the subject reference should be made to the section of this book relating to “Mortgages.”

Under the Finance Act, 1920, a building society may be approved by the Governor-General as an institution for the investment of trust funds. This innovation permanently embodies a temporary war measure in the statute law of the Dominion.

The two classes of building and investment societies — viz., permanent and terminating—are distinguished according as to whether the society is by its rules to terminate at a fixed date or when a specified result is attained.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Office. The dates upon which the societies close their accounts vary considerably within the year, but the figures given below may be taken as corresponding approximately to the financial years ended on the 31st March of the years shown.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES.

The number of societies in existence in 1922-23 was 81. Of these, 38 were permanent and 43 terminating, the latter being comprised of 129 groups. The following table shows the number of societies in operation over a period of five years:—

NUMBER OF BUILDING SOCIETIES, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
Year.Number of Permanent Societies.Number of Terminating Societies.
Societies.Groups.
1918-193545107
1919-203642110
1920-213741116
1921-223744125
1922-233843129

There has been a tendency for individual societies to enlarge their activities, rather than for the number of societies to increase. The number of terminating societies shows a slight decrease over the five years under review; but the aggregate number of groups of those which have remained in operation has increased.

A synopsis of the extent to which investments have been made in building society shares during the last five years is contained in the table next presented:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—SHARES AND MEMBERS, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
    Investing Shares.     
Number of shares108,071108,479122,589132,343147,127
Members holding25,12524,86826,80931,76434,375
Aggregate value£1,644,281£1,576,070£1,632,802£1,729,514£1,757,286
    Paid-up Shares.     
Number of shares39,13057,19863,47370,85974,432
Members holding1,4992,3001,8992,0942,291
Aggregate value£303,460£472,977£464,743£506,349543,086

The average value in 1922-23 of each investing share paying periodic subscription was £11 18s. 10d., as compared with £15 4s. 3d. in 1918-19, and of each paid-up share £7 5s. 11d., as compared with £7 15s. 1d. five years age. A comparison of the distribution of share-money and the number of holders of shares between permanent and terminating societies yields the following results:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES, PERMANENT AND TERMINATING, 1922-23.
Permanent.Terminating.Total.
Investing Shares.   
Number of shares70,47276,655147,127
Members holding7,54626,82934,375
Aggregate value£704,635£1,052,651£1,757,286
Paid-up Shares.   
Number of shares73,2941,13874,432
Members holding1,9003912,291
Aggregate value£522,297£20,789£543,086

Of the total aggregate value of both investing and paid-up shares, amounting to £2,300,372, 53 per cent, is held in permanent societies and 47 per cent, in terminating societies. On the other hand, the number of members holding shares in permanent societies is only 26 per cent, of the total, the terminating societies' shareholders representing 74 per cent. It should be pointed out, however, that one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society.

LOANS AND BORROWERS.

The numbers of loans and borrowers, both of permanent and of terminating societies, are as follows:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—LOANS AND BORROWERS, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total.
Borrowers.Amount.Borrowers.Amount.Borrowers.Amount.
  £ £ £
1918-195,1431,747,7834,6011,260,5059,7443,008,288
1919-205,2132,037,8104,4861,248,5849,6993,286,394
1920-215,1072,228,1584,1011,241,2389,2083,469,396
1921-224,9022,275,2185,1061,310,52210,0083,585,740
1922-235,0862,364,3255,0991,344,60810,1853,708,933

It will be noted that the total amount of money borrowed has steadily increased each year. On the other hand, the number of borrowers has fluctuated considerably, with, however, a tendency to increase during the last three years. This increase in the number of borrowers has been confined mainly to the terminating societies. The average amount borrowed during the last five years is seen from the next table.

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—AVERAGE AMOUNT BORROWED, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
Class.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Permanent societies339168390194436511464210464174
Terminating societies27319327867302134256133263140
All societies3081473381693761573585936431

INCOME AND OUTGO.

Building societies have experienced a continued demand for money available for household property, partly owing to the high prices ruling for buildings and partly because of the acute shortage of houses from which the Dominion has suffered as a whole during the years immediately following the war. The figures in the table below are accordingly of more than usual interest in so far as they reflect the extent of advances made to shareholders. The decrease in advances in 1922-23 as compared with preceding years is doubtless due to the measure of caution with which all lending institutions have made advances on the security of house properties in anticipation of a falling-off in valuations which became inflated during the war period.

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
Income.£££££
Investors' subscriptions and paid-up shares250,818274,004320,340364,268352,220
Advances repaid459,572596,414758,242578,618521,290
Deposits received786,861727,3161,266,970979,733928,533
Interest received104,343120,293144,708141,675139,539
Other receipts51,03478,94374,60677,84851,992
Total income1,652,6281,796,9702,564,8662,142,1421,993,574
Outgo.     
Withdrawals224,739256,441289,747232,311295,774
Advances496,803766,306938,713653,646648,163
Expenses of management27,97928,63540,10436,71737,524
Deposits repaid551,062631,2171,133,2501,074,174835,558
Interest, dividends, and other expenditure116,370113,577193,776155,931135,664
Total outgo1,416,9531,796,1762,595,5902,152,7791,952,683

Both income and outgo show a falling-off as compared with the two previous years. The excess of income of over £40,000, however, reflects a more satisfactory position than has obtained since 1918-19. The position disclosed above is not of special concern, in view of the reason that the legitimate function of building societies is to assist members to secure homes of their own by means of loans at easy rates of interest and repayable on the instalment system.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The liabilities and assets of societies operative in New Zealand for each of the years 1918-19 to 1922-23 are as follows:—

LIABILITIES OF BUILDING AND INVESTMENT SOCIETIES, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
Year.To Shareholders (including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits).Deposits.To Bankers and other Creditors.Total Liabilities.
 ££££
1918-192,315,378693,890244,4853,253,753
1919-202,441,510803,683309,4353,554,628
1920-212,515,1921,064,316138,2843,717,792
1921-222,679,0351,012,626164,4833,856,144
1922-232,750,9401,105,161142,1163,998,217
ASSETS OF BUILDING AND INVESTMENT SOCIETIES, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
Year.Advances on Mortgage.Other Investments.Cash in Hand and on Deposit.Total Assets.
 ££££
1918-193,008,28984,732160,7323,253,753
1919-203,286,393113,058155,1773,554,628
1920-213,469,396125,282123,1143,717,792
1921-223,585,740136,105134,2993,856,144
1922-233,708,933151,419137,8653,998,217

BUILDING SOCIETIES IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The extent to which building and investment societies are supported in the Dominion is apparent from the table below of similar activities in the Commonwealth of Australia for 1921-22:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—OPERATIONS IN 1921-22.
State.Number of Societies.Number of Shareholders.Number of Shares.Number of Borrowers.Amount advanced.
* Not available.
     £
New South Wales148****
Victoria307,893*9,520834,992
Queensland124,8691,011,4424,206218,412
South Australia1810,62132,6232,314107,647
Western Australia155,79719,9141,43776,165
Tasmania41,85517,4281,28686,918
New Zealand8133,858203,20210,008653,646

Chapter 30. SECTION XXX.—MORTGAGES.

OUTLINE OF LAW RELATING TO MORTGAGES.

GENERALLY, any class of property in New Zealand may be the subject of a mortgage, and a mortgage may be submortgaged. Certain property, however, cannot be mortgaged, notably property which as a matter of policy is forbidden by law to be mortgaged, such as pensions. Property which a married woman is restrained from anticipating can only be mortgaged with the consent of the Supreme Court.

The distinction between mortgages under the older deeds-registration system and under the more recent Land Transfer Act is chiefly in respect to the form of mortgage and the estate created for the security of the mortgage. Formerly the mortgagor conveyed the land to the mortgagee subject to a right of reconveyance of “equity of redemption” on repayment of the money lent. This is substantially the present law in regard to mortgages under the deeds-registration system, except, perhaps, that the position has been modified by the introduction into the New Zealand statute of certain equitable principles. Under the Land Transfer Act the equitable view is taken, and no transfer of the property takes place, but a charge only is created, the mortgagee being specially empowered to sell the land in the event of default being made.

A simple memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage. This must be on or annexed to the mortgage, otherwise a reconveyance is necessary. If a mortgagee who has no attorney is absent from the Dominion repayment may be made to the Public Trustee.

REMEDIES OF A MORTGAGEE.

The principal remedy of a mortgagee in the case of default of any of the covenants by the mortgagor is a power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. The Registrar fixes the time and conditions of sale and employs an auctioneer. The mortgagee may be a bidder at the sale and become the purchaser. The Registrar executes the transfer of the property, reciting that the sale is made under these provisions of the Act. A mortgagee may also sue under the covenants contained in the mortgage. The English remedy of foreclosure is, however, abolished in New Zealand by the Property Law Act in respect of realty.

The information given below relates to mortgages registered under one or other of the above systems. In addition to these there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not so registered, and of the amount of which it is not possible to form any estimate. Further, stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the figures.

A note on the special legislation included in the Mortgages Extension (Moratorium) Acts is given at the end of this section.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.

The total amount for which mortgages were registered, both under the deeds-registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the five years 1918-19 to 1922-23 is given in the subjoined table.

The total amount registered for the year ended 31st March, 1923, exceeded £26,000,000. As mortgages of property situated in more than one registration district are registered for the full amount in each district, there is thus some small degree of duplication. On the other hand, it may be pointed out that in addition to a total of 32,135 mortgages which represent the £26,000,000 referred to there were 1,951 mortgages in which no amount was shown as secured.

The amount advanced in 1922-23 was £8,757,728 (or 25 per cent.) less than in the previous year. The figures for the five years as shown below are arresting, and reflect the extent to which firms and private individuals have found it necessary to borrow during the last few years under review, though, happily, to a much less extent during 1921-22 and 1922-23.

MORTGAGES.—TOTAL AMOUNT REGISTERED, 1918-19 TO 1922-23.
District.1918-19.1919-20.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
 £££££
Auckland5,595,21113,021,46321,659,49112,087,2388,453,603
Poverty Bay1,009,3602,162,5832,402,0001,942,687931,994
Hawke's Bay1,798,0614,074,5665,084,1952,104,7341,759,211
Taranaki1,414,5434,343,9855,573,5912,152,2751,177,675
Wellington4,570,23810,727,21413,980,7768,201,4266,248,604
Nelson444,9461,207,1901,265,520565,529478,175
Marlborough233,5751,059,8801,418,264398,412531,980
Canterbury2,052,7316,413,4179,581,9534,465,2523,628,720
Otago927,1862,912,0003,364,2631,836,4421,907,276
Southland868,5932,345,2842,434,290912,236829,046
Westland92,842175,318196,091123,09385,312
Totals19,007,28648,442,90066,960,43434,789,32426,031,596

Nine out of the eleven registration districts show a marked decrease in the value of mortgages registered during 1922-23 as compared with the previous year, while the aggregate decrease for the whole Dominion is approximately 25 per cent.

MORTGAGES UNDER EACH REGISTRATION SYSTEM.

A distribution of the above figures according as to whether the registration was made under the deeds system or the Land Transfer Act is now given. The period taken is the three years 1920-21 to 1922-23.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED UNDER DEEDS-REGISTRATION AND LAND-TRANSFER SYSTEMS FOR 1920-21 TO 1922-23.
District.1920-21.1921-22.1922-23.
Deeds Registration.Land Transfer.Deeds Registration.Land Transfer.Deeds Registration.Land Transfer.
 ££££££
Auckland5,009,70516,649,7862,936,4049,150,8342.278,8966,174,707
Poverty Bay59,9242,342,07657,4101,885,27724,000907,994
Hawke's Bay1,200,8073,883,388482,5521,622,182440,0661,319,145
Taranaki600,9014,972,690374,7731,777,502139,4351,038,240
Wellington1,760,50812,220,2681,337,9676,863,459874,6135,373,991
Nelson455,524809,996139,634425,895147,381330,794
Marlborough323,3971,094,867107,775290,637158,538373,442
Canterbury492,5749,089,379323,9384,141,314183,3923,445,328
Otago742,4822,621,781442,5431,393,899326,1391,581,137
Southland199,4322,234,85880,797831,43983,129745,917
Westland33,210162,88117,265105,82812,17373,139
Totals10,878,46456,081,9706,301,05828,488,2664,667,76221,363,834

It will be noted that of the total of £26,031,596 registered in 1922-23. £21,363,834 came under the Land Transfer Act. This represents approximately 82 per cent, of the total amount registered as advanced on mortgage. This proportion has increased very little over a number of years.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED—CLASSIFIED BY AMOUNT.

Of the total amount of £26,031,596 registered for the financial year 1922-23, mortgages up to £500 in value represented 20 per cent, of the total value registered, from £501 to £1,000 24 per cent., from £1,001 to £5,000 33 per cent., and above the latter amount 23 per cent, of the total value registered. The following table gives the number and amount in each registration district according to the sum advanced:—

MORTGAGES.—NUMBER AND AMOUNT ACCORDING TO SUM ADVANCED.
District.£500 and under.£501 to £1,000.£1,001 to £5,000.Over £5,000.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £ £
Auckland7,0621,940,3493,3692,464,5081,5082,980,5701251,068,176
Poverty Bay31084,087152110,16595216,10572521,637
Hawke's Bay810207,781384288,114223520,20563743,111
Taranaki787221,780401305,537266549,77415100,584
Wellington3,6731,001,8201,7951,346,6348641,931,3521651,968,798
Nelson594143,113164120,64066130,8231183,599
Marlborough20856,6718463,60757113,14621298,556
Canterbury2,781739,1961,233,925,0005411,233,33682731,188
Otago1,860482,757542395,282262537,77135491,466
Southland847214,474276206,098170373,474535,000
Westland11627,1233024,9731023,216110,000
Totals19,0485,119,1518,4306,250,5584,0628,609,7725956,052,115

In addition to the above, there were 1,951 mortgages registered for which no amount was shown. Excluding these, the average advance for each mortgage registered was £810, as compared with £896 in 1921-22.

MORTGAGES ON URBAN AND RURAL SECURITIES.

Figures are available in the case of Land Transfer registrations showing for each registration district the amount advanced on urban and rural properties. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages registered under the deeds system, but bearing in mind that the latter constitute but 18 per cent, of the total it will be evident that the figures given approximately indicate the character of the securities. The distinction is between “town and, suburban” and “country" holdings, but information is not always available to enable a strictly accurate classification to be made. Generally, however, town and suburban mortgages are regarded as such if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs, and would include also small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. From the table on the next page it will be seen that mortgages classified as town and suburban are secured on areas averaging considerably less than half an acre in extent, as compared with an average area of some 460 acres in the case of “country" securities.

Utilizing percentages, which may then be taken as indicative of the position in regard to all mortgages registered, including those under the deeds system, some interesting results are yielded by the figures given. The registered value of mortgages on country property constitute 55 per cent, of the total amount secured, and on town and suburban property 45 per cent. The position is, however, reversed when the number of mortgages registered is considered, the figures being in the case of country property 33 per cent., and for town and suburban areas 67 per cent., of the total number registered. The acreage on which these advances are secured represents in the case of country mortgages 99.82 per cent, of the total, and on town and suburban property 0.18 per cent, only. On the other hand, the average amount secured per acre on rural holdings is £2 16s. 8d., as against £1,289 in the case of town and suburban properties, this, of course, being the natural corollary of the higher valuations ruling in the more populous areas. The average amount of each mortgage on country property is £1,302, as compared with £520 on town and suburban holdings.

MORTGAGES UNDER THE LAND TRANSFER ACT, 1922-23.
District.Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount secured.Number.Area.Amount secured.
  Acres.£ Acres.£
Auckland6,4553,7163,295,6652,7431,214,0722,879,042
Poverty Bay368223199,870272325,867708,124
Hawke's Bay715367385,391471242,759933,754
Taranaki719267282,912849178,110755,328
Wellington4,2691,1932,634,4981,503672,0902,739,493
Nelson302141139,258274144,442191,536
Marlborough13110865,342125126,906308,100
Canterbury3,1407561,569,0261,496588,2241,876,302
Otago1,514374699,365639413,828881,772
Southland674235250,158628233,642495,759
Westland742423,3067732,11449,833
Totals18,3617,4049,544,7919,0774,172,05411,819,043

A table showing information for each of the last eight years is also given.

MORTGAGES UNDER LAND TRANSFER ACT, 1915-16 TO 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Number.Area.Amount secured.
Town and Suburban.Country.Total.Town and Suburban.Country.Total.
  Acres.Acres.Acres.£££
191620,5454,8724,608,0144,612,8862,395,96316,032,80918,428,772
191718,8034,3423,714,3953,718,7374,215,26613,389,25817,604,524
191815,8994,1183,559,5173,563,6353,280,23511,599,40514,879,640
191916,06918,7422,830,2602,849,0023,351,59312,539,68415,891,277
192035,63243,3986,050,5516,093,9499,726,82130,948,32840,675,149
192146,80366,2246,821,8086,888,03216,133,64239,948,32856,081,970
192233,4098,9715,469,2125,478,18310,743,76517,744,50128,488,266
192327,4387,4044,172,0544,179,4589,544,79111,819,04321,363,834

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED.

The total amount of mortgages discharged for the years 1920-21, 1921-22, and 1922-23 is as follows:—

MORTGAGES.—NUMBER AND AMOUNT DISCHARGED, 1920-21 TO 1922-23.
District.Year ended 31st March, 1921.Year ended 31st March, 1922.Year ended 31st March. 1923.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £ £ £
Auckland11,9807,733,3856,2073,623,5536,7334,134,673
Poverty Bay901856,314504469,353322387,020
Hawke's Bay2,2822,295,589909707,274989996,317
Taranaki2,7822,182,4701,148812,4761,0951,129,605
Wellington7,6107,219,6484,5903,691,1764,2653,731,931
Nelson1,171728,316576330,985543242,671
Marlborough595515,007244158,472230255,548
Canterbury6,5594,728,0213,4181,910,2713,2121,963,043
Otago3,3871,974,4972,0621,015,8771,9911,049,547
Southland1,8701,162,229817453,914980644,366
Westland18668,65614761,01411145,046
Totals39,32329,464,13220,62213,234,36520,47114,579,767

Of the total amount released in 1922-23, £12,077,315 was under the Land Transfer Act and £2,502,452 under the deeds-registration system. The corresponding figures for the previous year were £10,824,276 and £2,410,089 respectively.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.

The monthly totals of mortgages registered and discharged during each month from January, 1921, to September, 1923, are next given.

MORTGAGES.—TRANSACTIONS EACH MONTH, JANUARY, 1921, TO SEPTEMBER, 1923.
Month.Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
1921. £ £
January3,3663,576,0711,9841,473,863
February4,0724,325,1852,3841,606,790
March3,6823,680,6852,1111,454,300
April3,8733,755,8042,2081,354,534
May4,3364,193,6192,3461,687,459
June3,6383,199,8651,9831,312,064
July3,8073,160,3661,9111,140,503
August3,9193,908,0331,8471,192,661
September3,3772,781,2811,6701,131,727
October3,3182,483,9711,766965,395
November3,2922,848,0791,6131,051,641
December3,2462,729,0411,5681,056,953
1922.    
January2,1221,515,940992619,009
February2,8091,946,5671,281817,041
March3,0322,266,7581,438905,278
April1,8321,294,202948607,539
May3,2482,313,2331,8251,164,377
June2,9522,434,8691,7191,409,764
July2,9122,211,9121,6171,231,149
August3,1572,555,9191,8791,478,796
September3,0312,364,8671,7161,188,173
October3,1082,298,6972,3921,187,207
November2,9012,297,0051,7411,402,704
December2,7562,021,0251,6211,092,184
1923.    
January2,1891,746,2671,276967,812
February2,6751,944,1671,7301,247,865
March3,3292,578,4192,0441,596,019
April2,4632,082,9471,6821,466,868
May3,8532,965,7462,4321,716,214
June3,2612,582,9392,2121,496,131
July3,6623,043,1282,5242,402,519
August3,9133,473,5982,6442,147,095
September3,2982,704,6362,2561,706,495

The amount of mortgages registered, which showed a decline during 1921 and 1922 as a result of the financial stringency, has increased progressively during the first nine months of 1923. Mortgages discharged show a similar increase.

MORTGAGES REMAINING AT 31ST MARCH, 1923.

The total amount of mortgages under both registration systems outstanding on the 31st March, 1923, was £242,591,933. This represents a net increase of £11,451,829 during the year, the amount of mortgages paid off since the 1st April, 1922, being £14,579,767, as against mortgages registered to the amount of £26,031,596, as shown in the first table in this section. These transactions are distributed over registrations under the Deeds Registration and Land Transfer Acts respectively as follows:—

MORTGAGES.—AGGREGATE AMOUNT SECURED ON 31ST MARCH, 1923.
Act.Remaining secured on 31st March, 1922.Secured during Year ended 31st March, 1923.Paid off during Year ended 31st March, 1923.Remaining secured on 31st March, 1923.
 ££££
Land Transfer210,826,03221,363,83412,077,315220,112,551
Deeds Registration20,314,0724,667,7622,502,45222,479,382
Totals231,140,10426,031,59614,579,767242,591,933

A table showing the amount outstanding for each of the last ten years is given. This table is illuminating. In view of the fact that the figures cover a term of years, they perhaps afford a better indication of the amount of money borrowed than do the yearly tables of mortgages registered, in which no account is taken, because of the absence of suitable data, of the period for which the capital sums are borrowed.

The figures shown, however, should be accepted with a measure of reserve, as doubtless a proportion of the total value of mortgages represented as outstanding on the 31st March, 1923, includes registration of advances that have subsequently been paid off but not formally registered as discharged. This perhaps more particularly arises when second or other further mortgages have been registered and the first mortgagee has sold the security.

MORTGAGES.—AMOUNTS OUTSTANDING, 1913-14 TO 1922-23.
Year ended 31st March.Amount outstanding under the Land Transfer Act.Amount outstanding under the Deeds-registration System.Total outstanding on Mortgage.
* Not available separately.
 £££
1914**106,442,297
1915112,752,1811,796,040114,548,221
1916120,691,3983,517,591124,208,969
1917127,638,9844,632,856132,271,840
1918132,875,7225,906,525138,784,247
1919139,747,1667,003,470146,750,636
1920161,151,74010,955,649172,106,789
1921192,838,99316,764,152209,603,145
1922210,826,03220,314,072231,140,104
1923220,112,55122,479,382242,591,933

In regard to mortgages under the Land Transfer Act, a table is added showing by registration districts the amount remaining secured by such mortgages on the 31st March, 1923. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages under the deeds - registration system, but, as pointed out earlier, those registered under the Land Transfer Act approximate 82 per cent, of the total amount.

MORTGAGES.—AMOUNT REMAINING UNDER THE LAND TRANSFER ACT ON 31ST MARCH, 1923.
District.Amount.
 £
Auckland53,474,153
Poverty Bay9,983,146
Hawke's Bay19,552,126
Taranaki18,187,019
Wellington51,025,063
Nelson3,611,867
Marlborough3,729,820
Canterbury37,019,469
Otago11,313,897
Southland11,456,837
Westland759,154
Total220,112,551

RATES OF INTEREST.

Classified according to the various rates of interest, the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered during 1921-22 and 1922-23 were—

MORTGAGES.—RATES OF INTEREST, 1921-22 AND 1922-23.
Rate per Cent.1921-22.1922-23.
 ££
0440..
1..1,200
2..1,580
2 1/27,820850
31,0625,085
3 2/54,515..
3 1/25,9556,756
3 3/4300..
436,65118,283
4 1/10500..
4 1/5350..
4 1/41,624..
4 3/84,000..
4 1/234,59544,380
4 3/49,792..
54,274,2651,948,168
5 1/433,71632,019
5 1/22,690,3571,118,611
5 3/4380,37981,486
5 7/82,000..
68,782,5176,795,753
6 1/439,89556,015
6 1/24,252,3004,249,935
6 2/31,500..
6 3/446,53327,165
76,425,6884,831,572
7 1/20300..
7 1/66,382..
7 1/413,100300
7 1/21,103,267647,011
7 3/43,2506,700
81,998,0672,158,267
8 1/41,050..
8 1/3320..
8 1/2204,693176,074
8 3/424,179300
9473,744388,127
9 1/4350..
9 1/221,1557,628
9 3/42,100..
10655,728499,083
10 1/2700..
116502,265
11 9/20550..
11 1/2375..
1210,0407,045
12 1/23,525350
1450..
151,5755,483
20630100
25..50
Unspecified3,226,7902,913,955
Totals34,789,32426,031,596

It is evident that the preponderance of mortgages are raised at rates varying from 5 to 7 per cent., the 6-per-cent, class actually showing the largest amount. Within the last eight years there has been a marked increase in the amounts borrowed at higher rates.

THE MORATORIUM.

In 1914 the Legislature passed the Mortgages Extension Act, intended to give relief to mortgagors during the currency of the war. This Act was repealed, but re-enacted with modifications in 1919, and by a further amendment made necessary in 1921 by the financial conditions obtaining its provisions are made operative until the close of the year 1924.

By the terms of the Acts at present in force it is unlawful for a mortgagee to call up the principal or any part thereof, to exercise a power of sale or enter into possession, or to commence an action for breach of any covenant in the mortgage except with the leave of the Supreme Court. That Court decides whether a mortgagee shall be entitled to enforce the terms of his mortgage, and assesses the hardship or otherwise that would be inflicted on the mortgagee by the continuance of the mortgage. This protection does not apply, however, to mortgages made after the passing of the 1919 Act, nor to mortgages under the Repatriation Act.

The procedure adopted by the mortgagee to exercise his power of sale or other remedy is to give the mortgagor notice of his intention so to do. If the mortgagor does not object within two months from the receipt of the notice the mortgagee may exercise his powers without further authority. If, however, the mortgagor objects, the mortgagee is, as stated earlier, obliged to obtain the leave of the Supreme Court.

Where the term of a mortgage is extended by the legislation, and the rate of interest secured by the document or by any agreement extending the original term is more than 6 1/2 per cent., that rate shall continue to be the rate for the further extended term. If the rate is 6 1/2 per cent, or less, then interest for the further term brought under the law shall be at the rate of 6 1/2 per cent., which thus becomes a statutory minimum for the mortgages kept alive by the legislation. Trustee mortgagees may, however, come to an agreement with their mortgagors for the extension of the term of mortgages without applying for leave to the Supreme Court, provided that the extension is for not more than five years, and the rate of interest on extension not less than 6 per cent., even though higher rates of interest might be obtained for a new loan.

DEPOSITS.

The 1921 Act also contains provisions in regard to deposits, the most important feature being contained in several clauses restraining firms and companies from increasing their indebtedness while they still have large liabilities under the protection of the moratorium. It is further provided that firms and bodies holding money on deposit, if they take additional money on deposit, must use it first for the repayment of old deposits. Companies making debenture-issues to secure current accounts with the banks must use the proceeds to meet debts incurred by way of borrowing on deposit. The application of money in contravention of these provisions is punishable by a fine of £100.

Chapter 31. SECTION XXXI.—BANKRUPTCY.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the Bankruptcy Act, 1908, which is a consolidation of all previous enactments then in force. The Act of 1908 consists of 176 sections, grouped in fourteen Parts, as follows:—

  1. I. The Bankruptcy Court.

  2. II. The Official Assignee.

  3. III. Proceedings up to Adjudication.

  4. IV. Supervisors of Administrator. of Bankrupt's Property.

  5. V. Duties of Bankrupt.

  6. VI. Administration of Bankrupt's Property.

  7. VII. Meetings of Creditors.

  8. VIII. Proofs of Debt.

  9. IX. Composition with Creditors.

  10. X. Distribution of Assets.

  11. XI. Discharge.

  12. XII. Annulling of Adjudication.

  13. XIII. Penal Provisions.

  14. XIV. Miscellaneous.

Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court. The Governor-General, however, may by Proclamation confer similar jurisdiction on a Magistrate's Court in cases where the liabilities do not exceed £300. The powers of the Court are fully set out in Part I of the Act.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the Court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of £6 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of Court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in the case of a debtor's petition. Not less than £30 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

Immediately on a debtor's petition being filed or a creditor's petition being adjudicated on, the Registrar of the Court gives notice to the Official Assignee in Bankruptcy, in whom all the property of the bankrupt thereupon vests. Meetings of creditors are provided for, and the bankrupt is required to attend these and submit to examination in respect of his property. He must hand over his books to the Official Assignee, make out balance-sheets, give inventories of his property and debts, and generally assist in the realization of his property.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding-up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due them. In such a case, after approval of the Court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the Court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application, which must be made within four months after adjudication, may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the Assignee or a creditor.

Offences by the bankrupt are dealt with in Part XIII of the Act, which provides a term of imprisonment not exceeding two years for various special offences, including—

  • Trading on fictitious capital.

  • Contracting debts without reasonable expectation of being able to pay them.

  • Failing to keep usual books.

  • Wilfully omitting to keep proper books, with intent to conceal the true state of his affairs.

  • Making gifts, transfers, &c., with intent to defraud his creditors.

  • Concealing or fraudulently removing property.

  • Furnishing wilfully incorrect statements of his property or the state of his affairs.

  • Absconding.

TRANSACTIONS IN BANKRUPTCY.

The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last ten years was as follows:—

Year.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by Creditors.Cases in which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Orders of Discharge were suspended.
191329647110812
191432269..6111
191525044..5518
191626737..6321
19172214416010
1918133311539
191910932112813
192011728..7214
1921289471486
1922552138211411

The number of bankruptcies in 1922 (690) was more than double the total for the previous year (336), and the highest since the “eighties,” when in both 1886 and 1887 over 1,000 bankruptcies were recorded. The figures for 1921 and 1922 give some indication of the trade depression of 1920 and 1921.

The proportion of creditors' petitions in 1922 was considerably greater than in the average of recent preceding years.

The figures given above and also further on in this section do not cover private assignments and compositions, particulars respecting such not being available.

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

Debtors are required to file a statement of the extent of their liabilities and assets, but there is often a marked difference between these statements and the amounts actually realized by the Official Assignee or the debts subsequently proved by creditors. It is the two latter sets of figures that really gauge the extent of financial embarrassment suffered in a community in a time of trade depression.

The following table shows for each of the last ten years the amount of assets as shown in debtors' statements and as realized by the Official Assignee, together with the amounts of debts proved and the amounts paid in dividends and preferential claims:—

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
  ££££
1913343155,58242,735228,82925,812
1914391174,41064,153199,25133,910
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
1916304123,44156,416172,77429,223
1917265138,69663,645178,24427,405
191816450,35667,72988,60733,176
191914143,62754,62259,76724,980
192014444,02647,89777,75245,228
1921336362,60178,271558,50438,646
1922690344,861126,145834,35663,009

The debts proved in respect of bankruptcies during 1922 (£834,356) are almost 50 per cent. greater than the corresponding amount for 1921, which in its turn is more than double the figure for any previous year. Over the whole period covered by the table above, the amounts paid in dividends and preferential claims represented only 14 per cent. of the total debts proved, and 55 per cent. of the amounts realized by the Official Assignees. The total payments made from the assets realized in 1922 were—

 £
Dividends to creditors (excluding preferential and secured claims)52,485
Preferential claims (rents, wages, &c.)10,524
Secured claims14,626
Government commission5,211
Costs of actions, solicitors' and supervisors' fees6,225
Expenses incurred in carrying on estates16,390
Other charges6,432
Total£111,893

Balances in bank to the credit of estates aggregated £48,262 on 31st December, 1922, an increase of £14,253 during the year.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMOUNT OF LIABILITIES.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the number of bankruptcies of various amounts of liabilities:—

Liabilities.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Under £50557720
£50-£1002516172241
£100-£25039462972148
£250-£50046334374136
£500-£1,00029242864158
£1,000-£2,0009131357107
£2,000-£5,0008462250
£5,000 and over1..11728
Not stated2....12
Totals164141144336690

The increase in the last two years is proportionally greater in the case of amounts over £1,000 than where the liabilities were under that amount.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS.

The following table shows in summarized form the occupations of those adjudged bankrupt in the last five years:—

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS, 1918-22.
Class of Occupation.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Professional7951012
Domestic15852025
Commercial33192672153
Transport and communication1114132645
Industrial60575499188
Agriculture and pastoral33282393218
Other primary pursuits21425
Dependants....327
Indefinite35111237
Totals164141144336690

The increase in 1921 and 1922 over previous years is common to all classes, but is most pronounced in the farming and commercial groups. The large number of failures in the farming community may be attributed to the low prices obtained for primary products during a period of depression following so shortly after the inflation of land-values. Of the 690 bankrupts in 1922, 416 had been in business on their own account, 127 were employers of labour, and 147 were persons working for salary or wages.

The “indefinite" class shown in the table is largely composed of Maoris whose occupations are not returned. Thirty-four Maoris are included in the total for 1922.

Chapter 32. SECTION XXXII.—WEALTH AND INCOMES.

PRIVATE WEALTH.

ESTIMATES of the private wealth of the Dominion are arrived at on the assumption that the wealth per head of the living is approximately equal to that left by the average person dying. The fact that the younger and more numerous members of the population do not possess as much accumulated wealth as the older members, taken in conjunction with the fact that the death-rate varies with age, renders it necessary for this purpose to divide the population into quinquennial age-groups. The average wealth of persons dying within any one age-group being known, the average wealth of living persons belonging to that age-group is assumed to be identical, and an estimate of the total private wealth of the Dominion is arrived at by weighting the average wealth of persons in each age-group by the number of persons in that group.

The actual average wealth of deceased persons is obtained by a consideration of the estates certified for stamp duty. For each person whose estate is dealt with by the Stamp Duties Department a return is forwarded to the Census and Statistics Office showing name, date of death, amount of estate certified, and age. The few instances where the ages of deceased persons are not ascertainable are allocated to each age-group in proportion to its contribution to the total.

If the period under review be short, the infrequency of the appearance of large estates may occasion from time to time large discrepancies in the results according as many or few large estates appear in the returns. Matters are further complicated by the fact that from six to twelve months usually elapse after the date of death before the estate is finally certified, with the result that an abnormal number of deaths towards the end of any one year may swell the number of deaths for the year without affecting the number of estates certified, thus bringing about a fictitiously low average wealth of deceased persons for that year and a fictitiously high average wealth for the following year. The epidemic of influenza in the last quarter of 1918 produced just this effect. For these reasons it is desirable to extend the estimate over a series of years and strike an average. In the 1919 and previous issues of the Year-book an average extending over ten years was taken, but with the rapid increase of values during the last few years so long a period yields an artificial estimate, and in this issue an average is taken over the years 1917-21.

It has been found that the number of estates dealt with in any period is usually equal to about one-third only of the total deaths registered during that period: and as most persons leave some estate, however small, it is necessary to make some allowance for estates which have not passed through the Stamp Duties Office. It should be noted in this connection that up to 1920, estates below £500 were exempt from estate duty, and if under £200, from succession duty also. Since 1920 the exemptions have been widened somewhat, and now estates under £1,000 escape estate duty, and if under £500, succession duty. In many cases, however, estates of a lower value than the figures indicated are passed for probate or letters of administration. The method formerly adopted of making a proportionate allowance of 10 per cent. for all unrecorded estates involved a slight weakness, in that it gave too low an amount for persons dying at early ages and too high an amount for persons dying at advanced ages, so that, while these factors balanced each other and did not affect very appreciably the total result, it has been deemed better, in order to ensure closer accuracy, to make a fixed allowance, increasing from £20 for the age-group 15 to 20 years to £100 at ages 35 to 40 and over. In such case no distinction is made between the wealth of males and that of females. It has been found that the average for males is generally much higher than that for females; and it would appear that slightly greater accuracy still would be obtained by treating the estates of the two sexes separately, making a fixed allowance for unrecorded estates ranging from £30 for males and £10 for females for the age-group 15 to 20 years to £150 for males and £50 for females at ages 35 to 40 and over. No allowance at all is made for estates of persons under 15. The following tables illustrate the results of the two methods:—

ESTIMATED PRIVATE WEALTH, 1922.
(a.) Both Sexes taken together.
Age, in Years.Number of Estates certified, 1917-22.Total Amount, including Allowance for Unrecorded Estates.Number of Deaths registered, 1917-22.Average Wealth per Person dying.Estimated Population, 31st December, 1922.Estimated Private Wealth, 31st December, 1922.
  £ £ £
Under 5104,27310,9290.3909131,31451,330
5 and under 10139,9581,5826.2946133,957843,206
10 and under 15145,2741,0405.0712127,228645,198
15 and under 207458,1221.54937.5223113,2094,247,863
20 and under 251,278774,4472,151360.0404101,48336,537,980
25 and under 301,9451,429,6882,957483.492796,12546,475,736
30 and under 352,0462,238,0333,407656.892696,30363,260,729
35 and under 401,9982,633,0663,739704.216697,08668,369,573
40 and under 451,7532,977,0433,455861.662294,75581,646,802
45 and under 501,7103,535,0823,5191,004.570073,87774,214,618
50 and under 551,8804,976,6853,6481,364.222861.12883,392,211
55 and under 601,9515,601,7963,6111,551.31434367,479,069
60 and under 652,2887,044,4324,3891,605.019833,06553,069,979
65 and under 702,6768,796,4015,0901,728.173126,11145,124,328
70 and under 752,85510,146,7465,4461,863.155717,01931,709,047
75 and under 803,06212,931,4776,1502,102.679110,76122,620,930
80 and under 852,3699,677,9375,0221,927.10815,76511,109,778
85 and under 901,0845,453,9782,8271,929.24582,1824,209,614
90 and under 952821,134,0157461,520.1273456693,178
95 and over72312,1062111,479.175475110,938
Totals29,36079,740,55971,468..1,265,397695,818,107
(b.) Sexes taken separately.
MALES.
 £ £ £ 
Under 571+8846,1050.308667,06620,696
5 and under 1076,8658657.936468,101540,477
10 and under 1572,6125774.526964,710292,936
15 and under 205847,83183957.009557,4293,273,999
20 and under 251,216711,0461,123633.166551,24632,447,250
25 and under 301,7491,211,5951,499808.268845,45136,736,625
30 and under 351,8001,990,2081,9241,034.411646,93748,552,177
35 and under 401,6292,231,2282,1821,022.560949,13050,238,417
40 and under 451,3212,583,4632,0471,262.072749,25462,162,139
45 and under 501,2012,904,5582,1441,354.737939,09752,966,188
50 and under 551,2063,833,3382,0831,840.296732,91260,567,855
55 and under 601,2364,534,4872,0992,160.308223,13949,987,371
60 and under 651,4805,729,1592,5842,217.166817,45338,696,212
65 and under 701,7637,105,1713,0452,333.389514,15933,038,462
70 and under 751,8748,150,1043,1392,596.40149,12723,697,356
75 and under 801,96910,621,9273,5283,010.75035,68317,110,094
80 and under 851,6228,150,0683,0062,711.26683,1828,627,251
85 and under 907614,824,1161,6932,849.44831,1623,311,059
90 and under 95173730,7353951,849.9620250462,490
95 and over38258,9961022,539.17653691,410
Totals for males21,11765,629,39140,979..645,524522,820,464
FEMALES.
 £ £ £ 
Under 532+3894,8240.495264,24831,816
5 and under 1063,0937174.313865,856284,089
10 and under 1572,6624635.749562,518359,447
15 and under 201611,16171015.719755,780876,845
20 and under 256247,8011,02846.499050,2372,335,970
25 and under 30196195,2331,458133.904750,6746,785,487
30 and under 35246203,3051,483137.090449,3666,767,605
35 and under 40369370,0881,557237.693047,95611,398,806
40 and under 45432381,0801,408270.653445,50112,315,000
45 and under 50509634,3741,375461.362934,78016,046,202
50 and under 556741,142,6471,565730.125928,21620,601,232
55 and under 607151,070,6091,512708.074720,35914,415,693
60 and under 658081,320,6231,805731.647115.61211,422,475
65 and under 709131,698,7302,045830.674811,9529,928,225
70 and under 759811,993,5922,307864.14917,8926,819,865
75 and under 801,0932,311,0502,622881.40735,0784,475,786
80 and under 857471,533,6192,016760.72372,5831,964,949
85 and under 90323635,9121,134560.76891,020571,984
90 and under 95109402,2803511,146.0969206236,096
95 and over3443,920109402.93583915,714
Totals for females8,24314,004,16830,489..619,873127,653,286
Grand totals29,36079,633,55971,468..1,265,397650,473,750

It is seen that under method (a) the estimated private wealth of the Dominion at the 31st December, 1922, was £695,818,107, and under method (b) £650,473,750, which may be taken as the more correct figure. The discrepancy of £45,344,357 between the two amounts is due to the fact that practically three-quarters of the estates dealt with during the period belonged to males, and. the average wealth per male being higher than that per female, it follows that under the first method the estimated wealth of the whole population will tend to be somewhat overstated. The estimated wealth per head of the whole population was £514, and per of persons of twenty years and over (practically the adult population) £856.

An estimate of the private wealth in 1914, taking an average over the years 1908-14, shows £285,485,829: but in this instance the now-abandoned 10-per-cent. method referred to at the beginning of this section was used. This fact, however, does not vitiate the figures to any great extent for comparative purposes. The enormous increase of over £300,000,000 must not be taken as an indication that the private wealth of the Dominion has more than doubled during the war period. Increase of value as measured in money is possible without increase of wealth, and it would appear that the inflation of the currency is, in a measure, accountable for the wide disparity between the two estimates. At the same time it cannot be overlooked that the figures reflect, largely, the prosperity of the country for the period under review.

A table is now given showing the number of estates finally passed during 1921 and 1922. classified according to amount. Estates of Maoris are included.

AmountNumber of Estates.Aggregate Net Value of Estates.
1921.1922.1921.1922.
£         £  ££
Under 5002,6052,190503,445444,941
500 and under 1,000978828700,756597,984
1,000 and under 2,0007317481,046,4001,066,542
2,000 and under 3,000376366923,277895,700
3,000 and under 4,000207243718,623844,772
4,000 and under 5,000131145592,693651,914
5,000 and under 7,5002272191,376,1901,346,210
7,500 and under 10,0001281291,108,7901,143,520
10,000 and under 15,0001131191,338,3601,452,792
15,000 and under 20,0004848833,970841,305
20,000 and over1231225,709,9665,824,652
Totals5,6675,15714,852,47015,110,332

INCOMES.

The total number of income-tax payers in 1920-21 was 44,597, and the net assessed income of these, including exemptions, amounted to £48,606,887. Information as to the numbers and incomes of taxpayers coming within various categories, and classified further according to income, is given in the following tables:—

NUMBER AND INCOMES OF INCOME-TAX PAYERS, 1920-21.
Net Income.Salaried Persons.Traders, Manufacturers, and Business Men.Professional Persons.Landowners.Other (Investments, Trusts, &c).Total.
Persons and Firms.Registered Companies.Nonresident Traders.
Numbers.
£     £        
0- 6505+8876,4188124761,2497,4536,78729,082
650- 75040276256211569766192,992
750- 85021753764101305414301,929
850- 9009125329562331202973
900- 1,000882875213712862741,071
1,000- 1,5003181,087253712411,1247913,885
1,500- 2,00012541815913993153321,461
2,000- 3,000933432329663102901,343
3,000- 4,00032164117622119157617
4,000- 7,000181261821124130150641
7,000-10,00093688222447208
10,000 and over335273..73938395
Totals7,28310,4662,3176372,12911,64810,11744,597
Incomes.
£     £££££££££
0-     6502,451,5022,800,079292,926130,484546,8043,160,8432,435,47111,818,109
650-     750279,999528,59639,17314,492109,520683,702431,8222,087,304
750-     850172,777427,40550,3438,062103,770433,170342,4091,537,936
850-     90080,715223,37825,5124,35954,825292,115176,192857,096
900-     1,00084,178269,90949,64812,31267,455261,836259,6991,008,037
1,000-     1,500389,1861,310,263312,05282,820289,9911,363,497970,6734,718,482
1,500-     2,000211,281709,874277,51822,856172,765547,379573,0202,514,693
2,000-     3,000224,024814,110570,39421,169159,878737,877690,0133,217,465
3,000-     4,000106,996561,686403,83421,03176,204406,632539,3522,115,735
4,000-     7,00096,199636,007932,44361,931120,059668,056782,0713,296,766
7,000-10,00072,560300,470741,77914,61617,358194,211387,4961,728,490
10,000 and over32,050660,25811,645,551..152,554600,459615,90213,706,774
Totals4,201,4679,242,03515,341,173394,1321,871,1839,352,7778,204,12048,606,887

It is evident that the class composed of traders, manufacturers, and business men constitutes the most important section of income-tax payers, the income amounting to a little more than one-half of the total. It is interesting to note that within the class itself registered companies earn three-fifths of the income of the class, and of that income three-fourths belongs to companies with incomes of over £10,000 a year. Over half the assessable income of salaried persons paying income-tax pertains to the £650-and-under category, while in the case of landowners and the professional class the income is more evenly distributed throughout the various income groups.

Tables are given below in respect of each class of income-tax payers, showing the number of such payers and the amount of assessable income for the year 1917-18 as compared with 1920-21. Owing to an alteration in the method of classifying incomes, the figures for previous years are, for the greater part, not comparable with those given, and consequently have been omitted. The total assessable income, however, for 1914-15 was £13,850,261, as compared with £36,645,373 for 1917-18 and £48,606,887 for 1920-21. The number of taxpayers for the same years was 13,967, 37,949, and 44,597 respectively. The tremendous increase in the amount since 1914-15 is due in a large measure to currency inflation arising out of war conditions.

Comparative tables for 1917-18 and 1920-21 are now appended. Those interested in earlier years are referred to pages 823-8 of the 1915 issue of this publication. where a comprehensive treatment is given.

SALARIED AND PROFESSIONAL PERSONS PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income.1917-18.1920-21.
Number.Net Assessable Income.Number.Net Assessable. Income.
Salaried Persons.
£     £ £ £
0-     6507,1632,573,5105,8872,451,502
650-     750271189,984402279,999
750-     850172137,157217172,777
850-     9008372,8249180,715
900-     1,0008984,9898884,178
1,000-     1,500175212,946318389,186
1,500-     2,00068107,620125211,281
2,000-     3,0003072,47093224,024
3,000-     4,000723,44632106,996
4,000-     7,0001048,2841896,199
7,000-10,000215,560972,560
10,000 and over....332,050
Totals8,0703,538,7907,2834,201,467
Professional Persons.
£     £ £ £
0-     6501,581691,4301,249546,804
650-     750205141,817156109,520
750-     850166134,663130103,770
850-     9006254,4516254,825
900-     1,0009087,1967167,455
1,000-     1,500228277,618241289,991
1,500-     2,00098173,74799172,765
2,000-     3,00070159,18466159,878
3,000-     4,0002376,1632276,204
4,000-     7,0001153,20224120,059
7,000-10,000216,749217,358
10,000 and over117,5907152,554
Totals2,5371,883,8102,1291,871,183
TRADERS, MANUFACTURERS, AND BUSINESS MEN PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income.1917-18.1920-21.
Number.Net Assessable Income.Number.Net Assessable Income.
(a.) Persons and Firms.
£     £ £ £
0-     6505+2452,263,6166,4182,800,079
650-     750510356,221762528,596
750-     850384306,343537427,405
850-     900166146,763253223,378
900-     1,000200191,123287269,909
1,000-     1,500558694,2751,0871,310,263
1,500-     2,000230409,018418709,874
2,000-     3,000178423,100343814,110
3,000-     4,00073250,916164561,686
4,000-     7,00064338,505126636,007
7,000-     10,00013112,25136300,470
10,000 and over16234,90435660,258
Totals7,6375,727,03510,4669,242,035
(b.) Registered Companies.
£     £ £ £
0-     650864218,301812292,926
650-     7506545,7035639,173
750-     8505846,0976450,343
850-     9003127,1922925,512
900-     1,0007168,7275249,648
1,000-     1,500176218,867253312,052
1,500-     2,000105184,961159277,518
2,000-     3,000137335,413232570,394
3,000-     4,00078268,424117403,834
4,000-     7,000128670,093182932,443
7,000-10,00056474,00788741,779
10,000 and over1767,091,38527311,645,551
Totals1,9459,649,1702,31715,341,173
(c.) Non-resident Traders.
£     £ £ £
0-     65019270,008476130,484
650-     75096,1522114,492
750-     85064,822108,062
850-     90054,40454,359
900-     1,00032,9111312,312
1,000-     1,5001417,1537182,820
1,500-     2,00046,8491322,856
2,000-     3,000614,533921,169
3,000-     4,00013,936621,031
4,000-     7,000417,9131161,931
7,000-10,000137,313214,616
10,000 and over........
Totals245185,994637394,132

NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK.

LANDOWNERS PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income.1917-18.1920-21.
Number.Net Assessable Income.Number.Net Assessable Income.
£     £ £ £
0-     6507+9053+360,8827,4533,160,843
650-     750895601,092976683,702
750-     850596477,834541433,170
850-     900276243,513331292,115
900-     1,000349333,549286264,836
1,000-     1,5001,0781,314,8281,1241,363,497
1,500-     2,000474825,247315547,379
2,000-     3,0004311,028,300310737,877
3,000-     4,000199684,843119406,632
4,000-     7,000184946,185130668,056
7,000-10,00086722,86824194,211
10,000 and over751,347,81739600,459
Totals12,54811,886,95811,6489,352,777
OTHER (INCOME FROM TRUSTS, INVESTMENTS, ETC.
Net Income.1917-18.1920-21.
Number.Net Assessable Income.Number.Net Assessable Income.
£     £ £ £
0-     6503,3711,127,9436,7872,435,471
650-     750343176,705619431,822
750-     850213166,873430342,409
850-     9008574,695202176,192
900-     1,000128124,166274259,699
1,000-     1,500379459,808791970,673
1,500-     2,000127218,347332573,020
2,000-     3,000152365,109290690,013
3,000-     4,00054184,244157539,352
4,000-     7,00068351,101150782,071
7,000-10,00026210,28747387,496
10,000 and over21314,33838615,902
Totals4,9673,773,61610,1178,204,120

During the three years the most noteworthy changes occurred in the traders, manufacturers, and business-men class, the assessable income of persons and firms having increased by over three millions, and that of registered companies by over five millions, while the amount more than doubled in the case of non-resident traders.

Chapter 33. SECTION XXXIII.—PRICES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE investigation of price-changes was undertaken by the Statistical Office of New Zealand early in 1914. Retail prices were collected and tabulated for each year since 1891, and the results of the inquiry, together with a full discussion of the method adopted, were published in the “Report on the Cost of Living in New Zealand, 1891-1914.” Since that date price quotations and index numbers have been continued—first in the Journal of the Department of Labour, and latterly in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

In 1920 the Census and Statistics Office issued its second report, “Prices: An Inquiry into Prices in New Zealand, 1891—1919.” The scope of this inquiry was wider than that of the previous one, and covered retail, wholesale, producers', and export prices. Retail prices especially are given prominence in this volume, and by means of graphs and extensive tables of index numbers as well as actual prices price-movements during the period under review can easily be followed.

Retail-price quotations, upon which index numbers are regularly calculated, are collected each month in twenty-five towns of the Dominion, which were selected as being representative of New Zealand as a whole. These twenty-five towns are distributed over both Islands, from Whangarei in the North to Invercargill in the South, and represent coastal and inland districts and large and small centres. Returns of prices are collected by the local Inspector of Factories from representative retailers, and index numbers are computed in the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. The average prices for each town are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics at the end of each quarter, while index numbers appear in each month's issue.

The commodities considered are almost exclusively articles of food, divided into three groups — groceries, dairy-produce, and meat. Figures regarding house-rents and fuel and lighting are also given. The full list of commodities is as follows:—

Group I: Groceries.—Bread, flour, oatmeal, rice, sago, tapioca, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, salt, pepper, jam, honey, golden syrup, treacle, raisins, currants, tinned apricots, tinned peaches, tinned pears, prunes, dried apricots, potatoes, onions, tinned salmon, tinned herrings, starch, blue, soap, tobacco.

Group II: Dairy-produce.—Milk, butter, cheese, eggs, bacon (shoulder and middle cut), ham.

Group III: Meat.— Beef: Sirloin, brisket, prime ribs, rump steak, top side, stewing-steak, corned round, corned roll, corned brisket. Mutton: Leg, shoulder, loin, neck, chops. Pork: Leg, loin, belly, chops. Sausages: Beef, pork. Tripe.

Group IV: Housing.—House-rent.

Group V: Fuel and Light.—Coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas (for lighting), electricity (for lighting), candles.

RETAIL FOOD-PRICES, 1922.

So far as the following tables are concerned, it is necessary to explain that in order that the index numbers for the smaller centres may be comparable with the index numbers given for the four chief centres for past years the same “base" has been retained throughout—viz., the “annual aggregate expenditure” in the four chief centres for the five years 1909-13.

The quarterly index numbers given in the following pages are based on the average prices of the three months in the quarter, so that they may differ materially from the prices current at the end of the quarter. In comparing different quarters consideration must be given to the influence of seasonal fluctuations in price and consumption of some commodities, including such important articles as milk, butter, potatoes, and eggs.

The tables are comparable both horizontally and vertically, since each column has the same base. Horizontally they show variations in time, vertically variations according to locality.

INDEX NUMBERS FOR EACH QUARTER OF 1922, AND AVERAGE OF THE FOUR QUARTERS OF 1922 AND 1921, FOR TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Town.First Quarter, 1922.Second Quarter, 1922.Third Quarter, 1922.Fourth Quarter, 1922.Average of Four Quarters, 1922.Average of Four Quarters, 1921.
Group I.—Groceries.
Auckland187017961751171917841951
Wellington192418301772175018192,004
Christchurch188417651718171017691973
Dunedin185417661734177617831975
Whangarei2,05419861963193719852,151
Hamilton199119591920187119352,056
Rotorua2,1372,0652,03119742,0522,205
Waihi194019141902188719112,006
Gisborne2,02319681979193819772,168
Napier190018421794178118292,012
Dannevirke195618581812183218652,102
New Plymouth193718411821177518441918
Wanganui178617511764168217461895
Taihape2,0782,024195919442,0012,127
Palmerston North179917641769173717671980
Masterton195519061830182618792,087
Blenheim2,06819281924189019532,155
Nelson198219161893187619172,049
Greymouth189618431838178718411983
Ashburton184617711699167317471968
Timaru191718061772172918061981
Oamaru2,01118531797182618722,012
Alexandra2,09819501934191619752,232
Gore2,03218301825183018792,115
Invercargill196418891892192319172,018
Dominion weighted average189718121774175718101988
Group II.—Dairy-produce.
Auckland145514771472142114561906
Wellington145516291553136815011891
Christchurch129114971486142414251730
Dunedin131014461476135713971814
Whangarei138815201521145814721870
Hamilton138414631469140314301804
Rotorua146614761546147614911866
Waihi143314931487140114541779
Gisborne148314671517146214821919
Napier122814831428135413731781
Dannevirke144916231440134314641831
New Plymouth146415821497141814901843
Wanganui128814751436137613941742
Taihape146516821678149715811885
Palmerston North115813701376122212821807
Masterton126115161493125513811794
Blenheim143315731533147115031841
Nelson147716441577147515431831
Greymouth146115721559150015231925
Ashburton134814871475136214181775
Timaru132315831580151114991776
Oamaru131615121496142114361807
Alexandra138915391486137814481797
Gore128514321412135413711796
Invercargill130914131548148814401871
Dominion weighted average137715091494140014451838
Group III.—Meat.
Auckland112611371154116111451384
Wellington118012101174116811831337
Christchurch134913311299131613241469
Dunedin123112211232125512351485
Whangarei125512511229120912361435
Hamilton113811261095115511291375
Rotorua129612191137113911981498
Waihi126711381224123812171504
Gisborne119911891078103611261384
Napier10941153103396210611281
Dannevirke10801106982100010421204
New Plymouth139313901321134913631544
Wanganui116912251102107511431350
Taihape121012681125125312141330
Palmerston North121012321193122012141343
Masterton111111961234125611991347
Blenheim130413591270131713131398
Nelson142214131501143014421537
Greymouth146414591471146714651639
Ashburton127912831365141513361471
Timaru137813871387138313841545
Oamaru122312021147117911881439
Alexandra127812531251129812701524
Gore118811531165121211801408
Invercargill106810541058112010751349
Dominion weighted average121412201201120912111410
Groups I-III.—Food Groups.
Auckland152014981483146014901747
Wellington156215721517146315291751
Christchurch156415551521151015381745
Dunedin151615061503150115071771
Whangarei162716281611157816111842
Hamilton156015601534151915431766
Rotorua169516401614157416311886
Waihi159315521575155315681783
Gisborne161715861565152115721844
Napier146915241450140314621710
Dannevirke154015481443143514921733
New Plymouth164216271575154715981773
Wanganui146115081463140414591674
Taihape164016871610160516361799
Palmerston North145014911482144214661723
Masterton150715741549149915321767
Blenheim166016521611159816301824
Nelson167416821686163116681825
Greymouth164816491648161116391853
Ashburton153715391533151315311754
Timaru159616111596156115911785
Oamaru158115521506151215381769
Alexandra165416171598158116131891
Gore157115071505150915231800
Invercargill150714941528154815191756
Dominion weighted average154315401514148815211756

Food-prices show a gradual decline during the year 1922, the Dominion index number for the three food groups having fallen from 1543 in the March quarter to 1488 in the December quarter of that year; the index numbers for the June and September quarters being 1540 and 1514 respectively. In thirteen out of the twenty-five towns the index numbers for the June quarter show an increase over those for the March quarter, the combined effect of these increases with the decreases in other towns being a fall of 3 points in the Dominion index number. From the June quarter to the December quarter a steady fall has been recorded in the index numbers for twenty-three of the twenty-five towns; the exceptions being Nelson and Invercargill, where the index numbers for the September quarter show increases of 4 points and 34 points respectively over those for the June quarter. Without exception, the average index numbers for 1922 show decreases as compared with those for 1921. Nelson shows the highest average index number for the year, and Wanganui the lowest.

The index numbers for the groceries group in the various towns have fallen continuously throughout the year, those for the December quarter being in every case lower than those for the March quarter; while the average index numbers for the year 1922 are in all cases lower than those for 1921.

While the Dominion index number for the dairy-products group is considerably lower for the year 1922 than for 1921, the fall in this group is not as regular as that in the groceries group. The index numbers for the June quarter are considerably higher than those for the March quarter—due to the seasonal fluctuation in the prices of milk, butter, eggs, &c. From the June quarter to the December quarter a gradual fall is noticed; but, in the case of several towns, the index number for the December quarter is still higher than that for the March quarter, the Dominion index number for the December quarter showing an increase of 23 points over that for the March quarter, when prices were lower than in any subsequent quarter.

The fall in meat-prices took place very early in the year, as was the case in the prices of dairy-products. The Dominion index number for the meat group in the March quarter was 196 points lower than the average for the year 1921, but the index numbers for the succeeding quarters (1220, 1201, 1209) vary very little from those for the first quarter.

HOUSE-RENT, 1922.

The cost of housing is an important item in the expenditure of the majority of families, and to obtain a record of fluctuations in this cost may be regarded as essential to a reasonably complete treatment of the subject of “cost of living.” An attempt has accordingly been made to trace the movement of house-rents over a period of years, on the grounds that house-rentals provide a reasonably accurate indication of housing-costs in general, not only for those classes of persons who may be paying rent, but also for those who own or partially own the dwellings they occupy.

By reason of the fact that leases, infrequent changes of residence, and the difficulty of departing from customary rents all tend to make the movement of the general level of rents comparatively slow, it is not necessary to attempt to measure the changes over short periods. The data from which the rent figures given hereafter have been compiled are collected each half-year, in the months of February and August. Figures quoted in reference to rent for the first two quarters of the year are therefore based upon the data obtained in February, and those for the last two quarters on the data obtained in August.

It is advisable to specially mention that the index numbers in respect of rent indicate the movement in the average rentals of a large number of houses, and that they do not purport to convey any statement as to the price at which housing-accommodation may be obtained from time to time. During the last two or three years the exceptional demand for housing-accommodation, accompanied by restrictive legislation against advancement of house-rents, has caused a wide disparity between the rentals of houses which have been let for some time and the rents charged to the new occupants of houses being relet. In so far as the number of “relettings" is relatively small, there has not been the substantial advance in house-rents which might be gathered from an inspection of the prices charged for the occupancy of houses falling vacant.

Latterly an insecurity of tenancy, which is due largely to a severe housing-shortage and the statutory rent-restriction, has led to the purchase of an abnormal number of houses by persons formerly content to remain tenants. In the normal course of events it is the newer and better-class dwelling that has been purchased, thus leaving an unduly large proportion of older and lower-rented dwellings to be covered by the statistical inquiry. The effect of this is to artificially retard the rise of the house-rent index.

AVERAGE RENTS IN THE FOUR CENTRES, 1922.
House ofAuckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.
February.August.February.August.February.August.February.August.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
4 rooms148 1/2154 1/2150 3/4155 1/2140 1/4133128124 3/4
5 rooms193202 1/2203 1/4214183 1/2190 1/41510165 1/2
6 rooms230250 1/22510 1/4267265 3/4265 1/2216 3/4221
7 rooms298 1/43110 3/4322 1/4330 3/43022810 1/4262 1/42711 3/4
HOUSE-RENT.—TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS.
Index Numbers for 1921 and 1922 for House-rent in Twenty-five Towns.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Town.February, 1921.August, 1921.Average for 1921.February, 1922.August, 1922.Average for 1922.
Auckland125012961273130113871344
Wellington130113701336140114501426
Christchurch118213301256133813311335
Dunedin103210821057114111741158
Whangarei102211821102124814041326
Hamilton182217251774189518401868
Rotorua121014121311140114661434
Waihi683733708811785798
Gisborne123913281284140214131408
Napier116612051186123512381237
Dannevirke91811681043135513431349
New Plymouth117812801232134914731411
Wanganui122113161269133014411386
Taihape126913441307137513941385
Palmerston North122013641292134514621404
Masterton112411991162118512131199
Blenheim9051046976115613021229
Nelson94196995598210191001
Greymouth685758722760743752
Ashburton96211261044119111961194
Timaru100911621086122212501236
Oamaru8021037920105911951127
Alexandra676672674817737777
Gore100310181011104310601052
Invercargill95410731014116112001181
Dominion weighted average117612651221129713441321

A noteworthy feature of the statistics of house-rent disclosed by the foregoing table is the position occupied by Hamilton, where in 1922 rents were much higher even than in Wellington.

DOMINION INDEX NUMBERS, 1922.

To obtain a general estimate of the course of prices for the whole Dominion it has been necessary to obtain a weighted average of the index numbers for each town. It is obvious that it would not be strictly correct to obtain a simple average of the prices in Alexandra, with a population of a few hundreds, and in Auckland, with a population of over 150,000. Prices in each town have therefore been weighted in accordance with the number of people concerned, and a composite index number has been obtained, which, though artificial, represents the average level of retail prices in the Dominion.

The twenty-five towns considered have a total population of approximately half that of New Zealand, and they are therefore fully representative of the Dominion. The four chief centres, which include a third of the Dominion's population, account for about 70 per cent. of the population of the twenty-five towns, so that their influence in the Dominion index number is naturally predominating. This, however, is justifiable, since the chief centres not only comprise a great part of the people of the Dominion, but also set the standard which is generally followed throughout the country. The Dominion weighted index numbers obtained are shown in the table below:—

Group.First Quarter, 1922.Second Quarter, 1922.Third Quarter, 1922.Fourth Quarter, 1922.Average of Four Quarters, 1922.Average of Four Quarters, 1921.
* Average of four chief centres.
Groceries189718121774175718101988
Dairy-produce137715091494140014451838
Meat121412201201120912111410
Three food groups154315401514148815211756
House-rent129712971344134413211221
Food and rent145614541454143714501566
Fuel and light*2,00719341863183219092,059
Food, rent, and fuel and light151515051498147914991619

The following table gives a comparison between price-levels during 1922 in the four chief centres and in the twenty-one smaller towns from which information is collected:—

Group.Weighted Average of Four Chief Centres, (a.)Weighted Average of Twenty-one Smaller Centres. (b.)Excess of (a) over (b).
* Excess of (b) over (a).
Groceries17891860-71*
Dairy-produce1450143317
Meat140914072
Three food groups17511763-12*
House-rent1331129535
Food and rent14491453-4*

These figures indicate that there is no very considerable difference between the general level of food-prices in the four chief cities and in the average of the twenty-one smaller centres, higher grocery-prices in the small towns being to some extent offset by lower prices for dairy-produce. House accommodation, however, as may be expected, is considerably cheaper in the country towns than in the more closely populated cities.

PURCHASING-POWER OF MONEY, 1922.

An alternative statement of the difference in price-levels as between each of the twenty-five towns considered is given in the next table. Similar figures may easily be compiled for the various quarters by working from the index numbers and equating 1000 to 20s. The purchasing-power of money in the average of the five years 1909-13 in the four centres is taken as the base and equated to 20s., the indices being worked out proportionately. The amounts displayed in the table may be compared vertically but not horizontally, since the various groups have different bases.

AMOUNT REQUIRED TO PURCHASE IN TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS IN 1922 WHAT WOULD HAVE COST 20S. IN THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1909-13.
Town.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Auckland358 1/4291 3/42210 1/2299 1/22610 1/2
Wellington364 1/2300 1/4238306 3/4286 1/4
Christchurch354 1/2286265 3/4309268 1/2
Dunedin357 3/42711 1/4248 1/2301 3/4232
Whangarei398 1/2295 1/4248 3/4322 3/4266 1/4
Hamilton388 1/2287 1/42273010 1/4374 1/4
Rotorua410 1/2299 3/42311 1/2327 1/2288 1/4
Waihi382 1/2291244314 1/41511 1/2
Gisborne396 1/2298226 1/4315 1/4282
Napier367275 1/2212 1/2293249
Dannevirke373 1/2293 1/4201029102611 3/4
New Plymouth3610 1/4299 1/22733111 1/2282 3/4
Wanganui34112710 1/22210 1/4292 1/4278 3/4
Taihape400 1/4317 1/2243 1/4328 3/4278 1/2
Palmerston North354257 3/4243 1/4293 3/4281
Masterton377277 1/22311 3/4307 3/42311 3/4
Blenheim390 1/2300 3/4263327 1/4247
Nelson3843010 1/4289 3/4334 1/4200 1/4
Greymouth369 3/4305 1/2293 1/2329 1/4150 1/2
Ashburton3411 1/2284 1/4268 3/4307 1/22310 1/2
Timaru361 1/2305 1/4278 1/43111248 3/4
Oamaru375288 3/4239309226 1/2
Alexandra395 3/4293 1/2254 3/4323156 1/2
Gore377 1/2275237 1/4305 1/2210 1/2
Invercargill384289 1/4216304 1/2237 1/2
Dominion weighted average362 1/22811242 1/2305265

WAR INCREASES IN FOOD-PRICES.

The Monthly Abstract of Statistics published by the Census and Statistics Office gives each month the latest available information on the subject of war increases in food-prices. It is advisable to indicate shortly here the advance in prices in 1922 over those ruling at the outbreak of war.

INCREASE IN FOOD-PRICES BETWEEN 1914 AND 1922.
Group.First Quarter, 1922.Second Quarter, 1922.Third Quarter, 1922.Fourth Quarter, 1922.Average of Year 1922.
Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*
* Over July, 1914.
Groceries (index number, July, 1914: 1033)189782.67181275.51177471.73175770.09181075.31
Dairy-produce (index number, July, 1914: 1057)137730.27150942.76149441.34140032.45144536.71
Meat (index number, July, 1914: 1127)12147.7212208.2712016.5712097.2812117.45
Three food groups (index number, July, 1914:1070)154344.21154043.93151441.50148839.07152142.15

The accompanying diagram, showing the course of retail food-prices from July, 1914, to date, is of interest not only as indicating the monthly movement within each year, but as showing clearly the comparison of the movement between one year and another. The diagram strikingly illustrates the steady rate of increase during the war, the comparatively small increase in 1919, and the huge rise in 1920, followed by an even greater fall in 1921 and the earlier months of 1922, since when little movement has taken place.

RETAIL-PRICE MOVEMENTS, 1913-22.

The following general survey of the course of retail prices over a number of years has been brought up to date by the inclusion of the figures for 1922.

GROUP I.—GROCERIES.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1913—22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
19131064102996410361023*
1914103510821046105610551064
1915117212271210121912071206
1916119612691197119212141219
1917126813951279124812981305
1918146115791417150314901488
1919153516441530156015671570
1920189019911913190419251925
192119512,0041973197519761988
1922178418191769178317891810

The outstanding feature illustrated by this table is, of course, the substantial increase in prices since the outbreak of war—the indices for 1920 and 1921 representing the peak period in the movement of prices since 1913. It will be noticed that the index numbers for 1922 show a marked decrease as compared with those for the two previous years.

The influence which the index numbers of the four chief centres have on the Dominion weighted average index numbers is clearly seen in the table, which shows the comparatively small difference between the average index number for the four chief centres and that for the Dominion. This note is applicable in a varying degree to all the groups with the exception of Group V (Fuel and Light), for which no complete data are obtainable for the twenty-one minor centres.

The items grouped under the heading “Groceries" are varied in nature, and may be treated in three subgroups as under:—

  • Group Ia.—Groceries, excluding bread, flour, oatmeal, potatoes, onions, and sugar.

  • Group Ib.—Bread, flour, oatmeal, potatoes, and onions.

  • Group Ic.—Sugar.

The fundamental distinction is that the items comprising Group Ia are almost wholly imported from overseas, while those in the second are almost wholly produced in the country. Sugar is not strictly a product of New Zealand, the raw material being imported and refined in the Dominion, but it is such an important commodity that it has been deemed advisable to treat it separately.

GROUP IA.—GENERAL GROCERIES.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1913-22.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
19131014104696710891029
19149941097104711141063
19159891066111511321078
191610351121111511321101
191711711227120312191205
191813671493138814591427
191914881624154115901561
192018972,0372,0412,0322,002
192118501758184518801833
192217201745173918041752
GROUP IB.—BREAD, FLOUR, OATMEAL, POTATOES, AND ONIONS.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1913-22.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
1913110010269239571001
191411141173103310741098
191513641408129313561355
191613671416125212201314
191714301588135612491406
191816341733146315671599
191916651727154915511623
192017901834163616401725
192118721871179417321817
192217931830172017361770
GROUP IC.—SUGAR.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1913-22.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
19131117980107110941065
19149831055114510251052
191511911211129012281230
191612081310130412941279
191712191399134413541329
191812661428135914231369
191913141470144414971431
19202,1532,3382,3832,2852,290
19212,7812,8572,8752,9192,858
1922195519402,00518931948

The above figures show clearly that while imported items were principally responsible for the huge increase in the groceries index number for 1920, their influence largely neutralized the increases for the other sub-groups in 1921; while, in 1922, the rate of decrease of these items was considerably larger than that of commodities produced in the country.

GROUP IL.—DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The prices of commodities included in the dairy-produce group have shown an almost continuous increase since 1891—an increase which during the war period has been considerably accelerated. The greatest increase was disclosed in the year 1920, the increase in 1921 over that year being small in comparison with that in 1920 over 1919. In the year 1922, however, a quite unprecedented decrease has been recorded, the unweighted average index number for the four chief centres having fallen 390 points.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1913-22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
191310281124100310441050*
1914101911141016106510541045
1915114011961133114611541153
1916128813501251126312881274
1917136214251318135113641353
1918144314761328143214201415
1919151815531434152915081504
1920177618001723176317661755
1921190618911730181418351838
1922145615011425139714451445

GROUP III.—MEAT.

The index numbers for the meat group show a steady increase up to 1920, but a considerable fall in the years 1921 and 1922. In previous years Wellington index numbers have been lower than those of the other three centres, but Auckland, which prior to 1921 had been considerably in advance of the other centres, was, in 1922, the lowest of the four centres.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1913-22. (Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)

Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
19131104113910349171047*
1914126611121027110311361142
1915129312051061119012201235
1916141312741191128313211348
1917150013801313141714371463
1918157514761449150715251545
1919159615041540158815741591
1920161115291607172716481657
1921138413371726148514191410
1922114511831324123512221211

THREE FOOD GROUPS COMBINED.

The index numbers given in the following table have been compiled from records of prices of the three separate food groups in such manner as to show the movement of the general level of food-prices, care being taken to give each group its due importance:—

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1913-22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
1913106910899959971037*
1914111011001044107410821087
1915120612161176119111971203
1916129112901249124412681276
1917136913971346132813601370
1918149615211438148814861491
1919155215751531156315551561
1920176917891806181117941794
1921174717511745177117541756
1922149015291538150715161521

It will be noted that food-prices in the four centres, as recorded by the above index numbers, move with considerable uniformity, although the extent of the movement varies as between the different cities.

In pre-war years food-prices were slightly higher in Auckland and Wellington than in the two southern centres, this being mainly due to the difference in prices of agricultural products (flour, oatmeal, &c.) and meat. The position has now been altered, Christchurch being the dearest of the four centres, and Dunedin having an index number only slightly lower than that of Wellington, and higher than that of Auckland.

GROUP IV.—HOUSE-RENT.

The following table brings into prominence the high level of weekly rentals in Wellington as compared with the other three centres. During the war period and for some years prior to 1914 the increase in house-rents in Wellington was such as to increase the disparity between the level of rents in that city and in the other three chief centres of the Dominion.

During the years 1919, 1920, and 1921 the disparity between the index numbers for Wellington and the other centres was somewhat lessened. All four cities showed a substantial increase in rents during 1922, the greatest movement being recorded by Dunedin, which, however, has still a much lower level of rents than the other three cities.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1913-22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
1913104411649379581026*
1914104411739619651036984
1915100511869679701032995
191698712169499651029987
1917977124096794510321005
191810051295100798410731033
191910441315105499211011062
1920115913181102100811471115
1921127313361256105712311221
1922134414261335115813161321

FOOD GROUPS AND RENT, 1913-22.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1913-22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
1913106111159749831033*
1914108711251015103510661050
1915113512011101111411381125
1916118612621144114011831173
1917123113391210119412441240
1918132014391281130613371326
1919137214831364136013951384
1920155316221556152615641553
1921157916031571151815681566
1922143814921466138314451450

The index numbers given in the preceding table show the movement of prices of food and of house-rents combined. These figures accordingly present concise information as to the movement in the cost of a substantial proportion of the ordinary domestic necessities—food and housing.

GROUP V.—FUEL AND LIGHT.

Considerable difficulties are met with in any attempt to follow accurately the course of prices in this group. It has, in fact, been impossible to settle on any list of commodities which were used during the period under review in anything approaching comparable proportions in the four chief centres. The comparative usages of electric light, gas, kerosene, and candles vary greatly even between the four centres. Coal, too, presents a difficulty for comparative purposes in the several different classes of coal commonly used in the different towns.

However, a small group of seven items—coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas for lighting, electricity for lighting, and candles—has been considered, and prices in the four chief centres have been collected for as many past years as possible. Complete index numbers for this group have been compiled for 1907 and subsequent years. Figures for the last ten years are given in the table below:—

Index Numbers of Costs of Fuel and Lighting (Group V) for Four Chief Centres, 1913-22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
1913928110111509601035
1914991115111629251057
1915991114611459651062
191611031203123010731152
191712861306146812141319
191813781408156913311422
191914971514170515041555
192018341873192818251865
19212,0422,0492,23419102,059
1922186419542,08717311909

Over the average of the four centres a considerable advance in the index numbers of this group has been noticeable. This movement is common to all four cities, and was particularly rapid as between 1916 and 1917, when the general index number increased by 173 points. There were further considerable increases during each of the next three years, and a record rise in 1920 as compared with 1919, followed by another substantial though comparatively smaller rise in 1921. In 1922, in common with food-prices, a decrease in fuel and light costs has been recorded as compared with 1921.

SUMMARY OF INDEX NUMBERS.

Index Numbers of Retail Prices of All Groups of Commodities for the Average of the Four Chief Centres, 1913-22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.Groups I-IV: Food and Rent.Group V: Fuel and Light.Groups I-V: Food, Rent, Fuel, and Light.
191310231050104710371026103310351034
191410551054113610821036106610571065
191512011154122211971032113810621130
191612141288132112681029118311521180
191712981364143713601032124413191251
191814901420152514861073133714221346
191915671508157415551101139515551411
192019251766164817941147156418651596
19216183514191754123115682,0591620
192217891445122215161316144519091494

The following table, which is based on the average of the index numbers of the four chief centres as set out in the preceding table, gives an indication (in money figures) of the extent to which prices have risen during the period 1913-22. The table shows the amount necessary, on the average, to purchase the same quantity of foodstuffs, house accommodation, and fuel and lighting as would have cost 20s. on the average in the four chief centres during the base period 1909-13.

Year.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.Groups I-IV: Food and Rent.Group V: Fuel and Light.Groups I-V: Food, Rent, Fuel, and Light.
NOTE.—These figures are comparable vertically but not horizontally.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
1913205 ½2102011 1/4209206 1/4208208 ½208 1/4
1914211 1/4211228 3/4217 3/4208 3/4213 3/4211 3/4213 ½
1915240 1/4231245 1/42311 1/4207 3/4229213227 1/4
1916243 1/4259265254 1/4207238230 ½237 1/4
19172511 ½273 1/4289272 ½207 3/42410 ½264 ½250 1/4
1918299 ½284 3/4306298 3/4215 ½269285 1/42611
1919314302315 3/4311 1/4220 1/42710 3/4311 1/4282 3/4
1920386353 3/43211 ½3510 ½2211 1/4313 1/4373 ½3111
1921396 1/4368 ½284 ½351247 ½314 1/4412 1/4324 3/4
1922359 1/42810 3/4245 1/4303 3/4263 3/42810 3/4382 1/42910 ½

The general increase in prices has materially reduced the purchasing-power of the sovereign, as is shown by the following table, which sets out the relative “worth" in terms of commodities (but stated for convenience in terms of money) represented by twenty shillings during the years 1913-22. The average “worth" in the years 1909-13 has been taken as a base and equated to 20s. The figures throughout are based on the average prices of the four chief centres.

Year.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.Groups I-IV: Food and Rent.Group V: Fuel and Light.Group I-V: Food, Rent, Fuel, and Light.
NOTE.—These figures are comparable vertically but not horizontally.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
1913196 1/2190 1/2191 1/4193 1/2196194 1/4194194
19141811 1/21811 3/4177 1/4185 3/4193 3/4189 1/41811189 1/4
1915167 3/4174164 1/2168 1/2194 1/21771810178 1/2
1916165 3/4156 1/2151 1/2159 1/4195 1/41610 3/4174 1/21611 1/2
19171551481311148 1/2194 1/21611521511 3/4
1918135141131 1/2135 1/2187 3/41411 1/2140 3/41410 1/4
1919129 1/4133 1/4128 1/21210 1/41821441210 1/4142
1920104 3/4114121 3/4111 3/4175 1/4129 1/2108 3/4126 1/2
1921101 1/21010 3/4141 1/4114 3/416312998 1/2124 1/4
1922112 1/41310164 1/2132 1/4152 1/41310105 3/4134 3/4

In the consideration of this table care must be taken that the figures are given their correct significance. In short, they represent—in money figures—the worth (or purchasing-power) of a sovereign expended in purchasing the commodities shown at the heads of the columns, as compared with twenty shillings of full purchasing-power in the average of the years 1909-13.

Another fact which must be noted is that the figures shown in this table will not rise or fall to equal extent with any movements shown in the index number, and the percentage rise or fall will not be the same both in this table and in the table of index numbers.

This may be explained by pointing out that an index number of 1333 would represent in the above table approximately 15s., 1000 being equal to 20s. In that case prices are 33 1/3 per cent. higher than previously: or, in other words, the sovereign will purchase only 75 per cent. of the amount of goods for which it could have been exchanged in the “base" period. It will accordingly be seen that the index number would reach 2000 before the purchasing - power of money fell another 5s.—i.e., from 15s. to 10s.—and would move as high as 4000 before the purchasing-power of the sovereign fell to 5s. On the other hand, a falling index number will move relatively less rapidly than would the corresponding figure indicating the increasing purchasing-power of the sovereign.

CONSIDERATION OF CLOTHING AND MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS.

In its official inquiries into the movement of retail prices the Census and Statistics Office has, up to the present time, restricted its activities to the compilation of index numbers of retail prices of food, fuel and light, and movements in house-rents, and only these groups are dealt with in the foregoing pages. The Arbitration Court, however, empowered by section 18 of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act of 1918 to adjust, in accordance with movements in the cost of living, the wages paid to workers under the awards of the Court, requested the Census and Statistics Office to obtain for the Court's guidance data regarding movements in the retail prices of clothing and miscellaneous items of household expenditure. In accordance with this request information has been obtained respecting the retail prices of clothing and drapery, footwear, train and tram fares, papers and periodicals, household ironmongery and other household requisities at six-monthly intervals from March, 1919, to date. Similar data was obtained for July of each year from 1914 to 1918. These particulars being collected primarily for the use of the Arbitration Court, their publication is at the discretion of the Court.

In making its pronouncements regarding wage-adjustments the Court has taken into consideration movements in these groups of expenditure as well as in the official index numbers for food, rent, and fuel and light. Up to the present time it has published three index numbers in which these groups have been combined with the food, rent, and fuel and light groups. These combined groups represent about 80 per cent. of family expenditure. In the computations the six-monthly average index numbers for food, rent, and fuel and light have been used.

Following is a table showing the “combined" index numbers, with the numbers for (1) food alone, and (2) food, rent, and fuel and light combined, for purposes of comparison.

Half-year endedIndex Numbers (Base: July, 1914 = 1000).
Food.Food, Rent, and Fuel and Light combined.“All Groups” combined Index Number.
31st March, 1922148514751670
30th September, 1922142714391596
31st March, 1923139414271562

It will be noticed that the inclusion of clothing and miscellaneous items has caused the combined index number to be consistently higher than the numbers for food alone, or for food, rent, and fuel and light. Over the year 1922, however, the percentage rate of decrease in the case of the combined-groups index number is approximately the same in all three sets of index numbers.

WHOLESALE PRICES.

Since 1917 a system for the regular collection of information regarding wholesale prices has been in operation. A considerable volume of data has also been obtained from merchants and traders by means of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information is available to permit of the computation of index numbers recording the movement of wholesale prices over the period from 1891 to date.

The general index number is based upon the prices of 106 commodities or grades of commodities. From 1909 more detailed information is available, and index numbers for eight groups of commodities can be given. These groups cover the following numbers of articles: Group I, agricultural produce, 15; Group II, flour bran, pollard, and oatmeal, 4; Group III, wool, hides, tallow, butter, and cheese, 14; Group IV, general merchandise and crockery, 44; Group V, building-materials (ironmongery and timber), 31; Group VI, leather, 7; Group VII, chemicals and manures, 21; Group VIII, coal, 4. The group index numbers accordingly represent, in toto, the price - fluctuations of 140 articles or grades of commodities. Each article has been given a weight relative to its average annual pre-war consumption in the Dominion, and, further, relative to its price. This system of weighting, known as the “aggregate-expenditure method,” is the one adopted in the retail-prices inquiry.

The following tables of index numbers have been compiled as indicated above:—

QUARTERLY GROUP INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES FOR THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRE, 1914-22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Quarter endedGroup I: Agricultural Produce.Group II: Flour, Bran, Pollard, and Oatmeal.Group III: Wool, Hides, Tallow, Butter, and Cheese.Group IV: General Merchandise and Crockery.Group V: Building-material.Group VI: Leather.Group VII: Chemicals and Manures.Group VIII: Coal.
1914.        
March907990112310781103117210641003
June9691031115910771109118010771003
September10331131111510771123118710801003
December11761326106711251144119810821008
1915.        
March15421589119611751148128611601016
June16211727130511861192134911951014
September16411605137112161256136812441014
December15171298131512291273138812721031
1916.        
March14801361133712711334144013751082
June13051273140213121448145814171118
September14611306143613401485147214941175
December17021300143013451508151014951204
1917.        
March14991419143113671564167615741267
June15031447145214071676179516501330
September15351459146814631838185317191432
December15291436151215512,009190117531445
1918.        
March15821475147015922,007189918171461
June17161557146216652,077190719651462
September19021573146317272,20918912,0701463
December2,1811587146717562,30019032,0711525
1919.        
March18731573146617352,181188719771535
June17271525148017092,050191519191557
September18981516154418082,0002,11719161688
December19741521157119332,0352,3442,0211809
1920.        
March2,132160916362,1602,1902,7532,1641867
June2,057172716022,2252,37934272,3762,051
September1951175515582,4872,5852,9792,5062,119
December1808175418092,4872,6072,7352,4292,169
1921.        
March1710178916572,3242,5942,3522,2362,229
June15442,01816072,2172,4842,11719182,229
September15342,02916262,1802,411198817782,247
December15732,02914132,0482,352196217432,206
1922.        
March14591930112718992,265184315652,250
June13271768129118702,185177514892,159
September14021754146318152,135173314422,072
December15301630145817392,117174214362,013
GROUP INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES FOR THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1913-22.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Group I: Agricultural Produce.Group II: Flour, Bran, Pollard, and Oatmeal.Group III: Wool, Hides, Tallow, Butter, and Cheese.Group IV: General Merchandise and Crockery.Group V: Building-material.Group VI: Leather.Group VII: Chemicals and Manures.Group VIII: Coal.
1913967981104710551063112610351038
191410211120111610891120118410761004
191515801555129712021217134812181019
191614871310140113171444147014451145
191715171440146614471772180616741369
191818451548146616852,148190019811478
191918681534151517962,0672,06619581647
19201987171116512,3402,4402,9742,3692,052
19211590196615762,1922,4602,10519192,228
192214301771133518312,176177314832,124
GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES: AVERAGE FOR THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1891-1922.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Index Number.Year.Index Number.Year.Index Number.
1891994190297519131032
1892972190395419141077
1893973190492219151269
1894927190599419161380
18959201906101619171555
18969431907101619181809
18979421908100619191834
1898972190994919202,185
1899893191098319212,071
1900917191199419221832
190193119121041....

EXPORT PRICES OF MUTTON.

Figures relating to meat are not included above, but the following table showing the average export prices of mutton (per pound) in the Canterbury District during three quarters of 1922, and also the average for the corresponding quarters of 1921, gives an indication of the movement of meat-prices:—

Item.Average of Three Quarters, 1921.First Quarter, 1922.Second Quarter, 1922.Third Quarter, 1922.Average of Three Quarters, 1922.
NOTE.—Figures for the fourth quarter of each year are not available.
 d.d.d.d.d.
Prime lambs up to 42 lb.6 1/2787 3/47 1/2
Prime wethers up to 72 lb.333 1/233 1/4
Prime ewes up to 72 lb.22 1/42 1/41 3/42

Chapter 34. SECTION XXXIV.—WAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

PRIOR to the 1923 issue of the Year-book, index numbers of wages were not published officially, although a thesis on this subject, written by Mr. G. W. Clinkard, B.Com., was published as an appendix to the 1919 number of the Year-book. In the following pages index numbers are published for the years 1910 to 1923, the wage-rates used in every case being as at the 31st March of the respective years.

The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been collected almost entirely from the awards of the Arbitration Court. While it is recognized that the rates specified in such awards are minimum rates, and that wages may in some cases be above the prescribed minimum, yet for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage-rates over any considerable space of time the award rates form a more reliable basis than any information which could be collected directly from employers or trade-union secretaries as to the ruling or predominant rates in any industry. In the case of two important classes of workers—agricultural and pastoral employees and railway employees—no awards exist. Information has been obtained from the Labour Department as to the ruling rates of wages in the former case, and from the Railway Department in the latter case.

The rates used throughout are those paid to adult workers; but no distinction has been made between male and female workers. In the case of most industries included in the compilations only male workers are employed, but in the textile and weaving group and the domestic-service group (which includes hotel and restaurant workers) female workers predominate. The index numbers for these groups are consequently consistently lower than those for other groups.

The award rates for the four principal districts—Northern, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland—have been taken as representative of the ruling wages throughout the Dominion. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in cases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts the award rates for that centre have been used. For instance, the rates used for coal-mining and sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

METHOD OF WEIGHTING.

In weighting the rates extracted from the awards for each district in order to obtain index numbers, the occupations for which rates have been obtained have been grouped into fourteen industrial groups, and the number of workers in each industrial group in each district as recorded on the trade-union rolls for December, 1916, has been taken as representative of the total number of workers engaged in each industry. The following table shows the weights adopted for each group:—

WAGE INDEX NUMBERS.

Weights used for each Group in each Industrial District. (00's omitted.)
Group.Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Dominion.
Food, drink, and tobacco1721121363
Clothing, boots, &c.131091042
Textiles and weaving2112217
Building2429161584
Wood-manufacture11651133
Printing, &c.474318
Metal-working and engineering9510933
Other manufactures6210220
Mining19..22546
Agricultural and pastoral63464237188
Land transport28342826116
Shipping and cargo-working193261471
Domestic service19225753
Miscellaneous211914559
Totals for all groups255244185159843

On examination of the rolls it was apparent that the number enrolled as agricultural and pastoral workers was by no means proportionate to the total number of wage-earners employed in that class of work when compared with the numbers enrolled in other industries. It was necessary, therefore, to interpolate the weights for this group, using the census figures of 1916 for wage-earners as a basis.

DOMINION INDEX NUMBERS, 1910-23.

The following table shows the nominal wage index numbers for each group and all groups combined as at 31st March of each year from 1910 to 1923. The base on which the index numbers have been computed is the Dominion weighted average wage for all groups combined for the average of the years 1909-13.

NOMINAL WAGE INDEX NUMBERS, EACH INDUSTRIAL GROUP AND “ALL GROUPS" COMBINED, 1910-23.
Industrial Group.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.
Food, drink, and tobacco1019103110371058108110731114
Clothing, boots, &c.714714711733739745741
Textiles and weaving9479479479479749941031
Building1147115211611168124312471256
Wood-manufacture1056105210621093110211361197
Printing, &c.1236123312331285128212821284
Metalworking and engineering1114113311371155116111721189
Other manufactures99199910311034106111101151
Mining1044106210631080115211631163
Agricultural and pastoral918927925922101811921228
Land transport1013100710551082108310881160
Shipping and cargo-working1043104410531224125713791414
Domestic service86787487687796110361054
Miscellaneous9609499661030102710281053
All groups98999310041033107811371169
Industrial Group.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
NOTE.—The Index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.
Food, drink, and tobacco1175119112171410160916801640
Clothing, boots, &c.7998248741041119012481150
Textiles and weaving1031110111711253139215421563
Building1280129214781565185719371778
Wood-manufacture1206126713571464190119151758
Printing, &c.13821382150316232,0292,0021816
Metal-working and engineering1235130214151545178518651798
Other manufactures1197121712811548178118461700
Mining1206131313421400177218131747
Agricultural and pastoral1313138214681518152614991528
Land transport1193121213651590172917071655
Shipping and cargo-working15081517165316862,0232,1682,026
Domestic service1057110211531162151416211448
Miscellaneous1116117112241397165716861527
All groups1222126413601470167717161637

From the foregoing table it will be seen that very little movement took place in the index numbers until 1914, when a gradual rise commenced which continued until the year 1920, followed by two sharp rises from 1920 to 1921 and from 1921 to 1922; an all-round fall was recorded between 1922 and 1923.

Up to the year 1922 the index numbers for the printing and bookbinding group were consistently higher than those for any other group; but during the years 1920 and 1921 a considerable rise took place in the index numbers for the group covering shipping and cargo-working, the index number for that group being now higher than that for any other group.

In the preceding table Dominion index numbers were given for each individual group and for all groups combined, but no attempt was made to differentiate between the four industrial districts. The following table shows the index numbers for all groups combined for each industrial district for the years 1910 to 1923 and the Dominion weighted average. From this table comparisons may be made between the index numbers for the four principal industrial districts.

NOMINAL WAGE INDEX NUMBERS, FOUR PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS, 1910-23.
(Base: Dominion weighted average wage for all groups, 1909-13=1000.)
Year.Northern Industrial District.Wellington Industrial District.Canterbury Industrial District.Otago and Southland Industrial District.Dominion Weighted Average.
191096199510091005989
191196899610121009993
19129781004102410241004
19139971036105810601033
191410701078109410711078
191511051084113412741137
191611381124116112991169
191711781200123113191222
191812311219129513501264
191913371312138714391360
192014131447151615511470
192116711638171517041677
192216961691173017691716
192316311616155816671637

From this table it is evident that no considerable differences exist between the index numbers for the four principal districts. In the case of several industries Dominion awards are made which apply to all districts. Such differences as are observed are due to a certain extent to the fact that some industries included in the compilations are not carried on in all districts. For instance, the sugar-refining industry is confined to the Northern District, and, while in the Northern, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland Districts the mining industry is an important one, coalmining at least is not carried on in the Wellington Industrial District.

AWARD RATES OF WAGES.

In the following table the award rates for certain principal occupations are shown. Limitations of space prevent the publication of the separate rate in each case for each industrial district, and consequently the unweighted average of the rates paid in the four districts is shown. In the case of hotel workers, agricultural and pastoral workers, and shipping and cargo workers the estimated value of food and lodging has been added to the award rates.

The figures relate to the 31st March of the years shown.

AVERAGE WAGES, 1910-23, FOUR PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS.
Occupation.Average Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31st March.
 1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Bakers—Journeymen509509509550550550589600600676770946953896
    Labourers459459459480480480514530530554660781 1/27810 1/2721 1/2
Butchers—First shopmen713713713726726726726750750807 1/2927 1/21057 1/210710 1/21049
    Second shopmen6136136136266266266266506506910 1/2814 1/2964 1/2991 1/2946
Butter-factory employees—                            
    Churning and buttermaking526526526526526526526526601 1/2601 1/2713796796794 1/2
Flour-milling—Kilnmen454454468468480480560560560560760846883823
    Smuttermen480480508508520520600600600600740826863803
    Rollermen520520548548560560640640640640780876933873
Meat-freezing—                            
    Freezing-chamber hands6166306306306406466467207207209209201059 3/41012 1/2
    General hands440480480500540546546646646630770770886 1/2848 1/2
Slaughtermen (competent)—                            
    Sheep571583583598 1/2627 1/2627 1/2627 1/2648 1/2648 1/2648 1/2758 3/4816 1/2919879
    Cattle5605605605605605605605605605606136307010 1/2679 1/2
Meat-preserving—                            
    Boners570580580600620613629720720720811 1/2811 1/21012 1/2969 3/4
    Meat-preservers530546546564 3/4596595613706706706793 1/2793 3/4929 1/4888 3/4
Sausage-casing makers540540540540588597597667 1/4661166118310 1/4908902 1/4808
Aerated - waters and cordial making—                            
    Cordial-makers584589589589589589589600600649693792886806
    Bottle-washers420420420420450450459517 1/2521 1/2546606739791 1/2711 1/2
Brewing—Labourers46246104610478 1/2477 1/2492 1/2503 1/2547 1/2547 1/26006610 1/28658710 1/2801
    Cellarmen500550550550550550550603603640640869883774 1/2
Tailors—Journeymen539539539539539563563563626626776939980900
    Factory hands550550550560560560560602 1/2617 1/2617 1/277087189108110
Tailoresses (shop)—Coat hands2802802762903003003003003103503934711482 1/2459 3/4
    Machinists248 1/2248 1/2259259269269276276292320354 3/44711482 1/2476
Tailoresses (factory)—Journey-women250250250276276276276296 3/4303303370416450426
Boot operators—                            
    Male, first grade4610 1/24610 1/24610 1/2526526526526590 3/4590 3/4676750835 1/4918838
    Female journeywomen276276276276276276276316316350400446516476
Woollen-mills—                            
    Males—Spinners440440440500510520520520639639713816 3/4939859
        General hands420420420450466480480480596596676779 3/4826746
    Females—All adults............250263313313313332 1/4332 1/4376409 1/2450410
Building—                            
    Bricklayers685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4715 1/4715 1/4715 1/4844880977 1/210711 1/49911 1/4
    Carpenters5925926110 1/2617 1/2643 1/266066066073477117999410 1/21011930 3/4
    Joiners5925926110 1/2617 1/2643 1/266066066073477117999410 1/21011930 1/2
    Plasterers687 1/2687 1/2687 1/2679 1/2679 1/2679 1/2679 1/2716748 1/2766 1/287110011057 1/49610 1/4
    Plumbers (competent)592 1/261561560466066066066073478108261025 1/41025 1/4945 1/4
    Bricklayers' labourers516 3/4516 3/4516 3/4520 1/2550550550606606646 1/2734871871794
    Carpenters' labourers455 3/4455 3/4455 3/44610 1/2526 1/2526 1/2532561 1/4575 3/45966710846 3/4846 3/4766 3/4
Sawmilling—                            
    Engine-drivers531 3/4531 3/4531 3/4540540579579600676676676986966886
    Sawyers518519 1/4519 1/4530 1/2530 1/2542 3/4542 3/4585 1/4631656725943 3/49911 3/49111 1/2
    Tailors-out450 1/4445445439439474474535 1/45511 1/4581 3/4633 1/4873 1/4921 1/48311 3/4
    Yardmen535 1/2549 1/4549 1/4558 3/4558 3/4558 3/4557 1/25410 3/4596598653 1/2860 1/2887 1/2807 1/2
    General hands4511 3/44511 3/44711 3/4510510526526537 1/4589 3/4590 1/2653 3/4856 1/2881 3/4802
Boatbuilding—Shipwrights589589628628628662685 1/4692 1/27210 1/27210 1/2746 1/2965 3/4965 3/4885 3/4
    Boatbuilders54105410589589589642 1/2651672 3/4721 1/4721 1/4746 3/49111 3/491118311 3/4
Metal-works, —c.—                            
    Blacksmiths, farriers600600605 1/4614617630 3/4640 1/2646 1/2655 1/26611 1/4756 1/4813813749
    Boilermaking—Journeymen626 3/4626 3/4628628628628647 1/2663 3/47610 1/2809 1/4871 3/41025 1/41021 1/2943
    Iron and brass moulders577 1/4577577647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2683 3/4722 1/2771 1/4842 1/210021014 1/2939 1/2
    Tinsmiths—Journeymen567 1/2567 1/2626628628628628651 3/4709784823929 1/41040 3/4942 1/4
    Engineering—                            
        Fitters, —c.583 3/4615 1/2647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2671 1/4748 1/4779 1/4842 1/21025 1/410010945
        Electrical workers611 1/2611 1/2618 3/4618 3/46110 1/26110 1/2633 1/2666 1/46847168261010 3/41019941
        Motor mechanics....6411 1/26411 1/26411 3/46411 1/26411 1/2647 1/2671 1/4667 1/27710 1/4881 1/21010 3/41019945
Skin and leather workers—                            
    Curriers56056058058058058661462862870890810001000920
    Pelt-fleshers480480490500546573586630640656805 1/2908 1/2908 1/28311 1/2
    General hands4204204364504965395311 1/2603613633769859859790
Mineral and stone workers—                            
    Brickmakers5111 1/25111 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/2627 3/47011 3/4875 3/41018990
    General hands469 3/4469 3/4469 3/4469 3/4469 3/4483 3/4506 3/4511151115311606 3/4790 3/4910830
Mining (coal)—                            
    Surface—Tippers537 1/2550550509 1/2537 1/2537 1/2537 1/2562 3/4562 3/4672 1/2672 1/2880898868
        Labourers469487 1/2487 1/2489 3/4543 3/4543 3/4543 3/4568 3/4679 1/2679 1/2679 1/2880898868
        Engine-drivers514523523550550550550550628 1/2628 1/2628 1/2628 1/2906876
    Miners588599 3/4599 3/46110 1/2633631 1/2631 1/2662774 1/2774 1/4762 1/4890 1/21041 3/41011 3/4
    Truckers52153054105505511551155115706610661066108410 1/2954 3/4924 3/4
Mining (gold)—                            
    Dry-shaft battery workers5405405405505905965965965966211 1/2657 1/4923807 1/4742
    Wet-shaft battery workers5105105105266006166166166168411 1/46710939817752
Cyanide-workers510510510540570600600616616623660828 1/2842 1/28410
    Quarrymen506504504504 3/4528 1/2560560598 3/46011 1/2632737 1/28710 1/28710 1/2783
Agricultural and pastoral workers—                            
    General farm hands3610374378400418530549581 1/2587 1/2619630530504 1/2516 3/4
    Harvesters6006006006406449449510102211321128112811289061055
    Ploughmen39240640104310458594 1/2610650661 1/2693680580541 1/26011 1/4
    Musterers4764884885245310754780811083889079279211291021 1/2
    Shepherds4104164224444666136366610 1/2680706606530567 1/2555
    Wool-pressers452454454474480754754754771 1/291944 1/21017 1/2990871
Railways—                            
    Engine-drivers, first grade7207207507507507508108108109301140113810781081 1/2
    Engine-drivers, second grade630630660690690690750750810870105010559951081 1/2
    Firemen, first grade540540570600600600660660660780960963903939
    Firemen, second grade510510510570570570630630630750930936876939
    Guards, first grade5705706306306306306906906908101080108210221000
    Guards, second grade51051057057057057063063063075010501055995919
Tramways—Motormen534 1/45205365365365365435435710 1/26510 3/46510 3/4834 1/2837 1/2866
    Conductors468460477 1/2477 1/2477 1/2481 1/2490490527 3/46110 1/26110 1/2801 1/27910 1/2826
Shipping and cargo-working—                            
    Assistant stewards, first class404 1/2404 1/2404 1/2404 1/2404 1/24710 1/2566 1/2566 1/2566 1/2619849 3/4947 1/2947 1/2860
    Assistant stewards, second class335 1/2335 1/2335 1/2335 1/2335 1/24011 1/2497 1/2497 1/2497 1/2595826923 3/4923 3/4838
    Chief cooks704 1/2704 1/27507507508268511 1/28511 1/28511 1/298810691166 3/4133101228
    Second cooks4734735111511151115956210 3/46210 3/46210 3/4802883980 3/41085 1/29910
    A.B. seamen4810481048104810504 1/25955911733733790871 1/296119611950
    Ordinary seamen, first class381381381381411 3/4502540571571618 1/265273107310686
    Waterside workers—Ordinary cargo590 3/4590 3/4590 3/4590 3/46246246710734808808808990990924
    Hotel workers—Chefs (male)826831 1/2831 1/2831 1/28610 1/2929 3/4929 3/4929 3/4929 3/49511 1/4978 1/41153 3/412001141 1/2
        Waiters (male)485 1/449250105010530589589589597631 1/2641 1/2863950870
        Cooks (female)444 1/2444 1/2444 1/2444 1/2463526526526550600606741 1/4826786
        Housemaids3143110 1/2327 1/2327 1/23410 1/2417 1/2417 1/2417 1/2433476480604 3/4650610
        Waitresses371 3/4374 3/4374 3/4374 3/4391 3/4453 1/2453 1/2453 1/2457 1/4481 1/4486634 1/4676638 1/4
Miscellaneous—                            
    Soft-goods assistants (male)............5505505505686186506610 1/27908738667910 1/2
    Warehouse storemen (wool and grain)4404404464810513 1/4513 1/4513 1/45211 1/4588 1/2649745881 1/2937 1/2770
    Grocers' assistants4504504504895005005395766196710 1/2756 1/4923923826

INDEX NUMBERS OF EFFECTIVE WAGES.

The index numbers published in the preceding pages have been based on actual money rates without making any allowance for changes in the purchasing-power of money during the period under review. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wages may be offset by a fall in the purchasing-power of money, while a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing-power of money. It is possible by taking the movement in retail-price index numbers as indicative of the movement in the purchasing-power of the sovereign to make allowance for this factor. It would be desirable to use numbers for “all groups"—food, rent, fuel and light, clothing, and miscellaneous items—in this connection, but, unfortunately, such index numbers are not available prior to the year 1914, and consequently the index numbers for the three food groups have been used throughout. No allowance has been made for changes in hours of labour and other miscellaneous factors affecting the distinction between real and nominal wages.

EFFECTIVE-WAGE INDEX NUMBERS, 1910-23.
Group.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1015.1916.
Food, drink, and tobacco10281049102010201018902893
Clothing, boots, &c.720726699707696627594
Textiles and weaving956963931913917836827
Building1157117211421126117010491007
Wood-manufacture10661070104410541038955960
Printing, &c.1247125412121239120710781030
Metal-working and engineering11241153111811141093986953
Other manufactures100010161014997999934923
Mining10531080104510411085978933
Agricultural and pastoral9269439108899591003985
Land transport10221024103710431020915930
Shipping and cargo-working1052106210351180118411601134
Domestic service875889861846905871845
Miscellaneous969965950993967865844
    All groups combined99810109879961015956937
Group.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
Food, drink, and tobacco87383180981588911121085
Clothing, boots, &c.594575581602657826761
Textiles and weaving76676877872476910211034
Building951901982905102612821176
Wood-manufacture896884902846105012671163
Printing, &c.1027964999938112113251201
Metal-working and engineering91890894089398612341189
Other manufactures88984985189598412221124
Mining89691689280997912001156
Agricultural and pastoral9759649758778439921011
Land transport88684590791995511301095
Shipping and cargo-working112010581098975111814351340
Domestic service7857687666728361073958
Miscellaneous82981781380891511161010
All groups combined90888190485092711361083

The diagram which follows shows the movement in retail food-prices, nominal wages, and effective wages since 1909. Nominal wages are seen to have lagged behind food-prices while prices were rising, and to have continued to rise between 1921 and 1922 while food-prices were declining. The result is a steady fall in effective wages until 1920, and a sharp rise between 1921 and 1922, followed by a fall between 1922 and 1923. It should be stressed, however, that the prices which have been taken into account in computing the effective wages are food-prices only.

HOURS OF LABOUR.

The following table shows index numbers of hours worked in the various industrial groups as at 31st March of each year from 1910 to 1923. The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court in most cases; but, where hours are not prescribed in the awards, reference has been made to the Factories Acts. The agricultural and pastoral workers group has been omitted from the computations.

INDEX NUMBERS OF HOURS WORKED, 1910-23.
(Base: Dominion weighted average, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Group.1010.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.
Food, drink, and tobacco9999991000994993965989
Clothing, boots, &c.932932928928928926926
Textiles and weaving976976976976976976976
Building917917917915907904902
Wood-manufacture952952950950951951929
Printing, &c.957961970970977977978
Metal-working and engineering961961961961957957952
Other manufactures973973973973973977968
Mining901906906906957957936
Land transport100399910011002100210021000
Shipping and cargo-working1076107610761076105410541095
Domestic service1226122612171216120212021201
Miscellaneous990990993988954964964
All groups100010001000999994992996
Group.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
Food, drink, and tobacco981982982967947951947
Clothing, boots, &c.930929928929919900900
Textiles and weaving976976976972940933933
Building900902900902903902899
Wood-manufacture921920918917914914914
Printing, &c.975975962956892889889
Metal-working and engineering951949953951910910908
Other manufactures968957969963950948946
Mining939941934934867907907
Land transport999999998998930933928
Shipping and cargo-working1065105411491149109810981098
Domestic service12011202120212021066981981
Miscellaneous969960959959923911896
All groups991989999997951944941

The following table shows the hours worked in certain important occupations selected from the list from which index numbers have been compiled. The figures given are unweighted averages of hours worked in the four principal industrial districts.

AVERAGE HOURS PER WEEK WORKED, 1910-23.
Occupation.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
Bakers50 1/450 1/449 1/24848484848484848484847 1/2
Butchers—Shopmen56565656565656535352 3/451 3/449 3/44848
Butter-factory employees484848484848484848484848 1/248 1/248 1/2
Flour-mill employees4848484848484848484848484848
Freezing-works employees4848484848484848484848444444
Aerated-water and cordial making employees46 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/446 1/446 1/446 1/446 1/246 1/44646
Brewery workers45 1/245 1/245 1/245 1/246 1/4464645 3/445 3/445 3/445 3/44545 1/445
Tailors4848484848484848484848464444
Tailoresses454545454545454545454545 1/44444
Boot operatives, male and female4545454545454545454545454444
Woollen-mills employees—              
    Male4848484848484848484847 1/4454545
    Female4848484848484848484847 1/4454545
Bricklayers45454545454544 1/444 1/444 1/44444444444
Carpenters4545454544 3/4444444444444444444
Joiners4545454544 3/444 3/444 3/444 3/444 3/444 3/444 3/4444444
Plasterers45454544 1/444444444444444444444
Plumbers44 1/444 1/444 1/444 1/444444444444444444444
Sawmill hands46 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/24745 1/446 1/245 1/445 1/445 3/445 3/445 3/4
Boatbuilders and shipwrights47474747474745 1/245444444444444
Blacksmiths4747474746 1/446 1/446 1/4454546 1/446 1/4454545
Boilermakers47 3/447 3/447 3/447 3/447 3/447 3/4474747474744 1/444 1/444
Tinsmiths47 1/247 1/247474747474747474745 1/245 1/244 3/4
Skin and leather workers4848484848484848484848484848
Mineral and stone workers47 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247474747474747 1/44847 3/447 3/4
Miners (coal)—              
    Surface40 1/240 1/240 1/240 1/243 1/443 1/443 1/443 1/444 3/444 3/444 1/2384343
    Underground38 1/238 1/238 1/238 1/243 1/443 1/443 1/443 1/442 3/442 3/442 3/4384343
Miners (gold)47 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/2484846 3/446 3/445 1/445 1/445 1/4
Quarrymen4848484847 3/447 1/247 3/44847 3/447 3/447 3/446 3/446 3/446 3/4
Railway employees—              
    Engine-drivers and firemen4848484848484848484848444444
    Guards4848484848484848484848444444
Occupation.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1923.
Tramway employees—Conductors and motormen49 1/248484848484848484848484848
Shipping—              
    Stewards............7070707070606060
    Cooks............7070707070606060
    Seamen5656565656565656565656565656
Waterside workers47 1/447 1/447 1/447 1/444444444444444444444
Hotel workers—              
    Male6565656565656565656565484848
    Female6565656565656565656565484848
Soft-goods assistants5252524848484848484848484848
Warehouse storemen44444445 3/445 3/445 3/445 3/44544 1/444 1/444444444
Grocers' assistants52 1/452 1/452 1/4525252525252525249 3/449 3/448 3/4
Restaurant workers—              
    Male62 1/262 1/261 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/4605151
    Female5252525252525252525252484848

Chapter 35. SECTION XXXV.—INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE collection of information regarding industrial disputes was initiated by the Census and Statistics Office at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year has been obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department. From this source fairly complete data have been obtained with regard to the number of disputes, their nature, causes, methods of settlement, and results; in many instances it has been impossible to ascertain the duration of disputes and the number of workers involved in them. Consequently it has been impossible to estimate the number of working-days lost or the loss in wages caused by disputes prior to 1920. Under the system originated in 1920 returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the results based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to demand information from the parties concerned in the dispute, and by exercising this power when necessary they can obtain complete information.

On the termination of a dispute the Inspector in the district in which it has taken place is required to fill in and forward to the Census and Statistics Office and the Head Office of the Labour Department a return showing—(a) The location of the dispute; (b) its nature—direct strike, sympathetic strike, partial strike, or lockout; (c) the number of workers directly and indirectly concerned in the dispute; (d) the dates of commencement and termination of the dispute; (e) the cause, the method of settlement, and the result of the dispute; (f) the estimated loss in wages caused by the dispute; (g) the names of the firms affected and the industry in which the dispute has taken place. If the dispute results in a change of wages or hours, then the hours and wages before and after the dispute are to be shown.

Industrial disputes may be divided into two main classes—strikes and lockouts. Strikes may be further subdivided into three classes—direct strikes, sympathetic strikes, and partial strikes. A direct strike is a concerted refusal on the part of a body of workers to continue work with the purpose of forcing their demands on an employer or for the purpose of resisting demands made by him. A stop-work meeting does not necessarily constitute a strike; it may be held merely to discuss certain matters relating to conditions of employment, &c., or to decide whether or not a strike shall take place. A sympathetic strike occurs when the workers strike not to force their own demands on their employer, but in sympathy with the claims of other workers. A partial strike is a strike which does not involve a complete stoppage of work; a “go-slow" policy adopted by a body of workers may be classified as a partial strike, provided that the fact that they are adopting a “go-slow" policy is soundly established. A lockout occurs when an employer or a body of employers refuses work to a body of workers in order to force certain demands on them or to resist demands made by them.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute” refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

LEGISLATION CONCERNING INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION ACT.

The original Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act was placed on the New Zealand statute-book as early as 1894. Its object was to encourage the formation of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. It provided for the registration as “industrial unions” of societies of workers or employers in the various industrial districts, and, as “industrial associations,” of any council or other body representing any number of such unions; for the making of industrial agreements pursuant to the Act, and the filing of such in the Supreme Court; for the formation of industrial districts, the election of Boards of Conciliation, and the setting-up of a Court of Arbitration.

The original Act and its amendments were consolidated in 1900; a compiling Act was passed in 1905; and a further consolidation was effected in 1908. Following is a brief summary of the more important amendments: In 1898 an amendment was passed empowering the Court in its award to prescribe minimum rates of wages, with special provision for a lower rate being paid in the case of workers unable to earn the prescribed minimum. An important amendment was passed in 1903 prohibiting any employer, worker, union of workers, or union of employers from taking proceedings to defeat any of the provisions of an award during its currency. It forbade an employer to dismiss any employee merely because he happened to be entitled to the benefit of an award or merely because he was a member of a union.

In 1905 an amendment was passed providing for the punishment by fine of any employer or worker bound by an award or industrial agreement affecting an industry who takes part in a strike or lockout in that industry. In 1908 an additional penalty was added in the case of certain “public utility” industries, such as gas-manufacture, the supply of milk or meat, tramway services, &c. By this amendment the constitution of Conciliation Boards was altered to provide for the appointment of four Conciliation Commissioners, whose duty it is to call together representatives of employers and employees in the case of a dispute arising, and to sit with these representatives as a Conciliation Council to endeavour to effect a settlement. The decision of the Council is not binding, but disputes must be referred to a Council before they may be referred to the Arbitration Court.

A further amendment in 1911 empowers the Court to make an industrial agreement into an award, provided such agreement does not conflict with an existing award or is not contrary to the public interest. It also provides that recommendations of Conciliation Councils shall become in effect industrial agreements if none of the parties to a dispute disagrees with such recommendations.

There have been no major amendments to the Act since 1911. Its administration is in the hands of the Labour Department, and Inspectors of Factories are charged with the duty of seeing that the provisions of awards and agreements are carried out.

The following paragraphs indicate the procedure followed in regard to industrial disputes under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

An industrial union (or association of unions) of workers registered under the Act may cite a union or association of unions of employers, or an employer, or a number of employers, before a Council of Conciliation for the hearing of an industrial dispute before a Commissioner and assessors appointed from either side.

An industrial union (or association of unions) of employers registered under the Act, or an individual employer, or employers, may cite a union of workers in a similar manner. It will be noted that the workers may compel any of their employers to come under the Act; while the employers cannot compel their workers to come under it, unless the latter have registered as an industrial union or association thereunder; registration is voluntary.

If an agreement is arrived at and is signed by the parties it may be filed by any party as an “industrial agreement,” and be enforced accordingly; or if the assessors only have signed an agreement—termed a “recommendation" in the Act (which is usually more convenient where the parties are scattered)—that recommendation may be forwarded to the Clerk of Awards, who gives notice of it to the parties. If within the following month no objection is received the recommendation becomes binding in the same manner as an industrial agreement.

In the event of no agreement or of a partial agreement only being arrived at, the whole matter is referred to the Arbitration Court, which, after hearing argument upon the matters not agreed upon, makes its award, which becomes binding upon the employers specified in the award, upon any employers commencing business in the district subsequently to the date of the award, and upon all persons working for such employers. In many cases even where a “recommendation" has been arrived at in the Conciliation Council, instead of following the procedure mentioned in the preceding paragraph the parties find it more convenient to have the recommendation made into an award, and, as the Court has no jurisdiction in the case of complete agreement, it has become the practice to disagree pro forma on, say, one clause. This enables the Court to make an award in accordance with the recommendation.

Until two or three years ago it was the practice for unions of workers to cite the employers as parties to a dispute, and it was only in very rare cases that the employers took the initiative, but of late a number of cases have occurred where the employers have cited the workers' unions before Conciliation Councils—for example, freezing-workers, cooks and stewards, seamen, watersiders, coal-miners, dairy employees, and shearers.

In all cases where an industrial agreement or accepted recommendation or award is filed it becomes binding on all the parties, and a strike or lockout becomes unlawful. In a few cases the workers concerned have objected to the award, and have struck work rather than accept the conditions fixed.

LABOUR DISPUTES INVESTIGATION ACT.

The Labour Disputes Investigation Act, which was passed in 1913, applies to all disputes to which the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act does not relate—viz., where there is no award or industrial agreement or accepted recommendation thereunder in force.

Under this Act if a dispute concerning wages and other conditions of employment arises between a society or societies of workers, whether registered or not, that are not bound by any award or industrial agreement, and their employers, the society must, before it may strike, give to the Minister of Labour formal notice of the dispute, setting forth the names of the parties to the dispute and the claims made by the society. The Minister then refers the dispute to a Conciliation Commissioner to call a conference, or to a “Labour Disputes Committee” for investigation and recommendation. Such a committee consists of not less than one nor more than three members chosen from each side, with an independent chairman. In the event of no settlement being arrived at a secret ballot is taken by the Registrar of Industrial Unions among the members of the society as to whether, in the case of no recommendation having been made, a strike should eventuate: or, in the case of a recommendation having been made, as to whether the recommendation should be adopted. Seven days' notice must be given to the employers should a strike be decided upon.

Similar provisions apply with reference to the filing of a dispute and to a lockout by the employers.

In the event of an agreement being arrived at it may be filed with the Clerk of Awards and becomes enforceable in the same manner as an industrial agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

It may be of interest to mention that while there are nearly six hundred awards and industrial agreements in force under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, only twenty-two unions of workers have preferred the Labour Disputes Investigation Act procedure; only four ballots have been found necessary under that Act, and in none of these cases did a strike take place, a settlement being ultimately reached in every dispute. In two minor cases strikes did take place in connection with disputes under this Act, but they occurred in the early part of the proceedings—without waiting for the investigation to be held. Both of these disputes were settled.

PARTICULARS OF PRINCIPAL DISPUTES DURING THE YEAR 1922.

Of the 58 industrial disputes recorded during 1922, 39 were of less duration than two weeks, and cannot be regarded as serious. Of the remainder, 7 disputes lasted for a period of eight weeks or over. Five of these disputes occurred in the shipping industry, 1 in the coal-mining industry, and 1 in the meat-freezing industry.

On the 1st June, 1922, a strike broke out in the Burnside Freezing-works, in the Otago District, caused by dissatisfaction with the reduction of bonus declared by the Arbitration Court. Workers involved in the dispute, the approximate duration of which was eight weeks, numbered 144. Free labour was employed at the works in place of the strikers. The loss in wages to those incurred in the strike is estimated at £2,168. Several other freezing-works throughout the Dominion were involved in a strike in the same month, the workers striking both in sympathy with the Otago freezing-workers and on account of their own dissatisfaction with the Arbitration Court's reduction in wages. Of these strikes, that at the Islington Freezing-works, in Canterbury, was the most important, 262 men being on strike for a period of thirty-seven days. The loss in wages caused by this dispute is estimated at £4,200.

The most serious dispute occurring during the year in the mining industry commenced on the 25th July in the Stockton Collieries. The strike, which was caused by the dismissal of a worker allegedly guilty of disobedience, involved 240 men. On the 4th September the strike was concluded by the reinstatement of the worker concerned. The loss in wages caused by this strike is estimated at £6,700.

On the 8th November a strike occurred in the shipping industry in Dunedin, 167 seamen going on strike on account of dissatisfaction with the reduced conditions of the new Arbitration Court award. The dispute lasted for some two months and a half, the boats being manned by free labour in the meantime. About the same time strikes occurred among the seamen on boats at Wellington, Napier, Wanganui, and Nelson, dissatisfaction with the Court's award being the prime cause in each case.

Apart from the above-mentioned disputes in the shipping, mining, and meat-freezing industries, no serious disputes occurred during the year 1922.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

From the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 till the end of 1905 there were no industrial disputes dealt with under the Act; indeed, New Zealand may be said to have been entirely free from industrial disputes during that period.

The following table shows the nature and magnitude of disputes occurring during the years 1906-22. Unfortunately, particulars are not available as to the number of working-days lost for years prior to 1920; and, indeed, the figures showing the number of workers involved are incomplete in many cases. Consequently only a rough idea of the magnitude of disputes occurring in a given year can be gleaned from the table, although the number of disputes and their classification is complete.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF DISPUTES, 1906-22.

Year.Nature of Dispute.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers involved.
Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lockout.Total.Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lockout.Total.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In four cases figured not available.

e In five cases figures not available.

f In six cases figures not available.

g In seven cases figures not available.

h In twelve cases figures not available.

1906......111......8888
190733....67471b87....558
19082......2263......63
19091......11a......a
191011..221515237e..12b6255
1911193....22221,361d14b....1,375
19122121..24294,964c75923..5,746
19133339..1731623,455c9,925c..2013,400
19144151..20205293,560a..4,089
19157..1..88295b..a..295
19161212..1521696e16043b..899
191732310..45532,509ha225e..2,734
191833..6140443,984f..39c334,056
191932112..45592,938ea1,092g..4,030
19207032..751068,524b750b338..9,612
19216359..771128,534917982..10,433
19225341..58675,778376260..6,414
Totals3967947552772944,33816,5483,01414764,047

From this table it will be seen that the number of disputes occurring in any one year was very small until the year 1913, when the number suddenly rose to 73 disputes. In that year there was an epidemic of strikes throughout the country, the number of sympathetic strikes being especially large. Although it may appear from the table that a greater number of disputes occurred during 1920 and 1921 than during 1913, this is not the case. On account of the fact that forms showing particulars of disputes are not furnished until the termination of a strike, disputes which begin in one year but end in the next year are tabulated in the second year. In order to secure uniformity the plan has been adopted, in compiling the statistics for back years, of tabulating disputes according to the years of termination, not of commencement. Fourteen sympathetic strikes which began in 1913 continued until the next year, and consequently are tabulated in the year 1914. Only 3 strikes continued from the year 1921 to the year 1922. Again, as will be seen from the table, the number of workers involved in disputes during 1913 was greater than in either 1920 or 1921.

It will be noticed that the number of disputes occurring during 1922 is considerably lower than the numbers for the years 1920 and 1921, and the number of workers involved also shows a large reduction.

The following table shows the nature and magnitude of disputes occurring in each industrial district for the year 1922. The number of working-days lost is shown in this table, and is calculated by multiplying the number of workers involved by the number of days lost (exclusive of Sundays and public holidays). It is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place, and no allowance is made for unemployment which might have taken place even if there were no dispute. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of work done, but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1922.
Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
Number of Disputes.
Direct strike9110..11310953
Sympathetic strike1..1....2....4
Partial strike..........1....1
Lockout..................
Totals10111..11610958
Number of Firms affected.
Totals10120..11610967
Number of Workers involved.
Direct strike68753790..492,3011,0108885,778
Sympathetic strike16..150....210....376
Partial strike..........260....260
Lockout..................
Totals70353940..492,7711,0108886,414
Number of Working-days lost.
Direct strike6,655106113,429..2,64615,88728,74622,31989,788
Sympathetic strike128..3,150....390....3,668
Partial strike..........Nil....Nil.
Lockout..................
Totals6,78310616,579..2,64616,27728,74622,31993,456

The greatest number of disputes in any one district occurred in the Westland District, where 16 disputes took place during the year. The disputes occurring in this district were almost without exception minor stoppages in the mining industry, none of which attained really serious proportions.

Several disputes occurred in the freezing-works in the Canterbury and Otago Districts, and in some cases these disputes were of considerable magnitude, as is evidenced by the number of working-days lost.

The following table shows the duration of the disputes which occurred during the years 1906-22. Several disputes have been classified as of indefinite duration owing to the lack of information as to their duration. In other cases it has been found possible to assign disputes to a class although their exact duration cannot be ascertained.

DURATION AND MAGNITUDE OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-22.
Duration.1906-17.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.Totals,
1906-22.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
1 day and less381211332023137
2 days and more than 1 day1327104844
3 days and more than 2 days132538233
Over 3 days to 1 week1025810136
1 week to 2 weeks197469550
2 weeks to 4 weeks4475719284
4 weeks to 6 weeks112124525
6 weeks to 8 weeks151......521
8 weeks and over30..3..3743
Indefinite39546....54
Totals2324045757758527
Number of Workers involved.
1 day and less1,0331,089d766e3,373b1,4362,2449,941
2 days and more than 1 day18131b934b1,104795262,855
3 days and more than 2 days760395114c3875272872,470
Over 3 days to 1 week1,1518662c7141,590754,200
1 week to 2 weeks2,2691,712b7921,051b7991,1617,784
2 weeks to 4 weeks8,687343d4001,9105,61429917,253
4 weeks to 6 weeks1,539400ba2132923012,745
6 weeks to 8 weeks3,72850......8874,665
8 weeks and over8,815..322d..966349,867
Indefinite1,33928c40860....2,267
Totals29,5024,0564,0309,61210,4336,41464,047
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO DURATION. 1922.
Duration.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
Number of Disputes.
1 day and less4..5....82423
2 days and more than 1 day31......31..8
3 days and more than 2 days....1....1....2
Over 3 days and less than 1 week1..............1
1 week and less than 2 weeks1........31..5
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks....2..........2
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks............235
6 weeks and less than 8 weeks..........14..5
8 weeks and over1..3..1....27
Totals10111..11610958
Number of Workers involved.
1 day and less301..267....1,243533802,244
2 days and more than 1 day21453......23227..526
3 days and more than 2 days....197....90....287
Over 3 days and less than 1 week75..............75
1 week and less than 2 weeks16........966179..1,161
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks....299..........299
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks............104197301
6 weeks and less than 8 weeks..........240647..887
8 weeks and over97..177..49....311634
Totals70353940..492,7711,0108886,414
Number of Working-days lost.
1 day and less301..267....1,243533802,244
2 days and more than 1 day428106......45840..1,032
3 days and more than 2 days....591....270....861
Over 3 days and less than 1 week300..............300
1 week and less than 2 weeks128........5,6661,074..6,868
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks....5,832..........5,832
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks............3,6405,1748,814
6 weeks and less than 8 weeks..........8,64023,939..32,579
8 weeks and over5,626..9,889..2,646....16,76534,926
Totals6,78310616,579..2,64616,27728,74622,31993,456
Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £££££££££
1 day and less261..214....1,347542582,134
2 days and more than 1 day240134......40030..804
3 days and more than 2 days....400....300....700
Over 3 days and less than 1 week500..............500
1 week and less than 2 weeks75........4,862869..5,806
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks....4,400..........4,400
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks............1,5053,6205,125
6 weeks and less than 8 weeks..........6,72012,685..19,405
8 weeks and over4,600..4,901..2,695....9,71221,908
Totals5,6761349,915..2,69513,62915,14313,59060,782

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that during the period 1906-22 137 disputes out of a total of 527 lasted for only one day or less than one day. In 1922, 23 disputes out of a total of 58 lasted for only one day or less; 8 disputes had a duration of two days and more than one day; but 7 of the 58 disputes recorded for the year attained really serious proportions, their duration being eight weeks or over. Details for individual years prior to 1918 were given in the 1921-22 Year-book.

The following table shows the number of disputes in each industrial district for the years 1906-22, and also the number of workers involved:—

NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE OF DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1906-22.
Year.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

f In five cases figures not available.

g In six cases figures not available.

h In seven cases figures not available.

i In nine cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
1906..........1....1
19072..1....12..6
1908....2..........2
1909..........1....1
19104..3......6215
19117..8......5222
1912915....15324
1913213223267973
19142..2..312..120
19151..5......2..8
19161..4115..315
19178..1412152345
19189..6..1191440
19191018..3153545
192022..12..1259675
192121115..21541977
192210111..11610958
Totals12771185161325666527
Number of Workers involved.
1906..........88....88
190746b..121....35041..558
1908....63..........63
1909..........a....a
1910179b..60......9e7b255
1911404c..663b......218c901,375
19123,262b61,574....543128b2335,746
19137,5761011,281b1941461,526610b1,966b13,400
1914510..455..1442,874b..1064,089
1915200..68b......27b..295
191610..412aa434c..43c89g
1917504c..269i35581,704h150b14b2,734
1918422b..75b..a3,499ga60b4,056
1919394ea118d..1112,306f8802214,030
19202,991..1,081c..105,1062601649,612
19213,829442,373..632,3193121,49310,433
192270353940..492,7711,0108886,414
Totals21,0302049,55322958123,5203,6455,28564,047

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS.

In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industries in which disputes took place. In the tables for the period 1906-22 the totals for the Dominion only are given; but a more detailed table is also added giving fuller particulars for the disputes occurring during the year 1922. The classification into industrial groups is the same as that used in the compilation of wage statistics. “Wood-manufacture" includes both sawmilling and the secondary stages of manufacture (cabinetmaking, &c.). “Domestic service” includes employees in hotels, restaurants, &c. “Metal-working" includes all the engineering trades, brassmoulding, fitting, &c. The designations given to the other groups are self-explanatory.

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS, 1906-22.
Industrial Group.1906-17.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.Totals,
1906-22.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In four cases figures not available.

e In five cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
I. Food, drink, &c.49141162293
II. Clothing1311....6
III. Textile-weaving613......10
IV. Building and contracting12..21....15
V. Wood-manufacture41135115
VI. Paper-manufacture and printing1..........1
VII. Metal-working1..211..5
VIII. Other manufactures52112..11
IX. Mining622221303719191
X. Agricultural and pastoral8......1..9
XI. Land transport10341....18
XII. Shipping and cargo-working5645212315124
XIII. Domestic service3....21..6
XIV. Miscellaneous143131123
Totals2324045757758527
Number of Workers involved.
I. Food, drink, &c.3,6473195b4845862,4537,296
II. Clothing4012b2930....111
III. Textile-weaving9763345b......1,054
IV. Building and contracting1,937..70b5....2,012
V. Wood-manufacture611917518712787
VI. Paper-manufacture and printing23..........23
VII. Metal-working7..880b1222..921
VIII. Other manufactures3411961937..422
IX. Mining12,1703,864d2,771e7,2214,9723,10434,102
X. Agricultural and pastoral27......2..29
XI. Land transport1,448aa360....1,808
XII. Shipping and cargo-working5,31055c701,327c4,70483912,305
XIII. Domestic service868....156..889
XIV. Miscellaneous2,09733b47881762,288
Totals29,5024,0564,0309,61210,4336,41464,047
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS, 1922.
Industrial District and Group.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Directly.Indirectly.Total.
Northern District.       
I. Food, drink, &c.5530827335774761
IX. Mining22276..2765,8054,765
XII. Shipping and cargo-working3392..92204150
Totals1010676277036,7835,676
Taranaki District.       
I. Food, drink, &c.11242953106134
Wellington District.     £ 
I. Food, drink, &c.44533..5333,4602,977
XII. Shipping and cargo-working615401..40113,1136,933
XIV. Miscellaneous116..665
Totals1120940..94016,5799,915
Nelson District.       
XII. Shipping and cargo-working1149..492,6462,695
Westland District.       
V. Wood-manufacture1112..121814
IX. Mining15152,713462,75916,25913,615
Totals16162,725462,77116,27713,629
Canterbury District.       
I. Food, drink, &c.77930..93028,65315,059
XII. Shipping and cargo-working3380..809384
Totals10101,010..1,01028,74615,143
Otago and Southland District.       
I. Food, drink, &c.5530529760210,5707,644
IX. Mining2269..691,846900
XII. Shipping and cargo-working22126912179,9035,046
Totals9950038888822,31913,590
All Districts.       
I. Food, drink, &c.22222,1003532,45343,56326,575
V. Wood-manufacture1112..121814
IX. Mining19193,058463,10423,91019,280
VII. Shipping and cargo-working15247489183925,95914,908
XIV. Miscellaneous116..665
Totals58675,9244906,41493,45660,782

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that the greatest number of disputes in any one industry during the period 1906-22 occurred in the mining industry. In the year 1922, however, the greatest number of disputes occurred in the group “Food, drink, &c.” This is accounted for by the fact that a considerable number of disputes occurred in freezing-works during the year.

In the group “Shipping and cargo-working" 15 disputes took place during 1922, but, with one or two exceptions, none of these was serious.

CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

In the following tables the causes of disputes occurring during the years 1906-22 are shown. Under the heading “Wages" are included disputes concerning a reduction or increase in the rates of wages in industries where time rates are paid, or concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for piecework in industries where piece rates are paid. Disputes concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for overtime are also included in this class.

Disputes concerning the number of hours of work are classified under the heading “Hours.”

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading “Employment.” This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs—the employment of non-unionists, or the dismissal of men when, in the opinion of the other workers, their dismissal is due merely to the fact that they are prominent in union activities.

The heading “Other working - conditions” includes all causes of disputes relating to conditions of work, &c.

Under the heading “Sympathy" are included all disputes caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance with their own particular employer, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

“Other causes” refers to all causes of disputes not included in the above classes. The only cases coming under this head during the period under review occurred in 1916 and 1917, when several strikes took place in order to endeavour to obtain the repeal of the Military Service Act, and as a protest against conscription.

CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-22.
Cause.1906-17.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In four cases figures not available.

e In eight cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
Wages811922292126198
Hours122235226
Employment34129158886
Other working-conditions25611242018104
Sympathy65..1412486
Other causes12......11..23
Not stated31........4
Totals2324045757758527
Number of Workers involved.
Wages5,2642,433c1,970e3,618b2,6432,72218,650
Hours676aa492,2293513,305
Employment5,3321,441d605b1,1799941,24410,795
Other working-conditions1,881182c1,455b3,9921,2401,72110,471
Sympathy14,505..a774b2,08037617,735
Other causes1,844......1,247..3,091
Not stated..a..........
Totals29,5024,0564,0309,61210,4336,41464,047

It will be noticed that twice as many disputes arose out of questions concerning wages than from any other cause. The relatively large number of sympathy strikes occurring during the period is caused by the fact that in 1913 a large number of strikes occurred throughout the Dominion from that cause. Fuller particulars for the year 1913 as well as for other years prior to 1917 were given in the 1921-22 Year-book.

The following table shows in more detail the causes of disputes occurring during the year 1922:—

CAUSES OF DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT DURING THE YEAR 1922.
Cause.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
Number of Disputes.
Wages1..7..128726
Hours1........1....2
Employment1..1....6....8
Other working - conditions612....52218
Sympathy1..1....2....4
Totals10111..11610958
Number of Workers involved.
Wages75..710..494068046782,722
Hours65........286....351
Employment11..6....1,227....1,244
Other working - conditions5365374....6422062101,721
Sympathy16..150....210....376
Other causes..................
Totals70353940..492,7711,0108886,414
Number of Working-days lost.
Wages300..13,349..2,64640627,63222,10966,442
Hours65........3,146....3,211
Employment11..6....11,547....11,564
Other working - conditions6,27910674....7881,1142108,571
Sympathy128..3,150....390....3,668
Other causes..................
Totals6,78310616,579..2,64616,27728,74622,31993,456
Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £££££££££
Wages500..7,878..2,69552014,24413,39039,227
Hours75........2,830....2,905
Employment....5....9,112....9,117
Other working - conditions5,02613432....6678992006,958
Sympathy75..2,000....500....2,575
Other causes..................
Totals5,6761349,915..2,69513,62915,14313,59060,782

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

The methods of settlement of industrial disputes may be classified as follows:—

  1. (a.) By negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act:

  2. (b.) By negotiations under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act:

  3. (c.) By private negotiations between the employers and workers resulting in the framing of a compromise:

  4. (d.) By the substitution of other workers for strikers:

  5. (e.) By other methods. Under this head are included cases in which the men return to work without definitely settling the points at issue; or where the employers and workers give way without placing the matter before a Labour Disputes Committee or a Conciliation Council; or any other method by which a strike may be settled which does not come under the four preceding heads.

Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes for the years 1906-22:—

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-22.
Method of Settlement.1906-17.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.Totals, 1906-22.

a In one case figures not available.

b In two cases figures not available.

c In three cases figures not available.

d In four cases figures not available.

e In five cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act2034112..40
Negotiations under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act1..21....4
Compromise between parties to the dispute25614306586
Substitution4523981279
Otherwise1172015285141272
Not stated24976....46
Totals2324045757758527
Number of Workers involved.
Negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act3,59715a250a207674..4,743
Negotiations under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act296..93a26....415
Compromise between parties to the dispute2,96491c1,344d2,6175245048,044
Substitution4,8156a69942031,3126,499
Otherwise16,7222,392e1,436c4,515b9,0324,59838,695
Not stated1,1081,552a838d2,153....5,651
Totals29,5024,0564,0309,61210,4336,41464,047

The following table shows the methods of settlement of disputes in each industrial district for the year 1922:—

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES, 1922.
Method of Settlement.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act..................
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..................
Compromise1..1......215
Substitution1..1....7312 
Otherwise819..1161541
Totals10111..11610958
Number of Workers involved.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act..................
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..................
Compromise112..70......22399504
Substitution11..149......7603921,312
Otherwise58053721..492,771273974,598
Totals70353940..492,7711,0108886,414
Number of Working-days lost.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act..................
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..................
Compromise224..70......1,118991,511
Substitution11..2,682......27,58810,36040,641
Otherwise6,54810613,827..2,64616,2774011,86051,304
Totals6,78310616,579..2,64616,27728,74622,31993,456
Estimated Loss in Wages.
 £££££££££
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act..................
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..................
Compromise100..32......9171051,154
Substitution....2,400......14,1967,44424,040
Otherwise5,5761347,483..2,69513,629306,04135,588
Totals5,6761349,915..2,69513,62915,14313,59060,782

RESULTS OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

In the following table the results of disputes in each industrial district for the year 1922 are shown:—

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1922, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO RESULTS.
District.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.
In Favour of Workers.In Favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.Total.In Favour of Workers.In Favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.Total.In Favour of Workers.In Favour Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.Total.
Northern12341065130227281703652145,8866186,783
Taranaki1......153......53106......106
Wellington..61411..67370197940..16,3127019716,579
Marlborough..............................
Nelson..1....1..49....49..2,646....2,646
Westland3328163929661651,2482,7718,9385,6662451,42816,277
Canterbury172..1027760223..1,0104027,5881,118..28,746
Otago and Southland15129111609996988811121,4139969622,319
Totals724918586483,1877841,7956,4149,26073,8397,4182,93993,456

It will be noticed that the number of disputes in 1922 which resulted in favour of the employers is greater than in previous years. Over the whole period more disputes had an indeterminate result than a result either in favour of the employers or in favour of the workers. In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1922 are correlated:

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.
In Favour of Workers.In Favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.In Favour of Workers.In Favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.In Favour of Workers.In Favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.
Wages..1817..1,94144737..64,809441,589
Hours11....65286....653,146....
Employment12232406801651598,6402,520245159
Other working-conditions52653431305756735552147,129673
Sympathy..1..3..150..226..3,150..518
Other causes........................
Totals7249186483,1877841,7959,26073,8397,4182,939

The results of all industrial disputes are classified under one of the four heads used in the foregoing table. The system of classification is more fully explained by the following notes:—

  1. (a.) In favour of workers. All disputes where the demands of the workers are totally conceded come under this category.

  2. (b.) In favour of employers. Disputes are classified under this head when the workers give way on the points at issue.

  3. (c.) Compromise. Disputes where the demands of the workers are partially but not wholly conceded come under this head.

  4. (d.) Disputes are classified as “indeterminate" when work is resumed without any definite settlement of the questions out of which the trouble arose.

RESULTS OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906-22.
Result.1906-17.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.Totals, 1906-22.

a In one case figures not available.

b In four cases figures not available.

c In five cases figures not available.

d In seven cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers26101231157101
In favour of employers9455141624158
Compromise2849214966
Indeterminate842119283218202
Totals2324045757758527
Number of Workers involved.
In favour of workers2,299686c810b3,868a5146488,825
In favour of employers18,2101,132a629a1,6271,0433,18725,828
Compromise3,26658397b331,6007846,138
Indeterminate5,7272,180c2,194d4,084a7,2761,79523,256
Totals29,5024,0564,0309,61210,4336,41464,047

Chapter 36. SECTION XXXVI.—MISCELLANEOUS.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

THE Public Trust Office is designed mainly to afford, at low rates of commission, a secure and convenient recourse in every case where a person residing either in New Zealand or abroad, and desiring to draw a will, form a trust, or appoint an agent or attorney in the Dominion, may be in doubt or difficulty as to the choice of a trustee, executor, agent, or attorney. The Office aims also to relieve those who for various reasons may be unable or unwilling to commence or continue the administration of trust property to which they may have been appointed.

Operations were commenced in 1873, at the end of which year 257 estates, of a total value of £17,500, were administered by the Office. By the 31st March, 1920, the number of estates had risen to 14,679, and the value of estates and funds to £20,860,686. The transfer of Native accounts to the Native Trust Office and the completion of the administration of deceased soldiers' estates led to a fall (to 10,175) in the number of estates at the 31st March, 1921, but in spite of this the value of estates and funds increased to £22,364,319 at the 31st March, 1921, and to £25,497,779 at the 31st March, 1922. Further increases in both the number and value of new estates are shown for the year 1922-23. the number of estates and the total value of all assets amounting to 9,779 and £28,904,798 respectively.

The following table shows the growth of the Public Trust Office during the last ten years:—

Year ended 31st March.Total Value of Estates in Office, including Unrealized Assets.Funds at Credit of Estates and Accounts.Interest credited to Estates.Bonus granted to Estates.Gross Income.Office Reserves.
 ££££££
191412,282,8836,366,707230,062..82,517212,901
191513,580,9367,096,420256,806..88,296250,213
191613,598,7447,082,288281,70025,000103,763302,369
191715,065,5838,058,886287,81827,000129,008295,234
191817,153,0319,004,057317,63330,000162,614345,871
191919,242,34710,065,027352,78333,100194,452393,377
192020,860,68611,911,290420,52638,000240,469418,640
192122,364,31913,918,906537,890..244,090437,414
192225,497,77915,329,125556,587..220,794451,585
192328,904,79817,466,787642,447..246,692491,775

The capital funds of the Public Trust Office invested on the 31st March, 1923, amounted to £15,349,301, made up as follows:—

 £
Government securities838,925
Local bodies' debentures4,175,437
Mortgages9,155,210
Properties acquired by foreclosure70,655
Advances against the vested share of beneficiaries in estates309,728
Land Settlement Finance Act debentures50,192
Cash on current account and on fixed deposit451,427
Freehold property, office furniture, &c.297,727
Total£15,349,301

The total interest from investments during the financial year 1922-23 was £789,949. The net profits of the Office during each of the last ten years are shown below:—

Year ended 31st March.Net Profits.
£
191429,222
191532,508
191646,108
191758,862
191868,602
191970,156
192078,246
192110,691
192211,053
192358,700

It is evident that the revenue of the Office has grown considerably during the decennium. A variety of causes contributed to the phenomenal fall for 1920-21 and 1921-22, the main factors being the granting of increased benefits to beneficiaries and the necessary provision for the cost-of-living bonus to members of the staff.

The Office reserves, which have been built up out of the profits made by the Office in successive years, amounted on the 31st March, 1923, to the considerable sum of £491,775. They consist of—

 £
Amounts held in the Assurance and Reserves Fund120,910
Amount held in the Investment Fluctuation Fund to provide against any possible depreciation in the Office securities69,165
Amount held in the General Legal Expenses Account3,973
Office premises, plant, equipment, &c.297,727
Total£491,775

An outstanding feature of the work of the Office at the present time is the rapid increase in the number of wills deposited, which affords convincing evidence of the growing confidence on the part of testators of the appointment of the Public Trustee as executor and trustee of their estates. The number of wills on deposit at the 31st March, 1914, was 6,427; by 1920 a remarkable increase to 25,792 had occurred, followed by a still further increase to 35,502 in 1923.

NATIVE TRUST OFFICE.

In order better to provide for the administration of Native funds and Native reserves formerly conducted by the Public Trustee, legislation was passed transferring the administration from the Public Trustee to the Native Trustee as from the 1st April, 1921. The Native Trustee Act, 1920, which together with the 1921 amendment thereof embodies the legislation relating to the creation of the Native Trust Office, provides for the appointment of a Native Trustee and of the Native Trust Office Board, to consist of the Native Minister, one other member of the Executive Council being either a Native or a half-caste, the Native Trustee, the Under-Secretaries of Native Affairs and of Lands, and one other person to be appointed by the Governor-General. The Office is subject to the control of the Minister of Native Affairs.

The funds of the Native Trust Office at the 31st March, 1923, amounted to £811,145, made up as follows:—

Amounts held under—£
    West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 189290,445
    Native Reserves Act, 188245,065
    Native Land Act, 1909 (Part X)164,228
Miscellaneous funds (including Maori Land Board accounts)484,294
Sundry creditors268
Reserve and Assurance Fund24,227
Investment Fluctuation Fund2,618
Total£811,145

The interest on investments for the year 1922-23 totalled £14,485, and commissions, fees, and charges brought in a further £4,245. The net profit for the year was £12,489, of which £11,240 was placed to the Reserve and Assurance Fund and £1,249 to the Investment Fluctuation Fund.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

During the year ended the 31st December, 1922, 417 joint-stock companies were registered, with a total nominal capital of £13,125,494, including 311 private companies, with a nominal capital of £1,851,759.

The following table gives the total number of companies and the aggregate nominal capital registered during each of the five years 1918-22:—

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES REGISTERED, 1918-22.
Year.Private Companies.Public Companies.Total.
Number registered.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number registered.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number registered.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £ £ £
19181301,289,320701,766,0312003,055,351
19192482,025,755803,916,8503285,942,605
19203563,573,7331455,990,2005019,563,933
19212622,069,858751,428,3503373,498,208
19223111,851,75910611,273,73541713,125,494

An abnormal increase, particularly in regard to public companies, is disclosed for 1922 when compared with 1921, this being the outstanding feature of the above table. The record value of nominal capital registered during the last year aggregated £13,125,494, which seems to indicate that the general slump experienced during the year 1921 is now at an end and business has on the whole returned to normal.

In the next table companies registered in 1922 are classified according to the amount of their nominal capital. Companies with nominal capitals of £20,000 or over numbered only 54 out of the total of 417, but represented 89 per cent, of the aggregate nominal capital. There were registered during the year 1922 five companies with a nominal capital of over £1,000,000, four with a capital between £100,000 and £1,000,000, and nine with a capital between £50,000 and £100,000.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPANIES ACCORDING TO AMOUNT OF NOMINAL CAPITAL, 1922.
Amount.Private Companies.Public Companies.Total.
Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £ £ £
Under £1,0003214,32472,2603916,584
£1,000 and under £2,0004554,15011,8754656,025
£2,000 £3,0004392,655918,50052111,155
£3,000 £4,00036113,980515,00041128,980
£4,000 £5,00027113,700624,00033137,700
£5,000 £6,00036180,7501575,10051255,850
£6,000 £7,00019115,800212,00021127,800
£7,000 £8,000857,500321,5001179,000
£8,000 £9,000432,000324,000756,000
£9,000 £10,000............
£10,000 £15,00036381,90017172,00053553,900
£15,000 £20,000692,000345,0009137,000
£20,000 £50,00017423,00019447,50036870,500
£50,000 and over2180,0001610,415,0001810,595,000
Totals3111,851,75910611,273,73541713,125,494

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.

There were 2,183 applications for letters patent during 1922; 1,294 were filed with provisional specifications, and 889 with complete specifications; while 352 complete specifications were lodged in respect of applications with which provisional specifications had been previously filed.

The total number of applications received up to the 31st December, 1922, was 49,419, and the patents in force in New Zealand at that date numbered 6,739. The number of patent agents on the register was 20.

In the following table are shown the countries of residence of persons who applied for patents in New Zealand during the last three years. Owing to applications being received from joint applicants resident in different countries, also from applicants giving two addresses, the figures total more than the actual number of applications received.

APPLICATIONS FOR PATENTS IN NEW ZEALAND, 1920-22.
Country.1920.1921.1922.
New Zealand1,1561,2911,389
Australia293285276
United Kingdom318220256
United States329210169
Canada182514
France151214
Holland3910
British South Africa898
Denmark538
Switzerland238
Italy677
Germany14307
Norway514
Sweden244
Austria....3
Czecho-Slovakia....3
Friendly Islands....1
India....1
Spain....1
Belgium1171
Argentine..41
Egypt51..
Hawaii11..
Japan11..
Mexico11..
Cuba..1..
Hungary..1..
Tahiti1....
Straits Settlements1....
Finland1....

The total number of applications during 1922 in respect of trade-marks was 1,103, and the fees received totalled £2,869.

Of the 1,103 applications, 495 were made by residents of New Zealand, 277 came from Great Britain, 150 from the United States, and 111 from Australia.

A substantial increase in the number of applications for registration of designs was noticeable during the year 1922, 214 applications being received, as compared with 141 in 1921. Registration was effected in 153 cases. Eighteen applications came from Australia, 12 from the United Kingdom, 7 from Canada, 1 from the United States, and the balance from New Zealand.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade-marks and designs in 1890, 1900, 1910, and each of the last ten years:—

Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.
18906161605
19001,00934815
19101,83181846
19131,77578765
19141,57468755
19151,29956589
19161,261666113
19171,32961983
19181,38669553
19191,8801,27274
19202,1931,391109
19212,115995141
19222,1831,103214

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.

The Inspection of Machinery Act makes provision for the inspection of all steam boilers and digesters, hydraulic, electric, and other lifts, and of any prime mover such as gas, oil, and air engines used to drive machinery on land, also of machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled.

It also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Working Railways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up by the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Inspector of Machinery.

During the year ended 31st March, 1923, the following certificates were issued:—

Boiler certificates8.161..
Machinery certificates24.963..
 ..33.124
Steam stationary—  
    Service—First class8..
    Competency—  
        First class49..
        Second class262..
Steam winding, competency15..
Electric winding, competency3..
Locomotive and traction, competency72..
Locomotive, competency7..
Traction, competency79..
Electric tram, competency43..
  538
Total..33.662

PUBLIC WORKS EMPLOYEES.

The number of labourers and artisans employed on public works during each month of the year ended the 31st March, 1923, was as follows:—

PUBLIC WORKS.
Month.Railways.Roads.Hydroelectric Works.Public Buildings.Other Works.Total.
1922—April2,1351,1465663161,3715,534
May2,2281,0856213291,8346,097
June2,3289916343682,0736,394
July2,3451,0256153152,3276,627
August2,4139826132812,4546,743
September2,3439846073292,4666,729
October2,3329646173012,3896,603
November2,3159636052862,2746,443
December2,1398595552661,7915,610
1923—January2,2339405632741,9785,988
February2,2531,1044783051,7165,856
March2,2011,0715073341,6255,738
Averages2,2721,0095823092,0256,197

The (monthly) average number of men employed in 1895, 1900, 1905, 1910, 1915, and each of the last five years was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Roads.Railways, Buildings, &c.Total.
18951,1039622,065
19001,8251,2433,068
19051,4072,1193,526
19101,7623,9295,691
19152,4942,2344,728
19191,0421,8412,232
19201,4952,4982,883
19211,6503,2353,993
19221,0624,0164,885
19231,0095,1886,197

CO-OPERATIVE SYSTEM.

The co-operative contract system adopted in connection with the construction of public works in New Zealand is somewhat as follows: When a length of railway or road is to be constructed on the co-operative principle the formation-work is divided into sections the size of which depends upon the difficulty of the work. Plans and a simple specification of the work are prepared, also an estimate of the cost based on the rate of wages ruling in the district for similar work. The work, at a price reckoned at so-much per unit of quantity or measurement, is offered to a party of men, who, if they accept, become the contractors. The work done by the men is measured periodically, and full payment made to the party, who divide the money amongst themselves according to the time worked by each workman. The engineer in charge of the work has a certain amount of discretion and control in respect of the character of the men employed, the progress of the work, hours of labour, &c.

The constitution of the party is left very much to the men themselves, and they have power, subject to the approval of the engineer, to ballot out any member who proves himself undesirable or inefficient. The Department supplies the men with materials, explosives, &c., at cost price.

When the work is let by direct contract tenders are publicly invited, but the sections of work included in each contract are more extensive than under the cooperative system, yet not too large to enable parties of working contractors to tender.

EMPLOYMENT BRANCH OF LABOUR DEPARTMENT.

The total number of men for whom employment has been found by the Department of Labour up to the end of March, 1923, is as given in the following statement, which also shows the number of persons dependent upon the men assisted:—

Year ended 31st March.Men.Dependants.
18953,0308,883
19002,1474,471
19053,1303,425
19108,50610,164
19157,5158,342
19193,1993,005
19204,2052,709
19213,3641,806
19224,9894,719
19233,9874,327
Totals to 31st March, 1923141,164173,202

Of the 141,164 men assisted to the 31st March, 1923, private employment was found for 65,711, while the remaining 75,453 went to works of various kinds for the General Government.

THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 1922.

A general election of parliamentary representatives was held in December, 1922—for Maori electorates on the 6th, and for European electorates on the 7th. Dealing with the latter only, it is found that out of a total roll number of 700,111 some 620,650 (88.65 per cent.) exercised their votes. A summary for the last three general elections is as follows:—

 1914.1919.1922.
Number of votes recorded for candidates elected286,433279,373313,699
Number of votes recorded for candidates defeated229,474263,367300,371
Number of informal votes5,6187,5876,580
Total number of electors who voted at the election521,525550,327620,650
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total valid votes recorded55.5251.4751.09
Total number of electors on roll616,043683,420700,111
Percentage of electors on roll who voted84.6680.5388.65
Percentage of votes recorded for candidates elected to total number of electors on roll46.5040.8844.81
Total population of Dominion at last Census (excluding Maoris)1,008,2061,142,0811,218,913

The population figures for 1919 are inclusive of 42,632 soldiers in camp and abroad who were allocated over the various districts in accordance with section 3 of the Parliamentary Elections Postponement Act, 1916. Both in 1919 and in 1914 the population of the Chatham Islands, which prior to 1922 were in no electoral district, was excluded.

The relative interest in the poll evinced by men and women may be measured by the percentage of votes recorded to the number on the roll—viz., men 89.40 per cent., women 87.85 per cent, (in 1922). Both percentages, as well as that of total voters to total roll numbers, are somewhat reduced by the fact of there having been no poll in the Bay of Plenty Electorate.

A statement of the voting in individual electorates in 1922 is given.

RESULT OF THE GENERAL ELECTION, 1922.
Electoral District and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.Number of Electors on Roll.Population at Census, 1921.

* Including Chatham Islands.

* Elected unopposed.

Bay of Islands   
    Bell, A.3,585....
    Reed, V. H.3,397....
        Informal114....
 7,0968,23014,748
Marsden   
    Murdoch, A. J.3,752....
    Jones, W.3,616....
        Informal95....
 7,4638,57215,163
Kaipara   
    Coates, J. G.5,001....
    Hornblow, R. E.2,537....
        Informal102....
 7,6408,59515,457
Waitemata   
    Harris, A.4,586....
    Burbush, F. H.3,315....
    Way, R. F.2,047....
        Informal81....
 10,02911,18418,212
Eden   
    Parr, C. J.3,901....
    Mason, H. G. R.3,226....
    Morton, F. S.1,392....
        Informal95....
 8,6149,35916,385
Auckland East   
    Lee, J. A.5,226....
    Mackenzie, C. N.4,511....
        Informal150....
 9,88711,40918,261
Auckland Central   
    Parry, W. E.4,786....
    Glover, A. E.3,783....
        Informal136....
 8,70510,34318,366
Auckland West   
    Savage, M. J.5,694....
    Farrell, J.4,345....
        Informal153....
 10,19211,06818,304
Grey Lynn   
    Bartram, F. N.5,648....
    Holdsworth, W. J.4,241....
        Informal126....
 10,01510,82118,369
Roskill   
    Potter, V. H.4,838....
    Skelton, A. H.2,831....
    Melville, Miss E.1,617....
    Purtell, J.1,481....
        Informal101....
 10,86811,79717,934
Parnell   
    Dickson, J. S4,789....
    Wren, S. M.2,465....
    McBrine, O.2,282....
    Noton, W.1,250....
        Informal72....
 10,85812,14618,145
Manukau   
    Jordan, W. J4,620....
    Lang, F. W.4,411....
    Adnams, W. D.301....
        Informal88....
 9,42010,71517,268
Franklin   
    Massey, W. F.5,276....
    Rea, J.2,526....
        Informal108....
 7,9108,91415,735
Raglan   
    Bollard, R. F3,494....
    Lye, S. C. G.2,718....
    Piggott, E.99....
        Informal139....
 6,4507,26713,954
Thames   
    Rhodes, T. W.3,936....
    Allan, W. A.3,146....
    Whiteside, A. J.72....
        Informal122....
 7,2768,36615,087
Ohinemuri   
    Poland, H.3,858....
    Allen, S. S.2,919....
        Informal75....
 6,8527,50814,087
Tauranga   
    Herries, W. H.4,488....
    Johnstone, L.3,048....
        Informal118....
 7,6548,59315,725
Hamilton   
    Young, J. A.5,173....
    Richards, A. S.3,130....
    Lafferty, C.486....
        Informal128....
 8,91710,15117,023
Waikato   
    Lye, F.2,454....
    Johnson, J. T.2,410....
    Dent, A. G.1,556....
        Informal68....
 6,4887,50614,327
Rotorua   
    Hockly, F. F3,407....
    Clinkard, C. H.3,003....
        Informal71....
 6,4817,15713,818
Bay of Plenty   
    Williams, K. S.*7,60613,928
Waitomo   
    Rolleston, J. C.3,418....
    Jennings, W. T.3,393....
        Informal37.. 
 6,8487,60314,640
Gisborne   
    Lysnar, W. D.3,465....
    Wildish, G.2,965....
    Brindle, T.2,521....
        Informal76....
 9,02711,10417,477
Hawke's Bay   
    McKay, G.3,982....
    Russell, A. H.3,665....
    Chapman, C. H.957....
        Informal105....
 8,70910,17716,992
Napier   
    McIlvride, L3,465....
    Mason, J.2,702....
    Jull, A. E.1,996....
    Brown, J. V.927....
        Informal89....
 9,17910,12917,693
Waipawa   
    Hunter, G.3,870....
    Langridge, J. J.2,794....
        Informal79....
 6,7437,80813,841
Pahiatua   
    Ransom, E. A.3,541....
    McNicol, A.3,482....
        Informal29....
 7,0527,58114,548
Masterton   
    Sykes, G. R.3,247....
    Hoims, A. C.2,691....
    Evans, F. C.1,635....
        Informal41....
 7,6148,26115,334
Wairarapa   
    McLeod, A. D.3,754....
    Card, J. W.3,056....
        Informal92....
 6,9027,79013,252
Stratford   
    Masters, R.3,605....
    Hine, J. B.3,242....
        Informal43....
 6,8907,28814,114
Taranaki   
    Smith, S. G.4,400....
    Bellringer, C. E.4,266....
    Tweedie, G.34....
        Informal8,8119,48116,378
Egmont   
    Hawken, O. J.3,597....
    Astbury, D.L.A.3,225....
        Informal40....
 6,8627,45214,143
Patea   
    Corrigan, J. R.3,384....
    Dixon, E.3,233....
    Pearce, G. V1,038....
        Informal65....
 7,7208,38914,956
Wanganui   
    Veitch, W. A.4,648....
    Coull, J.3,576....
    Ross, J.752....
        Informal67....
 9,0439,93817,771
Waimarino   
    Langstone, F.2,900....
    Smith, R. W2,013....
    McLean, D. D.1,662....
    Goldfinch, G. J.507....
    Littlewood, H.10....
    W. B.......
        Informal67....
 7,1598,22314,587
Oroua   
    Guthrie, D. H.3,634....
    Cobbe, R.3,591....
        Informal51....
 7,2768,14615,024
Rangitikei   
Glenn, W. S.3,985....
    Brady, F. P.2,978....
    Montgomerie,796....
    H. S.......
        Informal66....
 7,8258,86015,896
Manawatu   
    Linklater, J.3,648....
    Whibley, F. D.2,143....
    Flyger, H. T. F.986....
        Informal97....
 6,8747,44314,148
Palmerston   
    Nash, J. A.4,733....
    Hodgens, J.3,666....
    Christensen, V.A.558....
        Informal181....
 9,13810,12217,858
Otaki   
    Field, W.H.2,810....
    McClure, G.H.M.2,752....
    Harkness, C. I.671....
        Informal72....
 6,3057,30714,601
Hutt   
    Wilford, T. M.3,707....
    Pritchard, D. K.2,905....
    Bennett, H. D.2,317....
        Informal78....
 9,0079,87417,135
Wellington North   
    Luke, J. P.4,624....
    Combs, H.4,249....
    Young, J.1,540....
        Informal118....
 10,53111,74917,915
Wellington Central   
    Fraser, P.5,827....
    Bennett, W. H.1,625....
    Sievwright, A.B.1,550....
        Informal78....
 9,08010,55318,198
Wellington East   
    Monteith, A. L.4,274....
    Forsyth, T.3,801....
    McDonald, T. W.1,860....
    McVicar, Mrs. A.414....
        Informal102....
 10,45111,50018,173
Wellington South   
    McKeen, R.5,017....
    Mitchell, G.4,595....
        Informal101....
 9,71310,77318,230
Wellington Suburbs   
    Wright, R. A.4,992....
    Croskery, A. W.4,701....
        Informal126....
 9,81910,79218,055
Nelson   
    Atmore, H.5,174....
    Gilbert, A.3,010....
        Informal85....
 8,2698,90916,011
Motueka   
    Hudson, R. P.3,444....
    Patterson, R.2,906....
        Informal50....
 6,4007,02913,532
Bulls   
    Holland, H. E.4,413....
    Menzies, J.2,872....
        Informal94....
 7,3798,03814,240
Westland   
    O'Brien, J.2,926....
    Seddon, T. E. Y.2,439....
    Steer, J.1.952....
    Lynch, J. D.556....
        Informal52....
 7,9258,54515,171
Wairau   
    Girling, W. J.3,991....
    McCallum, R3,805....
        Informal72....
 7,8688,66415,150
Hurunui   
    Forbes, G. W.3,963....
    Andrew, S.2,765....
        Informal94....
 6,8227,98613,540
Kaiapoi   
    Buddo, D.3,328....
    Jones, D.3,263....
    Martin, R. D.756....
        Informal46....
 7,3938,26114,525
Christchurch North   
    Isitt, L. M.5,244....
    Archer, J. K3,294....
    Andrews, E. H.2,144....
        Informal127....
 10,80911,97518,365
Christchurch East   
    Armstrong, H. T.4,645....
    Thacker, H. T. J.3,551....
    Devereux, W. R.1,748....
        Informal95....
 10,03911,33618,304
Christchurch South   
    Howard, E. J.5,323....
    Lane, H. C.2,183....
    Ell, H. G.1,628....
    Thomson, R. M.77....
        Informal166....
 9,37710,55717,995
Riccarton   
    Witty, G.3,240....
    Kyle, H. S. S.3,005....
    McCullough, J.A.2,341....
        Informal71....
 8,6579,62717,355
Avon   
    Sullivan, D. G.4,462....
    Russell, G. W.2,426....
    Loach, A. E.1,731....
    Herbert, Mrs.1,407....
    A. E.......
        Informal122....
 10,14811,05918,381
Lyttelton   
    McCombs, J.4,758....
    Macartney, R.4,144....
        Informal114....
 9,0169,97418,064*
Ellesmere   
    Rhodes, R. H.3,814....
    Free, J. C.3,082....
        Informal85....
 6,9817,97913,730
Ashburton   
    Nosworthy, W.3,700....
    Jones, H. M.2,218....
    Cooke, F. R.1,184....
        Informal68....
 7,1707,92014,268
Timaru   
    Rolleston, F. J.4,709....
    Vinnell, P. C4,421....
        Informal93....
 9,22310,06717,859
Temuka   
    Burnett, T. D.3,705....
    Langford, T. H.3,298....
    Needham, P. R.28....
        Informal33....
 7,0647,81313,213
Waitaki   
    Bitchener, J.4,062....
    Paul, W. G.3,566....
        Informal104....
 7,7328,72515,197
Oamaru   
    Macpherson, J.A.4,067....
    Lee, E. P.4,053....
        Informal61....
 8,1818,84215,626
Dunedin North   
    Munro, J. W5,020....
    Clark, J. J.4,965....
        Informal68....
 10,05310,92217,840
Dunedin West   
    Stewart, W. D.5,437....
    Moss, C. M.4,156....
        Informal134....
 9,72719,83017,997
Dunedin Central   
    Statham, C. E.5,092....
    Gilchrist, J.4,369....
    Maslin, W. S372....
        Informal95....
 9,92811,12417,965
Dunedin South   
    Sidey, T. K.5,485....
    MacManus, J. E.3,758....
        Informal93....
 9,33610,42017,192
Chalmers   
    Dickson, J. McC.3,644....
    Stephens, J.2,965....
        Informal83....
 6,6927,63015,024
Clutha   
    Edie, J.3,798....
    Malcolm, A. S.3,678....
        Informal58....
 7,5348,43215,038
Wakatipu   
    Horn, J.4,129....
    Ritchie, J.2,492....
        Informal29....
 6,6507,27813,610
Mataura   
    Anderson, G. J.4,092....
    McDougall, D.3,051....
        Informal48....
 7,1918,09615,043
Wallace   
    Thomson, J. C.3,646....
    Hamilton, A3,441....
        Informal43....
 7,1308,09314,925
Invercargill   
    Hanan, J. A.3,818....
    Armstead, J.2,825....
    Farrant, H. J.2,618....
        Informal80....
 9,34110,34617,434
Awarua   
    de la Perrelle,3,531....
    P. A.......
    Hamilton, J. R.3,480....
    McIntyre, N147....
        Informal64....
 7,2227,98415,064

MAORI REPRESENTATIVES.

The Maori population at the census of April, 1921, amounted to 52,751 persons. With four representatives in Parliament, their ratio of representation is one to every 13,188 persons, compared with one to every 16,038 persons for European electorates at the same date. Polling in each district was a under:—

Electoral District and Names of Candidates.Number of Votes recorded.
Northern Maori 
    Tau Henare2,432
    Nau Paraone Kawiti991
    Hone Heke379
    Anaru Ngawaka332
    Ihaka te Tai303
Total4,437
Eastern Maori 
    Apirana Turupa Ngata4,559
    Taranaki Kanara te Uamairangi3,058
Total7,617
Western Maori 
    Maui Ngatata Pomare3,835
    Tokouru Ratana3,037
    Rangi Mawhete827
    Tuwhakaririka Patena113
Total7,812
Southern Maori 
    Henare Whakatau Uru287
    Peter Hohua MacDonald200
    Teone Matapura Erihana153
    William Daniel Barrett136
    Robert Agrippa Waitiri16
Total792

BY-ELECTIONS.

Since the general election of 1922 by-elections have been held in two electorates—viz., Tauranga and Oamaru—the former on the 28th March, 1923, and the latter on the 1st May, 1923. The Tauranga by-election was necessitated by the death of the sitting member, the Hon. Sir W. H. Herries, K.C.M.G., and the Oamaru by-election by the invalidation of the previous election owing to irregularities. The results were—

Tauranga.Votes.
Macmillan, C. E. de la B.4,360
Ward, Right Hon. Sir J. G., Bart., P.C.3,235
    Informal35
Total7,630
Tauranga.Votes.
Macpherson, J. A.4,492
Lee, Hon. E. P.4,147
    Informal21
Total8,660

LICENSING.

During the year ended the 31st March, 1922, 1,769 licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors were granted. Of these, 1,135 were publicans' and accommodation licenses, 45 New Zealand wine, 41 packet, 160 wholesale, 348 conditional licenses, and 40 club charters. The fees paid amounted to £40,593, and formed part of the revenue of the local governing bodies of the districts in which the licenses were issued. Particulars are given in the following table:—

NUMBER OF LICENSES TED DURING THE YEAR 1921-22, AND THE AMOUNT OF FEES PAID TO LOCAL BODIES THEREFOR.
Licenses.In Counties.In Boroughs.In Town Districts.Total.
Publicans' licenses32359737957
Accommodation licenses157183178
        Total licensed houses480615401,135
New Zealand wine licenses3510..45
Packet licenses1130..41
Wholesale licenses171412160
Conditional licenses1931541348
Club charters535..40
        Total licenses granted741985431,769
Amount of license fees paid to local bodies£10,767£28,262£1,564£40,593

The number of publicans' and accommodation licenses granted in counties, boroughs, and independent town districts during each of the last ten years is here given, together with the total amount of fees paid for all licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquor:—

Year ended 31st March.Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Total.Total Fees, All Licenses.
1913594592321.21842.456
1914578598421.21842.283
1915564596471.20741.769
1916557598441.19942.978
1917536598491.18346.164
1918540598461.18441.208
1919507606431.15639.817
1920496611491.15640.337
1921481613471.14140.538
1922480615401.13540.593

The average number of persons to each licensed house in counties, boroughs, and independent town districts respectively for 1921-22 is next shown:—

Number of Licensed Houses.*Population Census, 1921.Number of Persons to each Licensed House.
* I.e., houses holding publicans' or accommodation licenses.
Counties480496,6431,035
Boroughs615682,9461,110
Town districts4033,251831
Totals1,1351,212,8401,069

That the proportion of licensed houses to population has declined steadily in the last decade is evidenced by the following figures:—

Year ended 31st March.Average Persons to a Licensed House.
1913852
1914895
1915911
1916920
1917918
1918946
1919964
19201,004
19211,062
19221,069

The annual fees payable for licenses are,—

(1.) For a publican's license—£
    (a.) Within the limits of a borough or town district40
    (b.) Outside the aforesaid limits25
(2.) For a New Zealand wine license1
(3.) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding20
(4.) For a packet license— 
    (a.) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register10
    (b.) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register5
(5.) For a wholesale license20
(6.) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding30

The approximate capital value of the licensed houses in the counties for the year ended 31st March, 1922, was stated at £717,482, in the boroughs at £3,093,364, and in the town districts at £114,757. There was, besides, an annual value of £96,935 for licensed houses in other boroughs, which, capitalized at 6 per cent., would represent £1,615,583. The capital value of all licensed houses may therefore be put down at approximately £5,500,000. Caution should be exercised in this connection, as some of the valuations on which the above total is based are by no means recent

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL, 1922.

The licensing poll of the 7th December, 1922, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the second at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. The results of the voting are as follows, the 1919 figures being given also for purposes of comparison:—

 1919.1922.
For national continuance241,251282,669
For State purchase and control32,26135,727
For national prohibition270,250300,791

As in 1919, none of the three issues secured in 1922 the requisite minimum of half the total votes cast, and national continuance is deemed to have been carried. Voting in each licensing district was as under:—

District.For National Continuance.For State Purchase and Control.For National Prohibition.
Bay of Islands3,1454133,460
Marsden2,8344304,102
Kaipara3,2703753,898
Waitemata3,7937675,369
Eden3,1425254,817
Auckland14,1411,40012,858
Grey Lynn3,8704875,491
Roskill3,1256277,026
Parnell4,1438915,767
Manukau3,5226905,119
Franklin2,9164624,419
Raglan2,6663963,311
Thames3,2453033,608
Ohinemuri2,9744663,254
Tauranga2,9884594,108
Hamilton3,0296575,107
Waikato2,6724853,272
Rotorua2,6803603,353
Bay of Plenty3,3792482,454
Waitomo3,6304392,792
Gisborne4,3583194,261
Hawke's Bay4,5582633,796
Napier4,6543084,129
Waipawa3,4122232,991
Pahiatua3,4601713,344
Masterton3,6172833,579
Wairarapa3,5322343,054
Stratford3,0631453,609
Taranaki3,8113164,574
Egmont3,5521113,108
Patea3,7661723,703
Wanganui4,2162984,448
Waimarino4,2934392,350
Oroua3,5692003,435
Rangitikei3,7952803,674
Manawatu3,4381893,169
Palmerston3,9972634,796
Otaki3,1254522,660
Hutt3,8987654,263
Wellington14,4502,87212,502
Wellington S'th4,0048334,746
Wellington Suburbs3,6949585,031
Nelson3,7495963,820
Motueka3,8332992,224
Buller3,6682363,349
Westland4,7583292,731
Wairau3,7944613,531
Hurunui3,6924602,591
Kaiapoi3,2744773,511
Christchurch12,6823,09914,160
Riccarton3,7808423,919
Avon3,9868775,166
Lyttelton3,8617924,261
Ellesmere3,5794362,843
Ashburton3,5404363,025
Timaru4,2372964,583
Temuka3,6312793,084
Waitaki3,6962053,735
Oamaru3,5303424,129
Dunedin12,2241,73315,427
Dunedin South3,8015344,901
Chalmers2,9073133,377
Clutha3,3562703,748
Wakatipu3,6842042,701
Mataura3,2222293,576
Wallace3,6211733,247
Invercargill3,7455804,860
Awarua3,3932553,485
Totals282,66935,727300,791

LOCAL OPTION.

In the twelve no-license districts an additional issue was submitted—viz., local restoration. In ten cases non-restoration received a majority of the votes cast, and the votes in favour of restoration in the other two cases being less than the requisite three-fifths, no-license remains in force in each of the twelve districts. The voting figures for each district were—

District.License to be restored.License be not restored.
Eden3,0565,118
Grey Lynn3,8155,795
Roskill2,9497,396
Ohinemuri3,6103,044
Masterton3,5643,894
Wellington South4,2275,078
Wellington Suburbs3,7965,572
Ashburton3,8573,121
Oamaru3,5534,346
Clutha3,2134,060
Mataura3,2643,600
Invercargill4,0575,030
Totals42,96156,054

MAIN HIGHWAYS.

The advent of motor-driven traffic and the consequent difficulty experienced in constructing and maintaining the surfacing of the roads to a strength sufficient to withstand the increased wear-and-tear due to such traffic led to the drafting of a Highways Bill in 1921. It was not, however, till 1922 that the Main Highways Act was finally passed.

In other parts of the world similar-action had previously been taken, and for similar reasons. Practically all the Australian States have now Departments dealing entirely with the main thoroughfares. There are naturally differences in the various systems as necessitated by the varying conditions, but all systems have for their primary object the improvement and maintenance of the main traffic roads in their respective countries.

When the Main Highways Act was passed it was intended that its operations should be carried out by means of revenue from various sources, one of which was from licenses under the proposed Motor Vehicles Act. The Motor Vehicles Bill has, however, not yet been passed, so that the anticipated scope of the operations of the Board will have to be somewhat curtailed in the meantime.

There are in the Dominion approximately 59,000 miles of road, of which 23,438 miles are metalled, 17,117 miles are unmetalled, the remainder being tracks or unfounded. For the present it is not intended that more than eight or nine thousand miles at the most shall be declared main highways.

The personnel of the Main Highways Board was gazetted on the 12th June, 1923. The membership of the Board is as follows:—

  • Messrs. F. W. Furkert, Engineer-in-Chief of the Public Works Department (Chairman); G. C. Godfrey, Assistant Under-Secretary, Public Works Department; G. T. Murray, Inspecting Engineer, Public Works Department; A. E. Jull and J. D. Bruce, county representatives; and M. H. Wynyard, representative of owners of motor vehicles.

These members are appointed by the Governor-General, and hold office during his pleasure.

For the purposes of the Board the Dominion of New Zealand has been divided into eighteen highway districts. These highway districts are composed of groups of counties, suitable, by geographical situation and community of interest, for so being grouped. In the majority of cases the constituent counties acquiesced in the grouping. In the few cases where they did not do so the Board had to exercise the authority conferred by the Act. The list of highway districts, with the counties included in each, is as follows:—

District Number.District Name.Counties included.
1Auckland NorthMongonui, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangaroa, Hobson, Whangarei, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata, Eden.
2Auckland SouthManukau, Franklin, Waikato, Raglan, Waipa, Coromandel, Thames, Hauraki Plains, Ohinemuri, Piako, Matamata.
3TaurangaTauranga, Rotorua, Whakatane, Opotiki, Taupo.
4GisborneMatakaoa, Waiapu, Uawa, Cook, Waikohu.
5NapierWairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Patangata, Dannevirke, Weber, Woodville.
6King-countryWaitomo, Taumarunui, Ohura, Kaitieke, Kawhia, Otorohanga.
7TaranakiClifton, Whangamomona, Taranaki, Inglewood, Egmont, Stratford, Waimate West, Eltham, Hawera.
8WanganuiPatea, Waitotara, Waimarino, Wanganui, Rangitikei.
9Wellington WestKiwitea, Pohangina, Oroua, Kairanga, Manawatu, Horowhenua, Hutt, Makara.
10Wellington EastPahiatua, Akitio, Eketahuna, Mauriceville, Castlepoint, Masterton. Wairarapa South, Featherston.
11NelsonCollingwood, Takaka, Waimea, Sounds, Marlborough, Murchison.
12West CoastBuller, Inangahua, Grey, Westland.
13Canterbury NorthAwatere, Kaikoura, Amuri. ‘Cheviot, Waipara’.
14Canterbury CentralTawera, Oxford, Ashley, Kowai, Rangiora, Eyre, Waimairi, Heathcote, Paparua, Halswell, Mount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa, Springs, Ellesmere, Malvern, Selwyn.
15Canterbury SouthAshburton, Geraldine, Mackenzie, Levels. Waimate, Waitaki.
16Otago CentralManiototo, Vincent, Lake, Waihemo, Waikouaiti.
17Otago SouthPeninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka, Bruce, Clutha.
18SouthlandSouthland, Wallace, Fiord.

The following table shows the area, population, and capital value of each highway district, with the latest available figures of revenue from rates of the counties included, and the mileage of roads in the district:—

District Number.Area: Square Miles.Population.Capital Value. (£1,000.)General and Special Rates collected.Metalled Roads.Unmetalled Roads.Tracks and Unformed Roads.Total Roads.
    £Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
15,96353,30923,055153,2571,0622,6151,7245,401
25,69459,90334,884167,4441,2592,6061,6045,469
37,00512,8568,14330,5442041,3201,5513,075
43,08212,92818,130132,9193197794391,537
54,95127,30729,359156,6751,9956408893,524
63,99315,98310,95431,3505641,2445872,395
72,42731,53718,943136,8471,2136726632,548
84,12620,19922,61797,2661,0748807112,665
92,39732,13325,67095,8461,8471402382,225
103,26019,40118,996105,4421,2965643072,467
Totals, North Island42,898285,556210,7511,107,59010,83311,4608,71331,006
116,71023,25010,96537,5181,1033171,3172,737
128,60018,2184,31527,026791351,9332,759
135,5559,57612,67144,7348193131,1892,321
144,15048,91530,03190,8602,7105291,1484,387
159,97744,18134,09394,8803,2701,3751,4226,067
168,28913,6295,72521,6361,0151,0711,0173,103
173,80824,55410,23667,0457941,3521,3593,505
1811,17634,77218,69881,8102,1036657603,528
Totals, South Island58,265217,095126,734465,50912,6055,65710,14528,407
Totals, Dominion101,163502,651337,4851,573,09923,43817,11718,85859,413
Average5,62027,92518,74987,3941,3029511,0473,300

Each constituent county of a highway district appoints one representative to the District Council, of which the Public Works Department's Engineer of the District will also be a member. The District Council then appoints an executive with power to act on behalf of the District Council and to deal with the Main Highways Board.

The District Council has to make recommendations to the Board as to what roads shall be declared main highways, what is to be the nature of the construction, reconstruction, or maintenance undertaken on such roads, and how the funds for such work are to be provided, and by whom to be contributed.

In terms of the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, all moneys received as Customs duties on tires, &c., are to be paid to a separate fund as from the 1st January, 1922. The amount collected up to the 31st March, 1923, amounted to £136,000.

On the security of the amounts derivable from the tire-tax the Board-has authority to borrow up to an aggregate sum of £3,000,000. It is suggested that the expenditure of this loan should be spread over a period of ten years, so that the amount available for expenditure in any one year would average £300,000.

Besides this sum, there are to be allocations by Parliament of sums not less than £35,000 per annum from the Consolidated Fund for maintenance purposes, and not less than £200,000 from the Public Works Fund for construction purposes.

The Main Highways Account is to consist of two separate accounts, known respectively as the Revenue Fund and the Construction Fund. The Revenue Fund will include the above-mentioned proceeds of tire-tax and the £35,000 from the Consolidated Fund, together with other moneys that will in time be received from the licensing of motor vehicles, and moneys that will be paid to the Board by the local authorities. The Construction Fund will consist of moneys borrowed on the security of the tire-tax, moneys transferred as above stated from the Public Works Fund, moneys paid by any local authority to the Board for construction purposes, and moneys transferred from the Revenue Fund if not required for such fund.

From the Revenue Fund the Board can procure and, if necessary, hire to any local authority any roadmaking machinery, plant, equipment, or appliances, in order to assist the carrying-out of any work.

Towards the repair and maintenance of main highways the contributions are to be one-third from the Revenue Fund of the Main Highways Account, and two-thirds from the local authorities under such contributions as may be fixed by the Board. For the construction and reconstruction of main highways the contributions will be one-half from the Construction Fund of the Main Highways Account, and one-half by contributions from the several local authorities within the highway district. All work of whatever nature carried out by the local authorities on the main highways shall be subject to the supervision and approval of the Main Highways Board.

In regard to the proceeds derivable from the proposed Motor Vehicles Bill as well as the Customs duties on tires, all such funds shall be apportioned between the North and South Islands by reference to the number of motor vehicles in use in such Islands.

There is power under the Act for the Board to carry out works of construction, reconstruction, or maintenance without any contribution from local authorities, but in order to do so the roads on which such expenditure is to be incurred would have to be declared Government roads under the Public Works Act, 1908. It is quite evident that this power can only be used in extreme cases.

There is also power under the Act for the Board to pay contributions towards any operation of the main highways which lie within a borough, but at a rate not exceeding that permissible for similar work on the adjoining main highways.

The financial year of the Board ends at the 31st March of each year, and immediately thereafter the Board has to submit to the Minister of Public Works a report setting forth the works carried out, the revenue received, and the expenditure incurred during the year.

The present position is that the Highways Board has been formed, that it is holding meetings once a month, that the Dominion has been divided into eighteen groups, that these groups have mostly nominated representatives to the District Councils, and that it is anticipated all roads will be declared and all proposals for the improvement of such roads will be received before the 1st April, 1924, at which date the operations of the Board are to commence.

The benefits that are expected from the Main Highways Act are, briefly, that finance will be assured; that such finance will be available at any time after the 1st April of each year; that the funds available for expenditure upon roads will be considerably greater than previously; that, although some local authorities may feel embarrassed owing to the claims made upon them, the standard of work should be higher on account of there being at least one-third additional funds available for maintenance, while for construction purposes the additional moneys provided under the loans proposed on the security of the tire-tax will amount to at least £300,000 a year, and this in itself should result in great improvements in both the quantity and quality of the main highways.

WELLINGTON MUNICIPAL MILK-SUPPLY.

HISTORICAL.

The City of Wellington, situated at the southern extremity of the North Island, is almost entirely surrounded by high hills, and little of the surrounding country is suitable for dairy-farming. With the growth of the city the question of an adequate milk-supply assumed considerable importance, and as early as 1910 the Wellington City Milk-supply Act was passed, authorizing the City Council to take control of the distribution of milk within the city.

For some years advantage was not taken of the legislative authority provided, but by 1917 the position had become acute, and complaints against milk-vendors by both consumers and dairy-farmers led in 1917 to a decision on the part of the City Council to provide a clearing-house adjacent to the Thorndon Railway-station. The buildings were duly erected, and the clearing-house was brought into operation on the 9th January, 1918, but for various reasons was unable to carry out its functions, and was closed down on the following day.

On the failure of the clearing-house scheme a special committee was set up by the City Council to inquire exhaustively into the whole question of the milk-supply and to make recommendations as to the future course of action. While admitting serious deficiencies in the arrangements provided, and pointing out other contributory causes, the committee made it clear that want of co-operation on the part of the milk-vendors and their general attitude and conduct were sufficient to wreck the scheme, even were other conditions rectified. The committee recommended for the consideration of the City Council three alternate schemes, as follows:—

  1. (a.) That the Corporation facilitate the promotion of a joint-stock company, or perhaps two companies, to take over and control the delivery of the whole milk-supply to the city, with security of tenure under the control of the Council so far as prices and sanitary conditions are concerned.

  2. (b.) That the Corporation take over the whole supply of milk to the city, and operate same under the control of a separate Board appointed by the Council, and to hold office during the pleasure of the Council.

  3. (c.) That the Corporation take over the whole milk-distribution, and control same as a municipal trading department.

As a result of the committee's report it was decided to establish a municipal milk department as a trading concern, and in July, 1918, centrally situated premises were secured for use as a Corporation city milk-station. Some months later the Rahui Dairy Factory (at Otaki) was leased, with a view to enabling the Council to have a suitable reserve supply of milk and to dispose of any surplus by the manufacture of butter and cheese.

In January, 1919, the City Council commenced to purchase milk from farmers and to sell it to the vendors then in business, pending the result of negotiations with the milk-vendors. Terms were come to with the vendors in July, 1919, twelve months after the initiation of negotiations. The members of the vendors' association formed themselves into four separate companies, each of which entered into a contract with the Corporation for vending milk in the city and certain of the suburbs, under a blocking system. The contracts with the various companies were for a period of two years, subsequently extended to three years, from the 8th July, 1919.

Legislative authority for the steps taken up to 1919 had been contained partly in the original Act of 1910 and partly in War Regulations. In 1919, however, the Wellington City Milk-supply Act was passed, giving the Council a monopoly of the sale and distribution of milk in the city, with the power to grant licenses to persons to sell milk. About the beginning of 1922 it was decided to adopt the bottle system of distribution, and tenders were called from the existing vending companies and others for distributing the milk in bottles; but, no tenders being received, the Council took over the distribution on completion of the three years' period covered by the contracts with the vending companies.

The introduction of the bottle system, and the taking-over of the distribution by the City Council, have given eminently satisfactory results. Between 4,000 and 5,000 gallons of milk are daily supplied to the Wellington depot, and between 2,000 and 3,000 gallons to the Rahui station. The former is used for distribution in bottles, while the latter is available as a reserve supply, or, if not so required, is separated for sweet cream and the surplus made into butter or cheese.

The following information relating to the handling, treatment, and distribution of the milk is extracted from a report recently published by the Wellington City Council:—

RECEIVAL AND TREATMENT OF MILK AT WELLINGTON.

The general practice in the department is to receive milk from the farms only once daily, except in certain summer months, when milk is received twice daily.

When milk is received once daily the practice is for the evening's milk to remain at the farm dairy over night, and such milk is transported to the milk-station the next morning along with the morning's milk. All the milk is usually in the depot by noon of each day.

As the milk is received it is progressively sampled for testing, weighed, pasteurized, cooled, and canned or bottled, and is usually in cool store by 2 p.m., where it remains until midnight, after which it is loaded up, and deliveries are immediately commenced with a view to being completed in time for breakfast. Therefore, before consumption, the evening milk is approximately thirty-six hours old and the morning's milk twenty-four hours old; but it is to be remembered that of the period lapsing between the time of milking and delivery the milk is in cool store for approximately twelve hours.

During the period of double daily receivals the treatment of the evening's milk is accelerated, and it is therefore available for almost immediate delivery.

Except the supply to the Wellington Hospital, which is fresh milk from a specially selected farm, all milk is pasteurized by the holding system. The range of the holding temperature varies from 142° F. to 145° F., according to the season. Milk is held at this temperature for thirty minutes, and is then immediately cooled down to 50° F. before being canned or bottled.

HOW MILK AND CREAM ARE PUT UP FOR DISTRIBUTION.

All milk for distribution to householders is bottled in 1 pint, 11/2 pint, and 1 quart clear-glass bottles, while hotels, shipping, milk-shops, and other bulk customers are supplied in 5-gallon cans.

One pint of milk is the smallest delivery made by the Department's roundsmen, but any person requiring a smaller quantity is able to purchase from any of the milk-shops licensed by the Corporation to sell milk. Cream for retail distribution is also bottled and put up in amber-tinted glass bottles of 1/4-pint, 1/2-pint, and 1-pint capacity, while the wholesale supply is put up in cans.

BOTTLING MILK AND CREAM AND WASHING BOTTLES AND CANS.

The bottling-machine at present in use is a Davis-Watkins two-unit rotary filler and capper with automatic conveyer, and with both units working simultaneously the machine is capable of filling and capping up to 8,000 bottles per hour. A smaller machine is used for bottling cream, which is capable of dealing with 1,400 bottles per hour.

The bottle-washer in use is also a Davis-Watkins machine, with a capacity of 12,000 bottles per hour, being capable of thoroughly washing and sterilizing the bottles and bottle-crates.

Milk-cans (of 5 and 10 gallons capacity) are washed in a special can-washing machine by the application of hot water, soda-solution, and steam.

Upwards of 3,000 gallons of milk are bottled daily. The cost of bottling, including the washing of bottles, is estimated at 1.28d. per gallon, such cost covering interest, maintenance, and depreciation on bottling-machine, bottle-crates, bottle-washing machine, conveyers, interest on working stock of bottles, bottle-breakages at factory, cost of labour, power, water, steam, soda and soap, bottle-caps, and interest and depreciation on proportion of factory used.

The loss to the Department for breakages of milk-bottles (apart from householders' breakages, for which the Department does not accept liability) averages out at 0.7 per cent, of broken to filled bottles daily, the details being as follows:—

 Per Cent.
By bottle-room feeders16.01
By bottle-machine feeders13.60
On bottling-machines5.55
During packing of bottles10.04
In chilling-room7.30
On loading of carts14.00
On rounds19.90
On washing-machines4.60
During stacking after washing9.00
Total100.00

DISTRIBUTION.

For the retail distribution the Department has in use a number of flat-topped, horse-drawn four-wheeled vehicles, and for its wholesale delivery it uses motor-lorries, 1-ton trucks, and expresses. The retail loads vary in accordance with the districts to be served, but average about 70 gallons per vehicle for one man. In some cases two men are employed on one vehicle, in which case the loads are either greater to commence with or are replenished during the course of the round.

At the commencement of the bottle system of delivery each householder was supplied with a bottle or bottles equivalent to his regular daily requirements free of cost, but now all bottles are charged for at the following rates per bottle:—

  • Milk-bottles.—1 pint, 4d.; 11/2 pints. 6d.; 1 quart, 8d.

  • Cream-bottles.—1/4 pint, 3d.; 1/2 pint, 4d.; 1 pint, 5d.

The method of obtaining payment is as follows: A retail quantity of milk is any quantity less than 5 gallons, and such milk is supplied to householders only in exchange for the relative token or tokens, no cash being taken for any retail supplies except in the case of hotels, institutions, &c., when approved weekly or monthly accounts are arranged.

Milk tokens are in three denominations—viz., 1 pint, 11/2 pints, and 1 quart. These tokens are circular in shape, and approximate to the sizes of a threepenny-sixpenny-, and shilling-piece respectively.

A retail quantity of cream is any quantity less than 1 gallon, and is procurable either for the relative cardboard coupon or by cash. It was considered that if the use of coupons only was enforced a certain amount of trade would be lost on account of the spasmodic nature of the demand.

The filled bottles are exchanged for the empty bottles and relative tokens daily. If the empty bottle and token are not put out by the householder no delivery by the roundsman is made. Should a householder's bottle be broken, payment for the new bottle required must be made in cash.

The department has both summer and winter issues of tokens and coupons, so as to provide for the relative summer and winter prices of both milk and cream. The summer tokens are made of German silver, and the winter tokens are of copper-bronze.

The respective cream coupons are provided by the use of different colours of cardboard.

The department has established a network of agencies in the city at which tokens and coupons may be purchased by householders, and agents receive a commission of 2 per cent, on sales. The department maintains a motor service to keep the agencies fully supplied.

Milk-shops are supplied on weekly credits.

Sorting, counting, and wrapping machines are in use in handling the tokens, thereby minimizing labour charges.

The department's sales of milk vary daily from approximately 4,000 gallons in the summer season to 4,600 gallons in the winter, the reason for the winter increase being a lessened production by the near-by farmers who are licensed to sell direct to consumers, thereby throwing extra demand on the Department's supply.

The cream-sales vary enormously, fluctuating between approximately 400 gallons to 2,000 gallons per week, the latter figure being for Christmas week. Apart from Christmas week, the cream-sales during the summer season range up to approximately 1,000 gallons per week, the fruit and berry season having a good deal to do with the demand.

The Sunday sales of cream usually amount to more than all the other days of the week combined, the reason being that most customers take cream only once a week.

The relative percentages sold in each size of bottle to total sales are as follows:—

Milk-sales.
1-quart bottles40.39      69.79
11/2-pint bottles7.58
1-pint bottles15.82
Cans30.21 
 100.00 
Cream-sales.
1-pint bottles4.33     34.82
1/2-pint bottles22.72
1/4-pint bottles7.77
Bulk65.18 
 100.00 

The cost of distributing milk in bottles averages 4.50d. per gallon, including salaries and wages of distribution staff, interest, maintenance, and depreciation on stables, carts, harness, horses and men's equipment, cost of horse-feed, shoeing, and stablemen's wages. The cost of distributing milk in cans is estimated at 1d. per gallon.

The cost of collection for retail sales by the token system is estimated at 0.88d. per gallon, or equal to 4 per cent, of the value of the sales of milk and cream, such cost covering interest, depreciation on token machinery and tokens, rent of office, wages of token staff and part wages of cashier and assistant, commission on sale of tokens (2 per cent.), and interest and depreciation on motor-car, and running expenses thereof.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE.

The capital expenditure on the business to date is £101,770, made up as follows:—

 £
Land, buildings, and plant (Wellington and Rahui)74,419
Tokens and machinery1,066
Motors and carts9,832
Cans6,762
Bottles and crates7,064
Horses973
Harness704
Men's equipment109
Office furniture841
 £101,770

RELATIONSHIP OF DOMINIONS TO GREAT BRITAIN.

In the report of the Hon. Sir John Salmond, delegate for the Dominion of New Zealand to the Conference on the Limitation of Armaments, which was held at Washington from the 12th November, 1921, to the 6th February, 1922, is a passage setting forth clearly the relationship between Great Britain and her self-governing Dominions, and the status of the latter, in international matters. The passage is here quoted in full:—

Questions of interest and importance arise as to the constitutional and international significance of the representation of the oversea Dominions at the Washington Conference. Suggestions have been made in certain quarters that by permitting the presence of the self-governing dependencies of the Crown at international conventions such as those of Versailles and Washington those Dominions have in some manner acquired a new international status—that they are now recognized for international purposes as independent States, although in their constitutional relations they remain portions of the British Empire. It is not easy to attach any definite meaning to this suggestion; but, whatever its precise significance may be, there seems no foundation for it in the facts as to the Washington Conference. The true significance of the presence of representatives of the Dominions at that Conference is not that those Dominions have acquired for either international or constitutional purposes any form of independent status, but that they have now been given a voice in the management of the international relations of the British Empire as a single, undivided unity—relations which were formerly within the exclusive control of the Government of Great Britain.

It is to be noticed that the invitation of the American Government to attend a Conference at Washington on the limitation of armaments and on Pacific questions was an invitation to the Government of Great Britain and to the other seven Powers—namely, France, Italy, Japan, China, Belgium, Holland, and Portugal. There was no invitation to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, or any other Dominion of the Crown. The Government of every State so invited to Washington was left at liberty to send such and so many plenipotentiary delegates as it thought fit. The British Government thought fit to send seven, and to appoint four of these on the recommendation of the Governments of the overseas Dominions. These seven constituted jointly the British Delegation representing the British Empire, just as four plenipotentiaries represented France and three represented Italy.

The appointment of Dominion delegates, though made on the nomination of the Dominion Governments, was made by the King himself, just as in the case of the delegates from Great Britain. The oversea possessions thus represented at Washington were Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and South Africa. The last-named Dominion, however, was represented by Mr. Balfour, and not by a representative specially sent from South Africa. It will be noticed that each Washington Treaty is signed twice by Mr. Balfour—once in his general capacity as representing Great Britain or the Empire at large, and again in his special capacity as representing South Africa. It is to be observed that the list of oversea possessions so represented at Washington is not identical with the list of self-governing Dominions. Newfoundland is a self-governing Dominion, but was unrepresented. India, though represented, is not a self-governing Dominion. It would appear difficult, therefore, to base on such a system of representation any conclusion as to the acquisition of a new international status by the self-governing Dominions.

The procedure of the Washington Conference was in itself a clear indication that the Dominions were there not in their own right as quasi-independent States, but merely as constituent portions of an undivided Empire. When any question came to be voted upon for the purpose of ascertaining whether there existed that unanimous consent which was necessary for a treaty, the question was put to the British Delegation as a whole, and was answered “Yes" or “No" by Mr. Balfour as the head and spokesman of that Delegation, and on behalf of the British Empire as a whole. Although in the process of discussion and negotiation the representatives of the Dominions had and exercised the same right of audience as any other delegates, they never voted separately on behalf of their own Dominion on any question. The final decision in every case was that of the British Empire as an indivisible unity.

The position of the Dominions at Washington was essentially different from the position which they occupy at an assembly of the League of Nations. By the special and peculiar organization of that body, self-governing colonies are admitted as members in their own right as if they were independent States. Although by constitutional and international law such colonies are merely constituent portions of the Empire to which they belong, they are entitled by express agreement to be treated, so far as practicable, as if they were independent. But no such principle was recognized at Washington, or exists except for the special purposes of the League of Nations.

Although in its international aspect the British Delegation constituted a single body representing the Empire as an undivided State, it does not follow that in respect of the constitution of that Delegation and the relations of its members towards each other all of those members possessed an equal status or held co-ordinate authority. This, indeed, was not the case. An examination of the Letters Patent will show that a Dominion delegate is appointed to act only in respect of his own Dominion and not in respect of the Empire as a whole. The authority committed to the delegates from Great Britain is not subject to any corresponding limitation. Mr. Balfour, Lord Lee, and Sir Auckland Geddes were appointed simpliciter as the King's plenipotentiaries far all the purposes of the Conference. Their authority was general with respect to the whole Empire, and was not limited to Great Britain or to such portions of the Empire as were not separately represented. The British Delegation, therefore, did not consist of seven plenipotentiaries possessed jointly of co-ordinate and general authority. It consisted of three such plenipotentiaries, with whom were associated the four Dominion representatives, each of whom had authority in respect of his own Dominion only. The legal significance of this distinction is, as I understand the matter, that the Dominion delegates were present at Washington for the purpose of being heard and consulted as to all matters there in issue concerning the Empire, and of approving and confirming on behalf of their own Dominions the decisions of the King's general plenipotentiaries, and of testifying such approval and confirmation by signing on behalf of their own Dominions the treaties there negotiated.

The fullest opportunity was afforded to the Dominion delegates for the exercise of this right of audience and consultation, not merely by their presence at the plenary and public sessions of the Conference itself, and by their presence as members of the several committees in which the detailed negotiations proceeded, but also by the practice of holding repeated meetings of all the members of the British Delegation itself. At these meetings, of which there were no less than twenty-five during the period of the Conference, the Delegation associated with itself the chief technical advisers of the British Government. Full and free discussion took place as to all questions which had come or were likely to come before the Conference, and decisions were arrived at as to the policy to be adopted on behalf of the Empire at meetings of the Conference and of its committees.

These internal negotiations and discussions of the British Delegation proceeded throughout with the utmost harmony, and with the most ungrudging and courteous recognition on the part of the delegates from Great Britain of the right of the Dominion representatives to participate in the international policy of the Empire. No question ever arose on which it was found impossible to secure ultimate unanimity of decision within the British Delegation. If unfortunately it had been otherwise, and if any Dominion delegate, either of his own motion or under the instructions of his Government, had found himself unable to agree to some proposal which commended itself to the Delegation, it would then have been necessary for His Majesty's general plenipotentiaries from Great Britain to determine in their own discretion the action to be taken. If they were of opinion that the matter in dispute was of such minor importance, or related so exclusively to the Dominion itself, that the views of that Dominion ought to be acceded to for the sake of unanimity, this result could have been attained either by a modification of the terms of the proposed treaty or by excluding the dissentient Dominion from its operation unless and until it chose through its Government or Parliament to give its subsequent adherence. If, on the other hand, it was considered that the matter was of such general importance that dissent on the part of a Dominion should be disregarded in the interests of the whole Empire, it would have been within the authority of the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain to assent to the treaty on behalf of the Empire as a whole, without regard to such dissent. The fact that the delegate of one of the British Dominions had failed to sign the treaty on behalf of that Dominion would have had no effect on the international operation and obligation of the treaty. Any difficulty so unfortunately resulting would have been a matter for negotiation and settlement within the borders of the Empire itself, but would have in no way affected the external relations between the Empire and the other contracting Powers.

No legislation is required in New Zealand for the purpose of giving effect to the Washington Treaties or Resolutions. The only legislative action required is that of the Imperial Parliament, which will presumably find it expedient to legislate as to the building of ships-of-war for foreign Powers, and as to the criminal liability of persons guilty of violating the rules laid down at Washington for submarine warfare. Legislation as to the first of these matters is needless in New Zealand, and legislation on the second would be beyond the competency of a colonial Legislature as being extraterritorial in its operation.

The Washington Treaties, like all others which are negotiated by plenipotentiaries, come into force only on ratification. The ratification required by the constitutional law of the British Empire is that of His Majesty. No action in New Zealand is legally required. In view, however, of the direct participation of New Zealand in the negotiation and execution of those treaties, it may well be thought expedient that the treaties should be submitted to both Houses of the New Zealand Legislature in order that resolutions may be passed approving of their ratification by His Majesty.

THE TOTALIZATOR.

The law relating to the use of the totalizator in New Zealand is contained in the Gaming Act, 1908 (a consolidation of the existing legislation), and its amendments of 1910, 1914, 1915, and 1920 (two).

The Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881, “an Act for the suppression of gaming and betting houses, and for the more effectual abolition of lotteries,” marks the first legislative step towards controlling gambling. This Act made gaming and betting houses illegal, and prohibited the use of the totalizator except in conformity with sections 46 and 47 of the Act. which read as follows:—

46. Notwithstanding anything in this Act hereinbefore contained, it shall be lawful for the Colonial Secretary, on the application of any racing club, to grant to such club a license or authority to use the totalizator at horse-racing meetings held under the control or management of such club, subject to the following conditions, namely:—

  1. (1.) Before the application of the racing club is disposed of by the Colonial Secretary it shall be referred to the senior Resident Magistrate of the principal town of the provincial district in which the racing club is established for his report and recommendation thereon:

  2. (2.) The authority or license shall be in writing, and shall be revocable at any time the Colonial Secretary thinks fit to determine the same, either by written notice to the club or by notice published in the Gazette;

  3. (3.) No more than three totalizators shall be used by the club at one time, and none outside the race-grounds within the control or management of the club:

  4. (4.) Every totalizator shall be under the care and management of some competent person appointed by the club, and under the direct supervision of the stewards.

    1. (a.) “Totalizator" means the instrument for wagering or betting known by that name, and any other instrument or machine of a like nature and conducted upon the same principles;

    2. (b.) “Racing club” includes any club or association formed for the purpose of promoting horse-racing, or for the management of horse-racing meetings.

47. If the conditions above mentioned are duly complied with, no person shall be liable to any penalty or forfeiture under this Act, or any other law for the time being in force relating to gaming and lotteries, for the use of the totalizator in manner hereinbefore provided.

An amendment to the Gaming and Lotteries Act was passed in 1885, but did not make any direct reference to the totalizator. Its principal object was to further suppress betting, penalties being prescribed for exhibiting placards or otherwise advertising betting-houses, sweepstakes, or lotteries, with certain specified exceptions in regard to the two last mentioned.

The Gaming Act of 1894 was noteworthy for its prohibition of betting with an infant, and for its limitation of totalizator licenses. After the racing-year 1894—95 the number of totalizator licenses was to be not more than two-thirds of the number issued during the twelve months ended the 31st July, 1893. Laying totalizator odds or dealing in totalizator tickets was made an offence, and money paid or promised to be paid in connection with gaming transactions was declared not to be recoverable at law.

The Gaming and Lotteries Amendment Act of 1907 made several distinct changes, being designed to still further control gambling by confining all betting to racecourses. In addition to making much more stringent provisions in regard to gaming-houses, it provided for the closing of “tote" shops, decreed street betting to be punishable by a heavy fine, or, for a second offence, by imprisonment, and also made betting in factories and on sports-grounds illegal. It further prohibited the use of the “double" totalizator and the publication of dividends and racing tips, forbade racing clubs to accept any totalizator investments by telegram or telephone, and laid down that the totalizator must be closed not later than the time advertised for the starting of the race concerned. Racing clubs authorized to use the totalizator were empowered to license bookmakers, who, when so licensed, could carry out their business on the racecourse, but not legally elsewhere.

The 1907 Act also directed that, after deduction of 10 per cent. commission, all money received from investments on the totalizator must be paid out (to the last complete sixpence) by way of dividend.

The Gaming Act of 1908 merely consolidated all existing legislation on the subject and involved no change. Two years later, however, the Gaming Amendment Act, 1910, was passed with a view to abolishing the bookmaker altogether, and to further restricting the use of the totalizator. The provisions of the 1907 and 1908 Acts for allowing the bookmaker to operate on the course were cancelled, and further attempts to prevent street betting were made. In future every license issued for the use of the totalizator was to be in respect of a single race meeting, and to specify the number of days on which the totalizator was to be used at such meeting. The aggregate number of days on which the totalizator was to be used throughout New Zealand during any racing-year after 1910-11 was not to exceed 250, the number of days on which the totalizator could be used at any one race meeting was not to exceed four, and not more than eight races were to be run on any one day at any race meeting.

The original provision that applications for licenses to use the totalizator were to be referred to a Magistrate was deleted, and for the purpose of determining the racing clubs to which licenses were to be issued a Commission was appointed, with instructions to give consideration to the claims of those clubs which were using the totalizator at only one meeting during the year. The Commission duly allocated licenses to the number of 138, covering the 250 days' racing provided for. Racing clubs received 109 licenses covering 199 days, and trotting clubs twenty-nine licenses for fifty-one days. Racing clubs lost forty-three days, and trotting clubs eleven days, as compared with the preceding year.

In 1914 the maximum number of days on which the totalizator might be used was increased to 281 by the Gaming Amendment Act, 1914, which authorized the granting of single-day licenses to not more than thirty-one clubs not then holding licenses. Of these, not more than fifteen were to be racing clubs, not more than eight trotting clubs, and not more than eight hunt clubs. Hunt clubs, which had not been provided for in the 1910 Act, were thus catered for.

The Gaming Amendment Act, 1915, permitted clubs to make up in subsequent years any days' racing lost through their lands or buildings being used for military purposes.

In 1917 a reduction of ninety-four days per racing-year was imposed as a war measure, which continued in operation until the end of January, 1919. Racing clubs temporarily lost seventy-four days, and trotting clubs twenty.

In 1918 an Inspector of Totalizators was appointed by the Government, and either he or one of his deputies now attends every race meeting where the totalizator is used. The principal duties of the Inspector and Deputy Inspectors are to see that the totalizator-house is large enough to meet the public requirements, that no commissions received in the totalizator-house are held back to the last moment, that the total investments received on each race are correctly balanced, that the correct figures are shown on the dial of the totalizator before the release signal is given to the starter, that the dividends are computed and paid out on such figures, and that ample provision is made for the paying-out of dividends.

Two amendments of the Gaming Act were passed in 1920. The first of these declared the business or occupation of a bookmaker to be unlawful, and forbade persons to bet with a bookmaker on pain of a heavy fine or a term of imprisonment. Formerly the bookmaker alone was punishable.

The second amendment of 1920 authorized the granting of eight additional single-day licenses—all to hunt clubs—and validated the issue of licenses for certain special race meetings held on the occasion of the visit of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales to New Zealand. This amendment also referred the vexed question of the redistribution of permits to a Commission, upon receipt of whose report the Governor-General was empowered to issue an Order in Council authorizing the granting, for the racing-year 1921-22, of a number of licenses not exceeding the number recommended by the Commission, such Order in Council, however, to cease if not assented to by both Houses of Parliament.

In its report, which was duly presented after a thorough investigation, the Commission embodied the following unanimous conclusions:—

  1. (a.) That it is highly undesirable, either by redistribution of the licenses hitherto granted, or by the issue of additional licenses, or otherwise, to materially increase the volume of totalizator betting in the Dominion:

  2. (b.) That, considering the configuration of the Dominion and the scattered nature of its population, the number of race-days per year now permitted is not excessive:

  3. (c.) That there are anomalies and injustices in the present distribution of licenses which clamour for removal and rectification:

  4. (d.) That the population basis for the purpose of distribution is a fallacious one, but that population is an important factor and should have due consideration in every case:

  5. (e.) That outlying districts, and especially districts suffering under the disabilities of isolation, should receive special consideration:

  6. (f.) That to achieve any approach to accurate justice a certain measure of redistribution is imperative, and the issue of a certain number of additional licenses is unavoidable:

  7. (g.) That to effect this redistribution, provide these additional licenses, and remove the anomalies and remedy the injustices now present, without materially increasing the volume of totalizator betting, it is inevitable that certain clubs enjoying privileges beyond their just deserts, or beyond the reasonable recreation requirements of their respective districts, should suffer curtailment, and that others who have outlived their usefulness, or who are not really necessary to the district they purport to serve, should disappear from the racing-map altogether:

  8. (h.) That, with regard to what are called the metropolitan clubs, it should be recognized that the larger of these clubs are, in a sense, national institutions, catering according to high standards not only for the population in their immediate vicinity, but for the racing community at large, and should not be interfered with unless for grave reasons; but that the suburban clubs are in quite a different position, and are entitled to much less respect and consideration:

  9. (i.) That country clubs, as a class, are entitled to more sympathetic consideration than they have hitherto received, it being, in our judgment, not only strictly just, but in the public interest, that a sufficiency of recreation should be available for those living at a distance from the larger centres; but that in certain areas a quite unnecessary congestion of country clubs was apparent, and should, to some extent, be relieved.

The Commission recommended that 184 licenses be issued to 120 clubs, covering a total of 316 days, allocated over the three classes of clubs as follows:—

Number of Clubs.Number of Licenses.Number of Days.
Racing clubs72123223
Trotting clubs334678
Hunt clubs151515
Totals120184316

The recommendations involved a net increase of twenty-seven days' racing, mostly in smaller centres. An analysis of the schedule of recommendations shows that this net increase was to be arrived at by granting licenses for twenty-four days to nineteen clubs not now licensed, by granting licenses covering forty-four additional days to thirty-six clubs with existing licenses, and by not renewing the licenses of twenty-one clubs with an aggregate of forty days.

An Order in Council in terms of the Act was issued, but the authority therein given was not acted on pending parliamentary discussion. A Bill to give effect to the recommendations was introduced into the Lower House, but was negatived on account of opposition to the suggested redistribution of existing licenses. Matters accordingly remain as they were, totalizator licenses covering 288 days being issued annually. The number of days permitted by statute is 289, but only seven hunt clubs were eligible to apply for the eight additional single-day permits provided for by the Act of 1920. Statistics of totalizator investments, taxation, &c., are given in Section XXIIB of this book.

SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION PASSED IN NEW ZEALAND IN THE SESSION OF 1922.

The following are brief summaries of the most important enactments of the parliamentary session of 1922:—

The Local Bodies' Loans Amendment Act (1922, No. 4) amends in various particulars the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913. By section 5 local authorities are authorized, without the consent of ratepayers, to borrow money for the purpose of providing relief works for unemployed. Sections 7 and 8 make special provisions with respect to loans raised by local authorities for the purpose of extinguishing their antecedent liabilities within the meaning of the Local Bodies' Finance Act, 1921-22.

The Land Drainage Amendment Act (1922, No. 5) amends in various particulars the Land Drainage Act, 1908. The most important provisions are contained in—section 7, which, with respect to districts in which rates are levied on a graduated scale, fixes the number of votes exercisable by any ratepayer at elections or polls according to the value of his lands as determined, in the manner provided by the section, by reference to the classification of such lands; section 8, which provides that a person on the ratepayers roll of a district shall not be entitled to vote if his lands are exempt from payment of rates; section 12, which makes special provision as to the maximum rate that may be levied in districts where rates are levied on a graduated scale; and section 21, which authorizes the Governor-General to confer on any Drainage Board such of the powers of a River Board as he thinks fit.

The Naval Defence Amendment Act (1922, No. 6) makes various amendments of the Naval Defence Act, 1913, for the purpose of facilitating the working of that Act. Section 3 amends section 10 of the principal Act as to the period of enlistment of any person in the Naval Forces. Section 5 confers on the Governor-General additional power to make regulations, and section 6 authorizes him to delegate to the Minister of Defence, or to any officer or officers of the New Zealand Naval Forces, certain of the powers conferred on him by sections 17 and 20 of the principal Act.

The Tariff Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act (1922, No. 7) ratifies a tariff agreement with the Commonwealth of Australia made on the 11th April, 1922.

The Surveyors' Institute and Board of Examiners Act (1922, No. 8) amends the Surveyors' Institute and Board of Examiners Act, 1908. The Surveyor-General is made Chairman of the Board. The main object of the Act is to bring into the principal Act the provisions of the Land Act, 1908, and the Land Transfer Act, 1915, as to regulations governing surveys of land for the purpose of those Acts, and to widen the power of making regulations conferred on the Board by the principal Act, thus ensuring more efficient control and conduct of survey operations. The schedule provides an increased scale of fees for surveyors' licenses.

The Rotorua Borough Act (1922, No. 9) constitutes the Borough of Rotorua and repeals the Rotorua Town Act, 1907. There are certain special provisions in this Act rendered necessary by the Crown's interests in Rotorua, which distinguish the borough from other boroughs. By section 4 the Borough Council is to consist of six members, four to be elected, and two to be appointed by the Governor-General, to hold office during his pleasure. By section 7 the Tourist Department retains control of the borough until the first elected Councillors come into office. Sections 8 to 10 make special provision as to the vesting of certain drainage-works. By section 15 rents received by the Crown in respect of lands within the borough are made payable to the Borough Council. Section 16 prohibits the Council, except with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, from undertaking works likely to damage thermal springs. Section 17 authorizes the Council to levy separate rates for advertising Rotorua as a tourist and health resort, and developing the thermal areas as such.

The Administration of Justice Act (1922, No. 11).—The main purpose of this Act is to facilitate the reciprocal enforcement of judgments and awards made in New Zealand or elsewhere within His Majesty's dominions. For the most part it is an adaptation of sections 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 of the Imperial Act 10 & 11 Geo. V, cap. 81.

The Land and Income Tax Amendment Act (1922, No. 12) amends in various particulars the Land and Income Tax Act, 1916. Section 2 reduces the “super" land-tax. Section 4 limits land-tax on Native lands. Section 5 fixes rates of income-tax for the year commencing 1st April, 1922, and abolishes the “super" income-tax. Section 6 provides that losses in business may be set off against profits earned within the three following years. Section 7 provides that resident New Zealand companies carrying on business exclusively in Pacific islands other than British possessions shall pay income-tax only in respect of such part of their income as is received in New Zealand. Section 8 extends to dependent step-children and grandchildren the exemption from income-tax in respect of dependent children. Section 9 exempts war pensions from income-tax. Section 11 provides that losses incurred by a taxpayer in one business may be set off against profits earned in another business carried on by him. Section 12 reduces from 10 to 5 per centum the rate of tax on premiums in respect of contracts of insurance with foreign companies not carrying off business in New Zealand. Section 14 makes special provision as to business carried on by a husband and his wife.

The Swamp Drainage Amendment Act (1922, No. 13).—The object of this Act is to authorize expenditure from the Swamp Land Drainage Account under the Swamp Drainage Act, 1915, for the improvement of Crown land which is not situated in drainage areas constituted under that Act.

The Customs Amendment Act (1922, No. 14) is an amendment of the Customs Act, 1913. Section 2 extends the powers as to control of goods conferred on the Customs Department by section 5 of the principal Act. Section 3 imposes on the owner of a ship as well as on the master the duty of furnishing reports and manifests on arrival of the ship in port. Section 6 revokes the powers of Customs officers with respect to matters outside New Zealand territorial waters. Section 7 varies the rates of special duty on goods from countries having depreciated currencies. Section 8 makes further provisions for valuation of goods for assessment of Customs duties in certain cases. Section 9 makes special provision for fixing the current domestic value of goods imported into New Zealand through an intermediate country. Section 10 authorizes the Comptroller of Customs or any Collector to require production of documents relative to any goods with reference to which any question has arisen under the Customs Acts.

The Insurance Companies' Deposits Amendment Act (1922, No. 15) repeals Part II of the Insurance Companies Deposits Act, 1921-22, and fixes the amounts of the deposits to be made with the Public Trustee by British and foreign insurance companies before commencing to carry on business in New Zealand or before commencing to carry on additional classes of business.

The Weights and Measures Amendment Act (1922, No. 16) amends in various particulars the Weights and Measures Act, 1908, with a view to bringing that Act into line with present-day requirements. The Fifth Schedule to the principal Act (prescribing scales of fees) is repealed, provision being made for new fees to be fixed by regulations. Section 10 gives the Governor-General additional powers to make regulations—e.g., to prohibit the importation of any particular kind or kinds of weighing-machines or measuring-instruments; to prohibit the use of particular kinds of such machines and instruments for particular purposes; to regulate the sale of firewood, charcoal, coal, and coke, &c.

The Companies Amendment Act (1922, No. 18).—The object of this Act, which expires on the 31st day of December, 1923, is to enable the Supreme Court, where it is of opinion that it would be contrary to public interest or the interests of creditors that a financially embarassed company should be wound up, to direct a meeting of creditors for the purpose of considering the expediency of making some arrangement or compromise with the company. The Court has power to make binding any arrangement or compromise agreed to by such meeting. The Court is also empowered to stay actions, suits, petitions, or proceedings against companies.

The Coal-mines Amendment Act (1922, No. 19) amends in various particulars the Coal-mines Act, 1908. Several of the amendments are made for the purpose of bringing the principal Act into line with Imperial legislation. Further provision is made with respect to qualifications of Inspectors, mine-managers, and others. Section 2 enables coal leases and licenses to be granted in respect of scenic reserves, and section 3 provides for the granting of coal-prospecting licenses over education reserves. By section 9 payment for overtime worked underground is made compulsory. An important new provision is contained in section 23. Under that section, in any case where the lessee of any coal-mining lease assigns or otherwise parts with the demised premises, or enters into an agreement for that purpose in consideration of a royalty or other like payment in excess of 1s. (the maximum amount of the royalty paid to the Crown) per ton on the output of all marketable coal to be raised under the lease, the Minister, as a condition precedent to his consent to such transfer, may require to be paid such proportion of such royalty or other consideration as he may determine. Moneys paid to the Minister pursuant to this section are appropriated for certain specified purposes in connection with the development of the coal-mining industry in New Zealand. The object of the section is briefly to prevent speculation in coal-mining leases.

The Fireblight Act (1922, No. 20), which is made part of the Orchard and Garden Diseases Act, 1908, makes special provision for the control of fireblight.

The Post and Telegraph Amendment Act (1922, No. 21) amends the Post and Telegraph Act, 1908, and confers certain new powers. Section 2 authorizes the charging of a Customs clearance fee on postal packets containing dutiable goods. Section 3 authorizes the laying under streets of pneumatic tubes for the carriage of postal matter. Section 8 extends the provisions of section 176 of the principal Act as to protection of submarine cables. Section 9 extends the powers contained in section 3 of the Post and Telegraph Amendment Act, 1911, as to regulation of wireless telegraphy.

The State Fire Insurance Amendment Act (1922, No. 22) amends in various particulars the State Fire Insurance Act, 1908. Section 2 permits the reserve fund of the Office to be applied in the direction of allowing rebates to insurers in respect of premiums. Section 3 repeals the provisions of the principal Act as to a mutual guarantee fund. Section 4 alters the constitution of the State Fire Insurance Board.

The War Disabilities Removal Act (1922, No. 23) provides that Acts and War Regulations imposing disabilities on alien enemies within the meaning of such Acts and regulations shall not apply to any person who in New Zealand is a British subject by birth, naturalization, or otherwise.

The Amusements-tax Act (1922, No. 24) consolidates and amends the law relating to amusements-tax. The following classes of entertainments are exempted: (a) Agricultural and pastoral, horticultural, or poultry shows; (b) entertainments for charitable, philanthropic, patriotic, or educational purposes, or for purposes of any society not established for profit and where the performers are not paid for their services; (c) swimming-sports meetings.

The Mercantile Law Amendment Act (1922, No. 25) amends the Mercantile Law Act, 1908. The effect of section 2 is that a bill of lading is available, not only to a consignee or indorsee for valuable consideration but also to a shipper of goods, as conclusive evidence against the master or other person signing the same of the shipment of such goods. Section 3 makes important special provisions as to “received for shipment” bills of lading. Subsection (2) of that section prescribes the conditions under which such a document may be issued. Subsection (3) requires every such document to contain a provision as to shipment of goods unavoidably shut out from the named ship. Subsection (4) declares a “received for shipment” bill to be a valid bill of lading with the same effect, negotiability, and consequences as a bill of lading acknowledging actual shipment of goods.

The Electric-power Boards Amendment Act (1922, No. 26) amends the Electric-power Boards Act, 1918. Further provisions are made respecting the constitution and alteration of electric-power districts. The powers of Boards with respect to private lands are extended by section 17.

The Incorporated Societies Amendment Act (1922, No. 27) amends the Incorporated Societies Act, 1908. Clause 3 provides that rules of societies may make provision for the imposition on members of reasonable fines and forfeitures, and for the consequences of non-payment of any subscription or fine. Section 4 enables the Registrar to dissolve a society that has been registered by reason of a mistake of fact or law. Section 5 provides a new table of fees payable to the Registrar.

The Pharmacy Amendment Act (1922, No. 28) amends the Pharmacy Act, 1908. Section 2 restricts the registration of persons with British qualifications to those who have passed the full qualifying examinations for certificates and diplomas of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain or the Pharmaceutical Society of Ireland.

The Land Laws Amendment Act (1922, No. 29) amends in various particulars the Land Act, 1908, and the several amendments thereof. Section 3 allows the conversion of settlement land into ordinary Crown land or national-endowment land. Section 6 extends the existing provisions as to the acquisition of the fee-simple of small grazing-runs. Section 8 allows purchasers of Crown or settlement land to elect to accept renewable leases. Section 13 amends section 17 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1919, with reference to payment of certain land revenues to local authorities towards the cost of loans for roads and bridges.

The Harbours Amendment Act (1922, No. 30) amends in various particulars the Harbours Act, 1908. Section 2 enables Harbour Boards to grant leases of foreshore lands that can be made available for pastoral or agricultural purposes if reclaimed from the sea. Every such lease is to contain a condition that the lessee shall reclaim such land within a time fixed in the lease. Section 6 provides for space occupied by deck cargo to be made liable to harbour dues. Section 9 amends section 117 of the principal Act to provide that vessels exempt from dues may become liable in certain circumstances. Section 11 empowers Boards to construct, lay down, and maintain tanks and pipes for the storage and conveyance of oil, or to grant a similar right to any person, body, or authority, in respect of wharves, quays, docks, or land vested in such Boards. Section 16 increases the amount that may be levied as a harbour-improvement rate. Section 20 fixes increased fees, charges, and rates.

The Tongariro National Park Act (1922, No. 31) authorizes the setting-apart of certain lands, including Mounts Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, and Ruapehu, and lands in the vicinity thereof, as a national park, and provides for the control and management thereof by a special Board.

The Fencing Amendment Act (1922, No. 33) amends the Fencing Act, 1908. Section 2 makes provision for the recovery of the half cost of erecting a fence on the boundary of Native and European land, from a person to whom such Native land is alienated. Section 4 amends section 15 of the principal Act, which deals with determination by Magistrates of questions in dispute respecting the erection of rabbit-proof fences. Section 15 will now apply to the South Island as well as to the North Island; and the Magistrate is no longer to take into consideration the possible benefit to be received by the person on whom the notice is served, but the condition of the rabbit pest in the district, and the possibility of the land occupied by the person giving the notice becoming infested by rabbits from the adjoining land. Section 5 makes permanent provision for the fixing by the Governor-General in Council of the maximum half cost recoverable in respect of non-rabbit-proof fences, and repeals section 20 of the War Legislation Amendment Act, 1916.

The Government Railways Amendment Act (1922, No. 34) amends the Government Railways Act, 1908. Section 2 amends the classification of the Second Division of the Railway service. Section 3 provides for a new classification of the service. Section 4 enables scales of charges (to be paid for persons or goods carried on a railway) to be fixed by reference to distance as shown on the departmental record, notwithstanding any increase or reduction of such distance made by subsequent alterations of the railway. Section 6 fixes the penalty for a false statement in a consignment-note or waybill.

The Crimes Amendment Act (1922, No. 35) amends the Crimes Act, 1908. Section 2 amends the provisions of the principal Act as to offences against girls by providing that the defence that the accused had reasonable cause to believe that the girl was over the age of sixteen years shall be limited to accused persons under the age of twenty-one years at the date of the commission of the offence. The time after the commission of the offence within which a prosecution may be commenced is extended to nine months. Section 3 makes an offence the act of inciting any person to commit any crime mentioned in section 349 of the principal Act. Section 4 extends the power to grant search-warrants in certain cases.

The Cemeteries Amendment Act (1922, No. 36) amends the Cemeteries Act, 1908. Section 2 makes it necessary for the sites and plans of crematoria to be approved by the Minister of Health. Section 4 authorizes cemetery trustees to regulate or prohibit the interment of more than one body in any grave. Section 5 authorizes local authorities which are trustees of cemeteries to delegate their powers to persons appointed by them.

The Stamp Duties Act (1922, No. 37) is both a consolidation of the Stamp Duties Act, 1908, and other enactments, and a reconstruction of the law relating to stamp and other duties, a number of new principles being formulated. The Act is divided into Parts as follows:—

  • Part I.—Administration.

  • Part II.—Stamping of Instruments by the Stamp Duties Office.

  • Part III.—General Provisions as to Duties.

  • Part IV.—Conveyance Duty.

  • Part V.—Mortgage Duty.

  • Part VI.—Duty on Leases and Licenses.

  • Part VII.—Duty on Negotiable Instruments.

  • Part VIII.—Duty on Sales of Shares in Mining Companies.

  • Part IX.—Miscellaneous Stamp Duties.

  • Part X.—Annual Licenses of Companies.

  • Part XI.—Duties payable by Racing Clubs.

  • Part XII.—Transitory Provisions.

The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act (1922, No. 38) authorizes the borrowing of £4,000,000 for certain public works.

The Workers' Compensation Act (1922, No. 39) is a consolidation and amendment of the Workers' Compensation Act, 1908, and the other enactments mentioned in the Third Schedule to the Act. The maximum amount payable by way of compensation in respect of any worker is increased to £750. This Act is divided into Parts as follows:—

  • Part I.—Compensation.

  • Part II.—Procedure.

  • Part III.—Miscellaneous Provisions.

The State Advances Amendment Act (1922, No. 40) amends the State Advances Act, 1913, in various particulars, and is divided into Parts as follows:—

  • Part I.—Miscellaneous Business of Advances Office.

  • Part II.—General.

Part I (section 2) establishes a Miscellaneous Advances Branch to carry on certain classes of business of the Office, principally business transferred by this Act to the Office from other Departments of State. The advances of moneys under (a) the Fruit-preserving Industry Act, and (b) section 30 of the Finance Act, 1918 (No. 2), for the provision of cold-storage; (c) the Repatriation Act, 1918; (d) the Fishing Industry Promotion Act, 1919; and (e) the Housing Act, 1919, are by this Act made business of the Advances Office, and sections 3 to 13 of this Act make the necessary amendments of those Acts.

Part II: Section 16 provides that moneys advanced under Part II of the principal Act for repayment of mortgages shall bear interest at a rate exceeding by 1 per centum the rate for the time being chargeable on advances made for other purposes. Sections 17 to 19 establish reserve funds for the Settlers, Workers, and Local Authorities Branches. Section 20 provides that the net profits of branches shall be paid into the Advances Office Sinking Fund Account. Section 21 makes special provision in respect of advances under the principal Act, and also under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, on the security of the same property. Section 22 provides for an important extension of the powers of the Superintendent, who is authorized, subject to certain special conditions, to make advances in the Advances to Settlers Branch on chattel securities.

The Dairy Industry Amendment Act (1922, No. 41) amends the Dairy Industry Act, 1908. Section 3 provides for the testing of milk or cream purchased for manufacture in the manner prescribed by regulations. Section 4 makes it obligatory for every owner of a butter-factory or a cheese-factory to furnish to suppliers an annual statement as to weight of butter made from each pound of butterfat used for the manufacture of butter, the percentage which the weight of unsalted butter manufactured bears to the total weight of butter manufactured, and the weight of cheese made from each pound of butterfat used for the manufacture of cheese. Sections 5 to 7 provide for investigations by the Audit Office into the correctness of such statements. The effect of section 9 is to prohibit the exportation of cheese deficient in fats.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act (1922, No. 43), which amends the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1908, contains several important provisions relating to industrial unions and other labour organization. Section 2 provides that a dispute affecting two or more districts may be made the subject-matter of conciliation proceedings. Section 3 requires industrial unions and associations and societies bound by the Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 1913, to keep correct accounts of receipts and payments. Section 5 exempts County Councils and Road Boards from the operation of the principal Act. Section 7 requires the furnishing of a return by each industrial union, showing the names, addresses, and occupations of the officers, trustees, and auditors of the union, and also the number of members of the union. Provision is also made in this section for the furnishing of other returns. Section 8 makes further provision with respect to the nomination of nominated and acting-nominated members of the Court of Arbitration. Section 10 restricts the rights of industrial unions of workers and of societies of workers to require members to pay entrance fees. Section 12 provides for the registration of industrial unions of workers with less than fifteen but not less than five members.

The Settled Land Amendment Act (1922, No. 44) amends the Settled Land Act, 1908. Section 2 extends from forty years to sixty years the maximum term of certain classes of leases of settled land. Section 3 (based on 45 & 46 Vict., c. 38, sec. 10) empowers the Supreme Court to authorize leases of settled land for extended terms in certain cases.

The Rating Amendment Act (1922, No. 45) amends the Rating Act, 1908. Section 3 authorizes local authorities to allow a rebate for prompt payment of rates. The effect of section 4 is to extend to three years the time within which judgment for rates may be obtained. Section 5 makes provision for the charging of certain fees where land is sold to satisfy a judgment for rates.

The Legislature Amendment Act (1922, No. 46).—The object of this Act is to amend the Legislature Act, 1908, and to make special provision for the representation of persons resident in the Chatham Islands. Owing to the distance of the islands from the mainland, the restricted means of access, and the lack of faculties for printing rolls, &c., provision is made for the compilation of a special electoral roll and the taking of polls pursuant to regulations.

The Main Highways Act (1922, No. 47).—The object of this Act is to make provision for the construction, reconstruction, maintenance, and control of main highways. Section 3 empowers the Governor-General to declare any public highway to be a main highway for the purposes of this Act. Section 5 constitutes the Main Highways Board, which is to consist of two members, who may be public officers or other persons, one member being an officer of the Public Works Department, two members appointed with the approval of the Minister of Public Works on the recommendation of the New Zealand Counties Association, and one member to represent persons being owners of motor vehicles. Section 8 empowers the Board to divide New Zealand into highway districts, and for each such district to appoint a District Highways Council, consisting of an Engineer of the Public Works Department and one person to be appointed on the recommendation of each County Council whose district is wholly or partly within the highway district. Section 9 defines the powers of the Main Highways Board. Section 11 defines the functions of District Councils. They are to furnish annual recommendations as to public highways within their districts that should be declared to be main highways, as to necessary works of construction, reconstruction, maintenance, and repair of main highways to be undertaken during the year, and whether such works should be undertaken by the Board or by the local authorities in the district. With their recommendations the District Councils are required to furnish estimates of expenditure and certain scales of payments. Section 12 empowers the Minister of Finance to borrow £3,000,000 for construction of main highways. Sections 13 to 17 constitute the Main Highways Account and certain funds, and contain particulars as to payments into and out of such funds. Sections 18 and 19 provide for the apportionment between the Main Highways Board and local authorities of the cost of repair and maintenance, and of the construction or reconstruction of main highways. Section 20 provides that payments to local authorities are to be subject to work being in conformity with standards fixed by the Board. By section 21 motor-license fees and certain Customs duties are to be apportioned by the Board between the North and South Islands. Section 22 authorizes the Board to construct and maintain Government roads without contribution from local authorities. Section 23 provides for subsidies to Borough Councils in respect of maintenance of streets which, though not forming part of main highways, are continuations thereof. Section 24 provides for the laying before Parliament of an annual report and statement of accounts of the Main Highways Board.

The Scaffolding and Excavation Act (1922, No. 49). The object of this Act, which repeals the Scaffolding Inspection Act, 1908, is to make better provision for the prevention of accidents in connection with the erection and use of scaffolding and the making of excavations. It is very much wider in scope than the repealed Act. Notice of intention to commence any building-work involving a risk of a fall of 12 ft. or more, or any scaffolding or excavation, must be given to an Inspector twenty-four hours before actually commencing such work. Inspectors are given wide powers of controlling such work, and further powers of control are given by regulations. The terms “building,” “building-work,” “scaffolding,” “crane,” “gear,” and “excavation" are exhaustively defined.

The Finance Act (1922, No. 51) is divided into parts as follows:—

  • Part I.—Miscellaneous Provisions as to Public Debt.

  • Part II.—Public Revenues and Loans.

  • Part III.—Local Authorities.

  • Part IV.—Miscellaneous.

Part I (Miscellaneous Provisions as to Public Debt).—The principal provisions of this Part are contained in—section 2, which defines the moneys available for redemption of public securities; section 4, which enables minors to be registered as holders of inscribed stock and to execute transfers thereof; and section 8, which makes provision for funding advances made by the Imperial Government.

Part II (Public Revenues and Loans).—Section 11 declares public stores to be subject to audit and control as if they were public moneys. Section 13 provides for a general imprest account for the payment of interest. Section 14 extends the limit of the unauthorized expenditure of Harbour Boards. Section 15 extends the provisions as to payment of bonus on account of military service to persons domiciled out of New Zealand who served not less than six months continuously as members of the Voluntary Aid Detachments or as General Service Workers, and were paid therefor by the New Zealand Government. Sections 16 and 17 confer additional powers to borrow for the purposes of the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 1910, and the Hauraki Plains Act, 1908. Section 21 makes special provisions as to computation of Government subsidy in cases where general rates include Hospital Boards' levies. Section 22 exempts from gift duty, in certain cases, reductions of purchase-money payable under agreements for the sale of land.

Part III (Local Authorities).—Section 23 provides that local-authority debentures signed by agents need not be under the seal of the local authority. Section 30 empowers County Councils to expend money on tree-planting. Section 34 extends the authority of Hospital Boards to pay pensions to retired officers and servants. Section 35 empowers the Public Trustee to lend money to Hospital Boards on the security of debentures.

Part IV (Miscellaneous).—Section 39 makes provision as to the distribution of surplus profits of the Public Trust Office. Section 40 amends section 12 of the National Provident Fund Amendment Act, 1914, to allow of a reduction of contributions by a local authority on behalf of employees in consequence of a general reduction of salaries or wages. Section 42 enables trustees to grant relief to purchasers of trust lands in respect of outstanding purchase-money. Section 43 authorizes the Valuer-General at any time, for sufficient cause, to amend any district valuation roll. Section 44 extends indefinitely Part I of the Monopoly Prevention Act, 1908. Section 46 extends to the 31st July, 1923, the duration of the law as to restriction of rents. Section 47 corrects an error in the Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks Act, 1921-22, affecting evidence of validity of trade-marks. Section 50 makes provision for distribution of the surplus profits of the Accident Insurance Branch of the Government Life Insurance Department by way of rebates of premiums in lieu of bonus. Sections 51 to 56 contain various amendments of the law relating to the Public Service Superannuation Fund and the Teachers' Superannuation Fund.

The Chattels Transfer Amendment Act (1922, No. 52) amends the Chattels Transfer Act, 1908, in several important particulars. Section 2 amends section 16 of the principal Act to provide that an unregistered instrument shall not affect a bona fide purchaser for value without notice, or an auctioneer or dealer selling in the ordinary course of business. Section 3 amends section 26 of the principal Act to provide that an instrument comprising stock shall be deemed to include the stock referred to in section 26, whether or not such stock may be removed from the lands or premises mentioned in the instrument. Section 4 makes further provisions as to securities given over wool.

The Mining Amendment Act (1922, No. 53) amends the Mining Act, 1908. Section 3 provides that certain provisions of the principal Act shall continue to apply to State forests. The effect of section 4 is to enable certain Native lands to be made available for mining purposes. Sections 8 and 9 increase the fees payable in respect of certain examinations and the obtaining of certain certificates. Section 10 makes more stringent provision as to fencing and marking disused mine-shafts. Section 11 makes further provision for the notification of accidents in mines. Section 12 enables certain Inspectors under the Coal-mines Act, 1908, to act as Inspectors of Mines in certain cases.

The Native Trustee Amendment Act (1922, No. 54) amends in various particulars the Native Trustee Act, 1920. Section 2 vests in the Native Trustee the powers vested in the Board constituted by the Native Reserves Act, 1882. Section 4 provides that the Native Trustee may act as trustee of a person under a disability until another trustee is appointed. Section 6 provides an additional mode of fixing the rent to be reserved on the renewal of leases of Native reserves. Section 8 extends the powers of the Native Trustee with respect to the administration of Native estates. Section 9 declares the Native Trustee to be a leasing authority.

The Rural Credit Associations Act (1922, No. 55).—The object of this Act is to make provision by means of the establishment of rural credit associations for affording financial assistance to farmers and other rural workers. Section 3 provides for the incorporation under the Incorporated Societies Act, 1908, of rural credit associations for the purposes of this Act. Section 4 defines certain compulsory objects of rural credit associations—inter alia, the receiving of deposits from any persons at interest, and the lending of money to members. Section 6 provides that members shall be jointly and severally liable, without limitation of amount, for all the liabilities of the association. Section 7 defines the purposes for which an association may lend money to its members, and provides for the recovery of loans. Section 8 limits to £500 the total amount that may be advanced to any member. Section 9 provides for payment to members for certain services rendered to the association.

The Friendly Societies Amendment Act (1922, No. 56) amends the Friendly Societies Act, 1908. Section 3 empowers registered societies providing medical or surgical requisites to issue debentures. Section 5 provides that a contributing society may not, without certain notice being given, withdraw from a medical society. Section 6 enables fines imposed by societies to be recovered summarily.

The Sea Carriage of Goods Act (1922, No. 58) re-enacts, with alterations, certain provisions of the Shipping and Seamen Acts relating to the liability of shipowners for the carriage of goods, and comes into operation on a day to be notified by the Governor-General by Proclamation in the Gazette.

The Shipping and Seamen Amendment Act (1922, No. 59) amends in various particulars the Shipping and Seamen Act, 1908, and comes into operation on a day to be notified by the Governor-General by Proclamation in the Gazette. Sections 2 and 4 provide respectively for the number of engine-room attendants to be carried by steamships not burning coal and by ships not propelled by steam. Section 10 amends section 5 of the Shipping and Seamen Amendment Act, 1911, as to security in respect of seamen left on shore from foreign-going ships. Section 11 makes extensive amendments of the fees payable under the principal Act, and section 12 provides a new scale of fees for examination of plans of ships.

LOCAL ACTS.

The Hutt Road Amendment Act (1922, No. 1, Local) amends the Hutt Road Amendment Act, 1917, to enable the Wellington City Council to borrow an additional £20,000 for the purpose of constructing a permanent surface to that road, and authorizes the construction of such surface in bitumen or other permanent material, instead of concrete only, as specified in the Act of 1917.

The Christchurch City Sanitation Empowering Amendment Act (1922, No. 5, Local) amends the Christchurch City Sanitation Empowering Act, 1908, to confer on the Christchurch City Council power to expend loan-moneys raised under that Act on lands included in the city after the passing of that Act.

The Whakatane Harbour Amendment Act (1922, No. 7, Local) amends in various particulars the Whakatane Harbour Act, 1921-22. Sections 6 and 7 provide that failure to pay rates shall be a disqualification for voting and nomination purposes.

The Canterbury College and Canterbury Agricultural College Amendment Act (1922, No. 8, Local) amends the Canterbury College and Canterbury Agricultural College Act, 1896, by altering the constitution of the Board of Governors, and authorizes the expenditure of moneys in celebration of the jubilee of the college.

The Auckland City and Auckland Hospital Board Empowering Act (1922, No. 10, Local) validates an agreement for the exchange of certain lands between the Corporation of the City of Auckland and the Auckland Hospital Board, and authorizes the Auckland City Council to raise a further loan for the enlargement and improvement of the Auckland Municipal abattoirs, and to pay certain retiring-allowances.

The Palmerston North Reserves Act (1922, No. 12, Local).—The purpose of this Act is to facilitate the management of the reserves vested or to be hereafter vested in the Corporation of the Borough of Palmerston North, and for that purpose confers special powers on the Borough Council with respect to leasing, borrowing, and expenditure of revenue.

The Petone and Hutt Gas Lighting Act (1922, No. 13, Local) constitutes a special Board to produce and supply gas in and for the Boroughs of Petone and Lower Hutt, and certain lands contiguous thereto, and confers special powers on that Board.

The Christchurch District Drainage Amendment Act (1922, No. 14, Local) amends in various particulars the Christchurch District Drainage Act, 1920. The qualifications of electors and of voters on loan proposals are defined, and special provision is made with regard to classification of lands within drainage areas in the district.

The Wanganui River Trust Amendment Act (1922, No. 15, Local) amends the Wanganui River Trust Act, 1891. The constitution of the River Trust is altered, and many new powers are conferred on the reconstituted Board.

The Hamilton Domains Amendment Act (1922, No. 16, Local) amends the Hamilton Domains Act, 1911, by conferring additional leasing-powers on the Governor-General. These new powers may only be exercised with the consent of the Hamilton Borough Council, this consent being rendered necessary by the fact that the rent in respect of any lease under this Act is to be deemed to include all rates other than water rates payable to the Council in respect of the land comprised in such lease. Provision is made for payment to the Council of one-half the rent in satisfaction of such rates.

The Hutt River Improvement and Reclamation Act (1922, No. 17, Local) confers on the Hutt River Board certain powers for the purpose of improving the channel through the estuary of the Hutt River, vests in the Board lands reclaimed by the improvement-works provides for the drainage and other improvement of such lands, and authorizes the disposal thereof. It also validates a certain agreement between the River Board and the Wellington Harbour Board.

The Wellington City Empowering and Amendment Act (1922, No. 18, Local) amends the Wellington City Trading Departments' Reserve and Renewal Funds Act, 1917, confers further powers on the Corporation and the City Council with respect to the control and maintenance of private ways and to street-widening, and provides for certain payments on account of interest and sinking fund out of certain loans.

The Waimakariri River Improvement Act (1922, No. 22, Local).—The object of this Act is to make better provision for the improvement of the waterway of the Waimakariri River and the protection of certain land in Canterbury. A special district is constituted, with a Trust Board consisting of six elected members and two members (one of whom is to be Chairman) appointed by the Minister of Public Works. Certain powers of both River Boards under the River Boards Act, 1908, and of Drainage Boards under the Land Drainage Act, 1908, are conferred on the Trust Board, together with a number of special powers and duties. All proposals by any person or body for drains to empty into any river in the district or into any drains controlled by the Trust, and all plans for locks, tide-gates, bridges, ferries, or wharves, must be submitted to and approved by the Trust before being carried into effect. Certain lands are vested in the Trust; provision is made safeguarding railway lands, and the Waimakariri Harbour Board is to exercise its powers subject to this Act.

The Whangarei Borough Empowering Amendment Act (1922, No. 25, Local) enables the Whangarei Borough Council to vary the allocation of certain loan-moneys.

The Horouta District Licensing Poll Act (1922, No. 26, Local) provides for the taking of a poll in the Horouta Maori Council District to determine whether liquor may be supplied to Natives within the district.

Chapter 37. SECTION XXXVII.—ISLANDS ATTACHED TO NEW ZEALAND.

INTRODUCTORY.

ON page 1 of this book the islands comprising the Dominion of New Zealand are divided into three groups, viz.:—

  • Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general practical purposes.

  • Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847.

  • Annexed islands.

Only the first of these groups has been covered by the preceding sections of this book. The present section deals briefly with the second and third groups, and also with the mandated territories of Western Samoa and Nauru, and the new British settlement called the Ross Dependency, which is administered by the Governor-General of New Zealand.

OUTLYING ISLANDS.

The outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries as proclaimed in 1847 are—

  • Three Kings Islands.

  • Antipodes Islands.

  • Auckland Islands.

  • Bounty Islands.

  • Campbell Island.

  • Snares Islands.

The THREE KINGS ISLANDS (so named by Tasman on account of his having discovered them on the anniversary of the Feast of the Epiphany) are a group of uninhabited islets extending about seven miles in an east-north-east direction, and situated about thirty-eight miles west-north-west of Cape Maria van Diemen, at the northern extremity of the North Island. It was here that the s.s. “Elingamite" was wrecked on the 9th November, 1902, with heavy loss of life.

The AUCKLAND ISLANDS were discovered on the 18th August, 1806, by Captain Abraham Bristow, in the ship “Ocean.” The discoverer, who named the group after Lord Auckland, again visited the islands in 1807 and took formal possession of them. They lie about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their accepted position being given as latitude 50° 32' south and longitude 166° 13' east. They have several good harbours. Port Ross, at the northern end of the principal island, was described by the eminent French commander D'Urville as one of the best harbours of refuge in the known world. At the southern end of the island there is a through passage extending from the east to the west coast. It has been variously named Adams Strait and Carnley Harbour, and forms a splendid sheet of water. The largest of the islands is about twenty-seven miles long by about fifteen miles broad, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000 ft. above the sea.

CAMPBELL ISLAND was discovered in 1810 by Frederick Hazelburgh, master of the brig “Perseverance,” owned by Mr. Robert Campbell, of Sydney. It is mountainous, and of a circumference of about thirty miles. There are several good harbours.

The ANTIPODES ISLANDS are an isolated group, consisting of several detached rocky islands lying nearly north and south over a space of four to five miles; accepted position, 49° 41' 15" south, and longitude 178° 43' east.

The BOUNTY ISLANDS, a little cluster of islets, thirteen in number, and without verdure, were discovered in 1788 by Captain Bligh, R.N., of H.M.S. “Bounty"; position verified by observation, 47° 43' south, longitude 179° 0 1/2' east.

The SNARES ISLANDS are situated about fifty-six miles to the south-west of Stewart Island, and comprise six islets of a total area of about 600 acres.

On each group of outlying islands the New Zealand Government maintains a depot of provisions and clothing for the use of castaways.

KERMADEC ISLANDS.

The KERMADEC ISLANDS, four in number, with some outlying islets, rank as “annexed islands,” having been annexed to New Zealand by Proclamation dated the 21st July, 1887. The islands are situated between the parallels of 29° 10' and 31° 30' south latitude, and between the meridians of 177° 45' and 179° west longitude. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland, and lies a little more than half-way to Tonga, but 100 miles to the eastward of the direct steam route to that place. It is 300 miles eastward of the steam route to Fiji, and 150 miles westward of the steam route from Auckland to Rarotonga. Macaulay Island (named after the father of Lord Macaulay) and Curtis Islands were discovered in May, 1788, by Lieutenant Watts, in the “Penrhyn,” a transport ship. The remainder of the group was discovered in 1793 by Rear-Admiral de Bruni, Chevalier d'Entrecasteaux, during the course of his search for the missing La Pérouse. The Admiral gave the name of “Kermadec" to the whole group of islands, after the captain of his consort ship “L'Espérance,” and the name of the Admiral's ship, “La Recherché,” was given to the largest island. The name so given was not continued, but that of “Raoul" took its place, which would appear to have been given after the sailing-master of the “La Recherche,” whose name was Joseph Raoul. The name of “Sunday,” by which it is now generally known, may have become attached to the island from the fact that it was discovered on a Sunday.

The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than that of the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Espérance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723 ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but so difficult of approach as to be practically useless. Various attempts at settlement have been made from time to time, but the islands are now uninhabited.

COOK AND OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS ANNEXED IN 1901.

The COOK ISLANDS, with others included within the extended boundaries of the Dominion as from the 10th June, 1901, are as under:—

RAROTONGA: A magnificent island, rising to a height of 3,000 ft., clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation. It has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The two harbours are poor.

MANGAIA, the south-easternmost of the Cook Group, is of volcanic origin and about thirty miles in circumference. The productions, which are numerous and cheap, are obtained by assiduous labour.

ATIU resembles Mangaia in appearance and extent. It is a mere bank of coral 10 ft. or 12 ft. high, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts, where the ascent is gradual.

AITUTAKI presents a most fruitful appearance, its shores being bordered by flat land on which are innumerable coconut and other trees, the higher ground being beautifully interspersed with lawns. It is eighteen miles in circuit.

MAUKE (or Parry Island) is a low-lying island. It is about two miles in diameter, well wooded, and inhabited.

MITIARO is a low-lying island, from three to four miles long and one mile wide.

HERVEY ISLANDS: This group consists of two islands, surrounded by a reef which is about 10 1/2 miles in circumference.

NIUE (or Savage Island), lying east of the Friendly Islands, is a coral island, thirty-six miles in circumference, rising to a height of 200 ft. It has the usual tropical productions.

PALMERSTON ISLAND, lying about 500 miles east of Niue and about 220 from the nearest island of the Cook Group (Aitutaki), is remarkable as the “San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Sea. It has no harbour. The soil is fairly fertile, and there is some good hardwood timber.

MANIHIKI, lying about 400 miles eastward of Danger Island, is an atoll, about thirty miles in circumference, valuable from the extent of the coconut groves. The interior lagoon contains a vast deposit of pearl-shell.

PENRHYN ISLAND (Tongareva) lies about 300 miles north-east of Manihiki. It is one of the most famous pearl-islands in the Pacific, and there is a lagoon with two entrances capable of being made into a harbour fit for a large number of vessels.

RAKAANGA is an atoll, three miles in length and of equal breadth.

DANGER I,LAND (Pukapuka): Next to the 10th parallel, but rather north of the latitude of the Navigators and east of them, are a number of small atolls. Of these, the nearest to the Samoan Group—about 500 miles—is Danger Island, bearing, north-west of Suwarrow about 250 miles.

SUWARROW ISLAND lies about 500 miles east of Apia, the capital of Western Samoa. It is a coral atoll, of a triangular form, fifty miles in circumference, the reef having an average width of half a mile across, enclosing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The entrance is half a mile wide, and the accommodation permits of ships riding in safety in all weathers, with depths of from 3 to 30 fathoms. It is out of the track of hurricanes, but is at present uninhabited, although visited periodically. As a depot for the collection of trade from the various islands it might in time be very valuable.

CONSTITUTION AND LAWS.

The Constitution and laws of the Cook Islands and Niue have been remodelled by the Cook Islands Act of 1915.

Island Councils were continued or established, consisting either wholly or partly of ex officio, elected, or nominated members. Generally, European officials and Arikis or Native chiefs are Councillors ex officio, and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General or for a fixed period not exceeding five years. Women are eligible both as members and as electors of Island Councils.

Each Council is empowered to make laws for the good government of the island, with the proviso that such laws must not be repugnant to Acts of the New Zealand Parliament or regulations made thereunder. The maximum penalties imposed by the Ordinance of an Island Council must not exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine of £50. The Council has no power to deal with Customs duties, to borrow money, to establish Courts of Justice, or to appropriate expenditure of revenue other than that raised under authority of their Ordinance. No Ordinance has effect until it has received the assent of the Resident Commissioner or the Governor-General. The Governor-General may, by notice in the Gazette, disallow any Ordinance within one year after the Commissioner has given his assent.

Laws are enforced through the High Court, which has all jurisdiction, civil or criminal, necessary for the administration of justice. Judges and Commissioners of the High Court are appointed by the Governor-General; the Chief Judge to reside at Rarotonga, a second at Niue. A Commissioner may, with some exceptions, exercise the full powers and functions of a Judge, but rules of Court may allow appeal from his decision to that of a Judge.

A judgment obtained in a civil proceeding in the High Court may be enforced in the Supreme Court of New Zealand. From any decision in the former Court an appeal lies to the Supreme Court in the Dominion.

The manufacture or importation of intoxicating liquor is prohibited absolutely, except that the Resident Commissioner may import liquor for sale or for public purposes. Liquor imported through the Commissioner must not find its way into the hands of a Native. Attempts are made by the Natives to evade the law by illicitly manufacturing “bush-beer,” an offence which the Administration is endeavouring to check.

POPULATION.

At the census of the 17th April, 1921, the islands had a population of 13,209, made up as shown in the following statement. Uninhabited islands are not included.

Island.Native Population.Population other than Native.Totals.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.*Both Sexes.*Males.Females.Both Sexes.
* Includes 22 Native women married to and living as Europeans.
Aitutaki6826611,3431416306966771,373
Atiu432398-830437436401837
Mangaia6255841,2091011216355951,230
Manihiki2242054293..3227205432
Mauke29626556112517308270578
Mitiaro106101207......106101207
Palmerston414283......414283
Penrhyn170200370426174202376
Pukapuka288242530......288242530
Rakaanga1711383091..1172138310
Rarotonga1,7681,5193,2871051112161,8731,6303,503
Totals, Cook and northern islands4,8034,3559,1581531483014,9564,5039,459
Niue1,7031,9883,6913326591,7362,0143,750
Grand totals6,5066,34312,8491861743606,6926,51713,209

The population totals for each of the last five censuses are—

Island.1902.1906.1911.1916.1921.
* Includes 112 soldiers in camp in New Zealand.
Aitutaki1,1701,1621,2371,3021,373
Atiu918918812759837
Mangaia1,5411,5311,4711,2451,230
Manihiki484521444493432
Manuae (or Hervey)10..2923..
Mauke370446457490578
Mitiaro165210199237207
Niue4,0793,8223,9433,8803,750
Palmerston115821079083
Penrhyn445420335326376
Pukapuka505435490474530
Rakaanga400352315295310
Rarotonga2,0602,4412,7593,0643,503
Suwarrow30....7..
Totals12,29212,34012,59812,797*13,209

A system of compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages is now in force in the islands. The latest available figures are given in the “Vital Statistics” section of this book.

EDUCATION.

The educational requirements of the islands up to recent years have been largely met by missionary effort. The London Missionary Society has a number of village schools in the various islands, while the Roman Catholic Mission and the Seventh-day Adventists also maintain schools, though to a less extent.

The education provided in this manner is necessarily inadequate, and provision was made by the Cook Islands Act, 1915, for the establishment of public schools.

Regulations which came into force on the 1st January, 1917, make it compulsory for all children between seven and fourteen years of ago to attend school if living within three miles of a public school.

In 1916, when education in the Cook Islands was placed under the control of the Minister, there were three schools in the Group, two being in Rarotonga and one at Aitutaki. Since 1916 two new primary schools have been opened in Rarotonga—viz., Avarua and Titikaveka—and there are now also schools in Mangaia, Mauke, and Atiu.

A technical school, also created since 1916, has been established at Avarua, with classes in agriculture, drawing, and woodwork, and an advanced class in carpentry. In most of the schools classes for simple cookery and for mat and basket weaving are held.

In Niue two schools have been established. Special interest is shown in the technical branch, and additional technical classes are given after school hours. The leading pupils are being trained with a view to taking charge of village schools which it is hoped may soon be established in other districts of Niue.

Scholarships for annual competition, tenable for two years at St. Stephen's College, Auckland, for boys, and Hukarere School for Girls, Napier, have been created by the Administration.

Four advanced pupils are chosen each year from the Technical School and sent to Wellington to be apprenticed to trades. They are under a bond to return to Rarotonga on the completion of their apprenticeship. By this method the Administration intends to secure the necessary supply of skilled Native artisans required for the Group.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The revenue and expenditure for each of the last ten years are as shown in the table following, separate figures being given for the Cook Islands Administration and the Island of Niue:—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.
Cook Islands.Niue.Total.Cook Islands.Niue.Total.
 ££££££
191411,7222,49214,21410,1943,06813,262
191510,1181,95712,07510,6172,32412,941
19167,6731,9149,5879,0812,09411,175
19179,7102,06811,7788,5861,74710,333
191811,0682,78713,85512,6152,98715,602
191913,8473,60417,45112,3433,11115,454
192022,8816,56329,44417,0613,66220,723
192127,0996,93834,03727,7455,22132,966
192217,7194,29322,01223,5288,89332,421
192319,7916,06925,86019,1196,45325,572

The principal items contributing to the total receipts of £25,860 for the year ended 31st March, 1923, were: Customs duties, £12,179; copra export duty, £2,925; Court fees and fines, £1,475; and sale of stamps, £4,175.

At the 31st March, 1923, the Cook Islands Administration had a credit balance of £2,803, and the Niue Administration £973.

TRADE.

The exports of the islands for the year 1922 aggregated £150,888, and imports £132,144, as against corresponding totals of £86,082 and £139,313 for 1921. The figures for each of the last ten years are—

Year.Exports.Imports.
Cook Islands.Niue.Total.Cook Islands.NiueTotal.
 ££££££ 
1913109,92612,170122,096110,28313,761124,044
191477,5129,50387,01591,13211,200102,332
191563,0578,13071,18765,5909,67875,268
191668,1463,37971,52558,4789,51267,990
191760,1909,40069,59080,06113,07993,140
191882,70816,53799,24599,63217,258116,890
1919127,72935,997163,726142,92521,783164,708
192094,69713,140107,837177,91120,524198,435
192169,36116,72186,082112,97426,339139,313
1922135,76615,122150,888116,72615,418132,144

The principal exports from the islands are fruit and copra. The expansion of the fruit trade is, however, greatly retarded by the lack of a good steamer service to New Zealand. The following figures for the year 1922 are exclusive of exports from Niue, details of which are not available:—

 Quantity.Value.
£
Copra2,222 tons32,059
Oranges116,824 cases40,884
Bananas88,974 cases42,048
Tomatoes37,236 cases17,417

Other items are coconuts, pineapples, lemons, kumeras, mangoes, coffee, arrowroot, and shell. Niue also exports considerable numbers of the native hats.

As might naturally be expected, most of the trade of the Group is with New Zealand. The United States has stepped into the second position in recent years. The figures for 1922 are—

Country.Exports.Imports.
From Cook Islands.From Niue.Total.Into Cook Islands.Into Niue.Total.
* Including £135 exports from Niue to Cook Islands.
 ££££££
New Zealand105,78414,938120,72293,38613,188106,574
United States26,753..26,75316,35537016,725
Tahiti3,229..3,2291,108..1,108
Australia..222,5331,3893,922
United Kingdom..113,1903193,509
Western Samoa..3737..140140
Canada......149..149
American Samoa..66..1111
France......5..5
Tonga..33..11
Totals135,76615,122*150,888*116,72615,418132,144

WESTERN SAMOA.

Four large and many smaller islands, the whole of volcanic origin, form the Group known by its Native name of Samoa. The Native race inhabiting the islands is of typical Polynesian character, with straight hair, brown colouring, good physique, and mild and hospitable disposition.

The first known visit of Europeans to the islands was that of a Dutch expedition, under Jacob Roggeveen, in its voyage around the world in 1721-22. In 1768 De Bougainville called at the islands, and in 1787 La Pérouse, who named them “Navigators Islands,” a name by which they are still frequently called. The first British vessel to pay a visit was H.M.S. “Pandora,” in 1790. Missionaries, who were to play an important part in the development of the country, made their advent in the person of two members of the London Missionary Society, arriving at Savaii in 1830.

The first formal recognition of “whites" took place some eight years later, when Captain Bethune, of the British Navy, concluded a commercial treaty with the Native chiefs, by which harbour dues were to be paid and security to European interests guaranteed in return. Next year (1839) Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, in command of a United States exploring expedition, completed a similar treaty.

Three great nations were to have control of the destinies of the Samoans. Great Britain appointed a Consular Agent in 1847, the United States a Commercial Agent in 1853, and Germany her first representative in 1861.

In 1869 one of the frequent internecine wars of the Natives broke out, a war that was to have far-reaching consequences, for the foreign authorities took for the first time direct measures to ensure peace. The trouble arose over rival claimants to the Native chieftainship, and continued, despite several patched-up truces, for several years.

Petitions were presented to Great Britain in 1877, and the United States in 1878, that the islands should be annexed, but the statesmen of those days did not consider it advisable. In 1878, however, the United States were given the privilege of forming a naval and coaling station at Pago Pago, in the island of Tutuila, much the best harbour of the Group. Next year similar privileges were granted the other two Powers—Germany at Saluafata, and Great Britain at a place to be settled later.

Finally, at a conference in Berlin in 1889, an Act was signed by the representatives of the three States, guaranteeing neutrality and independence of the islands. This arrangement lasted until 1898, when, on the death of King Malietoa Laupepa, disturbances again arose over the succession. In accordance with the recommendation of a joint Commission the kingship was abolished. The Anglo-German agreement of the 14th November, 1899, accepted by the United States in January, 1900, gave to Germany all rights over Western Samoa, and to the United States, Tutuila and the other islands of Eastern Samoa.

On the outbreak of war in 1914 between the United Kingdom and Germany a New Zealand Expeditionary Force took possession of Western Samoa, landing at Apia on the 29th August, and remained in occupation until the establishment of Civil government under the ægis of the Dominion.

The islands are now administered by the New Zealand Government under mandate of the League of Nations, which is here quoted in full.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS.—MANDATE FOR GERMAN SAMOA.

THE Council of the League of Nations-:

Whereas by Article 119 of the Treaty of Peace with Germany, signed at Versailles on June 28th, 1919, Germany renounced in favour of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers all her rights over her overseas possessions, including therein German Samoa:

And whereas the principal Allied and Associated Powers agreed that, in accordance with Article 22, Part I (Covenant of the League of Nations), of the said treaty, a mandate should be conferred upon His Britannic Majesty, to be exercised on his behalf by the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand, to administer German Samoa, and have proposed that the mandate should be formulated in the following terms:

And whereas His Britannic Majesty, for and on behalf of the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand, has agreed to accept the mandate in respect of the said Territory, and has undertaken to exercise it on behalf of the League of Nations in accordance with the following provisions:

And whereas by the aforementioned Article 22, paragraph (8), it is provided that the degree of authority, control, or administration to be exercised by the Mandatory, not having been previously agreed upon by the members of the League, shall be explicitly defined by the Council of the League of Nations:

Confirming the said mandate, defines its terms as follows:—

Article 1.

The Territory over which a mandate is conferred upon His Britannic Majesty for and on behalf of the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand (hereinafter called the Mandatory) is the former German Colony of Samoa.

Article 2.

The Mandatory shall have full power of administration and legislation over the Territory, subject to the present mandate, as an integral portion of the Dominion of New Zealand, and may apply the laws of the Dominion of New Zealand to the Territory, subject to such local modifications as circumstances may require.

The Mandatory shall promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and the social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory subject to the present mandate.

Article 3.

The Mandatory shall see that the slave trade is prohibited, and that no forced labour is permitted, except for essential public works and services, and then only for adequate remuneration.

The Mandatory shall also see that the traffic in arms and ammunition is controlled in accordance with principles analogous to those laid down in the Convention relating to the control of the arms traffic, signed on September 10th, 1919, or in any convention amending the same.

The supply of intoxicating spirits and beverages to the Natives shall be prohibited.

Article 4.

The military training of the Natives, otherwise than for purposes of internal police, and the local defence of the Territory, shall be prohibited.

Furthermore, no military or naval bases shall be established or fortifications erected in the Territory.

Article 5.

Subject to the provisions of any local law for the maintenance of public order and public morals, the Mandatory shall ensure in the Territory freedom of conscience and the free exercise of all forms of worship, and shall allow all missionaries, nationals of any State member of the League of Nations, to enter into, travel, and reside in the Territory for the purpose of prosecuting their calling.

Article 6.

The Mandatory shall make to the Council of the League of Nations an annual report to the satisfaction of the Council, containing full information with regard to the Territory, and indicating the measures taken to carry out the obligations assumed under Articles 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Article 7.

The consent of the Council of the League of Nations is required for any modification of the terms of the present mandate.

The Mandatory agrees that if any dispute whatever should arise between the Mandatory and another member of the League of Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.

The present declaration shall be deposited in the archives of the League of Nations. Certified copies shall be forwarded by the Secretary-General of the League of Nations to all Powers signatories of the Treaty of Peace with Germany.

Made at Geneva the 17th day of December, 1920.

JEAN MONNET Deputy Secretary-General.

On the 1st May, 1920, by Orders passed by the Governor-General in Council, provision was made for the civil administration of the Territory; and by the Samoa Act, 1921, the constitution and legal system of the Territory were settled.

Western Samoa is administered by an Administrator appointed by the Governor-General of New Zealand, and responsible to the Minister of External Affairs. There is a Legislative Council, consisting of not less than four official members and of unofficial members not exceeding in number the official members, appointed by the Governor-General. The Administrator, acting with the advice and consent of this Council, is empowered to make Ordinances for the peace, order, and good government of the Territory, subject to disallowance by the Governor-General. A High Court is established, and the Supreme Court of New Zealand is given jurisdiction over Western Samoa.

The Samoan Natives are to a large extent granted domestic self-government.

The Faipule (Native Parliament, leading chiefs representing every district), who are appointed by the Administrator, meet twice yearly, and draft Native orders for submission to the Government.

GEOGRAPHICAL.

Western Samoa includes all islands lying between the 13th and 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st and 173rd degrees of longitude west of Greenwich.

The principal islands are Savaii and Upola. Savaii is the larger of the two, with a length of 48 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 660 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of over 4,000 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures nearly 600 square miles in area. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains the port and capital of Apia. Rainfall is plentiful throughout the Group.

POPULATION.

At the census of the 17th April, 1921, the total population of Western Samoa was returned as 37,157, made up as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
European population1,1289382,066
Native Samoan population16,79516,54133,336
Chinese indentured labourers1,290..1,290
Melanesian and Polynesian indentured labourers4569465
Totals19,66917,48837,157

At a census taken in July, 1917, and covering only Europeans and Samoans, the population was 37,331 (Europeans 1,927, Samoans 35,404). Samoans thus decreased by over two thousand during the period, the result of a terrible influenza epidemic which swept the islands in 1918-19 at a cost of nearly eight thousand lives.

The following figures of the movement of the population relate to the twelve months ended 31st March, 1923:—

Births.Deaths.Marriages.Immigration.Emigration.
European population901923517414
Native Samoans1,6021,0001288071,194
Chinese indentured labourers..6..18261
Melanesian and Polynesian indentured labourers22....4
Totals1,6941,0271511,3421,873

HEALTHAND HOSPITALS.

By the Samoa Health Ordinance, 1921, which is on the lines of the New Zealand Health Act, 1920, but remodelled to suit local conditions, the control of the medical and sanitary services was placed in the hands of a Board of Health.

A Government hospital is maintained at Apia, and a district hospital has been established at Tuasivi (Savaii).

Of the more important tropical diseases only three are prevalent in Western Samoa—viz., uncinariasis (or hookworm disease), framboesia, and filariasis. It is estimated that 90 per cent, of the Native population harbour hookworms, but the degree of individual infection is not great. The Administration, in conjunction with the International Health Board (Rockefeller Foundation), is taking steps to cope with this disease, and frambœsia is also being systematically dealt with. Filariasis is not regarded as such a pressing problem as the other two diseases, though it is estimated that filarial embryos are present in the blood of 25 per cent, of the Native population.

EDUCATION.

Education is principally in the hands of the missionaries. Practically every Samoan can read and write his own language, and English is also taught in the mission schools, as are also arithmetic, Scripture, and geography, and in some schools history.

According to returns supplied by the missions, nearly 10,000 scholars are in attendance at the various mission schools, which include village schools, district schools, high schools, and colleges. The Administration also maintains three schools, which at present have an aggregate roll number of 547.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The revenue for the financial year ended 31st March, 1923, including a subsidy of £16,000 from the New Zealand Government, was £131,250, of which receipts under the head of Customs and Marine contributed £75,469, other principal items being—Court fees, £11,605; Native taxes, £9,412; and Post Office and wireless-telegraphy receipts, £11,395. The ordinary expenditure for the year totalled £132,659, and in addition there was an extraordinary expenditure of £20,777 on a programme of public works. The figures of revenue and expenditure for each of the last five years are—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.
Ordinary.Extraordinary.Total.
 ££££
191985,98582,2223,27485,496
192080,21580,1151,37481,489
1921149,027136,77929,434166,213
1922135,569137,18149,229186,410
1923131,250132,65920,777153,436

The revenue for the last three years has been augmented by a subsidy of £16,000 per annum from the New Zealand Government, the amount being based on the additional cost of the Medical and Education Departments of Samoa since New Zealand accepted the mandate, and on the cost of the wireless station in excess of revenue.

The total extraordinary expenditure on public works to the 31st March, 1923, is £114,342. Some of the principal items are—

 £
Roads and bridges (including reclamation for protection of roads23,669
Apia waterworks22,136
Hospital, Apia, out-stations and leper-station20,148
Hotel purchase and equipment13,521
Steam-laundry6,170
Native water-supplies4,598

TRADE.

The exports and imports of Western Samoa (exclusive of specie and military stores) for each year since 1914 are—

Year.Exports.Imports.
 ££
1914220,519236,239
1915262,389267,091
1916235,415180,340
1917320,444301,173
1918306,640309,396
1919532,500291,368
1920386,587561,153
1921241,539408,892
1922365,610282,939

The principal item of export is copra, exports of which in 1922 were valued at £319,333, or 87 per cent, of the total exports of the territory. Formerly the bulk of the copra went to the United States, but the States received only £29,044 worth in 1922, the balance going to Denmark (£118,562), Germany (£74,193), the United Kingdom (£72,856), and the Netherlands (£24,678).

Of the total imports of £282,939 in 1922, New Zealand supplied £82,596, Australia £104,663, the United States £63,345, and the United Kingdom £14,202.

NAURU.

Barely one-third of a degree south of the Equator, and lying 166° 55' east of Greenwich, is the little phosphate island known as Nauru, or Pleasant Island. Prior to the world-wide conflagration of 1914-19 this rich though little-known island was a German possession. It was surrendered to H.M.A.S. “Melbourne" on the 9th September, 1914, and was included with the rest of the German New Guinea possessions in the capitulation of Herbertshohe. The island was garrisoned with Australian troops on the 6th November, 1914, and a Civil administration was established on the 1st January, 1915. A mandate for the administration of the island was conferred by the Allied and Associated Powers upon the British Empire, to come into operation at the same date as the Treaty of Peace with Germany. The mandate is held jointly by the Imperial Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

An agreement between the three parties to the mandate was drawn up and completed on the 2nd July, 1919. The administrative control of the island is vested in an Administrator, whose term of appointment is five years. The first Administrator was appointed by Australia.

Under the concession granted by the German Government to the Jaluit Gesellschaft, and transferred by that company to the Pacific Phosphate Company, the rights of which were purchased by the Governments of Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand for £3,500,000 (including the company's interests in the near-by Ocean Island), and vested by these Governments in the British Phosphate Commission, the Commission holds the exclusive right to work the phosphate deposits on the island. Up to the 1st July, 1921, the owners of the land (Natives) were paid 1/2d. per ton royalty for all phosphates shipped from their land. The Native owners complained that this was not adequate remuneration, and representations concerning this were submitted to the three Governments interested, with the result that the Native owners are new paid—(a) £20 per acre for all phosphate lands taken up by the Commission on lease subsequent to the 30th June, 1921; (b) a royalty of 2d. per ton on all phosphate shipped from their respective lands. In addition, a royalty of ld. per ton is paid to the Administration, to be held in trust for the benefit of the Nauruans generally.

The yearly production of phosphates is allocated between the three Governments in the following proportions: United Kingdom, 42 per cent.; Australia, 42 per cent.; New Zealand, 16 per cent. This scale is subject to revision every five years. Any portion of its share not required by any Government may be disposed of either to the other Governments pro rata, or, if they do not require it, to other countries.

Nauru, which is encircled by a road ten miles long, has an area of only 5,000 to 6,000 acres. The island is surrounded by a wide reef. Near the coast-is a belt of flat land, covered with coconut-trees, of an area of about 1,400 acres. Behind this rises higher land covering some 4,250 acres, and enclosing a lagoon of almost fresh water. This higher country consists of a mass of phosphate of great richness.

At the census of the 24th April, 1921, there were 1,084 Native inhabitants, who speak a language akin to that of the Gilbert-Islanders. In addition there were 597 Chinese, 236 Caroline-Islanders, and 30 Marshall-Islanders, who have been introduced for the working of the phosphate-deposits. Europeans numbered 119, the total population being thus 2,166.

The exports of phosphates during each of the last five years for which information is available have been—

 Tons.
1916    105,012
1917    101,267
1918    76,440
1919    69,336
1920    149,609

In addition a little copra is exported, 189 tons being shipped from the island in 1920.

Sixty-four vessels, of a total tonnage of 206,159, were entered and cleared in 1920.

Nauru possesses a wireless station, which was erected by the German authorities as part of their chain of wireless stations throughout the Pacific.

The revenue of the Nauru Administration for 1921 was £10,192, and the expenditure £12,712. The figures for each of the seven years since the establishment of British administration are—

Year.Revenue.Expenditure.
 ££
19159,6514,775
19168,4035,872
19179,47416,531
19188,5565,042
19196,7614,727
192010,6114,818
192110,19212,712

ROSS DEPENDENCY.

By Imperial Order in Council of the 30th July, 1923, the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the adjacent islands and territories, were proclaimed a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act, 1887, under the name of the Ross Dependency. The new dependency has been placed under the jurisdiction of the Governor-General of New Zealand. The Order in Council referred to reads as follows:—

Whereas by the British Settlements Act, 1887, it is, amongst other things, enacted that it shall be lawful for His Majesty in Council from time to time to establish all such laws and institutions and constitute such Courts and officers as may appear to His Majesty in Council to be necessary for the peace, order, and good government of His Majesty's subjects and others within any British settlement:

And whereas the coasts of the Ross Sea, with the islands and territories adjacent thereto, between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, which are situated south of the 60th degree of south latitude, are a British settlement within the meaning of the said Act:

And whereas it is expedient that provision should be made for the government thereof:

Now, therefore, His Majesty, by virtue and in exercise of the powers by the said Act, or otherwise, in His Majesty vested, is pleased, by and with the advice of His Privy Council, to order, and it is hereby ordered, as follows:—

I. From and after the publication of this Order in the Government Gazette of the Dominion of New Zealand that part of His Majesty's Dominions in the Antarctic seas which comprises all the islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 60th degree of south latitude shall be named the Ross Dependency.

II. From and after the publication as aforesaid the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief of the Dominion of New Zealand for the time being (hereinafter called “the Governor”) shall be the Governor of the Ross Dependency; and all the powers and authorities which by this Order are given and granted to the Governor for the time being of the Ross Dependency are hereby vested in him.

III. In the event of the death or incapacity of the said Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief of the Dominion of New Zealand, or in the event of his absence from the said Dominion, the officer for the time being administering the government of the Dominion shall be Governor for the time being of the Ross Dependency.

IV. The said Governor is further authorized and empowered to make all such rules and regulations as may lawfully be made by His Majesty's authority for the peace, order, and good government of the said dependency, subject, nevertheless, to any instructions which he may from time to time receive from His Majesty or through a Secretary of State.

V. The Governor is authorized to make and execute, on His Majesty's behalf, grants and dispositions of any lands which may lawfully be granted or disposed of by His Majesty within the said dependency, in conformity with such rules and regulations as may from time to time be in force in the dependency.

Regulations respecting the Ross Dependency were made on the 14th November, 1923, and gazetted on the following day. They read as follows:—

Whereas by His Majesty's Order in Council under the British Settlements Act (Imperial), 1887, dated the thirtieth day of July, one thousand nine hundred and twenty-three, I, John Rushworth, Viscount Jellicoe, Governor-General of the Dominion of New Zealand, was appointed Governor of the Ross Dependency, and all the powers and authorities which by such order were given and granted to the Governor for the time being of such dependency were vested in me, and I was further authorized and empowered to make all such rules and regulations as may lawfully be made by His Majesty's authority for the peace, order, and good government of the said dependency:

Now, therefore, I, acting as Governor of the said dependency, in pursuance of the powers vested in me by the said Order in Council or otherwise, do make the following regulations:—

1. The laws and usages in force in the Dominion of New Zealand at this date shall be from this date in force in the Ross Dependency in all respects as if the same had been enacted or in force in such dependency by regulation or otherwise, except in so far as the same are inapplicable to the conditions of such dependency.

2. All laws hereafter enacted by the Legislature of the said Dominion shall, as far as applicable, have the same force and effect as if they had been duly enacted for such dependency, unless disallowed or modified by myself or the Governor for the time being of such dependency.

3. All persons appointed by myself or the Governor for the time being of such dependency shall have such power and authority as shall be granted them in due course of law, and may be empowered to do such things as are necessary or desirable to ensure that the said laws are duly observed and complied with in every respect, and to do all things necessary or expedient for the peace, order, and good government of such dependency, and to safeguard and preserve His Majesty's rights and sovereignty over and in respect of such dependency

As witness my hand this 14th day of November, 1923.

JELLICOE, GOVERNOR.

On the same day as the regulations were gazetted the appointment of George Samuel Hooper, Esquire, as an officer of the Government of the Ross Dependency was also gazetted. The notification of his appointment reads as follows:—

. . . I, John Rushworth, Viscount Jellicoe, Governor of the Ross Dependency, do hereby appoint

George Samuel Hooper, Esquire,

as an officer of the Government of the said dependency, with authority to do all things and take all steps necessary or expedient to safeguard, preserve, and cause to be observed within such dependency His Majesty's rights and sovereignty and the laws and regulations in force in the same; and the better to enable him to carry out such duties do hereby confer on him in respect of such dependency all the powers and authorities which may be exercised in New Zealand by a Stipendiary Magistrate, and also all the powers and authorities which may be so exercised by a Justice of the Peace, but so, nevertheless, that such powers shall in no way derogate from or limit his general executive and administrative authority in so preserving His Majesty's rights and sovereignty and the laws and regulations in force in such dependency in the same manner and with the same powers and authorities as the various executive and administrative authorities have in the Dominion of New Zealand for carrying out and enforcing the laws of such Dominion, to hold such office and exercise the duties thereof during pleasure. As witness my hand this 14th day of November, 1923.

JELLICOE, GOVERNOR.

Chapter 38. SECTION XXXVIII.—STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

I.—POPULATION.

Year.Population (exclusive of Maoris and for Annexed Pacific Islands) on 31st December.Births.Deaths.Marriages.
Males.Females.Totals.
185520,78116,41137,1921,460470406
186045,39434,31779,7113,1461,092690
1865117,37673,231190,6077,4902,7571,908
1870145,732102,668248,40010,2772,7031,851
1875213,294162,562375,85614,4385,7123,209
1880268,364216,500484,86419,3415,4373,181
1885312,125263,101575,22619,6936,0813,813
1890332,557292,951625,50818,2785,9943,797
1895369,725328,981698,70618,5466,8634,110
1900403,628364,650768,27819,5467,2005,860
1905467,366415,096882,46223,6828,0617,200
1910529,928472,7511,002,67925,9849,6398,236
1912553,212499,4151,052,62727,5089,2149,149
1913569,109515,5531,084,66227,93510,1198,813
1914568,161527,8331,095,99428,33810,1489,280
1915563,963538,8311,102,79427,8509,96510,028
1916549,895550,6681,100,56328,50910,5968,213
1917537,360560,3121,097,67228,23910,5286,417
1918542,046566,3271,108,37325,86016,3646,227
1919601,888575,5171,177,40524,48310,8089,519
1920617,756590,0791,207,83529,92112,10912,175
1921633,040606,9261,239,96628,56710,68210,635
1922645,524619,8731,265,39729,00610,9779,556

II.—PRODUCTION.

Year.Occupied and Cultivated Holdings over One Acre in Extent.Land (including Sown Grasses) under Cultivation.Live-stock.Coal-mines, Output from.
Horses.Horned Cattle.SheepPigs.
 Number.Acres.    Tons.
187110,2111,140,27981,028436,5929,700,629151,460..
187415,8831,651,71299,859494,91711,704,853123,921..
187820,5193,523,277137,768578,43013,069,338207,337162,218
188124,1474,768,192161,736698,63712,190,215200,083337,262
188631,7636,668,920187,382853,35815,174,263277,901534,353
189138,0838,462,495211,040788,91916,753,752222,553668,794
1896..10,698,869237,4181,047,90119,138,493239,778792,851
190162,78612,636,035266,2451,256,68020,233,099250,9751,227,638
190669,94214,114,925326,5371,810,93620,108,471249,7271,729,536
191173,87616,154,218404,2842,020,17123,996,126348,7542,066,073
1913........24,191,810..1,888,005
1914........24,798,763..2,275,593
1915........24,901,421..2,208,624
191677,22916,984,174371,3312,417,49124,788,150297,5012,257,135
191779,63617,064,797373,6002,575,23025,270,386283,7702,068,419
191880,14617,386,160378,0502,869,46526,538,302258,6942,034,250
191980,46817,613,337363,1883,035,47825,828,554235,3471,847,848
192081,59218,004,776346,4073,101,94523,919,970266,8291,843,705
192184,07618,159,829337,2593,139,22323,285,031349,8921,809,095
192284,89918,381,363332,1053,323,22322,222,259384,3331,857,819
192385,51918,417,489330,8183,480,69423,081,439400,889..

III.—TRADE.

Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand).
Wool.Grain.Frozen Meat.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 lb.£Centals.£Cwt.£
18551,772,34493,10479,20682,302....
18606,665,880444,39225,28513,112....
186519,180,5001,141,76111,1126,076....
187037,039,7631,703,944431,050141,135....
187554,401,5403,398,155629,634231,458....
188066,860,1503,169,3002,907,934906,228....
188586,507,4313,205,2752,158,604513,937296,473373,857
1890102,817,0774,150,5994,327,7531,030,415898,8941,087,617
1895116,015,1703,662,1311,011,052215,9711,134,0971,262,711
1900140,706,4864,749,1964,485,1551,034,0141,844,8312,123,881
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,149,368294,5741,690,6842,694,432
1910204,368,9578,308,4101,097,952319,0732,654,1963,850,777
1912188,361,7907,105,4832,348,673741,6002,573,2383,909,569
1913186,533,0368,057,620341,981131,9382,578,6934,449,933
1914220,472,8989,318,114750,904270,0113,229,9695,863,062
1915196,570,11410,387,875405,865215,4633,591,2607,794,395
1916185,506,85912,386,074180,58686,9853,326,0457,271,318
1917178,274,48612,175,36671,04874,6062,446,9455,982,404
1918108,724,5757,527,26656,81973,0882,036,9044,957,576
1919274,246,61319,559,537313,823355,0073,822,6839,628,292
1920162,327,17611,863,827209,595205,7184,629,28211,673,696
1921158,714,8285,221,479318,196214,5884,322,75411,164,345
1922321,533,21511,882,4631,190,689542,0893,518,0048,387,461
Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand)—continued.
Butter.Cheese.Phormium-fibre.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
* Not available.
 Cwt.£Cwt.£Tons.£
18557855,7864062,1631504,674
18601,0266,6238103,535611,240
1865****375
18703,43512,9952,7359,3275,471132,578
18751046604421,86263911,742
18802,7178,3507171,98389415,617
188524,923102,38715,24535,7421,06316,316
189034,816122,70140,45184,98621,158381,789
189557,964227,60176,743150,9091,80621,040
1900172,583740,620102,849229,11115,906332,182
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,17127,877696,467
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,37320,645448,414
1912378,1172,088,809577,0701,680,39318,641376,264
1913372,2582,061,651611,6631,770,29728,092721,924
1914434,0672,338,576863,7762,564,12519,702455,214
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,21123,220571,621
1916358,6322,632,293949,4163,514,31027,6741,001,725
1917254,3972,031,551885,7433,949,25123,5161,197,396
1918431,0233,402,223883,4304,087,27825,1671,387,763
1919345,8183,080,1281,572,3117,790,99022,347866,930
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0506,160,84018,949647,545
1921898,47811,169,5301,368,7868,199,1839,643293,775
19221,120,2009,041,5541,161,1964,686,8509,727265,080
Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand)—continued.
Gold.Gum (Kauri).Provisions, Tallow, Timber, &c.,Total New Zealand Produce exported.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Value.
 Oz.£Tons.£££
1855....3554,514173,324365,867
18604,53817,5851,0469,85152,795549,133
1865574,5742,226,4741,86746,06082,7293,503,421
1870544,8802,157,5854,391175,074212,0444,544,682
1875355,3221,407,7703,230138,523285,6745,475,844
1880303,2151,220,2634,725242,817537,7426,102,300
1885222,732890,0565,876299,7621,154,5796,591,911
1890187,641751,3607,438378,5631,440,7319,428,761
1895293,4931,162,1817,425418,7661,268,8438,390,153
1900373,6141,439,60210,159622,2931,784,35013,055,249
1905520,4852,093,93610,883561,4442,167,61615,503,530
1910478,2861,896,3188,693465,0443,648,77921,944,163
1912343,1631,345,1317,908401,3053,623,85121,272,405
1913376,1611,459,4998,780549,1063,375,92222,577,890
1914227,954895,3678,473497,4443,782,80425,984,717
1915422,8251,694,5534,575279,1334,668,98631,042,862
1916292,6201,199,2125,456339,8824,544,10832,975,907
1917218,624903,8884,594291,9174,481,57831,087,957
191811,98742,3912,419157,3136,302,11227,937,010
1919320,2101,334,4054,128255,81210,433,28353,304,384
1920212,973883,7486,481556,75610,577,82945,592,294
1921149,595612,1683,901367,1976,373,19343,615,458
1922131,848540,1826,391563,2705,790,19941,699,148
Year.Total Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
Total.From United Kingdom.From AustraliaFrom United States.
 ££££££
1855365.868813,460328,909....1,179,328
1860588,9531,548,333870,569649,47318,4742,137,286
18653,401,6675,594,9772,600,9942,565,28545,0848,996,644
18704,822,7564,639,0152,685,7361,655,08660,4979,461,771
18755,828,6278,029,1725,103,6102,355,988213,49213,857,799
18806,352,6926,162,0113,479,2171,930,408238,01112,514,703
18856,819,9397,479,9215,227,5511,254,908401,53214,299,860
18909,811,7206,260,5254,221,2701,087,593355,39516,072,245
18958,550,2246,400,1293,992,3591,261,125394,23314,950,353
190013,246,16110,046,0966,504,4841,776,9781,061,87223,892,257
190515,655,94712,828,8577,795,2841,815,7171,438,50128,484,804
191022,180,20917,051,58310,498,7712,359,3931,399,73739,231,792
191221,770,58120,976,57412,499,7872,583,8872,049,61842,747,155
191322,986,72222,288,30213,312,1932,914,8482,107,99045,275,024
191426,261,44721,856,09511,985,9463,376,3712,282,96648,117,542
191531,748,91221,728,83411,141,0673,554,5352,800,24853,477,746
191633,286,93726,339,28313,869,4554,002,1713,969,92559,626,220
191731,587,54720,919,2658,817,5193,660,9313,900,65851,602,418
191828,516,18824,234,0078,977,7255,133,3494,980,74852,707,441
191953,970,07530,671,69811,839,4305,081,9687,576,31484,641,773
192046,441,94661,595,82829,806,41610,555,66711,100,259108,037,774
192144,828,82742,942,44321,448,8176,486,8477,746,45787,771,270
192242,726,24835,012,56119,416,4764,213,0854,948,77877,738,810

IV.—TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION.

Year.Overses Shipping.
Inwards.Outwards.Registered Vessels belonging to New Zealand.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.Gross Tonnage.
185537888,61434179,825..
1860398140,276398140,2938,527
1865862295,625783283,02024,484
1870756273,151766265,40726,743
1875926416,727940417,82042,025
1880730395,675786424,04166,316
1885786519,700780513,00095,887
1890744662,769745649,70598,907
1895611672,951597648,946100,988
1900616854,632613825,275137,767
19056271,139,4106271,141,552170,957
19106091,389,0315881,367,207233,531
19126771,672,0926661,668,630245,445
19136451,738,9856351,699,807254,117
19146461,724,8496571,781,981168,552
19156381,641,4256491,635,933150,095
19165741,448,5175901,491,593148,497
19175431,405,7765471,381,882140,039
19185431,279,5485441,310,627141,751
19195641,480,8835741,505,256140,615
19207442,062,3707071,976,255139,945
19216781,940,2366781,944,341147,832
19225711,782,9875691,789,980150,589
Year.Government Railways. (Figures to 31st March following,)Electric Telegraph. (From 1895, figures for 31st March following.)
Miles open for Traffic.Miles under Construction.Railway Receipts.Miles of Line.Number of Messages.Cash and Cash Values, including Telephones.
   £  £
1870......1,887238,19527,422
187554246472,0733,156993,32374,420
18801,288192836,0773,7581,304,712100,023
18851,6131791,047,4184,4631,774,273112,778
18901,8421321,121,7015,0601,961,161110,697
18952,0141141,183,0416,2452,124,211148,955
19002,2122081,727,2367,2493,898,128222,305
19052,4072222,349,7048,3555,640,219298,079
19102,7531923,494,18211,3168,360,647438,989
19122,8511923,971,00212,5089,944,272528,119
19132,8542234,043,32813,04410,694,032579,816
19142,9452114,105,45713,43410,827,968665,938
19152,9702434,548,35613,68410,836,751846,259
19162,9702434,800,81013,89610,875,120855,298
19172,9832314,687,70013,68711,624,720868,182
19182,9832504,988,63213,81312,091,017993,991
19192,9962615,752,48713,72215,074,0671,044,336
19203,0092926,908,53113,72414,000,8511,237,763
19213,0213136,643,59113,76712,934,4651,312,231
19223,0282886,727,80211,91213,513,2081,309,347

V.—FINANCE.

Year.Revenue of General Government.*Expenditure of General Government.*Public Debt: Debentures and Stock in Circulation.*Debt of Local Bodies.*
Out of Revenue Account.Out of Loan Accounts.

* Financial year ended 31st March of year following.

† Excluding Government loans.

‡ Calendar years prior to 1880; after 1880, for year ended 31st March of year following.

 £££££
1870......7,841,891..
1875......17,400,031..
1880......28,185,7113,039,807
1885......33,880,7224,943,270
1890......38,830,3506,042,693
18954,556,0154,370,481..43,050,7806,737,578
19005,854,1165,479,7041,746,14149,591,2457,563,069
19057,585,0987,122,3402,972,58962,191,04010,718,051
191010,297,2739,343,1063,359,31181,078,12215,727,613
191211,734,27111,082,0384,097,16090,060,76317,483,332
191312,229,66111,825,8644,240,89699,730,42718,923,482
191412,451,94512,379,8036,059,983100,059,91019,454,475
191514,507,53012,493,1079,459,071109,637,39720,754,168
191618,355,19414,058,77017,509,017129,836,10521,432,737
191720,206,22215,120,28819,726,163150,840,05522,260,537
191822,352,37218,673,59925,075,656176,076,26022,673,712
191926,081,34023,781,92430,332,224201,170,75524,608,293
192034,260,96228,128,73019,027,319206,324,31926,186,960
192128,127,00728,466,83812,730,066219,054,38530,266,244
192227,579,44326,263,7609,579,185218,953,324..
Year.Banks of Issue. (Average of Four Quarters.)Savings-banks (Post Office and Private).§Post Office Money-orders issued.
Deposits.Assets.Liabilities.Number of Depositors.Balance to Credit at End of Year.Number.Amount.
§ From 1920, year ending 31st March following.
 £££ £ £
1860644,521992,082801,5881,10412,450....
18652,638,4145,455,2893,522,1464,30487,40017,23678,576
18703,127,7696,315,3543,819,67012,137388,80431,864140,454
18755,967,20510,987,1786,987,31830,310897,32673,027293,481
18808,538,93514,220,2759,550,17747,4621,148,992135,648465,405
188510,083,29618,811,56711,130,24485,7692,142,560188,622581,395
189012,368,61017,735,25913,356,598118,3443,137,023176,427602,077
189513,544,41518,159,78114,491,627163,5134,620,696243,497812,604
190015,570,61017,314,53516,964,582228,8836,665,344369,8341,214,853
190520,545,60121,770,52522,144,166316,3769,773,954417,4411,541,712
191024,968,76126,398,92726,742,081432,11915,620,515569,6572,457,523
191225,622,08331,196,40027,508,348503,92718,043,540666,4253,231,350
191325,733,18730,708,93227,591,099532,68218,923,522690,7453,357,774
191427,640,50732,502,31229,808,349559,20320,924,754691,5183,427,505
191531,433,65333,209,48334,448,270587,10924,238,966664,8603,471,818
191637,757,91737,015,48641,977,619619,97228,015,674669,3553,607,087
191742,930,71344,979,61648,541,961651,53231,917,099642,6833,476,646
191845,562,93948,570,12652,048,732679,39836,529,654638,5003,649,371
191950,489,44448,615,20957,861,393726,25541,951,026690,2914,604,059
192059,405,34156,111,43367,818,469765,16247,193,113699,6745,276,776
192149,397,41168,701,28258,808,439783,32547,759,133669,3834,850,821
192245,913,39461,779,56953,868,834800,86749,024,095659,9434,278,529
YearGovernment Life Insurance Department.Old-age Pensions, 31st March of following year.Friendly Societies from which Returns received.Public Trust Office.
Number of Policies.Sums assured and Bonuses.Number of Pensions in Force.Amount represented.Number of Lodges, &c.Number of Members.Value of Estates and Funds.*
* From 1895 on, the figures are for year ended 31st March following.
  £ £  £
18705930,250..........
18754,9891,836,859........42,163
188011,6564,171,504....17914,484117,980
188523,2186,552,242....30222,794457,620
189028,1027,807,792....35726,3791,240,097
189533,9689,345,229....37630,9052,192,594
190040,36810,639,97812,405211,96544340,2573,840,339
190545,13711,725,97712,582313,01850151,1037,358,947
191048,93212,586,79816,020403,02060968,0068,089,930
191250,45813,271,69916,509412,40866473,24311,268,311
191351,34313,539,46718,050447,76568173,69112,282,883
191452,27313,797,07519,352475,97071774,07413,580,936
191552,95014,220,94519,804484,23272873,02713,598,744
191653,20814,259,37219,697480,55972770,36015,065,583
191753,05814,188,77419,960740,84973068,77117,153,031
191853,80314,770,54319,872731,91073167,52719,242,347
191955,77015,546,74419,993731,73573570,59820,860,686
192057,32116,259,31019,837737,37873274,21022,364,319
192159,18917,279,73420,491751,12173177,81425,497,779
192259,48717,449,10121,181770,29574680,77728.904.798

VI.—EDUCATION.

Year.Scholars at Primary Schools.*Scholars at Secondary or High Schools.Scholars at Private Schools.University Students.

* Excluding children attending Native schools and industrial schools.

† Including in later years secondary pupils attending technical high schools (4,202 in 1922), but excluding secondary departments of district high schools.

‡ Registered schools only.

187545,562..7,316..
188082,4011,63111,238211
1885102,4072,65911,989564
1890117,9122,11713,626596
1895129,8562,11714,659742
1900130,7242,79215,555805
1905137,6234,06016,6391,158
1910156,3247,97018,9811,862
1912161,6487,35720,2382,228
1913166,2647,81521,1152,318
1914172,1688,25722,0802,257
1915178,5098,86022,3392,039
1916183,2149,43823,4121,985
1917185,8849,99525,4911,977
1918190,35410,66726,2372,226
1919194,93411,99420,9773,060
1920196,05911,96222,1933,822
1921207,35713,37923,9244,123
1922213,09714,93824,8613,958

Appendix A. APPENDICES.

(a.) RESULTS OF THE 1921 CENSUS.

INTRODUCTORY.

FOR the reader familiar with the administrative institutions of modern civilization there is no need of an introduction to the census; yet undoubtedly there are many unacquainted with its development, its scope, and its objects. It is to provide the latter with the briefest of explanatory outlines that these few introductory paragraphs have been added.

The primary function of the census is to assist the Government in its administrative duties by providing accurate knowledge of the numbers and conditions of the people for whose benefit the Government exists—a knowledge which can be obtained in no other way. The secondary objects are almost without number; reference will be made to one only, in view of the special significance with which the Constitution of the Dominion has invested it: this is the redistribution or adjustment of electoral districts which follows upon every census.

The census taken in New Zealand on the night of Sunday, 17th April, 1921, is of unusual moment. The unprecedented scale of the great crisis through which the Empire had passed; the vast dislocation of population, and its effects upon the social structure generally; and, finally, the problem of reconstruction—all tended to throw additional weight upon the census of 1921. It was recommended by the first conference of the statisticians of the Empire which met in London, January-February, 1920, that the census date should fall within two months of the 15th April, 1921. Within that limit of time there, was taken what may justly be termed the most uniform and complete census of the British Empire.

HISTORICAL.

The census as an institution is probably as old in one form or another as the establishment of a more or less civilized Government. It is known at the least that enumerations of the people were carried out in what is now the modern Iraq, nearly six thousand years ago, and census-taking was certainly not unknown of ancient times in Egypt, in China, in Palestine, in Greece, or in Rome. From the “census" instituted by Servius Tullius in the last-mentioned State in the sixth century B.C. comes the term “census" in present-day English usage.

The periodic census on modern lines was first adopted by Sweden in the middle of the eighteenth century. In England the first of the series of decennial enumerations was not taken until the 10th March, 1801.

In New Zealand enumerations were carried out on a “settlement" basis in the “forties" of the last century, and were continued, although irregularly, on the establishment of Provincial Government. The first periodic general census of the Dominion was taken in December, 1851, and that of 1921 is the seventeenth in regular sequence.

PERIODICITY.

In almost all countries the census is now taken at regular and stated intervals, either ten or five years. From the point of view of the statistician the former period is overlong for continued accuracy, more especially in a country still in the earlier stages of development where changes may occur with comparative rapidity. The present tendency is in the direction of shortening the intercensal period.

Since 1881 the New Zealand census has been taken in every fifth year, prior to that date at intervals of three or four years. The Census and Statistics Act of 1910 is a permanently enabling authority, and the interposition of fresh legislation for each census is unnecessary.

SCOPE.

The scope of a census depends very greatly upon circumstances. When the term “census" is employed without any qualifying epithet modern custom understands it as a “population census.” It is in this capacity that the census attains its fullest and most universal character. The field of inquiry varies according to the requirements of country or period. Since New Zealand is fortunate in the entire absence of an illiterate section of the community, this check upon the profitable development of the census does not here exist, and the customary inquiry covers a large number of important issues.

In 1921 the medium of collection was, as in previous years, a “householder's schedule,” combined with the use of “personal schedules” in specific cases. The questionnaire elicited information under the following heads:—

  1. (1.) Individuals.—Sex, age, conjugal condition or orphanhood, industry, &c., personal occupation, grade of employment, period of unemployment (if any), birthplace, father's birthplace, nationality, method of acquirement of nationality, race, length of residence in New Zealand, religion, education and schooling, life insurance, relation to the head of the household, and true residence (if a visitor). In addition were the following (asked from married women only): Duration of marriage, children born alive, and children still living. Married men, widowers, and widows were required to state also the numbers and ages of their children under the age of sixteen years.

  2. (2.) Dwellings.—Material of outer walls, nature of the building, number of rooms, nature of occupancy, and rent or rental value.

  3. (3.) Miscellaneous.—The machinery of the census was also employed in connection with the collection of statistics of agriculture and live-stock (within cities and boroughs only), poultry, bees and honey-production, libraries, and places of worship.

A different basis was utilized for the three subsidiary enumerations—viz., Maori census, census of the Cook Islands and Niue, and the census of the mandated territory of Western Samoa.

METHOD OF COLLECTION AND TABULATION.

The census organization of 1921 followed the precedents of preceding enumerations by dividing the country upon a county basis into Enumerators' districts, which were again subdivided. For each of the latter subdivisions a sub-enumerator was appointed whose duty it was to distribute the census schedules and to collect them as soon as possible after the census night.

For the first time a mechanical system of tabulation was put into operation. Two sets of cards were punched, one for each individual and one for each dwelling. The “Powers" sorting and tabulating machines were used, the plant comprising ten 1 key punches, two counting-sorters, and one tabulator.

POPULATION.

The population, exclusive of Maoris, was composed of 623,243 males and 595,670 females at the date of enumeration. The section on “Population" has already covered a great deal of the ground under this head, and reference to it will furnish a succinet account of the more prominent features of distribution and movement. None of this will be repeated here, beyond mentioning that all population data is wholly upon a de facto basis, and that Maoris are throughout excluded from consideration unless the contrary is specifically stated.

One division of the population inquiry completed subsequent to the composition of the earlier section may profitably be inserted here. This comprises statistics of population on the basis of ordinary domicil or residence. The compilation is indeed somewhat unilateral in character, since information regarding New-Zealenders temporarily absent from the Dominion at the census date is entirely lacking. Particulars of those of New Zealand origin enumerated in other countries have been made the subject of a special questionnaire. Unfortunately, in almost all cases it has been impossible to separate permanent settlers from those retaining their New Zealand domicil.

The following statement shows briefly the number of persons whose residence in New Zealand partakes only of a temporary character:—

Country of Ordinary Residence.Males.Females.Total.
Australia7879041,691
England392461853
Scotland7797174
Ireland441963
Fiji316293
Union of South Africa302959
Canada252449
Tonga192039
Cook Islands and Niue Island191635
India171532
Other British countries8614
United States of America6353116
China131225
Other foreign countries26935
Totals1,5511,7273,278

The total number of those recording an extra-New-Zealand place of residence amounts to the certainly not excessive figure of 3,278, equivalent to 0.27 per cent, of the total population. New Zealand residents temporarily abroad are scarcely likely to exceed this level; and the obvious corollary is that the de facto population or population de fait is almost identical with the population of usual domicil. This is by no means a common phenomenon. It cannot, however, be overlooked that the census is taken at a date when the number of overseas visitor, whether tourists or those here for occupational reasons, is in the ordinary course of events at a comparatively low ebb.

Scrutiny of internal population data on a domicil basis places the matter on an entirely different footing. Migratory movements of a non-permanent character are commonly supposed to be very largely exhibited in the Dominion, and the compilation under this head certainly supports the contention. A detailed conspectus of the results will be left to the census volumes to display.

AGES.

The next characteristic under discussion is the highly significant one of the age-distribution of the people. In this respect the constitution of the population has many features in common with those of other countries whose development is still in the stage of adolescence. For the sake of clarity of understanding it may be explained that the age dealt with is in all cases the “age last birthday.”

In brief, New Zealand possesses, as compared with older nations, a younger population with few at advanced ages, but balanced on the other hand by a not overlarge proportion at juvenile ages, for the birth-rate of the Dominion is not a high one.

The following gives a resume of the numbers according to age:—

Age (in Years).Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Number.Per Cent.
* The minus sign (-) denotes decrease.
Under 565,79063,402129,19210.61-2,863-2.17
5 and under 1067,16564,720131,88510.839,0677.38
10 and under 1561,65459,780121,4349.9712,20911.18
15 and under 2054,46152,889107,3508.8215,94617.45
20 and under 2547,98349,22497,2077.9820,02925.95
25 and under 3044,29748,87793,1747.654,5995.19
30 and under 3547,34048,02295,3627.831,7811.90
35 and under 4050,10547,26797,3728.006,9237,65
40 and under 4545,79542,19887,9937.2317,36924.59
45 and under 5037,49132,45069,9415.749,20315.15
50 and under 5530,06425,83255,8964.6010,78623.91
55 and under 6021,28518,55539,8403.275,50116.02
60 and under 6516,86914,78131,6502.602,95910.31
65 and under 7013,44411,02024,4642.013,66817.64
70 and under 758,5267,47916,0051.318315.48
75 and under 805,7264,90810,6340.87870.82
80 and under 853,1892,5785,7670.4788918.22
85 and under 901,1479442,0910,1746228.36
90 and under 952401824220,0312039.74
95 and under 1003640760.011831.04
100 and over358..-4-33.33
Totals for specified ages Unspecified—622,610595,1531,217,763100.00119,58010.80
    Adults6165011,117..-35-3.04
    Minors171633..-81-71.05
Total population623,243595,6701,218,913..119,46410.87

Of recent years a tendency towards a gradual ageing of the community has been conspicuous. This, of course, is in keeping with a normal development, and in course of time the age-constitution should approach more nearly to European standards. A convenient method of comparison, although one to be employed with discretion, is that of the range measured in mean age. The median age is also quoted.

Census.Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Mean.Median.Mean.Median.Mean.Median.
189626.2722.2123.8319.9225.1221.04
190127.2523.5425.0621.6226.2122.56
190627.7224.9525.9123.1326.8724.09
191128.0425.9826.5724.2827.3525.19
191628.5027.0427.3125.1627.8426.00
192128.9326.6328.1125.7628.5326.17

From the above and from the preceding table it will be observed that males are slightly older in age-constitution than are females. This position has arisen from accidents of settlement, in that formerly the population was greatly recruited by males in the mature or adolescent periods of life. It has already been noted in the section on “Population" that the reverse is now the case, and that a feminine preponderance in immigration is manifested.

The incidence of age-distribution in internal divisions of the country is marked by wide disparities. In general, inhabitants of the Provincial Districts of Otago and Canterbury are older than the standard for the Dominion, if the statement may be made in this manner. Conversely, Taranaki and Southland are younger. Moreover, consideration of separate figures for each sex further emphasizes the divergent characteristics of the population in the various districts, most of which have become settled under variant conditions.

Yet again there is the no less momentous relation between urban and rural communities. For all ages below twenty years rural districts outweigh urban in numerical proportion. This is most strongly experienced in the numbers of children under five years of age, suggesting that, of latter years at least, the country birth-rate is higher than that of the towns, although allowance must be made for an excess of urban drift in advanced ages owing to the greater amenities of town existence.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.

It is necessary to explain at the outset that this portion of the census field of inquiry covers only persons of the age of sixteen years or upwards. The legal ages for marriage are—males, fourteen years; females, twelve years. However, married persons under the age of sixteen years are, as is known from previous experience and from other sources, practically non-existent, and the accuracy of the assumption that all of a more tender age are unmarried may be taken for granted.

A concise summary of age and conjugal condition in conjunction will serve as an outline of the facts.

CONJUGAL CONDITION.
(a.) Numbers.
Age (in Years).Males.Females.
Unmarried.Married.Widowed.Divorced.Unspecified.Unmarried.Married.Widowed.Divorced.Unspecified.
16 and under 2041,9771561375439,8821,0888..624
20 and under 219,654310411438,4561,35510..106
21 and under 2531,7685,70150834425,15313,61619626306
25 and under 3024,26719,4412486527618,32129,448803105200
30 and under 3515,39430,97964012020710,91235,3811,429181119
35 and under 4011,73636,9939651892228,43636,5961,917217101
40 and under 458,58835,5331,2532361856,68732,9162,34716682
45 and under 506,80028,9351,4011981574,92424,6842,65413256
50 and under 555,20522,9631,5721771473,61318,7423,3587049
55 and under 603,43115,9911,6471111052,14212,4103,9145336
60 and under 652,62712,2001,87674921,3698,7484,6082234
65 and under 702,0919,0962,11841987445,3994,8301730
70 and under 751,2575,2691,90919724202,8444,183626
75 and under 808272,9771,85511562331,3723,283119
80 and under 854501,3561,3347421254951,947110
85 and over21845673221849131978..13
Adults of unspecified age14514126729776148441232
Totals, 16 and over166,435228,49717,6311,2693,215131,542225,37336,5099982,043
(b.) Proportions per Cent.
Age (in Years).MalesFemales.
Unmarried.Married.Widowed.Divorced.Unmarried.Married.Widowed.Divorced.
NOTE.—Particulars as to conjugal condition of those under 16 years of age were not ascertained, the presumption, confirmed by past experience, being that practically all under that age are unmarried. The proportions shown relate to the whole population at the respective age-groups, and not merely to those whose conjugal condition was specified.
16 and under 2097.870.360.01..95.872.620.02..
2,02195.473.070.040.0185.1813.650.10..
2,12583.8915.050.130.0264.0134.650.500.07
2,53054.7843.890.560.1537.4860.251.640.21
303532.5265.441.350.2522.7273.682.980.38
354023.4273.831.930.3817.8577.394.560.46
404518.7577.592.740.5215.8578.015.560.39
455018.1477.183.740.5315.1776.078.180.41
505517.3176.385.230.5913.9972.5513.000.27
556016.1275.137.740.5211.5466.8821.090.36
606515.5772.3211.120.449.2659.1931.180.15
657015.5567.6615.750.316.7548.9943.830.15
707514.7461.7922.390.225.6238.0355.930.08
758014.4451.9932.400.194.7527.9566.890.02
808514.1142.4941.860.224.8519.2075.530.04
85 and over15.2932.0551.260.144.1811.1083.43..
Adults of unspecified age23.5422.894.221.1415.1729.748.980.20
Totals, 16 and over39.9154.794.230.3033.1856.359.210.25

In the absence of a generally accepted standard of comparison it is difficult to indicate briefly departures from the normal. However, after viewing the distribution by marital status in other countries, the following observations may be asserted with some degree of confidence. For males, the New Zealand proportion is slightly high in the “never married” group, and slightly low in the “widowed" group. Divorced males and married males occur in normal ratio. On the female side there is exhibited a fairly high percentage of “married" and a rather low percentage of “never married” and “widowed.” The main inferences to be drawn from such a condition of affairs require no elaboration.

An incident revealed by the tables may be referred to, as illustrative of the extent of the attraction possessed by New Zealand from the point of view of immigration: this is the fact that the number of husbands exceeded the number of wives by 3,124.

The mean age according to marital status was—

Mean Age, in Years.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Never married29.8727.9529.02
Married44.7541.0242.90
Widowed61.3260.1060.50
Divorced46.3740.7943.01

BIRTHPLACES.

The original elements of the population were derived almost wholly from England, Scotland, and Ireland. Throughout the process of settlement and development this character was preserved, and at the present time the standard of racial purity is remarkably high.

BIRTHPLACES.
Birthplaces.Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Number.Per Cent.

* The minus sign

(—) indicates decrease.

† Protectorates are included, but not mandated territories.

‡ Covers also numbers for countries not represented in 1921.

    BRITISH EMPIRE.      
New Zealand449,151457,132906,28374.39112,14414.12
England81,54067,808149,34812.268,3515.92
Wales1,5301,0452,5750.2137817.21
Scotland28,56123,09351,6544.242970.57
Ireland18,54915,87034,4192.832,9617.92
Australia25,56622,47948,0453.942,4605.40
Malta, Gibraltar90491390.012926.36
India1,3066191,9250.1656641.65
Ceylon62551170.012223.16
Other British possessions in Asia73391120.01....
Union of South Africa6436431,2860.11685.58
Other British possessions in Africa84711550.01....
Canada1,0017071,7080.1426518.36
British West Indies139612000.0231.48
Other British possessions in America61461070.01....
Cook Islands and Niue Island89601490.01....
Fiji2713326030.0518544.26
Tonga1101182280.02....
Other British possessions in the Pacific281240......
        Total608,854590,2391,199,09398.43121,28511.25
    FOREIGN COUNTRIES.      
France2982615590.05275.03
Italy3811495300.04417.18
Switzerland4052026070.05639.40
Belgium94641580.0142.60
Netherlands132171490.011511.19
Germany1,3788102,1880.1881127.04
Denmark, Iceland1,4226912,1130.171315.84
Norway7762721,0480.0918515.00
Sweden1,0331731,2060.1018513.30
Finland282323140.03....
Russia in Europe3461484940.04....
Poland2291703990.03....
Czecho-Slovakia68501180.01....
Austria157512080.02....
Jugo-Slavia1,4801081,5880.13....
Greece124191430.01138.33
Other European countries196572530.02....
Syria2051333380.035413.78
China2,8431432,9860.2494546.30
Japan261440..3143.66
Other Asiatic countries6033930.014386.00
African countries6038980.013350.77
United States of America1,1437291,8720.151116.30
Other American countries121882090.022211.52
Western Samoa91731640.01....
Other Pacific islands81511320.01....
        Total13,4314,57618,0071.476493.48
At sea5865741,1600.1021715.76
Total specified622,871595,3891,218,260100.00120,41910.97
Unspecified or unknown372281653..95559.39
        Grand total623,243595,6701,218,913..119,46410.87
Percentage of the total population born in— 
    New Zealand74.39
    United Kingdom19.54
    Australia3.94
..97.87

The inference should not be drawn that immigration from non-British countries has been discouraged. This is far from the case; indeed, at one time a scheme of Governmentally-assisted immigration was responsible for an increment to the population of several thousands from Continental countries. Particulars of immigration restrictions and of State assistance to immigrants will be found in Section V, “Population.”

The native-born compose almost three-fourths (74.39 per cent.) of the total population. This proportion rises in the earlier ages and falls in the more advanced. Year by year the native-born are occupying a position of greater weight.

The foreign-born are headed by England (including Wales, 12.47 per cent.), Scotland (4.24 per cent.), Australia (3.94 per cent.), and Ireland (2.83 per cent.).

Non-British countries are represented only to a minor degree. Of the whole population 98.43 per cent, are of British origin, 1.47 per cent, of alien origin, while a residue of 0.10 per cent, were returned as “born at sea.”

The effects of the methods adopted in the early colonization are still reflected in the birthplace statistics. Thus, for example, Otago and Southland, which were originally peopled by Scottish settlers, possess in some respects characteristics different from those of Canterbury, which was colonized chiefly by an English community.

The urban and rural distinction, which is of the first importance in New Zealand as a country dependent upon agricultural and pastoral production, shows that rural instincts have triumphed in the majority of cases where immigrants came from Ireland or central and western Europe. English, Scottish, and other elements apparently prefer urban conditions to a greater extent.

Additions to the population vary from time to time in respect of origin as in other respects. The composition of recent arrivals is indicated in the following table, which gives the country of birth for all persons who have resided in the Dominion for less than five years:—

Birthplace.Males.Females.Total.
England and Wales10,25410,80321,057
Australia3,0582,9185,976
Scotland2,5842,5745,158
Ireland1,2978842,181
China1,249811,330
India57112583
United States of America304156460
Canada233180413
    Total, including other countries20,48618,38738,873

The countries chiefly drawing New-Zealanders to their shores, whether temporarily or permanently, are next quoted from the latest available statistics:—

Males.Females.Total.
Australia (1921)19,98518,59738,582
England and Wales (1911)2,6623,3045,966
United States of America (1920)....2,544
Canada (1911)9033741,277
Scotland (1911)335366701

ALLEGIANCE.

Statistics of allegiance offer a view-point quite apart from that of statistics by origin; the distinction between the two is not infrequently a matter of great moment.

British subjects formed 99.35 per cent, of the total population whose nationality was recorded; with this may be contrasted a proportion of 98.43 per cent, born in British dominions. Corresponding figures are—Aliens, 0.65 per cent.; born in alien territory, 1.47 per cent. Details are made available in the appended statement:—

ALLEGIANCE.
Nationality.Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Approximate Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Number.Per Cent.

* Nationalities in 1916 calculated according to country of birth for those claiming a nationality other than British. The movements shown are therefore approximate only. The minus sign

(—) indicates decrease.

† Covers also nationalities not represented in 1921.

British616,552593,9091,210,46199.35120,65211.07
Foreign—      
Chinese2,6121002,7120.2286046.43
United States6683451,0130.0814716.97
Jugo-Slav789688570.07....
German3142075210.04-52850.33
Danish3241564800.0433340.96
Swedish273683410.0319536.38
Norwegian221803010.0219739.56
French1411232640.023515.28
Italian159702290.0210531.44
Swiss149702190.0216042.22
Russian145521970.02....
Finnish126401660.01....
Syrian5031810.0111157.81
Polish5425790.01....
Greek5916750.012222.08
Dutch5218700.011220.69
Belgian442165..1417.72
Austrian471360......
Spanish17724..722.58
Hungarian12921......
Czecho-Slovakian9615......
Portuguese112132767.50 
Argentine4610......
Japanese639..4182.00
Chilian718..433.33
Esthonian617......
Samoan (Western)5270.02....
Turkish347......
Latvian516......
Palestinian224......
Rumanian224......
Bulgarian213......
Peruvian213..2200.00
Lithuanian2..2......
Siberian112......
Brazilian112..571.43
Other nationalities17724......
Totals, specified nationalities622,893595,4691,218,362100.00119,40010.86
Unknown10046146..6413.14
Unspecified250155405......
Totals, all nationalities623,243595,6701,218,913..119,46410.87

The importance of the alien section of the population is steadily diminishing, as the following figures evidence:—

Census Year.Number of Aliens.Per Cent, of Total Population.
188118,0433.08
189114,5942.33
190111,6151.50
191112,0501.20
19127,9010.65

Of the 7,901 aliens in New Zealand almost two-thirds claim allegiance to China (2,712), to the United States of America (1,013), or to Jugo-Slavia (857).

The first-mentioned are dealt with at greater length under the heading of “Race Aliens.” United States citizens possess few features in any way distinct from the general bulk of the population. Jugo-Slavs are almost wholly confined to the northern portion of the Dominion, where their activities do not greatly extend beyond searching for or trading in kauri-gum. In certain localities they have come nearest of all the foreign elements to establishing small alien communities not yet fully assimilated. With this single and; indeed, only partial exception, it may be said that the aliens have been and are absorbed into the nation. This is not the case with “race aliens"—i.e., non-Europeans—but their numbers are so small and they are so widely distributed that communities in which their own national spirit can be fostered or their national habits or customs survive may scarcely be said to exist.

Aliens are by no means to be found in even ratio throughout the country; nearly four-fifths are resident in the North Island. This is most marked, as has been said above, in the case of Jugo-Slavs, 99.18 per cent, of whom are inhabitants of the North Island, almost all being in northern Auckland. It is manifest also that an urban preference is an attribute of most foreigners, in particular of Chinese, French, Italians, and citizens of the United States.

It is a conspicuous fact that alien residents include very few of tender age. Of the total, only 84 were under the age of five years and only 350 under fifteen years. Some extremely variant features occur—e.g., more than one-half of the Jugo-Slavs are aged twenty to twenty-nine years. A similar abnormality occurs in respect to conjugal condition, this doubtless due to their situation as small, scattered communities pronouncedly masculine in character, in a country to which most are strange in language and in customs. It may also be observed that, with the exception of those of Chinese and of United States nationality, the majority of foreigners are residents of fairly long standing.

The last item to be touched upon in regard to allegiance is the method by which British subjects acquired their nationality. The position is stated below:—

 Per Cent, of Total
Population.
British subjects by— 
    Birth98.47
    Parentage0.13
    Naturalization in New Zealand0.63
    Marriage0.11
    Transfer of sovereignty..
    Unspecified0.01
..99.35

LENGTH OF RESIDENCE.

Under this head are treated all those who were not definitely returned as “native-born.” Numbers are quoted on the next page. In computing the years of residence no deductions were made for temporary absences.

It is noticeable that recent years have seen a decline in immigration, doubtless attributable to the intervention of the Great War.

Of the population of overseas birth resident in New Zealand 65.63 per cent, have settled in the North Island and 34.37 in the South. Later arrivals have shown a more marked preference for the North Island, which rejoices in the possession of 74 per cent, of the foreign-born inhabitants of less than five years' standing.

A significant point which cannot be overlooked is an increasing tendency of immigrants to take up their residence in urban centres.

Length of Residence (Years).Males.Females.Total.
Under 520,48618,38738,873
5 and under 1021,51820,63942,157
10 and under 1528,39719,63148,028
15 and under 2018,71510,68429,399
20 and under 259,9945,49915,493
25 and under 307,0294,80011,829
30 and under 356,9535,02711,980
35 and under 409,4208,50117,921
40 and under 4514,31711,96926,286
45 and over31,67928,11559,794
Unspecified5,5845,28610,870
        Totals174,092138,538312,630

RACE ALIENS.

Race aliens—that is, those not of European descent—have invariably been an object of close attention in New Zealand. As a matter of State policy, restrictions have for many years been placed upon those desiring to settle in the Dominion. A summary of present-day legislation will be found in an earlier section.

Racial distribution is illustrated in the annexed table:—

Race.Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Per Cent.

* The minus sign

(—) indicates decrease.

Half-castes living as Europeans, and do not include 3,116 half-castes living as Maoris.

Probably in the main Maori half-castes.

Europeans615,757591,8861,207,64399.0768,25246,36710.49
Unspecified but apparently8727241,5960.13872724..
Europeans..............
Maori half-castes2,1072,1294,2360.3559442131.51
Half-caste, race unspecified312859..3128..
Race aliens—       
    Chinese—       
        Full-blood2,9052053,1100.2797212654.57
        Half-blood886815641715.56
    Syrians—       
        Full-blood3513006510.068911445.31
        Half-blood2729562223409,09
    Indians—       
        Full-blood599196180.0543914274.55
        Half-blood2330531621231.25
    Polynesians. n.e.i.2001343340.03200134..
    Negroes7719960.01 231.05
    Asiatic Jews3137680.0328351,260.09
    West Indians2417412417..
    Japanese2993826535.59
    Fijians14122615 846.94
    Melanesians21..215 216.67
    Cingalese126182450.00
    Malays12214122..
    Abyssinians7184..100.00
    Javanese13413..
    Australian Aborigines314 1..20.00
    American Indians4..43..300.00
    Arabs3..3 7..70,00
    Egyptians213..150.00
    Armenians2..22....
    Asiatic Turk1..11 1..
    Siamese1..1......
    Unspecified but apparently non-European3910493910..
Totals623,243595,6701,218,913100.0071,46847,99610.87

The racial standard of the population is, and has always been, maintained at a high level. Europeans or persons of European descent comprise no less than 99.55 per cent, of the total population.

It should be observed that Maoris are not treated under the head of race aliens, as was pointed out earlier; they are never included unless it is specifically mentioned. Maori half-castes living in European fashion are grouped with Europeans.

The largest group of race aliens is the Chinese, whose numbers are now fewer than in the past, despite recent large additions. Syrians form the second greatest division, and they also have lately increased to no little extent. The most outstanding movement is, however, exhibited in connection with the third body—namely, Indians. In their case the intercensal increase, 1916-1921, was 270.72 per cent.

Three-fourths of the total race aliens are to be found in the North Island. Chinese are most numerous in Wellington, Syrians in Otago, and Indians in Auckland. Some 65.10 per cent, are to be found in the four larger urban areas, Chinese and Syrians especially preferring residence in the cities.

The non-Europeans are very largely males, there being 4,507 males as opposed to 931 females. The Syrians are the only body in which the number of females is at all commensurate with the number of males. Some weight may be attached to the steady and continuous increase in the number of Chinese women.

In respect of age-constitution it is of note that, except among Chinese and Syrians, there are very few children, and, apart again from Chinese, there are almost none of advanced age. As regards conjugal condition, the position of race aliens calls for no comment beyond the fact that the wives of married males (Syrians excepted) are in very many cases not within the Dominion. Lastly in this connection comes the question of half-castes, who, numbering 347 in 1916, had almost doubled their strength (642) in 1921. The term “half-caste" is ofter loosely used, and probably does not always imply the presence of European blood. It is known, for example, that some “half-castes" were descended from the union of Maoris and race aliens.

Religions embraced by the non-Europeans are both numerous and diverse. In the majority of cases the prevailing religion of the country of origin has been retained; but, on the other hand, not a few have adopted Christianity in one or other of its forms. Aliens of the full blood profess Christianity to the extent of 24 per cent, of the males and 76 per cent, of the females. Half-castes are predominantly Christian (males, 92 per cent.; females, 97 per cent.).

Some 47 per cent, of race aliens claim British nationality, including 562 Chinese, 624 Syrians, and 671 Indians.

The Chinese in the Dominion follow chiefly the pursuits of market-gardening, the sale of vegetables and fruit, and laundrying. Indians are largely occupied in the sale of vegetables and fruit, dealing and hawking, domestic service, farming and allied occupations such as draining, scrub-cutting, &c. Syrians, while not to be found in great numbers in any one industry, exhibit a tendency towards commercial pursuits, in particular that of dealing in clothing and drapery.

RELIGIONS.

Entire freedom of religious thought and worship is permitted. There is no State Church, nor is State aid given to religious organizations. Perhaps the most striking feature in connection with the religious professions of the people is the absence of any numerically dominant religion or denomination, for the largest body, the Church of England, has the adherence of less than one-half of the population. In place of one Church to which the bulk of the people commonly belong, in New Zealand there are four—viz., Church of England, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, and Methodist—which between them possess as adherents 92.54 per cent, of the total who specified their religious profession. In addition, there are numerous bodies the comparative fewness of whose followers renders them of less importance.

Religious Denomination, &c.Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Number.Per Cent.

* The minus sign

(-) denotes decrease.

Christian religion—      
    Church of England262,486252,121514,60743.6655,58412.11
    Presbyterian153,092146,453299,54525.4238,87614.91
    Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)82,80281,331164,13313.9312,5278.26
    Methodist54,61157,733112,3449.536,3205.96
    Baptist9,28910,63719,9261.699464.53
    Salvation Army5,4516,14011,5910.981,58715.86
    Brethren5,0336,02211,0550.941,25912.85
    Church of Christ4,0024,6388,6400.736096.58
    Congregational3,7224,2557,9770.682442.97
    Lutheran1,6941,0422,7360.2379422.49
    Seventh-day Adventist8941,3302,2240.1968844.79
    Unitarian7476761,4230.12211.50
    Christian (undefined)7256551,3800.12848159.40
    Christadelphian4625831,0450.091059.13
    Christian Scientist3005488480.0736776.30
    Protestant (undefined)3802306100.051,63172.78
    Latter-day Saints (Mormon)2422014430.0412840.64
    Society of Friends2501814310.0410.23
    Catholic Apostolic1752053800.03195.26
    Bible Students1191442630.028648.59
    Missions1281182460.027846.43
    Eastern Orthodox Catholic117761930.025522.18
    Evangelical761121880.02164683.33
    Church of God69531220.012315.86
    Liberal Catholic45651100.01110..
    Swedenborgian4156970.013325.38
    Other denominations, &c1531412940.02178153.45
        Totals, Christian religion587,105575,7461,162,85198.67114,39910.91
Non-Christian religions—      
    Hebrew1,2371,1432,3800.20351.49
    Confucian2,025752,1000.1869349.25
    Theosophist3774558320.0710.12
    Hindu38243860.03314436.11
    Mohammedan65..650.011838.30
    Other non-Christian religions141171580.014742.34
        Totals, non-Christian religions4,2271,6945,9210.501,10823.02
Other beliefs—      
    No religion2,7731,1463,9190.332656.33
    Spiritualist7048061,5100.1320515.71
    No denomination7106721,3820.123,64272.49
    Freethinker9662431,2090.103,24072.83
    Others1,3124821,7940.15734.24
        Totals, other beliefs6,4653,3499,8140.836,86941.17
        Totals, specified religions597,797580,7891,178,586100.00108,63810.15
Object to state24,41714,17438,591..13,01450.88
Unspecified1,0297071,736..2,18855.76
        Grand totals623,243595,6701,218,913..119,46410.87

It is of passing difficulty to pronounce with any degree of finality upon what is “Christian" and what is not; yet, adopting that classification which has at least the sanction of statistical usage, it appears that 98.67 per cent, of the total population are Christians. Some 0.50 per cent, belong to definitely non-Christian religions, and the remainder, 0.83 per cent., can scarcely be classified with either division.

Among the larger Christian denominations there has been little change in relative position. The five largest bodies have always occupied that order; the lesser bodies have fluctuated in greater or lesser degree.

Of those Churches now possessing over 2,000 adherents the greatest intercensal increase, 1916-1921, took place among the Seventh-day Adventists, the Salvation Army, and the Presbyterians. Conversely, Lutherans, the Church of Christ, and the Baptists headed those decreasing in numbers.

The group of non-Christian religions contains only four with any considerable representation. The largest is the Hebrew Church, which has experienced a slight increase. Confucians (all, or almost all, Chinese) occupy second place. The great increase in these followers of Confucius is due to recent Chinese immigration; and a parallel immigration is responsible for the quadrupling of Hindus, who are fourth in point of numbers. The third body is the Theosophists, who again have progressed slightly. Hebrews and Theosophists apart, this group of non-Christian religions is almost confined to race aliens. Its intercensal increase was 23.02 per cent., which may be compared with the increase of 10.91 per cent, in the case of Christians.

An examination of the sex proportions of the followers of the various faiths gives rise to some remarks worthy of recording. Taking those Christian Churches whose adherents numbered 5,000 or over, we have—

With Excess of Males.
Denomination.Males to Total.
Per Cent.
Presbyterian51.11
Church of England51.01
Roman Catholic50.45
With Excess of Females.
Denomination.Males to Total.
Per Cent.
Brethren45.53
Church of Christ46.32
Baptist46.02
Congregational46.66
Salvation Army47.03
Methodist48.61

A wide divergence frequently exists in the sex-composition of the lesser Churches. For example, the Lutheran and Orthodox Catholic Churches and the Society of Friends are strongly masculine, while, on the other hand, Christian Scientists, Seventh-day Adventists, and Christadelphians show a marked feminine preponderance. Non-Christian religions—Hebrews and Theosophists excepted—have-naturally a following almost wholly masculine. In the third group it is noticeable that more males than females are found among Rationalists, Agnostics, Freethinkers, and Atheists.

By reason of the incidence of settlement geographical distribution has a close connection with religion, particularly in the South Island. For instance, in Otago and Southland, originally peopled by Scottish settlers, Presbyterians form more than half of the total residents. In Marlborough, the Anglican Church finds its greatest relative strength; in Westland, the Roman Catholic; in Taranaki, the Methodist.

A point which has a weighty bearing on the characteristics of the various religions is well exemplified in the undermentioned figures on their urban and rural distribution:—

Urban predominating.
Denomination.Urban Adherents.
Per Cent.
Rural Adherents.
Per Cent.
(NOTE.—The we age for all religions is, on the same basic—urban, 56 per cent.; rural, 44 per cent.)
Hebrew919
Spiritualist8218
Unitarian7723
Congregational7624
Salvation Army7525
Baptist7426
Confucian7030
Church of Christ6733
Christa delphian6436
Methodist5941
Freethinker5842
Roman Catholic5743
Lutheran3070
Presbyterian5050
Seventh-day Adventist5050
Brethren5545

The foregoing reveals some remarkable divergencies, sometimes doubtless due to temperament, probably more often to the connection between occupation and religion in the country of origin.

In close juxtaposition with the immediately preceding is the relationship of occupation and religion, studied for the first time in this census. The summary quoted will well repay a close scrutiny.

Denomination, &c.Proportion of Adherents in the undermentioned Classes of Industry.
Professional.Domestic.Commercial.Transport and Communication.Industrial.Primary Producers.Others.Dependants.Total.
Males.
Church of England5.071.499.668.7715.8221.894.0533 25100.00
Presbyterian4.390.868.897.4414.5526.933.8633.08100.00
Roman Catholic4.722.136.949.9714.3822.014.3935.46100.00
Methodist3.990.7210.737.2217.4920.903.8335.12100.00
Baptist5.681.3813.668.0120.2912.884.3233.78100.00
Salvation Army5.591.328.607.5617.4812.374.5042.58100.00
Brethren4.130.5410.735.1314.7422.934.3737.43100.00
Church of Christ4.150.479.876.9018.6117.674.2538.08100.00
Congregational7.390.8117.877.6321.0611.363.7930.09100.00
Lutheran2.771.483.967.4413.8139.208.7922.55100.00
Seventh-day Adventist7.380.456.383.4714.5419.023.9144.85100.00
Hebrew7.112.5132.503.5620.052.914.4426.92100.00
No religion7.182.3411.5812.7323.3721.923.9316.95100.00
All others4.983.1410.539.7419.2924.245.0223.06100.00
Totals4.781.439.398.4515.8222.904.1133.12100.00
Females.
Church of England3.585.523.240.463.211.423.4879.09100.00
Presbyterian3.705.413.370.372.971.823.6778.69100.00
Roman Catholic4.787.083.460.693.551.573.2275.65100.00
Methodist2.704.244.260.374.101.613.4579.27100.00
Baptist3.964.374.980.395.990.744.4175.16100.00
Salvation Army5.457.152.330.185.490.723.2475.44100.00
Church of Christ2.934.274.870.416.060.973.4377.06100.00
Brethren3.904.753.820.283.871.884.8876.62100.00
Congregational5.123.785.270.455.100.634.8974.76100.00
Lutheran1.545.471.820.100.865.574.0380.61100.00
Seventh-day Adventist5.134.891.73..4.131.654.5877.89100.00
Hebrew2.892.538.390.613.850.444.9176.38100.00
No religion3.403.664.190.524.891.402.5379.41100.00
All others3.274.523.120.313.421.553.4580.36100.00
Totals3.715.503.460.453.411.543.5378.40100.00

Also interesting is the compilation showing religion and grade of occupation in conjunction. For instance, the greatest percentage of adherents who are employers or working on their own account are found—omitting Churches with few followers—among Hebrews, Brethren, and Presbyterians. The case of the Hebrews is especially conspicuous, for their proportion of employers is more than double that of any other body. The least percentage of employers or persons working for themselves is found among the Salvation Army, Roman Catholics, and Baptists.

Lastly, reference to the statistics of “officiating ministers” (vide Section VIB—"Marriages”) will furnish, when compared with the numbers of adherents, some very useful data.

ORPHANHOOD.

This portion of the census investigation was confined to children under the age of sixteen years, and was thus complementary to the inquiry as to conjugal condition, which was restricted to those above that age. Since this subject is one that has hitherto been entirely foreign to the census, there is not in existence any criteria for the accurate determination of any movement.

There were recorded at the census 405,401 children who had not attained their sixteenth birthday. From the appended table it appears that there were 36,418 children who had lost one or both parents: that is to say, omitting unspecified cases, 9.08 per cent, of all children (or one in every eleven) were wholly or partially orphaned.

Some 21,020 children (5.24 per cent.) are shown to have lost their father; 13,161 (3.28 per cent.) to have lost their mother; and 2,237 (0.56 per cent.) to have lost both father and mother. It is noteworthy that the loss of the father occurred in 7,859 more cases than the loss of the mother. This may be attributed to the greater male mortality, in particular through two recent causes of great magnitude—viz., the Great War, and the influenza pandemic of 1918, the latter of which exhibited its greatest virulence against males from youth to middle age. It does not follow, of course, that the excess of deaths of male parents was 7,859: this figure represents the number of individual children whose father, but not whose mother, was deceased.

It is necessary to await completion of the compilation under this head before further investigation can be pursued.

Condition as to Orphanhood.Number.Proportion per Cent.
Male children (under sixteen years)—  
    Parents both living185.59590.96
    Father (only) dead10.5965.19
    Mother (only) dead6.6163.29
    Parents both dead1.1520.56
Total203.959100.00
Female children (under sixteen years)—  
    Parents both living179.18590.85
    Father (only) dead10.4245.28
    Mother (only) dead6.5453.32
    Parents both dead1.0850.55
Total197.239100.00
Children of both sexes (under sixteen years)—  
    Parents both living364.78090.92
    Father (only) dead21.0205.24
    Mother (only) dead13.1613.28
    Parents both dead2.2370.56
Total401.198100.00
Unspecified cases—  
    Male children (under sixteen years)2.237..
    Female children (under sixteen years)1.966..

DEPENDENCY.

For the purpose of this field of research a “dependant" is a child (of a married man, widower, or widow) under the age of sixteen years. As a study of dependency it is to be observed that two faults are conspicuous. In the first place it does not cover all dependants; in the second, a child under sixteen years of age is not always a dependant. Granted that allowance be made for these unavoidable features, there is yet much fruitful information for the student of social conditions.

There were at the census date 245,174 married men and widowers (exclusive of cases where the number of the dependants was unspecified), and these stood possessed of 371,860 dependent children, equivalent to 1.52 children per married man or widower. This, of course, expresses the average of the whole, but does not give the range. Thus 60 per cent, of married men and widowers had less than this number of dependants; 40 per cent, had a greater number.

Of widows there were 36,483 (specified cases only) possessed of 16,998 children, an average of 0.47 per widow.

Attention should be directed to the fact that the total number of dependent children is obviously not necessarily coincident with the total children (under sixteen years) in New Zealand.

Further consideration of other factors of dependency must await the completion of the census tabulation.

Number of Dependants.Married Men and Widowers.Widows.
Number of Cases.Proportion per Cent.Number of Cases.Proportion per Cent.
097,06339.5928,48978.09
149,04120.003,5289.67
239,24516.012,0865.72
326,52410.821,1693.20
416,1296.586531.79
58,7973.593110.85
64,5861.871470.40
72,3240.95700.19
89610.39210.06
93310.1470.02
101190.0410.01
11390.021
1211......
132......
142......
    Totals of specified cases245,174100.0036,483100.00
Unspecified cases954..26..
    Grand totals246,128..36,509..

INDUSTRIES.

It is essential to explain at the outset the connotation of the term “Industries.” Under this head are comprised industries, trades, professions, or services—i.e., generally speaking, the source of maintenance. Personal handicrafts or occupations are beside the point; they form the subject of an allied inquiry. Therefore, for example, two cooks, one employed on a sheep-station and the other in a restaurant, would be classified from the point of view of industry as “sheep breeding and farming” and “restaurants, tea-rooms, &c.,” respectively, for it is these industries which employ them in their occupational sphere, and of these they are an essential part. Tabulation of further details of this inquiry is at present in hand.

The subjoined summary, which speaks for itself, supplies a broad survey of industrial distribution:—

Group.Numbers.Proportion per Cent.
MalesFemales.Males.Females.
Professional29,80322,0824.793.71
Domestic8,92732,7621.435.50
Commercial58,51920,6019.393.46
Transport and communication52,6652,6708.450.45
Industrial98,61320,31915.823.41
Primary producers142,7369,20022.901.54
Other groups25,60321,0174.113.53
Dependants206,377467,01933.1178.40
 623,243595,670100.00100.00

A more detailed conspectus is provided hereunder:—

Industry.Males.Females.Total.
Fishing and trapping1,704181,722
Agricultural and pastoral122,9809,098132,078
Forestry9,892519,943
Mining and quarrying8,160338,193
Manufacture, &c.—   
    Stone, clay, earthenware, &c., n.e.i.2,483342,517
    Chemicals, animal and vegetable products, n.e.i.3,8632514,114
    Metals, implements, &c.12,62428812,912
    Carriages and vehicles2,049552,104
    Shipbuilding and equipment75010760
    Jewellery, watch, and clock making78237819
    Textile fabrics and fibrous materials2,3471,2373,584
    Dress6,25913,98220,241
    Harness, saddlery, and leatherware1,034891,123
    Food, drink, and tobacco18,9561,65620,612
    Woodworking, cane and basket ware1,785731,858
    Furniture and fittings3,3412253,566
    Stationery, printing, bookbinding, and photography5,3171,8057,122
    Other miscellaneous manufactures1,0432951,338
Construction or repair of buildings, roads, railways, &c.33,39419933,593
Gas, water, and electricity supply2,586832,669
Transport and communication44,82074645,566
Post and Telegraph services7,8451,9249,789
Commerce and finance58,51920,60179,120
Public administration and professional7,6571,1498,806
Defence1,5501371,687
Law and order3,9341,3285,262
Religion and social welfare2,0111,2013,212
Health3,5936,90510,498
Education4,42210,22614,648
Other professional3,5376984,235
Entertainment, sport, and recreation3,0994383,537
Personal and domestic service8,92732,76241,689
Dependent on public or private support206,109466,825672,934
Other groups25,87121,21147,082
Totals623,243595,6701,218,913

LIFE INSURANCE.

The statistics herein presented possess a certain special interest as being the first to be compiled from the foundation of statements by the individual assured rather than from the returns of insurance companies. Hence it is both more complete and more accurate from the individual standpoint.

Amount for which assured.Males.Females.Total.
Under £10381466847
£10 and under £258,06410,58418,648
£25 and under £5010,56011,91622,476
£50 and under £7512,59411,16123,755
£75 and under £1002,7802,1154,895
£100 and under £12527,2779,54936,826
£125 and under £150650260910
£150 and under £1756,1091,1487,257
£175 and under £200215102317
£200 and under £25032,5753,53236,107
£250 and under £3007,9777628,739
£300 and under £35014,61999015,609
£350 and under £4001,320831,403
£400 and under £4504,1012774,378
£450 and under £50073626762
£500 and under £60016,0431,01917,062
£600 and under £7002,034662,100
£700 and under £8002,335632,398
£800 and under £9001,267331,300
£900 and under £1,0004908498
£1,000 and under £1,2505,8873276,214
£1,250 and under £1,5007867793
£1,500 and under £1,7501,180271,207
£1,750 and under £2,0002292231
£2,000 and under £2,5001,115371,152
£2,500 and under £3,0003757382
£3,000 and under £4,0004338441
£4,000 and under £5,0001849193
£5,000 and under £7,5002617268
£7,500 and under £10,00040..40
£10,000 and over26329
            Total, all amounts162,64354,594217,237
Unspecified amounts11771188
            Total assured162,76054,665217,425
No insurance460,483541,0051,001,488
            Grand totals623,243595,6701,218,913

The first point of importance is the extent of assurance among the people, and the table preceding shows that 17.82 per cent, of all men, women, and children are covered by life insurance. A very wide range is exhibited in the distribution of the amounts of insurance. The sums quoted comprise almost every figure from £1 to £10,000, while a few exceed the later sum. The most popular amounts are £100, £200, £500, £300, £50, £20, £250, £150: £40, and £1,000, in the order indicated. The total cover on these 217,237 lives has been calculated as approximately £55,524,000, £50,310,000 being on male lives and £5,214,000 on female lives. The average sum for which assured is over £300 per head in the case of males, and under £100 per head in the case of females.

But, while these are the general averages, the bulk of lives are assured for lesser sums. Thus the range for males is—for every 1,000 males assured 117 are for £50 or less, 94 for £50-£99, 588 for £100-£499, 136 for £500-£999, 63 for £1,000-£4,999, and 2 for £5,000 or over. For females the position is—for every 1,000 females assured 421 are for £50 or less, 243 for £50-£99, 306 for £100-£499, 22 for £500-£999, and 8 for £1,000-£4,999.

Other features of life insurance will be touched upon at a later date when completion of tabulation is reached.

DWELLINGS.

The term “dwelling" in the connotation in which it is here employed implies an erection of any kind whatsoever which is used, or was used on the census night, for the purpose of human habitation. Ships and vessels, although within the scope of the definition, are not dealt with under this head. The number of the various classes of inhabited dwellings and the intercensal movement are detailed below:—

Class of Dwelling (Inhabited).Number, 1916.Number, 1921.Increase, 1916-1921.
NumberPer Cent.
Private dwelling229,423250,25420,8319.08
Tenement in private dwelling8,6439,9751,33215.41
Hotel1,2201,3231038.44
Boardinghouse3,0093,86285328.35
Religious institution11812797.63
Educational institution147144—3—2.04
Charitable institution951192425.26
Hospital29843713946.64
Prison27522592.59
Other106443337317.92
Totals243,086266,73623,6509.73

The increase in the total number of dwellings is noted as 9.73 per cent.; with this may be contrasted an increase in the total population of 10.87 per cent. Dwellings therefore have failed to keep pace with population. The foregoing refers only to inhabited houses; there were also 16,520 uninhabited or unoccupied dwellings, and 1,881 dwellings in course of erection.

Dwellings have also been classified according to the material of which they were constructed, the standard being the material of the outer walls. Wooden dwellings, which have always been the most popular in New Zealand, still maintain their supremacy without serious challenge; but a glance at the following figures will at once indicate that other materials are becoming increasingly used. The table covers only inhabited private dwellings and tenements.

Material of Outer Walls.Number of Inhabited Private Dwellings and Tenements.Proportion per Cent, of Total. (Specified Cases.)Increase per Cent., 1916-1921.
* Decrease.
Stone1,2800.49—0.31*
Brick8,5863.3121.67
Concrete2,8271.0967.77
Wood238,35391.928.58
Iron3,5621.381.80
Canvas2,1580.83—9.74*
Asbestos4660.181.46
Other materials2,0810.80
Unspecified916....
Total260,229100.009.31

Building-materials vary greatly with the locality. Speaking generally, however, the use of stone and brick is more common in the South Island than in the North. Asbestos houses are almost wholly restricted to the North Island.

The nature of occupancy of dwellings is often a serviceable guide to social conditions. Figures quoted hereunder prove that changes of a vital nature have recently occurred. An actual decrease (4,075, or 3-74 per cent.) has taken place in the ranks of the rented houses, although, had circumstances been normal, a gain of over 10,000 to this tenure would have been recorded. Apparently high rents and insecurity of tenure have forced many thousands into precipitately taking steps towards ultimate ownership of their homes. The least satisfactory item is the diminution of 2,286 (4.02 per cent.) in the case of unencumbered owners. The number of persons acquiring a house by instalments has shown rapid growth, and this may be regarded as a favourable symptom; but the almost equally large ratio of increase experienced by the class “owners, but paying interest on mortgage,” cannot be regarded without doubts as to its real significance. The term “rent-free,” although convenient, is in reality a misnomer, and, technically, dwellings occupied in this manner may be considered as equivalent to rented dwellings where the amount of rent was not specified.

Tenure.1916.1921.Increase per Cent, in Numbers, 1916-1921.
NumberPer Cent.*Number.Per Cent.*
* Excluding unspecified cases.
Renting108,91646.7976,74240.95—3.74
Rent-free28,099
Buying on time payment11,9635.1417,7126.9248.57
Owner, but paying interest on mortgage55 06223.6578,88930.8143.27
Owner of freehold unencumbered56,86024.4254,57421.32—4.02
Unspecified5,265..4,213....
 238,066100.00260,229100.009.31

In regard to the size of dwellings, the only standard available is that of the number of rooms. From the annexed figures it is clear that the five-formed house is not only the most popular but also that it is gaining in favour.

Number of Rooms.1921.1916.Increase 1916-1921.
Number.Per Cent.*Number.Number.Per Cent.
* Excluding unspecified cases.
110,9214.229,7311,1905.41
212,2274.729,5772,65012.06
313,8675.3611,6952,1729.88
454,92621.2251,3963,53016.06
568,78226.5860,1978,58539.05
655,06321.2851,3493,71416.89
723,1298.9422,2718583.90
810,3374.0010,926—589—2.68
94,5071.744,0664412.01
10 and over5,0241.945,591—567—2.58
Not stated1,446..1,267179..
Totals260,229100.00238,06622,163100.00

The average number of occupants per inhabited dwelling has declined steadily since 1886, and this movement may manifestly be associated with the marked fall in the birth-rate and the consequent smaller size of families.

Census.Number of Persons per
Inhabited Dwelling.
18614.42
18644.53
18674.05
18714.48
18744.88
18785.02
18815.12
18865.17
18915.06
18964.98
19014.86
19064.82
19114.68
19164.52
19214.55

A vital aspect of this division of the subject is the matter of overcrowding. Adopting the standard of the Board of Health (August, 1919), by which all dwellings are regarded as overcrowded when the number of occupants is greater than one and a half per room, the following position is disclosed:—

Overcrowded Dwellings. (Number.)Persons affected (Number.)Persons affected to Total. (Per Cent.)
Auckland urban area2,32116,89911.97
Wellington urban area1,92012,82813.62
Christchurch urban area1,34810,31610.76
Dunedin urban area9337,17910.85
Remainder of Dominion16,533117,67616.54
Totals23,055164,89814.87

The main point of the table may be expressed by saying, as the figures warrant, that one person in every seven is living in conditions which at the worst are distinctly dangerous, and at the best are unfavourable to the maintenance of a proper standard of health and decency. A worse position of affairs is disclosed by the tenements and flats which have of late years assumed some importance in the larger cities.

Urban Area.Number of Overcrowded Tenements.Number of Persons affected.Percentage of Persons affected to Total residing in Tenements.
Auckland5592,31727.36
Wellington5622,07631.96
Christchurch17575026.88
Dunedin8533018.33

The final view-point from which dwellings are examined is that of rent or rental value. For reasons which it is unnecessary to dilate upon, only rented houses will be here referred to. The amount of rent is that for the house or tenement, unfurnished. Average weekly rents in the four principal urban areas are quoted in the following table, according to the size of the dwelling:—

Urban AreaOne Room.Two Rooms.Three Rooms.Four Rooms.Five Rooms.Six Rooms.Seven Rooms.Eight Rooms.Nine Rooms.Ten Rooms.
s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Auckland1511932211184215243252310412420
Wellington1810209202204241279329396485584
Christchurch13016316515620421102510276321434
Dunedin981071110133168195244266301344

It is necessary to recollect that these figures cover all houses rented, and it is therefore not unreasonable to presume that a greater proportion of them will fall below the ordinary standard of comfort and appearance than will exceed it.

The final table gives average weekly rents of all rented houses in cities and boroughs of over 4,000 inhabitants.

City or Borough.Dwellings of Four Rooms.Dwellings of Five Rooms.Dwellings of Six Rooms.
s.d.s.d.s.d.
Whangarei Borough160188205
Devonport Borough2472110259
Auckland City180212237
Mount Eden Borough242250277
Mount Albert Borough187211244
Onehunga Borough148178198
Hamilton Borough205267267
Thames Borough1021110167
Gisborne Borough177218261
Napier Borough1611207239
Hastings Borough1611225240
New Plymouth Borough198217234
Hawera Borough2152611275
Wanganui Borough178201231
Feilding Borough1591811195
Palmerston North Borough189235257
Masterton Borough1721852210
Lower Hutt Borough176215223
Petone Borough1401611199
Wellington City210249291
Blenheim Borough1211610201
Nelson City1210159180
Greymouth Borough11212111311
Christchurch City1411198215
Woolston Borough1361610183
Ashburton Borough137171172
Timaru Borough1411183222
Oamaru Borough1201471611
Dunedin City134168193
St. Kilda Borough151197248
Invercargill Borough125175190

MINOR APPENDAGES OF THE CENSUS.

For excerpts from results of the three subsidiary enumerations—viz., of the Maoris, of the Cook Islands, and of Western Samoa—the section on “Population" appearing earlier in this issue must be consulted. Three lesser collections of an entirely different character may be passed over in brief fashion. The first is that dealing with public libraries.

There proved to be, in 1921, 421 public libraries, providing for their 60,441 subscribers literary pabulum to the extent of 1,132,079 volumes, besides 2,317 newspapers and 3,578 magazines and periodicals regularly received. A free reading-room was the rule in 228 libraries; in 174 cases the free reading-room was open to the general public. The most popular subscription-rates were 5s. and 10s. per annum, the average being 8s. per annum. As regards the class of literature provided, it is found that of 403 libraries (specified cases) some 94 per cent. contained on their shelves over 50 per cent. of fiction, and 64 per cent. of the libraries had over 75 per cent. of fiction. Of the capital cost of building and equipping public libraries the Government bore over 50 per cent. in 32 instances; local authorities provided over 50 per cent. in 88 cases; while more than half the initial cost was borne by private individuals in 75 cases.

The second of these accompaniments to the main census is that dealing with the places of worship and Sunday schools of the various denominations or religious bodies.

The total number of places of worship is disclosed as 3,928, composed as follows; Churches and chapels, 2,236; public schools in which services are held, 828; halls and theatres, 616; and private dwellings, 248. Accommodation for 516,591 persons was provided by 3,745 places of worship returning statistics in this direction. The number of persons usually present at the largest-attended service of the day was 255,059. Sunday or Sabbath schools are established in connection with the majority of Churches. These institutions had a membership of 139,858 pupils, and a teaching staff of 13,342.

Last of the secondary features are the statistics of poultry and bees. Poultry numbers were—Fowls, 3,491,567; ducks, 379,988; geese, 46,234; turkeys, 73,220. The number of geese appears to be about stationary, turkeys to be diminishing, and ducks and poultry to be growing, the former rapidly, the latter slowly. The extent of poultry-keeping is not generally known; but no fewer than 145,993 households — more than half of the total — are concerned to a greater or lesser degree, and this figure includes 61,459 residents in cities and boroughs. Thirty per cent. of poultry-keepers (fowls only) had flocks of less than 12 birds; almost 40 per cent., flocks of 12-24 birds; and over 20 per cent., flocks of 25-49 birds.

The number of beehives and the honey-production in 1921 was a great improvement upon the level recorded in 1916. The number of households keeping bees was 8,426, the number of beehives 85,861, the honey-production for the year 2,807,346 lb., and the production of beeswax 51,177 lb. The export trade in honey is a growing one.

OTHER FIELDS OF INQUIRY.

The aim in the foregoing notes has been to touch lightly and briefly upon a few of the more prominent or curious points which the census tabulation has either brought to light or crystallized into accurate knowledge. In some instances it has been necessary to explain that the tabulation of the section in question had not yet been fully accomplished. Yet again there are other sections to which the stage of compilation reached has forbidden even the most cursory reference. These latter include “Occupations and Unemployment,” “Fertility,” “Life Tables,” and “Households.”

(b.) LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

 Males.Females.Total.
POPULATION:—   
    Estimated (exclusive of Maoris and residents of Cook and other Pacific islands) at 30th September, 1923650,711626,4051,277,116
MIGRATION:—   
    Arrivals, ten months, 1923....67,183
    Departures, ten months, 1923....63,946
VITAL STATISTICS:—   
 Males.Females.Total.
    Births, nine months, 192310,84110,03820,879
    Deaths, nine months, 19234,9203,9328,852
    Corresponding yearly rates: Births, 21.87; deaths, 9.27.......
EXPORTS:—  £
    Total for nine months, 1923....37,591,106
    Total, N.Z. produce, nine months, 1923....37,131,395
 ..Quantity.Value.
    Principal items (N.Z. produce)—  £
        Butter cwt...880,3427,463,309
        Cheese cwt...1,122,3755,370,436
        Beef, frozen cwt...645,851791,838
        Mutton, whole carcases, frozen cwt...677,3041,686,463
        Lamb, whole carcases, frozen cwt...1,374,6805,662,187
        Mutton and lamb joints, frozen cwt...4,61412,153
        Sausage-skins lb...2,175,873390,057
        Wool bales..546,2149,657,576
        Hides Number..259,665446,662
        Sheep-skins, without wool lb...7,138,473847,928
        Rabbit-skins Number..9,983,522313,281
        Tallow ton..22,595701,752
        Gold oz...119,256490,567
        Phormium-fibre ton..8,166220,525
        Timber, sawn sup. ft...33,899,685340,636
        Kauri-gum ton..5,174473,822
   Value.
IMPORTS:—  £
    Total for nine months, 1923....31,481,795
    Principal imports—   
        Apparel....1,610,400
        Boots, shoes, and slippers....728,372
        Carpeting, matting, and oilcloth....469,454
        Cigarettes....439,815
        Cotton piece-goods....1,944,241
        Drapery....381,465
        Electrical machinery and equipment....1,013,499
        Hardware n.e.i.....370,930
        Hosiery....442,685
        Iron pipes and fittings....365,089
        Leather....315,056
        Oils in bulk   
            Benzine, benzoline, gasolene, &c.....569,739
            Motor-spirit n.e.i.....884,847
        Silk, satin, velvet piece-goods....527,993
        Sugar....880,320
        Tea....643,133
        Timber, sawn and hewn....434,298
        Tires, rubber (for motor-vehicles)....650,132
        Tobacco....641,180
        Vehicles, motor....1,757,523
        Whisky....516,462
        Woollen piece-goods....942,080
  Number.Annual Value.
PENSIONS:—  £
    Old-age, October, 1923..21,176783,512
    Widows', October, 1923..3,528204,624
    Military, October, 1923..62130,429
    War, October, 1923..24,3001,239,300
    Miners', October, 1923..56435,109
    Epidemic, October, 1923..48737,012
RAILWAYS:—  £
    Receipts, twenty-eight weeks ended 13th October, 1923....3,406,778
    Expenditure, twenty-eight weeks ended 13th October, 1923....2,892,680
POSTAL:—  Number.
    Telegrams transmitted, nine months, 1923....10,413,759
AGRICULTURE:—   
    Areas sown or intended to be sown, season 1923-24—  Acres.
    Wheat....185,000
    Oils....445,000
    Potatoes....16,500
MORTGAGES:— Number.Amount. £
    Registered, seven months ended October, 1923..24,23420,216,470
    Discharged, seven months ended October, 1923..16,53813,100,827
ESTATES CERTIFIED FOR STAMP DUTY:—   
    Ten months ended October, 1923..4,12312,511,956
STATE ADVANCES (LOANS AUTHORIZED):—   
    To settlers, six months ended September, 1923..4,1663,057,472
    To workers, six months ended September, 1923..1,237664,440
    To local authorities, six months ended September, 1923..121303,695
BANKS:—   
    Liabilities, September quarter, 1923....55,968,705
    Assets, September quarter, 1923....58,797,007
    Deposits, September quarter, 1923....48,983,798
    Advances, September quarter, 1922....42,826,728
    Bank rate of discount, October, 1923....6 1/2 per cent.
    Overdraft interest rate, October, 1923....6 1/2 per cent.
POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK:—  £
    Deposits during six months ended September, 1923....14,453,765
    Withdrawals during six months ended September, 1923....14,210,471
CONSOLIDATED FUND:—   
    Revenue, six months ended September, 1923....10,496,577
    Expenditure, six months ended September, 1923....11,982,288
RETAIL PRICES, THREE FOOD GROUPS:—   
    Dominion index number (taking average of four chief centres, 1909-13, as base = 1000), October, 1923....1560
    Increase per cent. as compared with July, 1914....45.79

(c.) PRINCIPAL EVENTS.

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.
1642.Discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.
1769.Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.
1788.Discovery of Macaulay and Curtis Islands (Kermadec Group), and of Bounty Islands.
1791.Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.
1792.First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.
1793.Discovery of Raoul or Sunday Island (Kermadec Group). Visit of Lieutenant-Governor King, of Norfolk Island, to Doubtless Bay.
1800.Discovery of Antipodes Islands.
1806.Discovery of Auckland Islands.
1807.Defeat of Hongi and the Ngapuhi Tribe.
1810.Discovery of Campbell Island.
1814.Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, oxen, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.
1818.Hongi's and Te Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.
1819-20.Raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson by Patuone, Nene, and Te Rauparaha.
1820.Hongi's visit to England. Rev. S. Marsden travelled from Waitemata, via Kaipara, to Bay of Islands—the first white man to do so. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.
1821.Hongi's capture of Mauinaina and Te Totara Pas. Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki.
1822.Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.
1823.Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, to Hongi.
1823-28.Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.
1824.Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa to Pomare.
1825.First attempt at colonization by an expedition under Captain Herd. Great defeat of Ngati-Whatau by Hongi.
1827.Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.
1828.Death of Hongi.
1829.Brig “Hawes" captured by Maoris.
1830.Battles of Taumata-wiwi and Kororareka. Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury, to Te Rauparaha.
1831.Tory Channel whaling-station established. Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William IV. Capture of Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, by Waikato.
1832.Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa.
1833.Mr. Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.
1834.Bishop Williams's first visit to East Cape. Battle near Otaki. Waimate Pa shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which H.M. troops employed in New Zealand.
1835.Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand.” Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.
1836.Battles between Waikato and Te Arawa.
1838.Pelorus Sound discovered. Arrival of Roman Catholic mission under Bishop Pompallier.
1839.Governor of New South Wales authorized to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.
1840.Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. First steamer arrived. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.
1841.Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.
1842.Settlement founded at Nelson.
1843.Affray with Natives at the Wairau, and massacre of persons who had surrendered.
1844.Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.
1845.Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.
1846.Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Native hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.
1847.Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.
1848.Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Severe earthquake at Wellington. Otago founded.
1850.Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.
1852.Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.
1854.Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.
1855.First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.
1856.Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.
1857.Goldfield opened at Collingwood.
1858.New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.
1859.Establishment of Marlborough Province.
1860.Hostilities in Waitara district.
1861.Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.
1862.Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. “White Swan,” with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.
1863.Wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus" on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Native affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngarua-wahia. First railway in New Zealand opened.
1864.Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including Battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. Gold discovered on west coast of South Island.
1865.Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Natives defeated at Wairoa.
1866.Further defeats of rebel Natives. Commencement of Panama steam mail-service. Cook Strait submarine telegraph-cable laid.
1867.Opening of Thames Goldfield. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.
1868.Westland Province established. Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner “Rifleman" and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans and were engaged in a series of fights with European forces and friendly Natives. Considerable fighting also with other rebel Natives.
1869.Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit after Te Kooti. Termination of Panama mail-service. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.
1870.Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail-service. Bounty Island taken possession of. Inauguration of Vogel public-works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.
1871.Commencement of railway-construction under public-works policy.
1872.Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.
1873.Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Company.
1874.In pursuance of immigration and public-works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants introduced.
1875.Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.
1876.New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.
1877.Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education for children.
1879.Trouble with Parihaka Natives, under Te Whiti, and imprisonment of 180 of these. Triennial Parliament Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced.
1880.Release of Parihaka prisoners.
1881.Wreck of s.s. “Tararua,” with loss of 130 lives. Severe earthquakes in Wellington. Arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu.
1882.First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.
1883.Amnesty to Maori political offenders proclaimed. Te Whiti and Tohu released. Direct steam communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.
1885.New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.
1886.Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.
1887.Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris. Australian Naval Defence Act passed, providing for additional naval force on the Australian Station.
1888.British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.
1889.South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.
1890.Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.
1891.Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr. Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.
1892.Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure.
1893.Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.
1894.Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. “Wairarapa,” with loss of 135 lives. First ascent of Mount Cook.
1895.Government assumed management of Midland Railway.
1896.Brunner Mine explosion, causing sixty-seven deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.
1898.Old-age Pensions Act passed.
1899.Labour Day instituted. New Zealand Contingent (the first of ten) sent to South Africa.
1900.Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to seventy-six.
1901.Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Universal penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.
1902.Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. “Elingamite.” Conference of colonial Premiers in London, at which New Zealand was represented by Right Hon. R. J. Seddon.
1903.Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.
1904.New Zealand rifle team competed at Bisley, and won Kolapore Cup.
1905.Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner.”
1906.Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Government Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.
1907.New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.
1908.Through communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu Railway purchased by Government. American Fleet visited Auckland. New Zealand's subsidy to British Navy increased to £100,000 per annum. Second Ballot Act passed.
1909.S.s. “Penguin" wrecked, with loss of seventy-five lives. Battle-cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.
1910.Field Marshal Lord Kitchener's visit to New Zealand to report and advise on defences. Public Debt Extinction Act, National Provident Fund Act, and Workers' Dwellings Act passed.
1911.Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.
1912.Foundation-stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.
1913.Visit of Dominions Royal Commission. Visit of gift ship H.M.S. “New Zealand” to Dominion. Aeroplane presented to New Zealand as nucleus of proposed air fleet. Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.
1914.Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal-mine disaster, whereby forty-three lives lost.
1915.New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled.
1916.New Zealand Division transferred to western front, where it took part in heavy fighting during this and two following years, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt, and being later engaged in successful advance into Palestine. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced.
1918.S.s. “Wimmera" sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast. Otira tunnel pierced. Great influenza epidemic, causing over five thousand deaths.
1919.Visit of French mission under General Paul. Second visit of H.M.S. “New Zealand,” bringing Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa. Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. Dissolution of National Ministry. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister.
1920.Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted a national holiday.
1921.System of compulsory registration of firearms introduced. Samoa Act passed, making provision for “peace, order, and good government” of Western Samoa in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington, by Hon. Sir John Salmond.
1922.Earth tremors over period of several weeks in Taupo district. British Empire Exhibition Mission visited New Zealand. Anzac Day made observable in all respects as if it were a Sunday. Meat-export trade placed under control of a Board. Enrolment of volunteers in view of possible outbreak of war with Turkey.
1923.Destructive floods in several parts of Dominion. Seventeen lives lost in railway accident at Ongarue. Opening of Arthur's Pass tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General of New Zealand. Sockburn ærodrome purchased by Government. First winter ascent of Mount Cook. Highway districts created. Re-introduction of penny postage. Extension of scheme of advances to settlers and workers. Dairy-produce Export Control Act passed, and adopted by dairy producers.

(d.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following list contains the mes of some of the principal works dealing with New Zealand, Samoa, the Cook Islands, and the Ross Dependency, but it does not purport to be a complete list. The year of publication is given in each case, and the list is arranged as far as possible in chronological order of issue.

NEW ZEALAND.
1807.New Zealand. By Dr. Savage. London—J. Murray.
1817.Voyage to New Zealand. By John L. Nicholas. London—Black.
1823.Journal of Ten Months' Residence in New Zealand. By Captain Cruise. London—Longmans.
1830.The New-Zealanders (Library of Entertaining Knowledge). London—Chas. Knight.
1832.Nine Months' Residence in New Zealand. By Augustus Earle. London—Longmans.
1836.Two Visits to New Zealand. By Dr. Marshall. London—Nisbet and Co.
1840.Manners and Customs of the New-Zealanders. By J. S. Polack. London—Madden and Co.
1843.Travels in New Zealand. By E. Dieffenbach. London—Murray.
1855.Te-Ika-a-Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. By Rev. Richard Taylor. London—Wertheim and Macintosh. (Second edition, enlarged, 1870.)
1856.Traditions and Superstitions of the New-Zealanders. By Edward Shorthand. London—Longmans.
1859.New Zealand and its Colonization. By William Swainson, formerly Attorney-General for New Zealand. London—Smith, Elder, and Co.
1859.Story of New Zealand. By Dr. Thompson. London—John Murray.
1863.Old New Zealand. By Judge Maning. Auckland—Creighton and Scales.
1864.The Maori King, or the Story of our Quarrel with the Natives of New Zealand. By J. E. Gorst, M.A. London—Macmillan and Co.
1874.Life of Henry Williams. By Hugh Carleton. Auckland—Upton.
1879.Reminiscences of the War in New Zealand. By T. W. Gudgeon. London—Sampson Low.
1879.George Augustus Selwyn. By Rev. H. W. Tucker. London—W. W. Gardner.
1885.Polynesian Mythology and Maori Legends. By Sir G. Grey.
1887.Mission Commercial en Nouvelle-Zélande. Par Emile de Harven. Bruxelles—P. Weissenbruch.
1889.Ancient History of the Maori. By John White. London.
1890.Early History of New Zealand. By R. A. Sherrin and J. H. Wallace. Edited by Thomas W. Leys. (Brett's Historical Series.) Auckland—Brett.
1891.Storia della Nuova Zelanda (2 vols.). Per D. Felice Vaggioli. Parma—Vesc. Fiaccadori.
1893.Captain Cook's Journal during his First Voyage round the World. Edited by Captain W. J. L. Wharton, R.N. London—Elliot Stock.
1895.History of New Zealand. By G. W. Rusden. Melbourne—Melville, Mullen, and Slade.
1896.The Art Workmanship of the Maori Race in New Zealand. By Augustus Hamilton. Dunedin—Fergusson and Mitchell.
1896.Journal of Sir Joseph Banks. Edited by Sir Joseph D. Hooker. London—Macmillan and Co.
1897.New Zealand Rulers and Statesmen (1844-97). By W. Gisborne. London.
1898.Abel Janszoon Tasman's Journal of his Discovery of Van Diemen's Land and New Zealand in 1642, &c. By J. E. Heeres. Amsterdam—F. Mueller and Co.
1898.Contributions to the Early History of New Zealand. By T. M. Hocken, London.
1898.New Zealand (Story of the Empire Series). By W. P. Reeves. London—Marshall and Sons.
1900.Old Marlborough. By T. L. Buick. Palmerston North—Hart and Keeling.
1901.Newest England. By H. D. Lloyd. London.
1901.New Zealand. By R. A. Loughnan. Wellington.
1902.The Progress of New Zealand in the Century. By R. F. Irvine and O. T. J. Alpers. London.
1902.State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand. By W. P. Reeves. London—Grant Richards.
1902.The last Maori War in New Zealand. By Major-General Sir George S. Whitmore, K.C.M.G., M.L.C. London—Sampson, Low, Marston, and Co.
1903.Old Manawatu. By T. L. Buick. Palmerston North—Buick and Young.
1904.La Démocratie en Nouvelle Zélande. Paris, 1904. Translated by E. V. Burns, 1914. London.
1904.Wars of the Northern against the Southern Tribes of New Zealand in the Nineteenth Century. By S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited). (Second and enlarged edition in 1910.)
1904.La Nouvelle Zélande. Par Comte de Courte. Paris—Hachette et Cie.
1905.The Maori Race. By E. Tregear. Wanganui—A. D. Willis.
1905.The Animals of New Zealand. An Account of the Colony's Air-breathing Vertebrates. By Captain F. W. Hutton and James Drummond. Third Edition, 1907. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1906.Adrift in New Zealand. By E. W. Elkington. London.
1907.The Plants of New Zealand. By R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell. Second and Revised Edition. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1907.Maori and Polynesian. By J. M. Brown. London.
1907.Our Feathered Immigrants. Evidence for and against Introduced Birds in New Zealand, together with Notes on Native Avifauna. Illustrated. By J. Drummond. Wellington—Government Printer.
1908.State Regulation of Labour and Labour Disputes in New Zealand. By Henry Broadhead. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1908.New Zealand. By F. W. Wright and W. P. Reeves. London—Black.
1908.New Zealand. (Romance of Empire Series.) By Reginald Horsley. London—T. C. and E. C. Jack.
1908.Adventures in New Zealand. By E. J. Wakefield. New Edition. Wellington—Whitcoinbe and Tombs (Limited).
1908.Bibliography of the Literature relating to New Zealand. By T. M. Hocken, Wellington.
1908.Historical Records of New Zealand. By the Hon. Dr. Robert McNab, Litt.D. Wellington—Government Printer.
1908.New Zealand Revisited. By the Right Hon. Sir John Eldon Gorst. London—Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons (Limited).
1909.New Zealand in Evolution, Industrial, Economic, and Political. By G. H. Schole-field, with an introduction by W. P. Reeves. London—T. F. Unwin.
1909.Murihiku. A History of the South Island of New Zealand and the Islands Adjacent and Lying to the South, from 1642 to 1835. By the Hon. Dr. Robert McNab, Litt.D. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1909.The Dominion of New Zealand. By A. P. Douglas. London.
1910.The Maoris of New Zealand. By J. Cowan. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1910.The Geology of New Zealand. By James Park. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1910.New Zealand Plants and their Story. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. Second Edition, 1919. Wellington—Government Printer.
1910.History and Traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand. By S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S. New Plymouth—Polynesian Society.
1911.Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Maori. By S. Percy Smith. Third Edition. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1911.The Course of Prices in New Zealand. By James W. Mcllwraith, LL.B., Litt.D. Wellington—Government Printer.
1911.State Socialism in New Zealand. By J. E. Le Rossignol and W. Downie Stewart. London—G. G. Harrop and Co.
1911.New Zealand. By the Right Hon. Sir Robert Stout, P.C., K.C.M.G., LL.D., and J. Logan Stout, LL.B. Cambridge—University Press.
1911.With the Lost Legion in New Zealand. By Colonel G. Hamilton-Browne. London—T. Werner Laurie.
1913.La Nuova Zelanda. Giuseppe Capra. Seuola Tipografica D. Bosco—S. Benigno Canavese.
1913.New Zealand, its History, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. By S. Playne. London.
1913.Social Welfare in New Zealand. By H. H. Lusk. London.
1913.The Lore of the Whare Wananga. Third Volume of Memoirs of Polynesian Society. On Maori Religion, Myths, Cosmogony, &c.
1914.The Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand. By J. Hight, Litt.D., and H. D. Bamford, LL.D. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1914.The Treaty of Waitangi. By T. Lindsay Buick. Wellington—S. and W. Mackay
1914.The Wilds of Maoriland. By M. J. Bell. London.
1914.Oxford Survey of the British Empire, Vol. 5. Australasian Territories. London.
1914.Early Rangitikei. By Sir James G. Wilson, Kt. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1915.The Long White Cloud, Aotearoa. By W. P. Reeves. London—Horace Marshall and Sons. Revised Edition.
1916.Jubilee History of South Canterbury. By Johannes C. Andersen. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1917.A Natural History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Adjacent Islands. By R. P. Thomson. London.
1917.A Dictionary of the Maori Language. By Herbert L. Williams. Wellington—Government Printer.
1919.Official History of New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. Vol. 1. The New-Zealanders at Gallipoli. By Major Fred Waite, D.S.O., N.Z.E. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (for N.Z. Government).
1920.Prices: An Inquiry into Prices in New Zealand. By the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. Wellington—Government Printer.
1921.New Zealand One Hundred Years Ago. By Major Richard A. Cruise. Auckland—Brett Printing and Publishing Company. (A reprint of the book published in 1823.)
1921.Official History of New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. Vol. 2. The New Zealand Division, 1916-19. By Colonel H. Stewart, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.C. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (for N.Z. Government).
1921.Maori and Pakeha. A History of New Zealand. By A. W. Shrimpton, M.A., and A. E. Mulgan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).
1921.The Vegetation of New Zealand. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Leipzig—Wilhelm Engelmann. (Vol. 14 of a work Die Vegetation der Erde.)
1921.The Hot Springs of New Zealand. By Arthur Stanley Herbert. London—H. K. Lewis and Co. (Limited).
1921.Tutira: the Story of a New Zealand Sheep-station. By Henry Guthrie-Smith. London—Blackwood and Sons.
1922.The Naturalization of Animals and Plants in New Zealand. By Hon. George M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst., M.L.C. Cambridge University Press.
1922.The Geomorphology of New Zealand. By C. A. Cotton, D.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Wellington—Government Printer.
1922.Maori Myth and Religion. Spiritual and Mental Concepts of the Maori. Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori. Maori Division of Time. By Elsdon Best. F.N.Z.Inst. Dominion Museum Monographs 1-4. Wellington—Government Printer.
1922.The New Zealand Wars: a History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol. 1, 1845-64. By James Cowan. Wellington — Government Printer.
1922.Medical Practice in Otago and Southland in the Early Days. By Robert Valpy Fulton, M.D. Edin. Dunedin—Otago Daily Times.
1922.Official History of New Zealand's Effort in the Great War. Vol. 3. The New-Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine. By Lieut.-Colonel C. Guy Powles, C.M.G., D.S.O. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (for N.Z. Government).
SAMOA.
1845.Quelques Semaines dans l'Arehipel de Samoa. By G. F. de Lurey. (Extrait du Bulletin de la Société de Geographie.) Paris.
1846.Missionary Life in Samoa. By G. A. Lundie. Glasgow—W. Collins.
1872.Report on the Islands of the Samoa Group. By E. Wakeman. New York—Slote and James.
1875.My Story of Samoan Methodism. By M. Dyson. Melbourne—Ferguson and Moore.
1878.Grammar and Dictionary of the Samoan Language. By G. Pratt. London—Trübner and Co.
1879.Freundschafts-Vertrag zwischen des Deutschen Reiehe und der Regierung von Samoa. (Agreement between Germany and Samoa.)
1884.Samoa a Hundred Years Ago and Long Before. By George Turner. London—Macmillan.
1887.My Consulate in Samoa. By W. B. Churchward. London—Bentley and Son.
1889.Iles Samoa. By A. Marques. Lisbon.
1889.Les Iles des Samoa ou des Navigateurs By A. de Ganniers. Paris.
1890.Le Missionaire des Samoa. By A. Monfat. Belleeour.
1893.Kurze Anleitung zum Verständnisz der Samoanischen Spraohe. By B. Funk. Berlin—Mittler und Sohn.
1895.In Stevenson's Samoa. By Marie Fraser. London—Smith and Elder.
1897.Old Samoa. By Rev. John B. Stair. London—Religious Tract Society.
1899.The Imbroglio in Samoa. By H. C. Ide. (From North American Review, June, 1899.)
1899.Samoan Question. By W. Cooper. Auckland—Wilson and Horton.
1900.Samoa: Das Land, die Leute und die Mission. By G. Kurze. Berlin—M. Warneck.
1902.Samoa Uma. By L. P. Churehill. New York—Forest and Stream Publishing Company.
1902.Manuia Samoa. By Richard Dekken. Oldenburg—G. Stalling.
1902.Samoa. By Dr. F. Reinecke. Berlin—W. Süsserott.
1902-3.Die Samoa-Inseln. By A. Krämer. Stuttgart.
1904.Samoa: die Perle der Südsee. By Otto E. Ehlers. Berlin—H. Paetel.
1906.The Fishes of Samoa. By D. S. Jordan and A. Scale. Bulletin 25, Unitted States Fisheries Bureau.
1910.Beiträge zur Geologie der Samoainseln. By I. Friedlander. Münehen.
1910.Die deutsehen Kolonien. By Major A. D. Kurd Sehwabe. Berlin—Weller and Hüttich. (Samoa, in Vol. 2.)
1912.Island Reminiscences. By Thomas Trood, British Vice-Consul at Apia, Samoa. Sydney—McCarron, Stewart, and Co.
1918.History of Samoa. By R. M. Watson. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.
1918.Grammar and Vocabulary of the Samoan Language. By H. Neffgen. London—Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co.
COOK ISLANDS.
1892.The South Pacific . . . with Notes on the Hervey Group. By Rev. W. W. Gill. Sydney—Government Printer.
1893.Phrase Book of the Cook Islands. By F. Nioholas. Wellington.
1905.A Compilation of Acts . . . relating to the Government of the Cook Islands. N.Z. Crown Law Office.
1916.Rarotongan Records. By Rev. W. W. Gill. (From the Journal of the Polynesian Society.) New Plymouth.
ROSS DEPENDENCY.
1847.A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions . . . 1839-43. By Sir James Clark Ross, R.N. (2 vols.). London—John Murray. (This is the “Erebus" and “Terror" voyage, which resulted in the famous volumes by Sir Joseph Hooker on the Flora of New Zealand (2 vols.), Tasmania (3 vols.), and Antarctica (2 vols.), and on the Zoology (2 vols.), edited by John Richardson and John Edward Gray.)
1901.The Antarctic Manual, for the Use of the Expedition of 1901. Edited by George Murray, F.R.S. London—Royal Geographical Society.
1901.First on the Antarctic Continent . . . an Account of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1898-1900. By Carsten E. Borehgrevink, F.R.G.S. London—George Newnes (Limited).
1901.To the South Polar Regions: Expedition of 1898-1900. By Louis Bernacchi, F.R.G.S. London—Hurst and Blackett (Limited).
1902.Report on the Collections of Natural History made in the Antarctic Regions during the Voyage of the “Southern Cross.” London—British Museum.
1904.The Antarctic Regions. By Dr. Karl Fricker. London—Swan, Sonnensehein, and Co.
1905.Naermest Sydpolen Aaret, 1900. By Carsten E. Borchgrevink. Copenhagen—Gyldendalske Boghandel.
1905.The Siege of the South Pole: the Story of Antarctic Exploration. By Hugh Robert Mill, LL.D., D.Sc. London—Alston, Rivers (Limited).
1905.The Voyage of the “Discovery.” By Captain Robert F. Scott, C.V.O., R.N. (2 vols.). London—Smith, Elder, and Co.
1905.Two Years in the Antarctic: being a Narrative of the British National Antaretie Expedition. By Albert B. Armitage, Lieutenant, R.N.R. London—Edward Arnold.
1906.The Voyage of the “Scotia": being the Record of a Voyage of Expleration in Antarctic Seas. By Three of the Staff. London—William Blackwood and Sons.
1907.South Polar Times. Vol. 1, April to August, 1902, and Vol. 2, April to August, 1903. London—Smith, Elder, and Co. (Facsimile of the magazine produced on the “Discovery" month by month during the winters of 1902-3. Contains drawings, many coloured maps, &c., and whilst much of the matter is ephemeral, it contains information concerning the country, its flora and fauna, including Ross Island, &c. Vol. 3 was published in 1914.)
1907-12.National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4. Natural History—Vol. 1, Geology, 1907; Vol. 2, Zoology, 1907; Vol. 3, Zoology and Botany, 1907; Vol. 4, Zoology, 1908; Vol. 5, Zoology and Botany, 1910; Vol. 6, Zoology and Botany, 1912: Physical Observations, 1908: Meteorology, Part I, 1908: Photographs and Sketches, 1908: Panoramas, n.d.: Charts, n.d. (11 vols.). London—British Museum.
1908.Aurora Australis. Published at the winter quarters of the British Amarctic Expedition, 1907, during the winter months of April, May, June, and July, 1908. (Contains an account of the ascent of Mount Erebus.)
1909.The Heart of the Antarctic: being the Story of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-1909. By E. H. Shackleton, C.V.O. (2 vols.). London—William Heine-mann.
1910.The Heart of the Antarctic. By Sir Ernest Shackleton, C.V.O. London—William Heinemann. (Popular edition in 1 vol. of the edition of 1909.)
1910.21 Meilen vom Suedpol, die Geschichte der Britishen Suedpol Expedition, 1907-9. Von E. H. Shackleton . . . (2 B.). Berlin—Wilhelm Suesserott.
1910-11.British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-9, under command of Sir E. H. Shackleton, C.V.O. Reports of Scientific Investigations. Vol. 1, Biology, Parts I to VII, and Vol. 2, Biology, Parts I to IV. London—British Museum.
1911.Shackleton in the Antarctic. By Sir Ernest Shackleton, C.V.O. London—William Heinemann. (Adapted from “The Heart of the Antarctic.”)
1913.Scott's Last Expedition. Vol. 1, Journals of Captain R. F. Scott, C.V.O., R.N.; Vol. 2, Reports of the Journeyings and the Scientific Work undertaken by Dr. E. A. Wilson and the Surviving Members of the Expedition. Arranged by Leonard Huxley. London—Smith, Elder, and Co.
1914.Antarctic Adventure: Scott's Northern Party. By Raymond E. Priestly. London—T. Fisher Unwin.
1914.Antarctic Penguins: a Study of their Social Habits. By Dr. G. Murray Levich, R.N. London—William Heinemann.
1914.South Polar Times. Vol. 3, April to October, 1911. London—Smith, Elder, and Co. (Vols. 1 and 2 published in 1907.)
1914.The Voyages of Captain Scott. By Charles Turley. London—Smith, Elder, and Co.
1914-23.British Antaretic (“Terra Nova”) Expedition, 1910. Zoology, Vol. 1. Nos. 1-4; Vol. 2, Nos. 1-11; Vol. 3, Nos. 1-10; Vol. 4, Nos. 1-4; Vol. 5, Nos. 1 and 2; Vol. 6, Nos. 1 and 2; Botany, Part III. Geology, Vol. 1, Nos. 1-5 (the work still being issued). London—British Museum.
1916.The Voyages of the “Morning.” By Captain Gerald S. Doorly, R.N.R. London—Smith, Elder, and Co.
1916.With Scott: the Silver Lining. By Griffith Taylor, D.Sc., &c. London—Smith, Elder and Co.
1919.South: the Story of Shackleton's Last Expedition, 1914-1917. By Sir Ernest Shackleton, C.V.O. London—William Heinemann.
1921.The Great White South: being an Account of Experiences with Captain Scott's South Pole Expedition, and of the Nature Life of the Antarctic. By Herbert G. Ponting, F.R.G.S. London—Duckworth and Co.
1921.South with Scott. By Edward R. G. Evans. London—Collins. (A popular edition issued in 1923.)
1922.The Worst Journey in the World: Antarctic, 1910-1913. By Apsley Cherry-Garrard. (2 vols.) London—Constable and Co.
1923.South: the Story of Shackleton's 1914-1917 Expedition. By Sir Ernest Shackleton. C.V.O. London—William Heinemann.

The following geological papers, all by H. T. Ferrar, are not available in separate book form:—

Notes on the Physical Geography of the Antarctic. In Geographical Journal, Vol. 25, 1905, pp. 373-82.

Cavities in Crystalline Rocks. In Geographical Magazine, Vol. 2, 1905, pp. 190-1. The Antarctic Icecap. In Geographical Magazine, Vol. 3, 1906, pp. 529-34.

(e.) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK.

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time in the Year-book on
Year.Page.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.)1912809
Building-stones1892194
Cancer mortality in New Zealand1917776
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot Estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Forest-trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Gold-dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship “Amokura”1913942
Hanmer Thermal Springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. “New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Land- and income-tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &c.1907707
Maori, ancient, his clothing1908734
Maori, chant (tangi)1907711
Maori, colour-sense of the1905637
Maori, marriage customs1906638
Maori, mythology1900536
Maori, neolithic, the1902578
Maori, place-names1919936
Maori, religion1901530
Maori, sociology1903641
Maori, songs1908739
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland Railway, the1894386
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
Mount Cook, district, the1899554
Mount Cook, its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand Contingents for South Africa1900449
New Zealand International Exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress1894377
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies—  
New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
Union Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney Pageant, the1901527
Thermal-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
Topographical nomenclature of the Maori1919936
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zealand1919860
Waihi Gold-mining Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington-Manawatu Railway, the1895381
West Coast Sounds, the1894482
White Island, a day on1906637

DETAILED GENERAL INDEX.

A.

Absolute Decrees in Divorce, 223.
Accident Insurance, 592.
State, 594.
Accidents, 153, 177, 225.
Mining, 442.
Railway, 346.
Acclimatization of Fishes, 427.
Accommodation in Mental Hospitals, 194.
Accommodation Licenses, 689.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 382-394.
Acts passed 1922, 704 - 712.
Actuarial Investigation—
National Provident Fund, 564.
Public Service Superannuation Fund, 560.
State Life Insurance, 591.
Ad ralorem Duties, 311.
Adenoids: Hospital Cases, 169.
Adjacent Islands, Population of, 97.
Administration, 49-54.
Administrators, 55.
Adoptions, 115.
Adult Suffrage, 52.
Advances—
By Banks, 577.
To Discharged-Soldiers, 371.
To Local Authorities, 551.
To Settlers, 540.
To Workers, 548.
Afforestation, 420.
After-lifetime, Average, 131.
Age, Mean, 735.
At Death, 131.
At Marriage, 124.
Ages, 734.
At Death, 129.
Of Hospital Patients, 160.
Of Industries, 461.
Of Inmates of Benevolent Institutions, 190.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 192.
Of Issue left, 136.
Of Maoris convicted, 242.
Of Migrants, 79.
Of Mothers of Illegitimate Children, 114.
Of New Zealand-born convicted, 241.
Of Parents, 110.
Of Persons arrested and convicted, 230.
Of Persons married, 123.
Of Prisoners, 236.
Of Public-school Pupils, 205.
Aggregation of Land, 368.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 376-413.
Agricultural Bursaries, 219.
Agricultural College, Lincoln, 218.
Agricultural Produce exported, 260.
Agriculture, 382-394.
Board of, 378.
Department of, 378.
Aid, State—
To Dairy Industry, 405.
To Discharged Soldiers, 371.
To Friendly Societies, 605.
To Immigrants, 82.
To Kauri-gum Industry, 440.
To Local Authorities, 551.
To Mining, 443.
To Settlers, 540.
To Tree-planting, 422.
To Water-power Development, 467
To Workers, 548.
Aitutaki Island, 714.
Alcoholic Liquors—
Consumption of, 245.
Sale of, 689.
Alien Immigrants, 80.
Alienation of Land, 365.
Alienation of Native Lands, 374.
Aliens, 740.
Immigration of, 80.
Naturalization of, 86.
Race, 81, 742.
Registration of, 87.
“All Groups,” Index Numbers, 645.
Allegiance, 740.
Oath of, 86.
Allocation of Public Debt, 509.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 431.
Alpine Meadow-land, 415.
Altitude of Mountains, 2.
Amortization of Funded Debt, 520.
Amusements-tax, 505.
Angora Goats, 411.
Animals, Domestic, 395-413.
Annexation, 48.
Annexed Islands, 1, 714-718.
Population of, 101.
Ante-nuptial Conceptions, 113.
Anti-dumping Legislation, 313.
Antipodes Islands, 1, 713.
Apia, 719.
Radio-station, 353.
Apiaries, Registration of, 412.
Apiculture, 412.
Appeal Court, 233.
Appendicitis Cases in Hospitals, 170.
Applicants for Crown Land, 364.
Arapuni Power Scheme, 472.
Arbitration Court, 661.
Price Statistics for, 645.
Area of Indigenous Forests, 415.
Area of New Zealand, 2.
Area under Cultivation, 360.
Arrested Persons convicted, 229.
Arrivals, 77-82.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 766.
Assembly, General, 50.
Asses and Mules, 410.
Assessment Court, 567.
Assessment of Land and Income Tax, 498.
Assets—
Of Bankrupts, 622.
Of Banks, 576.
Of Building Societies, 612.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 597.
Of Friendly Societies, 606.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 588.
Of Local Bodies, 534.
Of Manufacturing Industries. 459.
Of National Provident Fund, 563.
Assisted Immigration, 82.
Asylums, 190-195.
Benevolent and Orphan, 190.
Atiu Island, 714.
Atlantic Salmon, 428.
Auckland Fish-market, 429.
Auckland Islands, 1, 713.
Audit of Expenditure, 484.
Australia and New Zealand—
Bank Deposits in. 577, 582.
Birth-rates of, 105.
Building Societies in, 612.
Death-rates of, 133.
Standardized, 134.
Debt of, 521.
Deposits in Banks of Issue in, 577.
Friendly Societies in, 608.
Illegitimacy Rates of, 114.
Index of Mortality of, 134.
Live-stock in, 395.
Marriage-rates of, 120.
Oat Crop of, 389.
Potato Crop of, 391.
Public Debt of, 521.
Railway Revenue of, 345.
Reciprocity between, 323.
Savings-banks Deposits in, 582.
Sheep in, 399.
Wheat Crop of, 388.
Australia, Reciprocity with, 323.
Automatic Telephones, 351.
Avifauna, 44.
Award Rates of Wages, 651.

B.

Balance of Trade, 254.
Balances of Accounts, 492.
Banking, 574-582.
Bank-notes, Issue of, 578.
Bankruptcy, 621.
Banks of Issue, 574.
Banks, Savings—
Post Office, 578.
Private, 581.
Barley, 389.
Barren Land, 356, 360.
Beans and Peas, 389.
Export of, 277.
Beef consumed and exported, 408.
Beer. Consumption of, 245.
Beer Duty, 314, 498.
Bees, 412.
Beeswax produced, 413.
Benevolent Asylums, 190.
Bertillion Classification of Diseases, 145.
Betting-houses, 701.
Bibliography, 761.
Birds, 44.
Birthplaces, 737.
Of Persons arrested and convicted, 230.
Of Persons convicted for Drunkenness, 243.
Of Persons who died, 135.
Of Prisoners. 235.
Births, 103-117.
Boarding of School-children, 205.
Boats, Fishing, 425.
Boer War, 246.
Pensions, 558.
Bones, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 175.
Bookmakers, 702.
Boroughs, 53.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 572.
Finances of, 522-539.
Population of, 95.
Borrowers from Building Societies, 610.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1.
Bounty Islands, 1, 713.
Boys' Training-schools. 217.
Bread, Law re Sale of, 184.
Breeding-ewes, 397.
Breeds of Cattle, 404.
Brides and Grooms—
Ages of, 123.
Condition of, 122.
British Postal Orders, 349.
British Preference, 313, 321.
British Sovereignty, 48.
British Trade Representatives, 64.
Broadcasting, 354.
Bronchitis Cases in Hospital, 168.
Building Permits, 99.
Building Societies, 609-612.
Buildings, 99. 751.
Building-stones, 441.
Bullion, Movement of, 255.
Bursaries, 213, 219.
Bush, Virgin, Area of, 360, 415.
Butter—
Exported, 259-287.
Factories, 406.
Production of, 406.
By-elections, 689.

C.

Cables, Ocean, 354.
Cadets, Senior, 246.
Calf-skins exported, 277.
Campbell Island, 1, 713.
Cancer, 149, 165.
Canterbury Agricultural College, 218.
Capital—
Invested in Railways, 343.
Of Banks of Issue, 574.
Of Joint-stock Companies, 679.
Capital Value of Land, 565-573.
Rating on, 522-527.
Cargo handled at Ports, 329.
Carry-over of Wheat, 386.
Cash Lands, 365, 370.
Cassiterite, 436.
Castaways. Depots of Provisions for, 713.
Casualties in the War, 247.
Casualties, Shipping, 340.
Cattle, 402.
Causes of Death, 145.
Of Infants, 143.
Causes of Industrial Disputes, 671.
Causes of Insanity, 191.
Census and Statistics Office, 67.
Census Legislation, 66.
Census of 1921, 732-755.
Cereals, 382.
Certificates, Marine Officers', 339.
Certificates of Title issued, 363.
Chaff, 388.
Character of Organization of Industries, 459.
Character of Stock, 514.
Charges before Magistrates, 226.
Charitable Aid, 186.
“Chatham,” H.M.S., 247.
Chatham Islands, 1.
Cheese—
Exported, 259-287.
Factories, 406.
Produced, 406.
Child Welfare, 216.
Childbirth, Deaths in, 151.
Childbirth: Hospital Cases, 174.
Children born, Sexes of, 107.
Children, Dependent, 748.
Care of, 216.
Children under One Year, Deaths of, 138.
Children's Homes. 217.
Chinese. 81, 742.
Chronological List of Events, 757.
Churches, 755.
Cinnabar, 436.
Circulatory Diseases treated in Hospitals, 168.
Civil Law Cases, 222.
Civil Marriages, 125.
Class-books, School, 206.
Climate, 24-41.
Clothing-prices, 645.
Clover-seeds, 391.
Exported, 278.
Coal exported, 260, 430.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 447.
Coal-mining, 437.
Coastal Trade, 330.
Coastwise Shipping, 336.
Cocksfoot, 391.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 352.
Coleridge, Lake, Water-power, 467.
Colleges, University, 217.
Collieries, 437.
Colonization. 48.
Commerce, 249-332.
Committals for Sentence, 226, 231.
Companies, Joint-stock, 679.
Companies, Taxation of, 500.
Compulsory Training, 246.
Conciliation Councils, 661.
Confinement—
Deaths in, 151.
Hospital Cases, 174.
Maternity Hospital Cases, 189.
Conjugal Condition, 736.
Of Persons marrying, 122.
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 223.
Consolidated Fund, 485-488.
Constitution, 49.
Of Cook Islands, 715.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 343.
Consuls, Foreign, 65.
Consumption—
Of Alcoholic Liquors, 245.
Of Meat, 407.
Of Timber, 419.
Of Wheat, 386.
Conveyance of Children to School, 205.
Conveyancing, 362.
Convictions in Supreme Courts, 231.
Convictions, Summary, 226.
For Drunkenness, 243.
Of Juveniles, 239.
Of Maoris, 242.
Of New-Zealand-born, 241.
Of Persons arrested, 229.
Of Women, 240.
Cook and other Pacific Islands, 1, 714-718.
Bibliography, 764.
Births, 117.
Deaths, 154.
Exports to, 287.
Imports from, 310.
Marriages, 126.
Population, 101, 716.
Cook's Visits to New Zealand, 47.
Co-operative Dairy Companies, 405.
Co-operative Public Works, 682.
Copper, 435.
Corn Crops, Acreage and Yield of, 382.
Cost of Railway-construction, 343.
Council, Executive, 49.
Members of, 57-59.
Council, Legislative, 50.
Members of, 61.
Councils of Conciliation, 661.
Counties, 54.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 571.
Finances of, 522-539.
Population of, 94.
Courts—
Appeal, 233.
Arbitration, 661.
Assessment, 567.
Bankruptcy, 621.
Divorce, 223.
Magistrates', 222, 226.
Native Land, 374.
Supreme, 222, 231.
Cow-testing, 378, 403.
Creameries, 406.
Cream-separators on Farms, 379.
Creditors' Petitions, 621.
Crime, Law and, 222-245.
Criminal Cases, 226-233.
Criminals, Habitual, 237.
Crops, 382.
Crown Lands, 364-373.
Cultivation, Area in, 360.
Customary Land, 374.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 311-325.
Customs Taxation, 315,498.

D.

Dairy Industry, 405.
Dairying Machinery in Use, 379.
Dairy-produce, 405.
Export Control, 407.
Export of, 259-287.
Grading of, 378, 405.
Retail Prices, 631-645.
Danger Island, 1, 715.
Dates of Maturity of Loans, 515.
Dates of Principal Events, 757
Deaf, School for the, 217.
Death Duties, 502.
Deaths, 128-155.
In Hospitals, 158.
In Mental Hospitals, 193.
Debentures, 514, 535.
Debenture tax, 501.
Debt of Local Bodies, 535.
Debt, Public, 507-521.
Debtors' Petitions, 621.
Deceased Husband's Brother, Marriage with, 118.
Deceased Wife's Sister, Marriage with, 118.
Decrees in Divorce, 223.
Deeds Registration, 362.
Defence, 246-248.
Deferred-payment Lands, 365, 370.
Demography, 72-102, 732-755.
Denominational Schools. 196, 210.
Density of Population, 98.
Dental Treatment for School-children, 185.
Dentists, Registration of, 183.
Departmental Reports, 70.
Departments, Government, 63.
Departures, 77-82.
Dependencies, 713-725.
Dependency, 748.
Deposits, 577, 579-582, 611.
Depots for Castaways, 713.
Depreciated Rate of Exchange, Provisions re, 313.
Designs, Registration of, 680.
Destination of Exports, 267-278.
Detention, Reformative, 237.
Diamond Drills, 444.
Diarrhœa Cases in Hospital, 170.
Differential Tariff, 313-321.
Diplomas in Public Health, 182.
Direction of Export Trade, 267-278.
Direction of Import Trade, 294-309.
Direction of Oversea Shipping, 335.
Discharged Mortgages, 616.
Discharged Soldiers—
Financial Assistance, 371.
Land for, 370.
Pensions for, 556.
Discharges from Hospitals, 158.
Discharges from Mental Hospitals, 193.
Discount Rates, 577.
Discovery of New Zealand, 47.
Diseases, Notification of, 156, 181.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 145.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 161-177.
Dislocations treated in Hospitals, 177.
Disputes, Industrial, 661-676.
Dissolution of Marriages, 223.
Dissolution of Parliament, Dates of, 59.
Distinct Criminal Cases, 228.
Distinct Prisoners received under Sentence, 235.
Distribution of—
Marriages over Year, 121.
Population, 88.
Wealth, 624.
District Exports, 327.
District High Schools, 211.
Dividend Duty, 504.
Divorce, 223.
Domestic Servants, Assisted Passages for, 82.
Domestic-science Bursaries, 219.
Dominion of New Zealand, 1.
Dominions, Relationship to Great Britain, 699.
Drainage Boards, Finances of, 522-539.
Dredging, Gold, 432.
Drills, Prospecting, 444.
Drugs, Sale of, 184.
Drunkenness, 243.
Ducks, 411.
Dumping, 313.
Dunedin Medical School, 190.
Dunes, Reclamation of, 422.
Duration of Marriage and Number of Previous Issue, 112.
Dutiable Imports, 319.
Duties, Customs and Excise, 311-325.
Duties, Death, 502.
Dwellings, 99, 751.
Soldiers', 371.
Workers', 551.

E.

Early History, 47.
Early Trade, 249.
Earned Income, Reduced Tax on, 501.
Ears, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 167.
Earthquakes, 19.
Education, 196-221.
In Cook Islands, 717.
In Western Samoa, 722.
Education Gazette, 207.
Educational Association, Workers', 219.
Educational Endowments, 366.
Effect of Prices on Exports, 280.
Effective Wages. 656.
Election, General, 682-689.
Electoral Qualifications, 52.
Electric—
Current, 466-483.
Power Boards, 473, 522-539.
Telegraph, 350.
Emigration, 77-82.
Employees—
Factory, 450.
Farm, 379.
Postal, 354.
Public Works, 681.
Railway, 346.
Unions of, 661.
Employers' Liability, 594.
Employment Branch of Labour Department, 682.
Enactments of 1922, 704-712.
Endowments, Educational, 366.
Endowments, National, 366.
Engines on Farms, 381.
Engines, Railway, 341.
Ensilage, 390.
Enteritis Cases in Hospital, 170.
Entertainments-tax, 505.
Entrepôt Trade, 257, 280.
Entry, Ports of, 326.
Epidemic General Diseases, 162.
Epidemic Pensions, 558.
Erection of Dwellings, 549.
Estate Duty, 502.
Estates—
Acquired for Settlement, 366.
Administered by Public Trust Office 678.
Passed for Probate, 626.
Estimated Population, 72.
Ewes, Breeding, 397.
Examinations, Annual. 220.
Exchanges, Telephone, 351.
Excise Duties, 314.
Taxation by means of, 315, 498.
Executive Council, 49.
Members of, 57-59.
Ex-nuptial Births, 113.
Exotic Trees, Planting of, 420.
Expectation of Life, 131.
Expeditionary Forces, 246.
Medical Examination, 178.
Expenditure—
Education, 220.
Hospital, 186.
Hydro-electric, 472, 475.
Local Body, 533.
Mental Hospital, 195.
Postal, 355.
Public, 484-496.
Railway, 345.
Experimental Farms, 378.
Explorers, 47.
Export Duties, 314.
Export Prices, 280-287.
Of Mutton, 648.
Exports, 259-288.
Of Ports, 327.
External Injuries treated in Hospital, 177.
External Migration, 77-82.
External Trade, 249-332.
Extinction of Public Debt, 518.
Extra-marital Conceptions, 113.
Eyes, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 167

F.

Factories, 448-465.
Farmers—
Assisted Passages for, 82.
Tree-planting by, 420.
Farming, 376-413.
Fauna, 43.
Feeble-minded, Schools for, 217
Female Suffrage, 52.
Fern Lands, 360.
Fibre, Phormium, 393.
Exported, 260-287.
Grading of, 378.
Finance, Public, 484-539.
Finances of Local Bodies, 522-539.
Financial Assistance to Soldiers, 371.
Fire Brigades, 604.
Fire Inquests, 225.
Fire Insurance, 596-604.
State, 602.
Fire Losses, 602
Fire-prevention in Forests, 420.
First Births, 112.
Sex-proportions, 107.
First Offenders' Probation, 237.
Fish exported, 425.
Fisheries, 423-429.
Fish-hatcheries, 427.
Fishing-boats, 425.
Fish-markets, Municipal, 429.
Fixed Assets of Industries, 459.
Flax (Phormium Tenax), 360, 393.
Exports, 260, 278.
Fleeces, Average Weight of, 400.
Flocks—
Fowls, 411.
Sheep, 398.
Flora, 41.
Flotation of Loans, 515.
Fodder Grasses, 390.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 184.
Food Groups: Index Numbers, 631-645.
Foreign Consuls, 65.
Foreign Insurance Companies, 583, 596.
Foreign Vessels entered and cleared, 334.
Foreigners naturalized, 86, 741.
Forest-produce exported, 260.
Forestry, 414-422.
Foster-homes for Children, 217.
Foundation Scholarships, 213.
Foveaux Strait Oysters, 426.
Fowls, 411.
Fowl-wheat, 387.
Fractions, Totalizator, 504.
Fractures: Hospital Cases, 177.
Franchise, 52.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 319.
Free Secondary Education, 212.
Free University Education, 218.
Freehold, Crown Land made, 367.
Freehold Tenure, 358, 367.
Friendly Societies, 605-608.
Frozen Meat exported, 259-287.
Fruit Industry, The, 393
Fruit-preserving, 394.
Fuel and Light: Index Numbers, 642.
Funded Debt, 520.
Funds of Friendly Societies, 606.

G.

Gaming, 701.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 234.
Gardens, Acreage in, 393
Gauge, Railway, 341.
Geese, 411.
General Assembly, 50.
Genital Organs, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 172.
Geographical, 1.
Geological Survey, 443.
Geology, 15.
German Samoa, 2, 719-723.
Geysers, 5.
Gift Duty, 503.
Glaciers, 2.
Glasshouses, 394
Goats, 411.
Gold exported, 256, 260-287.
Duty on, 314.
Goldfields, Subsidized Roads on, 445.
Gold-mining, 431.
Gonorrhea: Hospital Cases, 163
Goods carried on Railways, 342.
Government Departments, 63.
Government Insurance—
Accident, 594.
Fire, 602.
Life, 589.
Government, System of, 49.
Government Valuation of Land, &c., 565-573.
Government Water-races, 445, 482.
Governor-General, 56.
Powers, Duties, &c., 50.
Governors, Successive, 55.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 378, 405.
Of Fruit, 394.
Of Honey, 412.
Of Phormium-fibre, 378.
Graduated Land-tax, 499.
Grain Crops, 382.
Grapes, 394.
Grass Lands, Acreage of, 360, 394.
Grass-seed, 392.
Exported, 278.
Greasy Wool exported, 401.
Green Fodder, 390.
Greenstone, 441.
Groceries: Index Numbers, 631-645
Gross Indebtedness, 508.
Grounds for Divorce, 223.
Growth of Population, 73.
Growth of Trade, 249.
Gum, Kauri, 440.
Exported, 260-287.

H.

Habitual Criminals, 237.
Half-castes, 100. 742.
Hands employed in Factories, 450.
Hanmer Springs, 5.
Harbour Boards, Finances of, 522-539.
Hay, 390.
Heads of Government Departments, 63
Health Act, 180.
Health, Public, 180-186.
Hernia Cases treated in Hospital, 171.
Hervey Islands, 715.
Hides exported, 259-287.
High Schools, 211.
Technical, 215.
Higher Education, 217.
Highway Districts, 53, 692.
Hindus, 81, 742.
H.M.S. “Chatham,” 247.
H.M.S. “Laburnum,” 248.
H.M.S. “New Zealand,” 247
H.M.S. “Philomel,” 247.
H.M.S. “Veronica,” 248.
History, 47. 757.
Hogs, 410.
Holdings, Occupied, 356.
Home Separators, 379.
Homes, Children's, 217.
Home-science Bursaries, 219
Homicide, 153.
Honey, 413.
Hops, 392.
Horahora Electric Supply, 470.
Horse-racing, 701.
Horses, 409.
Horticultural Stations, 378.
Hospitals, 158-177, 186-195.
Expenditure on, 186.
Maternity, 189.
Mental, 190.
Private, 188.
Private Mental, 194.
Public, 158-177, 186.
St. Helens, 189.
Hot Springs, 4
Hours of Labour, 658.
House of Representatives, 51.
Members of, 62.
House-rent, 634, 642, 753.
Housing, 99, 551, 751.
Hunt Clubs, 702.
Husbands' Petitions in Divorce. 223.
Hydro-electric Power, 466-483.

I.

Igneous Rocks, 18.
Illegitimacy, 113.
Illegitimate Infants, Deaths of, 140.
Immigration, 77-82.
Assisted, 82.
Restriction, 85.
Implements, Farm, 379.
Advances on, 546.
Imports, 289-310.
Free and Dutiable, 319.
Of Ports, 326.
Improved-farm Settlements, 365.
Incomes, 627-630.
Income-tax, 500.
Increase in Food-prices during War, 637.
Increase of Population, 73.
Indebtedness of Local Bodies, 535.
Indebtedness, Public, 507-521.
Indentured Labourers in Samoa, 102, 721.
Index Numbers, Price, 631-648.
Index of Mortality, 133.
Indians, 81, 742.
Indigenous Forest, 415.
Individualization of Native Land, 374.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 661.
Industrial Disputes, 661-676.
Industrial Life Assurance, 586.
Industrial Manufacture, 448-465.
Industrial Schools, 216.
Industrial Unions, 661.
Industries, 748.
Manufacturing, 448-465.
Infancy, Diseases of, 143, 176.
Infantile Mortality, 138.
Infant-life Protection, 139, 217.
Infectious Diseases, Notification of, 156, 181.
Infectious Diseases, Prevention of, 181.
Influenza, 146.
Injuries treated in Hospital, 177.
Inland Fisheries, 427.
Inmates—
Of Benevolent and Orphan Asylums, 190.
Of Gaols, 234.
Of Hospitals, 158.
Of Mental Hospitals, 190.
Inquests, 225.
Insanity, 190-195.
Inscribed Stock, 514.
Insolvency, 621.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools, 185.
Inspection of Machinery, 681.
Instruction, Public, 196-216.
Instruments, Registration of, 362.
Insurance, 583-604, 750.
Intercensal Estimates, 77.
Interest on Local Bodies' Debt, 538.
Interest on Mortgages, 619.
Interest on Public Debt, 516.
Paid by various Accounts, 496, 517.
Intermediate Customs Tariff, 313.
International Payments, 255.
Inter-urban Telephones, 350.
Intestinal Obstruction: Hospital Cases, 171.
Intoxicating Liquor—
Consumption of, 245.
Sale of, 689.
Investment Societies, 609.
Investments, Revenue from, 494.
Investments, Totalizator, 504.
Invisible Imports and Exports, 254.
Iron-ores, 433.
Ironsand, 434.
Islands—
Adjacent, Population of, 97.
Administered on Mandate, 2, 719-724.
Annexed, 1, 714-718.
Outlying, 1, 713.
Issue of Bank-notes, 578.
Issue of Deceased Males, 136.
Issue, Previous, of Parents, 111.

J.

Joint-stock Companies, 679.
Journal of Agriculture, 378.
Journal, School, 206.
Judicial Separation, 223.
June Year Exports, 278.
Junior Scholarships—
National, 213.
University, 218.
Justice, 222-245.
Juvenile Offenders, 239.

K.

Kaingaroa Plantations, 421.
Kauri-gum, 440.
Exported, 260-287.
Kermadec Islands, 1, 714.
Kidney-diseases in Hospitals, 172.
Kumara Water-races, 445, 482.

L.

Labour Department: Employment Branch, 682.
Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 663.
Labour, Hours of, 658.
“Laburnum,” H.M.S., 248.
Lake Coleridge Works, 467.
Lakes, 10.
Lamb consumed and exported, 408.
Land and Income Tax, 498.
Land Boards, 364.
Maori, 375.
Land Districts, 364.
Land Drainage Boards, Finances of, 522-539.
Land for Discharged Soldiers, 370.
Land for Settlements, 368.
Land, Government Valuation of, 565-573.
Land, Occupation of, 356.
Land Offices, 364.
Land Purchase Board, 368.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 356-375.
Land Transfer and Deeds Registration, 362.
Land, Valuation of, 565-573.
Lands opened for Selection, 366.
Land-settlement Finance Associations, 370.
Land-tax, 499.
Latest Statistical Information, 755.
Law and Crime, 222-245.
Lease, Renewable, 365, 371.
Legislation of 1922, 704-712.
Legislative Council, 50.
Members of, 61.
Legitimate Births, 110.
Legitimation Act, 115.
Length of Residence, 741.
Letters of Naturalization, 86.
Letters Patent, 680.
Letters posted, 348.
Liabilities—
Of Bankrupts, 622.
Of Banks, 576.
Of Building Societies, 612.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 597.
Of Friendly Societies, 606.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 588.
Of Local Bodies, 534.
Of National Provident Fund, 563.
Libraries, 754.
School, 206.
Licensed Houses, 689
Licenses by Local Bodies, 532, 689.
Licenses, Publicans', 689.
Licensing, 689-691.
Life, Expectation of, 131.
Life Insurance, 583-591, 750.
State, 589.
Light, Fuel and: Index Numbers, 642.
Lighthouses, 339.
Limonite, 433.
Lincoln Agricultural College, 218.
Linseed, 390.
Liver-diseases treated in Hospital, 171.
Live-stock, 395-413.
Advances on, 546.
Loans—
Allocation of, 509.
By Building Societies, 610.
Dates of Maturity of, 515.
Flotation of, 515.
Of Local Bodies, 535.
Receipts from, 493, 513.
Redemption of, 493, 513.
Local Administration, 52.
Local Bodies, 52.
Advances to, 551.
Finances of, 522-539.
Superannuation, 561.
Taxation by, 505, 531.
Tree-planting by, 420.
Local Option, 691.
Local Taxation, 505, 531.
Location of Industries, 460.
Location of New Zealand, 1.
Lockouts, 661-676.
Locomotives, 341.
Lodges, 605.
London Missionary Society, 717, 719.
Loss of Wages, 667.
Losses from Fires, 602.
Lotteries, 701.
Lower Departments of Secondary Schools, 214.
Lunacy, 190-195.

M.

Macaulay Island, 714.
Machinery, Farm, 379.
Machinery, Inspection of, 681.
Magistrates' Courts—
Civil Cases, 222.
Criminal Cases, 226.
Magnetic Ironsand, 434.
Main Highways, 692.
Maize, 389.
Male and Female Death-rates, 128.
Malformations: Hospital Cases, 176.
Mammalia, 43.
Mandated Territories, 2, 719-724.
Mangahao Hydro-electric Scheme, 472.
Mangaia Island, 714.
Manganese-ore, 436.
Mangolds, 392.
Mangrove Oysters, 426.
Manihiki Island, 1, 715.
Manual Education, 206.
Manual Telephones, 351.
Manufacture, Industrial, 448-465.
Maori Land Boards, 375.
Maori War Pensions, 555.
Maoris, 47.
Births of, 103, 116.
Children attending Schools, 210.
Deaths of, 103, 154.
Half-castes, 100.
In Mental Hospitals, 192.
Marriages of, 126.
Members of Parliament, 51, 62.
Offences by, 242.
Population, 100.
Schools for, 196, 210.
Marine Fish-hatchery, 427.
Marine Officers' Certificates, 339.
Market-gardens, 393.
Marram-grass, Planting of, 422.
Marriages, 118-127.
Dissolution of, 223.
Massey Ministry, 57.
Materials used in Manufactories, 457.
Maternal Mortality, 151.
Maternity Allowances, 562.
Maternity Hospitals, 189.
Maturity of Loans, Dates of, 515.
Mauke Island, 714.
Meat—
Consumption of, 407.
Export Control Act, 408.
Export of, 259-287.
Retail Prices, 631-645.
Medical Examination for Expeditionary Force, 178.
Medical Inspection of Schools, 185.
Medical Practitioners, Registration of. 182.
Medicine, School of, Dunedin, 190.
Mental Defectives, 190.
Mental Hospitals, 190-195.
Mercury-mines, 436.
Metal-mines, Accidents at, 442.
Meteorology, 24-41.
Midwives, Registration of 183.
Migration, External, 77-82.
Military Forces, 246.
Military Pensions, 655.
Milking-machines, 379.
Milk-supply, Wellington, 695.
Milk-testing, 378, 403.
Milling-wheat, 386.
Mills, Wool used at, 400.
Minerals, 430-447.
Miners' Pensions, 447, 555.
Mining, 430-147.
Accidents, 442.
Act, Examinations under, 446.
Advances, 445.
Produce exported, 262, 430.
Water-power for, 482.
Ministers of each Denomination, 127.
Marriages by, 125.
Ministries, Successive, 56.
Ministry, Massey, 57.
Minors, Marriages of, 118, 125.
Mission Schools, 196, 717, 722.
Missionaries, Arrival of, 48.
Mitiaro Island, 714.
Money, Purchasing-power of 636.
Money-orders issued and paid, 349.
Moratorium, 620.
Morbidity, 156-179.
Mortality, Index of, 133.
Mortality, Infantile, 138.
Mortality Investigation, 131.
Mortgages, 613-620.
Mothers, Ages of, 110.
In Illegitimate Cases, 114.
Motive Power in Factories, 454.
Mountains, 2.
Movement of Specie and Bullion, 255.
Mules, 410.
Multiple Births, 109.
Municipal Fish markets, 429.
Municipal Milk-supply, 695.
Mutton consumed and exported, 407.
Mutton, Export Prices of, 648.

N.

National Endowments, 366.
National Prohibition, 690.
National Provident Fund. 561.
National Scholarships, 213.
Nationalities, 740.
Of Migrants, 80.
Nationality of Vessels, 334.
Native Grasses, 360, 394.
Native Land Court, 374.
Native Lands, 374.
Native Schools, 196, 210.
Native Succession Duty, 503.
Native Trust Office, 678.
Native-land Purchase, 375.
Natural Increase of Population, 75, 105.
Naturalization, 86.
Nauru Island, 2. 723.
Naval Board, 248.
Naval Defence, 247.
Navigable Rivers, 5.
Navigators Islands, 2, 719-723.
Navy, 247.
Nephrite, 441.
Nervous System, Diseases of the, treated in Hospital, 166.
Net Indebtedness, 508.
New Zealand Born, Offences by, 241.
“New Zealand,” H.M.S., 247.
New Zealand Produce exported, 259-287
New Zealand University, 217.
Newspapers—
Posted, 348.
Registered, 349.
Night Letter-telegrams, 351.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 223.
Niue Island, 1, 715.
No-License Issue, 690.
Nomination of Assisted Immigrants, 82.
Note-issue of Banks, 578.
Tax on, 497.
Notification of Births, 103.
Notification of Diseases, 156. 181.
Nullity of Marriage, 223.
Nurseries and Plantations, 393.
State, 421.
Nurses. Registration of, 183.

O.

Oath of Allegiance, 86.
Oats, 388.
Exported, 260, 389.
Occupation of Land, 356.
Occupation with Right of Purchase, 365, 371.
Occupations of Bankrupts, 623.
Occupations of Deceased Males, 134.
Ocean Cables, 354.
Ocean Island, 723.
Offences, 226-236.
Offenders Probation Act, 237.
Officers, Military, 246.
Officiating Ministers, 127.
Oil, 440.
Old Age, Deaths from, in Hospital, 176.
Old-age Pensions, 553.
Onakaka Iron-ore, 433.
Orchards, 393
Origins of Earthquakes, 21.
Ornamental Stones, 441.
Orphan Asylums, 190.
Orphanhood, 136, 747.
Osmiridium, 437.
Otekaike Special School, 217
Outlying Islands, 1, 713.
Overcrowding, 753
Overdraft Rates, 577.
Oversea Shipping, 333.
Oversea Trade, 249-329.
Overseas Representatives, 64.
Oyster-beds, 426.

P.

Pacific Cable, 354.
Pacific Islands annexed in 1901, 1, 714-718.
Packet Licenses, 689.
Palmerston Island, 1, 715.
Papatupu Land, 374.
Parapara Iron-ore Deposit, 433.
Parcel-post, 349.
Parents, Ages of, 110.
Parliament, 50.
Parliamentary Elections, 52, 682-689.
Parliamentary Reports, 70.
Parliaments, Successive, 59.
Parry Island (Mauke), 714.
Party-line Telephones, 352.
Passages at Reduced Rates, 82.
Passengers, Railway, 342.
Passports, 84
Pastoral Produce exported, 259-287.
Pastoral Production, 395-413.
Pasture Grasses, 394.
Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks, 680.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 190.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 158.
Payers of Income-tax, 501.
Payers of Land-tax, 500.
Peas and Beans, 389.
Export of, 277.
Pelts, Export of, 259-287.
Penrhyn Island, 1, 715.
Pensions, 553-558.
Permanent Building Societies, 609.
Permanent Heads of Departments, 63.
Permanent Military Forces, 246.
Permission to enter New Zealand, 84.
Permits and Passports, 84.
Petitions—
Bankruptcy, 621.
Divorce, 223.
Petroleum, 440.
“Philomel,” H.M.S., 247.
Phormium Tenax, 360, 393.
Fibre exported, 260-287.
Grading of Fibre, 378.
Phosphate Rock, 440.
From Nauru Island, 723.
Phthisis, 147, 163.
Miners', 447, 555.
Physical Education, 207.
Physiography, 1-41.
Pig-iron Manufacture, 433.
Pigs, 410.
Plantations, 393.
State, 421.
Planting of Oysters, 426.
Platinum, 436.
Pleasant Island, 723.
Plumbers Registration, 184.
Plural Births, 109.
Pneumonia Cases in Hospital, 168.
Police, 225.
Provident Fund, 559.
Policies, Insurance, 583-604.
Polling—
At General Elections, 682-688.
At Licensing Polls, 690.
Poll-tax on Chinese, 82.
Population, 72-102, 732-755.
Of Cook Islands, 101, 716.
Of Western Samoa, 102, 721.
Pork consumed. 411.
Portfolios of Ministers, 57.
Portobello Marine Fish-hatchery, 427.
Ports—
Of Entry, 326.
Shipping of, 336 339.
Trade of, 326-332.
Post Office Savings-bank, 578.
Postal and Telegraphic, 348-355.
Postal Notes. 349.
Potatoes, 391.
Poultry, 411.
Pounamu, 441.
Power in Factories, 454.
Power, Water, 466-483.
Preferential Tariff, 313, 321.
Premiers, Successive, 56.
Premium Income of Insurance Companies, 583-604.
Pre-natal Influences, 141.
Press Telegrams, 350.
Prevention of Quackery, 184.
Previous Convictions of Prisoners, 236.
Previous Issue of Parents, 111.
Prices, 631-648.
Effect on Exports, 280.
Of Stock, 520.
Primage Duty, 312.
Primary Schools, 196-211.
Principal Events, 757.
Principal Exports, 259-287.
Prisoners, 234.
New-Zealand-born, 241.
Prisons, 234.
Prisons Board, 237.
Private Hospitals, 188.
Private Mental Hospital, 194.
Private Railways, 347.
Private Savings-banks, 581.
Private Scholarships, 213.
Private Schools, 209.
Private Wealth, 624.
Probate, Estates passed for, 626.
Probation, 237.
Proclamation of British Sovereignty, 48.
Production—
Agricultural and Pastoral, 376-413.
Manufacturing, 448-465.
Mineral, 430-447.
Production Districts, Exports of, 327.
Prohibited Immigrants, 85.
Prohibition Issue, 690.
Prorogation of Parliament, Dates of, 59.
Prospecting, State Aid to, 443.
Prospecting-drills, Government, 444.
Protection of Infant Life, 139, 217.
Provident Fund, National, 561.
Provincial Districts, 53.
Educational Systems, 197.
Industries in, 460.
Population of, 89.
Provisional State Forests, 415
Public Debt, 507-521.
Extinction Fund, 518.
Public Finance, 484-539.
Public Health, 180-186.
Public Hospitals—
Admissions and Discharges, 158.
Ages of Patients, 160.
Diseases treated in, 161-177.
Finances, 186.
Public Instruction, 196-216.
Public Libraries, 754.
Public Reserves, 366.
Public Schools, 203.
Public Service Superannuation, 559.
Public Trust Office, 677.
Public Works—
Co-operative System, 682.
Employees, 681.
Fund, 488.
Publicans' Licenses, 689.
Publications, 761.
Statistical, 68.
Puerperal Accidents and Diseases, 151, 174.
Pukapuka Island, 1,715.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis, 147, 163.
Pulse Crops, 382, 389.
Punishments by Magistrates' Courts, 228.
Punishments by Supreme Courts, 232.
Pupils at Public Schools, 203.
Pupil-teachers, 207.
Purchase of Estates for Settlement, 368.
Purchase of Native Lands, 375.
Purchase of Workers' Dwellings, 551.
Purchasing-power of Money, 636.

Q.

Quackery Prevention Act, 184.
Quadruplets, 109.
Quarantine, 181.
Quarries, 441.
Quartz-mining, 431.
Quicksilver-mining, 436.
Quinnat Salmon, 428.
Quinquennial Census, 72.
Statistics of, 732-755.
Quorum—
Executive Council, 49.
House of Representatives, 52.
Quotations, New Zealand Stock, 520.

R.

Rabbit Districts: Rating-powers, 527.
Rabbit-skins, Exports of, 277.
Race, 742.
Race Aliens, 81, 742.
Racing, 701.
Tax on, 504.
Radio-telegraph, 353.
Railway Districts, Finances of, 530-539.
Railways, 341-347.
Private, 347.
Superannuation Fund, 561.
Rainfall, 24-41.
Rakaanga Island, 1,715.
Rarotonga Island, 714.
Rateable Value of Land, 522, 569.
Rates collected by Local Bodies, 531.
Rates of Interest—
On Local Bodies' Debt, 537.
On Mortgages, 619.
On Public Debt, 516.
Rating by Local Bodies, 522-530.
Reapers-and-binders, 380.
Rebate of Rent, 365.
Reception of Assisted Immigrants, 84.
Reciprocity, 321.
Reclamation of Sand-dunes, 422.
Redemption of Loans, 493, 513.
Reduced Passage-rates for Assisted Immigrants, 82.
Re-exports, 256, 279.
Reformative Detention, 237.
Registered Companies, 679.
Registered Factories, 448.
Registered Mortgages, 613.
Registered Vessels, 333.
Registrars, Marriages before, 125.
Registration—
Of Adopted Children, 115.
Of Aliens, 87.
Of Apiaries, 412.
Of Births, 103.
Of Companies, 679.
Of Dairy Companies, 405.
Of Deaths, 128.
Of Deeds, 362.
Of Dentists, 183.
Of Designs, 680.
Of Industrial Unions, 661.
Of Marriages, 118.
Of Medical Practitioners, 182.
Of Mortgages, 613.
Of Newspapers, 349.
Of Nurses and Midwives, 183
Of Patents, 680.
Of Plumbers, 184.
Of Private Schools, 209
Of Still-births, 103, 116.
Of Trade marks, 680.
Of Vessels, 333.
Under Defence Act, 246
Rejections from Expeditionary Force, Causes of, 178.
Relief Fund, Coal-miners', 447.
Religious Denominations, 743.
Marriages by Ministers of, 125.
Ministers on Marriage List, 127.
Places of Worship of, 755.
Renewable Leases, 365, 371.
Rent, Rebate of, 365.
Rents, House, 634, 642, 753.
Representatives abroad, 64.
Representatives, Members of House of, 62.
Research Scholarships, 219.
Reserve Funds of Banks, 574.
Reserves administered by Land Boards, 366.
Reserves, Public, 366.
Residence, Length of, 741.
Respiratory Diseases treated in Hospital, 168.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights, 223.
Restriction, Immigration, 85.
Retail Prices, 631-645.
Revenue—
Customs, 315.
Local Body, 530.
Postal, 355.
Public, 484-496.
Railway, 344.
Revocation of Naturalization, 86.
Rhodes Scholarships, 219.
Richmond Special School, 217.
Rifle Clubs, 246.
River Districts, Finances of, 522-539.
Rivers, 5.
Road Districts, 53.
Finances of, 522-539.
Roads, 692.
On Goldfields, Subsidized, 445.
Rock Oysters, 426.
Rolling-stock, Railways, 341.
Roman Catholic Schools, 210.
Root Crops, 391.
Ross Dependency, 2,724.
Bibliography of, 764.
Rossi-Forel Scale, 23.
Rotorua Thermal Springs, 4.
Rural Population, 89.
Rural Security, Mortgages on, 615.
Rural-mail Deliveries, 348.
Rye, 392.
Rye-grass, 391.

S.

Sabbath Schools, 755.
St. Helens Hospitals, 139, 189.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 184.
Salmon, Acclimatization of, 427.
Samoa, 2,719-723.
San Pabio Island, 715.
Sand-dune Reclamation, 422.
Sanitation, 180.
Sausage-skins, Exports of, 277.
Savage Island, 1,715.
Savaii Island, 721.
Savings-banks, 578-582.
Scheelite, 435.
Scholars, 196-216.
Scholarships, 213, 218.
School Journal, 206.
School Libraries and Class-books, 206.
School-children, 196-216.
Dental Treatment for, 185.
Medical Inspection of, 185.
Schools, 196-216.
Medical Inspection of, 185.
Of Mines, 445.
Sunday, 755.
Scoured Wool exported, 401.
Scrub Lands, 360.
Sea-fisheries, 423.
Seals, 427.
Season Tickets, Railway, 342
Secondary Education, 211.
Second-growth Land, 360.
Seed-gardens, 393.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 392.
Exported, 278.
Seismology, 19.
Selections of Land, 366.
Self-governing Dominions, Status of, 699.
Senior Cadets, 246.
Senior Scholarships—
National, 213.
University, 218.
Sentences of Criminals, 228, 232.
Separate Rates, 531.
Separation, Judicial, 223.
Settlement and Colonization, 48.
Settlement Conditions, Selections under, 366.
Settlements, Land for, 368.
Settlers, Advances to, 540.
Sex Proportions, 75.
Of Children born, 107.
Of First-born, 107.
Of Illegitimate Children, 109.
Of Persons dying, 128.
Of Public-school Children, 205.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 380.
Sheep, 396-402.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 260-287.
Shipping, 333-340.
Ships, Survey of, 339.
Shipwrecked Mariners, Depots for, 713.
Sick and Funeral Funds, 606.
Silver, Production of, 432.
Silvical Research, 420.
Sinking Funds, 517.
Payments towards, 496, 517.
Skin-diseases treated in Hospital, 175.
Skins, Export of, 259-287.
Slaughter of Animals for Food, 407.
Slaughterhouses, 378.
Sliped Wool exported, 401.
Slot Telephones, 352.
Sluicing, 432.
Snares Islands, 1,713.
Soldiers, 246.
Acquisition of Land by, 370.
Dwellings, 371.
Financial Assistance to, 371.
Pensions, 556.
Settlement of, 370.
War Bursaries for Dependants, 213
South Africa, Reciprocity with, 322.
South African War, 246.
Pensions, 558.
Southern Alps, 2.
Sown Grasses, Extent of, 394.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 766
Special Rates, 531.
Special Schools, 216.
Special Trade, 256.
Specie, Movement of, 255.
Spirits, Consumption of, 245.
Springs, Hot, 4.
Stakes, Tax on, 504.
Stamp Duties, 502.
Standardized Death-rates, 133.
Standardized Marriage rates, 119.
State Accident Insurance, 594.
State Advances, 540-552.
State Afforestation, 421.
State Aid—
To Dairy Industry, 405.
To Discharged Soldiers, 371.
To Friendly Societies, 605.
To Immigrants, 82.
To Kauri-gum Industry, 440.
To Local Authorities, 551.
To Mining, 443.
To Settlers, 540.
To Tree-planting, 422.
To, Water-power Development, 467.
To Workers, 548.
State Coal-mines, 439.
State Fire Insurance, 602.
State Forests, 415.
State Indebtedness, 507-521.
State Instruction, 203.
State Insurance—
Accident, 594.
Fire, 602.
Life, 589.
State Railways, 341-346.
State Scheme for Water - power Supply, 471.
State Schools, 203.
Statistical Information, Latest, 755.
Statistical Legislation, 66.
Statistical Organization, 66-71.
Statistical Publications, 68.
Statistical Summary, 726-731.
Status of Dominions, 699.
Stewart Island, 1.
Still-births, 116.
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts—
Civil Cases, 222.
Criminal Cases, 226.
Stock, Character of, 514.
Stock, Live, 395-413.
Advances on, 546.
Stock, Quotations for, 520.
Stomach-diseases treated in Hospital, 169.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 441.
Stratigraphy, 16.
Streams, 5.
Strikes, 661-676.
Students, University, 218.
Subdivision of Land, 368.
Submarine Cable, 354.
Subsidiary Accounts or Funds, 491.
Subsidized Prospecting, 443.
Subsidized Roads on Goldfields, 445.
Succession Duty, 503.
Suffrage, 52.
Sugar, Duty on, 314.
Sugar-prices, 640.
Suicide, 154, 225.
Sulphur, 437.
Summary Convictions, 226.
Summary of Industries, 462.
Summary of Legislation, 704-712.
Sumner School for Deaf, 217.
Sunday Island, 714.
Sunday Schools, 755.
Sunshine, 24-29.
Superannuation, 559.
Super-tax, 499, 501.
Supreme Court—
Civil Cases, 222.
Criminal Cases, 231.
Surtax, Preferential, 313, 321.
Survey of Ships, 339.
Suwarrow Island, 1,715.
Sympathetic Strikes, 661-676.
Syphilis Cases in Hospitals, 163

T.

Tallow exported, 259-287.
Taranaki Ironsand, 434.
Taranaki Scholarships, 218.
Tariff, Customs, 311-315.
Tasman's Discovery of New Zealand, 47.
Tax, Land and Income, 498.
Tax on Totalizator Investments, 504.
Taxation, 497-506.
Local, 505, 531.
Taxpayers, 500, 501.
Tea, Duty on, 313.
Teachers, Public-school, 207.
Superannuation Fund, 560.
Training of, 209.
Technical Education, 215.
Telegraph, Electric, 350.
Telephones, 351.
Temperature, 24-41.
Temporary Visitors, 79,734.
Tenements, 99, 751.
Tenure of Occupied Lands, 358.
Tenures under which Land selected, 365, 370.
Terminating Building Societies, 610.
Territorial Forces, 246.
Thermal Regions, 4.
Three Kings Islands, 1,713.
Threshing-machines, 381.
Timber—
Export, 260-287, 420.
Duty, 315.
Output, 419.
Plantations, 421.
Trees, 416.
Tin, 436.
Title, Certificates of, issued, 363.
Tobacco, Excise Duty on, 314.
Tolls, 532.
Tomato-culture, 394.
Tongareva Island, 1,715.
Tonnage of Trade, 329.
Tonnage of Vessels entered and cleared, 333-339.
Tonnage Statistics, Port, 329.
Tonsils and Adenoids: Hospital Cases, 169.
Totalizator, 701.
Taxation, 504.
Tourists, 79.
Town Districts, 53.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 573.
Finances of, 522-539.
Population, 96.
Tractors on Farms, 380.
Trade, 249-332.
Representatives, 64.
Trade-marks, 680.
Training Farm, 217.
Training of Defence Forces, 246.
Training of Teachers, 209.
Train-miles run, 342.
Tramway Boards, Finances of, 530-539.
Transfer, Land, 362.
Transfers between Accounts, 493.
Transhipments, 330.
Travelling Scholarships, 219.
Trawlers, 425.
Treaty of Waitangi, 48.
Tree-planting, 420.
Trees, Forest, 416.
Triplets, 109.
Trotting Clubs, 702.
Trout, Acclimatization of, 427.
Tuberculosis, 147, 163.
Tungsten-ore, 435.
Turkeys, 411.
Turnips, 392.
Tussock Land, 360.
Twins and Triplets born, 109.

U.

Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion, 85.
Undeveloped Water-power, 480.
Unimproved Occupied Land, 360.
Unimproved Value of Land, 565-573.
Land-tax assessed on, 499.
Rating on, 527.
Unions, Industrial, 661.
University Education, 217.
Unpaid Totalizator Fractions, 504.
Unproductive Land, 356, 360.
Upolu Island, 721.
Urban Areas—
Births, 106.
Deaths, 135.
Population, 93.
Urban Population, 89.
Urban Security, Mortgages on, 615.
Urgent Telegrams, 350.
Urinary Diseases treated in Hospital, 172.

V.

Valuation of Land, 565-573.
Value of Exports affected by Prices, 280.
Vehicles, Railway, 342.
Venereal Diseases: Hospital Cases, 163.
“Veronica,” H.M.S., 248.
Vessels—
Employed in Fishing Industry, 425.
Entered and cleared, 333.
Nationality of, 334.
Registered, 333.
Survey of, 339.
Vice-Regal Representatives, 55.
Village Settlements, 365.
Vineyards, 394.
Violent Deaths, 153.
Virgin Bush, Area of, 360, 415.
Visitors, 79, 734.
Vital Statistics, 103-179.
Volcanoes, 2, 19.
Voluntary Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 192.
Voting at General Election, 682-689.

W.

Wages, 649-660.
Lost through Industrial Disputes, 667.
Of Factory Employees, 452.
Waikaremoana Power-supply, 472.
Waikato Power-supply, 470.
Waiotapu Forest Plantation, 421.
Waipori Power-supply, 471.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 48.
Wakari Private Mental Hospital, 194.
War, 246.
Bursaries, 213.
Expenditure, 511.
Increases in Food-prices, 637.
Indebtedness, 511.
Pensions, 556.
Tax, 500.
War Loans Sinking Fund, 519.
Warships, 247.
Washed Wool exported, 401.
Washington Conference, 699.
Water-power, 466-483.
Water-races, Government, 445, 482.
Water - supply Boards, Finances of, 522-539.
Wealth, Private, 624.
Weather, 24-41.
Welfare of Children, 216.
Wellington Fish-market, 429.
Wellington Municipal Milk-supply, 695.
Wararoa Training Farm, 217.
Western Samoa, 2,719-723.
Bibliography of, 763.
Births in, 117.
Deaths in, 155.
Marriages in, 126.
Population of, 102.
Whakarewarewa Forest Plantation, 421.
Whaling, 48, 427.
Wheat, 384.
Export of, 260.
White Island Sulphur, 437.
Wholesale Prices, 646-648.
Widows left by Married Men, 137.
Widows' Pensions, 555.
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 678.
Wind, 24-41.
Wine, Consumption of, 245.
Wine Licenses, 689.
Wire (Telegraph), Miles of, 350.
Wireless Telegraphy, 353.
Wives' Petitions in Divorce, 223.
Women, Deaths of, in Childbirth, 151.
Women, Offences by, 240.
Women's Suffrage, 52.
Wool, 400.
Exported, 259-287.
Used at Local Mills, 401.
Woollen-mills, Wool purchased by, 401.
Wool-presses on Farms, 380.
Workers, Advances to, 548.
Workers' Compensation, 594.
Workers' Dwellings, 551.
Workers' Educational Association, 219.
Workers' Unions, 661.
Working-hours, 658.
World's Cattle, 405.
World's Coal-production, 440.
World's Gold-production, 432.
World's Sheep Flocks, 399.
Worship, Places of, 755.
Wrecks, 340.

Y.

Year-book, The, 69.
Yields of Crops, 382-394.

Z.

Zoology, 43.