THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1923


Table of Contents

PREFACE

THE present number of the Year-book (the thirty-first) follows, generally, the same lines as its immediate predecessor, the 1921–22 issue, which marked the inauguration of several new departures in the presentation of the Year-book.

The size of the book has been increased somewhat, principally by the inclusion of new matter. A section has been added on the subject of. “Wage-rates” a branch of statistical inquiry only recently undertaken officially; the subsection of “Trade,” which deals with the purchase of supplies for the Imperial Government, and which was omitted from the 1921–22 issue, has been brought up to date and reinstated; and existing sections have been extended by the introduction of new matter, among which may be mentioned the articles on the following subjects:—-

  • Historical Outline of Primary Education (p. 163).

  • Tariff Reciprocity with Australia (p. 302).

  • Inland Fisheries (p. 404).

  • Rating-powers of Local Authorities (p. 486).

  • The Totalizator (p. 631).

In the “Miscellaneous” section will be found an interesting extract from the Hon. Sir John Salmond's report on the Washington Conference, together with a short summary of the principal enactments of the parliamentary sessions of 1921 and 1921–22. An appendix gives summaries of various population characteristics as shown by the 1921 census, in addition to the latest available statistical information on a variety of subjects. Another appendix revives the list of principal events which was formerly a feature of the Year-book.

Several new diagrams have been added, and attention is drawn to the map (p. 384) showing the distribution of dairy and other cattle throughout the Dominion.

Consequent on a return to normal conditions in the Census and Statistics Office and the Printing Office, the Year-book appears on this occasion much earlier than has been found possible for some years past.

                                                                                          MALCOLM FRASER,
                                                                                                         Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Office,
                    Wellington, N.Z., 15th December, 1922.

Chapter 1. SECTION I.—DESCRIPTIVE.

NEW ZEALAND.—LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES.

THE Dominion of New Zealand consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. These may be classified as follows:—

  1. Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general practical purposes:—

    North Island and adjacent islets.

    South Island and adjacent islets.

    Stewart Island and adjacent islets.

    Chatham Islands.

  2. Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand, as proclaimed in 1847:—

    Three Kings Islands.

    Auckland Islands.

    Campbell Island.

    Antipodes Islands.

    Bounty Islands.

    Snares Islands.

  3. Islands annexed to New Zealand:—

    Kermadec Islands.

    Cook Islands.

    Niue (or Savage) Island.

    Palmerston Island.

    Penrhyn (or Tongareva) Island.

    Manahiki Island.

    Rakaanga Island.

    Pukapuka (or Danger) Island.

    Suwarrow Island.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30' S. lat.; on the south 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In April, 1842, by Royal Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Proclamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then Colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation bearing date the 10th June, 1901, the Cook Group of islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary-lines mentioned in the following schedule, were included:—

A line commencing at a point at the intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and proceeding due north to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 8th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 167th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due west to the point of intersection of the 17th degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; thence due south to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 170th degree of longitude west of Greenwich; and thence due east to the point of intersection of the 23rd degree of south latitude and the 156th degree of longitude west of Greenwich.

By mandate of the League of Nations the New Zealand Government also now administers the former German possession of Western Samoa; and, jointly with the Imperial Government and the Government of Australia, holds the League's mandate over the Island of Nauru.

AREA.

The total area of the Dominion of New Zealand, exclusive of the territories administered under mandate, is 103,861 square miles. The areas of the principal islands are as follows:—

 Square Miles.
North Island and adjacent islets44,130
South Island and adjacent islets58,120
Stewart Island and adjacent islets662
Chatham Islands372
Total Dominion proper103,284
“Outlying” islands284
“Annexed” islands293
Grand total103,861

MOUNTAINS.

The mountainous character of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics. In the North Island mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first-named can be classed as extinct. Other dormant volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, both of which have, in recent years, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The South Island contains much more mountainous country than is to be found in the North. Along almost its entire length runs the mighty chain known as the Southern Alps, rising to its culmination in Mount Cook (or Aorangi, “the Sky-piercer,” in Maori nomenclature). No fewer than six peaks of the Southern Alps attain a height of over 10,000 ft. Owing to the snow-line being low in New Zealand, many large and beautiful glaciers exist. The Tasman Glacier (Southern Alps), which has a total length of over eighteen miles and an average width of one mile and a quarter, is the largest. On the west coast the terminal face of the Franz Josef Glacier is but a few hundred feet above sea-level.

A list showing the altitude of all peaks over 7,000 ft., and also the mountain-range of which they form part, is appended:—

Name.Range.Height, In Feet.
CookSouthern Alps12,349
Tasman11,467
Malte Brun10,421
Sefton10,390
Haidinger10,178
De la Beche10,058
Aspiring9,960
TapuaenukuKaikoura9,467
Elie de BeaumontSouthern Alps9,279
Earnshaw9,200
Ruapehu 9,175
ArrowsmithSouthern Alps9,171
Tutoko PeakDarran9,042
BurnsSouthern Alps8,984
The Nun's Veil8,975
Hopkins8,800
Brodrick's Peak8,777
KaitarauSeaward Kaikoura8,7003
ChristinaDarran8,675
SealySouthern Alps8,651
Evans8,580
Glenmary8,524
Dechan8,500
WhakariSeaward Kaikoura8,500
EdwardSouthern Alps8,459
Pollux8,341
ThumbsTwo Thumbs8,338
JukesSouthern Alps8,289
Tyndall8,282
Alba8,268
Brewster8,264
Egmont 8,260
CastorSouthern Alps8,256
Percy Smith8,249
Roberts8,239
Huxley8,201
AnstedSouthern Alps8,157
Dun Fiunary8,147
Tyndall8,116
Humphries8,028
Glacier Dome7,810
Double ConeRemarkables7,688
FranklynSpenser7,671
EdisonSouthern Alps7,669
TraversSt. Arnaud7,666
St. MarySouthern Alps7,656
Ben NevisRemarkables7,650
TaylorSouthern Alps7,641
FoxTwo Thumbs7,604
UnaSpenser7,540
Ngauruhoe 7,515
RollestonSouthern Alps7,453
Eros7,452
EllaSpenser7,438
SomnusBarrier7,424
St. BernardKaikoura7,416
MusgraveTwo Thumbs7,379
NeaveSouthern Alps7,350
CosmosBarrier7,340
Faerie QueenSpenser7,332
MaitlandSouthern Alps7,291
PaskeSpenser7,260
Humboldt7,240
JollieSouthern Alps7,232
Enys7,202
Potts7,197
ArkBarrier7,190
Minaret PeaksSouthern Alps7,189
Hutt7,180
DillonKaikoura7,132
MarshmanSouthern Alps7,116
DoraSpenser7,100
SinclairTwo Thumbs7,022
BallanceSouthern Alps7,008

HOT SPRINGS.

The hot springs of the North Island form one of the most remarkable features of New Zealand. They are found over a large area, extending from Tongariro, south of Lake Taupo, to Ohaeawai, in the extreme north-a distance of some three hundred miles; but the principal seat of hydrothermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces at Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood was deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country-the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints-are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The vast importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognized by the Government, and it is dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose.

There are also several small hot springs in the South Island, the best-known being those at Hanmer.

A full account of the springs in the Rotorua, Te Aroha, and Hanmer districts was given in the 1905 number of the Year-book, with analyses of the waters of some of the principal springs.

RIVERS.

The rivers of New Zealand were discussed in the 1914 issue of this book in an article (pages 948 to 956) supplied by R. Speight, Esq., M.Sc, F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum. Considerations of space in the present book prevent more than a list of the more important rivers being given. These are as follows, the lengths shown being in most cases only approximate. Very few of these rivers are navigable by vessels of any size.

NORTH ISLAND.
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—Miles.
      Piako60
      Waihou (or Thames)90
      Rangitaiki95
      Whakatane60
      Waiapu55
      Waipaoa50
      Wairoa50
      Mohaka80
      Ngaururoro85
      Tukituki65
Flowing into Cook Strait— 
      Ruamahanga70
      Hutt35
      Otaki30
      Manawatu (tributaries: Tiraumea and Pohangina)100
      Rangitikei115
      Turakina65
      Wangaehu85
      Wanganui (tributaries: Ohura, Tangarakau, and Maunganui-te-ao)140
      Waitotara50
      Patea65
Flowing into Tasman Sea— 
      Waitara (tributary: Maunganui)65
      Mokau75
      Waikato (tributary: Waipa)220
      Wairoa95
      Hokianga40
SOUTH ISLAND.
Flowing into Cook Strait—Miles.
      Aorere45
      Takaka45
      Motueka75
      Wai-iti30
      Pelorus40
      Wairau (tributary: Waihopai)105
      Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean— 
      Clarence (tributary: Acheron)125
      Conway30
      Waiau (tributary: Hope)110
      Hurunui90
      Waipara40
      Ashley55
      Waimakariri (tributaries: Bealey, Poulter, Esk, and Broken River)93
      Selwyn55
      Rakaia (tributaries: Mathias. Wilberforce, Acheron, and Cameron)95
      Ashburton67
      Rangitata75
      Opihi50
      Pareora35
      Waihao45
      Waitaki (tributaries: Tasman, Tekapo, Ohau, Ahuriri, and Hakataramea)135
      Kakanui40
      Shag45
      Taieri125
      Clutha (tributaries: Kawarau, Makarora, Hunter, Manuherikia, and Pomahaka)210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait—Miles.
      Mataura120
      Oreti105
      Aparima65
      Waiau (tributaries: Mararoa, Clinton, and Monowai)115
Flowing into the Tasman Sea— 
      Cleddau and Arthur20
      Hollyford50
      Cascade40
      Arawata45
      Haast (tributary: Landsborough)60
      Karangarua30
      Fox25
      Waiho20
      Wataroa35
      Wanganui35
      Waitaha25
      Hokitika (tributary: Kokatahi)40
      Arahura35
      Taramakau (tributaries: Otira and Taipo)45
      Grey (tributaries: Ahaura, Arnold, and Mawhera-iti)75
      Buller (tributaries: Matakitaki, Maruia, and Inangahua)105
      Mokihinui30
      Karamea45
      Heaphy25

LAKES.

In a further article in the 1915 issue of the Year-book Mr. Speight dealt at length with the lakes of the Dominion. A summary of the statistics of the chief lakes of New Zealand is here given.—

Lake.Length, In Miles.Greatest Breadth, in Miles.Area, in Square Miles.Drainage Area, in Square Miles.Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per Second.Height above Sea-level, in Feet.Greatest Depth, in Feet.
          North Island.       
Taupo25172389955,0001,211534
Rotorua7 1/263215842091584
Rotoiti10 3/42 1/41426500913230
Tarawera6 1/26 1/21575..     1,032285
Waikaremoana126 1/4211287722,015846
Wairarapa104271,250..     ..     ..     
          South Island.       
Rotoiti522 3/486..     1,997228
Rotorua72 1/28146..     1,470..     
Brunner5416145..     280357
Kanieri5l 3/4811..     422646
Coleridge1131870..     1,667680
Tekapo124325805,0002,323..     
Pukaki105315156,0001,588..     
Ohau103234245,0001,720..     
Hawea205485185,7001,062..     
Wanaka30475960..     922..     
Wakatipu5231121,16213,0001,0161,242
Te Anau3361321,32012,660694906
Manapouri12656416..     5961,458
Monowai1211251700600..     
Hauroko203251951,800611..     
Poteriteri17217162..     96..     
Waihola4 1/21 1/83 1/32,200..     (Tidal)..     
Ellesmere1610107 1/2745..     (Tidal)..     

GEOLOGY.

The geological structure of New Zealand, so far as it has yet been determined, is, owing to its complexity, difficult to summarize. For a fuller account than can be given here the reader is referred to the article in the 1914 Year-book, pages 943 to 947, and to the various works on geology mentioned therein.

The oldest fossiliferous rocks are the Ordovician argillites (“slates”) of north west Nelson and Preservation Inlet. At Baton River Silurian fossils, at Reefton Devonian fossils, and in the limestone near Nelson Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous fossils, show that these systems are all represented in the Palæozoic sequence. Included in it are marble, sandstone, shale, greywacke, quartzite, schist, and gneiss. The auriferous lodes of the South Island are almost always found cutting through rocks of Palæozoic age.

Rocks belonging to the Mesozoic periods occur over a large area in both Islands. The Trias-Jura system of greywacke and argillite forms the main mountain-range3, but contains few workable mineral deposits. It is fossiliferous in only a few localities, and cannot be easily subdivided.

While all these foregoing rocks were being deposited the New Zealand area was probably the foreshore of a great continent, but after the Trias-Jura sediments were deposited far-reaching changes, involving the breaking-up and disappearance of the continental land, took place. The New Zealand area was necessarily involved in these earth-movements, and as the result the existing strata were folded, broken, and raised above sea-level. After extensive denudation of its surface had taken place New Zealand was again, probably several times, depressed and elevated either in whole or in part. During the periods of subsidence Cretaceous and Tertiary strata were laid down. These contain all the workable coal-seams of the Dominion.

Pleistocene and Recent deposits are well represented by fluviatile, glacial, marine, and wind-blown material.

Plutonic rocks of various types, but mainly granitic, occupy a large area in the western parts of the South Island, and occur also in North Auckland. Volcanic rocks, chiefly of Tertiary age, are found in scattered areas throughout the eastern part of the South Island, and occur extensively in the North Island, where volcanic activity still continues on a small scale.

SEISMOLOGY.

The following article by the former Government Seismologist, the late Mr. George Hogben, C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S., has been revised and brought up to date by Mr. C. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer and Seismologist.

The Wellington earthquake of 23rd January, 1855, received a full notice in Sir Charles Lyell's classic work “The Principles of Geology,” and probably largely on that account the attention of the scientific world was attracted to this feature of the natural phenomena of New Zealand. But since that earthquake, during which the level of the land in the neighbourhood of Wellington Harbour was raised about 5 ft., there has been no shock in the New Zealand region proper which has at all approached the destructive phase. Indeed, of about 1,800 earthquakes recorded as having origins in or near New Zealand, that of 1848 is the only other earthquake comparable in intensity to that of 1855; and the average intensity of all the earthquakes thus recorded is between III and IV on the Rossi-Forel scale-or, in other words, just sufficient to make pictures hung on walls move a little, and to cause doors and windows to creak or rattle slightly. In about twelve or fifteen instances the force has been sufficient near the origin to overturn some chimneys (for the most part badly constructed ones), and in a very few buildings to crack walls or ceilings of faulty design. In about thirty other earthquakes such phenomena have been noted as the stopping of clocks, without any damage. The great majority of shocks have passed unperceived by the ordinary observer, and have been recorded only by means of instruments. In short, earthquakes in New Zealand are rather a matter of scientific interest than a subject for alarm. Their scientific interest is largely due to the light they throw upon questions connected with the movements taking place in the earth's crust. Most people know now that the crust of the earth is not the stable thing that the ancients supposed it to be, but is constantly rising here, and falling there, and wrinkling itself into folds that cause most of our mountains and valleys and other striking surface features. All the great movements that appear at the surface are due to the repacking of the rocks below, especially, as the earth quakes seem to show, at a depth of fifteen to twenty miles.

This repacking is caused by change of pressure, which makes the rocks either “creep” or fold, or, in most cases, both creep and fold. When a movement takes place suddenly an earthquake is experienced. Apparently the change of pressure arises generally in one or other of two ways:—

  1. The enormous amount of earthy material carried by rivers into the sea lessens the pressure on the rocks below the land-surface, and increases the load on the sea-bed; this would tend to cause a side thrust and creep at a lower depth towards the direction of the rocks underlying the land-surface.

  2. The unequal contraction of different layers of the crust is due to unevenness in their rate of cooling; this gives rise to crumpling or folding of the rocks.

Nearly all the earthquakes in New Zealand seem to be due to the second of these causes. Indeed, the facts of the earthquake of 1855 and several of the instrumental records of recent years give tolerably clear evidence of tilting of the surface that has taken place about lines that are parallel to the general direction of the main mountain-ranges and to the chief known geological faults.

The origins of the New Zealand seismic region will be seen to arrange themselves in groups as follows:—

Group I.—Earthquakes felt most strongly on south-east coast of North Island; epicentra form a strip 180 miles from the coast, parallel to the axis of New Zealand, and to axis of folding of older Cainozoic rocks in Hawke's Bay. Chief shocks: 17th August, 1868; 7th March, 1890; 23rd and 29th July, 1904; 9th August, 1904 (intensity IX on R.F. scale); 8th September, 1904; prob. 23rd February, 1863 (IX, R.-F.); &c.

According to Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., the geological evidence shows that New Zealand rose considerably in the older Pliocene period, and was then probably joined to the Chatham Islands. At a later period subsidence occurred, followed again by elevation in the Pleistocene period, with oscillations of level since. The seismic origins of this group are at the foot of a sloping submarine plateau, about two hundred miles wide, which culminates to the east-south-east in the Chatham Islands. This elevation is separated from the New Zealand coast by a trough from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms in depth, which is widest and deepest between these origins and the mainland.

Group II.—

  1. South-east of Otago Peninsula. Shocks: 20th November, 1872, &c.

  2. A strip south-east of Oamaru. Shocks: February, 1876; April, 1876, &c.

  3. Many short and jerky, but generally harmless, quakes felt in Christchurch, Banks Peninsula, and mid Canterbury. Chief shocks: 31st August, 1870; 27th December, 1888 (VII, R.-F.); &c. Focus of 1888 shock, sixteen miles long, from west-south-west to east-north-east, twenty-four to twenty-five miles below surface, being deepest ascertained origin in New Zealand region.

These origins form a line parallel to the general axis of the land. It is quite possible that the loading of the sea-floor by the detritus brought down by the rivers of Canterbury and Otago is a contributing cause of the earthquakes of this group.

Group III.—Wellington earthquakes of January, 1855, and Cheviot earthquakes of November, 1901.

The origin of the earthquake of 1855 was probably the fault that forms the eastern boundary of the Rimutaka Range and the western boundary of the Wairarapa Valley.

The origin of the earthquake of 1901 was probably in or near the southern continuation of this fault.

The great earthquakes of October, 1848, probably came from the same region as those of January, 1855. The chief shocks of both series did extensive damage to property, and caused the formation of large rifts in the earth's surface; they are the only seismic disturbances since the settlement of the Dominion that can be assigned to degree X on the Rossi-Forel scale.

Group IV.—

  1. Region about twenty-five to thirty miles in length, and, say, ten miles or less in width, running nearly north-north-east from middle of Lake Sumner, about twenty miles below the surface, whence proceed most of the severer shocks felt from Christchurch to the Amuri, and a large number of minor shocks Chief earthquakes: 1st February, 1868; 27th August to 1st September, 1871; 14th September and 21st October, 1878; 11th April, 1884; 5th December, 1881 (VIII, R.-F.), when Christchurch Cathedral spire was slightly injured; 1st September, 1888 (IX, R.-F.), when upper part of same spire fell, and still more severe damage was done in the Amuri district.

  2. A small shallow origin not more than five to ten miles below the surface, a few miles south of Nelson. Earthquake: 12th February, 1893 (VIII to IX, R.-F.); chimneys thrown down and buildings injured.

  3. Origin in Cook Strait, north-north-east of Stephen Island, about ten miles wide, and apparently traceable with few interruptions nearly to mouth of Wanganui River; depth, fifteen miles or more. More than half the earthquakes recorded in New Zealand belong to this region; earthquake of 8th December, 1897 (VIII to IX, R.-F.), and other severer ones come from south-south-west end. Probably the first recorded New Zealand earthquake, felt by Captain Furneaux on the 11th May, 1773, belonged to this region.

  4. An origin near Mount Tarawera, with a large number of moderate or slight shocks, most, but not all, volcanic and local in character-e.g., those of September. 1866, and those of June, 1886, which accompanied and followed the well-known eruption of Mount Tarawera.

These origins of Group [V, (a), (b), (c), (d), are nearly in a straight line on the map; on or near the same line are the origins of earthquakes felt in the Southern Lake District (15th December, 1883, &c), the volcanoes Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, Tongariro, Tarawera, and White Island. It is evident that this line, which, like the rest, is parallel or nearly so to the general axis, is a line of weakness or of unstable equilibrium. Hence the adjusting movements that have caused earthquakes may have, from time to time, relieved the pressure of the rocks that restrained overheated steam and other volcanic agents from bursting out, and so may have led to volcanic eruptions; just as the series of earthquakes in Guatemala and in the Caribbean Sea in April and May, 1902, were the signs of movements in the great folds of that part of the earth's crust, in the course of which, the pressure in the Antillean Ridge being relieved, the volcanic forces below Mount Pelée in Martinique, and Mount Souffière in St. Vincent, caused the disastrous eruptions of that year.

Group V.—Off the coast near Raglan and Kawhia. Chief shock: 24th June, 1891 (VII to VIII, R.-F.). The line joining this origin to that of the earthquake of 1st February, 1882, is parallel to the other lines of origins (Groups I to IV); but we have no data to establish any connection between them.

Since 1888 there has been established in New Zealand a system of observing local earthquakes as recorded by galvanometers at selected telegraph – stations- about eighty in number—distributed throughout the extent of the Dominion.

Whenever a shock occurs and is felt by an officer in charge of one of these stations he fills up a form giving the New Zealand mean time of the beginning of the shock, its apparent duration and direction, and the principal effects observed by him. Some of the officers exhibit considerable care and skill in making up these returns, and the data have been used to determine principal origins of earthquakes within the New Zealand region.

Two seismographs are installed in New Zealand; they are Milne horizontal pendulums with photographic registration. One is installed at the Hector Observatory, Kelburn, Wellington, under the charge of Mr. C. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S., and the other at the Magnetic Observatory, Christchurch, under the charge of Mr. H. F. Skey, B.Sc.

An improved type of seismograph-the Milne-Shaw-was received at the Hector Observatory in September, 1921, but has not yet been installed. The instrument is magnetically damped, and is very much more sensitive than the ordinary type of Milne seismograph.

The records of the New Zealand stations are sent to the General Secretary of the Seismological Committee of the British Association, to the Station Centrale Sismologique, Strasbourg, France, and to the principal observatories of the world, and thus form part of the general system of earthquake-observation being conducted throughout the world for the last thirty-one years.

CLIMATE.

The following article on the climate of New Zealand has been prepared by Lieut. Colonel D. C. Bates, Dominion Meteorologist.

The climate of New Zealand is spoken of in popular and general terms as equable, mild, and salubrious; but such a summary does not convey an adequate idea of variations that exist in a country stretching, as it does, north and south for nearly a thousand miles, and distinctly differentiated by lofty mountain-chains. Another fact which must also be borne in mind is that the greater part of the North Island is controlled by a different system of circulation from that which dominates conditions in the parts about Cook Strait and the South Island. The former is subject to ex-tropical disturbances, and the latter more to westerly or antarctic “lows,” which travel along the latitudes of the “forties,” with their prevailing westerly winds.

The climate of the Auckland Province, speaking generally, combines degrees of warmth and humidity agreeable by day and comfortable by night. North of Auckland City conditions are almost subtropical, and in summer balmy easterly breezes prevail, and are responsible for delightful conditions. In winter the winds are more north and west, while changes to the south-west or south-east mostly account for the rainfall. Cumulus clouds are frequently formed in the afternoons, and, while tempering the heat of the day, also cut down sunshine records somewhat, but add considerably to the beauty of the land- and sea-scape. Southward of Auckland the climate is more varied, the west coast experiencing more rain, while the central parts are warmer in the day and considerably colder at night. In the winter months frosts, which are unknown farther north, now and then occur in the hours of darkness. Eastward from Rotorua (the great health resort and centre of the thermal region) is to be found one of the most genial climates in the world, and Tauranga and Opotiki have charms all their own, especially for their weather and the fruits which ripen to perfection in these regions.

AUCKLAND.

The monthly and annual means of the temperature, rainfall, and sunshine of Auckland are shown in the following table:—

Month.Mean Temperatures for 56 Years.Mean Rainfall for 08 Years.Mean Sunshine for 11 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr.min.
January73.758.966.52.5710.321358
February74.359.667.12.989.61757
March72.057.765.03.0411.117041
April67.854.661.23.3413.913753
May62.750556.74.4618.412850
June59.247.853.54.7919.411550
July57.646.051.85.1320.91182
August58.246.052.24.2719.51364
September60.748.454.73.6317.613910
October63.550.757.33.5916.416129
November67.053.360.23.2814.618613
December70.956.763.92.8011.52148
            Year65.652.559.243.88183.21,89725
ROTORUA.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 32 Years.Mean Rainfall for 35 Years.Mean Sunshine for 9 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr.min.
January75.552.363.93.999.624953
February74.952.263.43.978.818818
March71.849.460.63.689.61910
April66.045.455.64.3510.815716
May60.040.750.35.4512.414319
June55.638.246.85.0312.811916
July54.237.045.55.1813.912910
August56.137.546.75.0313.413935
September59.640.850.25.1914.415635
October63.944.054.04.8513.918528
November68.346.757.54.0712.72157
December72.849.661.13.619.722847
            Year64.944.554.654.40142.02,10344

The Hawke's Bay Province is one of the richest in New Zealand, and is favoured with a pleasant climate, being sheltered from westerly winds, though occasionally they are of the warm and dry (Foehn) type. It is rather dry, but ex-tropical disturbances are occasionally responsible for heavy downpours. Though the number of days with rain is less than, and sunshine above that of other parts, the rainfall is still a good one, and fairly regular throughout the year, though some seasons have been notably dry. The meteorological records of Napier show reliable normal for the coastal districts. Inland the country is rather mountainous and less mild.

NAPIER.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 29 Years.Mean Rainfall for 16 Years.Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January75.957.066.41.666.5275 20
February74.556.765.62.426.7207 33
March71.254.763.03.7291217 1
April67.250.458.72.507.8195 17
May61.746.354.04.249.5161 14
June58.042.350.12.648.1162 36
July56.541.649.03.9610.3148 15
August57.942.150.03.1210.8187 35
September62.345.253.71.868.3216 17
October66.448.757.52.529.0234 5
November69.651.860.72.078.1245 18
December73.155.364.22.067.0276 22
            Year66.249.357.732.77101.22,526 53

Wellington, the capital city, as disclosed by its meteorological records, has a mean climate for the whole Dominion. Wellington occupies a central position, and is situated near Cook Strait, which divides the two main Islands. It has a somewhat changeable but temperate climate, and, though occasionally subject to disturbances from warmer regions, is usually controlled by the terrestrial wind-currents which have a westerly direction round the world in the latitude of the “forties.” It is popularly regarded as a rather windy spot, for high winds are frequently experienced, although they hardly ever roach hurricane force. Its windiness is largely owing to local configuration, for places quite near Wellington experience very little wind; and to compensate for this rather disagreeable element is a bountiful sunshine, averaging 2,027 hours per annum. There is a plentiful rainfall, amounting to nearly 50 in.

Between Wellington and Taranaki, following the Taranaki Bight, is probably one of the most fertile and agreeable regions in Australasia; but inland, though very productive, conditions are not so favourable.

Taranaki has a rather heavy rainfall, and in most parts of this region the grass is always green. Its climate is mild, and cattle winter in the open. Wanganui and Manawatu districts (which lie between Wellington and Taranaki) have loss rainfall than either Wellington or Taranaki.

WELLINGTON.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 56 Years.Mean Rainfall for Years.Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January69.455.862.53.3210.4228 11
February69.255.762.53.289.0207 17
March66.854.260.53.2711.3182 6
April62.851.357.03.9713.2150 50
May58.347.352.84.7716.6130 28
June54.744.349.54.9517.2103 51
July53.142.347.75.7618.3103 15
August54.442.848.64.4717.1140 41
September57.445.751.64.0815.2159 42
October60.348.354.34.1214.1177 38
November63.450.456.93.4712.9203 43
December66.953.860.33.1912.0239 21
          Year61.449.355.348.65167.32,027 3

It may be useful to make a comparison between the records of Wellington and those of Camden Square, London.

CAMDEN SQUARE, LONDON.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 35 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.
January43.534.038.8
February45.634.440.0
March50.135.642.9
April57.439.448.4
May64.945.255.1
June70.951.061.0
July74.154.464.3
August72.653.763.2
September67.449.858.6
October57.543.950.7
November49.738.944.3
December45.135.840.5
            Year58.243.050.6
MOUMAHAKI.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 14 Years.Mean Rainfall for 16 Years,Mean Sunshine for 14 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January70.053.361.63.209.7235 36
February70.853.362.12.918.1184 52
March69.652.461.03.779.3180 4
April64.448.256.34.0313.1149 45
May59.144.151.64.1714.6119 3
June55.142.548.84.4214.9100 62
July53.740.947.34.2416.4109 4
August55.541.848.73.6814.7140 16
September58.844.851.84.0114.1148 7
October61.847.054.34.5314.9163 5
November64.649.156.83.5612.8170 17
December68.250.959.53.4611.9232 23
            Year62.647.455.045.98154.51,933 24

Nelson and Marlborough are highly favoured regions with regard to sunshine and shelter from marine winds. Long ago Bishop Selwyn said, “NO one knows what the climate is till he has basked in the almost perpetual sunshine of Tasman's Gulf, with a frame braced and invigorated to the full enjoyment of heat by the wholesome frost or cool snowy breeze of the night before.”

Pastoral and agricultural industries are thriving, and the Province of Nelson is also famous for its fruit cultures-apples especially being celebrated for their variety, colour, and flavour. The rainfall about Nelson is very reliable, and averages from 35 in. to 45 in. per annum. Marlborough is also a sunny province, and its rainfall averages from 25 in. to 30 in.

NELSON.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 31 Years.Mean Rainfall for 38 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January75.553.864.62.788.1
February74.653.964.12.819.5
March71.451.461.32.998.8
April66.547.457.02.979.7
May60.342.551.33.1610.0
June56.238.947.53.8210.1
July54.737.746.23.5611.1
August56.738.647.63.0710.5
September60.842.451.53.7212.2
October64.945.055.03.2511.8
November69.048.458.72.8911.3
December72.051.461.82.668.8
            Year65.245.955.637.68121.9

The climate of Westland is influenced by its position with regard to the prevailing westerly winds, its proximity to the sea from which these winds blow, and the mountainous character of its eastern half. The rainfall, as might be expected, is heavy, and ranges from about 70 in. per annum in the north on the coast to as much as 200 in. in the mountainous country. The weather-changes are chiefly due to atmospheric depressions, with lowest pressures passing south of the Dominion. Cyclones centred in the north, while bringing heavy rains to the North Island and the east coast portions of the south, do not, as a rule, affect Westland, as easterly winds, which then prevail, are not conducive to cloud-formation in this province. Sunshine at Hokitika averages 1,871 hours a year, and, though not so abundant as in east coast districts, is a good average amount considering the rainfall. Westland is noted for a clear, beautiful atmosphere during fair-weather periods.

HOKITIKA.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 34 Years.Mean Rainfall for 42 Years.Mean Sunshine for S Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.Hr. min.
January67.953.760.89.99,12.6192 24
February68.453.360.87.3511.0177 26
March66.251.358.79.6713.7177 27
April62.747.254.99.2515.0130 37
May58.342.550.49.8215.4141 55
June54.939.147.09.8015.5101 44
July52.936.741.89.0816.3109 20
August54.638.146.39.2315.8153 32
September57.842.450.19.3016.6135 26
October59.845.752.711.6618.8162 6
November62.348.455.310.6317.4171 45
December66.352.259.210.4415.8217 41
            Year60.945.863.3116.22183.91,871 23

The chief health resort of the South Island, Hanmer Spa, is situated on a small plateau in the northern portion of the Canterbury Land District. On account of its altitude, 1,120 ft., it enjoys an invigorating climate, with a mean annual temperature of only about one degree below that of Christchurch. Owing to its elevated position and nearness to the mountains Hanmer is in some winter seasons subject to rather severe snowstorms, such as are never experienced on the Canterbury Plains. The mean annual rainfall is 38.15in., and the moan total sunshine 1,992 hours.

The district of Canterbury comprises a variety of topographical features. A plain stretches over a hundred miles from north-east to south-west, with a maximum width of about forty miles from the east coast to the foothills to the westward. The latter merge into the mountainous country culminating in the main range of the Southern Alps, which divide the provinces of Canterbury and Westland, and afford a protection from the heavily moisture-laden north-westerly winds. The rainfall of the Canterbury Plains is in consequence much restricted, the average being about 26 in. There is, however, a remarkable progressive increase from east to west, as is shown by the records. At Christchurch the moan is 25.13 in.; at Mount Torlesse Station (near Springfield), 39.86 in. The climate of Canterbury might almost be described as Continental in type, with large extremes of temperature between summer and winter and day and night. Except in the three summer months frosts are numerous, and even in the early spring and late autumn they are at times severe enough to damage vegetation of a tender nature. In summer, day temperatures of over 90° in the shade are sometimes experienced. With regard to both climate and soil, the Plains have proved most suitable for agricultural farming, and much of the district is capable of growing splendid cereal and root crops. The prevailing winds in Canterbury are north-east and south-west, while north-westerlies are not, as often supposed, of frequent occurrence. They are most common in the springtime, and, being dry and warm, they have a somewhat enervating effect, though in winter-time they come as a welcome change from the keen temperatures then generally ruling. The bright sunshine, as recorded at Lincoln, shows a daily average for the year of 5.8 hours.

LINCOLN.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 23 Years.Mean Rainfall for 40 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January70.752.661.62.189.3
February69.352.660.91.727.8
March66.450.058.22.3710.0
April61.845.153.42.019.5
May56.140.148.12.3011.2
June50.936.043.42.4111.7
July49.934.942.42.9013.5
August52.236.244.22.0111.5
September57.240.548.81.9810.0
October62.243.652.91.649.2
November66.047.456.71.9710.6
December69.851.460.62.1310.3
            Year61.044.252.625.62124.6

Otago, the southernmost part of New Zealand, is very diversified as regards both its physical features and its climate. Inland, in Central and North Otago, the climate is dry and clear—hot in summer and cold in winter. The rainfall for this district averages from 13 in. to 20 in. Near the coast, in the Dunedin district, the rainfall is more plentiful, averaging from 30 in. to 40 in. per annum, a good deal of which falls in light drizzling rains.

There are continuous rainfall records from various parts of Dunedin for sixty-nine years, of which the median rainfall is 33.5 in., and the mean in the table following may be regarded as too high.

DUNEDIN.
Month.Mean Temperatures for 55 Years.Mean Rainfall for 63 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January66.449.55703.4114.3
February65.749.456.62.7211.3
March62.947.855.32.9212.7
April60.344.751.62.7412.8
May53.341.047.03.2613.7
June49.338.44313.1312.8
July47.536.941.53.0413.0
August49.937.74313.1813.0
September53.940.747.02.7712.7
October59.042.750.83.0014.1
November61.444.953.13.2914.2
December64.547.955.33.5014.5
            Year57.843.550.136.96159.1

QUEENSTOWN.

Queenstown, on Lake Wakatipu, amongst the mountains, at an elevation of over 1,000 ft., furnishes the following averages:—

Month.Mean Temperatures for 9 Years.Mean Rainfall for 31 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°FInches.Days.
January70.449.960.12.768.8
February70.249.659.91.805.6
March66.447.957.12.517.3
April59.143.851.52.957.8
May51.838.645.22.677.5
June45.933.739.72.416.9
July43.331.837.51.965.9
August47.333.840.61.766.1
September54.338.746.52.537.5
October59.842.150.93.619.0
November63.244.553.82.838.8
December68.049.258.62.498.0
            Year58.342.050.130.2889.2

INVERCARGILL.

At Invercargill, the chief town of Southland, the averages are as follow:—

Month.Mean Temperatures for 11 Years.Mean Rainfall for 27 Years.
Maximum.Minimum.Mean.
 °F.°F.°F.Inches.Days.
January65.848.357.04.2315.7
February65.747.656.62.7711.6
March64.446 055.23.6014.2
April59.142.750.94.3816.5
May53.537.745.64.6617.5
June49.736.242.93.5115.9
July48.434.041.23.4515.9
August52.136.144.13.3514.7
September56.739.047.83.0513.8
October59.542.851.14.6517.2
November61.043.652.34.5417.8
December63.846.255.04.3116.7
            Year58.341.750.046.50186.5

The average rainfall of Southland is between 40 in. and 50 in., but towards Queenstown the rainfall is between 30 in. and 40 in. The rainfall is well distributed throughout the year, but there is loss wind in winter than in summer.

Stewart Island has a wonderfully mild and moist climate, especially on its eastern side, with an average rainfall of 65.18 in.

RAINFALL FOR THE YEAR 1921.

The total year's rainfall was above the average in the west coast and north-east districts of the South Island, but below in nearly all other parts of the Dominion, the greatest deficiency occurring in the North Island. Following is a short summary for each month of the weather and the chief atmospheric systems which were in evidence:—

January.—Anticyclonic influences were predominant during the first portion of the month, and fine and warm weather was experienced generally. The warmest day was the 3rd, when maximum shade temperatures of over 90° Fahr, were recorded in Canterbury. At Ashburton as high as 100° Fahr. was reported. A westerly low-pressure passed in the South on the 13th, and was followed by an ex-tropical cyclone. The centre of the latter reached Cape Maria van Diemen on the morning of the 15th, and apparently passed in the neighbourhood of Cook Strait the same night. Good general rains occurred at this time. The latter half of the month proved changeable, with frequent showers. On the night of the 29th a secondary “low” developed considerable intensity between the east coast of the South Island and Chatham Island, and accounted for south-west gales and heavy seas along the east coast south of East Cape. The total rainfall was much above the average in Canterbury and in parts of the Auckland peninsula, but elsewhere it was below.

February.—During February the weather was generally warm and very dry. The middle of the month was bright and sunny, except in the far North, whore some heavy rains were reported from the 12th to the 14th. From the 7th to the 9th considerable rain fell in the North and in some parts of the north-eastern coast of the South Island. At Hokitika, on the morning of the 7th, 312 in. of rain fell between 1.30 a.m. and 7.30 a.m. A strong south-westerly sprang up on the 22nd and brought rain to many parts of the country, especially the cast coast districts; it was accompanied by a cold snap, and the hills were lightly covered with snow in both Islands at this time. The rainfall in Poverty Bay was greater than in Hawke's Bay, and drought conditions set in in the latter district. Most parts of Marlborough also suffered from drought during February.

March.—The dry weather which characterized the previous month was generally maintained throughout March, the only portions of the Dominion recording above the average rainfall being the southernmost district of the South Island and parts of West-land. The greatest shortage occurred in the east coast districts of the North Island, where a few stations reported a total absence of rain. Fair weather ruled during the first half of the month, except between the 6th and 8th, when a westerly low-pressure area, in conjunction with a depression in the North, brought unsettled conditions and rain in many parts. The latter half of the month was dominated by frequent disturbances passing in the South, and strong and squally north-west to south-west winds prevailed with changeable weather. Between the 20th and 27th conditions were particularly boisterous and wet in districts with a westerly aspect and in Otago. During this period some severe thunderstorms occurred in various parts of the Dominion, and on the 20th the observer at waimate reported a heavy fall of hail, with hailstones up to 7/8 in. in diameter.

April.—Rainfall was again below the average, with the greatest deficiency in districts with an easterly aspect. Anticyclonic systems were dominant during the first week, between the 15th and 17th, and from the 22nd to the close of the month. The weather proved fair generally about these periods, with fine, clear days and frosty nights. From the 7th to the 14th a very intense westerly disturbance brought unsettled, and at times stormy, conditions. High north-west winds backed to southerlies on the latter date, but the weather then rapidly improved. Another but less intense westerly “low” was in evidence between the 18th and 21st, when squally conditions prevailed, and occasional rain fell. In the early morning hours of the 19th a severe electrical disturbance was experienced in the vicinity of Cook Strait, accompanied by heavy rain showers. The shade temperature for the month was generally about 2.5° Fahr. below the April mean.

May.—Dull and misty weather was much in evidence during May, but except in the west coast districts of the South Island the total rainfall was everywhere considerably less than the average. Westerly disturbances ruling between the 7th and 13th and from the 24th to the end of the month accounted for unsettled and squally conditions during these two periods, with rain in many parts, particularly in districts with a westerly aspect. Although anticyclonic pressure prevailed from the 12th to the 24th, the weather proved cold and dull, owing to the proximity of depressions eastward and southward of the Dominion.

June.—June proved a favourable winter month, with mild fair-to-cloudy weather ruling. There were, however, several days on which heavy rain fell in different parts of the Dominion, particularly about the 1st and 3rd, 12th and 13th, 15th, 16th, and between the 23rd and 26th. On the 15th and 18th very heavy rain caused floods in many of the rivers in the northern districts of the North Island on account of a cyclone, the centre of which passed down the west coast of the North Island and in the vicinity of Cook Strait on the night of the 17th. Several other disturbances of both tropical and antarctic origin were in evidence during the month, but were generally of only minor intensity, except one centred between the Chatham Islands and the east coast of the South Island from the 23rd to 26th. During this period snow fell on much of the high country in the South Island, with squally south-west winds. The aggregate month's rainfall was above the mean in the northernmost portion of the North Island and in most parts southward of Greymouth and Christchurch in the South Island, but elsewhere it was deficient.

July.—July was an unsettled month, though the weather was milder than usual, and in consequence vegetation made an appreciable growth. The total rain was above the average in the west coast districts of the South Island, and between New Plymouth and Wanganui in the North Island; elsewhere the amounts were below, the greatest deficiencies occurring in the Hawke's Bay and Canterbury districts. Some heavy rain fell on the 2nd and 3rd, with high westerly to southerly winds, when a disturbance in the South ruled in conjunction with one which passed in the vicinity of Cook Strait during the night of the 3rd. A very intense Antarctic storm prevailed between the 12th and 18th, and on the night of the 16th a north-west gale of exceptional severity was experienced, particularly in and southward of Cook Strait. From the 26th to the close of the month a cyclone centre persisted off the western coast, but, though the weather proved dull and misty during this period, the disturbance was responsible for very little rainfall.

August.—During the first week of August an intense and extensive Antarctic storm was responsible for high westerly winds and unsettled boisterous conditions. On the 4th and 5th atmospheric pressure as low as 28.60 in. occurred in southern parts of the South Island. Thunderstorms were frequent while the storm lasted, and on the night of the 4th a severe one was experienced at Wellington. With the change of wind to southerly, about the 6th, snow fell in many parts of the South Island and on high levels in the North. The middle and end of the month proved somewhat unsettled on account of small depressions to the southward of New Zealand, but, except during the first week, the weather generally was under anticyclonic control, and proved very favourable for a winter month. Rainfall, however, was deficient over most of the Dominion, above-average totals being recorded only in the west coast and southern districts of the South Island and at a few westerly stations in the North.

September.—The chief meteorological feature in September was the heavy rain on the 17th, 18th and 19th, which benefited nearly all parts of the Dominion. This rainstorm was caused by a cyclone centre passing from the north-westward and traversing Cook Strait early on the morning of the 18th. It was followed by an intense Antarctic depression. The latter ruled until the 23rd, and also accounted for rain in many districts and for severe thunderstorms in the northern portion of the North Island. Except about the period above mentioned—viz., 16th to 23rd—anticyclonic conditions dominated, and the weather generally proved fair and mild, with a low wind-force. The total rainfall was above the average in the vicinity of Cook Strait and in South Canterbury and South Westland, but deficiencies occurred elsewhere.

October.—The mild conditions of the previous month continued almost throughout October, but owing to the cyclonic type of atmospheric pressure generally ruling precipitation was considerably above normal everywhere, except in the south-west portion of Otago. Cold weather prevailed only on the 7th and 8th and between the 23rd and 25th, and during the latter period a strong southerly gale raged in many parts of the Dominion. The feature of the month, however, was, as before mentioned, the mild, wet weather, which was conducive to a vigorous growth of vegetation. The heavy rains were specially beneficial to the east coast districts after the lengthy period of low rainfall experienced in those parts. For the Dominion as a whole the general rainfall expressed as a percentage of the normal was 156, while for the North Island it was 146 and for the South Island 167.

November.—The weather during November proved changeable and showery, but between the 21st and 26th, while a “low” centre passed in the North, occasional heavy rain fell in various parts of the country. Four other disturbances occurred during the month with lowest pressure passing southward of the Dominion, the most severe being one which ruled between the 6th and 11th. Squally conditions prevailed during this period, with much rain in the west coast districts. The rainfall of the month was commonly below the average, but excessive in the east coast portions of the North Island and in the west coast and extreme south of the South Island.

December.—December was remarkable for very changeable weather. Except on the east coast of both Islands, where rainfall was deficient, showery conditions with occasional heavy rain accounted for an aggregate precipitation generally much above normal. The greatest difference above occurred about Cook Strait. when some places experienced over double the average; while the greatest deficiency was in Canterbury, Christchurch reporting the driest December for the past twenty years. Atmospheric pressure was very unstable, high and low alternating with unusual frequency. There were, however, few disturbances of any marked intensity. The most notable one in this respect was a westerly area of low pressure which passed in the South on the 17th. It brought boisterous westerly winds, especially in and southwards of Cook Strait, and heavy rain in districts with a westerly aspect. A secondary “low” passing through Cook Strait on the night of the 12th was responsible for a severe southerly gale in districts surrounding the Strait. In most parts of the Dominion an abundant growth of vegetation took place during the month.

The following tables show the difference, above or below the moan, for each month in the year:—

NORTH ISLAND RAINFALL, 1921.
Monthly Means compared with the Averages for Sixteen Previous years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.
+..     ..     ..     ..     ..     4.69..     ..     ..     6.51..     6.04
Av.3.313.084.253.974.644.545.144.293.754.243.623.06
2.821.551.452.302.76..     4.273.672.94..     3.17..     
Mean Number of Days with Rain, compared with the Averages for Sixteen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.

+ Above the average.

− Below the average.

+..     ..     ..     ..     ..     15.316.614.8..     14.913.510.9
Av.10.18.711.012.714.515.316.614.814.214.613.510.7
10.08.510.912.514.4..     ..     ..     14.0..     ..     ..     
SOUTH ISLAND RAINFALL, 1921.
Monthly Means compared with the Averages for Sixteen Previous years.0
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.
+..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     3.52..     5.94..     ..     
Av.3.742.733.393.413.483.823.763.143.803.723.473.47
3.031.802.522.513.153.782.95..     3.40..     2.693.36
Mean Number of Days with Rain, compared with the Average for Sixteen Previous Years.
 Jan.Feb.March.April.May.June.July.Aug.Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec.

+ Above the average.

− Below the average.

+12.5..     ..     ..     ..     13.0..     ..     ..     19.3..     ..     
Av.12.39.111.212.112.213.013.212.613.413.913.912.3
..     7.210.59.10.6..     11.111.89.5..     12.512.2

RAINFALL CURVES.

TEMPERATURE CURVES.

TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, AND WIND THROUGHOUT NEW ZEALAND, AS OBSERVED AT TWENTY-ONE STATIONS, FOR THE YEAR 1921.

The observations were taken at 9.a.m.
Stations.Months.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of Barometer.Prevailing Winds.
Highest.Lowest.Mean Max Temp.Mean Min. Temp.Mean Temp. for Month.Wet Days.Fall.
* Incomplete.
  °Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland (lat. 36° 50' S.; long. 174° 50' 4' E.; alt. 125 ft.)—January78.550.071.459.465.493.0730.01NE, SW.
February78.051.071.459.465.452.3730.04E, SW.
March77.552.070.358.264.2121.3730.05SW.
April71.043.565.253.059.1112.9230.13SW.
May66.043.061.450.956.9111.3530.13SW, NE.
June64.039.059.949.854.8176.8530.08SW, W.
July63.037.556.746.551.6223.4230.04W.
August65.042.058.247.152.6162.5930.07W, NW, SE.
September66.543.060.849.655.293.7230.16SW, W.
October67.547.563.453.358.3186.0529.94NE, SW.
November71.049.065.354.059.6132.0029.96W, SW.
December75.550.068.457.963.1133.9830.00NE, SW.
Te Aroha (lat. 37° 32' S.; long. 175° 42' E.; alt. 46 ft.)—January84.040.076.353.564.973.46..     W, SW.
February80.030.076.054.265.140.44..     W, SW.
March80.040.073.855.264.5121.50..     N, NE, W.
April71.040.067.149.658.382.16..     S, NW.
May69.028.063.341.752.573.10..     N, S, SW, NW.
June66.028.060.345.452.8149.15..     N, S.
July64.028.057.039.548.2153.63..     S, NW.
August60.035.057.043.550.2162.68..     NW, N.
September69.030.061.945.753.892.19..     N, W.
October70.040.066.550.058.2206.26..     NW, W, N.
November74.039.068.847.157.991.26..     W, NW, S.
December79.040.072.652.862.7184.26..     N, NW.
Waihi (lat. 37° 28' S.; long. 175° 52' E.; alt. 340 ft.)—January84.944.374.654.564.5133.6030.016E, W.
February81.337.173.353.363.393.3030.070E, W.
March81.833.272.650.661.6131.5030.054W, SW.
April74.129.066.343.755.0114.6630.125W, E.
May67.927.761.741.851.7143.4230.175W, NW.
June65.426.558.643.050.8179.3230.100E, SW.
July63.425.656.239.647.9165.6630.045W, SW.
August66.127.958.241.349.7183.5630.077W, SW.
September72.026.962.945.354.1113.4030.157W, NW, SW.
October72.035.165.547.756.6239.8529.948W, SW.
November76.135.969.151.160.1112.4029.924W, NW.
December80.444.872.353.863.0174.8030.020W.
Tauranga (lat. 37° 42' S.; long. 176° 22' E.; alt. 100ft.)—January86.039.072.751.862.273.56..     NE, SW.
February77.035.071.250.160.681.48..     E, SW.
March85.038.072.140.260.670.55..     SW.
April72.032.060.242.754.453.27..     NE, W.
May66.032.062.141.251.6146.27..     W, S.
June65.029.059.442.350.8176.91..     SW, S.
July64.028.057.538.848.1143.35..     SW, S, W.
August65.029.058.939.49.3111.53..     SW, W.
September68.030.063.543.253.361.81..     SW, W, NE.
October69.034.064.245.955.0179.90..     W, SW.
November76.038.068.347.758.081.43..     SW, W.
December78.041.069.251.060.1214.87..     W, NE.
Rotorua (lat. 38° 9' S.; long. 176° 15' E.; alt. 932 ft.)—January86.336.473.950.962.474.06..     W, SW
February78.635.471.251.061.161.72..     W, SW.
March85.236.270.749.059.861.14..     W, NW.
April70.131.463.641.652.671.85..     W, SE.
May66.430.059.940.250.0123.19..     SW, NE.
June64.025.856.741.048.8146.11..     SW, W.
July61.428.154.937.045.9133.53..     SW, W.
August61.030.056.138.347.2133.99..     SW, NW.
September67.630.661.242.051.673.10..     SW, W.
October70.233.663.046.354.7219.79..     W, NE.
November81.036.068.747.558.1183.15..     W, SW.
December77.041.069.152.060.51916.00..     N, W.
Taihape (lat. 39° 40' S.; long. 175 49' E.; alt. 2,080 ft.)—January83.639.269.849.459.6102.19..     W, NE.
February76.032.066.248.057.192.04..     W, NW.
March78.338.064.147.255.6121.75..     W, SW.
April67.030.856.341.048.6152.31..     SW, NE.
May64.332.052.040.346.1162.44..     W, NW.
June62.030.050.839.144.8213.75..     W, NE.
July55.028.347.736.442.0214.84..     NW, W, NE.
August57.026.040.237.343.2193.77..     NE, W.
September64.031.054.440.747.5151.74..     W, NW.
October60.232.057.743.650.6233.95..     NW, NE.
November68.037.857.743.750.7183.54..     NW, SW.
December70.441.064.148.956.5144.06..     NW, W.
Greenmeadows (Napier) (lat. 39° 32' S.; long. 176° 53' E.; alt. 70 ft.)—January93.043.072.654.763.6*1.1130.071SW.
February86.045.072.954.263.562.7030.059NW, SW.
March88.040.073.853.063.410.0829.981NW, W.
April73.031.564.945.455.140.7030.073W, NW.
May71.530.061.045.253.160.9730.105SW, NW.
June68.033.058.844.151.4112.4230.007SW, NW.
July68.534.057.441.949.6112.1029.948NW, W.
August68.034.058.843.150.9152.7130.005NW, SE.
September72.035.563.244.854.050.8130.070SW, NE, NW.
October72.039.066.050.058.0163.5429.877NW, SW.
November88.538.069.150.259.6113.5029.836NW, SW.
December90.045.072.456.064.2121.7229.963NE, NW.
Moumahakl (Taranaki) (lat. 39° 44' S.; long. 174° 40' E.; alt. 270 ft.)—January85.042.073.053.363.162.69..     NW, SW, NE.
February83.042.073.150.962.021.12..     NW.
March79.040.071.250.460.891.86..     NW.
April73.033.063.343.653.4162.86...     NW, NE.
May66.032.059.344 251.7123.35..     NW, NE.
June65.034.059.440.950.1112.23..     NW, NE.
July62.030.053.839.646.7175.28..     NW, NE
August63.033.056.239.347.7166.20..     SW. NW, NE.
September67033.060042.851.4122.53..     NW.
October71.038.063.647.455.5245.90..     NW.
November72.040.063.746.855.2172.92..     NW.
December73.041.065.247.256.2111.85..     NW.
Masterton (lat. 40° 57' S.; long. 175° 40' E.; alt. 377 ft.)—January92.639.475.550.062.7112.32..     SW, NE.
February82.897.473.848.861.371.64..     S, N.
March85.035.872.447.559.980.55..     W, NW.
April76.828.664.539.652.0111.70..     SW, NE.
May70.829.460.140.050.0131.90..     NW, SW, s.
June64.624.856.439.648.0133.21..     NW, SW, W.
July65.627.854.938.046.4183.60..     SW, NW.
August62.828.456.538.147.3184.14..     NW, SW, NE
September69.828.862.839.751.2111.53..     SW.
October72.231.664.046.055.0176.83..     NW, NE.
November76.233.066.243.955.0144.13..     SW, W.
December84.037.471.349.460.395.71..     NE, NW.
Palmerston North (lat. 40° 21' S.; long 175°37' E.; alt. 100 ft.)—January83.541.07d.050.862.971.65..     E, W.
February80.043.069.051.460.261.10..     NW.
March82.040.064.049.256.6142.39..     NW, W.
April70.026.061.340.050.691.36..     NW.
May70.025.059.039.349.1102.01..     W, E.
June65.023.056.639.848.2152.94..     NW, N.
July60.028.054.140.647.3165.21..     NW, N.
August60.028.056.040.748.3165.09..     NW, SE.
September70.033.059.544.151.8122.47..     W, NW.
October73.037.062.348.655.4214.65..     NW, W, SE.
November68.036063.049.056.0172.83..     W, NW.
December79.542.069.052.460.7156.11..     W, E.
Wellington (lat. 41° 16' S.; long. 174° 46' E.; alt. 10 ft.)—January81.645.369.854.762.2113.1430.019S, N.
February76.842.369.554.562.040.7230.041N, SE.
March76.942.867.553.260.3111.2929.963NW, S.
April69.537.462.047.154.571.4130.055S, N.
May64.137.357.44.752.5202.6230.001N, S.
June62.030.955.645.650.6173.3630.001S, N, NE.
July60.030.353.743.148.4164.6129.941N, S.
August60.330.755.742.349.0143.2529.973N, NW, S.
September68.231.058.546.052.2105.7630.063N, S.
October66.442.059.650.254.9186.4829.871NW, S.
November71.238.361.849.255.5143.5529.841NW, S.
December79.642.266.253.259.7156.6729.942N, NW, S.
Nelson (lat. 41° 16' 17' S.; long. 173° 18' 46' E.; alt. 13 ft.)—January91.541.071.353.962.692.12..     N, NE.
February79.045.070.452.961.651.72..     N, NE.
March77.037.068.150.059.070.92..     N, SW.
April69.535.562.445.553.983.22..     N, SW.
May63.033.056.241.748.9121.81..     SE.
June64.030.056.040.048.0122.26..     SE, S, NE.
July60.030.054.536.345.4102.83..     SE, NE.
August61.027.556.438.647.5122.47..     SE, S.
September71.634.061.342.952.185.06..     SW, N.
October70.236.461.947.954.9159.53..     N, NE.
November75.038.766.248.657.4101.17..     SW, N.
December76.142.767.751.859.7114.31..     N, SW.
Brightwater (lat. 41° 23' S.; long. 173° 9' E.; alt. 89 ft.)—January91.043.073.653.863.792.06..     SW, N.
February82.041.073.250.461.851.92..     N, SE, SW.
March86.038.070.248.759.461.02..     SW.
April69.032.064.142.653.383.22..     SW, SE.
May68.030.059.038.748.8122.40..     SE, SW.
June62.027.058.137.647.8102.75..     SW, SE.
July58.028.054.933.944.4132.02..     SW, SE.
August61.027.055.936.346.1112.92..     SW, SE.
September71.028.061.042.251.684.77..     SW. SE.
October71.035.063.246.254.7169.61..     N, SW.
November77.038.067.848.358.081.25..     SW, N.
December74.040.069.049.959.4113.76..     NW, SW.
Hokitika (lat. 42° 41' 30' S.; long 170° 49' E.; alt, 12 ft.)—January73.042.066.351.859.0123.6030.070SW.
February72.037.067.251.359.294.5430.075SW, NE.
March69.037.562.349.155.7218.7830.001NE, NW.
April67.024.059.544.251.8127.1930.074NE, E. SW.
May62.530.556.342.249.21813.4730.105NE, E.
June51.531.054.738.846.71911.2730.039E.
July62.530.553.137.145.11814.3229.913E.
August59.528.052.837.945.32215.7129.964E, NE.
September61.033.556.443.149.7156.7330.102E, SW, NW.
October69.034.558.947.052.92715.3429.848NE, E, SW, NW
November67.038.559.347.653.42312.7129.894SW.
December67.040.062.749.155.92313.5229.933NW, SW.
Hanmer Spring (lat. 42° 23' S.; long. 172° 47' E.; alt. 1,225 ft.)—January92.039.071.148.359.7134.40..     SW.
February82.039.069.148.358.793.51..     S, SW, NW.
March81.026.068.444.556.491.06..     NW, SW.
April76.028.061.038.649.8111.08..     NW, N.
May68.028.054.436.545.4104.13..     NW.
June67.020.051.233.842.5131.70..     NW.
July62.023.050.634.042.393.17..     NW.
August60.015.052.032.642.3105.11..     NW.
September71.025.058.437.347.8113.93..     NW.
October73.032.059.541.450.4217.16..     NW, SE.
November76.029.062.843.052.9113.27..     NW.
December86.035.068.345.757.082.59..     NW.
Christchurch (lat. 43° 31' 30' S.; long. 172° 38' 50' E.; alt. 25 ft.)—January 44.468.152.060.0154.6230.009NE, SW.
February 41.767.151.959.560.9830.011SW, NE.
March78.536.266.448.657.551.2229.888NE, SW.
April73.131.359.842.951.372.0630.009NE, SW.
May69.330.957.641.949.792.2930.023SW, NE, E.
June69.128.252.238.243.2143.1129.987SW, NE.
July67.726.752.537.044.780.8829.867SW, NE.
August68.023.653.936.745.3101.1929.899SW, NE.
September73.5657.641.249.472.2730.021SW, NE.
October72.7459.346.853.0203.0529.830SW, NE.
November80.734.7547.156.8131.1529.761SW, NE.
December83.638.76.450.359.360.2329.845NE, SW.
Timaru (lat. 44° 25' S.; long. 171° 18' E.; alt. 40 ft.)—January99.041.001.360.6152.96..     E, SW, SE.
February76.034.68.648.858.761.04..     E, SW, SE, W.
March81.035.069.245.957.551.07..     E, SW, SE.
April71.435.460.741.351.050.53..     NE, SW.
May70.429.658.239.348.770.56..     SW.
June58.426.451.936.144.0112.85..     SW.
July61.028.051.635.543.590.54..     SW, NE.
August67.027.453.536.144.871.33..     SW, SE.
September74.231.457.239.948.5103.84..     E, NE.
October75.437.057.745.851.7224.48..     SE, NE, E.
November86.433.067.245.456.3110.94..     SE, NE, SW.
December85.637.066.948.157.5131.18..     E, SE, SW.
Kisselton (lat. 43° 22' S.; long. 171° 33' E.; alt. 1,220 ft.)—January91.539.571.049.860.492.63..     SW, NW.
February85.036.071.747.159.451.19..     SW, NW.
March91.031.070.045.057.551.45..     NW.
April72.030.062.038.650.341.65..     NW.
May70.025.557.935.946.994.45..     NW, SW.
June69.025.053.833.343.583.62..     SW, NW.
July66.024.051.933.942.972.85..     NW, W.
August61.018.553.234.043.6104.21..     NW, SW.
September79.030.060.238.649.472.06..     NW, SW.
October77.028.559.443.351.3111.74..     SW, NW.
November75.035.065.842.954.330.98..     NW, SW
December75.033.068.246.757.451.11..     NW. SE
Waimate (lat. 44° 44' S.; long. 171° E.; alt; 200ft.)—January94.042.068.350.659.4153.10..     NE, SE.
February80.040.066.749.157.970.90..     NE, SW.
March85.035.066.345.255.7121.62..     NE, SE, SW.
April72.033.059.841.450.690.71..     NE, SW.
May74.028.058.738.148.470.60..     SE, SW.
June58.023.051.234.042.6143.73..     SW.
July63.027.052.333.642.970.58..     SW.
August69.030.052.536.344.481.27..     NE, W.
September70.230.057.240.148.673.31..     NE.
October74.035.057.244.550.8255.24..     NE, E.
November85.035.064.244.354.2101.41..     NE, SE SW
December82.035.064.746.755.7171.57..     NE, SW.
Gore (lat. 46° 6' S.; long. 168° 57' E.; alt. 2.5 ft.)—January92.034.069.444.256.8132.02..     SW, E.
February79.032.066.244.255.291.18..     SW, E.
March78.037.064.042.853.4195.10..     SW, NE.
April69.029.058.038.548.2174.05..     SW, NE.
May65.028.053.537.345.4122.50..     NE, SW.
June54.028.047.332.840.0144.34..     NE, E, SW.
July60.026.049.032.640.8152.66..     NE, SW.
August63.026.052.234.343.2181.92..     NE, SW, E.
September69.029.057.637.847.7111.79..     SW, E.
October71.029.060.241.350.7133.27..     E, SW.
November78.031.062.141.151.0202.77..     SW. F.
December74.033.063.542.853.1174.54..     SW, E.
Invercargill (lat. 46° 25' S.; long. 168° 21' E.; alt. 12 ft.)—January90.034.070.844.957.8132.61..     NE, W, SW.
February80.034.065.546.155.8131.81..     SW.
March79.038.062.449.756.0215.39..     NE.
April71.030.057.439.848.6214.06..     SW.
May68.030.055.738.747.2184.30..     W, NW.
June58.028.050.135.742.9205.86..     NE, SW.
July60.026.050.734.242.4203.34..     NW, SW.
August61.027.051.835.343.5213.65..     NW, SW, NE.
September67.031.057.739.748.7122.61..     E, SW, NW.
October69.027.059.142.951.0183.50..     E, SW.
November74.035.060.446.553.4225.23..     SW, W.
December75.034.061.345.153.2225.73..     SW, E.

COMPARATIVE TABLE, 1921.

Stations.Temperature in Shade.Rainfall.Mean Height of Barometer.Prevailing Winds.
Highest and Date.Lowest and Date.Mean Max. Temp. for Year.Mean Min. Temp. for. Year.Mean Temp. for Year.Days on which Rain fell.Total Fall.
* Incomplete.
 °Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.°Fahr.No.Inches.Inches. 
Auckland78.537.564.453.358.815639.6930.050SW, W.
 Jan. 10July 24       
Te Aroha84.028.066.748.257.413940.00 N, W,
 Jan. 11 and 13May, June, July      NW.
Waihi84.925.665.947.156.517355.1130.059W, SW.
 Jan. 10July 12      NW.
Tauranga86.028.06545.355.313544.93 SW, W.
 Jan. 4July 24       
Rotorua86.325.864.144.754.413359.63 SW, W.
 Jan. 10June 30       
Moumahaki85.030.063.545.554.515338.79 NW.
 Jan. 4July 25       
Taihape83.626.057.543.050.219336.38 NW, W,
 Jan. 11Aug. 8      NE.
Palmerston N.83.523.062.445.553.915837.81 NW, W.
 Jan. 11June 6       
Greenmeadows93.031.565.48.557.2*22.3630.000NW, SW.
(Napier)Jan. 3April 22       
Masterton92.624.864.943.454.114537.26 SW, NW.
 Jan. 3June 30       
Wellington81.630.361.448.055.115742.8629.984N, S,
 Jan. 2July 11      NW.
Nelson91.527.562.745.854.211937.42 N, SE.
 Jan. 3Aug. 8       
Brightwater91.027.064.244.154.111737.70 SW.
 Jan. 4June and Aug.       
Hokitika73.028.059.144.952.0210127.1830.002SW, E,
 Jan. 13Aug. 7 and 8      NE.
Hanmer92.015.060.640.350.413541.11 NW.
 Jan. 11Aug. 7 and 8       
Christchurch94.323.660.844.652.012023.0529.929SW, NE,
 Jan. 4Aug. 7       
Kisselton91.518.562.140.851.48327.94 NW, SW.
 Jan. 11Aug. 6       
Timaru99.026.461.142.851.912121.32 SW, E,
 Jan. 4June 6      SE.
Waimate94.023.059.942.050.913824.04 NE.
 Jan. 4June 11       
Gore92.026.058.639.148.817836.14 SW, NE,
 Jan. 12June and July      E.
Invercargill90.026.058.641.550.022147.99 SW, NW,
 Jan. 12July 26      E.

Chapter 2. SECTION II. —HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND ADMINISTRATION.

EARLY HISTORY.

THE history of New Zealand prior to the seventeenth century is shrouded in mythology and tradition. When the country was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had discovered these islands many centuries previously. Papers written in 1874 by Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Fox and Sir Donald McLean state that at what time the discovery of New Zealand was made by the Maoris, and from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, and that much has been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people themselves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they probably found inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descendants of a prior migration, whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the motherland. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less variation, in all the eastern Pacific islands.

DISCOVERY BY EUROPEANS.

It was on the 13th December, 1642, that Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, discovered New Zealand. Tasman left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht “Heemskercq,” accompanied by the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea-hen”) fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius and discovered Tasmania, named by him “Van Diemen's Land,” in honour of Anthony van Diemen, Governor of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, he steered eastward, and sighted the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand, described by him as “a high mountainous country.”

Tasman, under the belief that the land he saw belonged to a great polar continent, and was part of the country discovered some years before by Schouten and Le Maire, to which the name “Staten Land” had been given, gave the same name “Staten Land” to New Zealand; but within about three months afterwards Schouten's “Staten Land” was found to be merely an inconsiderable island. Upon this discovery being announced, the country that Tasman had called “Staten Land” received the name of “New Zealand,” by which it has ever since been known. Tasman sailed along the coast and anchored in Golden Bay, called by him “Murderers' Bay” on account of an unprovoked attack on a boat's crew by the Natives and the massacre of four white men. Thence he steered along the west coast of the North Island, and gave the name “Cape Maria van Diemen” to the north-western extremity thereof. After sighting the islands of the Three Kings he finally departed without having set foot in the country.

There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who, after leaving the Society Islands, sailed in search of a southern continent then believed to exist. He sighted land on the 6th October,1769, at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the South and Stewart Islands—which last he mistook for part of the South Island—he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned—

  • M. de Surville, in command of the “Saint Jean Baptiste,” who sighted the north-east coast on the 12th December, 1769, only two months after Cook's arrival at Poverty Bay.

  • M. Marion du Fresne—1772.

  • Captains Vancouver and Broughton—1791.

  • Captain Raven—1792 and 1793.

  • Alejandro Malaspina and José do Bustamente y Guerra—1793.

  • Lieutenant Hanson—1793.

SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION.

So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven, of the “Britannia,” landed a sealing-party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over twelve months before being called for by the “Britannia.”

The next few years saw the establishment of whaling-stations at several points on the coast, and in 1814 the first missionaries—Messrs. Hall and Kendall—arrived in New Zealand. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government, who preached his first sermon in New Zealand on Christmas Day, 1814. He returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall, Kendall, and King, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands.

In 1825 three separate attempts were made to found colonies in various parts of New Zealand, but none of these was successful, and for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling-stations. A number of Europeans gradually settled in different parts of the country, and married native women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonization arrived in Port Nicholson on the 22nd January, 1840, and founded the town of Wellington. During the few succeeding years the settlements of Nelson, Taranaki, Otago, and Canterbury were formed by immigrants sent out by associations in the United Kingdom.

BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY.

As early as 1833 a British Resident (Mr. Busby) was appointed, with headquarters at Kororareka (now called Russell), on the Bay of Islands. Seven years later—namely, on the 29th January, 1840—Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. A compact called the Treaty of Waitangi, to which in less than six months 512 names were affixed, was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. The seat of Government was established at Waitemata (Auckland), and a settlement formed there.

The record of formal Government of New Zealand under the British Crown begins with the following Proclamation issued by Captain Hobson on the 21st May, 1840:—

Proclamation.

In the name of Her Majesty VICTORIA, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. By WILLIAM HOBSON, Esquire, a Captain the Royal Navy, Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand.

WHEREAS by a treaty bearing date the sixth day of February, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty, made and executed by me, William Hobson, a Captain in the Royal Navy, Consul and Lieutenant-Governor in New Zealand, vested for this purpose with full powers by Her Britannic Majesty of the one part, and the Chiefs of the Confederation of the United Tribes of New Zealand, and the separate and independent Chiefs of New Zealand not members of the Confederation, of the other, and further ratified and confirmed by the adherence of the principal Chiefs of this Island of New Zealand (commonly called the “Northern Island”), all rights and powers of sovereignty over the said Northern Island were ceded to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland absolutely and without reservation:

Now, therefore, I, William Hobson, Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand, in the name and on behalf of Her Majesty, do hereby proclaim and declare to all men that from and after the date of the above-mentioned treaty the full sovereignty of the Northern Island of New Zealand vests in Her Majesty Queen Victoria, her heirs and successors for ever.

          Given under my hand, at Government House, Russell, Bay of Islands, this twenty-first day of May, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and forty.

                                                            WILLIAM HOBSON,
                                                                      Lieutenant-Governor.

By His Excellency's command.

WILOUGHBY SHORTLAND, Colonial Secretary.

British sovereignty over the South Island was formally proclaimed at Cloudy Bay on the 17th June, 1840, by Major Bunbury, H.M. 80th Regiment, and Captain Nias, R.N.

From the date of Hobson's Proclamation until the 3rd May, 1841, New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales, and on the latter date it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated the 16th November, 1840.

CONSTITUTION.

The Government of the colony was first vested in a Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; there was an Executive Council and a Legislative Council with advisory powers only.

On the 30th June, 1852, an Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament, and published in New Zealand by Proclamation on the 17th January, 1853. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives.

The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not responsible to Parliament. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the House of Representatives, who, however, held no portfolios. The first Ministers under a system of responsible government were appointed in the year 1856.

On addresses from both Houses of the General Assembly, His Majesty the King, by Order in Council dated 9th September, 1907, and by Proclamation issued 10th September, 1907, was graciously pleased to change the style and designation of the Colony of New Zealand to “The Dominion of New Zealand”; the change taking effect from Thursday, the 26th September, 1907.

By Letters Patent dated 11th May, 1917, the designation of Governor and Commander-in-Chief which had hitherto been held by the Royal representative in New Zealand was altered to “Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.”

THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.

Prior to the establishment of responsible government the Executive Council for New Zealand consisted, in addition to the Governor, of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, and the Colonial Treasurer, seniority being in the order named. The Governor, or in his absence the senior member present, was to preside, and two members exclusive of the Governor or member presiding were to form a quorum. The Governor was commanded to in all things consult and advise with the Executive Council, and not to exercise the powers and authorities vested in him except by and with the concurrence and advice of the Executive Council, unless in cases of an urgent and pressing nature which would not admit of delay. In such cases he was, with all convenient speed, to bring the measures so adopted by him before the Executive Council for its revision and sanction. Nothing in these instructions, however, was to prevent the Governor exercising any or all of the powers and authorities vested in him, without the advice and concurrence of the Executive Council, in cases not considered of sufficient importance to require their assistance or advice, or in cases which were of such a nature that in his judgment material prejudice might be sustained by consulting the Executive Council thereupon. No questions were to be brought before the Council except those proposed by the Governor, who in any case in which he saw sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the major part or the whole of the Council was further empowered to exercise the powers vested in him in opposition to such opinion.

The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of the 11th May, 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of the 24th April, 1919 (p. 1213). The relationship between the powers of the Governor-General and the Executive Council is indicated in paragraphs V and VII of the Instructions, which read as follows:—

V. Governor-General to take Advice of Executive Council.

In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General shall be guided by the advice of the Executive Council, but, if in any case he shall see sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the said Council, he may act in the exercise of his said powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Us without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case it shall be competent to any member of the said Council to require that there be recorded upon the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

VII. Regulation of Power of Pardon.

The Governor-General shall not pardon or reprieve any offender without first receiving in capital cases the advice of the Executive Council, and in other cases the advice of one at least of his Ministers; and in any case in which such pardon or reprieve might directly affect the interests of Our Empire, or of any country or place beyond the jurisdiction of the Government of the Dominion, the Governor-General shall, before deciding as to either pardon or reprieve, take those interests specially into his own personal consideration in conjunction with such advice as aforesaid.

The present Executive Council consists of thirteen members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

Prior to the establishment of responsible government the Legislative Council of New Zealand consisted of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Colonial Treasurer, and the three senior Justices of the Peace. The Governor, or in his absence the senior member present, was to preside at ail meetings of the Council; four members in addition to the Governor or the member presiding to form a quorum. No law or Ordinance was to be enacted by the Legislative Council which was not first proposed by the Governor, and no question was to be debated unless submitted by him for that purpose. The laws and Ordinances of the Council were to be designated “Ordinances enacted by the Governor of New Zealand with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council thereof” No laws whatsoever were to be made to continue for less than two years except only in cases of unforeseen emergency requiring provision for temporary service, and the Governor was specially enjoined not to propose or assent to Ordinances or laws dealing with certain matters, some of which were,—

Restricting public worship, although not conducted according to the Church of England.

Reducing revenue or infringing prerogative or affecting the salaries or allowances of public officers without special leave.

Issuing bills of credit or other negotiable securities in lieu of money on the credit of the colony, or paper currency, or any coin save the legal coin of the realm.

By which persons not of European birth or descent might be subjected or liable to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of European birth or descent would not also be subjected.

Raising money by public or private lotteries.

Naturalizing aliens without leave.

Divorcing persons joined together in holy matrimony.

Granting money, land, or other donation or gratuity to the Governor.

The Legislative Council assembled for its first session at Auckland on the 24th May, 1854, and comprised fourteen members.

The Councillors had been designated a year earlier by the Governor, and their names submitted for the Royal approval and they were gazetted in New Zealand in December, 1853. Until 1868 the rule was that the appointment of members should be made by an instrument under the Royal Sign-manual, but the rule was not strictly observed after 1861. An Act of the Imperial Parliament in 1868 validated any appointments of Councillors that might have been made irregularly in the past, and provided that future appointments should be made by the Governor (not by the Sovereign).

Until 1891 members were appointed for life, but since that year appointments have been made for seven years only, members, however, being eligible for reappointment. The last remaining life appointee, the late Hon. W. D. H. Baillie, died on the 24th February, 1922, after holding office for nearly sixty-one years. Prior to 1891 the Speaker was appointed by the Governor, but the Council now elects its own Speaker, who holds office for five years. A Chairman of Committees is elected every session, and holds office till the election of his successor. Speaker and Chairman are both eligible for re-election. The Imperial Act under which the earliest appointments were made did not fix a minimum number of members, though it provided that the first appointees should be not less than ten in number. The number actually summoned was sixteen, of whom only fourteen attended and were enrolled. The number increased irregularly for thirty years. In 1885 and 1886 it stood at fifty-three, but has not since reached that limit. The number on the roll at present is thirty-nine.

Provision for an elective Legislative Council is contained in the Legislative Council Act, 1914, which was originally intended to come into operation at the first general election of members of the Lower House after the end of 1915. The introduction of the new system has, however, been postponed from time to time, and at present the position is that the Act is to be brought into operation at a date to be specified by Proclamation. Under the system outlined in the Act the Dominion is to be divided into four electoral divisions, two in the North Island and two in the South, and the number of members is to be forty, divided between the two Islands on a population basis. The Governor-General is empowered to appoint not more than three Maori members to the Council.

The qualifications for membership of the Legislative Council are the same as for the House of Representatives, referred to below, with the proviso that a person may not at the same time be a member of both Houses.

Before the year 1892 the honorarium of Councillors was understood to be for the session, not for the year, and formed the subject of a special vote every session, the amount varying in different sessions. By the Payment of Members Act, 1892; the honorarium was made annual, not sessional, and was fixed at £150 a year. The amount was raised in 1904 to £200, and in 1920 to £350, but was reduced in 1922 to £315. Besides the honorarium, members are allowed travelling-expenses actually incurred in going to and from Parliament.

Subject to certain exemptions, members not attending the Council are liable to be fined.

HOUSE of REPRESENTATIVES.

The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty— seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are now designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in.1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four: in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act, 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Legislature Act, 1908, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

The North Island at present returns forty-five European members, and the South Island thirty-one. The elections are triennial, except in the case of a dissolution by the Governor-General. Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act, 1879.

Every registered elector of either sex who is free from any of the disqualifications mentioned in the Legislature Act, 1908, is eligible for membership. Ail contractors to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly, in any one financial year, as well as the public servants of the Dominion, are incapable of being elected as, or of sitting or voting as, members.

The payment made to members of the House of Representatives is £450 per annum, subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. The travelling-expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed. The rate of payment for several years prior to 1920 was £300 per annum, but was increased in that year to £500, a 10-per-cent. reduction, however, being made in 1922 by the Public Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1921–22.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon after as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution, and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

THE FRANCHISE.

The three cardinal principles of the franchise in New Zealand are (1) one man one vote, (2) female suffrage, and (3) adult suffrage.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the last-mentioned, the following classes of persons not being entitled to register as electors or to vote:—

An alien;

A person of unsound mind;

A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of His Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act, 1908, as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in the Dominion, and for one month in the electoral district for which he claims to vote.

The system of “one man one vote” has been in operation since 1889, and women's suffrage since 1893. The qualifications for registration are the same for both sexes.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION.

Side by side with the general government of the country, but subordinate to it, there has existed a system of local government since the early years of New Zealand's annexation as a British colony. The history of local government divides naturally into two periods representing two distinct systems—viz., the provincial, which was in operation up to 1876, and the county, which superseded the provincial in that year.

THE PROVINCES.

On the 23rd December, 1847, a Charter was signed dividing the colony into two provinces-New Ulster and New Munster—and this was proclaimed in New Zealand on the 10th March, 1848. The Province of New Ulster consisted of the whole of the North Island with the exception of that portion adjacent to Cook Strait and lying to the south of a line commencing at the centre of the mouth of the Patea River and running thence due east to the east coast. The Province of New Munster consisted of the South and Stewart Islands and of the portion of the North Island excluded from New Ulster. Each province had a Lieutenant - Governor, an Executive Council, and a Legislative Council, while the Governor-in-Chief for the whole colony was also Governor of each province. Provision had also been made for a House of Representatives in each province, but this portion of the Charter was suspended for five years, and before it came into operation a new Constitution was obtained.

Under the new Constitution the Provinces of New Ulster and New Munster were abolished and the colony was divided into six provinces—Auckland, New Plymouth (later altered to Taranaki), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. Each province was to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. In each case the election was for four years, but a dissolution of the Provincial Council by the Governor could take place at any time, necessitating a fresh election both of the Council and of the Superintendent. The Superintendent was chosen by the whole body of the electors of the province, and each member of the Provincial Council by the electors of a district. The boundaries of the new provinces were gazetted on the 2nd April, 1853, and the boundaries of the electoral districts on the 14th May following, the first general elections for the House of Representatives and the Provincial Councils being held during 1853 and the beginning of 1854. The Provincial Governments, afterwards increased to nine by the formation of Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Southland, later reduced to eight by the merging of Southland with. Otago, and again increased to nine by the formation of Westland, remained as integral parts of the Constitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, that body having been vested with the power of altering the Constitution Act.

EARLY BOROUGHS AND TOWN DISTRICTS.

Even before the division of New Zealand into the two provinces of New Ulster and New Munster, local government had its inception, Wellington having been created a borough in 1842 under the authority of the Municipal Corporations Ordinance of that year. The Ordinance was disallowed by the Home Government, but was re-enacted, with necessary alterations, in 1844. Wellington, which lost its status on the original Ordinance being disallowed, did not become a borough again until 1870, Auckland (constituted in 1851) remaining the only borough in New Zealand for several years.

Wellington, which had been the first borough in the country, also became the first town district, with a form of government not differing greatly from that of a municipality. Gradually the more important towns adopted the status of boroughs, while the less important remained town districts. In Otago, however, between 1865 and 1875, several small towns were created boroughs under the authority of an Ordinance of the Otago Provincial Council, nineteen of the thirty-six boroughs in existence at the date of the abolition of the provinces being in Otago, all formed under the provisions of the Ordinance referred to.

THE ROAD AND HIGHWAY DISTRICTS.

Another form of local government which came into existence in the provincial days was that of the road districts, or, as they were called in certain parts of the country, highway districts. As the names imply, the road and highway districts were formed for the purpose of extending and maintaining roads. Each district was controlled by an elected Board, which had power to levy rates. The first Road Boards were formed in 1863, and by 1875 their number had risen to 314.

THE COUNTIES.

Among the instructions given Captain Hobson on his appointment as the first Governor of New Zealand was one directing that the colony was to be divided into counties, hundreds, and parishes. In accordance with this instruction, the boundaries of the County of Eden, in which Auckland—the then capital—is situated, were proclaimed in 1842, and some years later the county was divided into hundreds. Very little further was done towards giving effect to the instructions, and the first administrative county was Westland, separated from Canterbury Province in 1867, and granted a system of local government in the following year.

It was not until the abolition of the provinces in 1876 that a scheme of division of the whole country into counties was introduced. The Counties Act, 1876, which, in conjunction with the Municipal Corporations Act of the same year, provided a comprehensive scheme of local government in lieu of the provincial governments, divided New Zealand into sixty-three counties. With the exception of six, which were exempted from the operations of the Act, each county was placed under the control of an elected Chairman and Council, possessed of fairly full powers of local government—considerably less, however, than those formerly enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. The Counties Act specially excluded boroughs from the counties within which they geographically lie, and a similar provision has since been made in the case of town districts having a population of over 500.

EXTENSION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

Since the abolition of the provinces and the passing of the Counties and Municipal Corporations Acts of 1876 there has been considerable extension of local government. Many of the road districts have merged with the counties within which they lie, while others have become boroughs and town districts. On the other hand, counties, boroughs, and town districts have increased in numbers, while several entirely new classes of local districts, formed for definite purposes—as, for instance, land drainage, or electric-power supply-have come into existence. In most cases the Boards of these districts have borrowing and rating powers.

The numbers of local districts of each class in the Dominion at present are as follow:—

Counties129
Boroughs118
Town districts— 
        Not forming parts of counties34
        Forming parts of counties34
Road districts64
River districts44
Land-drainage districts61
Harbour districts42
Hospital districts44
City and suburban drainage districts3
Tramway districts2
Local railway districts3
Water-supply districts6
Electric-power districts17

Full information concerning the present system of local government, including the powers, duties, and responsibilities of the various classes of local authorities, will be found in the section of this book devoted to local government.

Chapter 3. SECTION III.—OFFICIAL.

SUCCESSIVE VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES.

1840–1853.

Captain William Hobson, R.N., Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand under Sir George Gipps, Governor of New South Wales, from January, 1840, to 3rd May, 1841, and Governor of New Zealand from 3rd May, 1841, until date of death, 10th September, 1842.

Lieutenant Willoughby Shortland, Administrator from 10th September, 1842, to 26th December. 1843.

Captain Robert Fitzroy, R.N., Governor from 26th December, 1843, to 17th November. 1845.

Captain George Grey, who became Sir George Grey, K.C.B., in 1848, Governor from 18th November, 1845, to 1st January, 1848; Governor-in-Chief over the Islands of New Zealand, Governor of the Province of New Ulster, and Governor of the Province of New Munster from 1st January, 1848, to 7th March, 1853; Governor of New Zealand from 7th March, 1853, to 31st December, 1853.

Lieutenant-Governors of Provinces.

Edward John Eyre, Esquire, Lieutenant-Governor of New Munster from 28th January, 1848, until duties of Lieutenant-Governor ceased on 7th March, 1853.

Major-General George Dean Pitt, Lieutenant-Governor of New Ulster from 14th February, 1848, until date of death, 8th January, 1851.

Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Henry Wynyard, C.B., Lieutenant-Governor of New Ulster from 26th April, 1851, until duties of Lieutenant-Governor ceased on 7th March. 1853.

1854 TO DATE.

Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Henry Wynyard, C.B., Administrator from 3rd January, 1854, to 6th September, 1855.

Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B., Governor from 6th September, 1855, to 2nd October, 1861.

Sir George Grey, K.C.B., Administrator from 3rd October, 1861; Governor from 4th December, 1861, to 5th February, 1868.

Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G., Governor from 5th February, 1868, to 19th March, 1873.

Sir George Alfred Arney, Chief Justice, Administrator from 21st March to 14th June, 1873.

Sir James Fergusson, Baronet, P.C., Governor from 14th June, 1873, to 3rd December, 1874.

The Marquis of Normanby, P.C., G.C.M.G., Administrator from 3rd December, 1874: Governor from 9th January, 1875, to 21st February, 1879.

James Prendergast, Esquire, Chief Justice, Administrator from 21st February to 27th March, 1879.

Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G., Administrator from 27th March, 1879: Governor from 17th April, 1879, to 8th September, 1880.

James Prendergast, Esquire, Chief Justice, Administrator from 9th September to 29th November, 1880.

The Honourable Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G., Governor from 29th November, 1880, to 23rd June, 1882.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator from 24th June, 1882, to 20th January, 1883.

Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B., Governor from 20th January, 1883, to 22nd March, 1889.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator from 23rd March to 2nd May, 1889.

The Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.. Governor from 2nd May, 1889. to 24th February. 1892.

Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator from 25th February to 6th June, 1892.

The Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G., Governor from 7th June, 1892, to 6th February, 1897.

Sir James Prendergast. Chief Justice. Administrator from 8th February to 9th August. 1897.

The Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G., Governor from 10th August, 1897 to 19th June, 1904.

The Right Honourable William Lee, Baron Plunket, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., Governor from 20th June, 1904, to 8th June, 1910.

Hon. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., Chief Justice, Administrator from 8th Juno to 22nd June. 1910.

The Right Honourable John Poynder Dickson-Poynder, K.C.M.G., Baron Islington, D.S.O., Governor from 22nd June, 1910, to 2nd December, 1912.

Hon. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G., Chief Justice, Administrator from 3rd December to 19th December. 1912.

The Earl of Liverpool, P.C., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., Governor from 19th December, 1912; Governor-General from 28th June, 1917, to 7th July, 1920.

Right Hon. Sir Robert Stout, P.C., K.C.M.G., Chief Justice, Administrator from 8th July, 1920, to 26th September, 1920.

Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O., Governor-General from 27th September, 1920.

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND.

JELLIOOE, His Excellency, Admiral of the Fleet, the Right Honourable John Rushworth, Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B.. O.M., G.C.V.O.

Private Secretary–Captain Arthur R. W. Curtis, M.C.

Official Secretary–A. Cecil Day. C.B.E.

Military Secretary and Aide-de-Camp–Captain P. R. M. Mundy, D.S.O., M.C.

Aide-de-Camp–Lieutenant R. Gordon Southey, M.C.

Honorary Aides-de-Camp–Colonel H. Hart, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.; Colonel C. W. Melville, C.B., C.M.G.. D.S.O.; Colonel R. Young, C.B., C.M.G.. D.S.O.; Colonel A. E. Stewart, C.M.G., D.S.O.: Colonel Hugh Stewart, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.C.; Lieutenant-Colonel R. C. Allen, D.S.O.

Honorary Physician–Colonel E. J. O'Neill, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.B.

Honorary Surgeon–Brigadier-General Sir D. J. McGavin, Kt., C.M.G., D.S.O., M.D.

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PREMIERS.

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856.

Name of Ministry.Name of Premier.Assumed Office.Retired.
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May, 185620 May, 1856.
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May, 18562 June, 1856.
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 June, 185612 July, 1861.
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 July, 18616 Aug., 1862.
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug., 186230 Oct., 1863.
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct., 186324 Nov., 1864.
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov., 186416 Oct., 1865.
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct., 186528 June, 1869.
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 June, 186910 Sept., 1872.
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sept., 187211 Oct., 1872.
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct., 18723 Mar., 1873.
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar., 18738 April, 1873.
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 April, 18736 July, 1875.
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 July, 187515 Feb., 1876.
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb., 18761 Sept., 1876.
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sept., 187613 Sept., 1876.
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sept., 187613 Oct., 1877.
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct., 18778 Oct., 1879.
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct., 187921 April, 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 April, 188225 Sept., 1883.
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sept., 188316 Aug., 1884.
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug., 188428 Aug., 1884.
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug., 18843 Sept., 1884.
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sept., 18848 Oct., 1887.
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct., 188724 Jan., 1891.
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan., 18911 May, 1893.
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon, P.C.1 May, 189321 June, 1906.
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 June, 19066 Aug., 1906.
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bart., P.C., K.C.M.G.6 Aug., 190628 Mar., 1912.
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar., 191210 July, 1912.
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.10 July, 191212 Aug., 1915.
32. NationalRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.12 Aug., 191525 Aug., 1919.
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.25 Aug., 1919..     

MASSEY MINISTRY.

LIST OF MEMBERS SINCE MINISTRY ASSUMED OFFICE ON 25TH AUGUST, 1919, SHOWING OFFICES HELD AND PERIODS DURING WHICH SUCH OFFICES OCCUPIED.
Name.Office.FromToRemarks.
* Continuing office held in National Ministry.
Right Hon. William Ferguson Massey, P.C.Prime Minister25 Aug., 1919*  
Minister of Labour25 Aug., 1919*14 May, 1920Succeeded by Sir W. H. Herries.
Minister of Industries and Commerce25 Aug., 1919*21 June, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Lee.
Minister of Finance12 May, 1920  
Minister of Stamp Duties12 May, 1920  
Minister of Railways4 Sept., 191916 May, 1922Succeeded by Mr. Guthrie.
Minister of Mines27 July, 192015 April, 1921Succeeded by Mr. Anderson.
Sir James Allen, K.C.B.Minister of Defence25 Aug., 1919*28 April, 1920Succeeded by Sir R. H. Rhodes.
Minister of Finance4 Sept., 191928 April, 1920Succeeded by Right Hon. Mr Massey.
Minister of Stamp Duties4 Sept., 191928 April, 1920
Minister of External Affairs24 Nov., 191928 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Lee.
Sir William Herbert Herries. K.C.M.G.Minister of Railways25 Aug., 1919*3 Sept., 1920Succeeded by Right Hon. Mr. Massey.
Native Minister25 Aug., 1919*7 Feb., 1921Succeeded by Mr. Coates
Minister of Customs4 Sept., 19197 Feb., 1921Succeeded by Mr. Stewart
Minister of Marine4 Sept., 19197 Feb., 1921Succeeded by Mr. Anderson.
Minister of Labour14 May, 19207 Feb., 1921
Member of Executive Council without portfolio7 Feb., 1921  
Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, K.C.M.G., K.C.Attorney-General25 Aug., 1919*  
Commissioner of State Forests25 Aug., 1919*21 Feb., 1922Succeeded by Sir R. H. Rhodes.
Minister of Internal Affairs3 Feb., 192012 May, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Anderson.
Minister of Public Health4 Sept., 19193 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Parr.
Minister of Immigration25 Aug., 1919*12 May, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Nosworthy.
Minister of Education4 Sept., 19193 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Parr.
Minister of Marine1 Mar., 192121 Feb., 1922Succeeded by Mr. Anderson.
Sir William Fraser, Kt.Minister of Public Works25 Aug., 1919*3 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Coates.
Minister of Mines4 Sept., 191927 July, 1920Succeeded by Right Hon. Mr. Massey.
Member of Executive Council without portfolio27 July, 1920  
David Henry GuthrieMinister of Lands25 Aug., 1919*  
Minister of Railways16 May, 1922  
William Henry NosworthyMinister of Agriculture4 Sept., 1919  
Minister of Immigration12 May, 1920  
Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.Minister of Public Works3 April, 1920  
Postmaster-General4 Sept., 1919  
Minister of Telegraphs4 Sept., 1919  
Minister of Justice4 Sept., 19193 April, 1920Succeeded by Mr. Lee.
Minister of Native Affairs9 Mar., 1921  
Major John Bird Hine, M.C.Minister of Internal Affairs4 Sept., 191917 Jan., 1920Succeeded by Sir F. H. D. Bell.
Ernest Page LeeMinister of Justice3 April, 1920  
Minister of External Affairs12 May, 1920  
Minister of Industries and Commerce22 June, 1920  
Christopher James Parr, C.M.G.Minister of Education3 April, 1920  
Minister of Public Health3 April, 1920  
George James AndersonMinister of Internal Affairs12 May, 19201 Mar., 1921Succeeded by Mr. Stewart.
Minister of Labour1 Mar., 1921  
Minister of Mines15 April, 1921  
Minister of Marine21 Feb., 1922  
Sir Robert Heaton Rhodes, K.B.E.Minister of Defence21 July, 1920  
Commissioner of State Forests21 Feb., 1922  
William Downie StewartMinister of Internal Affairs1 Mar., 1921  
Minister of Customs9 Mar., 1921  
Sir Maui Pomare, K.B.E., C.M.G.Member of Executive Council representing the Native Race25 Aug., 1919*  
Minister of Cook Islands25 Aug., 1919*  

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1922.

His Excellency the GOVERNOR-GENERAL.

Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister of Stamp Duties, Minister in Charge of Land and Income Tax, State Advances, Valuation, Electoral, and Imperial Government Supplies Departments.

Hon. Sir W. H. Herries, K.C.M.G., Member of the Executive Council without Portfolio.

Hon. Sir F. H. D. Bell, K.C.M.G., K c, Attorney-General and Leader of the Legislative Council.

Hon. Sir William Fraser, K.C.V.O., Member of the Executive Council without Portfolio.

Hon. D. H. Guthrie, Minister of Railways, Minister of Lands, Minister in Charge of Land for Settlements, Discharged Soldiers Settlement, Scenery Preservation, and Repatriation Departments.

Hon. W. Nosworthy, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Immigration, and Minister in Charge of Tourist and Health Resorts and Legislative Departments.

Hon. J. G. Coates, M.C., Minister of Public Works, Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, Minister of Native Affairs, Minister in Charge of Public Trust, Native Trust, Roads, Public Buildings, and Government Life and Accident Insurance Departments.

Hon. E. P. Lee, Minister of Justice, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Industries and Commerce, and Minister in Charge of Police and Prisons Departments.

Hon. C. J. Parr, C.M.G., Minister of Education, Minister of Public Health, Minister in Charge of Hospitals and Charitable Aid and Mental Hospitals Departments.

Hon. G. J. Anderson, Minister of Labour, Minister of Mines, Minister of Marine, Minister in Charge of Printing and Stationery, Inspection of Machinery, Pensions, Friendly Societies, and State Fire Insurance Departments.

Hon. Sir R. H. Rhodes, K.B.E., Minister of Defence, Commissioner of State Forests, and Minister in Charge of War Pensions.

Hon. W. Downie Stewart, Minister of Customs, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister in Charge of High Commissioner, Audit, Museum, Registrar-General, Census and Statistics, Laboratory, Advertising, and National Provident Fund Departments.

Hon. Sir Maui Pomare, K.B.E., C.M.G., Member of the Executive Council representing the Native Race and Minister in Charge of Cook Islands.

Clerk of the Executive Council–F. D. Thomson, B.A., C.M.G.

SUCCESSIVE PARLIAMENTS.

SUCCESSIVE PARLIAMENTS SINCE THE PASSING OF THE CONSTITUTION ACT CONFERRING REPRESENTATIVE INSTITUTIONS UPON NEW ZEALAND, WITH THE DATES OF OPENING OF SESSIONS AND DATES OF PROROGATION AND OF DISSOLUTION.

Parliament.Dates of Opening of Session.Dates of Prorogation.Dates of Dissolution.
First27 May, 18549 Aug., 185415 Sept., 1855.
31 Aug., 185416 Sept., 1854
8 Aug., 185515 Sept., 1855
Second15 April, 185616 Aug., 18565 Nov., 1860.
(No sess., 1857) 
10 April, 185821 Aug., 1858
(No sess., 1859) 
30 July, 18605 Nov., 1860
Third3 June, 18617 Sept., 186127 Jan., 1866.
7 July, 186215 Sept., 1862
19 Oct., 186314 Dec., 1863
24 Nov., 186413 Dec., 1864
26 July, 186530 Oct., 1865
Fourth30 June, 18668 Oct., 186630 Dec., 1870.
9 July, 186710 Oct., 1867
9 July, 186820 Oct., 1868
1 June, 18693 Sept., 1869
14 June, 187013 Sept., 1870
Fifth14 Aug., 187116 Nov., 18716 Dec., 1875.
16 July, 187225 Oct., 1872
15 July, 18733 Oct., 1873
3 July, 187431 Aug., 1874
20 July, 187521 Oct., 1875
Sixth15 June, 187631 Oct., 187615 Aug., 1879.
19 July, 187710 Dec., 1877
26 July, 18782 Nov., 1878
11 July, 187911 Aug., 1879
Seventh24 Sept., 187919 Dec., 18798 Nov., 1881.
28 May, 18801 Sept., 1880
9 June, 188124 Sept., 1881
Eighth18 May, 188215 Sept., 188227 June, 1884.
14 June, 18838 Sept., 1883
5 June. 188424 June, 1884
Ninth7 Aug., 188410 Nov., 188415 July, 1887.
11 June, 188522 Sept., 1885
13 May, 188618 Aug, 1886
26 April, 188710 June, 1887
Tenth6 Oct., 188723 Dec., 18873 Oct., 1890.
10 May, 188831 Aug., 1888
20 June, 188919 Sept., 1889
19 June, 189018 Sept., 1890
Eleventh23 Jan., 189131 Jan., 18918 Nov., 1893.
11 June, 189125 Sept., 1891
23 June, 189212 Oct., 1892
22 June, 18937 Oct., 1893
Twelfth21 June, 189424 Oct., 189414 Nov., 1896.
20 June, 18952 Nov., 1895
11 June, 189619 Oct., 1896
Thirteenth7 April, 189712 April, 189715 Nov., 1899.
23 Sept., 189722 Dec., 1897
24 June, 18985 Nov., 1898
23 June, 189924 Oct., 1899
Fourteenth22 June, 190022 Oct., 19005 Nov., 1902.
1 July, 19018 Nov., 1901
1 July, 19024 Oct., 1902
Fifteenth29 June, 190325 Nov., 190315 Nov., 1905.
28 June, 19048 Nov., 1904
27 June, 190531 Oct., 1905
Sixteenth27 June, 19063 July, 190629 Oct., 1908.
21 Aug., 190629 Oct., 1906
27 June, 190725 Nov., 1907
29 June, 190812 Oct., 1908
Seventeenth10 June, 190917 June, 190920 Nov., 1911.
7 Oct., 190929 Dec., 1909
28 June, 19105 Dec, 1910
27 July, 191130 Oct., 1911
Eighteenth15 Feb., 19121 Mar., 191220 Nov., 1914.
27 June, 19128 Nov., 1912
26 June, 191316 Dec., 1913
25 June, 19146 Nov., 1914
Nineteenth24 June, 191515 Oct., 191527 Nov., 1919.
9 May, 19169 Aug., 1916
28 June, 19172 Nov., 1917
9 April, 191817 April, 1918
24 Oct., 191812 Dec., 1918
28 Aug., 19197 Nov., 1919
Twentieth24 June, 192012 Nov., 1920 
10 Mar., 192124 Mar., 1921
22 Sept., 192113 Feb., 1922
28 June, 1922..     

LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.

                             ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND, JUNE, 1922.

                             Speaker–Hon. Sir W. C. F. CARNCROSS, Kt.

                             Chairman of Committees–Hon. OLIVER SAMUEL.

                             Clerk of the Legislative Council–A. F. LOWE.

Name.Provincial DistrictDate of Appointment.
Alison, Hon. Ewen WilliamAuckland7 May, 1918.
Barr, Hon. JohnCanterbury22 January, 1921.
Bell, Hon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon, K.C.M.G.Wellington21 May, 1919.
Buchanan, Hon. Sir Walter, Kt.Wellington23 June, 1922.
Campbell, Hon. James PalmerAuckland2 September, 1921.
Carncross, Hon. Sir Walter Charles Frederick, Kt.Taranaki17 March, 1917.
Carroll, Hon. Sir James, K.C.M.G.Auckland2 September, 1921.
Clark, Hon. Edward HenryOtago25 June, 1920.
Cohen, Hon. MarkOtago25 June, 1920.
Collins, Hon. Colonel William Edward, C.M.G.Wellington14 July, 1921.
Earnshaw, Hon. WilliamWellington25 June, 1920.
Fleming. Hon. David ThomasOtago7 May, 1918.
Fraser, Hon. Sir William, K.C.V.O.Wellington27 November, 1919.
Garland, Hon. George JosephAuckland7 May, 1918.
Geddis, Hon. William JohnHawke's Bay7 May, 1918.
Gow, Hon. James BurmanAuckland7 May, 1918.
Grimmond, Hon. JosephWestland7 May, 1918.
Hall-Jones, Hon. Sir William, K.C.M.G.Wellington6 October, 1920.
Hardy, Hon. Charles Albert CreeryCanterbury25 June, 1920.
Harris, Hon. Major BenjaminAuckland15 February, 1918.
Hawke, Hon. Archibald FotheringhamOtago7 May, 1918.
Hislop, Hon. Thomas WilliamWellington2 September, 1921.
Izard, Hon. Charles HaywardWellington7 May, 1918.
Louisson, Hon. CharlesCanterbury7 May, 1918.
MacGregor, Hon. JohnOtago14 July, 1921.
McIntyre, Hon. William HendersonNelson2 September, 1921.
Mackenzie, Hon. Sir Thomas, G.C.M.G.Otago12 March, 1921.
Michel, Hon. Henry LeslieWestland7 May, 1918.
Mitchelson, Hon. Sir Edwin, K.C.M.G.Auckland25 June, 1920.
Moore, Hon. RichardCanterbury14 July, 1921.
Patuki, Hon. John TopiOtago7 May, 1918.
Samuel, Hon. OliverTaranaki14 July, 1921.
Scott, Hon. RobertOtago25 June, 1920.
Sinclair, Hon. Sir John Robert, Kt.Otago7 May, 1918.
Smith. Hon. Colonel George John, C.B.E.Canterbury25 June, 1920.
Snodgrass, Hon. William Wallace, M.B.E.Nelson2 September, 1921.
Stewart, Hon. WilliamAuckland7 May, 1918.
Thomson, Hon. George MalcolmOtago7 May, 1918.
Triggs, Hon. William HenryCanterbury7 May, 1918.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

                             ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, JUNE, 1922.

                             Speaker–Hon. Sir F. W. LANG. Kt.

                             Chairman of Committees–A. S. MALCOLM, M.P

                             Clerk of the House–E. W. KANE.

Name.Electoral District.Name.Electoral District.
For European Electorates. For European Electorates 
Anderson, Hon. George JamesMataura.Masters, RobertStratford.
Atmore, HarryNelson.Mitchell, Colonel George, D.S.O.Wellington South.
Bartram, Frederick NatleyGrey Lynn.
Bitchener, JohnWaitaki.Munro, James WrightDunedin North.
Bollard, Richard FrancisRaglan.
Brown, John VigorNapier.Nash, James AlfredPalmerston.
Burnett, Thomas DavidTemuka.Newman, Alfred KingcomeWellington East
Campbell, Hugh McLeanHawke's Bay.
Coates, Hon. Joseph Gordon, M.C.Kaipara.Newman, EdwardManawatu.
Nosworthy, Hon. WilliamAshburton.
Craigie, JamesTimaru.Parr, Hon. Christopher James, C.M.G.Eden.
Dickson, James McCollChalmers.
Dickson, James SamuelParnell.Parry, William EdwardAuckland Central.
Dixon, EdwinPatea.
Edie, JohnBruce.Poland, HughOhinemuri.
Field, William HughesOtaki.Potter, Vivian HaroldRoskill.
Forbes, George WilliamHurunui.Reed, Vernon HerbertBay of Islands.
Fraser, PeterWellington Central.Rhodes, Hon. Sir Robert. Heaton, K.B.E.Ellesmere.
Glenn, William SpiersRangitikei
Guthrie, Hon. David HenryOroua.Rhodes, Thomas WilliamThames.
Hamilton. AdamWallace.Savage, Michael JosephAuckland West.
Hamilton, John RonaldAwarua
Hanan, Hon. Josiah AlfredInvercargill.Seddon, Thomas Edward YoudWestland.
Harris, AlexanderWaitemata.
Hawken, Oswald JamesEgmont.Sidey, Thomas KayDunedin South.
Herries, Hon. Sir William Herbert, K.C.M.G.Tauranga.
Smith, Robert WilliamWaimarino.
Hockly, Frank FranklinRotorua.Smith, Sydney GeorgeTaranaki.
Holland, Henry EdmundBuller.Statham, Charles ErnestDunedin Central.
Horn, JamesWakatipu.
Howard, Edwin JohnChristchurch South.Stewart, Hon. William DownieDunedin West.
Hudson, Richard PhineasMotueka.Sullivan, Daniel GilesAvon.
Hunter, Sir George, Kt.Waipawa.Sykes, George RobertMasterton.
Isitt, Leonard MonkChristchurch North.Thacker, Henry Thomas JoyntChristchurch East.
Jennings, William ThomasWaitomo.Veitch, William AndrewWanganui.
Jones, DavidKaiapoi.Wilford, Thomas MasonHutt.
Lang, Hon. Sir Frederic William, Kt.Manukau.Williams, Kenneth StuartBay of Plenty.
Witty, GeorgeRiccarton.
Lee, Hon. Ernest PageOamaru.Wright, Robert AlexanderWellington Suburbs.
Luke, Sir John Pearce, Kt., C.M.G.Wellington North.
Young, James AlexanderWaikato.
Lysnar, William DouglasGisborne.  
McCallum, RichardWairau.  
McCombs, JamesLyttelton.For Maori Electorates. 
Mackenzie, Clutha NantesAuckland East.Tau HenareNorthern Maori.
McLeod, Alexander DonaldWairarapa.Ngata, Hon. Apirana TurupaEastern Maori
McNicol, ArchibaldPahiatua. 
Malcolm, Alexander ScottClutha.Pomare, Hon. Sir Maui,K.B.E., C.M.G.Western Maori.
Mander, FrancisMarsden.
Massey, Right Hon. William Ferguson, P.C.Franklin.Uru, Henare Whakatau.Southern Maori.

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

LIST OF PRINCIPAL DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND NAMES OF PERMANENT HEADS.
Department.Permanent Head.
Title.Name.
AgricultureDirector-GeneralC. J. Reakes, C.B.E., M.R.C.V.S., D.V.Sc. Melb.
AuditController and Auditor GeneralG. F. C. Campbell, C.M.G.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralW. C. MacGregor, K.C.
CustomsComptrollerW. B. Montgomery, O.B.E.
DefenceGeneral Officer Commanding N.Z. Military ForcesMajor-General Sir E. W. C. Chaytor, K.C.M.G., K.C. V.O., C.B., N.Z. Staff Corps.
EducationDirectorJ. Caughley, M.A.
External Affairs and Cook IslandsSecretaryJ. D. Gray.
Government InsuranceCommissionerJ. H. Richardson, C.M.G., F.F.A., F.I.C.A., F.I.A. N.Z.
     State Fire InsuranceDeputy General ManagerJ. H. Jerram.
     National Provident FundDeputy SuperintendentG. W. Barltrop.
     Friendly SocietiesRegistrarW. M. Wright.
     Public Service SuperannuationSecretary
HealthDirector-GeneralT. H. A. Valintine, C.B.E., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.P.H.
Industries and CommerceSecretaryJ. W. Collins.
ImmigrationUnder-SecretaryH. D. Thomson.
Inland RevenueCommissionerD. G. Clark, O.B.E.
     Land and Income TaxDeputy CommissionerA. E. Fowler.
     Stamp DutiesDeputy CommissionerP. G. Withers.
     Land and DeedsRegistrar-General of Land and DeedsC. E. Nalder.
Internal AffairsUnder-Secretary and Chief Electoral OfficerJ. Hislop, M.V O., O.B.E.
     Registrar-General'sRegistrar-GeneralW. W. Cook
     Census and StatisticsGovernment StatisticianM. Fraser, O.B.E.
Justice (including Prisons and Patents)Under-Secretary for Justice and Controller-General of PrisonsC. E. Matthews.
LabourSecretary of Labour; Chief Inspector of Factories; Registrar of Industrial Unions; and Superintendent, Workers' DwellingsF. W. T. Rowley.
Lands and SurveyUnder-SecretaryJ. B. Thompson, M.N.Z. Soc. CE.
MarineSecretary of Marine; Chief Inspector of Machinery and Chief Surveyor of Ships(Vacant).
Mental HospitalsInspector-GeneralF. Hay, M.B., CM.
MinesUnder-SecretaryA. H. Kimbell.
NativeUnder-SecretaryR. N. Jones.
Native TrustNative TrusteeW. E. Rawson.
NavalNaval AdviserCommodore A. G. Hotham, C.M.G., R.N.
PensionsCommissionerG. C. Fache, O.B.E.
PoliceCommissionerA. H. Wright.
Post and TelegraphSecretaryR. B. Morris.
Printing and StationeryGovernment PrinterW. A. G. Skinner.
Public TrustPublic TrusteeJ. W. Macdonald.
Public WorksUnder-Secretary and Engineer-in-ChiefF. W. Furkert, A.M.I.C.E., A.M.I.M.E.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerR. W. McVilly, M.V.O.
RepatriationDirectorJ. R. Samson.
State AdvancesSuperintendentW. Waddel.
State Forest ServiceDirectorL. McIntosh Ellis, B.Sc. (F.), C.S.F.E.
Tourist and Health ResortsGeneral ManagerB. M. Wilson.
TreasurySecretaryJ. J. Esson, C.M.G.
ValuationValuer-GeneralF. W. Flanagan.

By an Act passed during the year 1912 and intituled the Public Service Act, 1912, the Public Service of New Zealand was placed under the direct and sole control of a Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners, who are appointed for a term of seven years, are responsible only to Parliament, and can be dismissed from office only for misbehaviour or incompetence.

The Act, which became operative on the 1st April, 1913, applies to all members of the Public Service with the exception of the Controller and Auditor-General, officers of the Railway Department, members of the Police and Defence Forces, Judges and Magistrates, officers of the House, certain officers of the Legislative Departments, and persons paid only by fees or commission, as well as any officer to whom the Governor-General in Council declares the Act shall not apply.

By the Post and Telegraph Act of 1918 the Post and Telegraph Department was exempted from the control of the Commissioner, with the exception that the Commissioner makes all appointments.

Public Service Commissioner: W. R. MORRIS, C.M.G., I.S.O.

Assistant Commissioners: (1) P. D. N. VERSOHAFFELT; (2) (vacant).

NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL REPRESENTATIVES ABROAD.

High Commissioner for New Zealand in London—Hon. Sir James Allen, K.C.B., New Zealand Offices, 415 Strand, London W.C. 2.

New Zealand Trade Commissioner for Australia and Government Agent, Melbourne—H. J. Manson, Dominion Chambers, 59 William Street, Melbourne.

New Zealand Government Agent, Sydney—W. R. Blow, London Bank Chambers, corner of Pitt and Moore Streets, Sydney.

Honorary New Zealand Tourist Agent, Adelaide—D. Hawes, Pirie Street, Adelaide.

Honorary New Zealand Representative in India—R. L. B. Gall, care of Messrs. Landale and Clark (Limited), P.O. Box 112, Calcutta.

New Zealand Government Agent, Vancouver—W. A. James, Mercantile Buildings, 318 Homer Street, Vancouver.

Resident Agent for New Zealand, San Francisco—H. Stephenson Smith, 311 California Street, San Francisco.

TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF BRITISH COUNTRIES IN NEW ZEALAND.

United Kingdom.—H.M. Trade Commissioner: R. W. Dalton, 11 Grey Street, Wellington.

Canada.—Trade Commissioner: W. A. Beddoe, Customs Street, Auckland.

FOREIGN CONSULS

CONSULS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES RESIDING IN, OR WITH JURISDICTION OVER, NEW ZEALAND, JUNE, 1922.

Argentine Republic.—Consul-General: H. B. Caceres, Wellington. Vice-Consul: H. H. Rayward, Wellington.

Belgium.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): H. Segaert, Sydney. Consuls: A. M. Ferguson, Auckland; G. F. Johnston, Wellington; Sir J. J. Kinsey, Christchurch: G. L. Denniston, Dunedin. Vice-Consuls: C. R. J. Ward, Christchurch; W. A. Moore, Dunedin; R. A. Anderson, Invercargill.

Brazil.—Vice-Consul: A. H. Miles. Wellington.

Chile.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Senor Don Manuel Gundelach, Sydney. Consuls: E. A. Craig, Auckland; J. Montgomery, Christchurch; H. L. Nathan. Wellington; J. A. Roberts, Dunedin.

China.—Consuls: Lin Shih Yuan, Wellington; Chao-Song Lee, Samoa.

Denmark.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Ove Lunn, Melbourne. Consul for North Island: Michael Myers, Wellington. Consul for South Island: H. B. Sorensen, Christchurch. Vice-Consuls: H. P. Richmond, Auckland; W. E. Perry, Hokitika; O. H. Möller, Dunedin; Charles Dahl, Palmerston North.

Finland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Harald Tanner, Sydney.

France.—Consul: E. T. do Beauregard, Auckland. Consular Agents: George Humphreys, Christchurch; O. R. Bendall, Wellington; S. E. D. Neill, Dunedin; Gordon Hay-Mackenzie, Samoa.

Greece.—Vice-Consul for New Zealand: J. F Dyer, Wellington.

Honduras.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: Frederic Walsh, Sydney.

Italy.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji: Commander G. St. Martin, Melbourne. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): A. Grossardi, Melbourne. Consular Agents: Joseph Wallace, Christchurch; L. O. H. Tripp, O.B.E., Wellington; J. A. Roberts, Dunedin; Geraldo Perotti, Greymouth; Giovanni (J. H.) Pagni, Auckland.

Japan.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): E. Suzuki, Sydney. Honorary Consuls: A. B. Robertson, Auckland; A. Young, Wellington.

Jugo-Slavia (Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes).—Consul: G. L. Scansie, Auckland.

Latvia.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Edward Birin, London.

Liberia.—Consul: Charles Louisson, Christchurch. Acting-Consul: T. N. Holmden, Wellington.

Mexico,—Consul: J. W. Hall, Auckland.

Netherlands.—Acting Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: P. E. Teppema, Sydney. Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): W. G. Johnston, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: George Ritchie, Dunedin; M. Copeland, Auckland; C. J. Cooper, Christchurch.

Norway.—Consul-General for Australia, New Zealand, and the adjacent islands: Finn Koren, Melbourne. Consul: A. W. Newton, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: Sigurd Bentzon, Melbourne; Robert Millar, Auckland; George Jameson, Christchurch; M. E. Wiig, Invercargill; J. H. Enright, Westport; John Scott, Timaru; W. F. Edmond., Dunedin (honorary).

Paraguay.—Consul: A. E. Kernot, Wellington.

Peru.—Consul-General for Australia and New Zealand: J. M. Paxton, Sydney. Consul: G. H. Baker, Auckland.

Poland.—Consul-General (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): Hon. George Earp, Sydney.

Portugal.—Consul: David L. Nathan, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: A. D. S. Duncan, Wellington; C. W. Rattray, Dunedin.

Spain.—Consul-in-Chief (with jurisdiction over Australia and New Zealand): Senor Don Jaime Montero y de Madrazo, Melbourne. Hon. Vice-Consul: A. K. S. Mackenzie, Wellington.

Sweden.—Acting-Consul: W. I. Nathan, Wellington. Vice-Consuls: C. I. Nathan, Auckland; W. H. Cheesman, Christchurch (acting).

Switzerland.—Consul (with jurisdiction over New Zealand): M. Stahel, Melbourne.

United States of America.—Consuls: David F. Wilber, Wellington; K. de G. MacVitty, Auckland. Vice-Consuls: M. I. Mays, Auckland; J. E. Moran, Wellington. Consular Agents: H. P. Bridge, Christchurch; H. Reeves, Dunedin.

Uruguay.—Vice-Consul (Acting-Consul): W. J. Prouse, Wellington.

Chapter 4. SECTION IV.—STATISTICAL ORGANIZATION.

EARLY STATISTICAL RECORDS.

NEW Zealand was proclaimed a British Crown colony in 1840. Official statistical records of the country commenced with the following year, 1841, in the shape of reports compiled for the information of the Colonial Office, and known by immemorial custom as “blue-books.”

These reports, which continued until 1852, were prepared in manuscript form in triplicate, and several copies repose to this day in the custody of the Registrar-General, their careful penmanship still legible despite the faded ink. A collection of tables compiled by various Government authorities and illustrating the work of their Departments composed the annual blue-book. Bald statements as were these early statistical efforts, yet they fail to hide altogether the incidents of the times. Here a table of population figures apologizes for incompleteness by the statement that an enumerator had been badly handled by Natives who were suspicious of his motives in collecting information; again, a list of exports shows the ghastly trade in dried human heads.

Two factors retarded the development of the statistics of the blue-books: in the first place they were not intended for general publication; secondly, there appeared a lack of co-ordination between the Departments furnishing the returns and the office collating and ultimately issuing them.

It was not long, however, before the need of authoritative statistics was felt, both for present use and also as a record of the development of the country and its various provinces and settlements. Accordingly we find that, in 1849, “statistics of Now Munster,” compiled under the superintendence of Alfred Domett, were printed by order of the Legislative Council. Again, “statistics of Nelson” covering the period 1843–54 were issued in 1855. Various other publications were issued dealing with some individual province or settlement. In the year 1853 a Constitution granted by the Imperial Parliament came into force, and from this date the fragmentary and incohate statistical works find a new complexion. Five years later the Registrar-General, who had been entrusted with the task of compiling annually statistics of the whole colony, produced a volume dealing with the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856.

STATISTICAL LEGISLATION.

One of the many ways in which statistics may be classified is as to source from which obtained, and in this respect they naturally divide into two classes—i.e., as to whether they are compiled from the records (obtained primarily for some other purpose) of a Government Department or other similar authority, or whether the data require to be specially collected from individual persons, &c.

As has been indicated above, the statistics included in the early blue-books belong in the main to the first of these two categories. Certain items, however, notably population figures, would be more correctly placed in the second category, though the system of collection was exceedingly crude and the scope of inquiry very limited. As a matter of fact, the population figures prior to 1851 appear to have been compiled in each settlement by the local Resident Magistrate by the simple method of ascertaining from the head of each house the number of persons in the household. From such small beginnings, however, has grown the Dominion's present comprehensive system of collection of statistical data.

The proper collection of statistics from the public on the voluntary basis which appeared to exist in the “forties” could be maintained only with a very small population, and with the simplest of inquiries. With the increase of population and the desire to obtain fuller information than in the past it was found advisable as early as 1851 to pass an Ordinance providing for the collection of statistics in the form of recurrent censuses. The Ordinance is of peculiar interest as being the first enactment on the subject of the collection of statistics in New Zealand, and as being the foundation on which all subsequent legislation of the kind has been based. With the exception of the schedules, which provided for the ascertainment of information as to sex, age, and degree of education of all persons, day- and Sabbath-school attendance, and particulars of live-stock and crops, it is here reproduced in full.

Session XI, No. VIII.

AN ORDINANCE for taking a Census of the Colony of New Zealand. (15th July, 1851.) WHEREAS it is expedient that authentic statistical information of the Colony of New Zealand be periodically obtained:

Be it therefore enacted by His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief of New Zealand, with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council thereof, as follows:—

  1. That a census of the number and condition of the population of the Islands of New Zealand shall be taken in the first, fourth, and seventh years of every decade of years, on the days and in the manner hereinafter declared.

  2. That the first decade shall be deemed to commence with the year of the passing hereof.

  3. That the Governor-in-Chief shall appoint persons to collect the information required by this Ordinance, and may cause an allowance to be made to any such person at a rate not exceeding ten shillings per day.

  4. That in each of the years hereinbefore particularized the senior Resident Magistrate in every settlement in the said Islands, or, where there is no Resident Magistrate, some fit person to be appointed by His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief, shall, on or before the first day of March, cause notices to be affixed on the several churches, chapels, Courthouses, and police-stations, and in such other conspicuous places as he shall deem proper within such district as shall be to him assigned for that purpose by His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief, requiring every householder to be prepared on the thirty-first day of March, or as soon thereafter as he may be called upon so to do by a Collector appointed as aforesaid, to give all such information as is required by the Schedule hereunto annexed.

  5. That the said Collectors shall, on or before the twenty-fifth day of March in each of the years hereinbefore particularized, leave at every house within the district assigned to them respectively a schedule, being a blank copy of the Schedule to this Ordinance annexed; and every householder able to write shall, on the thirty-first day of March, furnish in writing the information required by the said schedule, by filling up the same and subscribing his name at the foot thereof, and shall deliver the same when called for to one of the said Collectors.

  6. That each Collector shall, as soon after the thirty-first day of March as practicable, call at every house in his district to collect the schedules, and is hereby authorized to put such questions as may be indispensable to the complete filling-up thereof to any householder who, from inability to write, shall not have duly filled up the same, and the Collector shall thereupon fill it up himself with the information so supplied.

  7. That every householder who shall wilfully refuse or without lawful excuse neglect to fill up the said schedule to the best of his knowledge and belief, or to sign and deliver the sames or shall make, sign, or deliver, or cause to be made, signed, or delivered, any false return of any of the matters specified in the said schedule, or who shall refuse to answer or wilfully give a false answer to such questions as aforesaid, shall for every such refusal or wilfully false answer forfeit a sum not exceeding five pounds nor less than twenty shillings.

  8. Provided always that with respect to the present year the census shall be taken on the first day of November, the notices given on or before the first day of October, the schedules left on or before the twenty-fifth day of October, and filled up by the householder on the first day of November, and called for, and filled up when requisite, by the Collector as soon after that day as practicable, all in manner aforesaid.

  9. This Ordinance shall come into operation on the first day of August, one thousand eight hundred and fifty-one.

Following on the passing of the Census Ordinance of 1851 by the General Government several of the provinces into which New Zealand was divided passed Census Ordinances of their own, the necessity for which is not apparent, as other provinces took censuses under the authority of the 1851 Ordinance.

This Ordinance gave way in 1858 to the Census Act of that year, which was amended in 1860, 1867, 1873, and 1876, and was in its turn repealed in 1877, when a new Act was passed. consolidating and extending the law relating to census-taking. The Act of 1877 was amended in 1880 and again in 1890; also, in effect, in 1895, when the Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act was passed, making provision for the annual collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics, which had formerly been collected quinquennially under the Census Act. In 1908 the Census Act and amendments and the Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics Act were consolidated in the Statistics Act, 1908, as part of the general consolidation of statutes. The Statistics Act, 1908, was replaced two years later by the Census and Statistics Act, 1910, which was amended in 1915 by the Census and Statistics Amendment Act of that year.

It would be out of place here to recapitulate the various alterations and extensions involved in the successive enactments referred to. Suffice it to say that they reflect the growth of the world-wide realization of the importance and value of statistics.

The Census and Statistics Act, 1910, with the amendment of 1915, provides not only for the taking of the quinquennial population census, but also for the collection of statistical information under numerous specific heads, and contains a general authority to the Governor-General to extend the system of collection to cover such other items in respect of which statistical information may be found necessary or advisable.

THE STATISTICAL AUTHORITY.

The early “blue-books” appear to have been compiled by the Colonial Secretary. After the granting of responsible government the Registrar-General was entrusted with the collection of statistics, a function which he retained until 1910. The Census and Statistics Act, 1910, provided for the appointment of a Government Statistician, who has since been the authority charged with the administration of the Act. The 1910 Act laid down that the Government Statistician was to be an officer of the Registrar-General's Department, but this proviso was cancelled in 1915 by the amending Act of that year, whereupon the Census and Statistics Office came into existence as a separate branch of the Department of Internal Affairs.

STATISTICAL ORGANIZATION.

Until quite recent years there was very little statistical collection apart from the quinquennial census, the annual collection on legislative authority) of the agricultural and pastoral statistics, the collection on a voluntary basis of returns of private schools, savings-banks, &c., and the obtaining of statistical information from other Government Departments. It should be noted, however, that the census was formerly the means used for the collection of certain data (as, for instance, concerning industrial manufacture), now obtained independently of the census.

Since the passing of the Census and Statistics Act in 1910, and more especially since the formation of the Census and Statistics Office in 1915, the system of statistical collection has expanded considerably, not only in regard to the regular activities of the Office, but also for the obtaining of data required for some special purpose. During the war and post-war periods, for instance, the provisions of the Census and Statistics Act were utilized for the collection of information as to stocks, consumption, requirements, &c, of numerous commodities, including flour, wheat, oats, coal, oils, wire, iron, steel, copper, twine, turnip-seed, and medical requisites.

Among branches of statistical inquiries now regularly pursued by the Census and Statistics Office may be enumerated the following:—

  1. From private sources: Agricultural and pastoral statistics (main collection, areas sown in wheat and oats, threshings of wheat and oats, stocks of wheat, flour, and oats, sheep returns, detailed statistics of live-stock, and detailed statistics of commercial orchards); industrial manufacture; fire insurance; finances of local governing bodies; building societies; private savings-banks; prices; consumption and stocks of coal; hospital patients.

  2. From Government Departments in the form of individual cards, &c.: Births; marriages; deaths; orphanhood; migration; naturalization; inquests; civil and criminal cases in Court; prisons; divorce; bankruptcy; deceased persons' estates; industrial disturbances.

STATISTICAL PUBLICATIONS.

When New Zealand ceased to be a Crown colony in 1853 the annual despatch of the blue-books to the Colonial Office in London was discontinued. During the next few years several volumes of statistical tables appeared, compiled by various Provincial Governments, and in 1858 the Registrar-General published a volume for the colony as a whole, covering the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856. This volume was the first of a regular annual series which, developed and expanded, were issued, formerly by the Registrar-General's Department, and from 1915 to 1920 by the Census and Statistics Office. As indicating the expansion of the country and of its statistical organization it may be mentioned that while the statistics of the four years 1853–56 were contained in a single small volume, the statistics for 1920, the last year of publication in the old form, occupied four volumes aggregating nearly 1,200 pages.

Closely allied to the annual volumes of Statistics were the volumes of Census Statistics which were regularly compiled and published after each census of New Zealand from 1858 to 1916, for the first four occasions as part of the Statistics, but later (commencing with 1871) as separate publications.

With each volume of Statistics, commencing with that for 1853–56, went a brief report on the statistics presented. Developing slowly at first, the ultimate result was a fairly comprehensive report on the statistics—not only those presented, but the whole statistics (so far as compiled) of the colony. A similar report on census matters was included in each volume of Census Statistics.

Parallel with the statistical reports came, in 1875, an issue of another type— “The Official Handbook of New Zealand, a Collection of Papers by Experienced Colonists on the Colony as a Whole, and on the Several Provinces,” edited by Julius Vogel, C.M.G. (afterwards Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.), at that time Premier of the colony. The purpose of this book differed from that of the statistical reports. Its aim was to give “a New Zealand view of New Zealand to those who may think of making the colony their home or the theatre of business operations.” Its well-written articles, generously illustrated with woodcuts and photographs, make this early volume interesting reading. Printed in London, it was circulated largely in England.

In 1884 a new and revised edition of this Handbook was complied by Mr. William Gisborne, and edited by the Agent-General of the day (F. D. Bell, afterwards Sir Francis Bell, father of Sir F. H. D. Bell, the present Attorney-General). The purpose of this edition was similar to that of its predecessor, although in form it approximated more closely to the modern type.

Another example of a handbook composed for some special purpose was that of Dr. Hector, issued for the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880.

By the year 1889 the annual report on the statistics had reached considerable proportions, and it was decided by the Registrar-General to issue it as a separate publication. He remarks in the preface to the 1889 volume of Statistics as follows: “The report has now reached about the size of the original Victorian Year-book, and it has been deemed desirable to publish it in octavo size to make it more convenient for general reference.” A similar decision, it may be added, was come to in regard to the quinquennial Census Report.

For 1889 and 1890 the Report on the Statistics was accordingly issued as a separate publication with several new features. The following year (1891) was a census year, and the place of the usual statistical report for that year was taken by a separate “Report on the Results of a Census of the Colony of New Zealand taken for the Night of the 5th April, 1891,” the first of a series of reports which have been published after each census since.

In 1892 the Report on the Statistics reappeared, remodelled and considerably enlarged, and under the title of the “New Zealand Official Handbook.” The Handbook achieved a very considerable success, and the Government gave instructions for the preparation annually of a similar volume, to be called the “New Zealand Official Year-book.” The compilation remained in the hands of the Registrar-General until 1910, when on the passing of the Census and Statistics Act of that year the Year-book and other statistical publications came under the control of the Government Statistician.

The demy octavo size adopted in 1889, when the Report on the Statistics was first issued as a separate publication, was retained for the Official Handbook, and, up to the 1920 number, for the Year-book. This size, however, was not altogether satisfactory from the point of view Of economy of space or for the display of tabular matter, and in the next issue gave way to the royal octavo size.

A change was also made at the same time in the year-number of the book. Formerly the book had been designated by the year of compilation, though in recent years it had not appeared until early in the following year. The book now bears the year of publication.

It has been shown above how the annual volume of Statistics included each year up to 1888 a prefatory report, which gradually grew in bulk until it was deemed advisable in 1889 to publish it as a separate volume, which shortly afterwards developed into the New Zealand Official Year-book. From 1889 to 1920 the Statistics were accordingly issued without any accompanying letterpress.

A new policy adopted in 1921 in regard to the publication of the Annual Statistics involves the reintroduction of the report to accompany the tabular matter. In lieu of presenting the statistics in one comprehensive publication, these now form the tabular matter for nine separate annual reports, each covering a definite branch of statistical inquiry, and including explanatory letterpress in addition to the tables.

A similar policy is being followed in the case of the census results. In addition to the complete report published separately after the completion of the census tabulation, each volume of tables contains also an introductory discussion of the results disclosed.

The full list of the statistical publications of the Census and Statistics Office is as follows:—

PUBLICATIONS OF THE CENSUS AND STATISTICS OFFICE.
Title.Periodicity of Issue.
New Zealand Official Year-bookAnnual.
Annual Statistical Reports–
    PopulationAnnual.
    Vital Statistics
    Justice
    Trade and Shipping
    Agricultural and Pastoral Production
    Manufacturing Production
    Local Government
    Insurance
    Miscellaneous (Meteorology, Bankruptcy, Building Societies, Prices, Statistical Summary)
Municipal Handbook of New ZealandBiennial.
Monthly Abstract of StatisticsMonthly.
Census Statistics–
    Vol. I.PopulationQuinquennially.
    Vol. II.Ages
    Vol. III.Birthplaces
    Vol. IV.Allegiance
    Vol. V.Length of Residence
    Vol. VI.Race Aliens
    Vol. VII.Religions
    Vol. VIII.Industries, Occupations, and Unemployment
    Vol. IX.Conjugal Condition
    Vol. X.Fertility
    Vol. XI.Orphanhood
    Vol. XII.Dependency
    Vol. XIII.Life Insurance
    Vol. XIV.Life Tables
    Vol. XV.Dwellings
    Vol. XVI.Households
    Appendices:(a.) Maori Census
                                    (b.) Census of Cook and other Pacific Islands
                                    (c.) Census of Western Samoa
                                    (d.) Libraries
                                    (e.) Religious Denominations
                                    (f.) Poultry and Bees
Report on the Census
Published in New Zealand Gazette and also as extracts:—
    Vital Statistics of Urban AreasMonthly and annual.
    Estimated Population of New ZealandQuarterly.
    Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics—
        Estimated Yields of Wheat and OatsAnnual.
        Interim Return of Principal Crops and Live-stockAnnual.
        Complete Agricultural and Pastoral StatisticsAnnual.
        Estimated Spring Areas under Wheat and OatsAnnual.
        Stocks—Flour, Wheat, and OatsAnnual.

The principal publication of the Census and Statistics Office is the New Zealand Official Year-book, which as its title implies is the official book of general reference on the various branches of the Dominion's activities and the various aspects of her social and economic characteristics and progress. Necessarily, however, much of the information given in the Year-book is of a condensed character, owing to the wide range of subjects covered. The annual Statistical Reports, the census publications, and the Municipal Handbook contain much more detailed information on the particular subjects they deal with, while full information on the subject of retail and wholesale prices is given in the Report on Prices, 1891–1919, published by the Census and Statistics Office in 1920. The Monthly Abstract of Statistics contains the latest statistical information available on a variety of subjects, giving monthly or quarterly figures in most cases.

In addition to the publications of the Census and Statistics Office, many parliamentary reports contain statistical information, often of a detailed nature. The full list cannot be given here, but the principal of these annual reports are mentioned below, arranged in the order of subjects followed in the Year-book:—

SUBJECT.REPORT.
NUMBER.TITLE.
Public health, hospitals, &c.H.-31Report on Public Health, Hospitals, and Charitable Aid.
 H.-7Report of Inspector-General of Mental Hospitals.
EducationE.-1Report of Minister of Education.
 E.-2Report on Primary Education.
 E.-3Report on Education of Native Children.
 E.-4Report on State Care of Children, Special Schools, and Infant-life Protection.
 E.-5.Report on Technical Education.
 E.-6Report on Secondary Education.
 E.-7Report on Higher Education.
JusticeH.-16Report of Commissioner of Police.
 H.-20Prisons Report.
 H.-20AReport of Prisons Board.
DefenceH.-19Report of General Officer Commanding Defence Forces.
ShippingH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery Department.
RailwaysD.-2Railways Statement.
 D.-lPublic Works Statement.
Postal and telegraphicF.-lReport of Post and Telegraph Department.
LandsH.-3Report of Land Transfer and Deeds Registration Department
Crown landsC.-1Report on Settlement of Crown Lands.
 C.-5Report on Land for Settlements Act.
 C.-9Report on Discharged Soldiers' Settlement.
Native landsG.-9Report on Native Land Courts, Maori Land Boards, and Native Land Purchase Board.
Agricultural and pastoral productionH.-29Report of Department of Agriculture.
 H.-23Sheep Returns.
ForestryC.-3Report of State Forest Service.
FisheriesH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery. Department.
 H.-22Report of Internal Affairs Department.
MiningC.-2Mines Statement.
 C.-2AReport on State Coal-mines.
Water-powerD.-lPublic Works Statement.
Public financeB.-1Public Accounts.
 B.-6Financial Statement.
 D.-lPublic Works Statement.
State aid to settlers, workers,&c.B.-13Report of State Advances Office.
 H.-11AReport of Housing Superintendent.
 H.-30Report of Repatriation Department.
PensionsH.-18Report of Pensions Department.
SuperannuationH.-26Report of Public Service Superannuation Board.
 E.-9Report on Teachers' Superannuation Fund.
 D.-5Report on Government Railways Superannuation Fund.
National Provident FundH.-17Report of National Provident Fund Board.
BankingF.-4Report on Post Office Savings-bank.
Life InsuranceH.-8Report of Government Insurance Commissioner.
Accident insuranceH.-8AReport on Accident Insurance Branch of Government Insurance Department.
Fire insuranceH.-6Report of General Manager of State Fire Insurance Office.
Friendly societiesH.-lReport of Registrar of Friendly Societies.
Industrial disputesH.-llReport of Labour Department.
Islands attached to New ZealandA.-3Report on Cook and other Islands.
Public Trust OfficeB.-9Report of the Public Trust Office.
 B.-9AAccounts of the Public Trust Office.
Patents, designs, and trade-marksH.-10Report of Registrar of Patents.
Inspection of machineryH.-15Report of Marine and Inspection of Machinery Department.

Chapter 5. SECTION V.—POPULATION.

CENSUS FIGURES.

AT the census taken for the night of the 17th April, 1921, the population, excluding Maoris, of the Dominion proper was 1,218,913. The census of the Maori population taken at the same time showed the number of the Native race to be 52,751, including 3,116 half-castes living as Maoris, as well as nine persons returned as belonging to the now practically extinct Moriori race. The population of the Cook and other annexed islands at the same date was 13,209. A summary of the total population as disclosed by the census of 1921 is as follows:—

Males.Females.Total.
Population of the Dominion (excluding Maoris and residents of Cook and other Pacific islands)623,243595,6701,218,913
Maori population27,90824,84352,751
Population of Cook and other annexed Pacific islands6,6926,51713,209
Totals657,843627,0301,284,873

The Cook Islands are not included in any of the statistics of New Zealand quoted throughout this book. Figures re Maoris are included in the general details in a few cases—i.e., imports and exports, savings-bank deposits, &c.—but in other cases are either not taken into account or are shown separately. In cases where Maoris are included they swell totals to a much less extent per head than does the European population. The figures given below, therefore, do not include Maoris and residents of Cook Islands, information concerning whom is given at the end of this section.

The increase of population at successive census periods has been—

Date of Enumeration.Population.Numerical Increase.Percentage Increase.
December,185859,41339,60866.67
     “     186199,02173,13773.86
     “     1864172,15846,51027.01
     “     1867218,68837,72517.25
February,1871256,39343,12116.82
March,1874299,514114,89838.36
     “     1878414,41275,52118.22
April,1881489,93388,54918.07
March,1886578,48248,1768.33
April,1891626,65876,70212.24
     “     1896703,36069,3599.86
March,1901772,719115,85914.99
April,1906888,578119,89013.49
     “     19111,008,46890,9819.02
October,19161,090,449119,46410.87
April,19211,218,913  

INTERCENSAL ESTIMATES.

Intercensal estimates of population are made from the records of births and deaths and the returns of migration. These estimates during the twenty years preceding the war were found to be remarkably near the truth, as will be seen from the following table. The difficulty experienced in keeping a reliable record of arrivals and departures, including large bodies of troops, during the war period, however, caused a considerable discrepancy in 1916, and a much greater discrepancy in 1921, involving a recomputation of estimates.

Year.Estimated Population, 31st March.Census Population.Difference.
* Estimate as at 30th September.
1881488,649489,9331,284
1886585,844578,4827,362
1891631,898626,6585,240
1896701,383703,3601,977
1901775,123772,7192,404
1906889,971888,5781,393
19111,006,7611,008,4681,707
19161,092,502*1,099,4496,947
19211,204,7221,218,91314,191

The estimated population at the end of each of the last ten years, with the mean population and the yearly increase, is as follows:—

Year.Estimated Population at End of Year.Increase during Year.Mean Population for Year.
Males.Females.Totals.Numerical.Per Cent.

* Decrease.

Census population.

1912553,212499,4151,052,62727,2212.651,039,016
1913569,109515,5531,084,66232,0353.041,068,644
1914568,161527,8331,095,99411,3321.041,090,328
1915563,963538,8311,102,7946,8000.621.099,394
1916549,895550,6681,100,563–2,231*–0.20*l,099,449
1917537,360560,3121,097,672–2,891*–0.26*1,099,117
1918542.046566,3271,108,37310,7010.971,103,022
1919601,888575,5171,177,40569,0326.231,142,889
1920617,756590,0791,207,83530,4302.581,192,620
1921633.040606,9261,239,96632,1312.661,223.901

The abnormal figures for the years from 1914 to 1919 (inclusive) are the result of war conditions, combined in 1918 with the influenza epidemic.

With the exception of 1916 and 1917, the population of New Zealand has shown a continuous though not a regular increase in each year since 1855, the first year in which accurate records of births and deaths were obtained and used in conjunction with the returns of immigration and emigration. The greatest increase in any year was in 1874, when 32,118 assisted immigrants were brought into the country in accordance with the immigration and public-works policy of the Government. The next greatest increase of population was in 1863, following the discovery of gold in Otago.

SEX PROPORTIONS.

In respect of the relative proportions of the sexes in the population, New Zealand has since the first settlement of the Islands differed materially from the older countries of the world. Although in the latter the composition of the populations has been no doubt to some extent affected by migration, yet, in general, natural increase would appear to be the main determining factor, the numbers of males and females being in most of these countries approximately equal, with a more or less marked tendency, however, for the females slightly to exceed the males. The excess of females in such older countries arises from a variety of causes, amongst which the most potent are probably (a) higher rate of mortality amongst males, (b) the fact that males tend to emigrate to a greater extent than females.

Very different is the case with newer countries such as New Zealand, where the rule is (in the early years of colonization especially) for the male population to outnumber the female.

The following table is interesting as showing the early excess of males and the gradual equalization of the sexes in New Zealand, the number of females to 1,000 males having risen from 622 in 1861 to 896 in 1911. The proportion rose to 993 in 1916, mainly on account of the absence of so many men at the war, and fell again in 1921 to 956, a figure appreciably higher than in pre-war years.

Census Year.Males.Females.Females to 1,000 Males.
186161,06237,959622
1871150,356106,037705
1881269,605220,328817
1891332,877293,781883
1901405,992366,727903
1906471,008417,570887
1911531,910476,558896
1916551,775547,674993
1921623,243595,670956

The preponderance of males in the early years of New Zealand was doubtless due to the fact that the difficulties of pioneering and the remoteness of the country from Europe were such as to deter female immigration to a greater extent than male. This was accentuated by the character of the early industries. Gold-mining and coal-mining, for instance, would attract large numbers of men, but few women. The effect of this early preponderance of males no doubt still exists, but in an ever-diminishing degree, its gradual elimination being effected by the dying-off of the earlier settlers.

Of the two sources from which the Dominion's population has been recruited— viz., migration and natural increase—the effect of the former has hitherto been to give in the aggregate a considerable preponderance of males, and of the latter to give a regular preponderance of females. Between 1860 and 1921 the gain of males by migration totalled 90,000 more than that of females. This excess was only partly offset numerically by a female surplus of 40,000 in the figures of natural increase, but the net excess of some 50,000 males is not nearly sufficient to maintain the former high ratio of males to females in the population.

FACTORS IN INCREASE OF POPULATION.

Up to the “seventies” New Zealand was dependent on migration for the greater portion of her increase of population, but since then natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—has been the principal factor. For a few years, indeed (1888–91), there was actually an excess of departures over arrivals.

During the forty-six years that have elapsed since 1875 natural increase has accounted for 72 per cent. of the total increase of population, as against only 32 per cent. during the fifteen years preceding 1875.

A table is appended showing for each five-yearly period since 1860 the excess of births over deaths and of immigration over emigration.

Quinquennium.Excess of Births over Deaths.Excess of Arrivals over Departures.Total Increase.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.Both Sexes.

* Decrease.

Departure and return of troops of Expeditionary Force not included in migration figures.

Single year.

1861–657,6258,98516,61063,28529,88493,16970,91038,869109,779
1866–7015,66317,77933,44211,1679,36920,53626,83027,14853,978
1871–7519,40921,12940,53846,50135,44581,94665,91056,574122,484
1876–8030,14332,80862,95131,87022,91754,78762,01355,725117,738
1881–8532,36235,01067,40815,95813,00128,95948,32048,04796,367
1886–9030,78133,54464,325–4,911*–3,791*–8,702*25,87029,75355,623
1891–9527,25530,63057,8859,9175,40315,32037,17236,03373,205
1806–190028,09731,43759,5347,3203,31810,63835,41734,75570,172
1901–0532,51536,22368,73831,22314,22345,44663,73850,446114,184
1906–1038,68143,00781,74825,45415,51240,96664,13558,579122,714
1911–1542,32346,68289,00517,65617,90535,56159,97964,587124,566
1916–2035,24841,35976,6076,9797,87514,85442,22749,23491,461
19218,47740817,8855,9476,89112,83814,42416,29930,723
Totals, 1861–1921348,579388,097736,676268,366177,952446,318616,945566,0491,182,994

The diagram which follows shows much more clearly the irregularity of the migration increase and the steadiness of the natural increase, the latter, however, broken by a sharp fall on account of the low birth-rate of the late war years and the influenza epidemic of 1918. The curves represent five-yearly moving averages.

Further information on the subject of natural increase will be found in the “Births” subsection of the “Vital Statistics” section of this book.

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last ten years are given in the table following. The figures for the six years 1914–19 do not include members of the Expeditionary Force, nor have crews of vessels been taken into account.

ARRIVALS and DEPARTURES, 1912–21.
Year.Arrivals.Departures.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
191226,77517,88544,66021,91413,81935,733
191325,89118,69744,58818,56011,80930,369
191422,52615,12037,64620,02512,48132,506
191514,48711,06425,55113,3189,15822,476
191611,9599,84021,79911,9329,23121,163
19179,1596,49015,6497,5976,27213,869
19186,3565,55011,9066,0975,56311,660
191910,77210,15920,93111,3778,50019,877
192023,68720,37544,06217,95114,97332,924
192122,44619,43641,88216,01912,54028,559

The monthly figures for 1921 are as follows:—

Month.Arrivals.Departures.Excess of Arrivals.Excess of Departures.
January4,0491,4102,639..     
February3,4681,8581,610..     
March4,5583,1291,429..     
April4,2574,041216..     
May2,8933,341..     448
June1,9862,920..     934
July3,4182,0211,397..     
August3,0451,9231,122..     
September2,7591,997762..     
October4,0901,9752,115..     
November2,9711,6991,272..     
December4,3882,2452,143..     
Totals41,88228,55913,323..     

From the 1st April, 1921, a new system of statistics of external migration has been introduced. Prior to that date the statistics were compiled from statements furnished monthly by Collectors of Customs showing merely the totals, by sexes, of arrivals from and departures to various countries, with information as to birthplaces of all arrivals and of “race alien” departures. Under the new system a card is supplied for each person arriving or departing. This card contains statistical particulars as to age, occupation, conjugal condition, nationality, &c., of each person, and also discloses in the case of arrivals whether the person is a new immigrant intending permanent residence, a returned New-Zealander, or a visitor on business or pleasure. Similarly in the case of departures a distinction is now made between those temporarily and those permanently leaving the Dominion. The new system thus permits of valuable statistics being compiled in respect of the Dominion's permanent additions and losses by migration.

The statistics for the nine months commencing with the 1st April, 1921, show that during that period a total of 29,807 persons arrived in the Dominion. Of these only 11,135 were permanent additions to the Dominion's population, the balance of 18,672 being made up as follows:—

New Zealand residents returning from abroad10,147
Tourists5,374
Persons on business1,520
Persons visiting the Dominion in connection with entertainments, sports, &c.825
Persons in transit759
Others (officials, &c., of other countries)47
Total18,672

The departures during the same nine months totalled 22,162, of whom only 1,446 were shown to be New Zealand residents permanently departing. New-Zealanders going abroad temporarily on business or pleasure numbered 10,106, and tourists and other temporary residents leaving the Dominion after a short visit represented 10,588. No information is available concerning the small balance of 22.

Comprehensive statistics of arrivals and departures during the nine months, with special reference to permanent additions and losses, are contained in the Annual Report on Population for the year 1921.

ASSISTED IMMIGRATION.

Residents in the Dominion may, by application on the proper form, secure a passage at assisted rates for any person residing in the United Kingdom.

The payments required are—second class, £67; third class (two-berth cabin), £30; third class (four-berth cabin), £26. The passage-money, which must be paid in full before passages are booked, can be paid to the Immigration Department in Wellington or to the High Commissioner for New Zealand in London. The Department will cable any nomination, together with a remittance, if so desired, for the extra charge of £1.

Domestic servants and farm labourers granted assisted passages as such are required to follow in New Zealand their respective occupations of domestic and farm work for a period of one year after their arrival in the Dominion. If it is found that some occupation other than domestic or farm work is entered into by any such assisted immigrant before the expiration of one year after arrival in New Zealand, the immigrant will be called upon to pay the Government the difference between the assisted rate and the full fare.

Children between three and twelve years of age travelling with their parents are charged half rates. One child under three years of age in each family is taken free. A quarter-fare is charged for each additional child under three years of age.

Passages are granted on vessels belonging to the Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company, the New Zealand Shipping Company, and the Federal Steam Navigation Company.

Passages at reduced rates are not granted to unhealthy persons. When cases of lung, chest, or other like complaints are discovered in any member of a family by the Medical Officer at London or Liverpool the whole family is prevented from sailing.

Questions as to the suitability of any person nominated for a reduced passage are decided by the High Commissioner.

The foregoing applies to persons who have not attained the age of fifty years in the case of nominated persons, forty-five years in the case of farm labourers, and forty years in the case of domestic servants.

In the case of immigrants under twenty-one years of age special arrangements have to be entered into for their protection on the voyage where deemed necessary or advisable.

The High Commissioner is authorized to grant to suitable and healthy farmers, farm labourers, and domestic servants, who apply to him in London, a third-class passage to New Zealand at the following rates:—

Farmers: Six-berth cabin, £24; four-berth cabin, £26; two berth cabin, £30.

Farm labourers: Six-berth cabin, £10.

Domestic servants: Free passage and grant of £2.

Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). Up to 1884, free passages were granted in the majority of cases. The numbers of assisted immigrants during each year are as follows:—

Year.Number.
1871303
18724,736
18738,754
187432,118
187520,370
18769,677
18775,344
18786,618
187910,311
18802,689
1881103
1882726
18835,902
18843,888
18851,072
1886917
18871,286
1888485
188991
1890144
189144
19041,058
19052,191
19063,880
19072,510
19084,466
19093,990
19102,179
19112,839
19123,772
19135,148
19143,716
19151,300
1916580
1917231
1918419
19193,638
19204,075
19217,501

The total to 31st December, 1921, is 169,071, of which number all have come from the United Kingdom, with the exception of 3,909 from the Continent of Europe spread over the five years 1874 to 1878 (inclusive).

RECEPTION OF ASSISTED IMMIGRANTS.

On arrival in New Zealand the immigrants are met on board by officers of the Immigration Department, who accompany the Port Health Officer to the ship. Whilst the ship is in the stream it is the special duty of such officers to afford to the assisted immigrants all necessary information as regards transhipment, &c. Arrangements are made for the safety and transhipment of luggage.

Each immigrant is seen as he passes towards the doctor for examination, and is handed an official letter containing information as to where his ticket will be arranged for, and the place and time of departure of his connecting train or boat (if any). It is the practice of the Department to send out advices, by wire if necessary, to friends and relatives of immigrants about to arrive, and to get back information as to where the newcomers will be met. These messages, often together with private letters, &c., are given out on board to those to whom they are addressed.

As regards the female assisted domestic workers who are sent to New Zealand under the supervision of one or more responsible matrons, the Government advertises the fact that the books of the Department are open to record the names of those people in the Dominion desirous of securing the services of an assisted girl. Such advertisements bring in many applications, especially pending the arrival of the ship.

Each matron in charge on board is instructed to classify the girls under two heads: (a) Those with work already arranged or friends to go to; (b) those without either friends or work. On arrival they are met by the Girls' Superintendent of the Immigration Department. Arrangements are made for sending to their destinations those girls who are going to friends or to definite positions. Those requiring accommodation are directed to homes or hostels approved by the Minister of Immigration for this purpose. The Superintendent then separately considers the case of each girl, and arranges to place her with an applicant for a Government-assisted girl. After a girl has been placed the Department endeavours to keep in touch with her by correspondence.

PERMITS AND PASSPORTS.

PERMISSION TO ENTER NEW ZEALAND.

With certain specified exceptions, no person over the age of fifteen years may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a passport or some other document satisfactorily establishing his or her nationality and identity. Exemption from this requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts, referred to below) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

In the case of a person coming from a foreign country the passport must have been issued or viséd by the British Ambassador or a British Consul in that country, and in the case of a person coming from any part of the British dominions the issue or visé must have been by some public official duly authorized in that behalf.

Certain exceptions are made with respect to persons coming to New Zealand from the Cook Islands and Samoa. In their case the only requirement is the possession of a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or the Administrator of Samoa, as the case may be. The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject arriving in New Zealand as the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives, or to a British subject arriving from the Commonwealth of Australia.

PERMITS TO LEAVE NEW ZEALAND.

No person over the age of fifteen years may leave New Zealand for any place beyond the seas save in pursuance of a written permit issued to him by the Minister or Under-Secretary of Internal Affairs, or some other authorized person.

The only persons exempted from the necessity of obtaining permits are those who—

  1. Leave New Zealand on the King's service:

  2. Leave New Zealand as bona fide members of the crew of any ship:

  3. Arrive in and leave New Zealand in the course of the same voyage of any ship other than a ship arriving from a port in the Commonwealth of Australia:

  4. Leave for Australia by direct route (British subjects only).

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.

The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act, 1908, and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act, 1919. It is administered by the Customs Department.

PROHIBITED IMMIGRANTS.

The following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

  1. Persons of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect (a) if British subjects, to take the oath or make an affirmation of allegiance to His Majesty the King; (b) if aliens, to take an oath or make an affirmation of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

  2. Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Minister of Customs.

    (Temporary permits may, however, be granted on arrival to such persons who desire to enter New Zealand as visitors for purposes of business, pleasure, or health. These permits are granted for periods not exceeding six months, but may, under special circumstances, be extended.)

    NOTE.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage because he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject, or because he is an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of His Majesty.

  3. Idiots or insane persons.

  4. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  5. Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.

    The above provisions do not apply to (a) His Majesty's land and sea Forces, (b) the officers and crew of any ship-of-war of any Government, (c) persons duly accredited to the Government of New Zealand by the Imperial or any other Government, (d) the officers and crew of any mercantile vessel who leave New Zealand with that vessel.

  6. Chinese (not naturalized in New Zealand), unless they pay a poll-tax of £100.

    The officers and crew of any ship-of-war of the Chinese Government, and members of the crew of any mercantile vessel who leave New Zealand by that vessel, are exempted from this provision. There is power to exempt any other persons or classes of persons under such conditions as the Minister of Customs may prescribe.

  7. Persons who have at any time been subjects of the State of Germany or of Austria-Hungary as those States existed on the 4th August, 1914, except under a license issued by the Attorney-General.

  8. Persons not permanently resident in New Zealand who are disaffected or disloyal and of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the Dominion, and whom the Attorney General on that account prohibits from landing.

NOTE—Any person included in classes (3), (4), and (5) above may be exempted by the Governor-General in Council or by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

RESTRICTED IMMIGRANTS.

When persons arrive in New Zealand who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm, and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons come to New Zealand must enter into a bond for £100 for each such person, guaranteeing his support and maintenance for five years.

His Majesty's land and sea Forces, persons brought to New Zealand either wholly or partly at the expense of the Government, shipwrecked mariners brought to New Zealand by another vessel without charge, and persons domiciled in New Zealand are exempted from these provisions. General power is given to exempt other persons in special cases and under such conditions as the Minister of Customs may prescribe.

GENERAL.

Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Attorney-General, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving his or her name, occupation, and residence, and also the following particulars if the immigrant is not a permanent resident in New Zealand returning thereto after not more than twelve months' absence: Country of birth; age; names and places of birth of his parents; particulars as to his nationality, his intention as to permanent residence in or departure from New Zealand, and his purpose in coming thereto.

RACE ALIENS.

The term “race alien” is applied to persons of other than European descent, whether British subjects or not. Immigrants of this class are required to pass an education test before admission to New Zealand.

Of the race aliens arriving in New Zealand a large proportion are Chinese, some of whom, however, have been formerly resident in the Dominion. Of late years Hindus are also arriving in considerable numbers. The figures of arrivals of race aliens during each of the last ten years and of departures in each year since 1915 (prior to which information was not available) are as follows:—

Year.Arrivals.Departures.
Chinese.Hindus.Others.Total.Chinese.Hindus.Others.Total.
* Not available.
1912348325130803****
1913325133131589****
191451125755823****
191526513443222376824329
1916327925941,01321639314569
19172729236072431312383708
191825613852391721419171404
191941819397782381866322
19201,477225321,734380549443
1921255137249641368100239707

The pending alteration of the law was the cause of a huge influx of Chinese in 1920 with a view to anticipating the tightening of the restrictions, which actually came into operation on the passing of the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act of that year. A limit on the number of Chinese permitted to enter the Dominion is now imposed.

During the war years the number of race-alien arrivals was swelled by the unavoidable inclusion of natives of the British and French Pacific Islands who came to New Zealand to embark for the seat of war.

The census returns of 1916 showed that there were 3,204 race aliens resident in the Dominion. Of these, 2,857 were described as being of full-blood and 347 as of half-blood.

More than 45 per cent. of the race aliens reside in Auckland Province. Wellington, however, claims the largest share (over one-third) of the Chinese.

THE CHINESE.

At the census of 1881, the year in which taxation was first imposed on Chinese landing in New Zealand, the Chinese population numbered 5,004 persons, which fell to 4,542 in 1884, and further to 3,711 in 1896. During the period 1881–96 the poll-tax was £10 per head, and this seemed sufficient for the purpose of preventing a large influx of Chinese. During the years 1894 and 1895, however, the arrivals shown by the Customs returns were found to be somewhat greater than the departures, and in 1896 an Act was passed raising the poll-tax on Chinese immigrants to £100 per head, and limiting the number of Chinese passengers that may be carried by vessels to New Zealand to one for every 200 tons burthen. According to the census of 1901, the Chinese population was 2,857, in 1906 it was 2,570, in 191 2,330, and in 1916 2,147, of whom 135 were half-castes.

Between 1897 and 1917 the departures of Chinese exceeded the arrivals by 200, but there was a considerable excess of arrivals in the three years preceding the passing of the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act, 1920, under the authority of which a limit is placed on the number of Chinese admitted to the Dominion.

NATURALIZATION.

When any alien residing in New Zealand desires to be naturalized he may present to the Governor-General a memorial signed and verified by a statutory declaration setting forth—

His name, age, birthplace, residence, and occupation;

The length of his residence in New Zealand, and his desire to settle therein:

A request that letters of naturalization may be granted to him.

Every memorial must have written upon it or attached to it a certificate signed by some Magistrate or Justice to the effect that the applicant is known to the person certifying and is of good repute. On taking the oath of allegiance he shall enjoy within New Zealand all the rights and capacities that a natural-born subject of the United Kingdom can enjoy or transmit, excepting such rights (if any) as are specially excepted in the letters of naturalization granted to him.

Any person who has been previously naturalized in the United Kingdom or any British possession may obtain letters of naturalization in New Zealand upon presentation of his certificate or letters to the Governor-General, with satisfactory evidence of his bona fides.

An alien woman married to a natural-born or naturalized British subject shall be deemed to be herself naturalized. Where the father (or the mother, being a widow) has become naturalized in New Zealand, every child of such father or mother who during minority resides with such parent shall also be deemed to be naturalized.

In accordance with the provisions of section 9 of the Finance Act, 1921–22, the following fees have been prescribed by Order in Council dated 19th April, 1922:—

 £s.d.
For letters of naturalization issued to a woman who was a British subject previous to her marriage with an alien050
For letters of naturalization granted in other cases1000
For endorsement of any certificate or letters of naturalization obtained out of New Zealand1000
For certified copy of any certificate or letters of naturalization0100

The Revocation of Naturalization Act of 1917 provided that the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, revoke the naturalization of any person when such revocation is considered desirable on grounds of public policy.

During the year 1921, letters of naturalization were granted to 182 persons (173 men and 9 women), of the following nationalities:—

France3
Portugal1
Italy8
Switzerland12
Germany14
Luxembourg1
Belgium1
Netherlands5
Denmark38
Norway18
Sweden20
Finland6
Russia25
Poland9
Austria3
Jugo-Slavia3
Greece4
Syria1
United States9
Argentina1
                Total182

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS.

The Registration of Aliens Act, passed in 1917, provided for the registration of all persons of the age of fifteen or over who are not British subjects either by birth or by naturalization in New Zealand. The Government Statistician is charged with the duty of compiling and keeping the register, but the actual registration is effected by Registration Officers (police officers) throughout the Dominion. Every alien not less than fifteen years of age, unless exempted by regulations, is required to make application for registration to a Registration Officer, and is required to supply the following particulars concerning himself or herself:—

  1. Name in full.

  2. Nationality (and if nationality is not the nationality of origin, nationality of origin).

  3. Place of birth.

  4. Age, and date of birth.

  5. Whether married, single, widower, widow, or divorced.

  6. If married, the name, age, nationality of origin, and place of abode of wife or husband.

  7. If married, a widower, a widow, or divorced, number, names, and ages of children (if any).

  8. Occupation.

  9. Date of arrival in New Zealand.

  10. Place of abode and postal address.

  11. Whether permanently resident in New Zealand.

  12. If not permanently resident in New Zealand, place of permanent residence, and date of projected departure from New Zealand.

  13. Such other particulars as may from time to time be prescribed by regulations under the Act.

Upon receipt of an application for registration the Registration Officer issues a certificate of registration, and forwards the application in duplicate to the Superintendent of Police for the district, who files one copy and sends the other on to the Commissioner of Police for transmission to the Government Statistician. Registered aliens are required to notify change of address on pain of a penalty not exceeding £20. Failure to register involves a fine on conviction not exceeding £50.

The number of aliens on the Dominion register on 31st December, 1921, was 8,998. The nationalities of these were as follows:—

Subjects ofMales.Females.Total.
France10589194
Spain231033
Portugal15823
Italy18563248
Switzerland15988247
Belgium493281
Netherlands642286
Germany482310792
Denmark407172579
Norway33979418
Sweden37696472
Finland16126187
Russia9541136
White Russia459
Latvia552984
Lithuania10414
Esthonia617
Ukraine222042
Poland9354147
Czecho-Slovakia241236
Austria472370
Hungary9615
Jugo-Slavia76350813
Roumania12315
Greece691483
Syria9261153
China2,952833,035
Japan7 7
United States540289829
Tonga391554
Samoa31233
Other countries47855
            Totals7,2821,7168,998

A summary follows giving information as to ages of registered aliens as at 31st December, 1921:—

Age-group.Males.Females.Total.
15 and under 2034529374
20″25799141940
25″301,1092021,311
30″359622221,184
35″408122341,046
40″45684201885
45″50571187758
50″55530147677
55″60416122538
60 and over1,0542311,285
            Totals7,2821,7168,998

As indicated above, provision is made for exemption from the operations of the Act. Regulations have been made exempting the following classes of aliens:—

All Consuls representing any foreign country, and their staffs, in so far as the staffs comprise persons who have been sent by the Government of the foreign country for employment on the staff of the consulate; provided that nothing herein contained shall serve to exempt from the operation of the said Act or these regulations any Consul of any country with which His Majesty is at any time at war, or any member of his staff.

Any person or the member of any Commission coming to New Zealand for any purpose on behalf of the Government of a foreign country, where such person or Commission is duly recommended to the good offices of the Government of New Zealand by such foreign Government.

Any alien who arrives in New Zealand as the master or a member of the crew of any oversea vessel, provided that he leaves New Zealand with that vessel.

Any alien who, having served beyond the seas with any portion of His Majesty's Forces, has received an honourable discharge and whose exemption is approved by the Minister of Defence.

Any alien who has been granted letters of naturalization in some part of the British dominions other than the Dominion of New Zealand and whose exemption is approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.

NORTH AND SOUTH ISLANDS.

In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, this position being reversed at the succeeding enumerations until 1901, in which year the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total, a position which it has since considerably improved upon. The Maori war which broke out in 1860 retarded settlement in the North, while a large area of land reserved for the Maoris was for many years a serious hindrance to the development of this portion of the Dominion. The South Island was practically free from Maori troubles, and settlement was more rapid, though much of the land was disposed of in large areas. The discovery of gold in Otago in 1861 and on the West Coast in 1864 attracted to these localities considerable numbers of miners.

The population of the two Islands at successive censuses is given in the table following, together with the percentage that each Island bears to the total:—

Population of the North and South Islands, 1858–1921.
Census Year.Population (excluding Maoris).Proportions per Cent.
North Island.South Island.*Total.North Island.South Island.*
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
185834,09425,31959,41357.3842.62
186141,64157,38099,02142.0557.95
186465,263106,895172,15837.9162.09
186779,913138,755218,66836.5563.45
187196,875159,518256,39337.7862.22
1874111,934187,580299,51437.3762.63
1878158,208256,204414,41238.1861.82
1881193,047296,886489,93339.4060.60
1886250,482328,000578,48243.3056.70
1891281,474345,184626,65844.9255.08
1896340,638362,722703,36048.4351.57
1901390,579382,140772,71950.5449.45
1906476,737411,841888,57853.6546.35
1911563,733444,7351,008,46855.9044.10
1916651,072448,3771,099,44959.2240.78
1921741,255477,6581,218,91360.8139.19

It was estimated that at the 1st April, 1922, the population of the North Island was 761,891, and that of the South Island 486,325.

PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS.

The populations of the various provincial districts as disclosed by the censuses of 1891, 1901, 1911, and 1921, and as estimated at 1st April, 1922, are as follows:—

Provincial District.Census Population.Estimate, 1st April, 1922.
1891.1901.1911.1921.
Auckland133,178175,946264,524369,618382,783
Hawke's Bay28,50635,42448,54660,92562,003
Taranaki22,06537,85551,56961,91162,885
Wellington97,725141,354199,094248,801254,220
Marlborough12,76713,32615,98517,78818,121
Nelson34,77037,91548,46347,62847,988
Westland15,88714,50615,71414,18114,277
Canterbury128,663143,248173,443199,034204,503
Otago—
    Otago portion116,088125,341132,402136,880138,561
    Southland portion37,00947,80458,72862,14762,875
                Totals626,658772,7191,008,4681,218,9131,248,216

During the thirty years from 1891 to 1921 the population of the Dominion increased by 95 per cent., and each of the four North Island provinces showed a higher rate of increase—viz., Taranaki, 181 per cent.; Auckland, 178 per cent.; Wellington, 155 per cent.; and Hawke's Bay, 114 per cent. Among the South Island provinces Southland led with a percentage increase of 68, followed by Canterbury (55), Marlborough (39), Nelson (37), and Otago (18), while Westland showed a decrease of 11 per cent.

Although over the thirty years Taranaki showed the greatest rate of increase, nevertheless if a comparison is made between 1911 and 1921 it is found that this province, while increasing in population at a greater rate than any South Island province, was lowest of the four North Island provinces, with a rate of 20 per cent., as against 40 per cent. in the case of Auckland, and 26 and 25 per cent. respectively for Hawke's Bay and Wellington.

URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION.

Somewhat over one-third of the population of the Dominion is included in the four principal urban areas—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and nearly one-half in these and in the eleven secondary urban areas. The urban areas, which are of quite recent origin, have no legal status, but were formed for statistical purposes, with a view to obviating difficulties formerly experienced through alterations of boundaries of cities and boroughs. Each urban area contains, in addition to the central city or borough and any suburban boroughs, a considerable non-municipalized area adjacent to and contingent on the centre. The boundaries, which will remain unaltered for a long period, thus allowing of definite comparisons being made over a series of years, have been fixed with a view to providing for probable expansion.

Including those cities and boroughs which form parts of urban areas, the borough population at the census of 1921 aggregated 681,988, or 56 per cent. of the total population of the Dominion. Prior to 1900 there was no statutory limitation to the number of inhabitants necessary to constitute a borough, and consequently many small centres became municipalities. The Municipal Corporations Act now imposes a limit as to area, and provides that no new borough may be constituted unless the proposed area contains at least 1,000 inhabitants.

The counties contain what is generally regarded as the rural population, though this is only approximately correct, some of the boroughs, as stated above, having small populations, mainly engaged in rural occupations. On the other hand, some of the non-municipalized towns, which include town districts suburban to the cities and principal boroughs and lying within the urban areas referred to above, have populations more urban than rural.

The town districts are of two classes, which may be referred to as “dependent” and “independent,” the former being in some matters under the jurisdiction of the Council of the county within which it lies, while the latter is entirely independent of county control. A town district may attain its independence of the county when its population exceeds 500, and may become a borough on reaching a population of 1,000.

For population purposes dependent town districts have their figures included in the totals of the counties within which they lie, while independent town districts are excluded, as is also the case with boroughs. Under the old method of computing urban and rural population, however, both classes of town districts are included in the county totals, as in the following table showing the urban and rural population at each census since 1881:—

Census Year.Counties.Boroughs.Percentage.
Counties.Boroughs.Shipboard, &c.
1881291,238194,98159.4439.800.76
1886327,328245,61256.5842.460.96
1891352,097270,34356.1843.140.68
1896391,735307,29455.6943.690.62
1901417,596350,20254.0445.320.64
1906458,797424,61451.6347.790.58
1911496,779505,59849.2650.140.60
1916501,259585,30645.5953.241.17
1921530,852681,98843.5555.950.50

For reasons indicated above it is not altogether correct to regard the county population as rural and the borough population as urban. It is perhaps preferable to consider the question in the light of the following figures, in the computation of which the urban population is considered as that living in cities, boroughs, or town districts of over 1,000 inhabitants in 1881, 1,200 in 1886, 1,300 in 1891, 1,450 in 1896, 1,600 in 1901, 1,800 in 1906, 2,050 in 1911, 2,250 in 1916, and 2,500 in 1921. Here the basic town has been given a rate of increase approximately equivalent to that of the country as a whole, it being assumed that a town of 2,500 bears much the same relationship in the present day as one of 1,000 inhabitants did in 1881. The results are as under:—

Census.Rural Population. Per Cent.Urban Population. Per Cent.
188162.3437.66
188660.4739.53
189161.1638.84
189661.9538.05
190160.8739.13
190657.9642.04
191157.0742.93
191654.1845.82
192151.2348.77

The increasing proportion of urban population in recent years is plainly manifest. It is noteworthy that the “urban drift,” either non-existent or quiescent up to 1906, in that year commenced a swift rise, which is apparently gaining in momentum.

The population of each urban area, county, borough, and town district as at the census of 1921 was published in last year's issue of the Year-book. The estimated populations at 1st April, 1922, are given here, the figures being exclusive of Maoris.

URBAN AREAS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION, 1ST APRIL, 1922.
Urban Area.Population (excluding Maoris).
     Auckland. 
Auckland City84,874
    Birkenhead Borough2,598
    Northcote Borough2,113
    Takapuna Borough4,194
    Devonport Borough9,081
    Avondale Borough3,346
    Newmarket Borough3,121
    Mount Eden Borough15,343
    Mount Albert Borough12,032
    Onehunga Borough7,317
    Otahuhu Borough2,915
    New Lynn Town District1,420
    Ellerslie Town District1,693
    Remainder of urban area14,403
                Total164,450
     Wellington. 
    Wellington City91,581
    Petone Borough8,172
    Lower Hutt Borough5,896
    Eastbourne Borough1,501
    Johnsonville Town District1,032
    Remainder of urban area2,498
                Total110,680
     Christchurch. 
    Christchurch City74,621
    Riccarton Borough3,345
    New Brighton Borough4,148
    Sumner Borough3,058
    Lyttelton Borough3,825
    Remainder of urban area21,203
                Total110,200
     Dunedin. 
    Dunedin City59,061
    St. Kilda Borough6,232
    Green Island Borough1,972
    West Harbour Borough1,712
    Port Chalmers Borough2,600
    Remainder of urban area1,893
                Total73,470
     Hamilton. 
    Hamilton Borough12,547
    Remainder of urban area2,403
                Total14,950
     Gisborne. 
    Gisborne Borough11,328
    Mangapapa Town District1,435
    Remainder of urban area2,157
                Total14,920
     Napier. 
    Napier Borough14,762
    Taradale Town District1,012
    Remainder of urban area1,896
                Total17,670
     Hastings. 
    Hastings Borough9,556
    Havelock North Town District1,218
    Remainder of urban area2,756
                Total13,530
     New Plymouth. 
    New Plymouth Borough12,225
    Remainder of urban area1,285
                Total13,510
     Wanganui. 
    Wanganui Borough16,970
    Gonville Town District3,408
    Castlecliff Town District1,664
    Remainder of urban area2,128
                Total24,170
     Palmerston North. 
    Palmerston North Borough16,254
    Remainder of urban area1,256
                Total17,510
     Nelson. 
    Nelson City9,511
    Tahunanui Town District482
    Remainder of urban area887
                Total10,880
     Grey Valley Boroughs. 
    Greymouth Borough5,010
    Runanga Borough1,233
    Brunner Borough52
    Cobden Town District1,094
    Remainder of urban area543
                Total8,400
     Timaru. 
    Timaru Borough14,571
    Remainder of urban area1,469
                Total16,040
     Invercargill. 
    Invercargill Borough15,535
    South Invercargill Borough1,859
    Remainder of urban area2,196
                    Total19,590

COUNTIES.—ESTIMATED POPULATION, 1ST APRIL, 1922.

NOTE.—The column headed “Administrative” does not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but includes dependent town districts. The heading “Geographic” includes all cities, boroughs, or town districts geographically situated in a county.

County.Population (excluding Maoris).
Administrative.Geographic.
Mongonui3,9403,940
Whangaroa906906
Hokianga2,7952,795
Bay of Islands4,3394,339
Whangarei9,12814,129
Hobson4,9227,017
Otamatea3,7783,778
Rodney3,3903,810
Waitemata8,76329,642
Eden11,348139,074
Great Barrier233233
Manukau6,14612,333
Franklin9,73013,022
Raglan4,9124,912
Waikato8,35024,844
Waipa9,27512,096
Kawhia1,0981,098
Otorohanga3,1523,152
Waitomo4,8807,191
Taumarunui1,0133,188
Matamata5,1286,001
Piako6,1439,744
Ohinemuri2,6758,269
Hauraki Plains3,3943,394
Thames1,7976,655
Coromandel2,1202,120
Tauranga4,8338,119
Rotorua1,9405,951
Taupo780780
Whakatane3,1934,965
Opotiki2,1103,263
Matakaoa684684
Waiapu1,7521,752
Uawa959959
Waikohu3,3273,327
Cook6,20618,969
Wairoa2,4634,522
Hawke's Bay11,46238,010
Waipawa3,2934,417
Waipukurau1,0132,462
Patangata2,1012,101
Dannevirke4,6568,598
Woodville1,8863,050
Weber433433
Ohura2,8022,802
Whangamomona1,3221,322
Clifton2,1112,111
Taranaki4,99218,813
Inglewood3,1964,395
Egmont3,2443,244
Stratford5,2128,335
Eltham3,5695,630
Waimate West2,4023,034
Hawera5,4899,838
Patea3,2515,068
Waitotara2,81124,853
Kaitieke3,0383,889
Waimarino3,2286,194
Wanganui2,6492,649
Rangitikei8,26014,512
Kiwitea2,4382,438
Pohangina1,3331,333
Oroua3,6468,247
Manawatu4,4376,131
Horowhenua5,4499,620
Kairanga4,80921,063
Pahiatua3,0864,429
Akitio1,2151,215
Eketahuna2,1753,057
Mauriceville840840
Masterton2,92211,026
Castlepoint555555
Wairarapa South3,0574,748
Featherston3,5516,790
Hutt6,81424,072
Makara3,20795,820
Sounds1,0021,002
Marlborough7,45113,333
Awatere1,6831,683
Kaikoura2,1812,181
Waimea9,36321,885
Takaka1,9591,959
Collingwood1,1001,100
Buller5,4009,200
Murchison1,3751,375
Inangahua3,4203,420
Grey5,22611,989
Westland4,1727,415
Amuri2,1242,124
Cheviot1,2291,229
Waipara2,3572,357
Kowai2,0092,009
Ashley789789
Rangiora3,0795,111
Eyre1,9323,641
Oxford1,7681,768
Tawera910910
Malvern2,9542,954
Paparua5,1365,136
Waimairi13,81917,164
Heathcote4,28189,933
Halswell1,7611,761
Mount Herbert441441
Akaroa1,7602,391
Chatham Islands210210
Wairewa1,0111,011
Springs1,8381,838
Ellesmere3,8713,871
Selwyn1,5561,556
Ashburton12,02817,534
Geraldine5,7518,505
Levels5,22620,364
Mackenzie3,1673,167
Waimate7,4629,582
Waitaki10,54716,827
Waihemo1,4172,227
Waikouaiti4,1899,084
Peninsula1,7831,783
Taieri5,74174,790
Bruce4,7707,872
Clutha7,3408,832
Tuapeka4,9206,318
Maniototo2,5982,818
Vincent3,8005,106
Lake1,6252,698
Southland25,29151,050
Wallace9,06611,191
Fiord1212
Stewart Island403403
BOROUGHS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION, 1ST APRIL, 1922.
Borough.Population (excluding Maoris).
Whangarei4,151
Dargaville2,095
Birkenhead2,598
Northcote2,113
Takapuna4,194
Devonport9,081
Auckland (City)84,874
Avondale3,346
Newmarket3,121
Mount Eden15,343
Mount Albert12,032
Onehunga7,317
Otahuhu2,915
Pukekohe2,029
Ngaruawahia1,152
Cambridge2,192
Hamilton12,547
Te Awamutu1,669
Te Kuiti2,311
Taumarunui2,175
Morrinsville1,390
Te Aroha2,211
Paeroa1,684
Waihi3,910
Thames4,858
Tauranga2,401
Rotorua (Town)4,011
Whakatane1,772
Opotiki1,153
Gisborne11,328
Wairoa2,059
Napier14,762
Hastings9,556
Waipawa1,124
Waipukurau1,449
Dannevirke3,942
Woodville1,164
Waitara1,596
New Plymouth12,225
Inglewood1,199
Stratford3,123
Eltham2,061
Hawera4,349
Patea1,176
Wanganui16,970
Raetihi977
Ohakune1,542
Taihape2,124
Marton2,634
Feilding4,601
Foxton1,694
Palmerston North16,254
Shannon1,023
Levin2,052
Otaki1,096
Pahiatua1,343
Eketahuna882
Masterton8,104
Carterton1,691
Greytown1,223
Featherston1,067
Lower Hutt5,896
Petone8,172
Eastbourne1,501
Wellington (City)91,581
Picton1,379
Blenheim4,503
Nelson (City)9,511
Richmond1,045
Motueka1,484
Westport3,800
Brunner520
Runanga1,233
Greymouth5,010
Kumara500
Hokitika2,279
Ross464
Rangiora2,032
Kaiapoi1,709
Christchurch (City)74,621
Riccarton3,345
New Brighton4,148
Sumner3,058
Lyttelton3,825
Akaroa631
Ashburton4,820
Geraldine966
Temuka1,788
Timaru14,571
Waimate2,120
Oamaru5,950
Hampden330
Palmerston810
Waikouaiti583
Port Chalmers2,600
West Harbour1,712
Dunedin (City)59,061
St. Kilda6,232
Green Island1,972
Mosgiel1,784
Milton1,377
Kaitangata1,725
Balclutha1,492
Tapanui300
Lawrence700
Roxburgh398
Naseby220
Alexandra689
Cromwell617
Arrowtown318
Queenstown755
Gore3,688
Mataura1,170
Winton613
Invercargill15,535
Invercargill South1,859
Bluff1,601
Riverton851
TOWN DISTRIOTS.—ESTIMATED POPULATION, 1ST APRIL, 1922.
Town District.Population (excluding Maoris).
(a.) Town Districts not forming Parts of Counties.
Hikurangi850
Warkworth420
Helensville923
Glen Eden550
New Lynn1,420
Ellerslie1,693
Papatoetoe1,287
Manurewa796
Papakura1,189
Waiuku755
Tuakau508
Huntly1,755
Matamata873
Te Puke885
Mangapapa1,435
Taradale1,012
Havelock North1,218
Manaia632
Waverley641
Castlecliff1,664
Gonville3,408
Manunui851
Rangataua447
Mangaweka355
Hunterville629
Bull's510
Martinborough949
Upper Hutt1,689
Johnsonville1,032
Tahunanui482
Tinwald686
Pleasant Point567
Lumsden598
Wyndham695
Otautau746
Nightcaps528
(b.) Town Districts forming Parts of Counties.
Kohukohu325
Kaikohe348
Kawakawa379
Kamo446
Onerahi346
Henderson600
Howick445
Mercer329
Raglan302
Leamington471
Ohaupo268
Kihikihi273
Kawhia198
Otorohanga535
Ohura204
Turua380
Patutahi304
Te Karaka332
Otane361
Norsewood162
Ormondville330
Opunake513
Kaponga410
Normanby368
Lethbridge265
Rongotea299
Havelock260
Takaka426
Cobden1,094
Amberley345
Southbridge423
Outram344
Clinton438
Edendale390

SMALL CENTRES.

New Zealand has numerous townships and small centres with considerable population but without local self-government as boroughs or town districts. A list of such townships (other than those included in urban areas) with more than 500 inhabitants at the census of April, 1921, is here given:—

Allenton1,229
Aorangi522
Ashhurst762
Auroa513
Blackball804
Bunnythorpe754
Clevedon546
Clive648
Coromandel801
Denniston566
Dunsandel539
Flat Creek538
Granity641
Halcombe639
Kaikoura619
Kaitaia690
Kakahi579
Kimbolton576
Leeston836
Lincoln500
Makarewa611
Mamaku569
Manawaru525
Mangatainoka552
Matangi561
Maungaturoto504
Methven1,141
Midhirst674
Millerton672
Morven536
Nolantown541
Okaiawa618
Orepuki721
Ormond537
Owaka600
Owhango703
Oxford1,022
Porirua1,613
Prebbleton534
Putaruru654
Rakaia966
Reefton1,603
Riwaka737
Seacliff1,433
Springlands785
Springston560
Taita595
Tariki514
Taupiri542
Te Kopuru667
Templeton781
Te Rapa517
Toko524
Tokomaru547
Trentham1,051
Tuatapere733
Waihou709
Waikari520
Waikino560
Waipu518
Waitati634
Wakefield787
Weraroa528

ADJACENT ISLANDS.

Adjacent to the main Islands are many smaller islands, some of which are of considerable area, and are under cultivation; others are but islets used as sites for lighthouses, while others again are barren and unfitted for human habitation. Some of these islands are included within the boundaries of counties, and their populations are included in the county figures. The following adjacent islands not attached to any county were inhabited at the census of 1921:—

Island.Population (excluding Maoris).
M.F.Total.
Pakatoa12324
Rotoroa711485
Little Barrier134
Tiritiri7815
Rakino235
Browns123
Pahiki10212
Mokohinau437
Ponui91625
Waiheke119123242
Rangitoto532881
Motutapu8513
Motuihi16319
Kawau211738
Motuhora325
Moturekareka2 2
Motuketekete1 1
Rangiahua213
Puketutu91221
Slipper2 2
Cuvier5510
Great Mercury2 2
Motiti6511
East Cape5510
Kapiti415
Somes426
Arapawa323062
Long Island2 2
Maud2 2
Forsyth10515
Blumine123
Motuanauru1 1
Brothers3 3
D'Urville472572
Stephen8311
Quarantine246
Dog314
Centre6410
        Totals485357842

MAORI AND HALF-CASTE POPULATION.

A census of the Maori population is taken every five years, the information being obtained by the collectors either directly or through the chief or head of the tribe or hapu. The name, sex, and age, so far as can be ascertained, of each Maori are entered; but, owing to the nomadic habits of the race and lack of definite knowledge in some particulars, it has been a difficult task in the past. The results of the last seven enumerations are as follows:—

Census Year.Males.Females.Total.
189122,86119,13241,993
189621,67318,18139,854
190123,11220,03143,143
190625,53822,19347,731
191126,47523,36949,844
191625,93323,84349,776
192127,90824,84352,751

While it is probable that in the earlier years covered by the table there was a slight understatement of numbers, yet a comparison of the figures for the last three or four censuses establishes the fact that the Maori race retains its virility and is on the increase. The position is the more satisfactory in that it presents an almost unique spectacle of a Native race living with a white race of overwhelmingly superior numbers and yet able to preserve its own individuality and strength.

Further evidence on the subject is borne by the following table, which shows the increasing proportion of children under fifteen years of age:—

Census Year.Males.Females.
Under 15.Over 15.Under 15.Over 15.
189133.2266.7835.2264.78
189635.2864.7236.8263.18
190135.7564.2537.8962.11
190638.2661.7439.2060.80
191139.1060.9040.9759.03
191641.3558.6541.4358.57
192139.4860.5240.5659.44

The number of half-castes is given in the next table for seven census periods. Those under the first heading are included in the Maori totals, the others being classed among the European population. It is a matter of some difficulty to ascertain the number of half-castes living as Maoris. There has been no definite rule to guide collectors in deciding when a half-caste should be classified as living as a Maori—indeed, it might be said that all the half-castes and a large proportion of the Maoris in the South Island live in European fashion. They mostly have separate holdings of land and separate homes, and have adopted the habits of the Europeans. At the censuses of 1916 and 1921 the old method of enumerating the South Island Maoris was discarded, the same methods and forms being utilized as for the European population.

HALF-CASTES.
Census Year.Half-castes.Total.
Living as Members of Maori Tribes.Living as and among Europeans.
* Not yet available.
18912,6812,1844,865
18963,5032,2595,762
19013,1332,4065,539
19063,9382,5786,516
19114,1812,8797,060
19163,5293,2216,750
19213,116**

POPULATION OF COOK AND OTHER ANNEXED ISLANDS.

During the year 1901 the boundaries of the Dominion were extended to include the Cook Group and certain other of the South Pacific islands. No record of the population of these islands was then obtainable, but at each subsequent census an account of the number and birthplaces was taken. The figures for each census from 1906 onwards are as follows:—

Census Year.Males.Females.Total.
19066,2246,11612,340
19116,4496,14912,598
19166,5536,24412,797
19216,6926,51713,209

POPULATION OF WESTERN SAMOA.

At the census of 17th April, 1921, the population of the mandated territory of Western Samoa was 37,157, made up as follows:—

-Males.Females.Total.
European population1,1289382,066
Native Samoan population16,79516,54133,336
Chinese indentured-contract labour1,290..     1,290
Melanesian and Polynesian indentured-contract labour4569465
                    Totals19,66917,48837,157

It should be explained that what is for the sake of convenience called the “European” population includes also those Chinese, South Sea Islanders, &c., who are not indentured-contract labourers.

A proper comparison with previous enumerations is not possible, owing to indentured-contract labour not having been included in these. A census taken in July, 1917, showed the European population to then number 1,927, and the native Samoans 35,404. The latter have not yet fully recovered from the losses of the disastrous influenza epidemic of 1918–19.

Chapter 6. SECTION VI.—VITAL STATISTICS.

Table of Contents

SUBSECTION A.—BIRTHS.

REGISTRATION.

REGISTRATION of births in New Zealand dates as far back as 1847, in which year was passed a Registration Ordinance which made provision for a record of births and deaths being kept by the State. Under this Ordinance many registrations were effected, some of births as far back as 1840. Compulsory registration did not, however, come into force until 1855.

The earlier Registration Acts and their amendments provided for very little information being given in the case of births, the register containing merely date and place of birth, name and sex of child, names of father and mother, and occupation of father. In 1875, however, a new Registration Act was passed, under which information was recorded as to ages and birthplaces of parents, and in 1912 the sexes and ages of previous issue of the marriage were added to the items required to be shown in the birth entry.

The law as to registration of births is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act, 1908, and the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Acts, 1912 and 1915. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within sixty-two days without fee. After sixty-two days and within six months a birth is registrable only after solemn declaration made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of a late fee of 5s., which may, however, be remitted at the discretion of the Registrar-General. When six months have elapsed a birth cannot be registered except within one month after conviction of one of the responsible parties for neglect. But an information for such neglect must be laid within two years of date of birth. Registration of still-births, previously not provided for, was made compulsory by section 4 of the Amendment Act of 1912, which came into force on the 1st March, 1913.

Although sixty-two days are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval—viz., forty-eight hours if in a city or borough, and twenty-one days in every other case.

REGISTRATION OF MAORI BIRTHS.

In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, however, empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from the 1st March, 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in the Dominion is 187, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Native settlement of any size is within easy reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, and the number of births given below do not include those of Maoris, which are dealt with towards the end of this subsection.

REGISTRATION OF ADOPTED CHILDREN.

Section 8 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1915, contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Clerk of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents.

If the child's birth has been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on it. In any case a new entry is made on the prescribed form in the register of births.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The number of births registered in 1921 (28,567) is the second highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1920. The rate per 1,000 of mean population, however, is lower than in any preceding year, with the solitary exception of 1919, the rate for which was adversely affected by conditions brought about by the war. With the record number of marriages in 1920 a much higher birth-rate in 1921 than that recorded (23.34 per 1,000) might confidently have been anticipated, but economic and social conditions have evidently had their effect on the rate.

The numbers and rates of births in each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
190220,65525.89
190321,82926.61
190422,76626.94
190523,68227.22
190624,25227.08
190725,09427.30
190825,94027.45
190926,52427.29
191025,98426.17
191126,35425.97
191227,50826.48
191327,93526.14
191428,33825.99
191527,85025.33
191628,50925.94
191728,23925.69
191825,86023.44
191924,48321.42
192029,92125.09
192128,56723.34

There is a noticeable fall in the rate in the later years of the period covered by the table, as compared with the earlier. This fall, however, is small when compared with the tremendous decline between the “seventies” and “nineties” disclosed by the following diagram, which shows also the course of the rates of deaths, natural increase, and marriages from 1855 to 1921:—

The diagram on the preceding page is supplemented by another containing curves illustrative of the logarithmic increases in population and in the yearly number of births registered, which is instructive as showing how the latter has failed to keep pace with the former. The logarithmic graph, of course, shows a much smaller divergence between the two curves than would a diagram representative of the actual figures.

The effect of the declining birth-rate is shown in the following table giving the numbers of children under one year of age and the proportions which those numbers represent in the total population as recorded in past census years:—

 Total Population (all Ages).Children under One Year.Children under One Year per 1,000 of Population.
Census 1886578,48218,35531.73
″ 1891626,65816,44326.24
″ 1896703,36017,07024.27
″ 1901772,71918,38123.79
″ 1906888,57822,28925.08
″ 19111,008,46824,34024.14
″ 19161,099,44927,02124.57

NATURAL INCREASE.

The decline of the birth-rate in New Zealand has been partially compensated for by a decrease in the death-rate. Nevertheless, the rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 31.19 per 1,000 of mean population in 1870 to 14.65 in 1921. The following table shows the fall in all three rates:—

Period.Annual Rates per 1,000 living.
Births.Deaths.Natural Increase.
1871–187539.8812.6727.21
1876–188041.2111.8029.41
1881–188536.3610.9525.41
1886–189031.159.8521.30
1891–189527.6810.1517.53
1896–190025.759.5516.20
1901–190526.609.9116.69
1906–191027.069.7517.31
1911–191525.989.2216.76
1916–192024.3210.7313.59
192123.348.6914.65

The particularly low rate of natural increase for the quinquennium 1916–1920 is largely due to the abnormally but accountably low birth-rates in 1918 and 1919, combined with the heavy toll of deaths exacted by the influenza epidemic of 1918.

In spite of the fact that the birth-rate in New Zealand is low compared with other countries, yet so low is the Dominion's death-rate that New Zealand ranks high among the nations as regards the rate of natural increase.

The figures for the principal countries for which recent statistics are available are as follows:—

RATES OF NATURAL INCREASE OF POPULATION.
Country.Quinquennium.Rate per 1,000.

* Registration area.

Decrease.

Quebec1915–1918.6
South Africa1916–2016.4
Australia1917–2114.5
New Zealand1917–2113.3
The Netherlands1914–1811.7
United States*1915–1911.5
Denmark1916–2010.9
Ontario1914–1810.8
Japan1914–1810.7
Norway1915–199.9
Jamaica1916–209.2
Ceylon1916–208.0
Scotland1916–207.7
Sweden1914–186.7
Spain1916–206.3
Finland1914–186.1
England and Wales1916–205.6
Switzerland1915–194.1
Ireland1916–203.9
Italy1915–192.5
Germany1914–18−1.6
Belgium1915–19−2.2
France1915–19−8.7

BIRTH-RATES OF AUSTRALASIA.

For twenty years prior to 1885 the New Zealand birth-rate was higher than that of Australia, but in that year the positions were reversed, and except for the seven years 1903–1909 the Australian rate has been somewhat higher than that of New Zealand. It is interesting to note that the rates of the two countries have shown practically the same movement, New Zealand, however, reaching in 1899, and Australia not till four years later, the temporary limit of the rapid fall which had been steadily in progress since the “seventies.” In each country the check in the decline of the birth-rate was succeeded by a moderate but steady rise for ten years, followed by a fall commencing in New Zealand in 1909 and in Australia in 1913, an interval of four years again separating the movements of the two countries. The movement over the last ten years is as follows:—

BIRTH-RATES PER 1,000 OF POPULATION.
State.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Queensland29.6730.2429.4629.3527.5928.9627.9525.8027.1026.59
New South Wales29.8628.8628.9628.3327.5327.5526.1224.2726.1025.94
Victoria26.3925.8225.4524.5524.2023.4022.1921.4623.9523.15
South Australia28.6529.0829.3326.8126.8425.6225.1523.6124.7124.07
Western Australia28.8329.3628.4527.9727.3725.7623.0821.7124.7323.43
Tasmania30.5330.0330.3329.3229.0327.6826.6325.9027.2826.97
Commonwealth28.6528.2528.0527.2526.5626.2725.0023.5325.4524.95
New Zealand26.4826.1425.9925.3325.9425.6923.4421.4225.0923.34

BIRTH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS.

Metropolitan areas were created in 1916 at each of the four chief centres, and suburban areas at nine of the more important secondary centres, each area including in addition to the central borough and any suburban boroughs a considerable non-municipalized area adjacent to and contingent on the centre. The creation of these areas allows of vital and other statistics being compiled over a series of years for a definite area with fixed boundaries, and obviates the disabilities formerly arising from frequent alterations of boundaries of boroughs. The terms “metropolitan area” and “suburban area” have now been abandoned in favour of the somewhat more correct title of “urban area.” The birth statistics of urban areas for each of the last five years are as follows:—

BIRTH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS, 1917–21.
Urban Area.Number of Births.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Auckland2,9862,9112,6033,2603,17822.3321.7719.4722.1720.15
Wellington2,4052,2052,0122,4022,24925.2523.1521.1323.6420.92
Christchurch2,1291,8751,8352,3572,14422.9620.2219.7922.4420.29
Dunedin1,5441,2841,2331,6021,47222.4718.6917.9421.7220.37
    Totals of principal areas9,0648,2757,6839,6219,04323.2221.2019.6822.5120.41
Gisborne41434533034936932.7027.2526.0723.8225.54
Napier38636936745237225.5124.3924.2527.2221.64
New Plymouth30426626539032031.0427.1627.0535.2725.31
Wanganui50545948160058625.8723.5224.6527.0224.91
Palmerston North39735932740240528.3425.6323.3526.2523.99
Nelson23421921422522423.4921.9821.4821.4721.07
Grey Valley boroughs20315917422719524.2418.9920.7826.4023.31
Timaru37030729034832826.9822.3821.1423.1621.15
Invercargill44747937047741425.0326.8220.7124.9721.55
    Totals of secondary areas3,2602,9622,8183,4703,21326.9424.4723.2826.0823.21
    Grand totals12,32411,23710,50113,09112,25624.1021.9720.5323.3621.07

In most countries it is found that the cities and larger towns have a somewhat higher birth-rate than the general average of the country, owing largely if not entirely to the natural tendency for people in the country districts to avail themselves of the better medical and nursing facilities provided in the population centres. In New Zealand, however, the effect of this on the birth-rates of the urban areas is obviated by information as to the domicile of the parents being obtained in the case of all births registered in the areas, and the births allocated accordingly. The result is to give for each of the four principal areas a birth-rate somewhat lower than the Dominion average. The nine secondary areas, however, have, on the average, a higher rate than that of the Dominion as a whole.

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.

An examination of the figures shows that, with the exception of one year, there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860).

But little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. The period preceding 1870 exhibits violent fluctuations in the proportion of males, which tend to disappear as the total of births grows larger. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878, to 1,078 in 1875 and 1,073 in 1915.

The number of births and their sex-proportion for twenty years are given below:—

Year.Number of Births ofProportion of Births of Males to every 1,000 Females.
Males.Females.
190210,65310,0021,065
190311,21710,6121,057
190411,76211,0041,069
190512,10911,5731,046
190612,39711,8551,046
190712,83512,2591,047
190813,36912,5711,063
190913,50213,0221,037
191013,44212,5421,072
191113,53212,8221,055
191213,99613,5121,036
191314,43313,5021,069
191414,53513,8031,053
191514,41513,4351,073
191614,66913,8401,060
191714,32913,9101,030
191813,12412,7361,030
191912,58711,8961,058
192015,43414,4871,065
192114,57613,9911,042

The gradual increase in the proportion of males born is illustrated by taking the average ratios of successive decennial periods.

Period.Male Births to 1,000 Females.
1856–18651,062
1866–18751,043
1876–18851,045
1886–18951,045
1896–19051,054
1906–19151,055

If the figures for a short period can be taken as an indication it would appear that the proportion of males is somewhat higher for first births than for the general average of all children. Of 18,439 first births registered during the two years 1920 and 1921 (excluding plural births), 9,636 were of males and 8,803 of females, the proportion of males per 1,000 females being 1,101. The high proportion does not appear to be due to the youth of the mothers, there being a distinctly lower rate in cases where the mother was between the ages of twenty and twenty-five than in other age-groups, with the exception of ages forty and over, where the numbers are insignificant, and where, doubtless for this reason, the figures for the two years covered give opposite results, the number of male first births per 1,000 female being 1,216 in 1920 and only 897 in 1921. It should be added that in some of the other groups and even in the total the results for the two years, taken separately, do not altogether coincide.

The figures for various age-groups for the two years in conjunction are as follows:—

SEXES OF FIRST-BORN, 1920 AND 1921.
Age of Mother, in Years.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
Under 205514641,187
20 and under 253,6203,3881,068
25″303,3363,0031,119
30″351,4601,3451,086
35″405414801,127
40 and over1281231,041
                Totals9,6368,8031,101

In the two years covered there were 192 plural first births, and in 81 cases the children were both males, in 54 both females, and in the remaining 57 of opposite sex.

Further light on the question of sexes of children may be thrown by some figures extracted from the records of births registered in the three years 1919–1921 in cases where the child was shown to be the fourth-born of a family in which the three previously born children were still living. In New Zealand the birth entries give particulars of numbers and sexes of previous issue of the parents, with the ages of the living issue, and the following interesting statement showing the sex-nativity order up to the fourth child has been compiled. Families in which plural births occurred among the first four children have been excluded.

Firstborn.Second-born.Third-born.Fourth-born.Number of Cases.
MaleMaleMaleMale522
Female509
FemaleMale499
Female465
FemaleMaleMale428
Female422
FemaleMale457
Female465
FemaleFemaleFemaleFemale415
Male421
MaleFemale416
Male460
MaleFemaleFemale389
Male382
MaleFemale433
Male441

Of the 7,124 families covered, in 3,767 the first child was a male and in 3,357 a female, the number of males per 1,000 females being thus 1,122. This proportion is considerably reduced for subsequent births, the figures being as follows:—

Child.Males.Females.Males per 1,000 Females.
First3,7673,3571,122
Second3,6403,4841,045
Third3,6313,4931,040
Fourth3,6103,5141,027

It is interesting to note that not only are males in preponderance among firstborn, but also that in cases where the first-born is a male there appears to be a greater probability of the second child being a male also. Where the first-born is a female, however, the second child appears to have a more even prospect as to sex.

The numbers dealt with are small, and too much weight cannot be attached to the proportions. It is significant, however, that the figures of first-borns registered in 1920 and 1921, and those of first-borns in cases where the fourth child of the family was registered in the last three years, give almost identical results, and the two sets of figures taken in conjunction support the conclusion that there is a higher masculinity rate among first-born children than among later issue. In the extraction of the figures relating to families of four children it was noticed that the details for the three years were almost proportionately identical throughout.

The conclusion arrived at by these figures, so far as they go, would serve to explain the increasing masculinity of births in successive decennia referred to above, when it is remembered that the average number of children to a family has fallen heavily during the period, and the proportion of first-born children correspondingly increased.

The sex-proportions of illegitimate births are generally supposed to be more nearly equal than those of legitimate births. Although little reliance can be placed on the figures for New Zealand by reason of the small numbers represented, such weight as they have is in favour of the theory. The average for the period 1911–20 was 1,011 males per 1,000 females—a rate considerably lower than that for all births (1,053) for the same period. The proportion in 1921, however, was 1,052 male per 1,000 female illegitimate births.

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 347 cases of twin births (694 children) registered in 1921. There were also five cases of triplets.

The number of children born alive was 28,567; the number of mothers was 28,210: thus, on an average, one mother in every 80 gave birth to twins (or triplets), against 81 in 1920 and 89 in 1919.

The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total cases of births during the last five years were,—

Year.Total Births.Total Cases.Cases of Twins.Cases of Triplets.Multiple Cases Per 1,000 of Total Cases.
* Including one case of quadruplets.
191728,23927,927312 11.17
191825,86025,560294311.62
191924,48324,2062703*11.15
192029,92129,552365212.42
192128.56728,210347512.48

The following table shows the sexes in individual cases of twin births for the last ten years:—

Year.Total Cases.Both Males.Both Females.Opposite Sexes.
1912329114106109
191331410886120
1914350105116129
19153029388121
19163239998126
191731290105117
19182948795112
19192708179110
1920365128105132
192134712590132

During the ten years 1912–21 there were twenty-four cases of triplets. In four cases all three children were males, in five cases all were females, in three cases there were two males and one female, and in each of the remaining twelve cases two of the three children were females. There occurred in 1919 one case of quadruplets, all male children.

AGES of PARENTS.

Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1921 is shown in the following table:—

RELATIVE AGES OF PARENTS.
Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father, in Years.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 5050 and under 5555 and under 6565and over.Total

* Including twenty cases where plural births would have been registered had not one child been still-born, and one case where two of triplets were still-born.

Including five cases of triplets.

Single Births.
15 and under 1611        2
16 ″ 174743      18
17 ″ 189171211     40
18 ″ 19237450104111  164
19 ″ 202316410751115    361
20 ″ 21322232077426541  572
21 ″ 25481,2472,1881,05633212030144 5,039
25 ″ 3083692,7992,8271,43736210434917,950
30 ″ 35 355582,4332,173947258912926,526
35 ″ 40 7724321,6721,3295541376264,271
40 ″ 45  4442076394071885741,550
45 ″ 46    119351411 80
46 ″ 47     22164 33
47 ″ 48   1  643 14
48 ″ 49      4 1 5
49 ″ 50       1  1
        Totals1482,1446,0016,9325,8643,4291,4244911801326,626*
Multiple Births.
19 and under 20 1        1
20 ″ 21111 1     4
21 ″ 25 617632    34
25 ″ 30 82930155  1 88
30 ″ 35 210382319322 99
35 ″ 40   53522135  80
40 ″ 45    414651131
45 ″ 46      11  2
        Totals11857798162231341339
        Grand totals1492,1626,0587,0115,9453,4911,4475041841426,965

An indication of the direct effect on the birth-rate caused by the loss of men in the war is obtained by a comparison of the above figures with similarly compiled figures for 1912, the first year for which such statistics are available. A summary is here given, showing for the two years the age-groups of the fathers and mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered in the respective years. For convenience, plural births are counted once only.

Age-group.Fathers.Mothers.
1912.1921.1912.1921.
Under 21811491,1071,162
21 and under 251,6062,1624,5475,073
25″306,4526,0588,1668,038
30″357,5107,0116,8206,625
35″405,4575,9453,8884,351
40 and over4,9005,6401,4781,716
Totals26,00626,96526,00626,965

A study of the individual age-groups shows in the case of the fathers considerable decreases at ages 25 to 30 and 30 to 35, the groups which at present are more particularly affected by the loss of men in the war. All other groups, however, show substantial increases, amounting in the aggregate to 1,852, or 15.38 per cent., as compared with an increase of only 3.85 per cent. if all births are taken into account. As the mean population for 1921 showed an increase of 17.79 per cent, over that for 1912, it would appear that the apparently considerable decrease in the birth-rate in the later year as compared with the earlier is almost entirely accounted for by the loss of young men in the war, and to a less extent in the influenza epidemic. It should be added that even in the age-groups which show increases war and epidemic losses have tended to restrict these increases, while, on the other hand, the post-war tendency, referred to in the next subsection, for men to marry younger would normally act in the opposite direction.

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.

Information as to the previous issue of the parents is now required in connection with the registration of births. Tables are given showing for the year 1921 information as to number or previous issue in conjunction with (1) age of mother, and (2) duration of marriage.

LEGITIMATE BIRTHS REGISTERED, 1921.
(a.) Age of Mother and Number of Previous Issue.
Age of Mother.Number of Previous Issue.Totals.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.
15 and under 162        2
16″1718        18
17″1840        40
18″1914915       164
19″20306515      362
20″214411141731    576
21″253,0971,3214821343252  5,073
25″303,2282,1171,251794400168791 8,038
30″351,4491,2761,2501,0077254444659 6,625
35″405265356486725804458489524,351
40″4512110716920619919445113041,581
45″465258793311282
46″4732 551152 33
47″48 1 12352 14
48″492   1 11 5
49″50      1  1
    Totals9,3875,5413,8272,8301,9521,2691,900251826,965*
(b.) Duration of Marriage and Number of Previous Issue.
Duration of Marriage, in Years.Number of Previous Issue.Totals.
0.1.2.3.4.5.6 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and over.
* This number represents 26,626 single cases and 339 multiple cases.
Under 14,8802       4,882
1 and under 22,8738146      3,693
2″37291,69614532    2,575
3″4295922435251    1,678
4″51916205931498    1,561
5″6146513735343713   1,811
6″78233252245415925l  1,575
7″8502083544192296812  1,340
8″94712627233328312542  1,228
9″10199621626325414759  1,054
10″155918846265469064482612 3,535
15″2015217616021720775612721,581
20″251311263649189974416
25 and over   1211515236
    Totals9,3875,5413,8272,8301,9521,2691,900251826,965*

Of a total of 26,965 cases, no fewer than 9,387, or 35 per cent., were first-born children, and of these 4,880, or 52 per cent., were born within twelve months, and 7,753, or 83 per cent., within two years of marriage. The two last-mentioned proportions have been found to remain fairly constant over a series of years, and from this fact it appears safe to say that in Now Zealand of late years, out of 100 marriages which have issue at all, the first child is born within one year of marriage in over 50 cases, within two years in 83 cases, and after the expiry of two years in the remaining 17 cases.

Another table is appended giving for the first births registered in 1921 further details as to duration of the marriage in cases where less than one year had elapsed between the marriage of the parents and the birth of the child. Illegitimate births are also shown.

Age of Mother, in Years.Illegitimate Births.Duration of Marriage, in Months.Total Legitimate First Births within One Year after Marriage.
Under 3.3 and under 6.6 and under 7.7 and under 8.8and under 9.9and under 10.10and under 11.11and under 12.
Under 213951432511257149605258809
21 and under 253311413402021711573663172141,908
25″302726816393881253862902601,473
30″35141304524244213410896503
35″4079141511169282734154
40″4526381  59733
45 and over1      112
Totals1,2453998224563703829798046704,882

BIRTH INTERVALS.

The birth statistics for 1918, published in detail in Volume 1 of Statistics of New Zealand, 1918, contain one feature which is by way of a novelty as far as New Zealand is concerned. This consists of a series of tables showing the period that elapsed between successive births in conjunction with the total number of children born. The first table only is quoted here as being perhaps the most interesting.

In these tables those cases are excluded in which any of the previous issue had died, ages of deceased issue of parents not being disclosed in the birth entries.

Number of Children born.Interval in Complete Years between First and Second Living Child.
0.*1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10 and over.Total
* Presumably almost wholly cases of twins.
261,8691,408647373237131784140614,891
3451,2241,71860028914170342010114,162
4228801,11936512947231871012,621
51963975918847211042..     11,690
61136544370291031..     ..     ..     932
762312925713321..     ..     ..     605
8511515725611..     ..     ..     ..     310
9..     10196133..     ..     1..     ..     ..     214
10..     4931722..     ..     ..     ..     ..     91
Over 10148375..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     91
Totals1155,5216,0601,97789146224013770607415,607

This table indicates that in families of almost all sizes the general period intervening between the first birth and the second is from two to three years. The period next in importance is that from one to two years. One case is exceptional—that of families where the previous issue was one only: in that, for the greatest number of instances the birth interval was from one to two years. It is unfortunate that the ages of the previous issue are available in years only, and not more precisely. The period two to three years maintains supremacy during successive births as far as tabulated—i.e., up to the sixth birth. This is illustrated in the following table, which shows, for total families of all sizes, the percentage which the number in each period forms to the whole:—

Interval between.Percentage at each of the Complete Years Indicated.
0.*1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10 and over.All Periods.
* Presumably almost wholly cases of twins.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
First and second child0.7435.3838.8312.675.702.961.540.880.450.380.47100.00
Second and third child1.2228.2739.6314.076.684.112.041.460.910.581.03100.00
Third and fourth child1.6025.2140.7415.596.674.182.271.360.820.551.01100.00
Fourth and fifth child1.7523.7041.8815.897.094.122.031.320.920.560.74100.00
Fifth and sixth child2.2323.9942.9315.256.874.062.270.620.670.580.53100.00

One outstanding feature of the above tabulation is the increasing domination of the two-year interval as the number of children in the family grows larger, a position gained largely at the expense of the one-year interval.

The succeeding table gives the mean period, expressed in years, between successive births, according to the number of children in the family:–

Average Interval (In Years) betweenCases In which the Number of Children In the Family was
2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Over 10.All Families.
First and second child2.962.752.552.352.272.272.242.142.l52.012.67
Second and third child..     3.332.982.692.482.412.272.242.361.922.94
Third and fourth child..     ..     3.332.962.722.632.392.422.252.212.98
Fourth and fifth child..     ..     ..     3.302.922.652.612.502.492.272.97
Fifth and sixth child..     ..     ..     ..     3.202.802.652.542.432.192.88

It seems, then, that, on the average of the families under review (i.e., all those which had the birth of a second or later child registered in 1918, without any of the previous issue being dead), the second birth takes place two years and eight months after the first; the third, two years and eleven months after the second; the fourth, three years after the third; the fifth, three years after the fourth; and the sixth, two years and eleven months after the fifth.

The increasing tendency for a greater period to elapse between children is measured to some extent above. Take, for example, the interval between the second child and the third. In the column headed “Over 10 Children” the average period was under two years; in the column “3 Children” it was three years and a third. The time between these two columns would, on the figures above, represent about twenty-five years, so that in the space of a generation the birth interval in that case was almost doubled.

If the columns are read downward the lengthening period between successive births is clearly seen.

ILLEGITIMACY.

The births of 1,258 children (640 males, 618 females) registered in 1921 were illegitimate : thus 44 in every 1,000 children registered were born out of wedlock, a proportion somewhat lower than that ruling during the four years immediately prior to 1921.

The numbers for each of the last ten years, with the percentages they bear to the total births registered, are as follows:—

Year.Number.Percentage to Total Births.
19121,1774.28
19131,1814.23
19141,3024.59
19151,1524.14
19161,1464.10
19171,1594.56
19181,1794.65
19191,1384.65
19201,4244.76
19211,2584.40

The ages of the mothers of the illegitimate children registered during the year are as shown below. It will be seen that of the 1,245 mothers, 395, or 31.73 per cent., were under twenty-one years of age.

ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN, 1921.—AGES OF MOTHERS.
Age.Single Cases.Plural Cases.
Years.  
     121..     
     131..     
     142..     
     158..     
     1627..     
     1760..     
     1881..     
     191131
     20101..     
     2199..     
     22861
     2378..     
     24661
     25611
     26712
     2745..     
     28531
     29371
     30441
     3122..     
     3233..     
     33233
     3415..     
     3513..     
     36271
     3718..     
     3810..     
     3910..     
     405..     
     417..     
     427..     
     435..     
     442..     
     491..     
Totals1,23213

The proportion of illegitimate births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages, covering a period of twenty-five years, is shown in the following table:—

Year.Unmarried Women aged 15–45 Years.Illegitimate Births.Illegitimate-birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women.
189168,9906389.25
189689,7228349.30
1901105,4209378.89
1906116,5061,1329.72
1911116,7261,0789.24
1916125,4611,1599.24

The rates of illegitimacy in Australasia are quoted. The average rate for New Zealand for the ten years (4.38 per 100 of all births) compares favourably with that of the Commonwealth (5.13 per 100).

PROPORTION OF ILLEGITIMATE BIRTH IN EVERY 100 BIRTHS.
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.Commonwealth.New Zealand.
19116.226.145.964.214.475.335.794.09
19126.145.645.724.714.394.785.534.28
19136.225.356.034.184.405.185.484.23
19145.775.295.563.874.225.905.264.59
19155.364.975.744.004.245.325.124.14
19165.114.735.153.803.755.054.774.10
19175.014.745.533.964.155.284.914.56
19185.465.185.854.024.025.285.234.65
19195.765.145.773.924.216.145.304.76
19205.104.795.253.743.895.284.844.40

THE LEGITIMATION ACT.

An important Act was passed in 1894 and re-enacted in 1908, intituled the Legitimation Act. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock, whose parents afterwards intermarry, is deemed to be legitimized by such marriage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes Registrars must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and must also produce the evidence of his marriage. Registration thus becomes the test of legitimacy.

Prior to the passing, on the 6th February, 1922, of the Legitimation Amendment Act, 1921–22, legitimation could be effected only if at the time of the birth of the child there existed no legal impediment to the marriage of the father and mother, but the legal-impediment proviso was repealed by that amendment.

The amendment of 1921–22 also provides for legitimation by the mother in the event of the death of the father after the intermarriage of the parents. In such a case the application for legitimation is heard by a Magistrate, and upon his certifying that it has been proved to his satisfaction that the husband of the applicant was the father of the child, the child is registered as the lawful issue of the applicant and her husband.

The following is the number of legitimations in each year, and the total to 1921, since the Act of 1894 came into force:—

Year.Number of Children legitimized.
Previously registered.Not Previously registered.Total.
18949211
1895551368
1896451156
1897341448
1898322759
1899281341
1900303262
1901281947
1902554196
1903412465
1904444387
1905483684
19067352125
19077539114
19088435119
19096762129
19107546121
19117646122
19128651137
19138972161
19149966165
191510067167
191619091281
191721396309
191812876204
191910066166
192010985194
19217495169
Totals2,0871,3203,407

The high total of legitimation entries in 1916 and 1917, as compared with preceding and subsequent years, is no doubt due almost entirely to the continued duration of the war and the passing of the Military Service Act. The prospect of a prolonged absence abroad, and the uncertainty as to whether he would ever return, naturally caused many a reservist to make proper provision for his illegitimate issue.

STILL-BIRTHS.

The registration of still-births has been made compulsory in New Zealand as from the 1st March, 1913. Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of still-births during each complete year since registration became compulsory are as follows:—

Year.Male.Female.Not stated.Total.
191442124414679
19153823406728
19163832954682
191737530514694
19183963005701
191937728815680
192046736310840
19214934028903

The number of still-births registered during the ten months ended December, 1913, was 467.

It is a well-known fact that masculinity is much higher among still-births than among living births. The figures for the eight years covered by the above table show the rate for still-births to have been 1,298 males per 1,000 females. The rate for individual years has ranged between 1,726 (in 1914) and 1,124 (in 1915).

A table is added, showing ages of parents in cases of still-births registered in 1921.

STILL-BIRTHS, 1921.—AGES OF PARENTS.
Age of Mother, in Years.Age of Father, in Years.Illegitimate Cases.Totals
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and under 50.50 and under 65.65 and over.
* This number represents 889 single cases and 7 plural cases, the former including 20 cases where one child of twins was still-born, and the latter including one case where two of triplets were still-born. Total number of still-born children was 903.
15 and under 16..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     22
16″17..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     44
17″18..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     12
18″19..     2..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     36
19″201311..     ..     ..     ..     ..     713
20″212542..     ..     ..     ..     ..     114
21″25..     28453010321..     11130
25″30..     15898426932..     9237
30″35..     12173753484..     6222
35″40..     ..     61760442513..     3168
40″45..     11393312252..     86
45″46..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     43..     ..     7
46″47..     ..     ..     ..     1..     11..     ..     3
47″48..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     1
Totals3561672111811235650247896*

MAORI BIRTHS.

The number of births of Maoris registered during 1921 under the provisions of section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, was 1,052 (568 males, 484 females). The births of three males and one female were registered under the main Act, and the total of 1,056 represents a rate of 20 per 1,000 of Maori population as disclosed at the census of 1921.

COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE.

Regulations under the Cook Islands Act, 1915, providing for compulsory registration of births and deaths in the Cook Islands and Niue from the 1st July, 1916, were gazetted on the 29th June, 1916.

In the case of a birth a month is allowed in which to furnish the following particulars to a Registrar: The place and date of birth; the Christian name and sex of the child; the names and residence of both father and mother, and also (if Natives) whether of full blood, or quarter-, half-, or three-quarter caste.

Duplicates of all entries are kept by the Registrars of the High Court at Rarotonga and Niue respectively. A fine not exceeding £5 is imposed on persons supplying false information. No fees are payable for registration.

The following are the figures of birth-registrations in each Island during the year 1920:—

BIRTHS IN COOK ISLANDS, 1920.
Island.Number of Births
* Nine months ended 30th September, 1920.
Rarotonga124
Aitutaki64
Mangaia43
Atiu39
Manihiki*7
Rakahanga*3
Mauke20
Penrhyn*7
Niue92
Total399

SUBSECTION B.—MARRIAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

MARRIAGE may be solemnized in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. No marriage can be legally solemnized before 8 o'clock in the forenoon or after 8 o'clock in the evening. Prior to the passing of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, the limits were 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to the Registrar of the district within which the marriage is to be solemnized, and the party giving notice must have resided for three full days in the district. In the case of a person under twenty-one, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. Provision exists for application to a Judge of the Supreme Court in cases where a parent or guardian is non compos mentis, or unreasonably or from undue motives refuses or withholds consent.

If a declaration is made in any case that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in the Dominion, then a certificate may be issued after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The ages at which persons may contract binding marriages are the same as in England—twelve years for females and fourteen for males. Marriage may be contracted at earlier ages than those stated, but would be voidable at the discretion of either of the parties upon reaching the age of twelve or fourteen, as the case may be, and without the necessity of proceedings in Court.

The system of notice and certificate has obtained in New Zealand since 1855. By this system it is ensured not only that marriages are in order, but that no legally solemnized marriage escapes registration. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnized, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether solemnization has been effected. Inquiries are made similarly in respect of any marriage for which a return is received, but for which there is no corresponding return of notice and certificate.

The marriage of a man with. his deceased wife's sister was legalized in New Zealand in the year 1881, and the marriage of a woman with her deceased's husband's brother in 1901.

An important provision is contained in section 7 of the Marriage Amendment Act, 1920, which reads as follows:—

  1. Every person commits an offence against this Act, and is liable on summary conviction to a fine of one hundred pounds, who—

    1. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that any persons lawfully married are not truly and sufficiently married or

    2. Alleges, expressly or by implication, that the issue of any lawful marriage is illegitimate or born out of true wedlock.

  2. “Alleges” in this section means making any verbal statement, or publishing or issuing any printed or written statement, or in any manner authorizing the making of any verbal statement, or in any manner authorizing or being party to the publication or issue of any printed or written statement.

  3. A person shall not be deemed to make an allegation contrary to the provisions of this section by reason only of using in the solemnization of a marriage a form of marriage service which at the commencement of this Act was in use by the religious denomination to which such person belongs, or by reason only of the printing or issue of any book containing a copy of a form of marriage service in use at the commencement of this Act by any religious denomination.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The movement of the marriage-rate since 1855 is shown by the diagram on p. 74. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000 of Population.
19026,3948.01
19036,7488.23
19046,9838.26
19057,2008.28
19067,5928.48
19078,1928.91
19088,3398.82
19098,0948.33
19108,2368.30
19129,1498.81
19138,8138.25
19149,2808.51
191510,0289.12
19168,2137.47
19176,4175.84
19186,5195.65
19199,5198.33
192012,17510.21
192110,6358.69

The normal tendency towards a gradual increase in the marriage-rate was disturbed by the war. Taking the years seriatim, 1914 is little affected, the influences being of a counterbalancing nature. The succeeding year, 1915, in spite of the increasing diminution in the number of males of marriageable age, established a new record in point of number of marriages and—by comparison with the previous half-century—of rate also. This may be regarded as resulting almost wholly from the passing of the National Registration Act in 1915, and the desire of many men to be shown in the register as married, with a view to obtaining certain advantages or escaping certain obligations. Many marriages which would ordinarily have taken place in later years were thus celebrated in 1915. The result was to adversely affect the marriage-rate in 1916. The Military Service Act of 1916, which took into account only marriages taking place before May, 1915, had a further depressing influence. The absence, in increasing proportion, of a large proportion of the men of marriageable age was felt still more severely in 1917 and 1918. In 1917 the rate descended to a level never previously reached, and in 1918 reached an even lower position.

With the cessation of. hostilities at the end of 1918, and the return of the troops in 1919, a great increase in the marriage-rate set in. Many of the Dominion's soldiers had married while abroad, and apparently thousands more married shortly after their return to Now Zealand, the marriages in 1919 being over 50 per cent. in excess of those for 1918, with a further huge increase in 1920, which year easily holds the record for number of marriages, and has the highest rate since 1864.

The high numbers and rates experienced in 1920 continued into the early months of 1921, but a falling-off then occurred, presumably due in the main to adverse economic conditions. Nevertheless, in point of numbers of marriages 1921 ranks second only to 1920, and the rate for the year (8.69 per 1,000 of mean population) is somewhat higher than the average for the decade immediately preceding the war.

STANDARDIZED MARRIAGE-RATE..

In a country like New Zealand, where the age-constitution of the population has altered considerably, the crude marriage-rate based on the total population does not disclose the true position over a period of years. Even if only the unmarried (including widowed and divorced) population over twenty in the case of men and over fifteen in the case of women be taken into account, the rates so ascertained would still not be entirely satisfactory for comparative purposes, owing to differences in sex and age constitution, divergences between rates for different age-groups, and variations in the proportions of marriageable persons in the community. A better plan is to ascertain the rate among unmarried females in each age-group and to standardize the results on the basis of the distribution of the unmarried female population in a basic year.

This has been done for each census year from 1881 to 1921, the year 1911 being taken as the standard. The course of the standardized rates as shown in the following table varies materially from that of the crude rates:—

YearMarriage-rate per 1,000.Index Numbers of Marriage-rates taking 1911 as base = 100.
Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.Total Population.Unmarried Female Population 15 and over.
Crude.Standardized.Crude.Standardized.
18816.673.980.776125137
18866.055.160.46993102
18916.048.350.3698285
18966.847.348.0788081
19017.850.249.0908583
19068.555.653.7989491
19118.759.159.1100100100
19167.550.754.3868692
19218.759.763.9100101108

The index numbers of the three classes of rates over the series of years enables the effect of standardization to be shown at a glance. Comparing, for instance, the years 1881 and 1911, it is seen that whereas the crude rate per 1,000 of total population was nearly one-fourth less in 1881 than in 1911, the crude rate when only the unmarried female population of fifteen or over is considered was one-fourth greater, and the standardized rate more than one-third greater. Similar though less noticeable results are recorded for years subsequent to 1881.

Taking the standardized rates as a test, the true marriage-rate is shown to have fallen heavily between 1881 and 1896, and to have risen thereafter, the tendency to rise, however, being temporarily disturbed by the war.

RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A comparison of the marriage-rate for each State of the Australian Commonwealth with New Zealand for the ten years 1912–21 is given. Prior to 1919 the Commonwealth rate had for some years been higher than that of this country.

MARRIAGES PER 1,000 OF MEAN POPULATION IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
Year.Queensland.New South Wales.Victoria.South Australia.Western Australia.Tasmania.Commonwealth.New Zealand.
19128.919.608.659.628.377.869.078.81
19138.679.028.139.408.198.278.668.25
19148.739.378.319.118.227.788.808.51
19158.939.689.009.028.018.029.149.12
19167.608.628.028.157.567.378.147.47
19177.136.966.737.365.305.866.805.84
19186.896.796.437.075.245.706.595.85
19197.497.917.958.236.877.387.808.33
19208.929.759.8510.038.909.509.6210.21
19217.808.798.908.817.977.828.598.69

A comparison of the latest available rates in various countries is given in the next table. During the war, probably owing to their distance from the scene of Operations, Australia and New Zealand had their rates more seriously interfered with than was the case even with other combatant countries, but have now regained the high positions in the list which they held in pre-war years.

MARRIAGE-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
Country.Quinquennium.Average Yearly Rate.
South Africa1916–208.8
Ontario1914–188.3
Japan1914–188.3
England and Wales1915–198.3
Australia1917–217.9
Denmark1916–207.8
Scotland1916–207.8
New Zealand1917–217.7
Spain1916–207.4
Quebec1915–197.2
Netherlands1914–187.0
Norway1915–197.0
Switzerland1915–196.3
Belgium1915–196.2
Germany1912–166.1
Sweden1914–186.1
France1915–195.9
Finland1914–185.5
Ireland1916–205.4
Ceylon1916–205.3
Italy1913–175.1
Jamaica1916–203.6

DISTRIBUTION OF MARRIAGES OVER THE YEAR.

It is interesting to dissect the year into shorter periods and to notice the fluctuations of the marriage totals. The following table shows the number of marriages solemnized during each quarter of the last ten years:—

MARRIAGES IN EACH QUARTER, 1912–21.
Year.March Quarter.June Quarter.September Quarter.December Quarter.
19121,9302,7052,0782,436
19132,3392,4141,8132,247
19142,2192,6252,1812,255
19151,9842,7282,2473,069
19162,2142,3931,7731,833
19171,5111,8051,5051,596
19181,4571,7561,5931,421
19191,6312,4322,4503,006
19202,9813,3292,8433,022
19212,8722,8492,3302,584
Decennial average2,1142,5042,0812,347

It will be seen that the June quarter is apparently considered the most propitious for the solemnization of marriage. The three years exceptional in this respect are 1915, 1919, and 1921. In 1915 the total for December quarter was swelled by the influence of the National Registration Act passed in October; the high figure for December quarter, 1919, is explained by the celebration of many marriages postponed until the return of soldiers from abroad; while in 1921 the results for March quarter showed promise of a continuation of the standard set in 1920, but the adverse financial and economic conditions evidently caused a falling-off in marriages after Easter.

The Easter and Christmas seasons are apparently regarded as the most suitable times of the year for entering the matrimonial state, and, judging by the quarterly figures for an average year, Easter would appear to slightly predominate. In 1919, however, the only year for which monthly figures have been extracted, 1,282 marriages were celebrated in December, as against only 932 in April, the explanation of this being, of course, the fact that it was not until the latter portion of 1919 that the effect of the return of men from the war was felt.

The marriages contracted in each month of 1919 were as follows:—

January558
February501
March572
April932
May590
June910
July833
August798
September819
October923
November801
December1,282
        Total9,519

Wednesday claims almost half of the total marriages, judging by the figures for the year 1919:—

Sunday54
Monday1,109
Tuesday1,645
Wednesday4,109
Thursday1,279
Friday476
Saturday847
        Total9,519

The days of the year 1919 on which an exceptionally large number of marriages were, performed were—

23rd April137
26th November120
25th June117
30th April110
15th October107
31st December106

All these days were, it may be remarked, Wednesdays. Easter Monday, usually considered a most suitable day, ranked only thirteenth in favour.

CONDITION OF CONTRACTING PARTIES.

The table which follows gives information as to the conjugal condition of persons married in each of the last eight years. Prior to 1914, divorced persons, whose numbers were small, were not shown separately in the marriage statistics, but were classed among bachelors and spinsters respectively.

Year.Marriages between Bachelors andMarriages between Divorced Men andMarriages between Widowers and
Spinsters.Divorced Women.Widows.SpinstersDivorced Women.Widows.SpinsterDivorced Women.Widows.
19148,312882606571637721134
19158,9559431660152137222173
19167,13810231673101338622153
19175,43910026864101635118151
19185,1578626811891640423146
19198,07915437288163153240207
192010,328208529181194859158213
19219,000196421178263653858182

The figures reveal considerable increases, especially in the last three years, in the numbers of widowed and divorced persons remarrying. Out of every 1,000 persons married in 1914, 11 were divorced and 51 widowed, the corresponding figures for 1921 being 24 and 67 respectively. The increase in the one case is a reflex of the large number of divorce cases since the war, while as regards widowers and widows the obvious explanation lies in the war and the influenza epidemic.

Taking the whole period covered by the tables it is found that while 1,136 divorced men remarried, the corresponding number for women was 1,402. In the case of widowed persons, however, in spite of the fact that the number of widows caused by the war and the epidemic must greatly have exceeded the widowers caused by the latter, only 4,306 widows remarried, as compared with 5,172 widowers. It would appear that in the case of divorced persons women are more likely to remarry than men, while in the case of widowers and widows the converse holds.

Included amongst widows in 1921 were sixteen women, and amongst the widowers seven men, who elected to go through the form of marriage with other persons under the protection of the provisions of section 224, subsection (5), of the Crimes Act, which reads: “No one commits bigamy by going through a form of marriage if he or she has been continually absent from his or her wife or husband for seven years then last past, and is not proved to have known that his wife or her husband was alive at any time during those seven years.”

The numbers of persons married under the protection of the above subsection during the last ten years are as shown in the following table:—

Year.Males.Females.Total.
19126915
1913459
191451318
19155712
191621113
191782129
191831114
1919111829
192051520
192171623

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.

Of the persons married in 1921, 319 bridegrooms and 1,684 brides were under twenty-one years of age. Of the bridegrooms, two were between sixteen and seventeen, seven between seventeen and eighteen, and twenty-eight between eighteen and nineteen. Of the brides, nine were between fifteen and sixteen, and forty-nine between sixteen and seventeen years of age. A table is given showing relative ages of bridegrooms and brides in groups of years.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED, 1921.
Age of Bridegroom, in Years.Age of Bride, in Years.Total Bridegrooms.
Under 21.21 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 35.35 and under 40.40 and under 45.45 and over.
Under 2120098192   319
21 and under 257381,40738846124 2,595
25″305001,3981,27923033723,449
30″351675496863621073261,909
35″405921230230616659301,134
40″4514571231181328932565
45 and over6196370118129259664
        Total brides1,6843,7402,8601,13456832032910,635

The following are the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marriages in the years 1901, 1911, and 1921:—

Age, in Years.1901.1911.1921.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Under 211.9317.161.9515.023.0015.84
21 and under 2524.9439.9721.6835.4124.4035.17
25″3037.0826.8938.4528.9432.4326.89
30″3519.529.7120.5511.3017.9510.66
35″407.603.008.444.8410.665.34
40″454.031.613.762.015.313.01
45 and over4.901.665.172.486.253.09
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Taking the brides first, the figures reveal a tendency for women to marry somewhat later in life now than formerly, a tendency, however, much more noticeable in the ten years 1901–11 than in the next decennium. Probably the most noticeable feature in regard to the bridegrooms is the heavy fall between 1911 and 1921 in the percentage for the age-group 25–30, a direct result of war losses, which were mainly among men who would now have been in this age-group. A similar but less substantial fall is disclosed for the age-group 30–35 but the group 21–25, which fell several points between 1901 and 1911, rose to its former level again in 1921, notwithstanding that those at present forming this group ad their numbers somewhat reduced in the heavy fighting of 1917 and 1918.

In the years immediately preceding the war 62 per cent. of the bridegrooms were under thirty years of age, a proportion which has since undergone considerable changes, as shown below:—

PERCENTAGES OF BRIDEGROOMS UNDER THIRTY YEARS OF AGE, 1912–21.
Year.Under 21.21 and under25 and under 30.Total under 30.
19121.8822.6337.7462.25
19131.8022.0437.7561.59
19142.1022.0437.3461.48
19151.9623.0734.5159.54
19163.5821.6331.1756.38
19175.0619.5030.6255.18
19183.6219.4931.4554.56
19193.6219.4931.4554.56
19202.6421.6132.6756.92
19213.0024.4032.4359.83

The average age at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, has shown a tendency to increase somewhat. The averages for the three years 1917, 1918, and 1919 were high—over thirty-one for bridegrooms and over twenty-seven for brides—but 1920 and 1921 show a return towards normal. The figures for each of the last twenty year are given.

MEAN AGE AT MARRIAGE.
Year.Mean Age of Bridegrooms.Mean Age of Brides.
190229.8925.63
190329.8925.84
190429.6025.44
190529.6525.75
190629.7625.97
190729.8326.07
190829.8626.11
190930.1126.40
191029.9126.32
191130.1226.48
191229.9526.39
191330.1526.42
191430.0926.69
191530.0326.56
191630.6426.77
191731.1927.07
191831.5727.16
191931.2127.11
192030.7326.89
192130.6926.72

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. For several years prior to 1918 age 26 held pride of place for bridegrooms and age 21 for brides. The latter has continued right through to 1921 without alteration, but in the case of bridegrooms an alteration to age 28 occurred in 1918, followed by a return to 26 and 27 (equal) in 1919. In 1920 the most popular age for bridegrooms fell to 25, and in 1921 to 24, a position which had not previously occurred since statistics of individual ages of bridegrooms and brides were instituted in 1902.

MARRIAGES OF MINORS.

Of every 1,000 men married in 1921, thirty were under twenty-one years of age, while 158 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one. The proportion of bridegrooms under twenty-one is in normal years 2 per cent. of the total number. The proportions for the five years 1917–1921, particularly 1918 (5.06 per cent.), shown in the following table, therefore represent a high increase in marriages of male minors. No corresponding rise occurs in the proportion of marriages of female minors—indeed, a decided fall is apparent in 1919 and 1920 as compared with pro-war years.

BRIDEGROOMS AND BRIDES UNDER AND OVER TWENTY-ONE, 1912–21.
Year.Bridegrooms.Brides.Minors, per 100 Marriages.
Adults.Minors.Adults.Minors.Bridegrooms.Brides.
19128,9471727,6881,4611.8815.97
19138,6541597,4191,3941.8015.82
19149,0851957,8421,4382.1015.50
19159,8192098,5161,5122.0815.07
19168,0521616,9431,2701.9615.46
19176,1872305,3431,0743.5816.74
19185,9123155,2669615.0615.43
19199,1753448,2471,2723.6113.36
192011,85432110,4971,6782.6413.78
192110,3163198,9511,6843.0015.84

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS DENOMINATIONS.

Of the 10,635 marriages registered in 1921, Church of England clergymen officiated at 3,039, Presbyterians at 2,765, Methodists at 1,148, and Roman Catholics at 1,202, while 1,887 marriages wore celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the last eight years:—

Denomination.Percentage of Marriages.
1911.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Church of England26.2826.7625.7324.5425.3627.2628.5728.58
Presbyterians26.0725.8425.3622.9224.0925.8727.0626.00
Methodists12.3011.8310.4710.4411.2211.7010.3510.97
Roman Catholics11.0711.1812.0211.9411.1911.0811.0811.30
Other denominations5.515.835.375.395.065.175.335.59
Before Registrars18.7718.5621.0524.7723.0818.9217.6117.74
 100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The above figures must not be taken as a true indication of the religions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both parties are members of the Church whoso officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any of the denominations. It will be noted that the proportion of marriages by Registrars rose considerably above the 1914 level in 1916, 1917, and 1918, but fell sharply in 1919. The percentage of civil marriages was considerably lower in 1920 and 1921 than in 1914.

MAORI MARRIAGES.

In cases where both parties to a marriage are of the Native race there is no necessity under the Marriage Act to comply with the provisions of that Act, though the parties are at liberty to take advantage thereof. Considerable inconvenience, however, has been found to exist on account of the non-registration of Maori marriages, and a section was inserted in the Native Land Act, 1909, whereby it was laid down that Maori marriages must be celebrated either under the provisions of the Marriage Act or in the presence of a registered officiating minister, but without complying with the other requirements of the Marriage Act. Ministers solemnizing the latter class of marriages must send returns to the Registrar-General.

Returns of 248 marriages in which both parties were of the Native race were received during the year 1921. Of these, 30 were in accordance with the provisions of the Marriage Act. The figures for each of the last ten years are as follows:—

MAORI MARRIAGES, 1912–21.
Year.Under Native Land Act.Under Marriage Act.Total.
191224039279
191322034254
191421941260
191519027217
19161729181
191720548253
191819726223
191918140221
192019855253
192121236248

Maori marriages are not included in the numbers shown elsewhere in this subsection, nor are they taken into account in the computation of marriage-rates.

MARRIAGES IN COOK ISLANDS.

According to the annual report of the Cook Islands Department, the following are the figures of marriages solemnized in the Cook Islands during 1920:—

MARRIAGES IN COOK ISLANDS, 1920.
Island.Number of Marriages.
Rarotonga53
Aitutaki6
Mangaia14
Mauke4
Atiu9
Niue45
            Total131

The remaining islands of the group either had no marriages or did not furnish returns. The total for 1920 compares unfavourably with that for 1919 (232).

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.

The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act is (Juno, 1922) 1,711, and the denominations to which they belong are shown hereunder:—

Denomination.Number.
Church of England436
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand383
Roman Catholic Church281
Methodist Church of New Zealand253
Salvation Army146
Baptists62
Congregational Independents29
Lutheran Church7
Hebrew Congregations6
Church of Christ37
Catholic Apostolic Church4
Liberal Catholic Church6
Unitarians4
Seventh-day Adventists6
Latter-day Saints12
Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah9
Ringatu Church13
Others17
            Total1,711

The Ringatu Church and the Church of the Seven Rules of Jehovah are Maori denominations.

SUBSECTION C.—DEATHS.

INTRODUCTORY.

COMPULSORY registration of deaths was instituted in New Zealand in 1855. As in the case of births, a system of non-compulsory registration had obtained since 1848.

Until the year 1876 the only information provided for in the death-registration entry was as to date, place, and cause of death, and name, sex, age, and occupation of deceased. The Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1875, required information to be recorded as regards parentage, conjugal condition, and issue of deceased. Particulars re burial had also to he entered, as well as more detailed information regarding cause of death. Subsequent amendments to the Act have made it requisite to give additional information concerning issue, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand should be registered within three days after the day of the death if in a city or borough, or seven days in any other case. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the undertaker in charge of the funeral being by the Amendment Act of 1912 made solely responsible for registration. Prior to 1913 the undertaker was primarily looked to for registration, but, in addition, the occupier of the house and every other person present at death were also responsible parties.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. It is not necessary to effect a death-registration entry in the case of a still-born child.

Any person burying or permitting or taking part in the burial of the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, a Coroner's order to bury the body, or a Registrar's certificate of registration of the death renders himself liable to a fine of £10.

NUMBERS AND RATES.

The following table shows the number of deaths and the death-rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years:—

Year.Number.Rate per 1,000.
19028,37510.50
19038,52810.40
19048,0879.57
19058,0619.27
19068,3399.31
190710,06610.95
19089,0439.57
19098,9599.22
19109,6399.71
19119,5349.39
19129,2148.87
191310,1199.47
191410,1489.31
19159,9659.06
191610,5969.64
191710,5289.58
191816,36414.84
191910,8089.46
192012,10910.15
192110,6828.73

The number of deaths registered during the year 1921 was 10,682, which is considerably lower than the preceding year's figure. Although this number is the third highest ever recorded in the Dominion, the rate per 1,000 of mean population is, on the other hand, remarkably low, constituting in fact a new record, the previous best being that for 1912, when the rate declined to 8.87 per 1,000.

MALE AND FEMALE DEATH-RATES.

The death-rates of males and females for the last ten years are shown separately in the next table, also the number of male deaths to every 100 female deaths, and the death-rate of males expressed as an index number of the female rate, taking the latter as equal to 100.

Year.Deaths per 1,000 of the Total Population.Male Deaths to every 100 Female Deaths.Mule Kate expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (=100).
Males.Females.Total.
19129.837.798.87140126
191310.468.389.47138125
191410.537.989.31144132
191510.197.879.06137129
191611.148.139.64138138
191711.098.099.58134137
191818.03311.7714.84147153
191910.858.069.46148149
192011.119.1510.15127121
19219.757.668.73133127

In normal times the excess of male over female population has the effect of showing a smaller variation between death-rates for the two sexes than is indicated by a comparison of numbers of deaths. The withdrawal of a large number of males between the ages of 20 and 45 for military service overseas, however, reduced the male population without proportionately reducing the total of male deaths, the death-rate among persons of those ages being considerably less than for the whole population. Consequently there was during the war period an increase in the percentage of the male rate to the female, a position accentuated in 1918, and to a less extent in 1919, by the influenza epidemic, which exacted a heavier toll among males than among females.

AGES AT DEATH.

The deaths occurring during 1921 are tabulated below in single ages up to five years, and thereafter in groups, showing males and females separately:—

Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 1 month484392876
  1—3 months11976195
  3—6 ″8354137
  6—12 ″8870158
  1—2 years10985194
  2—3 ″5957116
  3—4 ″404181
  4—5 ″384078
  5—10 ″13896234
10—15 ″10168169
15—20 ″9896194
20—25 ″153144297
25—30 ″137173310
30—35 ″191156347
35—40 ″260210470
40—45 ″275191466
45—50 ″337211548
50—55 ″315257572
55—60 ″343249592
60—65 ″422250672
65—70 ″523317840
70—75 ″496368864
75—80 ″509412921
80—85 ″412299711
85—90 ″275183458
90—95 ″7571146
95—100 ″181533
104 ″..     11
105 ″1..     1
106 ″..     11
        Totals6,0994,58310,682

A preponderance of males occurs at all age-groups, with the exception of the negligible group “over 100” and the group “25 and under 30,” a period at which the effects of child-bearing are felt in the female numbers. The two preceding groups show a very slight excess of males, the greatest excess occurring at age 60 and over, in sympathy with the greater disparity between the numbers of male and female population at those ages.

Some remarkable changes in the age-distribution of persons dying have occurred during the period of fifty years which has elapsed since statistics of ages of deceased persons were first compiled. The total deaths in 1921 were nearly three and a half times greater than in 1872, but the deaths under one year of age increased by only one-fourth in the interim; indeed, if the comparison be made between 1875 and 1921 an actual decrease of one-fourth is recorded. Between these two years the annual number of births doubled itself, and the decrease in the deaths under one year is an eloquent tribute to the efficacy of the steps taken to preserve infant life, a subject which is dealt with later on in this subsection.

Turning now to deaths at ages 80 and over, a remarkable difference between the earlier and later years covered by the figures is apparent. In 1872, deaths in this group numbered only 34, or slightly more than 1 per cent. of the total of 3,112; while in 1921, 1,351 deaths over 80 years of age were recorded, this number representing 12½ per cent. of the total deaths in that year. In 1900 the corresponding percentage was only 6. The figures are a reflex of the changes in the age-constitution of the population, combined with the great improvement in the death-rate at the earlier ages.

Similar though less pronounced changes have occurred in the age-groups between 60 and 80 years, while the groups up to age 40 show results in the same direction as those for deaths under one year of age.

The death-rates at various age-groups during recent years are as shown in the next table. An all-round decrease is shown for the year 1921 by comparison with the quinquennium 1912–16, except in the case of two age-groups where slight increases are shown. The effect of the influenza epidemic of 1918 in the rates for that year, especially for ages 20 to 55 inclusive, is very noticeable.

DEATH-RATES PER 1,000 LIVING AT VARIOUS AGE-PERIODS.
Ages, in Years.Averages, 1912–16.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.Increase, 1912–16 to 1921.
       Per Cent.
Under 514.2414.0214.1211.7716.0613.48−1.78
5 and under 102.442.442.301.932.121.78−27.05
10 ″ 151.481.391.981.491.391.47−0.68
15 ″ 202.212.055.162.242.321.85−16.29
20 ″ 253.113.4010.032.742.872.65−14.79
25 ″ 353.604.1915.123.953.962.97−17.50
35 ″ 456.965.7614.796.016.845.49−21.12
45 ″ 5510.188.9315.7210.0111.3410.46+ 2.75
55 ″ 6519.3319.0723.8919.8421.2419.04−1.50
65 ″ 7538.0244.7850.4245.5644.2940.94+ 7.68
75 and over149.36128.55145.94143.53150.24124.84−16.42
All ages9.479.5814.849.4610.158.73−7.81

The average age at death of persons of either sex in each of the ten years 1912–21 was as follows:—

Year.Males.Females.
191247.1944.91
191346.2643.04
191446.9744.27
191547.2444.71
191646.0644.01
191748.3345.51
191844.5644.29
191950.7348.47
192048.7445.92
192148.4546.97

The drop in the average age at death in 1918 is the result of the influenza epidemic, the average age of those succumbing to influenza being below the normal average age at death, especially in the case of males.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.

The following figures showing the expectation of life at various ages are based on the experience of the quinquennium 1906–10:—

EXPECTATION OF LIFE OR AVERAGE AFTER-LIFETIME IN NEW ZEALAND.
Age.Males.Females.
 Years.Years.
059.16561.764
163.12564.816
262.83664.503
362.16863.843
461.40763.053
560.58162.211
1056.14457.754
1551.57053.172
2047.20048.770
2542.97944.562
3038.77540.477
3534.61436.396
4030.54032.368
4526.50728.294
5022.67224.295
5518.97220.443
6015.50816.774
6512.22913.331
709.38310.311
757.1027.777
805.2945.815
853.9544.262
902.7652.900
951.6131.650
1000.7200.723

It will be noted that while the expectation or average after-lifetime of males at age 0 is given as 59.165 years, the average age at death of males in 1921 is only 48.45 years. The reason for the difference in these figures is that the average age at death in 1921 is nothing more than the average of the ages of those dying in that year; and if the population be one with a preponderance of young people, as is the case in New Zealand, that preponderance of young ages must also be reflected among those dying in a particular year, who, after all, are largely a sample of the living. The average age at death in one particular year is therefore evidence of the age-constitution of the population in that year rather than of the vitality of the people, though it is affected by both factors. In New Zealand the average age at death is on the whole constantly increasing, mainly because the population is gradually getting a due proportion of old people; but a large immigration of young people or a sufficient increase in the birth-rate could send it down again by furnishing a greater number of deaths at low ages, even without any change in the vitality.

The expectation of life is independent of these factors, being based upon the scientifically determined rates of mortality at every successive year of age, and could be said to represent the average age at death of, say, 100,000 people followed from birth to their final extinction by death. In the course of time, when the age-constitution of the population of New Zealand approximates more closely to that existing in the older countries, the average age at death in a given year will tend to be in closer agreement with the actuarially ascertained expectation of life at age 0.

DEATH-RATES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A table is given showing the death-rates of the Australian States and Commonwealth, and of New Zealand, in each of the ten years 1912–21.

DEATH-RATES OF AUSTRALASIA PER 1,000 OF MEAN POPULATION, 1912–21.
Country.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Queensland10.9610.399.9711.0010.969.6010.2312.2210.639.34
New South Wales10.8610.8910.1110.4810.499.439.6913.1810.139.51
Victoria12.2311.1111.5911.1011.6610.3110.6613.1511.1310.52
South Australia (proper)10.2810.8210.7110.6711.499.879.7211.6910.4410.02
Western Australia11.069.349.419.289.869.059.2011.2410.2810.44
Tasmania10.7310.879.6710.1110.589.109.0910.699.6710.30
Commonwealth11.2310.8710.5110.6610.959.719.9912.6810.509.91
New Zealand8.879.479.319.069.649.5814.849.4610.158.73

New Zealand has ordinarily a lower death-rate than any of the Australian States, which, again, have considerably lower rates than other countries. The apparently disadvantageous position of New Zealand in the matter of the rate for 1918 is explained by the fact that the Dominion experienced the widespread influenza epidemic during 1918, while in the Commonwealth the outbreak did not occur till 1919.

The death-rates of certain of the principal European and other countries are also given. The rates for New Zealand and Australia compare very favourably with these.

Country.Quinquennium.Average Rate per 1,000.
* Registration area.
Union of South Africa1917–2112.2
United States*1915–1912.6
Denmark1916–2013.1
Canada—
    Ontario1914–1813.1
    Quebec1915–1917.0
Netherlands1914–1813.8
Norway1915–1914.1
England and Wales1916–2014.5
Switzerland1915–1914.8
Scotland1916–2015.0
Sweden1915–1915.5
Belgium1915–1915.8
Ireland1916–2016.6
Finland1915–1919.5
France1916–2019.5
Italy1915–1920.1
Germany1914–1820.2
Japan1915–1922.5
Spain1916–2024.7
Jamaica1916–2026.0
Ceylon1916–2030.1

STANDARDIZATION OF DEATH-RATES.

Perfect accuracy in comparing one country with another can be attained only by the use of what is termed an “index of mortality.” The proportions of the living vary in regard to the different age-groups, and the ordinary death-rate—which is calculated on the population as a whole—does not afford a true means of judging of the relative healthiness of the places compared; but by taking a population like that of Sweden and applying the percentage at each age-group to the death-rates a standard of health or index of mortality can be arrived at. This has been done for New Zealand in accordance with a resolution of the Statistical Conference held at Hobart in 1902, and the result is expressed in tabular form.

INDEX OF MORTALITY IN NEW ZEALAND FOR 1921.
Ages, in Years.Estimated Mean Population.Number of Deaths.Death-rate per 1,000.Percentage of Population of Sweden, 1890 (Standard).Index of Mortality in New Zealand per 1,000.
Under 1.28,5671,36647.822.551.22
  1 and under 20458,0971,0662.3339.800.93
20″40428,8071,4243.3226.960.89
40″60219,4172,1789.9319.231.91
60 and upwards89,0134,64852.2211.465.98
            Totals1,223,90110,6828.73100.0010.93

The New Zealand rates may be compared with those of the Australian States and of the Commonwealth standardized by the same system.

STANDARDIZED DEATH-RATES, 1911–20.
Country.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.19191920.
New Zealand11.8311.2711.9211.8511.3811.8811.6616.8011.7212.76
Queensland13.5713.9113.2512.7014.3014.3712.6413.9415.9714.36
New South Wales13.2313.6313.6112.7213.2413.4812.4512.8616.4813.32
Victoria14.2314.9413.5014.1113.5414.2812.8113.2315.5113.72
South Australia12.1812.7613.2513.0313.0914.4512.6512.5314.5913.49
Western Australia13.4714.5512.5812.5612.7914.1512.9313.6915.5015.63
Tasmania12.9713.6913.5412.1113.0413.4311.7811.7013.2912.28
Commonwealth13.5514.0813.4713.1813.4413.9912.6313.0715.7513.65

Where comparisons are restricted to the figures for different years in a country such as New Zealand, where the age and sex constitution of the population is undergoing a gradual change, it is preferable to use as a standard the constitution of the population of the same country at some fixed date.

In the following table the rates have been standardized on the population as disclosed at the census of 1911.

The system of standardization adopted is similar to that used in arriving at the international index of mortality, but is more detailed. The population and deaths for each year of the period have been divided, each sex separately, into five-yearly groups of ages (with one group only for ages 80 and over), and the rates for the various groups ascertained and weighted according to the percentage which the respective age-groups bore to the total population at the census of 1911.

DEATH-RATES, CRUDE AND STANDARDIZED, 1872–1921.
Year.Crude (Actual) Death-rate.Standardized Bate.
187211.3912.36
187312.6714.10
187515.9213.79
187612.6614.09
187711.4712.86
187810.9612.76
187912.4614.11
188011.4612.70
188111.1312.41
188211.1913.06
188311.4511.29
188410.3911.88
188510.7612.36
188610.5412.17
188710.2911.96
188810.2911.96
18889.4311.72
18899.4410.80
18909.6611.25
189110.3512.08
189210.0611.75
189310.2311.80
189410.1911.56
18959.9111.22
18969.1010.35
18979.1410.58
18989.8411.50
189910.2411.02
19009.4310.21
19019.8110.66
190210.5011.41
190310.4011.17
19049.579.87
19059.279.60
19069.319.66
190710.9511.37
19089.579.94
19099.229.20
19109.719.63
19119.399.38
19128.878.87
19139.479.47
19149.319.31
19159.069.09
19169.649.22
19179.589.04
191814.8414.66
19199.468.99
192010.159.88
19218.738.49

OCCUPATIONS OF DECEASED MALES.

The occupations of males who died during 1921, arranged according to classification groups, are shown in the following table. Further details may be obtained from the Annual Report on the Vital Statistics for the year 1921.

Occupation.Age, in Years.Totals.
Under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 45.45 and under 65.65 and over.
Professional4126396122297
Domestic..     3386765173
Commercial1315130180217555
Engaged in transport and communication813101132119373
Engaged in manufacturing1029109138208494
Engaged in building and construction375282143287
Other industrial workers926151300390876
Agricultural and pastoral21361753427621,336
Working in mines and quarries122440142299
Independent means..     ..     174048
Dependent relatives1,2882..     ..     ..     1,290
Dependent on public or private support..     ..     464454
Undefined or unknown..     8152757107
                            Totals1,3571538631,4172,3096,099

DEATH STATISTICS OF URBAN AREAS.

The number and rate of deaths for each of the thirteen urban areas during the last four years are as shown in the following statement:—

URBAN AREAS.—DEATHS AND DEATH-RATES, 1917–21.
Urban Areas.Number of Deaths.Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.19181919.1920.1921.
Auckland1,3972,4161,4281,6361,50410.4518.0710.6811.139.53
Wellington8921,4961,0611,0819679.3715.7111.1410.649.00
Christchurch1,0241,4359991,2421,01411.0415.4710.7711.839.60
Dunedin7961,11377891074211.5816.2011.3212.3410.27
Gisborne1081381141181138.5310.909.008.057.82
Napier1492541612101679.8516.7910.6412.659.72
New Plymouth1041378412412710.6213.998.5811.2110.04
Wanganui1722762132221788.8114.1410.9110.007.57
Palmerston North1292361481521369.2116.8510.579.92805
Nelson1281349513110512.8513.459.5412.509.88
Grey Valley boroughs8711597979510.3913.7311.5811.2811.36
Timaru1161591251451398.4611.599.119.658.96
Invercargill1353611731901587.5620.219.689.958.22
                Totals5,2378,2705,4766,2585,44510.2416.1710.7111.179.36

In compiling the statistics of deaths for the urban areas the rule is followed of carefully excluding deaths of persons who do not belong to the areas, but have come from elsewhere for the purpose of obtaining better medical attention. Nevertheless, the rates for the urban areas, in spite of the omission of this class, are somewhat above the average for the Dominion as a whole.

ORPHANHOOD.

The table following shows the number of living issue left by married men whose deaths were registered during the ten years 1912–21, the information being given according to age of father and of issue. It will be seen that during the period under review 28,378 fathers left issue to the number of 132,096, an average of 4.65. There were also 4,867 married men who died without leaving issue.

NUMBER AND AGES OF ISSUE LEFT BY MARRIED MEN, 1912–21.
Age of Issue, in Years.Number of Issue left by Fathers dying within the Age-groups shown at Head of Column.
20 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 65.65 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and over.Totals.
  01753791956181..     ..     819
  118354429475204..     ..     1,120
  21756163631223351..     1,315
  31346594331483683..     1,421
  49663845816231112.1,398
  57561953317747182..     1,471
  6466185432186818611,518
  71857757429289254..     1,579
  8945358732995266..     1,505
  98395653342128415..     1,572
103372650399154486..     1,632
111278682429183603..     1,636
12..     227678504250596..     1,724
13..     16466353326777914..     1,720
14..     10161958931410312..     1,738
15..     845725843491111611,717
16..     5158667841717029..     1,931
17..     2448670749419418..     1,923
18..     134807195702213012,034
19..     43867906632755322,173
20..     ..     3858136933444212,228
21 and over..     79228,05523,38038,69023,6022,18596,841
Unspecified63911319130036548191,081
            Totals9296,86211,80516,91728,58940,87623,9082,2110132,096
Married men who died—
    (a) Without leaving issue2686646417218391,010656684,867
    (b) Leaving issue5512,6543,3593,8935,5347,4224,52743828,378
            Totals8193,3184,0004,6146,3738,4325,18350633,245

Several tables dealing with orphanhood are given in full in the Annual Report on Vital Statistics. One of these, showing the number of issue under 16 left by deceased married men, is summarized and given in the next table.

ISSUE UNDER AGE 16 LEFT BY MARRIED MEN, YEAR 1921.
Age at Death, In Years.Total Number of Married Men who died leaving Issue under Age 16.Married Men who died leaving Number of Issue under 16 Years of Age shown at Head of Column.Total Number of Children under Age 16 left by Married Men who died in 1921.
1234567 and over.
20 and under 251293..     ..     ..     ..     ..     15
25 ″ 30231535..     ..     ..     ..     36
30 ″ 35692819182..     1..     138
35 ″ 4013033362816863352
40 ″ 45145333931211245411
45 ″ 50155484125201155406
50 ″ 5511447261810103..     261
55 ″ 60964228127214208
60 ″ 65632918104..     11125
65 ″ 704722411533..     195
70 ″ 752516531..     ..     ..     39
75 ″ 8053..     2..     ..     ..     ..     9
80 and over32..     ..     ..     1..     ..     7
            Totals887329229157854721192,102

Among married men who left any issue under age 16, the average number of such issue was 2.37. The average for all married men who died during the year was, however, only 0.63.

WIDOWS LEFT BY MARRIED MEN.

Of the 3,342 married men or widowers whose deaths were registered in 1921, 851 were shown to have been widowers, and 2,411 to have left widows; while in the remaining 80 cases there was no information given as to whether the deceased left a widow. Of the married men leaving widows, 2,046 had living issue also at time of death, and 365 had no living issue. In 727 cases widowers left issue, and in 124 cases no issue. In 43 of the 80 cases where no information was given as to whether a widow was left, there was living issue, in 19 cases no living issue, and in 18 cases no information as to issue was given. A table is given showing the relative ages of married men who died in 1921, and of their widows.

DEATHS, 1921.—AGES OF MARRIED MEN WHO DIED, AND OF THEIR WIDOWS.
Age of Widow, in Years.Age of Deceased, in Years.
20 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 50.50 and under 60.60 and under 70.70 and under 80.80 and under 90.90 and upwardsTotals.
192..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
20 and under 25222242..     ..     ..     ..     50
25 ″ 302155112..     ..     ..     ..     89
30 ″ 353754593..     1..     136
35 ″ 40..     7310023112..     ..     209
40 ″ 45115126581942..     225
45 ″ 5011739935135..     227
50 ″ 55..     11413066356..     252
55 ″ 60..     ..     186144446..     281
60 ″ 65..     ..     1141718120..     287
65 ″ 70..     ..     1487133431269
70 ″ 75..     ..     ..     ..     13117441175
75 ″ 80..     ..     ..     ..     149572109
80 ″ 85..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1032143
85 ″ 90..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     819
90 and upwards..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1
Ages not specified..     44461216147
            Totals5024638043155650024172,411

INFANTILE MORTALITY.

New Zealand has the lowest rate of infantile mortality in the world, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of large industrial undertakings, &c, and partly to legislative and educative measures, the latter both by the State and by various organizations.

In New Zealand it is unlawful for any person to take charge of an infant under the age of six years, for the purpose of nursing or maintaining it apart from its parents or guardians, for a longer period than seven consecutive days, unless such person is licensed as a foster-parent.

Provision is made by law for the granting and revocation of licenses, and for the method of payment of maintenance-money. No payment is to be made to or received by a foster-parent except in pursuance of an agreement approved by the Secretary of Education, and if default be made in payment under the agreement the amount due, or part thereof, may be paid by the Secretary, and shall be recoverable as a debt duo to the Crown. When and so long as any money so recoverable remains unpaid the Secretary shall have and may exorcise the powers of a guardian until the child attains the age of fifteen years. Provision is also made for the inspection of foster-homes, and the procedure in the case of the removal or death of foster-children is specified. The Act applies to any adopted infant in the same manner and to the same extent as if no such adoption had taken place.

The New Zealand Legislature in 1907 introduced provisions for early notification of birth, allowing seventy-two hours after birth if in a city or borough, or twenty-one days in any other case. The time allowed for notification i the case of a birth in a city or borough has now been reduced to forty-eight hours.

The number of deaths of infants under one year of ago for each of the ten years 1912–21 and the percentage of these to births registered are shown in the next table:—

DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER ONE YEAR OF AGE, 1912–21.
Year.Number.Rate per 100 Births.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19128056041,4095.754.475.12
19139427111,6536.535.275.92
19148286281,4565.704.555.14
19158275671,3945.744.225.01
19168306161,4465.664.455.07
19177675931,3605.354.264.82
19187045481,2525.364.304.84
19196364721,1085.053.974.53
19208486651,5135.494.595.06
19217745921,3365.314.234.78

The infantile death-rate is somewhat higher among males than among females, a position which has existed without exception in every year of the period covered by the following diagram, which shows also the male and female birth-rates. As regards both birth and infantile-mortality rates, variations occur simultaneously in the curves for both sexes.

Experience in other countries has shown that mortality is in general considerably higher among illegitimate than among legitimate children. Statistics on the subject were first compiled for New Zealand for the year 1921, when it was. found that of the 1,366 infants who died before completion of the first year of life 118, or 8.64 per cent., were illegitimate. This percentage is almost double that of illegitimate births to total births (4.40).

The excess of the male over the female rate of infantile mortality holds for each of the four divisions of the first year of life shown in the next table. The discrepancy is, however, somewhat greater in the first month than in the remainder of the year.

DEATHS AT AGE-PERIODS UNDER ONE YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS.
Year.Male Deaths per 1,000 Male Births.Female Deaths per 1,000 Female Births.
under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months
191233.517.508.298.2226.506.145.626.44
191333.7410.6010.4610.4625.409.636.4511.18
191432.139.436.888.5325.437.536.675.87
191535.317.496.667.9122.786.475.887.07
191629.588.939.348.7324.285.856.587.80
191731.687.406.428.0323.945.755.687.26
191829.189.985.728.7624.187.463.467.93
191933.136.914.376.1223.375.974.545.80
192034.408.105.966.4826.996.764.767.39
192133.218.165.696.0428.025.433.865.00

The number of male deaths per 100 female deaths in the first month of life during the ten years 1912–21, was 134; between one and three months, 132; between three and six months, 135; and between six and twelve months, 116.

The actual number of male and female deaths during these periods of life are next shown for the last ten years. Taking the whole decennium it is found that of every 100 males who died under one year of age, 57 lived less than one month, 72 less than three months, and 85 less than six months. The corresponding figures for females are 56, 72, and 84 respectively.

NUMBER OF DEATHS AT AGE-PERIODS UNDER ONE YEAR.
Year.Males.Females.
Under 1 Month.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.Under 1 Months.1 and under 3 Months.3 and under 6 Months.6 and under 12 Months.
1912469105116115358837687
191348715315115134313087151
19144671371001243511049281
191550910896114306877995
19164341311371283368191108
1917454106921153338079101
1918383131751153089544101
1919417875577278715469
1920531125921003919869107
19214841198388392765470

If the deaths under one year of ago arc divided into two groups—viz., those occurring during the first month of life and those during the remainder of the twelve months, it is found that the decrease disclosed for recent years when compared with earlier is entirely confined to the latter class; the explanation being, no doubt, that with premature birth, congenital debility, and other causes of death duo to pre-natal influences (which are responsible for the great majority of deaths during the first month), it has not hitherto been found possible to effect the great improvements which have come about in regard to complaints arising from post-natal causes.

The next table shows that whereas the death-rate under one month of age was only slightly lower in the average of the five years 1916–20 than in the quinquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who have survived the first month of life is now only one-third as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, where the Dominion formerly lost, between the ages of one month and one year, sixty children, out of every thousand, it now loses only twenty. In 1921 the number per thousand was only eighteen.

Period.Deaths per 1,000 Births.Deaths between 1 and 12 Months per 1,000 Children who survive 1 Month.
Under 1 Year.Under 1 Month.Between 1 and 12 Months.
1881–188590.6029.7760.8362.70
1886–189084.0927.5756.5258.13
1891–189587.6030.3457.2658.93
1896–190080.0630.3849.6851.24
1901–190574.7730.6444.1345.54
1906–191069.6230.2839.3440.57
1911–191553.6329.2824.3525.05
1916–192048.6228.1620.4621.05
192147.8230.6717.1517.63

The decrease by nearly half in the general rate and nearly two-thirds in the rate between one and twelve months, and the stationary nature of the rate under one month, are well indicated in the accompanying diagram.

The deaths under one month for the year 1921 have been subjected to a more detailed analysis as to age, and it is found that of the total of 876 considerably more than a quarter (259) occurred within twenty-four hours of birth, and nearly three-quarters (661) within one week. The following table gives information as to the causes of death at various periods of the first year of life:—

INFANTILE MORTALITY, 1921.—CAUSES AND AGES.
Cause of Death.Under 1 Day.1 Day and under 1 Week.1 Week and under 2 Weeks.2 Weeks and 3 Weeks.3 Weeks and under 1 Month.1 Month and under 2 Months.2 Months and under 3 Months.3 Months and under 6 Months.6 Months and under 9 Months.9 Months and under 12 Months.Total.
Measles..     ..     ..     ..     11..     1..     14
Whooping-cough..     ..     ..     ..     ..     4765123
Influenza..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1125
Tuberculosis (all forms)..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2..     25514
Syphilis..     ..     211142..     ..     11
Meningitis..     ..     1..     ..     ..     228316
Convulsions23152..     5453461
Acute Bronchitis1413262107238
Broncho-pneumonia..     142613711121470
Pneumonia..     12..     22449529
Diseases of stomach..     2..     ..     1221..     19
Diarrhœa and enteritis121332011391614110
Hernia, intestinal obstruction..     1..     1..     2..     44113
Congenital malformations214913691851363143
Congenital debility, icterus3347231610211119110191
Premature birth1551592522161547..     ..     403
Other causes peculiar to early infancy38881413322..     ..     151
Absorption of deleterious gases (overlain, &c.)..     ..     ..     ..     ..     121..     ..     4
Other causes8175529377871
Totals, both sexes2594029762561257013784741,366
Totals, males1322364833358039835038774
Totals, females1271664929214531543436592

Summarized information as to causes of deaths of infants under one year of age is given in the next table for each of the last five years. Premature birth stands first in importance and congenital debility next.

DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER ONE YEAR.—CAUSES, 1917–21.
Causes.Number of Deaths from each Cause.Percentage of Total.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Whooping-cough2920557232.131.600.453.771.68
Convulsions56534751614.124.234.243.374.47
Bronchitis and pneumonia96102941391377.068.158.489.1910.03
Diarrhœa and enteritis14650568911010.743.995.055.888.05
Malformations120821121351438.826.5510.118.9210.47
Premature birth38037331743640327.9429.7928.6228.8229.50
Congenital debility20823919626319115.2919.0917.6917.3813.98
Other causes32533328134329823.9026.025.3622.6721.82
            Totals1,3601,2521,1081,5131,366100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

CAUSES OF DEATH.

The classification of causes of death was made in 1908 for the first time in New Zealand according to the international classification of diseases initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon and now used by the Commonwealth of Australia and the principal European and American countries. It is highly desirable for comparative purposes that uniformity of statistical method should obtain.

The Bertillon system differs materially from that in use prior to 1908, and comparisons of certain causes of mortality between years prior and subsequent to 1908 are impossible owing to changes in the classification. This applies more particularly to diseases of the digestive, nervous, respiratory, and circulatory systems. There are, however, certain principal causes of death which are unaffected and retain their comparative value, such as cancer, tubercular diseases, typhoid fever, whooping-cough, measles, influenza, scarlet fever, diabetes, appendicitis, liver and puerperal diseases, accident, and suicide.

A comparison of the causes of deaths in 1921 and 1920 arranged according to an abridged classification, the percentage of each group to the total deaths, and the proportion per 10,000 of population are given in the following table:—

Class.Number of Deaths.Proportion to Total Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1921.1920.1921.1920.1921.1920.
   Per Cent.Per Cent.  
    I. General diseases2,7443,25925.6926.9222.4227.33
  II. Diseases of the nervous system and of the organs of special sense1,0531,1539.869.528.609.67
III. Diseases of the circulatory system1,9082,02617.8616.7315.5916.99
  IV. Diseases of the respiratory system1,1011,35410.3111.189.0011.36
    V. Diseases of the digestive system6287145.885.905.135.99
  VI. Diseases of the genito-urinary system and annexa5445045.094.164.444.23
VII. Puerperal condition1451041.361.601.191.63
VIII. Diseases of the skin and of the cellular tissue61530.570.440.500.44
  IX. Diseases of the organs of locomotion32350.300.290.260.30
    X. Malformations1591651.491.361.301.40
  XI. Infancy7498157.016.736.116.84
XII. Old age7911,0177.408.406.468.53
XIII. Violence7346966.875.756.005.84
XIV. Ill-defined causes331240.311.020.271.05
            Totals10,68212,109100.00100.0087.28101.60

the first class, general diseases, which includes both cancer and tuberculosis, is annually responsible for a quarter of the deaths registered. Next in order of numbers comes Class III, diseases of the circulatory system, the principal of which, organic heart-disease, ranks easily first among individual causes of death in New Zealand. Classes VIII and IX are responsible for very few deaths.

The next table shows the number of deaths from certain principal causes for the five years 1917–21, and the proportion per 10,000 of the population:—

Cause.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Typhoid fever41333440240.370.300.300.340.20
Measles17153122470.150.140.031.020.38
Scarlet fever30302315240.270.270.200.130.20
Whooping-cough44277107490.400.240.060.900.40
Diphtheria237189149911032.161.711.310.770.84
Influenza385,5163464801050.3550.013.034.020.86
Pulmonary tuberculosis5976646026956405.436.025.275.835.23
Other forms of tuberculosis1581681601561531.441.521.401.311.25
Cancer9579.361,0311,0291,0448.718.499.028.638.53
Diabetes1441951681491651.311.771.481.251.35
Exophthalmic goitre37422544380.340.380.220.370.30
Anæmia, chlorosis104827583970.950.740.660.700.79
Meningitis1661821551331141.511.651.361.120.92
Infantile paralysis1041290.090.040.010.020.07
Apoplexy, cerebral hæmorrhage4724705395255144.294.264.724.404.20
Epilepsy56614949480.510.550.430.420.39
Convulsions of children under 5 years of age62706164700.560.630.530.540.56
Organic heart-disease1,3901,3691,5381,7031,51212.6512.4113.4614.2812.35
Arterio-sclerosis718374111830.650.750.650.930.68
Embolism, thrombosis62537885800.560.480.680.720.65
Bronchitis2253042903892882.052.762.543.262.35
Broncho-pneumonia1212001402311941.101.811.221.941.58
Pneumonia2624494015284272.384.073.524.433.49
Gastritis51383649220.460.340.320.410.18
Diarrhœand enteritis3061471321882212.781.331.151.521.80
Appendicitis and typhilitis101928889850.920.830.770.750.70
Hernia, intestinal obstruction469679127790.420.870.691.060.69
Cirrhosis of liver33414028280.300.370.350.240.23
Simple peritonitis46455765400.420.410.500.550.33
Nephritis, Bright's disease2712873093563772.462.692.702.983.08
Cystitis49263636230.450.240.310.300.19
Diseases and accidents of puerperal condition1691341241941451.541.211.081.631.19
Malformations1331121381651591.211.021.211.381.30
Congenital debility2082391962631911.892.171.722.201.56
Premature birth3813733174364033.473.382.773.663.29
Senility1,0011,2291,0561,0177919.1111.149.238.536.46
Violence (1) suicide1241131391331571.131.021.221.121.28
(2) accident, &c.5615485815635775.104.975.084.724.72
Other causes1,7471,7021,5211,5691,55615.8915.4313.3413.1612.71
            Totals105281636410808121091068295.77148.3694.55101.6087.28

INFLUENZA.

During the latter part of 1918 the Dominion was visited by a most virulent epidemic of influenza of a character similar to that experienced in most countries of the world in 1918 or 1919. The disease was more properly pneumonic influenza, and many deaths in the earlier stages of the outbreak were registered as caused by pneumonia, broncho-pneumonia, &c., which in the light of later knowledge would probably have been ascribed to influenza.

The deaths from influenza alone during 1918 reached a total of 5,516, a number greatly in excess of the grand total for the preceding forty-six years, prior to which statistics of causes of death are not available. This figure does not include Maori deaths—approximately 1,200—due to influenza.

The following table shows that influenza caused more deaths in 1919 and 1920 than in any year prior to 1918, thus showing that though the epidemic of that year was short-lived the disease still remained and exerted its influence on the death-rates of the next two years:—

DEATHS FROM INFIUENZA, 1872–1921.
Year.Deaths.
18728
18736
187417
187515
187617
18779
18783
187915
188011
188110
188213
188311
18846
18855
188611
18879
18889
18899
189070
1891210
1892144
1893106
1894233
1895125
189689
1897120
1898219
1899135
1900181
1901219
1902117
190356
1904113
190570
1906132
1907223
190864
190947
1910141
191163
191265
191356
191463
1915110
191673
191738
19185,516
1919346
1920540
1921105

Of the 5,516 victims of influenza during 1918, 3,529 were males and 1,987 were females. The number of male deaths equals 6.54 per 1,000 of the male population, and the female deaths were 3.68 per 1,000 of the female population. Males, therefore, suffered almost twice as severely as females.

Under the age of 15 the rates for both sexes were low and comparatively equal. Over the age of 55 the same is true, except that both rates were fairly high. But between those two groups lies the great bulk of the population, varying from youth to middle age, and with normally a comparatively low death-rate. Yet in this instance the death-rate soared very high, particularly so in the case of males. In the age-group 35–39 years inclusive, the male death-rate was more than three times the female rate. Possibly the fact that many thousands of males of good health and physique were temporarily absent from the country was an influencing factor.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Pulmonary tuberculosis takes fourth place in point of the number of deaths resulting therefrom during 1921, ranking after heart-disease, cancer, and senility, in that order. Acute miliary tuberculosis is included with pulmonary. The average for the last ten years was 615, or 5.52 per 10,000 of mean population.

Year.Deaths from Pulmonary Tuberculosis.Rate per 10,000.
19125675.46
19136566.14
19145765.28
19155625.11
19165915.38
19175975.43
19186646.02
19196025.27
19206955.83
19216405.23

Reference to the next table will show that 423 persons known to have been born in the Dominion died during 1921 from phthisis, and 217 persons born elsewhere, but resident in New Zealand for fifteen years or over, succumbed to the disease.

DEATHS FROM PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS, 1921.
Length of Residence in the Dominion.Age at Death, in Years.
Under 5.5 and under 10.10 and under 15.15 and under 25.25 and under 35.35 and under 45.45 and under 55.55 and under 65.65 and under 75.75 and upwards.Total.
     Males.           
Under 1 month..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1
  1 month and under 6..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     1
  6 months ″ 12..     ..     ..     1..     1..     ..     ..     ..     2
  1 year ″ 2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11..     ..     ..     2
  2 years ″ 3..     ..     121..     ..     ..     ..     ..     4
  3 ″ 4..     ..     ..     ..     3..     ..     ..     ..     ..     3
  4 ″ 5..     ..     ..     ..     11..     ..     ..     ..     2
  5 ″ ″ 10..     ..     ..     32632..     ..     16
10 ″ 15..     ..     ..     12762..     ..     18
15 ″ 20..     ..     ..     237731..     23
20 ″ 25..     ..     ..     ..     1452..     ..     12
25 years and upwards..     ..     ..     ..     3413187348
Not known or not stated..     ..     ..     ..     1..     311..     6
Birthplace unknown..     ..     ..     ..     1363..     ..     13
Born in Dominion3..     ..     326750285i..     186
            Totals3..     1418585723710 ″3337
     Females.           
Under 1 month..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  1 month and under 6..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  6 months ″ 12..     ..     11..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
  1 year ″ 2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1
  2 years ″ 3..     ..     ..     2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  3 ″ ″ 4..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  4 ″ ″ 5..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
  5 “ “ 10..     ..     ..     1331..     ..     ..     8
10 ″ 15..     ..     ..     325..     ..     ..     ..     10
15 ″ 20..     ..     ..     33431..     ..     14
20 ″ 25..     ..     ..     11..     121..     6
25 years and upwards..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2267..     17
Not known or not stated..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     1
Birthplace unknown..     ..     ..     ..     212..     ..     ..     5
Born in Dominion41877734916711237
            Totals419888464261791303
            Totals of both sexes71101291691499854194640
DEATHS AND DEATH-RATES FROM TUBERCULOSIS, AND PEROENTAGE OF TOTAL DEATHS, 1912–21.
Year.Mean Population.Number of Deaths from Tubercular Diseases.Rate per 10,000.Percentage of Total Deaths from all Causes.

(a) All deaths

(b) excluding deaths from Influenza, October-December, 1918.

19121,039,0167166.897.77
19131,068,6448127.608.02
19141,090,3287286.677.17
19151,099,3946936.306.95
19161,099,4497426.747.00
19171,099,1177556.877.17
19181,103,0228327.545.08(a)
7.64 b)
19191,142,8897626.677.05
19201,192,6208517.147.03
19211,223,9017936.487.42
AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM TUBERCULAR DISEASES, 1921.
Ages.Males.Females.Total
Under 5 years222850
  5 years and under 1010313
10 ″ 1551621
15 ″ 20184159
20 ″ 25356297
25 ″ 305158109
30 ″ 35483684
35 ″ 40544195
40 ″ 45462975
45 ″ 50451863
50 ″ 55321244
55 ″ 60201333
60 ″ 65201333
65 ″ 7019524
70 ″ 755510
75 ″ 80314
80 and upwards1..     1
            Total deaths420373793

Tuberculosis claims its victims at comparatively early age. Of those dying from this cause in 1921, persons under the age of twenty years formed 18 per cent, and those under forty years 67 per cent.

The New Zealand rate of deaths from tubercular diseases, together with those of England, Scotland, Ireland, and other principal countries of the world, is next shown. New Zealand compares more than favourably with the majority of the countries given.

DEATH-RATES FROM TUBERCULOSIS.
Country.Year.Death-rates (per 10,000).
South Africa19194.4
New Zealand19216.5
Australia19206.8
Ceylon19207.5
Canada—
    Ontario19197.8
    Quebec191913.2
Scotland192012.4
England and Wales191912.6
United States191912.6
Germany191514.8
Denmark191715.8
Italy191616.7
Ireland192017.0
Switzerland191819.6
Spain191820.4
Sweden191620.6
Jamaica192020.7
Netherlands191821.2
France191521.8
Norway191622.6
Japan191825.3
Finland191627.9

CANCER.

This disease is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than organic disease of the heart. The increasing prevalence of cancer is causing no little concern in the Dominion, as indeed it is throughout the civilized world. It is, however, to be noted that each of the last two years shows a slight fall in the cancer death-rate.

A much more complete presentation of data than can be given here was published in a special article on cancer mortality in the Year-book for 1917 (pages 776–809).

In 1921 there were 1,044 deaths from cancer in the Dominion, a proportion of 8.53 per 10,000 persons. This rate represents a decrease when compared with the previous year, and is nearly 6 per cent. lower than that recorded for 1919. Despite the decline that has taken place in the rate during the last two years the proportion of cancer to the total deaths still shows a tendency to rise, the percentage reaching, in 1921, 9.77, which is considerably higher than any figure recorded previously. The average number of cancer deaths and the average cancer death-rate for the years 1916–20 was 972 and 8.62 respectively. Deaths of males during 1921 numbered 523, and of females 521.

Rates for war years are inflated to some extent by the absence of a large number of men at ages when there is comparative immunity from cancer.

The following diagram illustrates, on the one hand, the increase in the cancer death-rate, and, on the other, the decrease in the rate of deaths from tuberculosis:—

NUMBER OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, THE PROPORTION PER 10,000 OR POPULATION, AND THE PERCENTAGE OF ALL DEATHS, 1912–21.
Year.Deaths from Cancer.Total Deaths, all Causes.Deaths from Cancer per 10,000 of Mean Population.Deaths from Cancer per 100 of all Deaths.

(a) All deaths;

(b) excluding deaths from influenza, October–December, 1918.

19128129,2147.828.81
191385610,1198.018.46
191490410,1488.298.91
19159009,9658.199.03
191690910,5968.278.50
191795710,5288.719.09
191893616,3648.49572 (a)
8.59 (b)
19191,03110,8089.029.54
19201,02912,1098.638.50
19211,04410,6828.539.77

The proportion of deaths from cancer to the 1,000 persons living in some of the-principal countries of the world, as shown in the next table, leads to the conclusion, that there is a general tendency to increase.

CANCER DBATH-RATES PER 1,000 LIVING IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES.
Country.Average of 5 Years, 1800–1900.Average of 5 Years, 1906–10.Increase per Cent. during 10 Years.Rate for Last Year ascertainable.
* Decrease.
    Year.Rate.
New Zealand0.590.7222.0319210.85
Commonwealth of Australia0.580.7020.6919200.85
England and Wales0.800.9417.5019191.15
Scotland0.771.0029.8719201.19
Ireland0.580.77936.2119200.85
German Empire0.660.8427.2719130.91
Austria0.690.778113.0419120.81
Italy0.510.6425.4919170.64
Norway0.860.9712.7919170.96
Denmark0.450.5420.0019140.58
Netherlands0.9211.0311.9619201.12
Switzerland1.271.2600.79*19181.24

The parts of the body most commonly affected in New Zealand are the stomach and liver. Among females the generative and mammary organs are frequently the seat of the disease. Full details of location are published in the Annual Report on the Vital Statistics.

CANCER: SEAT OF DISEASE, 1921.
Seat of Disease.Males.Females.Total.
Buccal cavity48856
Stomach and liver227145372
Peritoneum, intestines, rectum91100191
Female genital organs..     9090
Breast..     8686
Skin13720
Other organs or organs not specified14485229
                        Totals5235211,044

It will be observed that in two instances the rates for the two sexes show considerable disparity, to the disadvantage of the male sex—viz., cancer of the buccal cavity, and of the stomach and liver. The discrepancy in the former instance is, perhaps, due largely to two circumstances: first, that smoking is confined more or less exclusively to the males, and, secondly, that, generally speaking, more attention is paid to the teeth, &c., by females. In the second instance it appears that another predominantly male habit—drinking—is partially responsible. Alcohol is known to detrimentally affect the stomach, &c., by producing ulceration and cirrhosis, often forerunners to cancer.

AGES OF PERSONS WHO DIED FROM CANCER, 1921.
Ages.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5 years156
5 years and under 102..     2
10 ″ 15..     22
15 ″ 20213
20 ″ 25336
25 ″ 30..     22
30 ″ 354812
35 ″ 40131730
40 ″ 45213859
45 ″ 50274168
50 ″ 554472116
55 ″ 606261123
60 ″ 657849127
65 ″709166137
70 ″ 757166137
75 ″ 806447111
80 years and upwards404383
          Total5235211,044

Eighty-eight per cent, of the deaths from cancer during 1921 were at the ages 45 years and upwards, and 59 per cent. at the ages 60 years and upwards.

Exhaustive statistical inquiry covering the period from 1872 to date has shown that in New Zealand death from cancer is, on the average, now occurring later in life than formerly. It would seem that this is the case even if allowance be made for the fact that the age-constitution of the Dominion is increasing—i.e., that the average citizen of New Zealand is now older than the average citizen of ten, twenty, or fifty years ago.

PUERPERAL CAUSES.

In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, owing to the association between maternal death-rate and the all-important matter of the birth-rate, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance.

In recent years New Zealand has had a comparatively high death-rate from puerperal causes when considered in relation to the number of births rather than on population basis. The rate for each year since 1872 is as follows:—

Year.Proportion per 1,000 Children born.
18724.26
18734.63
18745.76
18756.44
18764.58
18774.39
18784.78
18794.48
18803.93
18814.91
18825.31
18834.95
18846.90
18857.31
18865.75
18874.96
18885.87
18894.23
18905.42
18915.20
18924.53
18934.29
18945.99
18955.45
18965.67
18974.38
18984.80
18994.57
19003.84
19014.39
19025.33
19035.86
19044.66
19054.22
19063.88
19074.62
19084.59
19094.09
19104.50
19114.33
19123.64
19144.16
19154.70
19165.86
19175.98
19185.18
19195.06
19206.48
19215.08

During the fifty years covered by the table the rate has ranged between 3.58 and 7.31 per 1,000 live births registered, the lowest rate being in 1913 and the highest in 1885. It is noticeable that, in the cases of both lowest and highest rates, neighbouring years rank first and second on the list. The rate for 1920 was the third highest on record, having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885, but it is gratifying to see that this high rate was not maintained in 1921, a decrease of approximately 23 per cent being recorded.

The figures for years subsequent to 1915 are somewhat disadvantageously placed for purposes of comparison with earlier years. Commencing with 1916, special inquiry has been made in all cases where a woman of child-bearing age has been returned as having died of such causes as septicæmia, peritonitis, nephritis, &c. (without, qualification), with the result that in each year several of such cases are found to be puerperal and are now so classed. Possibly this factor also affects to a certain extent comparison with other countries, and in any case the possibility of different treatment between one country and another as regards puerperal accidents and diseases and associated causes should not be overlooked when comparing New Zealand with other countries. It may be stated, however, that the average rate of the Dominion for the five years 1916–20 (5.71 per 1,000 births) is somewhat higher than the rates for Australia (4.90), England and Wales (4.05), and Ireland (4.98), but lower than that for Scotland (6.15). The New Zealand rate is also much lower than that for the United States registration area (9.2 in 1918 and 7.4 in 1919).

The following table shows the number of deaths from puerperal causes during each of the last ten years, classified in the eight groups into which such cases are divided in the international classification:—

DEATHS FROM PUERPERAL CAUSES, BY GROUPS, 1912–21.
Group.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
* Mainly deaths from puerperal mania.
Accidents of pregnancy222521382727159299
Puerperal hæmorrhage13141714201811104018
Other accidents of labour28161918261619111210
Puerperal septicæmia19293522605948526748
Puerperal albuminura and convulsions16101832243730363741
Puerperal embolism and thrombosis137558104918
Following childbirth (not otherwise defined)*1212541131
Puerperal diseases of the breast..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     
            Totals10099118131167169134124194145

The great increase in the figures for puerperal septicæmia since 1916 would suggest that the alteration in the system referred to above is entirely responsible for the considerable increases in maternal deaths since 1915. The indications, however, are that the change is only partly responsible. During the five years 1911–15 deaths shown as being due to puerperal septicæmia averaged 26 per annum, and during the next five years 55 per annum, an increase of 29. The corresponding figures for non puerperal or undefined septicæmia of women of the child-bearing ages were 16 and 4 for the respective quinquennia, a decrease of only 12.

DEATHS FROM VIOLENCE.

Deaths from violence are steadily decreasing in numbers. The rate per 10,000 of mean population was 5.41 in 1916, 5.10 in 1917, 4.97 in 1918, 5.08 in 1919, 4.74 in 1920, and 4.71 in. 1921. The various forms of violent deaths (excluding suicides) in 1921 are shown in the following table:—

VIOLENT DEATHS (EXCLUDING SUICIDES), 1921.
Cause of Death.Males.Females.Total.
Accidents—
    Poisoning (by food)..     33
    Other acute poisonings7411
    Conflagration14317
    Burns, scalds211839
    Asphyxia7310
    Drowning10921130
    Cutting or piercing instruments314
    Firearms19..     19
    Falls41849
    Mines and quarries6..     6
    Machinery819
    Crushing—
        Railway36..     36
        Tramway11314
        Motor vehicles561369
        Other vehicles23..     23
        Other22..     22
Injuries by animals9110
Homicide—
    By firearms4..     4
    By cutting or piercing instruments134
    By other means527
Over-exertion5..     5
Excessive cold2..     2
Lightning2..     2
Fractures (cause not shown)221941
Other external violence37138
                            Totals473104577

SUICIDES.

The suicidal deaths in 1921 were 157—males 127 and females 30. The rate per 10,000 of mean population was—males 2.06, females 0.49, both sexes 1.28. The average of the preceding five years was 1.16 per 10,000 living. The New Zealand suicide-rate, 1910–20, approximates that of the Commonwealth (1.09 per 10,000 living), and that of the United States registration area (l.23), but compares unfavourably with that of England and Wales (0.78). The following table shows the means of self. destruction employed in New Zealand in 1921:—

SUICIDES, 1921.
Mode of Death.Males.Females.Total.
Hanging or strangulation28432
Firearms36..     36
Cutting or piercing instruments22224
Poison111021
Drowning141125
Asphyxia426
Jumping from high places1..     1
Crushing..     11
Explosive5..     6
Means not stated6..     6
                          Total suicides12730157

MAORI DEATHS.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths of Maoris registered under section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912, since its coming into force. The numbers registered under the main Act are also given.

Year.Under Section 20 of Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, 1912.Under Main Act.
Males.Females.Totals.Totals.
* Not shown separately.
1913**41261
191438234172342
191542436278631
191643232976147
191738234772944
19181,0009371,93799
19196315631,19469
192044641385933
192148530779218

Maoris suffered exceedingly severe losses during the influenza epidemic of 1918. As statistics of causes of deaths are not compiled in their case, the exact totals cannot be ascertained. By taking December quarter's huge total of deaths and subtracting the approximate number in normal times it seems that the death-toll of the epidemic was in the neighbourhood of 25 per 1,000 of the Maori population. These deaths are not included in the numbers quoted elsewhere in this subsection.

DEATHS IN COOK ISLANDS.

As explained in the Births subsection of this book, a system of compulsory registration of deaths is now ruling in the Cook Islands.

Particulars required are much the same as in New Zealand proper, but the onus of registering is thrown on the occupier of the house where the death took place, or on any person present at the time of death. If the deceased in his or her last illness was attended by a medical practitioner, a medical certificate must be supplied to the Registrar. Any person conducting a burial or a religious service thereat must notify the nearest Registrar in writing within one week.

The following are the figures of death registrations in each island during the year 1920:—

DEATHS IN COOK ISLANDS, 1920.
Island.Number of Deaths.
* Nine months ended 30th September, 1920.
Rarotonga84
Aitutaki40
Mangaia38
Manihiki*..     
Mauke22
Mitiaro..     
Rakahanga*..     
Atiu31
Penrhyn*..     
Niue104
          Total319

SUBSECTION D.—MORBIDITY.

INTRODUCTORY.

DEATH-RATES are of great value as indicating the relative healthiness of different countries or for different years. The statistics of causes of registered deaths are of further use as showing the incidence of fatal diseases or accidents, and as indicating in a general way the relative rise or fall of diseases over a series of years. For instance, the fall in the incidence of tuberculosis and the increase in cancer (discussed in Subsection C of this section) can be readily traced from the records of deaths attributed to these causes in different years.

In comparisons of healthiness based on death-rates, however, the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years is not taken into account. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades age as incurable now give a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death-rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally.

Of recent years much attention has been devoted in different countries to the possibility or otherwise of obtaining reliable statistics of sickness. In certain of the American States an attempt has been made to obtain from medical men returns of all patients dealt with, giving the nature and duration of illness, and similar systems have been inaugurated or proposed in other countries.

In New Zealand certain diseases are notifiable, but beyond this the only record other than that of fatality is the information ascertainable from the returns of discharges from public hospitals. In the absence of full statistics of sickness, however, information from the two sources mentioned is of considerable value, and gives a fair indication of the prevalence of the more important diseases.

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES.

The system of notification of certain diseases has been in force in New Zealand for many years, and the list of notifiable diseases has undergone several alterations. The list at present is as follows:—

* Discontinued as from 2nd June, 1922.
A. Notifiable infectious diseases mentioned in Part I of First Schedule of Health Act 1920:—
        Anthrax.Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).
        Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis).Puerperal fever (puerperal septicæmia and puerperal sapræmia).
        Cholera.Scarlet fever (scarlatina).
        Dengue.Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch, and Philippine itch).
        Diphtheria. 
        Erysipelas. 
        Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever).Typhus.
 Yellow fever.
        Leprosy. 
B. Notifiable infectious diseases declared by Gazette notice:—
        Chicken-pox (varicella).*Acute primary pneumonia.
        Encephalitis lethargica.Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis).
        Fulminant influenza.Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids).
        Pneumonic influenza. 
        Septicæmic influenza.Tuberculosis (pulmonary).
        Ophthalmia neonatorum.Pediculosis.
C. Notifiable diseases, other than infectious, mentioned in Second Schedule:—
        Actinomycosis.Food-poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).
        Anchylostomiasis (hookworm disease). 
        Bilharziosis (endemic hæmaturia, Egyptian hæmaturia).Chronic lead poisoning.
 Phosphorus poisoning.
        Beriberi.Tetanus.
        Hydatids. 

Notifications of diseases during 1921 are shown for each month of the year in the following table:—

Disease.January.February.March.April.May.June.July.August.September.October.November.December.Totals.
* Only pneumonic, fulminant, and septicæmic types included.
Scarlet fever601071241601801941942031881611571171,845
Diphtheria1261542042352912942902242342041841712,611
Enteric fever275647453421425019324137451
Tuberculosis10610010585908094126961121131001,207
Cerebro-spinal meningitis95562378333256
Acute poliomyelitis468460261233635910267
Puerperal fever7476518143433181616178
Influenza*71424915264985362226295
Acute primary pneumonia6543484386961061401397395951,029
Varicella1813204810191891531531602091541,209
Erysipelas51015101822312827231920228
Tetanus111..     32..     2144221
Lethargic encephalitis23111332132123
Hydatids32122742263236
Trachoma111..     1..     ..     2112212
Ophthalmia neonatorum54334244211235
Actinomycosis..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     2
Variola..     ..     1..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
Chronic lead poisoning..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Leprosy..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11..     2
Beriberi..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11..     2
Anthrax..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     12
Food-poisoning..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1
                Totals4886026466748398529081,0349888448827589,515

A quinquennial summary of certain principal diseases is as follows:—

PRINCIPAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES NOTIFIED, 1917–21.
Disease.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Scarlet fever2,7551,6541,5211,2481,845
Diphtheria5,4585,5393,4992,4422,611
Enteric fever653423477389451
Tuberculosis1,5211,0729841,3051,207
Cerebro-spinal meningitis42159967956
Poliomyelitis5461176267
Puerperal septicæmia817679124178
Erysipelas1127273156228

Information as to case-fatality in regard to the three first-mentioned diseases above is given in the next table for each of the last ten years:—

Year.Diphtheria.Scarlet Fever.Enteric Fever.
Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality. Per Cent.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality. Per Cent.Cases notified.Deaths.Case-fatality. Per Cent.
1912753466.111,61070.43582467.90
1913747618.171,614110.68863606.95
19141,094787.131,506221.45859485.59
19151,420996.972,312441.90825526.30
19162,3761636.864,278521.22806373.72
19175,4582374.342,755301.09653416.28
19185,5391893.411,654301.81423337.80
19193,4991574.491,521231.51477347.13
19202,442953.891,248151.203894010.28
19212,6111074.101,845241.30451245.32

PUBLIC HOSPITALS: ADMISSIONS AND DISCHARGES.

The total admissions to public hospitals in New Zealand during 1921 numbered 45,107. There were 3,382 patients in hospital at the beginning of the year, the total cases dealt with during the year being thus 48,489, equal to 379 per 10,000 of mean population, including Maoris. The total number of persons treated is somewhat less than the number of cases, each admission being counted a separate case.

Of the 48,489 cases, 26,302 were discharged as recovered, in 13,912 cases the patient was discharged relieved, and in 1,925 cases as unrelieved. Deaths in hospital numbered 2,974, or 6.13 per cent. of cases dealt with. The figures of admissions, discharges, and deaths for each of the public hospitals in the Dominion, other than St. Helens Maternity Homes, are given in the table following, together with the numbers of patients in hospital at the beginning and end of the year. There are 72 public general hospitals, 4 fever or infectious-diseases hospitals, and 7 sanatoria for consumptives.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—ADMISSIONS, DISCHARGES, ETC., 1921.
Hospital.Patients remaining on 1st January, 1921.Admissions during 1921.Discharges during 1921.Deaths in Hospital during 1921.Patients remaining on 31st December, 1921.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
Mangonui7131100131915
Whangaroa..     613615334
Bay of Islands15193143416513
Hokianga112651895181414
Northern Wairoa92071462812219
Otamatea1795612354
Kamo Springs..     10125751..     ..     
Whangarei521,046760254123834
Auckland3965,4573,3791,493155456370
Waikato1582,1631,029871159104158
Te Waikato Sanatorium3543150207..     
Kawhia2553911223
Taumarunui174743936071318
Waihi2344334745202133
Thames40946737146164641
Coromandel5715114..     56
Mercury Bay1412912..     1..     
Tauranga62101355621211
Te Puke5103917316
King George V, Rotorua1761034145103180
Opotiki8175137215812
Waiapu362545141
Cook811,285994146488494
Wairoa112351961341320
Napier1581,548890403122126165
Waipawa5338629767152238
Pukeora Sanatorium1361555118186144
Dannevirke333232852282021
Taranaki731,18098887157390
Stratford1733326749..     268
Hawera2647434780122833
Patea162802313551312
Wanganui1191,5881,17727228105127
Taihape204713905721725
Palmerston North601,4691,202167345868
Otaki9135101148129
Otaki Sanatorium2968281021236
Pahiatua716513217..     716
Masterton4459646894103632
Greytown122511795291211
Wellington2934,2207302,876238334335
Wairau1547632783162342
Havelock..     5338852..     
Picton921719772713
Nelson41554332146343746
Westport3338231738..     2931
Reefton241196031..     1339
Waiuta Nurses' Home369664..     ..     2
Denniston1937011373
Grey River6238024672194956
Westland302882134433127
Otira Cottage..     271872..     ..     
Kaikoura9186140275176
Waikari492709107..     
Oxford4996816289
Christchurch2595,4052,5392,109343358315
Burwood Fever Hospital1827925684425
Cashmere Hills Sanatorium67665191171
Coronation Hospital for Consumptives514652241056
Lyttelton Casualty Ward..     531340..     ..     ..     
Akaroa121104215
Ashburton3668648513774251
Timaru41885504276296255
Talbot Infectious Diseases346334..     ..     12
Waimate254433446872227
Oamaru1131621050133816
Pleasant Valley Sanatorium4668242516742
Port Chalmers Cottage1341411451
Logan Point Fever Hospital7242821..     ..     
Dunedin2083,6151,5141,679217242171
Wakari1531..     1261414
Prince Edward Convalescent Home2114578682..     18
Tuapeka5522419..     59
Kaitangata..     45374..     4..     
Tapanui3521124758
Naseby1216210156..     98
Dunstan10835320..     911
Cromwell917013329287
Lake County5563013387
Seddon Memorial, Gore142922372852016
Southland811,0973835271057687
Kew Infectious Diseases9412654411
Wallace and Fiord222682152321733
                Totals3,38245,10726,30213,9121,9252,9743,576

The figures for each of the last five years are,—

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—ADMISSIONS, DISCHARGES, AND DEATHS, 1917–21.
Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
191738,88224,49310,1241,3212,79338,731
191846,22631,2539,4091,3664,46846,496
191942,91726,32111,3851,9062,86442,476
192045,99528,23012,4182,2413,39946,288
192145,10726,30213,9121,9252,97445,113

AGES OF PATIENTS.

The ages of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1920 and 1921 are as shown in the following summary:—

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—AGES OF PATIENTS DISCHARGED OR DYING.
Ages of Patients, in Years.1920.1921.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
Under 52,3231,7364,0592,4111,7764,187
5 and under 102,5122,2334,7452,9002,5175,417
10     ″     151,8841,5663,4501,9741,7073,681
15     ″     254,7394,2498,9884,3674,0368,403
25     ″     354,5513,9868,5373,8883,8587,746
35     ″     453,8872,8296,7163,3712,7646,135
45     ″     552,5221,4033,9252,4121,3053,717
55     ″     651,7727582,5301,7737632,536
65 and over2,3858423,2272,2177822,999
Unspecified5259111524092
                Totals26,62719,66146,28825,36519,54844,913

SUMMARY OF DISEASES, ETC.

The international classification of diseases and causes of death divides such into fourteen well-defined classes, which are further subdivided into 189 orders. The table following shows that Class I, “General diseases,” is first on the list as regards both discharges and deaths. Diseases of the digestive system and diseases of the respiratory system come second and third respectively in point of numbers, but the death-rate in each case is low. External causes come next on the list, and here again the death-rate is very low, owing to the preponderance of simple fractures, cuts, bruises, &c.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES, 1921.
Class.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
      I. General diseases5,2372,7456495963705,3394,258
    II. Diseases of the nervous system and of the organs of special sense8491,4693731851221,8231,175
  III. Diseases of the circulatory system63784956283971,292630
    IV. Diseases of the respiratory system4,4141,55198222983,6232,760
      V. Diseases of the digestive system5,6681,8381651581104,2193,720
    VI. Diseases of the genito-urinary system and annexa1,8601,209173155781,0412,434
  VII. Puerperal condition1,65127238..     65..     2,026
VIII. Diseases of the skin and of the cellular tissue1,3146393027141,319705
    IX. Diseases of the organs of locomotion737767651991,122475
      X. Malformations2191683610736773
    XI. Diseases of early infancy2924618305057
  XII. Old age (senile debility, &c.)135850642415059
XIII. External causes3,4501,963111160394,772951
  XIV. Ill-defined causes22416075122248225
            Totals, 192126,30213,9121,9251,9091,06525,36519,548
            Totals, 192028,23012,4182,2412,1771,22226,62719,661
            Totals, 191926,32111,3851,9061,88498026,16416,312
            Totals, 191831,2539,4091,3662,9551,51327,11919,377
            Totals, 191724,49310,1241,3211,81298122,23916,492

More detailed information concerning certain of the principal diseases and groups of diseases is given in the following pages. The Annual Report on the Vital Statistics of New Zealand contains detailed information for each hospital.

EPIDEMIC GENERAL DISEASES.

The first class of diseases in the international classification is the “general diseases,” the first nineteen orders of which cover epidemic diseases. The principal epidemic general diseases dealt with in public hospitals are scarlet fever and diphtheria. There are four special hospitals for the treatment of these and similar infectious diseases, all situated in the South Island. Several hospitals have fever wings attached.

A table of the epidemic general diseases dealt with in public hospitals during 1921 is given.

EPIDEMIC GENERAL DISEASES, 1921.
Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Typhoid fever200123198131111
Malaria217..     ..     ..     19..     
Leprosy..     ..     2..     ..     2..     
Measles29943..     55174178
Scarlet fever1,016751358399718
Whooping-cough4917..     323932
Diphtheria1,500115313640762960
Croup114..     1..     124
Influenza41065..     249333175
Dysentery12911..     212
Erysipelas9717..     215067
Chicken-pox3171..     ..     1524
Mumps399..     ..     ..     2325
German measles341..     ..     ..     530
      Totals, 19213,7003915196731,9852,326
      Totals, 19206,336538782141583,7393,585
      Totals, 19194,186362621191012,5472,283
      Totals, 191811,084346321,1836127,0746,183
      Totals, 19175,812192551351142,9783,330

In 1921 the mortality-rate was 3.92 per cent., a considerable decrease as compared with the two years immediately preceding, due principally to the marked falling-off in the number of influenza cases treated in hospital.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Tuberculosis occupies eight orders in the classification of diseases, but is usually divided into two groups—viz., pulmonary tuberculosis and other forms of tuberculosis. In the following table an attempt has been made to show in detail the part of the body affected. Pulmonary tuberculosis, with which is included tuberculosis (undefined) and acute miliary tuberculosis, comprises 60 per cent. of the total of 1,841 cases of tubercular diseases, and 67 per cent. of the deaths.

TUBERCULOSIS CASES IN HOSPITALS, 1921.
Form of Tuberculosis.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.RelievedUnrelieved.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Pulmonary tuberculosis13553520813485706391
Acute miliary tuberculosis..     1..     104105
Tuberculous meningitis..     ..     228252827
Abdominal tuberculosis113677103338
Tuberculosis of spine54111113029
Pott's disease122..     111510
Lumbar abscess42..     ..     ..     33
Psoas abscess11011..     112
Spondylitis..     11..     ..     11
Tuberculosis of hip2095111..     7255
            “            knee4343..     ..     2318
            “            ankle..     112..     ..     94
            “            elbow23..     ..     ..     32
            “            wrist..     4..     ..     ..     13
            “            sacro-iliac joint1512..     54
            “            shoulder..     11..     ..     ..     2
            “            joints(undefined)..     511..     52
            “            eye13..     ..     ..     4..     
            “            ear..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1
            “            face..     1..     ..     ..     1..     
            “            neck55..     ..     ..     28
            “            glands of neck35283..     ..     2244
            “            thumb..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1
            “            axilla31..     ..     ..     13
            “            chest1111..     31
            “            arm221..     ..     23
            “            breast..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1
            “            kidney41622..     915
Tuberculous nephritis..     1..     ..     ..     1..     
Tuberculosis of bladder..     101..     ..     101
Tuberculous cystitis..     6..     ..     ..     51
Tuberculosis of mesenteric glands..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1
            “            genital organs17162..     1288
            “            thigh..     2..     ..     ..     11
            “            femoral gland..     1..     ..     ..     1..     
            “            groin2..     ..     ..     ..     2..     
            “            leg21..     ..     ..     21
            “            foot24..     ..     ..     51
            “            bones9285..     ..     2517
            “            glands(undefined)612..     ..     45
            “            skin..     1..     ..     ..     1..     
Tuberculous adenitis111..     ..     ..     39
            “            abscess36..     ..     ..     72
            “            sinus122..     ..     23
            “            ulcer..     1..     ..     ..     ..     1
Lupus..     2..     1..     21
Disseminated tuberculosis16272108
                Totals, 19212799652711971291,108733
                Totals, 19202878242562071461,012708
                Totals, 19192978132682091241,137574
                Totals, 19182739912161911351,215591
                Totals, 19172808382322001041,045609

VENEREAL DISEASES.

In order to obtain some definite information regarding the so-called “social diseases,” a questionnaire has been attached since 1919 to the hospital discharge-cards used in the preparation of statistical tables, requiring completion in all cases where the disease treated was due to one form or other of venereal disease. Of 133,877 patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during the three years 1919, 1920, and 1921, some 789 suffered from effects of syphilis and 1,028 from effects of gonococcal infection. Some of the results obtained are tabulated below:—

How Infection contracted.Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Died.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Origin Syphilitic.
Congenitally51030369312105659
Sexual intercourse491820857551318333091
Mouth or lip infection..     ..     21..     ..     ..     ..     21
Accidentally..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Otherwise11221..     ..     ..     34
Not known or not stated181811235321015217765
                Totals734735513197264515569220
Origin Gonococcal.
Sexual intercourse21310932681221271568203
At birth1021992..     4..     2530
Infection from child..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
From parents..     1..     2..     ..     ..     ..     ..     3
Rape..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
By contact..     51..     ..     ..     ..     ..     15
Contact with infected clothes, &c.12..     4..     ..     ..     ..     16
Accidentally..     1..     3..     ..     ..     ..     ..     4
Otherwise41267..     1..     ..     1020
Not known or not stated3634353238..     27476
                Totals2641863771392721113679349
                Grand totals3372337322701244756181,248569

The above figures do not include cases of chancroid infection, nor cases where the disease was “probably of syphilitic origin” or “probably of gonococcal origin.”

Another portion of the questionnaire concerned itself with the present communicability of the disease, and the opinions of the physicians in charge of the cases were as follows:—

Was Disease communicable at Date of Discharge?Origin Syphilitic.Origin Gonococcal.
No.Per Cent.No.Per Cent.
Yes18823.8331931.03
Very likely10.13..     ..     
Probably40.51292.82
Possibly70.89141.36
Except by intercourse..     ..     10.10
Yes, if treatment stopped20.2550.49
To receive further treatment151.90252.43
No32741.4448346.98
Probably not70.8920.19
Unlikely10.1310.10
Not with care40.5180.78
Not with treatment10.1340.39
Not at present20.25..     ..     
Not actively..     ..     10.10
Patient dead607.60141.36
Not known or not stated17021.5412211.87
 789100.001,028100.00

These figures relate to those persons suffering from venereal disease who in the large majority of cases have been compelled to seek admission to hospital for the treatment of some complication of the disease from which they were suffering, and who otherwise would have remained outside the hospital and, in the absence of compulsory notification, been unnoticed. Those patients discharged suffering from this disease in a communicable form had completed their treatment as in-patients, and were discharged from hospital to “carry on treatment” either as out-patients of the hospital concerned or as patients of private medical practitioners. At the present time it is not possible to compulsorily detain for treatment a person who is suffering from venereal disease.

CANCER.

Of recent years cancer has come into great prominence amongst causes of death, now ranking in New Zealand second only to heart-disease in point of number of deaths. Information as to deaths and death-rates from cancer is given in Subsection C of this section.

A special article on cancer in New Zealand was published in the Official Yearbook for 1917.

The total number of deaths in public hospitals in 1921 where cancer was assigned as the cause was 275 (males 184, females 91). In addition 133 patients treated for cancer were discharged as recovered, 273 as relieved, and 194 as unrelieved. Very few of the recoveries were in cases of internal cancer, and but a small proportion of the deaths in cases of surface cancer. It is noticeable that with but few exceptions cancer of the mouth and its annexa was confined to males. A table is given showing the seat of the disease in all cases of discharge or death during 1921. In three cases the location cannot be given on account of the disease being returned merely as “cancer.” In a number of other similar cases the nature of the operation was the only means of enabling the seat of the disease to be allocated.

Of the 275 patients who died in hospital from cancer during 1921, 150, or 55 per cent., had been in hospital less than one month, and of these 33 died within one week of admission.

Tables published in the Annual Report on Vital Statistics give detailed information as to condition on discharge and part of body affected, in conjunction with age of patient and also with period in hospital.

CANCER CASES.—DISCHARGES FROM AND DEATHS IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS, 1921.
Seat of Disease.Discharges.Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Mouth1..     2..     2..     4..     
Jaw..     ..     12215..     
Lip37130..     1..     41
Tongue2..     6..     8..     6..     
Tonsils..     ..     1..     4..     5..     
Palate..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     
Cheek31..     11..     1..     
Gum..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     
Œsophagus..     ..     815..     101
Stomach1..     1033093315
Pylorus115..     ..     ..     41
Liver..     ..     2262184
Stomach and liver..     ..     ..     ..     3..     22
Gall-bladder..     11..     ..     ..     ..     2
Pharynx..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1..     
Peritonæum..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Omentum..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     
Bowels..     ..     ..     ..     2164
Intestines..     ..     1..     111..     
Cæcum..     11..     ..     31..     
Colon..     173..     176
Sigmoid..     ..     14..     223
Rectum2..     7396146
Uterus..     9..     11..     5..     5
Neck of uterus..     8..     14..     15..     3
Ovary..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     1
Vulva..     ..     ..     2..     2..     ..     
Hydatiform mole..     4..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Breast..     25..     46..     15..     15
Skin6275221..     
Rodent ulcer92124253..     
Brain..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     
Eye2..     22..     11..     
Antrum..     ..     12..     ..     ..     ..     
Sub-maxillary glands1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Parotid glands..     ..     121..     2..     
Neck..     ..     22..     ..     ..     ..     
Glands of neck2..     1014..     51
Larynx..     ..     21112..     
Throat..     ..     ..     11..     ..     ..     
Epiglottis..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Thyroid..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Axilla..     ..     ..     5..     ..     21
Supra - clavicular glands..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Arm1..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Hand1..     1..     2..     ..     ..     
Wrist..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Fingers..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Thumb..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Back..     ..     ..     1..     ..     1..     
Ilium..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Spine..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Pericardium..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Chest..     ..     ..     2..     ..     1..     
Pectoral muscles..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     
Lung..     ..     ..     1..     ..     21
Mediastinum..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     42
Abdomen1..     ..     ..     1131
Pancreas..     ..     2..     5343
Kidney..     ..     ..     1..     132
Bladder1..     2..     1..     4..     
Prostate..     ..     6..     7..     11..     
Pelvis..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1
Male genital organs3..     3..     1..     2..     
Buttock..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Groin..     ..     11..     ..     ..     ..     
Inguinal glands..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     
Leg..     12..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Femur..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1
Fibula..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Not specified..     111..     13..     
Disseminated1..     ..     14224
            Totals, 192175581421311108418491
            Totals, 192053671128710684174109
            Totals, 191973871081081066518693
            Totals, 1918666911076665516887
            Totals, 19178072116107654917276

OTHER GENERAL DISEASES.

The principal of the remaining general diseases, with their figures for 1921, are as follows:—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Non-puerperal septicæmia302173211367121
Tetanus51..     10115
Non-malignant tumours1325418413177
Acute rheumatism280171313299168
Chronic rheumatism and gout249923910352
Diabetes108117536398
Exophthalmic goitre21618122280
Leucæmia171114276
Anæmia and chlorosis14455283656
Alcoholism175128141930234

Diabetes, exophthalmic goitre, leuæmia, and pernicious anæmia are usually fatal. Only one recovery is recorded in the case of pernicious anæmia, the remaining cases mentioned being due to other forms of anæmia. Twenty of the 28 deaths from anæmia are due to the pernicious type of the disease.

DISEASES OF THE EYES.

Eye troubles were responsible for admission to hospital of no fewer than 706 of the cases discharged from hospital during 1921. There were only two deaths from these causes. A summary of the various diseases of the eyes dealt with may be of interest.

DISEASES OF THE EYES.—DISCHARGES FROM HOSPITAL, 1921.
Disease.Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Deaths.Total.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Foreign body in eye10..     11..     2..     ..     ..     23..     
Strabismus8589..     2..     ..     1616
Keratitis23751..     ..     ..     108
Glaucoma231318..     1..     ..     1522
Iritis1573183..     ..     ..     4915
Ulcers of eye35124211..     1..     ..     7724
Cataract2389042192..     ..     13252
Conjunctivitis2717203..     1..     14722
Abscess, tumour of eye107643..     ..     ..     1911
Dacryocystitis34281..     ..     ..     612
Other diseases (including undefined)3017392986..     17753
                  Totals, 1921165832691373713..     2471235
                  Totals, 1920112791891283616..     ..     337223
                  Totals, 19191679920413032181..     404247
                  Totals, 1918129991461129611285212
                  Totals, 191712984212107822..     351193

Injuries to the eyes, other than those due to the presence of some foreign body, are included in the “accident” class. There were 135 cases of injury to the eyes in 1921.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The diseases of the nervous system, following the international classification, are as follows:—

DiseaseDischarges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Encephalitis3..     ..     ..     ..     3
Encephalitis lethargica1..     ..     964
Abscess of brain..     ..     ..     532
Meningitis2173646431
Locomotor ataxia116245442
Other diseases of the spinal cord651884132200126
Apoplexy, cerebral hæmorrhage1441611811168
Softening of the brain..     11121
Paralysis without specified cause166520348550
General paralysis of the insane152172
Other forms of mental alienation16318035773
Epilepsy229232211830
Convulsions64..     138
Convulsions of infants2011132114
Chorea14254..     1528
Neuralgia, neuritis131167264181147
Other nervous diseases1132637621258215
            Totals, 19214439163162941,169800
            Totals, 19204667534613071,290697
            Totals, 19193337312673331,165699
            Totals, 1918428708186264958628
            Totals, 1917391727184258921639

This class shows a fairly high death-rate over the whole group, the rate, however, being greatly reduced by the inclusion of such minor complaints as neuralgia and neurasthenia, which represent a fair proportion of the total cases dealt with. Among the discharges it is noticed that the number of cases returned as recovered is considerably less than those classified as relieved.

The diseases included under “Other diseases of the spinal cord” for the last five years are as follows:—

Disease.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Infantile paralysis57471758231
Progressive muscular atrophy2862619
Lateral sclerosis97101420
Disseminated sclerosis5661120
Sclerosis (undefined)..     ..     12..     
Friedricks ataxia1..     ..     31
Myelitis1063415
Ascending myelitis..     ..     1..     ..     
Degeneration of spinal cord1..     ..     ..     ..     
Paralysis agitans44111712
Bulgar paralysis52211
Spinal paralysis..     14..     ..     
Acute ascending paralysis..     1..     ..     1
Pseudo-hypertropic muscular paralysis..     ..     2..     ..     
Polioencephalitis..     ..     ..     11
Myeloencephalitis..     ..     ..     ..     1
Syringomyelia1..     111
Haematomyelia..     1..     11
Tumours of spine..     ..     1..     2
              Totals1218161119326

During the year 1921 there were 231 cases of infantile paralysis, a figure materially larger than that of the previous year, when only 58 cases in hospital were recorded. This is by far the largest number in any one year since the mild outbreak early in the year 1916.

The total number of deaths in 1921 ascribed to “other diseases of the spinal cord” was 32. Nine of these were due to infantile paralysis, 7 to myelitis, and 6 to paralysis agitans.

The large percentage of mental cases shown as unrelieved is due to the inclusion of a number of such cases being admitted to hospital for observation. It is not usual for mental patients to be treated in hospital for any length of time. Many mental patients are transferred from the public general hospitals to the mental hospitals.

Neurasthenia was the complaint in 303 of the 473 cases shown above for “other nervous diseases,” this number including a large proportion of returned soldiers, but the total number of these cases is rapidly decreasing Cerebral tumours accounted for 10 of the 21 deaths.

DISEASES OF THE EARS.

Diseases of the ears dealt with in hospital appear to be much fewer than eye-diseases. The total number in 1921 was 323, compared with 255 in 1920, 208 in 1919, 174 in 1918, and 192 in 1917. Of the 323 cases in 1921, 235 were treated for otitis media, 13 for otorrhœa, and 15 for tumours. Only 2 deaths were recorded in 1921, both due to otitis media.

DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

Organic diseases of the heart are the most important in this class. During the year 1921 the returns show that there were 293 deaths due to heart-disease, as compared with 291 in 1920, 257 in 1919, 285 in 1918, and 257 in 1917. A table showing the condition on discharge and the number of deaths from the various diseases of the circulatory system for 1921 is given below:—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Pericarditis27..     595
Acute endocarditis17422415646
Organic diseases of heart5747327293613237
Angina pectoris111..     5134
Diseases of the arteries2246163513
Embolism..     ..     ..     11..     
Thrombosis1383111916
Varicose veins4834..     ..     4735
Varicose ulcers100693..     10171
Varicocele2742..     33..     
Hæmorrhoids118354..     11047
Phlebitis2411..     21621
Other diseases of veins53..     ..     35
Adenitis7036217831
Abscess of groin3711..     13118
Abscess of axilla2825..     ..     3617
Other diseases of lymphatic system6523215536
Hæmorrhage52..     153
Other diseases of circulatory system1830423123
                  Totals, 1921637849563801,293630
                  Totals, 1920733804673561,311649
                  Totals, 1919819786773221,427577
                  Totals, 1918712668513281,165594
                  Totals, 1917731728312771,134633

Diseases of the circulatory system do not occupy a very prominent position in the statistics of hospital cases. Evidently, in a high proportion of the large number of deaths registered in which heart-disease is assigned as the cause, the general state of health has not been such as to cause admission to hospital.

TONSILS AND ADENOIDS.

In the classification of diseases adenoids rank as a disease of the respiratory system, while treatment of the tonsils is included under the digestive system. As, however, many children are admitted to hospital for the removal of tonsils and adenoids at the same time, it is well to discuss these two complaints together.

The number of patients admitted during the five years 1917–21, classified according to sex, were,—

Year.Tonsils.Adenoids.Tonsils and Adenoids.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
1917239286160139661613
191829232711980650574
1919516442147103922906
192045356698821,1001,087
19213845251381121,3511,398

From the above table it will be seen that during 1921 adenoids alone was the cause shown in 250 cases, tonsils alone in 909 cases, while in 2,749 cases the treatment was for both tonsils and adenoids. Four deaths were recorded. The medical inspection of school-children is responsible for the admission of a large proportion of these cases to public hospitals.

BRONCHITIS AND PNEUMONIA.

Bronchitis, broncho-pneumonia, and pneumonia represent a big proportion of the non-tuberculous diseases of the respiratory system. The mortality-rate of these four diseases shows a fairly large decrease when compared with the previous year. Whereas the rate rose in 1920 to 17 per cent. of the total cases treated, it fell in 1921 to 13 per cent., there being a general decrease, but more so in the case of pneumonia. The figures for hospitals for 1921 are,—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Totals.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Acute bronchitis12745..     1211470
Chronic bronchitis2442421137386148
Broncho-pneumonia28839472204149
Pneumonia781626146678317
      Totals, 19211,390388212671,382684
      Totals, 19201,629403184161,570896
      Totals, 19191,192287152461,178562
      Totals, 19181,030203143211,029539
      Totals, 191773926115176781410

OTHER RESPIRATORY DISEASES.

Of the 136 goitre patients discharged from or dying in hospital during the year 1921, 120 were females, the figures for the previous four years being 119, 126, 124, and 85 respectively.

Diseases of the respiratory system, not already enumerated, for each of the last five years include,—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
* Other than adenoids.
Diseases of nasal fossæ*412369415390338..     1..     ..     ..     
Diseases of larnyx3867458082..     5413
Goitre9613414813713344253
Other diseases of thyroid4154333854..     ..     ..     ..     4
Pleurisy2613113923473521610876
Empyema90701271358714121989
Pulmonary congestion71717161112541
Asthma17416718514715012611107
Hydatid of lung131817181832312
Hæmoptysis222628171511..     ..     ..     
Pleurodynia91813910..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Pneumoconiosis91062394310..     
Other diseases34428580166991114
                  Totals1,2061,3031,5111,4151,2696656645749

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH.

There were 816 discharges and 37 deaths from diseases of the stomach during the year 1921, the principal of which were ulcer of stomach 203, gastritis 425, and dyspepsia 109.

Of the 37 deaths, gastric ulcer was the complaint in 25 cases and gastritis in 5. A comparison of the discharges and deaths for the principal diseases in each of the five years 1917–21 is next given:—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Ulcer of stomach1691761771981781623252525
Gastritis463390422333420105495
Dyspepsia72728168109..     ..     ..     1..     
Vomiting2720131512..     1..     ..     2
Hæmatemesis2025161917..     2231
Other diseases102819615569475104
        Totals8537648057888053038364837

Diseases of the Œsophagus, numbering 28 in 1921, are not included.

DIARRHŒA AND ENTERITIS.

The total cases of diarrhœa and enteritis included in the returns for 1921 were 753, including 65 deaths. Forty of the deaths were of children under two years of age, as compared with 36 in 1920, 10 in 1919, 19 in 1918, and 34 in 1917. The total number of discharges and deaths in each of the last five years were as follows:—

Year.Discharges.Deaths.Totals.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
191734979661292203
191832450236209203
1919354101528313175
19203781421360367226
19214722021465462291

APPENDICITIS.

Appendicitis ranks high among hospital cases, but the death-rate is exceedingly low. During 1921 only 51 deaths occurred out of a total of 2,750 cases dealt with, representing a percentage of 1.85. Of the discharges, 2,342 were returned as recoveries, 342 as relieved, and 15 as unrelieved. The figures for the last five years are,—

Year.Discharges.Deaths.Totals.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
19171,8612989671,0841,151
19181,75021715581,0101,030
19191,95716512631,0571,140
19202,09329418681,1651,308
19212,34234215511,3721,378

HERNIA, INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION.

Hernia cases included in the returns for 1921 numbered 876, including 27 deaths. A table showing for the different varieties of hernia, intestinal obstruction, intussusception, and volvulus, the condition on discharge from hospital, and the number of deaths during the year 1921, is given below:—

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Inguinal hernia50110314654678
Ventral hernia7217923664
Umbilical hernia2471..     1220
Fermoral hernia196..     41019
Strangulated hernia156..     2203
Hernia (undefined)4914235612
Intestinal obstruction39328255846
Intussusception155..     71413
Volvulus3..     ..     232
            Totals, 19217371903451755257
            Totals, 19207311323770707263
            Totals, 19197851592443806205
            Totals, 19186671093364678195
            Totals, 19176301572539642209

DISEASES OF THE LIVER.

Non-cancerous diseases of the liver were responsible for 29 deaths during the year 1921. Discharges and deaths of patients treated for liver-diseases numbered 483. Of the total, biliary calculi was highest with 218 (including 178 females), and cholecystitis, with 111, next highest.

The following table is a brief summary of the principal diseases :–

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Acute yellow atrophy..     ..     ..     1..     1
Hydatid23202..     2322
Cirrhosis12026227
Biliary calculi127793940178
Cholecystitis6145233774
Jaundice347232026
Other diseases1212272310
                Totals, 19212581831329165318
                Totals, 19202641302525166278
                Totals, 19192631251745173277
                Totals, 1918230881742150227
                Totals, 19172281361555165269

DISEASES OF THE URINARY SYSTEM.

Diseases of the kidneys and other portions of the urinary system numbered 1,377: details are given in the following table:-

Disease.Discharges.DeathsTotal Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Males.Females.
Acute nephritis55458227258
Bright's disease448858512498
Uræmia44..     262410
Albuminuria443..     74
Pyelitis74623332110
Hæmaturia14193..     279
Movable kidney1482..     420
Pyelonephritis17..     686
Perinephritic abscess41..     ..     5..     
Hydronephrosis312134
Abscess of kidney42..     17..     
Other kidney-diseases1811341620
Renal colic18181..     2512
Renal stone72310..     2911
Stone in bladder or urethra261351396
Retention of urine232525478
Incontinence of urine1101..     93
Cystitis789861490106
Cystocele832..     ..     13
Other diseases of bladder912121212
Stricture, &c., of urethra496911810928
Enlargement, &c, of prostate54511134150..     
                Totals, 192151257479212839538
                Totals, 192047051857168769444
                Totals, 191946447354158768381
                Totals, 191851544260148785380
                Totals, 191746741746173689414

DISEASES OF THE GENITAL ORGANS.

Non-venereal diseases of the male genital organs numbered 199 during the year 1921; 148 were classed as having recovered, 45 as relieved, and 5 as unrelieved. There was only 1 death recorded during the year. The total number of discharges and deaths during each of the five years. 1917–21 was as follows :–

Disease.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
* Included in other diseases in 1917.
Hydrocele6351975069
Orchitis5539513529
Circumcision2212223015
Epididymitis*13231611
Paraphimosis*27103010
Others11346743265
                Totals253188277193199

Diseases of the female genital organs, other than cancer or those diseases shown to be venereal or puerperal, are an important group in hospital cases, though the death-rate is exceedingly low. The total cases passing through public hospitals in 1921 were 1,729. involving only 18 deaths. The list follows:–

DISEASES OF FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS.
Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
Uterine hæmorrhage102455..     152
Uterine tumour993984150
Metritis18..     ..     119
Endometritis1084531157
Cervicitis282..     12
Endocervicitis73..     ..     10
Erosion of cervix343..     10
Retroversion of uterus17976172274
Anteflexion of uterus39..     ..     12
Retroflexion of uterus1532..     20
Prolapse of uterus13269144219
Parametritis25111..     37
Dysmenorrhæa44237..     74
Leucorrhæa1072..     19
Pelvic abscess1251119
Other diseases of uterus8117101109
Ovarian cysts913443132
Salpingitis586831130
Pyosalpinx15211..     37
Pyosalpingitis62..     ..     8
Salpingo-oophoritis93..     ..     12
Oophoritis157..     ..     22
Vaginitis417..     ..     21
Bartholin's abscess741..     12
Other diseases40202..     62
                  Totals, 19211,08554086181,729
                  Totals, 19201,00646597121,580
                  Totals, 19191,21228153171,563
                  Totals, 19181,27026843201,601
                  Totals, 19171,11840636251,585

The above figures do not include 167 cases of diseases of the female breast. (mastitis 52, tumour 26, abscess 88, and contracted nipple 1).

PUERPERAL STATE.

A total of 2,026 cases, comes under the heading of puerperal. This number includes 690 cases of normal childbirth dealt with at public general hospitals, but does not cover maternity cases in St. Helens Hospitals.

There have been fairly substantial increases in the number of puerperal cases treated during the last five years. This increase can justly be put down to the huge advance that has taken place in the matter of providing maternity wards at the various public hospitals. Whereas in 1917 there were only 252 cases of normal labour, this figure has gradually risen until in 1921 it reached the comparatively high figure of 690. Puerperal septicæmia also rose during the same period from 44 to 139, but the mortality-rate decreased by over 50 per cent. Accidents of pregnancy accounted for the remainder of the increase. The totals given in 1921 for miscarriage do not include threatened miscarriage, 28, and incomplete miscarriage, 33 nor do those for abortion include threatened abortion, 30. These figures, together with 22 cases of hyperemesis and 18 cases of vomiting, are the principal diseases included in “other accidents of pregnancy.”

PUERPERAL DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS.
Disease.Discharges.Deaths.Total Discharges and Deaths.
Re covered.Relieved.Unrelieved.
Miscarriage23376..     1310
Abortion1015..     ..     106
Incomplete abortion19029..     1220
Ectopic gestation5914..     376
Other accidents of pregnancy12870213222
Normal labour673107..     690
Puerperal hæmorrhage156..     526
Laceration, &c., of perinæum3493..     46
Laceration, &c., of cervix3663..     45
Other accidents of labour3210..     244
Puerperal septicæmia9510133139
Puerperal albuminuria, convulsions421621474
Puerperal phlebitis and phlegmasia74..     314
Puerperal mania571..     13
Puerperal gland of breast1..     ..     ..     1
                Totals, 19211,65127238652,026
                Totals, 19201,44724222791,790
                Totals, 19191,22915132471,459
                Totals, 19181,0198817381,162
                Totals, 191786716523361,091

SKIN-DISEASES.

Diseases of the skin and annexa, which comprise four orders in the international classification, are another important group in morbidity statistics, though the death-rate is very low. Abscesses, cellulitis, and ulcers are responsible for nearly half of the total cases dealt with under this heading, eczema ranking highest among other skin-diseases.

Deaths from these diseases during the year 1921 numbered 41, as compared with 35 in 1920, 36 in 1919, 29 in 1918, and 38 in 1917. The deaths include in 1921 18 ascribed to gangrene, 13 to cellulitis, and 3 to acute abscesses.

The figures for the principal diseases of the skin and annexa during the last five are,–

Disease.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Gangrene3830363736
Carbuncle3344606891
Furuncle2428293745
Boils1323292524
Abscess445461447511478
Cellulitis136160224226247
Whitlow3139577079
Ulcers238223209239228
Eczema138164157142129
Scabies3224516996
Dermatitis2732445790
Sinus6383845762
Erythema3638382650
Impetigo2047474248
Ingrown nails3944554235
Herpes3122222927
Psoriasis2212141517
Seborrhæa711152220
Urticaria510161417
Ringworm8147911
Pruritis87537
Onychia62886
Pemphigus45782
Other diseases6754136158179
                  Totals1,4711,5831,7971,9142,024

DISEASES OF BONES, ETC.

Non-tuberculous diseases of the bones and of the organs of locomotion numbered 1,597, including 28 deaths. Nineteen deaths were due to osteomyelitis. The principal diseases in this class, following the order of the classification, for the years 1917–21 were,–

Disease.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Osteomyelitis126149178233219
Mastoiditis9266688881
Periostitis4751514767
Necrosis8095477357
Sinusitis5140244251
Osteitis915131513
Exostosis23217910
Other diseases of bones123124257189233
Synovitis12797151133129
Arthritis51536385105
Ankylosis1622371816
Other diseases of joints6381658979
Amputations2433414626
Bursitis8292787477
Lumbago4659666066
Myalgia1235555360
Talipes4638837377
Tenosynovitis1014141116
Ganglion1014151314
Bunion71262114
Other diseases of organs of locomotion113109154143176
                  Totals1,1581,2011,4871,5151,597

MALFORMATIONS.

The number of cases, attributed to congenital malformations during the year 1921 was 440, and the number of deaths 17. Of the 423 discharges, 219 were shown as having recovered, 168 as having been relieved, and 36 as having shown no improvement.

A table is next given showing for each of the principal malformations the number of discharges and of deaths in the five years 1917–21.

Disease.Discharges.Deaths.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Phimosis231178228216268..     ..     1..     1
Cleft palate17201727261142..     
Nævus3832171919..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Hare-lip1210164151..     ..     22
Hydrocephalus157682214..     
Spina bifida53..     4422135
Congenital dislocation138221420..     ..     ..     1..     
Talipes15841622..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Heart-disease..     ..     ..     36..     ..     ..     13
Other malformations3328224035103726
                Totals365292333349423168141517

EARLY INFANCY.

Forty-eight deaths in public hospitals during 1921 are recorded as having been due to diseases of early infancy, which is 2 more than in the previous year. The chief items in this class are marasmus (23 deaths), premature birth (10 deaths), and congenital debility (7 deaths). The total discharges and deaths amounted to only 107 thus the deaths amounted to the very high percentage of 44.85 to the total cases treated, as against 38.33 in 1920, 47.44 in 1919, 44.34 in 1918, and 36.75 in 1917.

OLD AGE.

Hospital returns show a total of 64 male deaths and 24 female deaths from old age during 1921. These totals include the returns of three hospitals which are also old people's homes. The numbers for the five years 1917–21 are as follows :–

Year.Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.Died.Total.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
191792752078151082627063
1918123841963131133727272
191920382158612922528055
1920256962984271293533497
19219442163515642415059

EXTERNAL CAUSES.

The principal headings included in this class in hospital cases are fractures and injuries in regard to which no specified cause is shown. In death-registrations the cause of death is asked for, and in cases of deaths resulting from fractures and other injuries the actual cause is obtained, and the death classified under one or other of the thirty definite headings provided. The Medical Superintendents are, however, concerned not with causes but with natures of injuries, and the returns in the great majority of cases are classed under the headings “fractures” and “injuries,” which in death statistics would be regarded as somewhat indefinite, but which in morbidity statistics are invaluable on account of the fact that the part of the body affected is given in most of the cases. Fractures and injuries are dealt with in detail further on.

Three suicidal deaths in hospital were returned in 1921, and 17 of the patients discharged were admitted for treatment for self-inflicted injuries.

Accidental poisoning, including cases not shown to be suicidal, was returned in 82 cases, including 16 of ptomaine poisoning 269 cases of burns, 104 of accidental shooting, 1 of injury by fall, and 5 of injuries by crushing are also shown; 8 persons were treated for effects of heat, 6 for effects of excessive cold, 1 for starvation, 8 for suffocation, 2 for electrocution, 5 for injuries inflicted by animals, and 14 for effects of immersion in water. The total deaths in hospitals during the year from “ External Causes” were 199 out of a total of 5,723 cases.

FRACTURES, DISLOCATIONS, ETC.

The part of the body affected in the 2,255 cases of fractures referred to above is shown in full in the next table :–

Fractures.Cases.
Fracture of skull122
Fracture of nose11
Fractured malar15
Fracture of jaw60
Dislocation of jaw3
Fracture of maxillary4
Fracture of clavicle110
Dislocation of shoulder73
Sprain of shoulder2
Fracture of olecranon14
Fracture of scapula10
Dislocation of acromion14
Fracture of humerus212
Dislocation of elbow56
Sprained elbow3
Fracture of forearm20
Fracture of radius73
Fracture of ulna17
Fracture of radius and ulna73
Fracture of arm15
Dislocation of wrist3
Fractured wrist5
Sprained wrist6
Colles fracture66
Dislocation of metacarpals2
Fracture of metacarpals14
Dislocation of fingers46
Fracture of sternum1
Fracture of spine22
Fracture of ribs93
Fracture of pelvis15
Fracture of ilium4
Sprain of spine5
Sprain of hip4
Dislocation of hip20
Fracture of leg46
Fracture of femur198
Sprain of leg1
Dislocation of knee5
Sprained knee10
Dislocation of semi-lunar cartilage42
Fracture of patella25
Dislocation of patella3
Fracture of tibia238
Fracture of fibula79
Fracture of tibia and fibula157
Pott's fracture67
Fracture of ankle14
Dislocation of ankle6
Sprained ankle87
Fracture of heel8
Fracture of tarsus2
Fracture of metatarsals16
Fractured toe14
Sprained tarsus5
Fracture of scaphoid5
Fracture of sesamoid1
Fracture (undefined)12
            Total2,255

The total shown includes 89 deaths, 39 of which were due to fracture of the skull.

Figures are given below showing the comparison between the number of discharges and deaths, classified according to condition and sex, for the five years 1917–21.

Year.Discharges.Deaths.Total
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.M.F.M.F.
M.F.M.F.M.F.
19178641943007916365181,245294
19189182452847515975131,292342
19191,0412304098317466231,533340
19201,029209526129241177121,656361
19211,085239641158321175141,833422

MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES.

The heading “Other External Violence,” which covers a large list of miscellaneous and undefined injuries, accounted in 1921 for a total of 2,941 cases, including 55 deaths, 18 of which were due to injuries to the head or brain. The total number of cases was swelled slightly by the inclusion of 176 returned soldiers treated for wounds received in battle.

Location.Cases.
Head144
Brain2
Scalp139
Face89
Eye135
Ear10
Nose8
Cheek, chin14
Mouth, &c.27
Jaw5
Neck, throat28
Shoulder38
Arm149
Hand134
Back122
Spine37
Chest57
Breast2
Ribs10
Side5
Abdomen45
Loin1
Groin5
Pelvis4
Buttock8
Genital organs24
Leg188
Hip37
Thigh75
Knee161
Ankle34
Foot269
Tibia and Fibula9
Internal42
Battle176
Concussion188
Undefined127
    Total2,941

A table showing the condition on discharge and the number of deaths from the various injuries of the body during the last five years is appended.

Year.Discharges.Deaths.Total.
Recovered.Relieved.Unrelieved.M.F.M.F.
M.F.M.F.M.F.
19171,1991966987462..     3121,990272
19189182452847515975131,292342
19191,6942061,6034822725213,576257
19201,372196925697632642,399272
19211,5722468891195285142,564377

MEDICAL EXAMINATION FOR EXPEDITIONARY FORCE.

Useful information as to the extent of illness and defects among an important section of the Dominion's population is contained in the published results of the medical examination of recruits for the Expeditionary Force raised for service in the late war. Recruits were classified as follows :–

  1. –Men fit for active service beyond the seas.

  2. –Men fit for active service beyond the seas if they undergo specified medical, surgical, or dental treatment–(1) after operation in camp or public hospital, (2) after recovery at home.

  3. –Men at present unfit for active service beyond the seas, but fit for service in New Zealand in connection with or for the purposes of the present war : (1) Those to proceed to the C1 Camp for training (2) those permanently unfit for service outside New Zealand.

  4. –Men permanently unfit, either for active service beyond the seas or for any service in New Zealand in connection with or for the purposes of the present war.

A total of 135,282 men was examined, with the following results :–

Class.Number of Men.Percentage of Total.
A48,48834.37
B18370.62
B23,2502.40
C16,8075.03
C274,68955.21
D3,2112.37
..     135,282100.00

Among those rejected were 6,106 men over the military age and 139 apparently under age; so that, taking men of ages 20 to 45, the proportion classed A would be slightly higher than that shown above–viz., 36.03, as against 34.37 per cent. The proportion of Class A to total recruits at quinquennial groups of ages is as follows :–

Age-group.Percentage.
20 and under 2547
25 and under 3039
30 and under 3538
35 and under 4031
40 and over14

The percentage at ages 40 and over suffers by the inclusion in the total of the 6,106 men over military age. Were these excluded the percentage of Class A men in the last age-group would be 19, a figure still greatly below those of preceding groups. A summary of classes by age-groups follows:–

CLASSES IN WHICH RECRUITS WERE PLACED (BY AGES).
Class.Ages.Total
20–25.25–30.30–35.35–40.Over 40.
A14,8309,65710,6927,6553,65446,488
B130317717412558837
B21,1187146885102203,250
C12,3551,2131,6301,2233866,807
C212,03712,28514,59215,01520,76074,689
D7997616574835113,211
        Totals31,44224,80728,43325,01125,589135,282

The causes of rejection of the 88,895 recruits classed other than “A” are next given. Diseases of the circulatory system rank first, with a total of 22,612 (valvular disease of the heart, 10,879; other diseases of the heart, 4,517; diseases of arteries, 42 varix, 4,994; varicocele, 1,340; and hæmorrhoids, 840); while defects of the extremities, flat feet, defective vision, and hernia are other important causes of rejection, as is also the somewhat indefinite “impaired constitution and debility.”

CAUSES OF REJECTION.
Disease or Defect.No. of Cases.
Defects of upper extremities2,882
Defects of lower extremities7,173
Under height605
Under chest measurement959
Insufficient weight68
Apparent age not in accordance with regulations139
Over height11
Syphilis183
Other venereal diseases112
Tubercle of lungs1,429
Other tubercular diseases289
Impaired constitution and debility4,043
Other general diseases312
Malformation of ears2
Malformation of nose and mouth129
Malformation of chest and spine1,011
Malformation of urinary or genital organs136
Impediment of speech297
Other diseases of the nervous system1,200
Defective intelligence1,076
Defective vision6,423
Diseases of the eyes and eyelids168
Diseases of the middle ear (including deafness)2,455
Other diseases of the ears114
Diseases of the nose and mouth202
Valvular disease of the heart10,879
Other diseases of the heart4,517
Diseases of arteries (aneurism)42
Diseases of the veins (varix)4,994
Diseases of the lungs (except tubercle)766
Other respiratory diseases2,056
Loss or decay of many teeth20
Hernia4,530
Diseases of the digestive system1,715
Hæmorrhoids840
Diseases of the urinary organs622
Varicocele1,340
Other diseases of the generative organs (not syphilitic)656
Diseases of the joints1,431
Flat feet3,211
Other affections of the bones and muscles1,189
Ulcers, wounds, and cicatrices792
Other affections of the cutaneous system1,149
Goitre1,681
Epilepsy672
Over age6,106
Rheumatism, sciatica, and lumbago2,044
Alcoholic211
Not classified6,014
                                Total88,895

Chapter 7. SECTION VII.–PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.–PUBLIC HEALTH.

HEALTH ACT, 1920.

THE Health Act, 1920, repealed the consolidated Public Health Act, 1908, and its amendments. A résumé of the present Act is hero given.

PART I: ADMINISTRATION.

This Part of the Act deals with the constitution of the Department of Health. The chief administrative officer is the Director-General of Health, whose powers and functions, during his absence from duty, are delegated to a Deputy Director-General. The Department comprises the Divisions of Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Nursing, School Hygiene, Dental Hygiene, Child Welfare, and Maori Hygiene, each of which is under the supervision of a divisional head called the Director.

The Dominion is divided into health districts, each of which is under the charge of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science. Power is also given to appoint such number of Inspectors of Health, medical practitioners, nurses, and other professional officers as may from time to time be required.

A Board of Health is constituted under the chairmanship of the Minister of Health. It consists, in addition to the Minister, of the Director-General, three medical practitioners, a person appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Municipal Association, another appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Counties Association, a member of a recognized association of civil engineers, a Chairman of a Hospital Board, a lady member representative of the interests of women and children, and a person appointed on the recommendation of the Minister. The Board in the main is advisory in function, but under certain circumstances it may exercise mandatory powers. Commissions of inquiry may be appointed in assistance of the Board.

PAKT II : POWERS AND DUTIES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

The initial sections of this Part of the Act empower and direct every local authority to appoint sanitary inspectors; to cause regular inspection to be made of its district; to secure the abatement of nuisances; to enforce all regulations in force in the district to make by-laws; to furnish to the Medical Officer of Health such reports as may be required. In certain cases, on the recommendation of the Board of Health, the Governor-General, by Order in Council, may exempt any local authority, not being a Borough Council, from any or all of the duties set out above. In these circumstances it shall be the duty of the Health Department to do all such things as it considers necessary for the promotion and conservation of public health within the district concerned, all expenses incurred by the Department being recoverable from the local authority in question as a debt due to the Crown.

The Board of Health may require any local authority to provide sanitary works within its district. However, a local authority, if dissatisfied with such requisition, has the right of appeal to a Board of Appeal consisting of a Stipendiary Magistrate and two assessors representing respectively the Board of Health and the local authority.

Every local authority must appoint its own sanitary inspectors or subscribe to the salary of an Inspector of the Department of Health. No person can now be appointed as a sanitary inspector unless he is the holder of a certificate from the Royal Sanitary Institute, or in lieu thereof such certificate as may be prescribed by regulation.

Other sections define nuisances and the various steps to be taken for their abatement; provide for the establishing on the part of the local authority of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; lay down certain requirements in regard to water-supply and sanitary conveniences for buildings; detail the procedure with regard to closing orders and demolition orders for insanitary buildings; govern the registration and regulation of cattle – saleyards for the keeping of animals; the protection and purification of water-supplies; the sanitation of Maori settlements; the making and application of by-laws; the duties and powers of Harbour Boards with respect to the sanitary condition of wharves and tidal lands.

PART III : INFECTIOUS AND NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

The initial sections of this Part of the Act give the Medical Officer of Health, if authorized on that behalf by the Minister, very extensive powers in the event of an outbreak of any infectious disease. Thus he may take possession of lands and buildings for the purpose of providing accommodation for patients; he may commandeer vehicles for their conveyance; he may demand drugs, articles of food or drink, &c., for their treatment. Penalties are laid down for refusal or failure to comply with any such requisition, while provision is made for compensating persons who suffer any loss or damage thereby. Very wide power is also given a Medical Officer of Health in the direction of controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease, of prohibiting public gatherings, of prohibiting the admission to schools, theatres, &c., of children under the age of sixteen. These emergency powers were given as the result of the experience of the influenza epidemic of 1918.

Infectious diseases are divided into two classes–the non-notifiable and the notifiable–which are set out in detail in the First Schedule of the Act. With reference to the former group, certain general provisions are applicable, protecting the public against carelessness on the part of the case or the person in charge thereof.

The medical practitioner who attends any person suffering from a notifiable infectious disease must forthwith report the case to the local authority and the Medical Officer of Health. If no medical practitioner is in charge of the case the occupier of the premises must notify. In the case of any vessel in port the master must notify the case to the Port Health Officer.

Provision is also made in this Part of the Act for the notification of certain non-communicable diseases of public-health importance, such as hydatids, tetanus, chronic lead poisoning, &c.

Other sections deal with the ordering to hospital of persons suffering from infectious diseases, the disinfection of premises and articles, the destruction of infected articles, the establishing by local authorities of mortuaries and disinfecting-stations, the notification by undertakers of any death from infectious disease, and the duties of local authorities with respect to burials.

A comprehensive set of regulations has been gazetted detailing more exactly the powers with regard to infectious disease.

PART IV : QUARANTINE.

Power is given the Governor-General to proclaim places of inspection, quarantine-grounds, and quarantine stations. Ships, persons, and goods liable to quarantine are fully defined. The whole procedure with regard to the inspection of ships, the granting of pratique, the ordering into quarantine, and the release from quarantine is set put. Power is given to detain, or to release under medical surveillance, persons liable to quarantine, without quarantining the whole ship's company.

Medical practitioners and nurses may be appointed by the Director-General to take charge of passengers and crew of a ship undergoing quarantine, and the owners or agents are liable for any cost incurred under this head. It is the duty of the owners or agents of the ship to supply persons undergoing quarantine with such provisions, medicines, fuel, &c., as the medical officer in charge may require. All expenses incurred in connection with disinfection are a charge against the ship.

Comprehensive regulations have been made under this Part of the Act governing the whole matter of quarantine.

PART V : REGULATIONS.

Extensive powers have been given the Governor-General in this Part of the Act to make regulations for the conservation or promotion of public health. Included therein is provision whereby regulations may be made for any matter affecting the public health in respect of which any local authority is empowered to make by-laws. Where any local authority has failed to make by-laws, or, having made them, has failed effectively to enforce them, regulations may be made and enforced in the district concerned at the cost of the local authority.

PART VI : MISCELLANEOUS.

Medical practitioners authorized by the Minister may enter public schools and examine the children and notify parents of defects found in the children. Infirm and neglected persons found to be living in unsatisfactory conditions or without proper care or attention may be removed to institutions available for their reception. The Board of Health is empowered, in default of a local authority, to carry out sanitary works and exercise powers under the Act at the cost of such an authority.

DIPLOMAS IN PUBLIC HEALTH.

The New Zealand University Amendment Act, 1912, confers on the Senate of the New Zealand University the power to grant diplomas in public health, and to make regulations for the examination of candidates for such diplomas.

REGISTRATION OF MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS.

Under the Medical Practitioners Act, 1914, is constituted the Medical Board of New Zealand, consisting of the Director-General of Health and six other registered medical practitioners, who are appointed to the Board by the Governor-General, the term of appointment being a three-yearly one.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which enacts that every person shall be entitled to registration who satisfies the Board that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom, or eligible for registration on such last-mentioned register; or the holder of a foreign diploma approved by the Board, and granted by any university or institution other than the University of New Zealand or a university or institution situated in the United Kingdom, after a course of not less than five years' study of the subjects pertaining to a medical and surgical degree or license. The Board may, however, refuse to approve any diploma unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma.

No person is entitled to be registered if he has been at any time convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term of two years or upwards, or is otherwise not of good fame or character. Applicants who are refused registration have the right of appeal to the Supreme Court.

Applications for registration are received in the first place by the Registrar of Births and Deaths at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, or Dunedin. One month's notice of intended application is required, such notice to be advertised once in the New Zealand Gazette and also in a newspaper circulating in the district in which the applicant intends to practise.

The fee for registration is £3 3s., payable on deposit of evidence of qualification.

A table is appended showing the additions to and removals from the Medical Register during the last five years, with the numbers on the register on the 1st January and 31st December of each year.

MEDICAL REGISTER.–ADDITIONS AND REMOVALS.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
* Includes 28 with New Zealand qualifications.
Number on register on 1st January9629699851,0151,064
Number added during year by registration27304871*60
Number added during year by restoration13354
Number removed during year on evidence of death2117202510
Number removed during year by direction of Medical Board–
  Letter not delivered and returned to Registrar-General..     ..     1..     40
Reported dead..     ..     ..     ..     7
Number removed during year by direction of Supreme Court..     ..     ..     2..     
          Number on register on 31st December9699851,0151,0641,071

REGISTRATION OF DENTISTS.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist in New Zealand who is the holder of a degree in dental surgery of the University of New Zealand, or a certificate of proficiency in dentistry obtained from the Senate of the University, or is registered or entitled to be registered as a dentist in the United Kingdom, or is the holder of such degree in dentistry granted in a British possession or a foreign country as may be recognized by the Senate of the New Zealand University. Evidence of good character is required in every case. The fee for registration is £1.

A table is appended showing the additions to and removals from the Dentists Register during the last five years, with the numbers on the register on the 1st January and 31st December of each year.

DENTISTS' REGISTER.–ADDITIONS AND REMOVALS.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Number on register on 1st January764759753751747
Number added during year by registration1..     516
Number removed during year on evidence of death66757
        Number on register on 31st December759753751747746

REGISTRATION OF NURSES AND MIDWIVES.

The Nurses Registration Act provides that every person who has attained the age of twenty-three years and is certified as having had three years' training as a nurse in a recognized general hospital, together with systematic instruction in theoretical and practical nursing from the medical officer and the matron of that hospital, and who passes the prescribed examination, is entitled to registration. During the year ended 31st March, 1922, there were 267 candidates for the final examination in medical and surgical nursing, and 224 passed. There are now 3,231 nurses on the register.

The number of registered midwives on 3lst March, 1922, was 2,064. Of these 1,382 were trained and certificated, the remainder having satisfied the Registrar that at the date of the passing of the Act they had been for at least three years in bona fide practice as midwives, and that they bear a good character.

REGISTRATION OF PLUMBERS.

The Plumbers Registration Act, passed during the session of 1912, provided for the setting-up of a Board, to be called the Plumbers' Board of New Zealand. This Board consists of five members–viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy, who shall be Chairman; the Director of Education a city or borough engineer nominated by the cities and boroughs which have a population of over 5,000 inhabitants,and appointed by the Governor-General; a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The functions of the Board are to decide what persons may be registered under the Act, in what districts sanitary plumbing shall be performed only by registered plumbers, and what shall be the scope of the examinations to be held in the future as a part of the process of securing registration.

The main principle underlying the Act is that of securing trained and certificated sanitary plumbers, and that such registered plumbers shall not be required to pay any license fee or pass any examination under any local authorities controlling sanitary-plumbing works.

At the examination held under the Act in November, 1921, 134 candidates presented themselves, the results being as follows : Thirty-eight qualified in the theoretical part, 48 in the practical part, and 43 qualified or completed in both parts of the examination and were duly granted registration. The total of names entered in the register to date is 1,424.

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS.

In order to make better provision for the sale of food and drugs in a pure state, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was passed by the Legislature, and came into operation on the 1st January, 1908.

The Act is administered by the officers of the Health Department, and provides for the analysis, by public analysts, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article be proved to be unfit for human consumption, or likely to cause injury to health if consumed, heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible.

Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such things are manufactured or packed. The selling of light-weight bread is an offence under the Act, as is also the taking-back of bread after it has been in the possession of the purchaser for more than an hour.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food or drug and submit the same for analysis.

Regulations have been gazetted from time to time defining standards for the control of the purity of foodstuffs and of drugs. In general, the New Zealand standards are on the lines recommended by the Australian Inter-State Conference.

Statistics compiled by the Department of Health show that during the year 1921 a total of 249 convictions under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act was secured in Magistrates' Courts, the total fines imposed equalling £1,589. Of the 249 convictions, 101 were for selling adulterated milk, the fines in these cases totalling £787. Short-weight bread convictions, 34 in number, secured fines amounting to £294; improper labelling of foodstuffs resulted in 5 convictions, with fines aggregating £17

QUACKERY PREVENTION ACT, 1908.

Section 2 of this Act enacts that every person commits an offence who publishes or causes to be published any statement which is intended by the defendant or any other person to promote the sale of any article as a medicine, preparation, or appliance for the prevention, alleviation, or cure of any human ailment or physical defect, and which is false in any material particular relating to the ingredients, composition, structure, nature, or operation of that article, or to the effects which have followed or may follow the use thereof.

The penalty inflicted is a fine not exceeding £100 in the case of a first conviction, and not exceeding £200 for every subsequent conviction. The object of the Act is to effectually stop the exploitation of the public by means of medicines or treatment alleged to cure all and sundry complaints and ailments.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

The School Medical Branch of the Education Department, which has been in existence since the year 1912, was transferred on the 1st February, 1921, to the Department of Health, becoming the Division of School Hygiene of that Department. This transfer has proved of great advantage in linking up the school medical work with the other Health services of the Dominion, and especially in providing readier facilities for treatment.

The Physical-training Branch, with its staff of twelve itinerant instructors and a Chief Physical Instructor, continues under the control of the Education Department owing to the intimate relationship between physical education and the general teaching-work of the schools. During the year 1920 the Education Department published its syllabus of physical training for schools, based largely upon the syllabus of the London Education Board. Fifteen minutes per day are devoted to physical training in the State schools, and in the larger of these schools special corrective classes are held for the benefit of children suffering from particular defects. This latter work is carried on under the supervision of the school medical officers.

During the year ended 31st March, 1921, schools to the number of 1,452 were inspected.

Statistical returns were compiled relating to the complete examination of 58,451 school-children, and in addition over 50,000 children were examined for the more important defects. Effort was concentrated upon the examination of the entrant classes, Standard II, and Standard VI. An average of 85.6 per cent. of the children examined were returned as having some medical defect 56.8 per cent. had defects other than dental caries. These percentages are not of much value for comparison with other countries, as there is no internationally recognized standard as to what defects should be included in the category of medical defects. The standard adopted by the School Medical Staff of New Zealand is a high one. A more complete estimate was made this year as to the proportion of children recommended for treatment who actually obtained treatment. This figure worked out at 48.4 per cent., and to a great extent this includes only those who receive treatment within a few months of the inspection. An appreciable number receive treatment at a later date, and thus escape inclusion in the returns of treatment for the year. With the exception of the school dental clinics which have so far been provided by the Division of Dental Hygiene there are no school clinics for the treatment of school-children.

The staff of the division consists of thirteen school medical officers and twenty-seven school nurses. School medical officers are empowered by the Heath Act, 1920, to medically examine the children attending the primary State schools. The work of these officers is described in the annual report of the Director of the Division under two main headings, inspectional and educational. This report emphasizes the widely spread prevalence of preventable defects in school-children and the immense possibilities of improvement by the application of modern knowledge concerning its causes and prevention. For this reason educational and preventive work is emphasized as being of primary importance not only in the duties of school medical officers, but also as one of the fundamental responsibilities of all those who have to do with the education and upbringing of children.

DENTAL TREATMENT OF SCHOOL-CHILDREN.

The Dental Division of the Department of Health has at present, besides the Director, a staff of eight dental surgeons–two attached to the training-school for dental nurses at Wellington, and the others stationed in various parts of the Dominion. There are also thirty dental nurses in training, who are expected to be available for distribution throughout the Dominion early next year. Applications are also being called for fifteen more trainees.

The following is a summary of the operations performed and treatment carried out from the 31st March, 1921, to the 31st March, 1922 : Fillings, 13,047 : extractions, 14,939 other operations, 8,623 : total, 36,609.

Besides the above, many children have been examined and their teeth charted Duplicate charts have been sent to parents, resulting in the treatment of many cases by private practitioners or at hospitals.

Leaflets have been printed for circulation to parents embodying short terse rules to be followed for the prevention of dental disease. Every opportunity is being taken by the staff generally to bring this phase of the question before the parents and the public.

SUBSECTION B.–HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

EXPENDITURE ON HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE AID.

Commencing with the year 1916–17, the official statistics of Hospital and Charitable Aid Boards have been prepared on the basis of an Income and Expenditure Account and Balance-sheet. The accounts for the last five years are in some points not absolutely comparable with the figures shown under the system followed in years prior to 1916–17.

HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE-AID INCOME.

The total income of Hospital Boards, separate institutions, and Government institutions for the year ended 31st March, 1921, on account of hospitals and charitable aid and public health was £1,373,908, and for Hospital Boards alone £1,296,879. The main sources of income for the year are as follows :–

 £     
Contributable by Government404,922
Levies on local authorities429,599
Voluntary contributions45,504
Net fees payable by those assisted209,378
Charitable-aid recoveries35,770
Rents, interest, and dividends22,476
Miscellaneous income24,698

EXPENDITURE.

The total expenditure of Hospital Boards, separate institutions, and Government institutions amounted during the year to £1,284,350. The total expenditure of Hospital Boards alone was £1,214,121. The following are the main items of expenditure by all authorities :–

 £     
Hospital maintenance741,738
Charitable aid190,041
Public health11,898
Administration44,251

HOSPITAL-MAINTENANCE EXPENDITURE.

The average annual cost of maintenance per occupied bed for the last five years is set out below :–

Year.Provisions.Surgery and Dispensary.Domestic and Establishment.Salaries and Wages.Total Maintenance.
 £     £     £     £     £     
1916–1728.710.327.143.7109.6
1917–1837.312.325.641.5116.7
1918–1935.912.839048.0135.7
1919–2040.415.443.252.4151.4
1920–2147.417.155.968.5188.9

CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE.

The charitable-aid expenditure for the last five years has been as follows :–

Year.Indoor Relief.Outdoor Relief.Total.
 £     £     £     
1916–1772,52441,119113,643
1917–1891,09244,006135,098
1918–1982,71353,464136,177
1919–2091,97482,423174,397
1920–21101,69588,346190,041
HOSPITAL AND CHARITABLE-AID EXPENDITURE, 1911–12 TO 1920–21.
year ended 31st March.Mean Population.Hospital and Charitable-aid and other Expenditure.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
  £     s. d.
19121,019,984482,6459 5½
19131,046,624500,4429 6¾
19141,075,788579,60610 9¼
19151,095,207578,83810 6¾
19161,100,496631,50411 5¾
19171,099,449603,08110 11¾
19181,102,972715,15912 11½
19191,116,706939,82816 9¾
19201,157,8841,158,94420 0¼
19211,223,4011,284,35020 ll¼

The above figures include infectious-diseases hospitals and consumptive sanatoria under Boards' control, also public-health expenditure and subsidies to medical associations and district nurses. The 1916–17 to 1920–21 figures are statements of expenditure incurred, not of actual payments made as in previous years. The number of persons availing themselves of treatment in the general hospitals for the last ten years has been as follows :–

Year.Total Number of Persons under Treatment.Proportion under Treatment per 1,000 of Population.Average Number of Occupied Beds per Diem.Proportion per 1,000 of Mean Population.
1911–1224,68124.11,9001.83
1912–1326,97925.82,1312.04
1913–1428,88526.82,2342.08
1914–1531,36628.62,3642.16
1915–1636,47733.12,6172.38
1916–1739,02935.52,9722.73
1917–1840,23236.53,1902.89
1918–1950,11244.93,6533.27
1919–2049,15142.43,8973.37
1920–2147,68339.03,3652.75

The general hospitals, numbering seventy in 1920–21, covered by the above table include four hospitals which are also old people's homes, as well as two institutions–the Mercury Bay and Oamaru Hospitals–which are not under the control of Hospital Boards. The figures given do not cover maternity hospitals or special hospitals for infectious diseases or tuberculosis.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.

The number of public general hospitals at 31st March, 1921, was 70. In addition there were five infectious-diseases hospitals and five sanatoria for consumptives.

Information as to the number of public general hospitals and their staff and accommodation is given for each of the last five years.

Number ofYear ending 31st March.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Institutions6564656770
Medical staff (stipendiary)11211412313814
Nursing staff–
  Trained nurses248293292320350
  Probationers8338649009811,032
Domestic staff600..     771832892
Beds4,0754,1914,6165,0295,119

Further particulars concerning the public general hospitals of the Dominion for the years ended the 31st March, 1920 and 1921, are given in the next table :–

Year ended 31st March.
1920.1921.
Average number of patients per diem3,8973,365
Number of patients under treatment49,15147,683
Deaths2,8973,298
Average annual cost of maintenance per occupied bed apart from administration, &c, charged£151.4£188.9
Number of out-patients attended during year32,93732,964

CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

State charitable institutions are administered by Hospital Boards, which also distribute outdoor relief. Most of the aged needy are provided with old-age pensions, but many of these old people prefer to enter a public home, where they are probably cared for better and at less cost than could be possible with individuals. In these cases the pension is received by the officers of the Board as payment for the maintenance of the pensioner, but a proportion is handed over to the latter to be expended as he or she may choose.

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.

The Private Hospitals Act, which came into force on the 1st January, 1907, is now embodied in the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1909, which provides for the licensing, management, and inspection of private hospitals. All such institutions must be licensed, and every application for a license must be accompanied by a statement giving full description of the house proposed to be used, number of patients, and class of cases proposed to be received. The licensee shall state whether it is in respect of a lying-in private hospital or a surgical and medical private hospital, or if for both classes of cases; and no private hospital may be used for any purpose other than that in respect of which the license is granted and purposes reasonably incidental thereto.

For every private hospital there must be a resident manager, either the licensee or some person appointed by the licensee, and in every case the manager must be a legally qualified medical practitioner or a registered nurse in the case of a surgical and medical hospital, or a registered midwife in the case of a lying-in hospital, or a registered nurse and midwife, or a registered nurse having as resident assistant a registered midwife, in the case of a hospital licensed for both purposes. No license shall be granted in respect of a house not previously licensed until such house and annexed buildings have been approved by the Director-General of Health, and no addition shall be made to any private hospital until it has been so approved. No license shall be granted until the character and fitness of the applicant have been proved satisfactory, and the license must be renewed on the 1st January of each year.

In every private hospital there must be kept a register of patients showing particulars as to name, age, abode, and date of reception of each patient, date when such patient left, or, in the event of death, the date thereof, name of medical practitioner attending, and such other details as may be prescribed. Inquiry may be made at any time as to the management and conduct of any such private hospital, and if such inquiry prove unsatisfactory the license may be revoked, and, for a period of five years, no new license shall be granted to the person whose license is revoked.

Provision is made for the inspection of private hospitals in the same manner as for public institutions of the like nature.

The Governor-General may from time to time make such regulations as are necessary for carrying the Act into effect, and substantial penalties are provided for breaches of its provisions.

MATERNITY HOSPITALS.

There are seven State maternity hospitals now open for the use of the public. The St. Helens Hospital at Wellington was opened in June, 1905, and a new and up-to-date building in July, 1912; that at Dunedin was opened in October, 1905; that at Auckland in June, 1906; that at Christchurch in April, 1907. More recently State institutions have been opened at Gisborne, Invercargill, and Wanganui.

These institutions represent a development of the policy begun by legislation in 1901, when the Nurses Registration Act was passed, followed in 1904 by the Mid-wives Act. The latter provided that after a certain date only those midwives who were duly registered would be qualified to practise on their own account. During the year ended 31st March, 1922, a total of 1,392 confinements took place in the seven hospitals mentioned, and 572 confinements were attended by the institution nurses outside these hospitals, as compared with 1,246 and 579 confinements respectively during the previous twelve months.

Tables are given showing information as to births and deaths in each of these institutions during the year ended 31st March, 1922, and the totals for each of the last five years. Births in cases dealt with outside St. Helens Hospitals by nurses attached to institutional staffs are also shown.

ST. HELENS HOSPITALS, 1921–22.
Town.Confinements In Institution.Confinements attended outside.
Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
Auckland34318219
Gisborne89..     34
Wanganui83114
Wellington32621094
Christchurch26112158
Dunedin145..     ..     84
Invercargill145..     19
                Totals1,392525572
ST. HELENS HOSPITALS, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 3lst March.Confinements in Institution.Confinements attended outside.
Births.Deaths of Mothers.Deaths of Infants.
19181,248727530
19191,1231826521
19201,139525552
19211,246625579
19221,392525572

There is a maternity hospital attached to the Medical School at Dunedin, which also serves as a training-school for medical students and midwives.

Maternity homes under the control of Hospital Boards are established at Napier, Blenheim, Picton, Cromwell, Mangonui, Kawakawa, and Whangarei. For the reception of single girls there are special charitable institutions at Christchurch, Auckland, Invercargill, and Wellington, in addition to those established by the Salvation Army at the four chief centres and at Napier and Gisborne.

BENEVOLENT AND ORPHAN ASYLUMS.

Fifty-five institutions classed under the heading of benevolent and orphan asylums furnished returns to the Census and Statistics Office for the year 1921. These institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide free accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons to whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and refuge homes for unfortunate women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “prison gate” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of the orphanages deal with cases similar to those dealt with by the industrial schools under the control of the Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Court.

The 55 institutions which furnished returns for 1921 had a total of 6,411 inmates during the year, of whom 3,455 were males and 2,956 females. They commenced the year with a total of 3,494, and had 3,584 at the end of the year. Admissions during the year totalled 2,608, and in addition 309 infants were born in the institutions. Discharges numbered 2,536, and deaths of inmates 291. The ages of all inmates in the institutions at any time during the year were as follows :–

Age-group.Males.Females.Total.
Under 5437473910
5 and under 10395449844
10    ″    15327478805
15    ″    2596592688
25    ″    35113215328
35    ″    45207110317
45    ″    5524993342
55    ″    65340102442
65 and over1,2864281,714
Unspecified51621
                Totals3,4552,9566,411

SUBSECTION C.–MENTAL HOSPITALS.

There are seven public mental hospitals in the Dominion maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The number of patients at the end of 1921 was 4,871, consisting of 2,772 males and 2,099 females. These numbers include Maoris, of whom there were 34 male and 31 female patients..

The patients on the register at the end of the year 1921 (including Maoris) were distributed as shown below :–

Mental Hospital.Males.Females.Total.
Auckland6464221,068
Tokanui149100249
Porirua6544511,105
Nelson110105215
Hokitika18469253
Christchurch364419783
Dunedin (Seacliff and Waitati)6044431,047
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)162440
Absent on probation4566111
                Totals2,7722,0994,871

The number of patients remaining at the close of each of the last five years, and the proportion per 10,000 of the population (excluding Maoris) at the end of the year, are shown in the following table :–

NUMBER REMAINING (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1917–21.
Year.Number remaining at Close of Year.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19172,5771,8844,46147.9633.6240.64
19182,5641,9214,48547.3033.9240.46
19192,6301,9574,58744.6634.0038.96
19202,6792,0074,68644.2934.0138.80
19212,7382,0684,80643.2534.0738.76
    Means of five years2,6381,9674,60545.4933.9239.52

The total number of patients under oversight, care, or control during 1921 was 5,677 (males 3,221, females 2,456), as against 5,617 in 1920. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 4,654 in 1920 and 4,754 in 1921.

ADMISSIONS.

The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1921 were 881 (479 males and 402 females), this number not including 42 transfers from one institution to another.

The causes of insanity as assigned on admission are given below :–

Heredity89
Congenital114
Previous attack123
Puberty and adolescence42
Climacteric49
Senility104
Puerperal state26
Mental stress, sudden15
          “           prolonged56
Shell shock1
Solitude3
Alcohol57
Syphilis32
Toxæmia1
Traumatic5
Post operative7
Epilepsy39
Arterio-sclerosis8
Chorea1
Heart-disease2
Graves disease1
Bright's disease1
Ill health26
Pernicious anæmia1
Phthisis1
Influenza11
Cerebral hæmorrhage2
Cerebral tumour2
Overwork2
Religion6
Unknown54
Not insane1
        Totals, excluding transfers881
Transfers42
        Grand total923

FIRST ADMISSIONS.

Of the 881 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1921, those admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 738 (males 414, females 324), and those readmitted 143 (males 65, females 78).

The figures for 1921 represent one first admission for every 1,684 persons in the Dominion.

Excluding the Native race, the number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of population for each of the last five years were as follows :–

FIRST ADMISSIONS AND RATE PER 10,000 OF MEAN POPULATION, 1917–21.
Year.Number of First Admissions.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
19174062947007.475.296.37
19183673206876.805.686.23
19194482967447.835.186.51
19203833437266.285.836.09
19214143247386.625.416.03
Means of five years4043157197.005.496.25

VOLUNTARY INMATES.

Persons labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as voluntary boarders. At the beginning of 1921 there were 86 boarders in residence (32 males, 54 females), and during the year 104 (50 males, 54 females) were admitted. If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1921,5 (2 males, 3 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 6 died, while 80 (39 males, 41 females) were discharged, leaving 99 resident at the end of the year (36 males, 63 females.)

AGES OF INMATES.

A summary is attached showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the close of 1921 :–

AGES OF INMATES, 31ST DECEMBER, 1921.
Age, in Years.Males.Females.Total.
  1 to 5077
  5 ″ 10181230
10 ″ 15321951
15 ″ 206947116
20 ″ 30307213520
30 ″ 40585369954
40 ″ 506705191,189
50 to 60464456902
60 ″ 70370252622
70 ″ 80164129293
80 ″ 90444084
90 and over415
Unknown453580
Totals2,7722,0994,871

MAORIS ADMITTED AND REMAINING.

The number of Maoris admitted as patients to the mental hospitals is small. Twenty-one (13 males, 8 females) were admitted during the year, and 65 (34 males, 31 females) remained at the end of the year.

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.

Dealing with patients of all races, the next table gives the average number resident, those who were discharged as recovered, and those who died during the period 1917–21 :–

Year.Average Number Resident.Discharged as recovered.Died.
Number.Per Cent, of Average Number Resident.Number.Per Cent, of Average Number Resident.
19174,3683237.393187.28
19184,5012836.294489.95
19194,5273377.443427.55
19204,6543106.663768.08
19214,7543717.803186.69
    Means of five years4,5613257.123607.91

Old age is the principal cause of death among mental-hospital patients, and, among individual causes, general paralysis of the insane ranks second. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the year 1921 are as follows :–

DEATHS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS, 1921.
Tuberculosis31
Cancer7
Other general diseases14
General paralysis of the insane30
Organic brain-disease22
Epilepsy15
Other diseases of the nervous system30
Diseases of the respiratory system24
Diseases of the circulatory system54
Diseases of the digestive system6
Diseases of the genito-urinary system4
Diseases of the bones2
Old age74
External causes2
Ill-defined causes3
                Total318

A table is added showing for all admissions since 1876 the percentages of patients discharged (as recovered, relieved, and not improved, separately), died, and remaining.

Males.Females.Both Sexes.
Discharged–
    Recovered38.3145.1641.34
    Relieved7.058.977.84
    Not improved1.131.771.77
Died34.8124.8030.71
Remaining at end of 192118.7019.3018.34
 100.00100.00100.00

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.

A license may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such licenses, which may be revoked at any time. The Inspector-General has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private institute in the Dominion, that at Wakari, near Dunedin, established in 1882. Particulars of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, for the last five years are as follows. These figures are included in preceding tables.

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL (included in previous figures).
Year.Admissions.Discharges.Deaths.Patients remaining at End of Year.
19172011352
19181111745
19191512444
19201613344
192169140

ACCOMMODATION.

At the end of the year 1921 the mental hospitals of the Dominion had accommodation for 4,595 patients, the cubic content of the dormitories and sleeping-rooms being well over 3,000,000 cubic feet. Details of accommodation are as follows :–

Institution.Number of Patients for whom there is Accommodation.
In Single Rooms.In Dormitories.Totals.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
Auckland167103462298629401
Tokanui282012080148100
Porirua10690484313590403
Nelson10137710287115
Hokitika40171724721264
Christchurch6373340385403458
Seacliff170133360261530394
        Totals, State institutions5844492,0151,4862,5991,935
Ashburn Hall Private Mental Hospital2833..     ..     2833
        Totals, all institutions6124822,0151,4862,6271,968

EXPENDITURE, ETC.

The total expenditure on maintenance of mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions), and receipts from patients and for sale of produce, &c., during the last five years were as follows :–

Year.Total Expenditure.Receipts from Patients, Sale of Produce, &c.Net Expenditure.
 £     £     £     
1917220,77768,446152,331
1918248,60969,195179,414
1919286,84794,130192,717
1920360,061122,939237,122
1921–22384,615115,416269,199

The total net expenditure out of the Public Works Fund for buildings and equipment from 1st July, 1877, to 31st March, 1922, was £960,731.

Farms are conducted in connection with the various mental hospitals, the inmates themselves doing most of the labour. During 1921, sales of produce brought in £13,619, while the value of produce grown on the farms and consumed in the institutions was estimated at £25,657. Expenses in connection with the farms amounted to £23,091, so that the year's working shows a credit balance of £16,185.

Chapter 8. SECTION VIII.–EDUCATION.

HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

THE inception and establishment of educational facilities in New Zealand is the history of civilization and progress in this part of the British dominions. As might be expected, it was immediately after the advent of the first missionaries that schools for the instruction of the Native youth were established. Later, as a European population settled in the country, the need for a means of educating the white children arose, and finally the necessity for some co-ordinated scheme for the whole colony asserted itself. This latter was consummated in the Education Act of 1877, which Act is the basis of the system of education obtaining in the Dominion at the present day.

EARLY NATIVE EDUCATION.

The system of education which was pursued from the foundation of the colony–and, indeed, from 1816, when the first mission school was established at Rangihoua, in the Bay of Islands–was that of imparting instruction to the Natives in their own language in establishments where great numbers of all ages were congregated, and where they were not only educated, but were also housed, fed, and clothed. The first legislative action in this connection was an Ordinance passed by the Legislative Council at Auckland in 1847. This provided for the education of the youths of New Zealand, and recognized none but religious schools. Its administration, including the appointment and removal of teachers, was almost wholly in the hands of the religious bodies. The Ordinance declared that religious education (with a conscience clause), industrial training, and instruction in the English language should find a part in the curriculum of all schools which received financial assistance under the Ordinance. The aggregate amount of aid to be given was not to exceed one-twentieth of the estimated revenue of the colony. The provisions of the Ordinance actually applied to both races, but the greater part of the money appropriated in succeeding years was for Native schools and institutions. The amount of aid was set down annually on the Civil List, and the distribution for the year ended 30th September, 1854, well illustrates the apportionment among the religious bodies, viz : Church of England, £3,500; Wesleyan, £1,600; Roman Catholic, £800: total, £5,900.

The desirability of the subsidy to schools being removed from the Civil List and provided for by vote of the House of Representatives resulted in the passing of the Native Schools Act, 1858. This embodied much the same provisions as the Ordinance of 1847, with the exception that the sum of £7,000 was appropriated annually to be distributed as capitation.

Despite these attempts to set up a satisfactory scheme for the education of the Native children, little success attended the efforts of the Government, and in 1863 barely five hundred scholars were being taught in the various institutions for Native education. This was due primarily to the unsettled state of the country as a result of the hostilities that had broken out, but no doubt the scheme of education itself was unsound in many respects, particularly as it allowed the children to drift back to the demoralizing influence of their own kaingas. These combined causes practically led to the utter collapse during the next few years of a system which had been pursued since the education of Natives had been first attempted.

In 1867 the Native Schools Act was passed, but before it could be brought into effective operation the North Island, where the bulk of the schools were situated, again became involved in war, and it was not until 1871, when an amending Act was passed, that any real effort could be made to introduce a workable system of Native education. The main provisions of the new scheme were, firstly, the establishment of village schools wherever a sufficient Native population and other circumstances rendered it possible; secondly, the instruction to be in the English language only, except where the location of an English teacher might be found impossible; thirdly, the working of the village schools through the agency of the Natives themselves, associated with and aided by such Europeans as might be willing to work with them on School Committees; fourthly, the contribution by the Natives of part of the expenses of salaries and inspection, together with grants of land for buildings. Provision was also made for a continuance of capitation to schools already established (mainly denominational) which fulfilled conditions that were laid down.

That the new legislation was eminently successful is seen from the statistics of the year 1874. Forty-one new schools had been formed, with an attendance of 875 boys and 370 girls. There were also twenty-three other schools which were receiving a capitation allowance, with a total of 142 boys and 100 girls in attendance. In 1879 the control of Native schools passed from the Native Department to the Education Department, which has since been responsible for their administration. As the district in which a Native school is established becomes populated and the Native population Europeanized in its mode of living, the school is handed over to the control of the Education Board for the district.

THE PROVINCIAL SYSTEMS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

The Ordinance of 1847, referred to earlier, was practically a nullity in so far as the education of children other than Natives was concerned. Indeed, it was not until the establishment of provincial institutions in 1853 that any legislative action was taken in the direction of providing facilities for the education of white children. Up to that time colonists were dependent upon small private schools, mainly, though by no means exclusively, of a denominational character. Until their abolition in 1876 the various provinces conducted their own education systems. The result was that, instead of a methodical scheme of school organization for the whole of New Zealand, there came into existence systems varying widely both in the principles upon which they were established and in the results attained. This is well illustrated from the following account of the more important features of the various legislative provisions with respect to education made by the Provincial Governments.

AUCKLAND.

It was in this district that the bulk of the money appropriated on the Civil List for Maori education was expended, and the Legislative Council Ordinance of 1847, already referred to, was of more effect in Auckland than in any other part of the colony. The first attempt of the Provincial Council, however, to provide for the education of the children in its sphere of jurisdiction was the Education Act of 1857. The Superintendent of the Province was empowered to appoint a Board of Education consisting of from five to nine Commissioners, to hold office for three years. The same official made grants, out of the funds which were voted, to all schools which fulfilled the requirements of the Act. Religious instruction was at the option of the local School Committee, but exemption was to be granted to all scholars whose parents did not desire their attendance. In 1867, however, this provision was abolished and secular instruction alone obtained. Schools which received aid from the Board could not charge pupils more than 1s. per week. Further legislation enabled a school rate, additional to fees, to be levied in 1867.

A change in administration was made in 1868. The Board on this occasion was formed of the Superintendent of the Province, the Executive and Speaker of the Council, and three members elected annually by the Council. This Board's function was to form districts in suitable areas, and it was also vested with the powers of distributing the annual vote of the Council and the income from reserves that had been set aside for educational purposes. The Board was also the authority in which the schools were vested. Teaching continued to be secular in character. It appears that little success attended this Act, for at the end of 1872 there were no common public schools (as opposed to private or denominational) either in the City of Auckland or its suburbs, or in the goldfield townships or the pensioner settlements.

Accordingly it is not surprising to find all existing education legislation scrapped in 1872 and a fresh Act passed. The Board on this occasion still retained its political members, and to these were added four further members appointed by the Council, and three appointed by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Thus constituted, the Board proceeded with the formation of school districts. It also fixed rates and controlled all available funds. A householder's rate of £1 and a rate of 5s. on each child (raised to 10s. in 1874) was levied throughout the province by the Superintendent. These rates were subsequently supplemented by a poll-tax of 10s. per annum on each male adult. No fees were charged in the schools themselves, all expenses being met from these rates and other income of the Board. Secular instruction still obtained, and the Act seems to have been a considerable improvement upon its predecessors in so far as the results obtained were concerned.

TARANAKI.

This province made a start in 1857 by empowering the Superintendent to appoint a Commission of four to see what scheme should be adopted, but nothing further was done until the lapse of nine years. In that year (1867) a Board of Education was established, having the same personnel as the Board of Trustees of Public Reserves, and from the middle of 1868 all money from education reserves were diverted to the purposes of the Education Ordinance. Appropriations were also made annually by the Provincial Council for education. Denominational schools were eligible for assistance from the funds available. The Board so constituted had power to establish separate education districts if agreed to by the householders. Local Committees were to be elected, consisting of either three or six members, of whom one or two were to retire in rotation each year. To supplement the funds from education reserves the Committees were empowered to impose a household rate not exceeding £1. Religious instruction (with a conscience clause) was allowed either before or after school hours, but the Irish Board of Education's selected Scripture portions could be read as part of the regular curriculum.

A further Ordinance was passed in 1874. This repealed the existing legislation and established the Patea and the New Plymouth Educational Boards, each consisting of seven elected members. The two Boards exercised full control over the educational activities of the province, levied a household rate as under the repealed Ordinance, and imposed a charge of 6s. 6d. per annum on each scholar in attendance at school. Provision was made, however, for fees and rates to be remitted in necessitous eases.

WELLINGTON.

Early in 1855 the Council passed an Ordinance (the outcome of a Commission set up in 1853) for the establishment of common schools. It provided for the proclamation of school districts by the Superintendent of the Province; for an annual election of a School Committee : and for the levying of a uniform rate where necessary upon every house in the school district, but not exceeding £1 per year for each house. The Committees' powers gave them practically complete control in their respective districts. Religious instruction was prohibited in the original Ordinance, but an amendment of 1857 gave power to the Committees to allow Bible-reading without note or comment. The operation of the Ordinance was not as effective as its originators anticipated, the chief difficulty being the lack of funds to properly establish and maintain the schools. It continued in force, however, without further change, except in regard to a few machinery clauses, until 1871.

In this latter year existing legislation was repealed and the Education Act, 1871, passed. Under this the province was divided into ten school districts. Each district elected a member to a Board which had complete charge of education in the province. The schools were supported by a capitation fee of 5s. per child per annum, together with an annual rate on all rateable property, limited to ½d. in the pound. Four amending Acts were passed in the four succeeding years, the principal alteration made being contained in that of 1874, which abolished capitation and rates and levied a school fee of 5s. per quarter for each child actually attending school.

HAWKE'S BAY.

Immediately after the formation of the Hawke's Bay Province an Education Act (1859) was passed. This repealed the earlier Education Acts of the Wellington Provincial Council. Denominational schools were excluded from participation in grants for buildings or repairs, but in the case of common schools a pound-for-pound subsidy was granted to any district raising at least £40 for these purposes, with a limit of £100 subsidy over three successive years. Monetary aid apart from that required for buildings was given to both classes of school in proportion to the number of children educated, at the rate of 7s. per quarter, subject, however, to the provision that the weekly charge to parents did not exceed 2s. per child. Government aid was drawn from appropriations and the proceeds of education land reserves. In 1868 this was supplemented by a school rate of £1 per annum levied on every householder. The scheme in Hawke's Bay seems to have worked with a degree of success. No religious instruction was permitted in the common schools during ordinary hours.

NELSON.

This province early made a start in providing means of education, and the year 1853 saw a Commission set up to consider the best scheme to be established in the province. In 1856 an Act followed. The Superintendent of the Province was empowered to constitute districts and a Central Board of Education. Rates for the provision of funds were to be levied. Amending legislation followed in 1858 and 1862. and in 1863 a fresh Act was passed. Under this latter Act the existing education districts which had been constituted were continued. They were to be controlled by local Committees of six persons. Annual rates in these districts were levied to the extent of £1 on every householder, plus 5s. for each child. Religious instruction was permitted, but was to be of a non-controversial character, and parents had opportunity to object if they so desired.

MARLBOROUGH.

Marlborough, on its separation from Nelson and its elevation to provincial status, started its educational activities by repealing the existing legislation and passing the Education Act, 1861, which virtually re-enacted the system formerly in force in Marlborough as part of the Province of Nelson. Four years later the Superintendent with a Central Board of Education was replaced by the Superintendent and Executive of the Province.

The year 1871 saw a fresh start made, and the Town and Road Boards were constituted the authorities for managing the schools. Rating-powers were given to provide funds, and compulsory fees were payable on account of all children between the ages of seven and twelve within three miles of the school. The curriculum was maintained on a secular basis, religious teaching being forbidden.

CANTERBURY.

An Ordinance of the Canterbury Provincial Council in 1855 carried to a conclusion a compact made with the original colonists, and the following year saw Christ's College founded, it being placed under the control of the Church of England Bishop and Wardens. The next year a sum of £2,500 was voted for the assistance of primary schools, and this was placed in the control of the English, Wesleyan, and Presbyterian Church authorities for distribution. The limitations imposed included a clause for exemption from religious teaching where objected to by parents, and fees were to be the same in all schools. A similar appropriation for education was made during the next five or six years, when, as a result of a Commission which brought down its report in 1863, legislation in the direction of ensuring a more effective system was introduced. A first step was taken in the same year, when the administration of the annual appropriation was withdrawn from the churches, though denominational grants were not themselves cut off. In lieu thereof an Education Board responsible to the Provincial Government was set up. All applications for aid came within its jurisdiction, as did also the regulation of salaries and the appointment of Inspectors.

A further Ordinance in 1864 did not change the Board. Districts were, however, to be proclaimed on a requisition for such. A Committee in each district managed the schools, seeing to their establishment, fixing salaries, fees, and selecting teachers–all, however, subject to the Board. No child was to be absent from Bible-reading, but might be exempted from further religious instruction if the Committee was assured the child received instruction elsewhere. Amendments to the above Ordinance were made in 1868 and 1870, but in 1871 all existing legislation was repealed and a new Ordinance passed. Under this latter the appointment of the Education Board was in the hands of the Provincial Superintendent and the Executive. The Board itself became responsible for the examination and classification of its teachers, and on its recommendation school districts were proclaimed, with or without the local requisition required before. Each district paid one-sixth of the cost of building schools, and, failing to do so, was liable to a rate of 6d. in the pound, to be levied by the Superintendent. The management of the school, fixation of salaries, appointment and removal of teachers, came within the jurisdiction of the district Committee. All teachers were required to have a certificate from the Board.

The financial matters connected with the various districts were assisted by a tax of £1 levied on each householder within three miles of a school, with an additional 5s. for each child. These levies were made by the Superintendent of the Province, and paid to the Committee of the respective districts. Bible-reading was prescribed, but teachers themselves gave no instruction. Provision was, however, made for the admission of ministers of religion. In the year 1873 the provisions regarding Bible-reading were withdrawn, and at the same time grants to denominational schools ceased.

A further change in regard to administration was made in 1875. The Board was abolished, and a department and permanent secretary were appointed. The districts, which were retained, had to raise half the cost of buildings, and to do so a rate of 1s. in the pound might be levied. It is of interest to note that towards the end of the same year an attempt made to secure the assent of the General Assembly to a Bill for the restoration of a Board to be appointed by the Superintendent for the control of education in Canterbury was defeated.

WESTLAND.

An Ordinance of 1874 prescribed a scheme for Westland, and a further amending Ordinance was passed in the following year. The operation of this legislation, however, was of a limited nature, it being finally repealed, in common with other provincial Ordinances, by the Education Act, 1877.

OTAGO.

There is no doubt that the initial attempts in propounding a scheme of education were eminently more successful in Otago than in any other province. The subject was dealt with at the first sitting of the Provincial Council, when a Committee was appointed to report on the question. At the close of 1854 the recommendations of this Committee were adopted, and a Grammar School was formed at Dunedin. Certificated teachers were sent for from Scotland, and provision was made for expenses being met from the provincial funds and from rates to be levied for the purpose. This measure of 1854 was merely provisional, and a complete Ordinance in 1856 replaced it. This Ordinance provided for a Board of Education consisting of the Superintendent and the Executive of the province, with the Rector of the Grammar School and two members from each School Committee. The functions of the Board consisted of promoting school districts and establishing schools therein. Each district elected a Committee annually, who consulted with the controlling Board as to buildings, but carried out the selection of their own teachers. The allocation of the moneys available was made so that land and school buildings came from the provincial funds, while the teachers were to be paid by school funds and a poll-tax on adult males of not more than £1. Religious instruction was given at stated hours, and exemption could be obtained on objection by parents. Six years later this Ordinance was repealed, and at that time the rate mentioned above had not been levied and the poll-tax never attempted.

The Education Ordinance of 1862 vested all school properties in the Superintendent of the Province instead of the Board, and the Board was made entirely political, the representatives of the Committees being dispensed with. The Board defined districts on requisition, and to the local Committees was left the determination of questions relating to buildings, character of the schools, salaries paid to teachers, and the fees. All the Board's determinations, however, came within the purview of the Superintendent. The scheme does not appear to have been a practical success, and was repealed two years later.

The next and final attempt of the Provincial Council was the Education Ordinance of 1864. The chief alterations were in the matter of finance and the responsibilities of the Board and Committees. The Board provided a large share of the cost of buildings and enlargements, but the districts were responsible for repairs, and also fixed the minimum school fees to be paid by those attending. Rates were imposed, but were withdrawn the next year, apparently causing some dissatisfaction. Some minor amendments were also made in the matter of salaries and repairs of buildings. No further changes were made subsequent to this, although two rating Bills were tabled in the Provincial Council.

EDUCATION STATISTICS OF 1867.

Of interest are the available figures which relate to a period ten years before the passing of the Act of 1877, with its consequent nationalization of the education system. The five main provinces only are dealt with in detail, certain figures for the minor provinces–Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, and Westland–not being available.

TABLE SHOWING PROVINCIAL APPROPRIATIONS AND NUMBER OF SCHOLARS IN 1867.
Province.Population.Revenue.Number of Scholars.
Total.Appropriated to Education.Attending Public Schools.Attending Private Schools.

*1866.

Not available.

  £     £       
Auckland48,321196,6673,0002,686*3,258
Wellington21,950166,4442,7149701,793
Nelson23,814170,6345,6801,668650
Canterbury53,866562,8076,7512,1782,297
Otago48,577503,75511,6983,2981,546
Others22,160263,8483,727
            Totals218,6881,864,15533,570

NATIONAL SYSTEM OF PRIMARY EDUCATION.

From the outline given of the various arrangements for education in the provinces and the figures quoted for 1867 it is obvious that some connected scheme to replace the heterogeneous systems in operation was a paramount necessity. The desirability of this course was affirmed by the House of Representatives in 1869, but considerable differences of opinion as to the form which legislation should take prevented a measure being passed for several years. It is evident, however, from the crop of provincial enactments in 1871 and subsequent years, already referred to, that the fear of a national system led most of the Provincial Councils to put their educational houses in order in the attempt to retain control of education.

Whether religious teaching of a non-sectarian character was to be provided for, and the question of grants to denominational and private schools, were the reasons for the dropping of a Bill which was introduced into the General Assembly in 1871. A further effort was made in 1873, but, although the Bill then introduced passed through all stages in both Houses, it did not actually reach the statute-book. Nothing further was done until 1876, when, with the abolition of the provincial institutions, it was necessary to provide machinery to keep the existing public schools in operation. This was done by the passing of the Education Boards Act, 1876 which made temporary provision for the administration of education. The education districts thus created were conterminous with the provincial districts of the same name. By the Act all taxes and rates previously authorized by the provincial Legislatures were abolished with the exception of school fees and capitation rates on account of children. A vote was made out of the Land Fund in aid of maintenance of schools.

Parliament in 1877 was in the position of requiring to make provision for a national system. The Bill which was presented underwent considerable modification. Provision for a capitation tax of 10s. on every child of school age was deleted, and instruction was to be of an entirely secular character. It will be seen accordingly that with the passing of this Act the foundation of the present system of free, compulsory, and secular education was well laid. The outstanding features of the Education Act, 1877, were the provisions for a central Department of Education controlled by a Minister of the Crown; the establishment of twelve education districts–viz., Auckland, Taranaki, Wanganui, Wellington, Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, Nelson, North Canterbury, South Canterbury, Westland, Otago, and Southland–governed by Boards; and the establishment of school districts, which came under the jurisdiction of School Committees. On the Department was the onus of administering the annual appropriations by distributing to the Boards funds for the erection and maintenance of schools and the establishment of training or normal schools, and also the payment of capitation to the Boards at the rate of £3 15s. for each scholar in average daily attendance.

Education Boards were to be elected by School Committees, and to consist of nine members, three of whom were to retire annually. In the Boards were vested all property and endowments, and rents from these became part of the Board funds. The Boards were required to administer funds in carrying out the building arrangements for which grants were provided by the Department; in paying the salaries of teachers; and in granting to School Committees money for general educational purposes. The appointment and removal of teachers were in their hands, and the Act also gave the Boards power to establish scholarships, and provide for secondary education in district high schools. Fees were, however, payable to Education Boards by pupils receiving such secondary instruction. School Committees of seven members were to be elected annually. Generally the Committee had the management of educational matters within its own district, and out of the money received from the Board made payments incidental to the administration of the Committee's functions. In addition to these provisions, the Act of 1877 specified the course of instruction to be given in the schools throughout the colony. Inspectors, who were officers of the Education Boards, were to be appointed to examine and report on the school-work.

COURSE OF LEGISLATION SINCE 1877.

In the main the principles of the Act of 1877 are operative to-day. Several amendments made in succeeding years necessitated a consolidating measure in 1904. Among the principal alterations and additions that had been made up to that date were : The creation of the Grey District by a subdivision of Westland in 1884, thus bringing the total number of education districts up to thirteen; the provision in 1900 for a comprehensive scheme of manual and technical instruction; the introduction of physical drill into the curriculum in 1901; and, in 1903, the institution of National Scholarships to be awarded by the Department, and the introduction of a system of free places in secondary schools and district high schools for scholars completing the primary course. Up to the year 1901 also each Board had its own scale of staffs and salaries, but an Act of 1901 fixed the relation of the number and the remuneration of teachers in a school to the number of pupils in attendance. In 1905 each education district was divided into three wards, each returning three members, one of whom in each ward retired annually.

No outstanding changes beyond the consolidation of education legislation in 1908 were made until 1914. By the Education Act of that year the whole of the law relating not only to public but also to secondary, technical, and special schools was recast. The principal changes involved the reorganization of the Department of Education, and the Inspector-General of Schools became Director of Education. Inspectors of Schools, who had hitherto been officers of the several Education Boards, became officers of the central Department, a provision, it may be noted, that was deleted from the Bill of 1877. Provision was made for the constitution of fewer education districts in lieu of the thirteen then existing, and by an Act of 1915 nine were created. Every education district is divided into urban areas and a rural area. An urban area consists of a borough or a group of boroughs having more than eight thousand inhabitants; and the rural area, which comprises the rest of the district, is divided into three wards. The members for each ward of the rural area and for all urban areas are, as formerly, to be elected by the members of the several School Committees. The number of members of an Education Board for the rural area is six–two for each ward. The number of members for each urban area is two for each sixty thousand or part of sixty thousand inhabitants. School Committees continue to be elected by the householders, and hold office for one year.

A Council of Education is established whose statutory duty it is to report to the Minister and advise upon any matters in connection with education referred to it by the Minister, or which it may consider advisable to introduce into New Zealand. The Council has, however, no administrative or executive functions. To obviate the necessity for frequent meetings of the Council the Minister is given power to constitute from time to time District Advisory Committees, to afford assistance and to advise with regard to matters concerning one district only.

Under the Act provision is made for an annual graded list of certificated teachers. The first grading was completed and published in 1916, and has since been made annually. Except in special cases, all teaching appointments are governed by the position of the applicants on the list, and it is also the basis for the determination of the rate of salary payable.

Amending legislation, mainly of an administrative character, has been enacted at various times since 1914. By the Education Act, 1921–22, the registration of all private schools is made compulsory, and teachers in both public and private schools are required to take the oath of allegiance.

The programme of primary instruction at present provided by the Act includes English, arithmetic, geography, history and civics, drawing and handwork (including needlework), nature-study and elementary science, physical instruction, moral instruction and health, and singing.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.

The number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of the Dominion is shown in the following summary, classified according as to whether they receive primary, secondary, technical, or higher education. Pupils of private schools not subject to departmental inspection are excluded; this, however, in no way vitiates the figures given below, as the number thus unaccounted for is insignificant. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year in each case.

TABLE SHOWING SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS AS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1919, 1920, AND 1921.
Class of Institution.1919.1920.1921.
Primary Education.
Public (State) schools193,900197,645205,181
Native village schools5,1985,5085,822
Native mission schools167267237
Registered private primary schools20,97722,19323,924
Lower departments of secondary schools686815774
                Total primary220,928226,428235,938
Secondary Education.
Secondary schools9,0689,19610,030
Secondary departments of district high schools2,1592,1572,176
Technical high schools2,9262,7663,349
Maori secondary (boarding) schools434474488
Registered private secondary schools1,4971,4391,634
                Total secondary16,08416,03217,677
Technical Classes (excluding Technical High Schools).
Conducted by Education or High School Boards8,2328,2215,567
Conducted by Technical School Boards or Managers8,6649,16310,081
Conducted by University colleges1,0541,2441,184
                Total technical17,95018,62816,832
University Education.
University colleges (including training-college students)2,9613,6723,924
University students exempt from lectures99150199
Lincoln Agricultural College525553
                Total University3,1123,8774,176
                Total scholars and students258,074264,965274,623

An increase of 9,658 (or 3.5 per cent.) is shown for 1921 as compared with 1920.

Public primary schools, including district high schools, numbered 2,498 in 1921, against 2,437 in 1920. The number of registered private primary schools from which returns were received by the Education Department was 235. Aided or endowed colleges, grammar and high schools in operation numbered 35, technical high schools 13, and University colleges 4. The number of primary and secondary schools established for the education of the Native or Maori race was 139.

PUBLIC (STATE) PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

From the table which follows an indication is given of the growth of the education system since the creation of a central administrative Department in 1877. At that time the number of schools in proportion to the population of the colony was relatively small, but during the following twenty years the number increased rapidly. Since 1900, however, the closer settlement of the country districts and, more recently, the drift of population to the larger centres have to some extent counteracted this tendency to multiply the number of schools. At present there is one school to approximately each five hundred members of the European community.

It is of interest to note that the number of children attending the primary schools is to-day, in proportion to the total population, but little greater than in 1878, and this despite the better facilities for education now obtaining. In that year 15.4 per cent. of the community attended the primary schools. This increased to 18.5 per cent. in the next ten years, but had fallen as low as 16.5 per cent. in 1920. The reason for this state of affairs is twofold. On the one hand the birth-rate has declined consistently since the early “eighties,” and on the other the age-constitution of the population has been steadily rising.

Compared with 1920, there was in 1921 an increase of 7,555 in the number of pupils belonging to the public schools as at the end of the year, and the average attendance shows an increase of 11,204 for the whole year. The figures tabulated below include pupils attending the secondary departments of district high schools.

TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOLARS, 1878 TO 1921.
Year.Population at 31st December (excluding Maoris).Number of Schools.Pupils at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance, Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.
1878432,51974865,040..     48,773..     
1888607,3801,158112,685113,3690,10879.3
1898743,4631,655131,621133,782111,63683.4
1908960,6421,998147,428145,974127,16087.1
19131,084,6622,255172,168169,530151,24289.2
19161,100,5632,355185,884184,056163,15688.6
19171,097,6722,368190,354187,954168,71189.8
19181,108,3732,365194,934191,382169,83688.7
19191,177,4052,400196,059193,055174,88590.3
19201,207,8352,437199,802196,731171,10287.0
19211,239,9662,498207,357202,944182,30689.8

Of the 2,498 schools shown above for 1921, 2,036 had average attendances of between one and eighty, and of these 906 had averages ranging from one to twenty.

RELATIVE ACTIVITIES OF EDUCATION DISTRICTS.

The relative activities of the nine Education Boards administering primary education may be gauged from the following figures as at 31st December, 1921; they are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

Teachers and Schools, by Education Districts, as at 31st December, 1921.
Education District.Number of Schools.Adult Teachers.Total Number of Adult Teachers and Pupil-teachers.Percentage of Male to Female Adult Teachers.
Sole Teachers.Heads of Schools.Assistant Teachers.Pupil-teachers.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.Total.
Auckland70918918224434145682401321721,64869.4
Taranaki16221624730161193232632139.8
Wanganui206476478112719211405147056.8
Hawke's Bay16620736393218113314442243.7
Wellington269391188411683329394870041.5
Nelson14528723178827121924741.6
Canterbury392361791392887420356910499341.7
Otago2562712010416725613476063552.5
Southland193447260162113510223238056.1
        Totals2,4984519428501474712,3991414155565,81650.8

A table is now given which shows by education districts the total roll of scholars as at the end of each year for the last five years. The figures indicate in a general way that the rate of increase has been more pronounced in the North Island districts than in the South. They also indicate, more clearly perhaps than the preceding table, the relative size and responsibilities of the nine Boards. The figures are exclusive of the secondary departments of district high schools.

Scholars, by Education Districts, 1917 to 1921.
District.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Auckland51,81753,25954,42256,88159,816
Taranaki9,81610,09110,12810,27610,834
Wanganui15,06515,48415,31115,60516,310
Hawke's Bay13,04813,49513,84314,31915,117
Wellington24,03924,86224,60324,71725,699
Nelson6,7286,9806,8417,0007,028
Canterbury33,46434,09034,48834,77535,761
Otago22,20722,33922,19222,01222,192
Southland11,99012,08012,07212,06012,424
            Totals188,174192,680193,900197,645205,181

In each of the education districts arc located the Inspectors of Schools, who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school Inspectors on the 31st December, 1921, was 45, allocated as follows: Auckland, 12; Taranaki, 3; Hawke's Bay, 3; Wanganui, 4; Wellington, 6; Nelson, 2; Canterbury, 7; Otago, 5; Southland, 3.

AGE AND SEX OF PUPILS.

The following table shows the age and sex of the pupils on the rolls of the public schools of the Dominion at the end of 1921, and the percentage of the roll for each age :–

Ages.1921.Percentages for Five Years.
Boys.Girls.Total.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
5 and under 6 years7,9027,41615,3188.07.47.87.27.4
6 ″ 7 ″10,95410,07421,02810.610.710.610.610.2
7 ″8 ″12,27911,41623,69511.511.411.611.611.6
8 ″ 9 ″12,04810,99423,04211.711 311.411.511.2
9 ″ 10 ″12,20111,24923,45011.611.411.311.211.4
10 ″ 11 ″11,71510,72122,43611.111.511.311.111.0
11 ″ 12 ″11,32710,59321,92010.910.711.011.110.7
12 ″ 13 ″11,27710,37921,65610.410.510.410.610.6
13 ″ 14 ″9,8079,19118,9988.88.98.89.19.2
14 ″ 15 ″5,5924,59610,1884.24.74.44.55.0
15 and over2,0331,4173,4501.21.51.41.51.7
                Totals107,13598,046205,181100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

CONVEYANCE AND BOARD OF SCHOLARS.

Free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway-line but out of reach of a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, district high schools, and technical high schools, and also by free-place holders travelling to attend technical schools or classes other than technical high schools.

Education Boards are also authorized to make provision when necessary for the conveyance of pupils to primary schools by road or water, and to contribute towards the payment for board of children compelled to live away from home in order to attend school. The expenditure on these services for the last five years is shown in the following table :–

Conveyance and Board.–Expenditure for 1917 to 1921.
Year.Railway Fares.Other Conveyance and Boarding Allowances.Total
Primary.Secondary.Technical.Primary.Secondary.Technical.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
19179,8854,2512,85611,622..     ..     28,614
191810,9744,9483,13810,087..     ..     29,144
191911,4595,6133,85217,757155..     38,836
192012,0586,2553,75419,169661241,314
192113,4706,1134,38622,089..     ..     46,058

MANUAL INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

Elementary handwork in such subjects as modelling, paper and cardboard work, and brushwork is taught by the ordinary staff in practically every school of any size in the Dominion. The boys of Standards V and VI (also Standard IV in small schools) in 574 schools receive instruction from special teachers in woodwork or ironwork, there now being 115 specially equipped centres for this purpose. The girls of similar standards from 568 schools also receive instruction from special instructors in domestic subjects, including a comprehensive course in cookery and domestic hygiene. This instruction is also given at suitably equipped centres, which correspond in number to the woodwork and ironwork centres. Subjects relating to agriculture or dairy-work are taught in 1,490 schools. These subjects are generally taught by the regular staff under the supervision of itinerant instructors specially qualified in the work. Different branches of elementary science are taught in 92 schools, and swimming and life-saving at 121 schools.

The payments made by the Department on account of manual instruction for the year ended 31st March, 1922, amounted to £75,924.

CLASS-books and SCHOOL AND CLASS LIBRARIES.

A capitation grant at the rate of 3d. per head on the average attendance is paid to Boards for the purpose of supplying schools with supplementary continuous readers for class-reading or free supply in certain cases.

Provision has been made for the payment of subsidies of £1 for £1 on moneys raised by voluntary contributions for school libraries. In addition, a subsidy is payable by the Education Board not exceeding £5 for any one school.

“SCHOOL JOURNAL.”

Since May, 1907, an illustrated paper, called the School Journal, has been published by the Department monthly for use as a supplementary reader in primary schools, and is regarded as a useful and popular publication. In many cases it is being used as the chief reader. It is issued in three parts, suited to the varying capacities of the pupils in Standards I to VI inclusive, and is supplied free to all public schools. Native schools, special schools, and other institutions more or less under the Department's control or supervision. To a very large number of private schools it is supplied at cost price, with the result that over 17,000 copies of the School Journal are purchased monthly. Of the last issue of the School Journal for the year 1921 the number of copies printed was–Part I, 68,950 : Part II, 65,900; Part III, 56,150 : total, 191,000. These numbers show an increase of 10,100 over those of the previous year. The price to purchasers is at present 1d. for each of Parts I and II, and l½d. for Part III, the minimum charge for one of each part being 4s. 6d. per annum.

“EDUCATION GAZETTE.”

A monthly Gazette has been published by the Department since November, 1921. and circulates to teachers. In addition to articles by Inspectors and leading teachers of the Dominion, it is a medium for the prompt dissemination of official information and advertisement of vacancies. The number of the December, 1921, issue printed was 4,000 copies, and arrangements obtain whereby copies are available for perusal by every teacher in the Dominion.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

Physical education is recognized as part of the primary-school curriculum, and by regulation it is compulsory on the part of head teachers to devote a minimum time of fifteen minutes a day to the subject. Its administration is in the hands of a Chief Physical Instructor and a staff of twelve itinerant instructors. Schools are visited by the instructors for the purpose of both instructing and inspecting. Corrective classes are held in the larger schools for the purpose of remedying physical defects of the children, and exercises for this purpose are prescribed by the physical instructor after the child has been examined by a School Medical Officer. The Department uses its own syllabus of physical training, which was published in 1920, and is based on that of the London Board of Education, modified to suit New Zealand conditions.

The medical and dental inspection of school-children and school dentistry was transferred from the jurisdiction of the Education Department to that of the Department of Health at the end of 1920, and reference to this matter is dealt with in Section VII of this publication.

PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHERS.

The number of teachers in the public schools, exclusive of those employed in the secondary departments of district high schools, is shown for a number of years. The figures are as in December of the years given, and in the case of pupil-teachers exclude probationers from 1913 onwards.

TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1878 TO 1921.
Year.Adults.Pupil-teachers.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
18787074541,161181332450
18881,0398871,926219694913
18981,2341,3702,6042298311,060
19081,3312,0213,352161476637
19131,6032,6594,262142474616
19161,5013,2094,710137519656
19171,3833,3244,707132517649
19181,3663,4524,818123523646
19191,6063,3945,000123503626
19201,6753,5005,175114466580
19211,7723,4885,260141415556

The total number of teachers employed in primary schools, excluding probationers and including 556 pupil-teachers, in 1921 was 5,816 (1,913 males and 3,903 females); of these 75 per cent. held teachers' certificates. The number of probationers was 692 (127 males and 565 females). Taking all schools with two or more teachers, the average number of pupils per teacher was thirty-eight; in schools with six or more teachers the average number was forty-four; and in all schools the average number was thirty-three. The table given earlier in discussing the relative activities of the various Education Boards shows the number of male and female teachers respectively in each education district for the year 1921.

Omitting schools with less than twenty-one pupils, the ratio of adult men teachers to adult women teachers in 1921 was 100 to 182. The proportion of men to women in charge of schools with one to twenty scholars was 100 to 318. If the adult teachers of all public schools are taken, it is found that the ratio of men teachers to women teachers was 100 to 209 in 1920 and 100 to 197 in 1921. The ratio of male pupil-teachers was 100 to 294 in 1921. This information over a period of five successive years shows in a striking way the reduction in the disparity evident in the earlier years. A proportion of one male to three female teachers is regarded by educationists as satisfactory.

PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL-TEACHERS (FEMALES PER 100 MALES), 1917 TO 1921.
Ratio of1917.1918.1919.1020.1921.
* Not available.
Adult teachers–
    Schools with one to twenty scholars544523362392318
    Schools with more than twenty scholars213227193190182
    All schools240253211209197
Pupil-teachers391425409409294
Probationers*688603511445
Students in training colleges254488362333324

The average salaries paid to teachers in 1921, including house allowance or value of residence, were–Male head teachers, £438; female head teachers, £385; male assistants, £343; female assistants, £238; sole male teachers, £266; sole female teachers, £234. The movement over a period, when considerable salary adjustments have been made to meet the variation in the cost of living, is now shown. The figures include both certificated and uncertificated teachers.

AVERAGE SALARY OF PRIMARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS, 1918 TO 1921.
Class of Teacher.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £  £  £  £  
Male head teachers319380432438
Female head teachers251319373385
Male sole teachers174221266266
Female sole teachers143193221234
Male assistants257301336343
Female assistants150197229238

The very substantial increases indicated in the above figures were mainly granted on account of the rise in the cost of living, and are the result of amended regulations which operated from April, 1919, and from April, 1920.

The following table shows the number of certificated teachers receiving salaries of the various grades during the year 1921 :–

SALARIES OF CERTIFICATED TEACHERS, 1921.
Salaries (including Allowances and Value of Residences).Certificated Male Teachers.Certificated Female Teachers.
Sole and Head Teachers.Assistants.Sole and Head Teachers.Assistants.
Not exceeding £180..     7223
£181 to £2502041681,236
£251 ″ £3007852127370
£301 ″ £350111113118223
£351 ″ £40032113916170
Over £40048194263
            Totals1,0114465421,925

Information as to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund will be found in the section of this book dealing with Pensions, Superannuation, &c.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS.

Training colleges are situated in the four principal centres of the Dominion. The total provision is for 250 students at each centre. The management of the training colleges is entrusted to the local Education Boards, subject to general regulations. The amount expended by the Department during the financial year 1921–22 for the training of teachers was £158,158. The number of students at the end of 1921 was–Auckland, 267; Wellington, 191; Christchurch, 196: and Dunedin, 250: total, 904.

A very considerable increase has been in evidence in the number of students attending the training colleges. The figures for the last three years are as follows :–

Training College.1919.1920.1921.
Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.
Auckland521231755613318965202267
Wellington261261523913517449142191
Christchurch211081292611714350146196
Dunedin27991263613817449201250
      Totals126456582157523680213691904

The number attending in each of the earlier years of the past decade has been– 1912, 398; 1913, 439; 1914, 430; 1915, 390; 1916, 442; 1917, 451; and 1918, 500.

The ordinary course of training is for two years, so that when the training colleges have their full compliment of students (250 in each case) the number of students annually completing their training and passing into the schools will be about 500. At present about half the students in training pass out at the end of each year. There is also provision for a one-year course, which under certain conditions may be taken by University students or matriculated students who have completed a two-years course at an agricultural college or a school of home science recognized by the University of New Zealand. In addition, there are short-period studentships, of not less than three months' or more than one year's duration, for the benefit of teachers who have already been employed in teaching and are deemed worthy of further training in professional work.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

By the Education Amendment Act, 1921–22, every private school was required to apply for registration before the 13th July, 1922, and no private school can now be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration. Application, however, does not of necessity carry registration, as certain precedent conditions of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum are required to be fulfilled. By the principal Act of 1914 every child between the ages of seven and fourteen is required to be enrolled as a pupil of either a public or registered school. It follows accordingly that the parents of a child of school age are liable to the penalty of £2 provided for in the principal Act if such child is improperly enrolled at other than a public or registered school.

At the end of the year 1921 the number of registered private primary schools was 235, with a total roll number of 23,924 and an average attendance of 20,941 for the year.

REGISTERED PRIVATE SCHOOLS, 1919 TO 1921.
Year.Number of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.
19192129,52511,45220,97718,47267616683
19202219,93512,25822,19319,16266642708
192123510,96712,95723,92420,94176682758

The following particulars, relating to the same years as above, show that the bulk of the scholars concerned attend Roman Catholic schools, the actual proportion being 81.8 per cent. in 1919, 80.3 per cent. in 1920, and 71.5 per cent, in 1921.

ROMAN CATHOLIC REGISTERED PRIVATE SCHOOLS, 1919 TO 1921.(Included in preceding table.)
Year.Number of Schools.Roll at End of Year.Average Yearly Attendance.Teachers.
Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.
19191527,7319,43817,16915,11631472503
19201598,3229,86818,19015,97339486525
19211689,09610,55119,64717,11740520560

In addition to the 235 registered primary private schools there were 20 private secondary schools on the register at the end of 1921, with a total roll number of 1,634.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR NATIVES.

The number of Native village schools in operation at the end of 1921 was 123. In addition, there are sixteen private schools at which education for Maori boys and girls is provided. Of these, ten are maintained from the incomes arising out of lands held in trust for educational purposes by various denominational bodies; the others are supported by private resources. Instruction is imparted by means of the English language only.

On the rolls of the 123 village schools at the 31st December, 1921, there were 5,822 children (including 779 Europeans). The average attendance for the year was 4,988, the percentage of regularity being 86.9, and the average weekly roll number 5,738. The total number of pupils on the rolls of the Native mission schools was 237, and on those of the secondary schools 488. At the end of the year, therefore, the total roll number of all the Native schools inspected by officers of the Education Department was 6,547, the average weekly roll being 6,464, and the total average attendance 5,653.

Of the children on the rolls of the Native schools 84 per cent. are Maoris speaking Maori in their homes, 3 per cent. are Maoris speaking English, and 13 per cent. are Europeans.

The total net expenditure on Native schools during the year ended the 31st March, 1922, was £77,650 Included in this is the sum of £56,338 expended on teachers' salaries, £7,072 expended on new buildings and additions, £4,058 on maintenance of buildings, repairs, &c., and £4,297 on secondary education.

The staffs of the village schools included seventy-two male and forty-nine female head or sole teachers, and 142 assistants. The average salary of the head or sole teachers was £295, of the 131 female assistants £145, and of the eleven male assistants £139.

The following table records the development of the Native village schools since the year 1881, when they were transferred from the Native Department to the control of the Education Department; no account is taken of schools which, as the European element in them has become predominant, have been handed over to the various Education Boards.

NATIVE VILLAGE SCHOOLS.–NUMBER, ATTENDANCE, AND TEACHERS, 1881 TO 1921.
Year.Number of Schools at End of Year.Mean of Average Weekly Roll.Average Attendance : Whole Year.Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll.Number of Teachers.
Male.Female.
188160..     1,406..     5410
1886692,3432,02086.26035
1891662,3951,83776.76034
1896742,8742,22077.36472
1902983,6503,00582.377103
1907994,3213,56182.484123
19121084,6444,04287.090144
19171185,1914,50786.880167
19191195,1904,48586.480159
19201195,4164,63985.782171
19211235,7384,98886.983180

Besides the children of the Maori race who are receiving instruction in the Native schools there is a large number (5,577) attending public schools, so that the total number of primary pupils of Maori race (including those in the mission schools) is 11,636.

SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Until 1904 secondary schools were established by a special (local) Act of the General Assembly, and the bulk of schools giving secondary education have been so constituted. At the present time the provisions of the Education Act, 1914, allow of the Minister of Education establishing such schools, and in general the minimum number of prospective pupils must be sixty pupils in the case of secondary schools, twenty pupils in the case of the secondary department of a district high school, and forty pupils in the case of a technical high school. Secondary schools are controlled by a Board of Governors, district high schools by the Education Board of the district, and technical high schools either by a Board of Managers or the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity. Free places are granted to suitably qualified pupils. A junior free place is tenable for two years, with a possible extension to three years. When held at a district high school it is tenable to the age of seventeen. Senior free places are tenable up to the age of nineteen. The Act provides for the award of Junior and Senior National Scholarships of a monetary value of £5 or £10 respectively, supplemented if necessary by a boarding-allowance of £35. In 1918 war bursaries for the dependants of soldiers killed or disabled in the European war were instituted.

In addition to the three classes of institutions referred to above there is also a small number of registered private secondary schools and of Maori secondary schools which provide for post-primary education. The total number of the five classes of schools providing secondary education during the last five years is set out in the accompanying table.

NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS PROVIDING SECONDARY EDUCATION, 1917 TO 1921.
Year.Secondary Schools.Secondary Departments of District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Maori Secondary Schools.Private Secondary Schools.Total.
1917346081020132
1918346281018132
1919346991021143
1920355991018131
19213557131020135

Pupils on the roll at the end of the year for the five classes of schools providing secondary instruction numbered 17,677 in 1921, as compared with 16,032 in 1920.

The number of pupils in each year of the last decade is shown in the following table; no account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary department is included.

PUPLLS RECEIVING SECONDARY INSTRUCTION AT END OF EACH YEAR, 1912 TO 1921.
Year.Secondary Schools.District High Schools.Technical High Schools.Native Secondary Schools.Registered Private Secondary Schools.Total.
* Actual number on roll during year.
19125,5421,8151,526*369883*10,135
19135,8031,8371,664*419545*10,268
19146,0561,8961,839*435850*11,076
19156,4882,1021,955*42199211,958
19167,0522,1152,1054571,00412,733
19177,5902,1802,3474871,20613,810
19188,3842,2832,7474711,36615,251
19199,0682,1592,9264341,49716,084
19209,1962,1572,7664741,43916,032
192110,0302,1763,3494881,63417,677

It should be pointed out that the above figures give the total scholars enrolled as at the end of the year. In the class of institution under review, however, a number of pupils leave before the close of the school year, and the figures shown are therefore on that account a little below the total number of scholars who have received instruction during the year. On the other hand, the total given is somewhat in excess of the total of pupils in average attendance over the whole year.

Taking the estimated population of the Dominion on the 31st December, 1921, as 1,239,966, it will be seen that 143 persons per 10,000 of the community were receiving secondary instruction, as compared with 94 per 10,000 of population at the end of 1912.

Full details are not available as to the number of male and female pupils respectively on the rolls of all classes of secondary institutions at the close of each year. At the end of 1921, however, of the total scholars attending secondary schools, 5,583 were boys and 4,447 girls; of the total attending technical high schools, 1,782 were boys and 1,567 were girls; and in the case of registered private schools the total roll consisted of 535 boys and 1,099 girls. The figures of Maori secondary schools and of the secondary departments of district high schools as at the close of the year do not distinguish between male and female pupils.

FREE SECONDARY EDUCATION.

Not all of the pupils receiving secondary education hold free places, but of the scholars attending Government schools no less than 91 per cent. were receiving free tuition in 1921. The following table gives a summary of the various secondary free places at the end of each of the last three years for which payment was made by Government :–

Free Places in December, 1919, 1920, and 1921.
Class of Free Place.1919.1920.1921.
Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.Boys.Girls.Total.
Secondary schools–
    Junior free pupils2,7932,5735,3662,9742,5905,5642,7132,9415,654
    Senior free pupils1,1871,1042,2911,2421,0472,2891,7231,1632,886
District high schools–
    Junior free pupils8498591,7088098671,6768418701,711
    Senior free pupils116191307157184341145173318
Maori secondary schools4248904850985062112
Technical high schools–
    Junior free pupils1,2321,1722,4041,2261,0002,2261,4451,2022,647
    Senior free pupils119231350151199350232261493
        Totals6,3386,17812,5166,6075,93712,5447,14916,67213,821

SCHOLARSHIPS HELD AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND DISTRICT HIGH SCHOOLS.

National Scholarships.

At the examinations held in 1921 216 candidates qualified for Junior National Scholarships, of whom seven were pupils of sole-teacher schools and fifty-seven were pupils of secondary schools. The number of candidates qualifying for Senior National Scholarships was 124. The figures below indicate the number and the value of scholarships current in December, 1919, 1920, and 1921, respectively. The number of scholarship-holders is, of course, included in the number of free-place holders already shown under the heading of “Free Secondary Education.”

Number of scholarship-holders–1919.1920.1921.
      Boys481458426
      Girls285280273
                                Totals766738699
Number receiving boarding-allowance (included in the above total)221201172
Number receiving travelling-allowance (similarly included)424547
Number held at secondary schools661627569
Number held at district high schools827575
Number held at technical high schools..     ..     31
Number held at registered private secondary schools233624
Total annual rate of payment£12,913£12,510£11,693

Private Scholarships.

The number of foundation and private scholarships in the last term of 1921 was 188. Of the holders, 114 were also Government free pupils under the regulations. In addition, free tuition was given by the schools to holders of foundation and private scholarships.

WAR BURSARIES FOR SOLDIERS' DEPENDANTS.

Regulations which came into force in January, 1918, provided for the award of bursaries to dependants of killed or disabled members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. To qualify for a war bursary a child must be eligible for–

  1. Free education at technical classes; or

  2. A free place at a secondary school, district high school, or technical high school; or

  3. A University or educational bursary at a University college.

A bursary entitles the holder to an allowance, in addition to free tuition, of £1 10s. or £3 per annum in the case of those qualified under (a), £5 for those under (b), or £10 for those under (c). Lodging-allowance is also payable to bursars who are obliged to live away from home to attend school, at the rate of £15 per annum under (a) and £30 under (b) and (c) travelling-allowances varying from £5 to £10 per annum are also made when travelling is necessary. The number and value of such bursaries in force each year since the inauguration of the scheme are now given.

Year.Number.Value.
  £  
191827328
191935524
192038646
192130565

STAFFS AND SALARIES OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Complete details of the staffs and salaries of the five classes of schools providing secondary education are not available. The following figures are therefore confined to full-time teachers of secondary schools proper and the secondary departments of district high schools :–

Teaching Staffs of Secondary Institutions, 1917 to 1921.
Year.Secondary Schools.District High Schools.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
1917174175349237497
1918175195370237293
19191861953813471105
19202071934003674110
19212111944053370103

The average rate of salary paid for each of the last five years is shown below. Under the provisions of the Education Amendment Act of 1920 regulations have been made prescribing definitely the salaries of secondary-school teachers which are paid by the Government. The range of salaries payable is as follows : Principals–Men, £600 to £900; women, £440 to £680. Assistants–Men, £200 to £540 women; £175 to £410. The actual salaries paid, however, are subject to adjustment in terms of the Public Expenditure Adjustment Act, 1921–22. In addition, a married Principal receives house allowance of £60 if a residence is not provided, a head of a department may receive £30, and a married assistant receives £40 per annum. The salaries of Principals are graded according to the size of the school, and the salaries of assistants according to their classification.

Average Salaries paid to Teachers of Secondary Institutions, 1917 to 1921.
Year.Secondary-school Principals.Secondary-school Assistants.District High School Secondary Assistants.
Males.Females.Males.Females.Males.Females.
 £  £  £  £  £  £  
1917603428284193257206
1918615434300201263218
1919647509332252298268
1920711548389289341304
1921734542383284345307

LOWER DEPARTMENTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Somewhat analagous to private schools, but on a different basis, are the lower departments of secondary schools. These departments may be held in connection with secondary schools for pupils who have not passed Standard VI, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met out of the income from the endowments of the school or from Government grants. Fourteen secondary schools have lower departments attached to them. A large number of the pupils board at the school hostels, indicating that these departments are used by the children of country residents able to afford to send their children away from home to attend school. The tuition fees charged range in the various schools from £6 15s. to £13 10s. per annum, the boarding-fees ranging from £36 to £59 per annum. The figures relating to the last five years reveal the following particulars regarding the number of pupils and teachers at the end of each year :–

Lower Departments of Secondary Schools.
Year.Number of Schools.Scholars.Teachers.
Male.Female.Total.Male.Female.Total.
* Not available.
191714296170466***
191814365215580***
19191439229468671825
19201445436181592029
19211443334177472229

An extraordinarily large increase in the number of pupils attending the lower departments of secondary schools is in evidence during the last three years, although a slight falling-off is apparent in 1921.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

The Education Act provides for public instruction in such subjects of art, science, and technology as are set forth in regulations. Up to the end of 1919 the main source of revenue of technical schools and classes was derived from capitation payments made by Government on the attendances of pupils, and each Board of Managers or controlling authority was responsible for the fixing of the salaries of its instructors, and the conditions of employment. In 1920, however, capitation payments were abolished and there was substituted a Dominion system of classification of technical-school teachers and manual-training instructors, and a corresponding system of payment of salaries. As salaries constitute by far the largest item in the expenditure of Boards, the introduction of a Dominion classification of technical-school teachers practically involved the abolition of capitation and the substitution of a more direct means of providing for the cost of technical education. The abolition of capitation payments also involved making direct provision for the incidental expenses incurred by Technical School Boards and controlling authorities in connection with the schools, and the allowance for these for any school or class was made proportional to the total salaries paid by the Department for that school or class.

TECHNICAL CLASSES OTHER THAN CLASSES AT TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS.

The total number of classes held in 1921 was 1,952, and the total number of students in attendance 16,832. The following figures show the number of classes at which the various subjects indicated were taken for the last five years :–

Number of Classes in certain Subjects of Technical Instruction, 1917 to 1921.
Classes.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Arts and artcrafts224235232238211
Mechanical and electrical engineering, theoretical and practical224220238239230
Building-construction, carpentry, plumbing, and other trades185204201252218
Experimental and natural science, practical mathematics, &c.132135120143110
Agriculture, wool-sorting, dairy-work, &c.127989510322
Domestic subjects364367371405389
Commercial subjects365369380346375
Subjects of general education341337377353397
                Totals1,9621,9652,0142,0791,952

Students receiving free education during 1921 at technical classes other than technical high schools numbered 3,835 (2,127 males and 1,708 females). This compares with a total of 3,966 (2,134 males and 1,832 females) in the preceding year.

TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS.

These schools (thirteen in 1921) are of secondary grade, and provide industrial, domestic, agricultural, commercial, and art courses. The number of pupils in attendance was as follows : Auckland, 493; Pukekohe, 126; Wanganui, 354; Feilding, 42; Hawera, 164; Stratford, 165; Wellington, 317; Napier, 259; Hastings, 101; Westport, 23; Christchurch, 549; Dunedin, 421; and Invercargill, 335. The total roll number was 3,349. The schools appear to meet the needs of a number of young people who would not otherwise proceed to secondary schools. The courses of instruction taken up by pupils were as follows :–

Courses of Instruction at Technical High Schools, 1917 to 1921.
Course.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Industrial590698786839951
Commercial and general1,3041,4821,6351,3581,746
Domestic291385297330385
Agriculture158177203232263
Art45574
                Totals2,3472,7472,9262,7663,349

Some indication of the growth of technical education and of the expenditure thereon is apparent from the table below. The figures relating to expenditure refer in each case to the financial year ending 31st March following.

Particulars relating to Technical Education for the Years 1917 to 1921 inclusive.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
*Year ended 31st March following.
Classes...     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Number of centres at which classes were held15413111012194
Number of technical high schools888913
Number of other classes1,9621,9652,0142,0791,952
Number of students–
    (a.) Technical high schools2,3472,7472,9262,7663,349
    (b.) Other classes18,40016,91017,95018,62816,832
Number of free pupils at (a) and (b) above6,1276,7157,2426,5426,975
Number of students attending under compulsory regulations1,3341,3241,3721,6361,585
Expenditure.*..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Capitation–£     £     £     £     £     
    (a.) Technical high schools35,79533,15047,34329,818119,289
    (b.) Other classes44,02133,11947,85831,918
    (c.) Salaries and allowances, &c...     ..     ..     20,589
Grants for buildings and equipment6,8985,77313,31967,217101,198
Subsidies on voluntary contributions2,1541,6736,9345,4663,991
Conveyance of (a) Instructors261464615635679
                        (b) Students2,982,3,3123,8523,7674,386
        Total expenditure* by Government100,19985,335132,245169,530244,627

Further information in regard to free places in technical high schools is given under the heading of “Secondary Education.”

SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND CARE OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN.

CHILD WELFARE.

The functions of the Special Schools Branch of the Education Department include the following phases of social work : (1) The maintenance, supervision, and training of destitute, dependent, and delinquent children committed to the care of the State; (2) the supervision of children and juvenile offenders placed on probation by the Courts (3); the supervision of all infants and young children under the age of six years maintained for payment apart from their parents; (4) the supervision of children in cases where epidemic pensions or widows' pensions are paid by the State; (5) the education and training of afflicted children over the ago of six years; the definition “afflicted” includes deaf, blind, or improvable feeble-minded children and children partly deaf or suffering from defective speech and stammerers. The following figures indicate the numbers under control during each year of 1918 to 1921 inclusive :–

1918.1919.1920.1921.
Industrial schools and receiving-homes3,1403,5933,8393,830
Juvenile probation249172281272
Infant-life protection860807797706
Deaf children10496118148
Feeble-minded children144150198201
                        Totals4,4974,8185,2335,157

The number of new cases actually dealt with in 1921 was 528.

Agencies in connection with the juvenile probation system are established in all the large towns of the Dominion, and boys' probation homes exist in each of the four chief centres. The number of cases dealt with by the Juvenile Probation Officers in 1921 was 1,121.

CHILDREN BOARDED OUT.

At the end of the year 1921 the number of children boarded out in foster homes was 2,035, as compared with 1,886 at the end of the preceding year. On account of the increased cost of living, the boarding-out rate has been raised at various times, and in April, 1920, was increased from 15s. to 17s. 6d. per week for infants under twelve months, and from 12s. 6d. to 15s. for children over that age and up to fifteen years, or longer if the child in question is still attending school. In addition, a very complete initial outfit of clothing is supplied with each child, and the Department provides free medical and dental treatment and medicines. School books and stationery are also provided for children attending school.

BOYS' SCHOOLS.

The Boys' Training-farm at Weraroa caters for boys of ail ages who, through the commission of offences against the law, are not considered fit to associate with the children attending an ordinary public school, at least not until they have undergone a course of training and discipline at Weraroa.

CARE OF THE FEEBLE-MINDED.

An institution at Otekaike is available for the reception of feeble-minded boys, who, under capable supervision, are employed in farm-work, garden and orchard work, and in the bootmaking, basketmaking, matmaking, and carpentering shops. Girls are provided for at the Special School at Richmond, and employed in house work and laundry-work, in the workroom sewing, knitting, &c., and in outside occupations, such as gardening and flower-growing.

INFANT-LIFE PROTECTION.

This work is carried out under the supervision of trained nurses who are fully qualified in the care and feeding of infants and young children. The majority of infants dealt with under this system are illegitimate, and have been neglected to such an extent prior to placing them in foster-homes that the greatest care is necessary in catering for their welfare.

DEAF CHILDREN AND CHILDREN WITH SPEECH-DEFECTS.

Special classes are established in the various centres for the education of the hard-of-hearing children and for the correction of defective speech among children. A school at Sumner exists for the preliminary teaching of stone-deaf children and young children who, in addition to being deaf, have little or no speech, and incidentally for the training of teachers for the deaf.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY AND AFFILIATED COLLEGES.

Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the New Zealand University, founded by the New Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875. In 1876 the University was recognized by Royal charter as entitled to grant the degrees of Bachelor and Master of Arts, and Bachelor and Doctor of Laws, of Medicine, and of Music. The Amendment Act of 1883, and the supplementary charter issued in December of the same year, added the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Science. By the provisions of the New Zealand University Act of 1908 and subsequent amending Acts the Senate of the University now has power to confer, in addition to those mentioned, the following degrees : Doctor of Literature; Master of Laws, of Surgery, and of Science; Bachelor, Master, and Doctor of Veterinary Science, of Dental Surgery, of Mechanical, Electrical, Civil, Mining, and Metallurgical Engineering, of Naval Architecture, of Agriculture, of Public Health, and of Commerce; Bachelor of Science in Home Science; and Bachelor of Science in Architecture. Diplomas in a number of subjects may also be obtained. In 1921 a Bachelor of Science in Forestry and a Doctorate of Philosophy were instituted.

The University is an examining, not a teaching body, and four teaching institutions are affiliated to it–the Auckland University College, founded in 1882; Victoria University College, founded in 1897 at Wellington; Canterbury College, founded in 1876 at Christchurch; and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. The affairs of these University colleges, including the appointment of professors and lecturers, are entirely in the hands of the various Councils. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions : Otago University has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, and a school of home science; Canterbury College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil); Auckland University College has a school of mines and a school of commerce; and Victoria University College specializes in law and science.

The affiliated colleges receive annual statutory Government grants towards meeting the expenses of their general maintenance. These grants are now as follows: Auckland University College, £11,500; Victoria University College, £11,500; Canterbury College, £4,500; Otago University, £10,000. The colleges are also in receipt of rents from endowments, Canterbury College and Otago University being the most richly endowed, due to the foresight of the early settlers in those provinces.

The growth of University education is seen from the annexed table. There were in 1921 3,924 students actually In attendance at the four University colleges. Of these, 162 were graduates, 2,503 undergraduates, and 1,259 unmatriculated students. In addition to the students mentioned above, there were 199 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures. There were also 53 students taking an agricultural course of University grade at the Lincoln Agricultural College.

STUDENTS ON BOOKS OF AFFILIATED COLLEGES, 1912 TO 1921.
Year.Attending Lectures.Exempt Students.Total.
Male.Female.Male.Female.
19121,12864884401,900
19131,45366188262,228
19141,37675889342,257
19151,24369376272,039
19161,09279864311,985
19171,00789550251,977
19181,1221,01859272,226
19191,8311,13083163,060
19202,3271,345122283,822
19212,5241,400157424,123

It will be noted that a very considerable increase had taken place in the total number of students over the decennium. A falling-off in the war years is apparent, but this is almost exclusively due to the absence of male students on active service.

FREE UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.

University Junior Scholarships are of the value of £20 per annum plus tuition fees, and are tenable for three years. In the case of holders living away from home a further sum of £30 per annum is allowed. The University National Scholarships are of equal monetary value. The number of junior and national scholarships gained in 1921 was thirty-one. Taranaki Scholarships are of the annual value of £60, and the Senate may at its discretion extend the tenure from three to four years. There are also some thirty or forty local and privately endowed scholarships awarded on the results of the same entrance examination.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the Senior University, Sir George Grey, and John Tinline Scholarships. The various colleges have also private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarship, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, the Medical Travelling Scholarship, Engineering Travelling Scholarship, the Post-graduate Travelling Scholarship, the French Travelling Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All excepting the last-named are tenable abroad. The Research Scholarships are each of the value of £100 per annum, with laboratory fees and expenses.

So far twenty-one Rhodes Scholarships have been granted, of which six have been gained by students of Auckland University College, five by students of Otago University, six by students of Victoria University College, and four by students of Canterbury College. Of the twenty-two Research Scholarships awarded up to the present three were in active operation in 1921.

University bursaries entitle the holders to the payment of tuition and examination fees (not exceeding £20 per annum) during a three (or possibly four) years' course at a University college or school of agriculture recognized by the University. The number of University bursaries held in 1921 was 610. The number of educational bursaries under the Education Act, 1914, held in 1921 was ninety-one, of which number twelve completed the three-years tenure of their bursaries. Domestic science bursaries tenable at the Otago University may be awarded under the regulations for technical instruction. Bursaries of this kind were awarded to eleven students in 1921, making forty-four bursars in attendance at classes. Training-college studentships also carrying tuition at University classes, and the completion of a training-college course is one of the grounds on which an educational bursar may be awarded for further University study.

Agricultural bursaries may be awarded to qualified candidates in order to enable them to obtain the necessary practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1921 six bursars were in attendance at Lincoln Agricultural College, Canterbury, and seven bursars were attending a University college.

From the table given below will be seen the number of students who received free University education during each of the last ten years :–

Students receiving Free Higher Education, 1912 to 1921.
Year.Junior University, University National, and Taranaki Scholarships.Senior University Scholarships.University and Educational Bursaries.Training-college Studentships.Other.Total.
191285163839923562
191390818344526752
1914911128642444859
191584831741636861
1916761230543727857
1917811328345640873
1918801033348369975
1919100195075861301,348
192099186317351161,599
19219913705774651,656

The outstanding feature of the above table is the number of University and educational bursaries which are now awarded as compared with a period of ten years ago. This is due to the fact that the year 1912 marked a widening of the bursary regulations. The courses of an increasing number of secondary-school pupils are now continued to comply with the conditions under which bursaries may be awarded.

WORKERS' EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION.

Tutorial and preliminary classes are conducted by the Workers' Educational Association, which works in conjunction with the four University colleges, for working men and women in such subjects as economics, psychology, industrial history, English literature, English composition, modern history, electricity, and hygiene, &c. Members of the staffs of the University colleges and other educationists act as tutors of the classes. Seventy classes were held in 1921, with a roll number of 2,000. The classes were held for the most part in the large cities, although in the Wellington centre particularly classes were held in a number of the smaller towns. The Government now contributes directly £2,500 per annum to the movement, in addition to which £1,250 paid by the Government out of the National Endowment Fund to the University of New Zealand is devoted to the same object, making a total of £3,750. Voluntary contributions received by the University colleges on account of the association's classes are also subsidized by the Government.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.

Examinations are conducted by the Education Department for the various purposes of Junior and Senior National Scholarships, junior and senior free places in secondary schools, district high schools, and technical schools, and teachers' certificates. Also, by arrangement with the Public Service Commissioner, examinations are held for admission to and promotion in the Public Service.

The University conducted examinations in 1921 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, public health, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, and music, and for admission to the legal and accountants' professions. The number of candidates for examination is increasing each year; there were 4,964 entrants for the degree examinations in 1921, compared with 3,671 in 1920. The number of candidates for matriculation has more than doubled in the last five years, the entries over the quinquennium being–1917, 1772; 1918, 2,129; 1919, 2,653; 920, 3029; 1921, 3,643.

The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department during the last five years is given below :–

Examination.1017–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
Junior National Scholarships and junior free places3,1221,9172,1702,2982,282
Public Service Entrance, Senior National Scholarships, and Intermediate3,3152,4223,0632,9993,419
Teachers D and C2,1021,9122,2342,3652,921
Public Service Senior22678507828
Typists' Examination6046..     ..     ..     
Kindergarten Certificate Examination45912
Special Public Service Entrance Examination in June..     133189204248
Special Public Service Entrance Examination for returned soldiers..     ..     ..     73..     
London University Examinations12422
              Totals8,8306,5157,7198,0208,902

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.

Expenditure on education has increased rapidly of recent years, and out of public funds no less a sum than £3,497,373 was spent for the financial year ended 31st March, 1922. The public funds referred to above, however, include not only the amount appropriated by parliamentary vote, but also sums paid from primary-education reserves revenue. Nor does this represent the whole amount expended on education in the Dominion. In the case of certain secondary schools and University colleges a considerable revenue from endowments, fees, &c., is received and becomes available for educational purposes. The figures given below relate only to direct expenditure on education from the public purse. Figures for the last five years, analysed according to the various branches of expenditure, are–

SUMMARY OF EDUCATION EXPENDITURE FOR FINANCIAL YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1917 TO 1922.
Service.1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
 £     £     £     £     £     
General administration14,65420,61826,01238,46838,620
Elementary education1,312,6351,439,5721,782,3052,252,5812,377,797
Secondary education141,608144,156229,630255,215310,878
Technical instruction100,19985,258132,038170,200244,627
Training colleges, &c.55,38759,92189,070129,685158,158
Higher education51,51551,11068,976109,242117,434
Native schools43,82148,50059,17671,40977,603
School for the deaf3,3933,9725,3486,0506,036
Education of the blindCr. 25Cr. 174111Cr. 146101
Schools for the feeble-minded9,8216,4145,10015,60511,190
Industrial schools and probation system48,07065,90384,527107,753108,622
Material and stores3,31610,8826,18913,003Cr. 4,345
Miscellaneous services24,79350,09355,51954,99350,652
                  Totals1,809,1871,986,2252,544,0013,224,0583,497,373

There is now given a series of comparative figures which show the increase in the cost of education since the beginning of the present century. The table following shows the expenditure in thousands of pounds, and the rate per unit of mean population:—

COST OF EDUCATION, 1899 TO 1922.
Year ended 31st March.Expenditure from Public Funds.Expenditure per Head of Mean Population.
 (£1,000)s.d.
1899519134
1904679156
1909980194
1910998195
19111,083208
19121,133215
19131,237225
19141,301230
19151,378241
19101,493258
19171,694295
19181,814317
19191,986351
19202,554424
19213,224516
19223,497546

The exceptionally marked increase of recent years in the total cost of education is in a large measure due to improved teachers' salaries. This item, together with the salaries of Inspectors of Schools, approximates 80 per cent, of the total expenditure. Another potent factor which requires to be borne in mind in considering the additional amount spent each year is the numerical increase in the population of school age, and the consequent increased number of scholars attending the primary schools. Compared with a decade ago, also, the number of pupils taking advantage of free secondary education has increased enormously, and this has involved considerable additional expenditure.

Chapter 9. SECTION IX.—JUSTICE.

CIVIL CASES.

THE ordinary civil jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts is limited generally to claims not exceeding £200. Justices of the Peace may hear and decide certain civil cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed £20. The numbers of plaints issued and of cases tried, and the amounts sued for and for which judgment was recorded, in the lower Courts during the ten years 1912–21 are shown in the following table:—

Year.Cases entered.Cases tried.
Number.Total Amount claimed.Number.Total Amount sued for.Total Amount for which Judgment entered.
  £      £     £     
191257,079592,94336,815420,073331,020
191361,759670,92539,086427,484366,981
191462,471706,95339,233455,197398,760
191560,170695,62537,632446,979383,532
191649,806639,92231,064395,779339,847
191746,004624,69329,412401,568340,958
191839,176563,35825,594378,025308,429
191938,775619,57624,680385,020319,135
192046,601787,52428,999467,665399,219
192159,3391,169,28639,013762,605654,863

It would appear that the practice of using the Courts as media for the collection of small debts is growing. For instance, the number of cases tried in Magistrates' Courts in 1900 was 19,816, the aggregate sum sued for being £286,719. Although the population of the Dominion increased from 1900 to 1915 by little more than 25 per cent., the number of cases tried represents an increase of nearly 100 per cent, in the fifteen years. From 1914 to 1919 successive declines, probably occasioned by war causes, were recorded: in 1920 increases are shown, both in the number of cases tried and the amounts concerned; while the figures for 1921 show an abnormally largo increase in litigation, 39,013 cases being tried, involving no LESS than £762,605, of which judgment was recorded for £654,863.

The numbers of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the total amount for which judgments wore recorded, in the Supreme Court of New Zealand during each of the ten years 1912–21 were as follows:—

SUPREME COURT: CIVIL JURISDICTION.
Year.Number of Actions commenced.Cases tried.Judgments recorded.
With Jury.Without Jury.Number.Amount.
     £     
191275564233235102,657
19137887624328479,610
19147929525128191,286
19156975025324168,555
19166734819325478,877
191758170172234100,447
191861147188226104,927
19197837222723888,144
19209159132926296,017
19211,536126334557244,942

BANKRUPTCY.

Under the Bankruptcy Act, 1908–a consolidation of the then existing laws— a person may seek the protection of the Court by filing a petition with a declaration of insolvency, or one or more creditors may petition the Court to have a debtor declared insolvent. The Dominion is divided into four districts for administrative purposes, each district being in charge of a State officer styled the Official Assignee, who is assisted by deputies stationed at the principal business centres.

The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last ten years was as follows:—

Year.Petitions by Debtors.Adjudications on Petitions by Creditors.Cases In which Composition accepted.Orders of Immediate Discharge granted.Cases in which Orders of Discharge were suspended.
* Excluding one absconding bankrupt: no statement filed.
19122783428813
191329647110812
191432269..     6111
191525044..     5518
191626737..     6321
19172214416010
1918133311539
191910932112813
192011728..     7214
1921288*471486

Private assignments and compositions are not registered, and particulars respecting this class of insolvency are not procurable.

The following table shows the total number of petitions, the amount of the unsecured assets, the amount of debts proved, and the amount paid in dividends and preferential claims for the years 1912–21:—

Year.Number of Bankruptcies.Debtors' Statements of Assets, excluding Amounts secured to Creditors.Amounts realized by Official Assignees.Amount of Debts proved.Amounts paid in Dividends and Preferential Claims.
* Excluding one absconding bankrupt: no statement filed.
  £     £     £     £     
191231264,39839,965120,32526,825
1913343155,58242,735228,82925,812
1914391174,41064,153199,25133,910
191529492,87663,310153,92642,374
1916304123,44166,416172,77429,223
1917265138,69663,645178,24427,405
191816450,35667,72988,60733,176
191914143,62754,62259,76724,980
192014444,02647,89777,75245,228
1921335*362,60178,271558,50438,646

In 7 cases of bankruptcy in 1921 the liabilities were under £50; in 22, from £50 to £100; in 72, from £100 to £250; in 74, from £250 to £500; in 64, from £500 to £1,000; in 57, from £1,000 to £2,000; in 22, from £2,000 to £5,000; and in 17, over £5,000.

A table showing the occupations of the bankrupts in 1921 is published in full in the Annual Report on Justice Statistics, and is summarized here.

OCCUPATIONS OF BANKRUPTS, 1921.
Class.Employers.Working on Own Account.Working for Wages.Totals.
* Excluding one absconding bankrupt: no statement filed.
Professional53210
Domestic134320
Commercial2244672
Transport and communication717226
Industrial25205499
Agricultural, pastoral, and mining3656395
Dependants..     2..     2
Indefinite..     4711
                Totals10815077335*

DIVORCE.

During the years 1919, 1920, and 1921 abnormally large numbers–viz., 675, 748, and 796 respectively—of petitions for dissolution of marriage were filed, this number including in 1919 8, in 1920 10, and in 1921 2 petitions for nullity of marriage. In 486 of the cases in 1921 decrees nisi were granted, 200 of these being made absolute during the year. In addition, decrees nisi were granted in respect of 174 petitions filed in previous years, 115 of these being made absolute before the end of the year, and 196 decrees nisi of previous years became absolute. The total number of decrees nisi for the year 1921 was thus 660, which includes 2 decrees for nullity of marriage.

In addition, 5 petitions for judicial separation and 68 for restitution of conjugal rights were filed. Two decrees were granted in the former class, and 43 in the latter.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions were filed in the last five years:—

Duration of Marriage, in Years.Husbands' Petitions.Wives' Petitions.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Under 11133412..     7..     
1 and under 26346533137
2 ″ 3372088223116
3 ″ 47725171343789
4 ″ 551014201155201513
5 ″ 1035469696933942106121119
10 ″ 1525617072833636101106101
15 ″ 2028305449572939588456
20 ″ 3011142739813035485467
30 ″ 402651833873915
40 and over2..     ..     111..     1..     11
Not stated..     ..     8..     2..     ..     2..     1
              Totals125185326329401157195349419395

A table is also given showing the grounds of petitions, in combination with particulars as to the number of living issue. Columns are added showing for the various grounds the sex of the petitioner.

Grounds.Petitioner.Number of Cases in which Number of Living Issue wasNot stated.Total Number of Cases.
Husband.Wife.0123456 or over.
* Nullity cases.
Adultery (alone)141102875646251379..     243
Adultery and desertion64324..     ..     1..     ..     10
Adultery and drunkenness1..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Bigamy*..     211..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     2
Cruelty (alone)..     4..     211..     ..     ..     ..     4
Cruelty and failing to maintain..     11..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Desertion (alone)13717410572523616822..     311
Desertion and drunkenness1..     ..     ..     1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
Drunkenness4101242221..     14
Drunkenness and cruelty..     111..     42121..     11
Drunkenness and failing to maintain..     3..     ..     ..     ..     21..     ..     3
Insanity6522232..     ..     ..     11
Separation and adultery21..     11..     1..     ..     ..     3
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights664421..     1..     ..     12
Separation for not less than three years96724444291617711..     168
Not stated1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     11
              Totals401395250186146865429441796

In thirteen cases the number of living issue WAS 6, in fourteen cases 7, in eight cases 8, in three cases 9, and in six cases 10 or over.

It is found that in 712 of the cases the parties were married in New Zealand, and that in 564 cases the marriage had been solemnized by a clergyman, and in the remaining 232 cases (29.1. per cent.) by a Registrar of Marriages or other civil official. Civil marriages constituted 17.7 per cent, of those solemnized in New Zealand in 1921.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Divorce.Judicial Separation granted.Nullity of Marriage.Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Petitions.Decrees.Petitions.Decrees.Petitions.Decrees.
1912274222244..     ..     
1913260223..     53..     ..     
1914290234..     11..     ..     
1915249221..     73..     ..     
1916280246..     91..     ..     
1917282221263..     ..     
19183802794212..     
19196754795852..     
192074857421024..     
19217966602226843

INQUESTS.

The number of bodies on which inquests were held in 1921 was 1,457, including 56 Maoris. In 1,112 cases the bodies were of males, and in 345 of females.

The verdicts given at the inquests held in 1921 may be classified as under:—

Nature of Verdict.Inquests on Persons.
Males.Females.Total.
Disease and natural causes513223736
Accident46085545
Homicide6410
Suicide13333166
                Totals1,1123451,457

Of the accidental deaths the most common forms during 1921 were crushing and drowning. The verdicts show that 144 deaths, or 31.51 per cent, of the total fatal accidents, were due to the former cause, while to the latter 130 deaths, or 28.45 per cent., were due.

The inquests on suicidal deaths in 1921 show an increase of 33 on the number for the previous year. The figures for each of the last ten years are,—

Year.Inquests on Suicides.
Males.Females.Total.
191211115126
191311833151
191411627143
191511212124
191612228150
191710430134
19189922121
191911230142
192011320133
192113333166

FIRE INQUESTS.

In case of fire causing the destruction of any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse, or hay, or any growing crop, a Coroner may hold an inquiry into the cause of such fire, the procedure being similar to that of inquests into cause of death.

During 1921 five inquests were held on fires. In four cases the verdict was arson, and in the remaining case the outbreak was attributed to an accident.

POLICE.

On the 31st March, 1922. the number of permanent members of the Police Force in New Zealand was 974 of all ranks, being an increase of 92 during the year. The total is made up as follows: 4 superintendents, 14 inspectors, 4 sub-inspectors, 31 senior sergeants, 87 sergeants, 791 constables, 7 senior detectives, 12 detective-sergeants, and 24. detectives. There were also 35 temporary constables, 12 police surgeons, 8 matrons, 8 district constables, and 2 Native constables.

The following table shows the number of stations and of police in each police district. Temporary constables, are included, but not district or Native constables.

Police District.No. of Stations.No. of Police.
Whangarei1727
Auckland36181
Hamilton3065
Gisborne1330
Napier1747
Now Plymouth1431
Wanganui1938
Palmerston North1742
Wellington35190
Greymouth2244
Christchurch37119
Timaru1340
Dunedin3599
Invercargill2345

There were also 7 officers attached to headquarters, 1 was on loan to the Cook Islands Administration, 1 on loan to the Samoan Administration, and 2 on leave prior to retirement.

The proportion of police to population is 1 to every 1,289 persons, and the expenditure (exclusive of the cost of buildings) on the whole Police Force for the year ended the 31st March, 1922, was 6s. 3 3/4d. per head of population.

The following table shows the growth of the Police Force since 1878, prior to which each province had its own Police Force, and reliable data are not available:—

Year ended 31st March,Officers.Non commissioned Officers.Detectives.Constables.Total.Police to Population (Including Maoris).Cost per Inhabitant.
       s.d.
18782590143294581 to 1,020..     ..     
18852065173724741 to 1,29530 3/4
18901266134034941 to 1,337210 3/4
1895751134164871 to 1,50226 3/4
19001156204995861 to 1,36320 1/4
19051265255536551 to 1,386210 1/4
19101686346397751 to 1,33633 1/2
191619104367579161 to 1,25642
191720108367348981 to 1,28243
191820111387329011 to 1,28146 1/2
191920112417058781 to 1,34252 1/2
192021114387439161 to 1,350411 3/4
192123112477689501 to 1,33764 3/4
192222118438251,0091 to 1,28963 3/4

CRIMINAL CASES IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS.

TOTAL CASES.

The gross total of criminal cases in Magistrates' Courts during the year 1921 was 45,797, males being charged in 43,335 cases and females in 2,462. These totals include 1,984 cases against Maoris (males 1,910, females 74).

The number of cases during each of the last ten years, inclusive and exclusive of Maoris, is as follows:—

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—TOTAL CASES, 1912–21.
Year.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
Against Males.Against Females.Totals.Against Males.Against Females.Totals.
191241,0452,82843,87339,6282,76642,394
191345,1722,78847,96044,1042,74346,847
191447,7073,26350,97046,1733,19849,371
191543,9963,19347,18942,3643,14145,505
191639,6232,93442,55738,1892,87141,060
191738,5372,91241,44936,9572,82939,786
191833,4662,93336,39931,8272,85534,682
191937,8722,57540,44735,7352,48638,221
192041,0922,39943,49139,0182,32841,346
192143,3352,46245,79741,4252,38843,813

The 45,797 cases dealt with in 1921 resulted in 37,124 summary convictions, and in 989 committals to the Supreme Court for sentence after conviction in Magistrates' Courts. In 587 cases the accused person was committed to the Supreme Court for trial, and in 734 the Magistrate admonished and discharged the offender under a provision enabling him to do so in the ease of a trivial offence, without a conviction being recorded. In 2,341 cases the charge was dismissed on the merits of the case, and in the remaining 4,022 cases the accused person was discharged for want of prosecution or want of evidence.

Of the 37,124 summary convictions—i.e., the cases in which the offender on being convicted was dealt with by the Magistrate—1,678 represented convictions of Maoris, leaving 35,446 for persons other than Maoris, equal to 28.72 per 1,000 of mean population, as compared with 28.23 per 1,000 in 1920. The figures for the last ten years are,—

SUMMARY CONVICTIONS (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1912–21.
Year.Number.Per 1,000 Mean Population.
191234,98633.67
191338,74836.26
191440,41037.06
191538,21934.76
191634,19631.10
191732,77129.82
191827,83425.23
191930,75726.91
192033,66628.23
192135,44628.72

In comparing one year with another it should be remembered that the number of convictions may be considerably affected by alterations in the law or changes in its administration. As an example or the former may be mentioned the introduction in New Zealand of a system of compulsory military training. Convictions for breaches of the Defence Act rose from 12 in 1911 to 4,819 in 1912, involving an increase of 2,700 in the total convictions for the latter year, instead of a fall of 2,000 which would otherwise have been recorded. On the other hand, convictions during recent years have been somewhat reduced by the introduction of the system referred to previously, where in the case of a trivial offence the offender may be admonished and discharged without a conviction being recorded.

For similar reasons to those referred to in the foregoing paragraph it is inadvisable to base comparisons of crime between different countries on the statistics of convictions for the various countries.

A great proportion of the cases dealt with in New Zealand are in respect of comparatively insignificant offences—as, for instance, drunkenness, offences against by-laws, &c.

A classification of convictions during the last five years, according to principal offences and groups of offences, is next given. The figures are exclusive of Maoris.

1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
* Not including convictions (64 in 1921) for selling liquor without a license, an offence against the revenue laws.
Offences against the person588525671647699
Offences against property (including forgery)2,3152,3392,9783,3443,205
Drunkenness (including issue of prohibition orders)10,4338,6179,43710,08210,247
Offensive conduct or language, and obstruction, &c., of police1,7021,1591,6211,7451,796
Breaches of by-laws4,2563,5083,8075,1105,290
Other offences against good order1,3499118639501,116
Breaches of Licensing Act*2,5762,2322,7832,6122,737
Breaches of Destitute Persons Act1,7281,7561,6431,9342,141
Breaches of Impounding Act1,1581,0171,3221,5231,686
Breaches of Motor Regulation Act1,1981,0421,6381,9331,501
Breaches of Defence and Military Service Acts2,3051,3871,4311,0962,002
Other offences3,1633,3412,6632,6903,026
            Totals32,77127,83430,75733,66635,446

Of the 699 summary convictions for offences against the person in 1921, no fewer than 638 were for common assault. Attempted suicide was responsible for 36 convictions, indecent assault for 6, aggravated assault 13, and cruelty to children 6. In the more serious classes of offences against the person the cases are referred to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence.

The 3,205 summary convictions for offences against property during 1921 are in the main made up of various forms of theft. Theft (not otherwise described) was responsible for 2,336 convictions, embezzlement for 13, housebreaking and stealing (including burglary) 34, horse and cattle stealing 4, and receiving stolen property 56. In addition there were 205 convictions for fraud and false pretences, 2 for forgery, 4 for arson, and 543 for wilful damage. The more serious cases of offences against the property laws are also sent on to the Supreme Court to be dealt with. Details of these will be found under “Criminal Cases in Supreme Courts.”

The principal of the “Other offences against good order” is vagrancy, which represented 642 of the 1,116 summary convictions under this heading in 1921. Offences relating to gambling (233) and cruelty to animals (133) ranked next in 1921.

Among “other Offences” (3,026 convictions in 1921) may be mentioned miscellaneous offences under the following Acts:—

Factories25
Shops and Offices140
Shipping and Seamen140
Noxious Weeds143
Apiaries109
Rabbit Nuisance145
Stock152
Sale of Food and Drugs279
School Attendance418
Alien Registration54

PUNISHMENT ON SUMMARY CONVICTION.

Of a total of 35,446 summary convictions (exclusive of those of Maoris) in 1921 peremptory imprisonment was imposed in only 2,046 cases, in addition to which the convicted person went to goal in 841 cases in lieu of paying a fine. A summary of punishments for the year 1921 is next given.

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—PUNISHMENTS ON SUMMARY CONVICTION, 1921.
Punishments.Exclusive of Maoris.Maoris.Total (including Maoris).
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Offences against Good Order.Other Offences.
Released under Offenders Probation Act8605311429687
Convicted and discharged585172,3958151343,919
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence4136630818631932
Committed to an industrial school31563616184
Committed to Salvation Army Home, &c...     2474301129
Fined47470312,6079,6611,19924,644
Imprisonment in lieu of fine226556019437878
Peremptory imprisonment69647634696982,144
Whipping..     7114177
Bound over18..     184444
Order made6511,8181,4831283,486
              Totals6993,20518,44913,0931,67837,124

DISTINCT CASES.

The statistics given above refer, as stated, to all cases dealt with in Magistrates' Courts, including those in which a person is charged with two or more offences committed simultaneously or in the same connection—as, for instance, drunkenness, damaging property, and resisting the police. If only one (the most serious) offence is counted in each instance the number of cases in 1921 is reduced from 45,797 to 40,321, or, excluding Maoris, from 43,813 to 38,642. A summary is given for the year 1921 comparing total and distinct cases classified according to the result of the hearing.

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—TOTAL AND DISTINCT CASES, 1921.
Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
Total Cases.Distinct Cases.Total Cases.Distinct Cases.
Discharged for want of prosecution or want of evidence4,0223,1323,8863,036
Dismissed on the merits2,3411,8692,2441,790
Admonished and discharged734640716625
Committed for sentence989744950711
Committed for trial587485571470
Summary convictions recorded37,12433,45135,44632,010
              Totals45,79740,32143,81338,642

ARREST AND SUMMONS CASES.

Persons charged in the Magistrates' Courts may be brought before the Court either on summons or after arrest, according to the nature of the offence and to other circumstances. Of the total of 45,797 cases in 1921, 16,690 were “arrest” and 29,107 “summons” cases. A summary is given.

Arrest Cases.Summons Cases.Totals.
Cases.Summary Convictions.Cases.Summary Convictions.Cases.Summary Convictions.
Including Maoris—
    Males15,71013,42827,62521,70643,33535,134
    Females9808691,4821,1212,4621,990
              Totals16,69014,29729,10722,82745,79737,124
Excluding Maoris—
    Males15,10112,90726,32420,60141,42533,508
    Females9638571,4251,0812,3881,938
              Totals16,06413,76427,74921,68243,81335,446

In more than 50 per cent, of arrest cases the offence is drunkenness, 8,919 of the total of 16,690 in 1921 coming under this head. Of the 980 female arrest cases included in the table drunkenness was the cause of arrest in 477 cases.

ARREST CASES.

Information in connection with both arrest and summons cases is obtained on cards, which, however, give considerably more particulars concerning the offender in regard to the former class than are available for the latter. From the information given in arrest cases it is possible to ascertain the number of distinct persons arrested, and to compile statistics as to their ages, birthplaces, &c.

The total number of convictions of arrested persons, other than Maoris, during 1921 was 13,764, which reduces to 11,888 if multiple charges—i.e., those in respect of offences committed by the same person at the same time—are excluded. If only the principal offence for which each person was convicted during the year is taken into account, the number of distinct persons convicted after arrest is found to be 8,251, a number equal to only 60 per cent, of the gross total of convictions of arrested persons.

OFFENCES, BIRTHPLACES, AND AGES.

The next three tables give the offences and ages, offences and birthplaces, and birthplaces and ages of the distinct persons (excluding Maoris) arrested and convicted during 1921.

CONVICTIONS IN ARREST CASES, 1921.

Offences and Ages.
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
The person1758556693289
Property2452371652802761,203
Good order655286631,7073,6076,570
Other offences387967111164459
              Totals3659029502,1644,1408,521
Offences and Birthplaces.
Offences againstNew Zealand.England and Wales.Scotland.Ireland.Australia.Elsewhere.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
The person1504118192635289
Property747209494774771,203
Good order2,6961,3426807974476086,570
Other offences17213932203660459
              Totals3,7651,7317798835837808,521
Birthplaces and Ages.
Birthplace.Under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
New Zealand3055595051,1351,2613,765
England and Wales221681664039721,731
Scotland64775162489779
Ireland12352176631883
Australia205883156266583
Elsewhere*114769132521780
              Totals3659029502,1644,1408,521

Of the 8,521 distinct persons, other than Maoris, arrested and convicted during 1921, no fewer than 6,570 were convicted for offences against good order, and of these 5,196 were for drunkenness (including 138 drunk and disorderly, and 9 habituals). In addition, 51 were convicted in respect of prohibition orders; 378 for indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct; 350 for using obscene, threatening, or abusive language; 394 for vagrancy; 111 for assaulting, resisting, or obstructing the police; 15 for soliciting prostitution; 4 for keeping brothels; 18 for offences relating to gambling and 53 for other offences against good order.

Of the 289 distinct persons arrested and convicted during 1921 for offences against the person, 250 convictions were for common assault; and of the 1,203 distinct persons arrested and convicted for offences against property, 943 convictions were for theft of various classes, 80 for fraud and false pretences, 30 for receiving stolen property, 3 for arson, and 146 for wilful damage.

CRIMINAL CASES IN SUPREME COURTS.

Criminal cases in Supreme Courts are divisible into two classes—viz., those in which the accused person has been found guilty in the Magistrate's Court and committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The figures for 1920 and 1921 are as follows:—

SUPREME COURT.—TOTAL CRIMINAL CASES, 1920 AND 1921.
Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
1920.1921.1920.1921.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Indictments and informations58348680395584866839
Convictions30523407172932340017
Sentences in cases of committal for sentence659241,033186252498517
Total sentences964471,44035918471,38534

A similar table to the above is next given, showing for 1920 and 1921 the number of distinct persons dealt with in Supreme Courts, only the principal offence being taken into account in cases where the same person was tried in respect of two or more offences during the year.

SUPREME COURT.—DISTINCT PERSONS, 1920 AND 1921.
Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
1920.1921.1920.1921.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Indicted33824323243093431324
Convicted and sentenced18314201101731419410
Sentenced after committal for sentence24317391142221735913
Total sentenced42631592243953155323

Excluding Maoris, it is seen that 158 more males and 8 fewer females were sentenced in 1921 than in 1920, a position vastly different from that disclosed by a comparison of total cases.

A classification of offences for which persons were convicted in Supreme Courts or sentenced after committal by a Magistrate for sentence gives the following results for the last two years:—

SUPREME COURT.—OFFENCES OF PERSONS CONVICTED OR SENTENCED (EXCLUSIVE OF MAORIS), 1920 AND 1921.
Class of Offence.Total Cases.Distinct Persons.
1920.1921.1920.1921.
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Against the person11311184289101012
Against property66021969192421235913
Forgery and against the currency11051766472614
Other3510567177324
              Totals918471,385343953155323

A summary of punishments inflicted in the Supreme Court in 1921, taking account only of distinct persons other than Maoris, is next given in conjunction with classes of offences.

SUPREME COURT—-OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS OF DISTINCT PERSONS (EXCLUDING MAORIS), 1921.
Punishment.Offence against the Person.Offence against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Other Offences.Totals.
Imprisonment only, with or without hard labour:—
15 years or upwards, including “life”1..     ..     ..     1
10 and under 15 years3..     ..     ..     3
  7 ″ 10 ″6..     ..     ..     6
  5 ″ 7 ″7..     ..     ..     7
  3 ″ 5 ″11113..     25
  2 ″ 3 ″6276140
  1 ″ 2 ″7535166
6 months and under 1 year6384351
Under 6 months6134528
Imprisonment and reformative treatment48..     ..     12
Reformative treatment only1871132104
Imprisonment and declared habitual criminal..     111..     12
Committed to institutions not under control of Prisons Department31..     ..     4
Fined6721934
Released under Offenders Probation Act15128233169
Convicted and discharged..     1124
Ordered to come up for sentence433..     10
              Totals1033726536576

Of the 103 distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) convicted or sentenced in 1921 for offences against the person, 1 was guilty of attempted murder, 5 were of manslaughter, 18 assault, 1 robbery with violence, 5 bigamy, 27 indecent assault, and 37 various other sexual offences.

Of offences against property, breaking and entering, with or without theft, was the offence for which 121 persons were convicted or sentenced, while 181 were guilty of theft, 20 of receiving stolen property, 40 of fraud and false pretences, and 7 of arson (including attempts).

Of the 65 persons shown under the heading of “forgery and offences against the currency,” 31 were convicted or sentenced for forgery alone, 33 for forgery and uttering, and 1 for unlawfully photographing a bank-note.

The principal of the “other” offences in 1921 were—false declaration, 19; and indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct, 2; bookmaking, 3; and offences against the Post and Telegraph Act, 4.

COURT OF APPEAL.

Under the provisions of the Judicature Amendment Act, 1913, the Court of Appeal consists of two divisions, called the First Division and the Second Division, each division consisting of five Judges of the Supreme Court, who are appointed as members of either division by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of three Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice. The same division does not exercise the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal at two successive sittings, but exercises its jurisdiction separately, except that in cases of importance involving special difficulty any two Judges (of whom the Chief Justice shall be one) may recommend, for the approval of the Governor-General in Council, that a joint sitting of both divisions may be held. The Chief Justice, or, in his absence, the senior Judge, presides. The decision of the Court must be in accordance with the majority of the Judges present, but if the Judges present are equally divided in opinion the judgment, &c, appealed from shall be deemed to be affirmed.

In addition to the ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings arising in inferior Courts may, on an order of the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to His Majesty in Council.

In criminal cases questions of law may be reserved by the Supreme Court for the Court of Appeal, and upon a refusal by the Court to reserve any question the person aggrieved may move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. Any person aggrieved may also (after conviction) apply to the Court of Appeal for a new trial upon leave being granted by the Supreme Court. Any person has now the right to apply to the Court of Appeal against a sentence passed in the Supreme Court where such person has been convicted upon an indictment or if sentenced for any crime on a plea of “Guilty.”

The number of cases brought before this Court and the judgments thereon for the last ten years are as follow:—

Year.Crown Criminal Cases.Civil.
Number.Convictions affirmed.Appeals.Cases removed.
Number.Allowed.Number.Judgments for Plaintiffs.Judgments for Defendants.
19126420420118
19138518420136
19144413516132
19154314714113
191641166633
1917441141284
191853115752
191962139624
19204216101174
192131189734

PRISONS AND PRISONERS.

The following table gives for the year 1921 the prison accommodation, the number of prisoners received, the number in prison at end of year, and the daily average number in confinement:—

Name of Prison.Number for whom there is Accommodation.Number received during Year.Number in Confinement at End of Year.Daily Average Number in Confinement.
* Deemed to be prisons under section 17 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917.
Auckland3751,474341337.00
Waikeria14086122109.91
New Plymouth58783340.16
Waikune35383422.15
Napier742081318.72
Wellington100951100100.30
Point Halswell29762229.90
Wi Tako571045646.16
Addington35631516.80
Paparua170420158141.00
Invercargill179160170167.22
Minor prisons2311,0113536.28
Police-stations*..     326..     ..     
              Totals1,4834,9951,0991,065.60

The number of persons in gaol (including Maoris) at the end of each of the last ten years, and the proportion per 10,000 of population as at the 31st December, is given in the next table:—

PRISONERS IN GAOL (31ST DECEMBER).
Year.Number of Prisoners.Proportion per 10,000 of Population.
Undergoing Sentence.On Remand and awaiting Trial, &c.Total.Undergoing Sentence.Total in Confinement.
1912821458667.457.86
1913834859197.358.10
1914981641,0458.569.12
1915941579988.168.66
1916836548907.277.74
1917954531,0078.318.78
19181,005421,0478.689.04
1919852689206.947.50
1920996641,0607.928.43
19211,044551,0998.088.50

The total number of prisoners received in the different gaols during the year 1921 was 4,995 (males 4,698, females 297), as compared with 4,225 (males 3,938, females 287) in 1920, counting each admission as a distinct person.

If to the total of 4,995 receptions during the year be added 63 persons in gaol awaiting trial or sentence at the beginning of the year, an aggregate of 5,058 is obtained. This number includes 121 debtors and 6 lunatics, the gross total of receptions of prisoners sentenced for, or persons charged with, criminal offences being 4,931.

From this gross total must be deducted 814 as representing receptions on transfer or in transitu, leaving a net total of 4,117 receptions. In 1,171 cases the accused person was not returned to prison after trial, and 55 persons were in prison awaiting trial or sentence at the end of the year. The net total receptions of prisoners under sentence reduces to 2,891, and, after making a further deduction of 771 on account of more than one term of imprisonment being undergone by the same person during the year, the number of distinct prisoners received for criminal offences is found, to be 2,120 (males 2,009, females 111). This number includes 100 Maoris (99 males, 1 female).

The number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) imprisoned in each of the last twenty years, counting one offence only when the same person was imprisoned more than once, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is added.

DISTINCT PRISONERS RECEIVED UNDER SENTENCE.
Year.Prisoners.Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population.
19022,39630.03
19032,84234.65
19042,89634.27
19052,79632.14
19062,96633.12
19073,09133.63
19083,00931.84
19093,15932.51
19103,24232.66
19112,87728.35
19123,02329.09
19133,22930.22
19143,38631.05
19152,92426.51
19162,40421.87
19172,39921.83
19181,70115.42
19191,72515.09
19201,87115.74
19212,02016.50

In classifying the offences a prisoner convicted of more than one offence during the year is reckoned once only under the heading of the principal offence—e.g., a prisoner convicted three times of drunkenness, twice of vagrancy, and once of theft is counted only once, under the heading “Offences against Property,” theft being the principal offence. Debtors and lunatics received into gaol are omitted.

The following tables show the number of distinct persons (exclusive of Maoris) received into prison under sentence during 1921, classified according to birthplaces and offences, ages and offences, and ages and previous convictions:—

BIRTHPLACES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO PRISON UNDER SENTENCE DURING 1921.
Birthplace.Nature of Offence.Totals.
Against the Person.Against, Property.Drunkenness.Other Offences.
New Zealand56333142358889
Australia12453677170
England and Wales31125115211482
Scotland14235059146
Ireland9226877176
Other British possessions71181642
China6..     ..     28
Other countries412204480
Not stated1145727
          Totals1405854448512,020
AGES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO PRISON UNDER SENTENCE DURING 1921.
Age, in Years.Offences against the Person.Theft and other Offences against Property.Offences not included previously.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assaults.Other.Vagrancy.Drunkenness.Other.
Under 21911..     8310133147
21 and under 25114..     86111269193
25 ″ 30122186133193247
30 ″ 3558589204389259
35 ″ 401126103446970305
40 ″ 4559348367482257
45 ″ 5024..     48277982242
50 ″ 5545..     22154842136
55 ″ 60311820332692
60 ″ 6511..     410312471
65 and over112720201364
Not stated..     1..     1..     327
      Totals3389185852264446252,020
AGES AND PREVIOUS CONVICTIONS OF DISTINCT PRISONERS (EXCLUDING MAORIS) RECEIVED INTO PRISON UNDER SENTENCE DURING 1921.
Age, in Years.Not previously convicted.Previous Convictions.Total Distinct Convicted Prisoners.
Once.Twice.Three Times.Four Times.Over Four Times.Total.
Under 2174429571093147
21 and under 251113322581482193
25 ″ 3014935181572398247
30 ″ 35137402416636122259
35 ″ 401285432121168177305
40 ″ 4599342615479158257
45 ″ 5097123154102145242
50 ″ 5550257934286136
55 ″ 602310861446992
60 ″ 651811232355371
65 and over169353284864
Not stated1121..     267
            Totals903295176107564831,1172,020

The next table gives the offences and gravest previous offences of the distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1921:—

OFFENCES AND GRAVEST PREVIOUS OFFENCES OF DISTINCT PRISONERS RECEIVED INTO PRISON UNDER SENTENCE, 1921.
Offences.Gravest Previous Offence.
Against the Person.Theft and other Offences against Property.Offences not Included previously.Totals.
Sexual Offences.Assault.Other.Vagrancy.Drunkenness.Other.
Against the person—
    Sexual offences..     2..     4..     1310
    Assaults..     4..     1315831
    Other..     ..     ..     2..     ..     ..     2
Against property510128491524348
Offences not included above—
    Vagrancy47162801115180
    Drunkenness..     12..     492714840276
    Other424..     702445103270
              Totals135924841412251931,117

HABITUAL CRIMINALS AND REFORMATIVE DETENTION.

The following table shows the distinct prisoners (excluding Maoris) received in prison during 1921 after being sentenced to reformative treatment or having been declared habitual criminals, classified according to sentences:—

Original Sentence.Sentenced to Reformative Treatment for a Period ofDeclared Habitual Criminals.Totals.
Under Two Years.Two and under Five Years.Five Years and over.
Reformative treatment only228211..     115
Declared habitual criminal..     ..     ..     11
Under 1 year184..     325
1 year and under 2..     4..     37
2 years and under 3..     1135
3 ″ 4..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
4 ″ 5..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
5 ″ 7..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
7 ″ 10..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
                Totals40911210153

PRISONS BOARD.

For the purposes of the Crimes Amendment Act of 1910 there is constituted a Prisons Board, the members of which are appointed by the Governor-General in Council for a period of three years, and may be reappointed. As at present constituted, the Board consists of the Chief Justice as President, and six other members. The Board meets at such times as the President determines, and, subject to the provisions of the Act and regulations, may determine its own procedure.

It is the duty of the Board to make inquiry from time to time as to whether there is reasonable cause for belief that any habitual criminal undergoing sentence or reformative detention is sufficiently reformed to be released on probation or discharged, or for granting discharge to any person who has been released on probation; and to make recommendations as to the release or discharge of any habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention, and as to the conditions which may be imposed on any such release or probation. The Board is required to take into consideration the case of every habitual criminal, &c, at least once a year, and to make a report to the Minister of Justice annually as to the operations of the Board, numbers dealt with, and the operation and effect of the Act.

Under the provisions of section 14 of the Statute Law Amendment Act, 1917, the Board was empowered to consider, at the request of the Minister of Justice, the cases of prisoners who had been sentenced to imprisonment with or without hard labour for periods exceeding two years, after half of the full term of imprisonment had expired, and to make recommendations to the Governor-General as to the release on probation of any such prisoner.

PROBATION.

An Act styled the First Offenders' Probation Act was passed in 1886 to provide, at the discretion of the Court, for conditional release on probation in the case of first offenders, in lieu of imprisonment. This Act, with its amendment of 1903, was consolidated in 1908, the consolidated Act being repealed in 1920 by the Offenders Probation Act of that year, under which the system of probation is no longer confined to first offenders.

Under the Act of 1886 an “offence” for which probation could be granted was defined as—

“Any indictable offence, not being one for murder, attempted murder, burglary, coining, corrosive-fluid throwing, demanding money with menaces, extortion of money under threats of accusation of crime, placing an explosive substance to endanger life or property, rape, robbery with violence, or an offence attended by irreparable or serious consequences, and either endangering life, or indicating, in the opinion of the Court, an established criminal intention on the part of the accused, and includes any indictable offence which may be dealt with and disposed of by a Court of summary jurisdiction.”

The Act of 1920 widens the definition to cover “any offence punishable by imprisonment, whether on indictment or otherwise.”

The maximum period of probation was originally fixed as not exceeding the longest term of imprisonment to which the offender might be sentenced for his offence; in 1903 the maximum was altered to three years, and in 1920 to five years.

Probation Officers are appointed, whose duties are defined by section 5 of the 1920 Act, which reads as follows:—

  1. It shall be the duty of a Probation Officer, when so required by the Court,—

    1. To make inquiries as to the character and personal history of any person accused or convicted of an offence, and as to such other matters in relation to such person as the Court may direct, and to report fully thereon to the Court in writing; and

    2. To keep a full record of such inquiries and of the results thereof.

  2. It shall be the special duty of the Probation Officer, if satisfied in any case that the best interests of the public and of the offender would be served by the release of the offender on probation, to recommend to the Court that he be so released.”

The conditions of release on probation are set out as follows:—

  1. That the offender shall report himself in person where directed within twenty-four hours after his release on probation:

  2. That he shall report himself in person between the hours of nine in the morning and nine in the evening of such day or days (being not less than once in every month) as may be specified in that behalf in the order, or as may be required by the Probation Officer, and at such place or places as may be directed Provided that the Probation Officer may, if he thinks fit, authorize him to report in writing in lieu of in person on any occasion:

  3. That he shall reside at an address notified to the Probation Officer, and that he shall sleep at such address unless the Probation Officer otherwise approves in writing:

  4. That if he removes from such address he shall give to the Probation Officer at least forty-eight hours' notice of his intention so to do; and if he removes to any place within the district of another Probation Officer he shall, within twenty-four hours after such removal, notify the fact of his removal, and his address and employment, to the Probation Officer in that district:

  5. That the nature and place of his employment shall be made known to and be approved by the Probation Officer:

  6. That he shall not associate with any person or persons or with any class of persons with whom the Probation Officer has in writing warned him not to associate:

  7. That he shall be of good behaviour, and shall commit no offence against the law:

  8. Such other special conditions as the Court may, in its discretion, impose.”

A breach of the conditions of the probationary license renders the offender liable to imprisonment or fine, and in addition he may, in respect of the original offence, be either committed to prison or again released on probation.

The effect of the legislation of 1920 has been to greatly increase the number of cases in which probation is extended to an offender. According to a return prepared by the Chief Probation Officer, 575 persons were placed on probation-in the year 1921, as against 264 in 1920 and 226 in 1919.

The following table gives the ages and terms of probation of offenders dealt with under the provisions of the Act during the year 1921:—

Age.Term of Probation.Totals.
Under One Year.One Year and under Two Years.Two Years and under Three Years.Three Years and over.
10 and under 15341210
15 ″ 204727040186
20 ″ 2511585136156
25 ″ 30323312481
30 ″ 40529252685
40 ″ 5021861440
50 ″ 70..     106117
            Totals28214190143575

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.

Offences committed by juvenile offenders—i.e., persons under or apparently under the age of sixteen—constitute a class worthy of special consideration. Figures of juvenile cases in Magistrates' Courts during each of the last eight years are as follows:—

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—JUVENILE CASES, 1914–21.
Year.Total Cases.Discharged for want of Prosecution or Evidence.Dismissed on the Merits.Admonished and Discharged.Committed for Trial or Sentence.Summarily Convicted.
* New heading, 1917.
19141,384201130*31,050
19151,67737468*61,229
19161,68746483*51,135
19171,58599875039887
19181,552122445523831
19191,7591155564320926
19201,579805964617777
19211,391664463712632

The increasing utilization of the provision which enables a Magistrate to admonish and discharge an offender without a conviction being recorded lenders comparisons on the basis of summary convictions inadvisable, as it is obvious from a glance at the figures for 1916 and 1917 that many who in 1917 and subsequent years have been admonished and discharged would prior to that year have been included among the convicted, though a considerable proportion would have been included in the totals of “discharged for want of evidence” and “dismissed on the merits,” especially as the form of return then in use did not provide for “admonished and discharged” cases. Probably the best comparison between one year and another is obtained by taking the total number of juvenile cases, as in the following:—

Year.Number.Per 1,000 of Total Population.
19141,3841.26
19151,6771.52
19161,6871.53
19171,5851.44
19181,5521.40
19191,7591.54
19201,5791.32
19211,3911.14

Of the 632 summary convictions of juveniles in Magistrates' Courts in 1921, no fewer than 533 were in respect of offences against property, including theft 414, housebreaking and stealing 30, and wilful damage 69.

Seven juveniles were convicted during the year of offences against the person (the offence in each case being indecent assault), while 63 were convicted of offences against good order (including 53 breaches of by-laws), and 29 of other offences (offences relating to the use of firearms 12, and offences under Defence Act 3).

Offences by juveniles are seldom of a very serious nature, and even when a conviction is recorded Magistrates frequently adopt the course of discharging the offender or of ordering him to come up for sentence when called upon. In the latter class it rests almost entirely with the offender himself as to whether any further steps will be taken, and it is found that in very few cases does the future conduct of the convicted person render it necessary for him to be brought before the Magistrate again for sentence.

The punishment meted out to juvenile offenders in 1921 was as follows:—

MAGISTRATES' COURTS.—CONVICTIONS OF JUVENILE OFFENDERS, 1921.
Class of Offence and Punishment.
Punishment.Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other.Totals.
Released on probation..     98..     199
Convicted and discharged..     8924.7120
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence..     594568
Committed to industrial school314812154
Fined..     3633675
Imprisoned49..     ..     13
Whipped..     701374
Committed to non-Government institutions..     9..     110
Order made..     15..     419
              Total summary convictions75336329632

Beyond the information disclosed by the Magistrate's Court returns as to committals for sentence or trial, no statistics of juvenile cases in Supreme Courts are available. From the table given on the opposite page, however, it is obvious that very few such cases find their way to the higher Court.

Similarly, juvenile prisoners are almost non-existent, it being the custom where restraint is necessary to commit offenders to industrial schools. The prison statistics show that, excluding one Maori, two boys under the age of sixteen were received into gaol during 1921.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.

Crime amongst women in New Zealand is not extensive. Of 35,446 summary convictions in Magistrates' Courts in 1921 (excluding Maoris) only 1,938, or 5.47 per cent., were of females. Drunkenness, including the issue of prohibition orders, was responsible for 576 convictions, theft 240, wilful damage 13, common assault 22, offensive conduct or language 40, soliciting prostitution 18, keeping a brothel 2, and vagrancy 111. A large proportion of the convictions was in respect of minor breaches of the law, including 233 breaches of by-laws; 166 of the Licensing Act; 162, Impounding Act; 32, Motor. Regulation Act; and 37, School Attendance Act.

The exclusion of multiple charges in respect of offences committed in conjunction reduces the number of summary convictions of females to 1,751, including 738 arrest cases, which represent only 499 distinct persons. The number of distinct persons concerned in the 1,050 summons cases cannot be ascertained.

In addition to the 1,938 summary convictions of women in Magistrates' Courts during the year there was 58 committals to the Supreme Court—21 for sentence and 37 for trial. The Supreme Court statistics show that 39 charges against females were dealt with during the year, resulting in 17 convictions, representing only 10 women. In addition 13 women were sentenced after committal for sentence in respect of 17 offences.

The number of distinct female prisoners received into prison during 1921 was 111, the principal offences of these being—vagrancy, 37; drunkenness, 24; theft, 17; and soliciting prostitution, 9. The actual number of receptions of female prisoners during the year was 297, this number including Maoris, and the daily average number of women prisoners in gaol was 73.56. Two reformatories (at Addington and Point Halswell) house women prisoners only.

OFFENCES BY NEW-ZEALAND-BORN.

The statistics available on the subject indicate that crime among the New-Zealand-born is less than among the rest of the population of the Dominion. As explained previously, information as to birthplace and age is available in arrest cases, and the figures for 1921 show that of 8,521 persons (excluding Maoris) convicted in Magistrates' Courts after arrest, 3,765, or 44 per cent., were New-Zealand-born. Persons born in New Zealand represented at the census of 1916 72 per cent. of the total population, including, of course, a considerable proportion of children. Probably the best comparison is by taking only males at age 20 and over, and this shows that whereas New-Zealand-born males formed 52 per cent. of the total male population at ages 20 and over in 1916, they formed in 1921 only 42 per cent. of males of those ages convicted in Magistrates' Courts after arrest.

The proportion of New-Zealand-born population will no doubt have increased somewhat since 1916 owing to the preponderance of New-Zealand-born among soldiers who have returned since 1916, and youths who have attained the age of twenty since that year, so that the comparison is all the more favourable to the native-born population.

A summary of offences and ages of distinct New-Zealand-born persons convicted during 1921 is given (females are included):—

OFFENCES AND AGES.—NEW ZEALAND-BORN ONLY (EXCLUDING MAORIS).
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.*Totals.
* Including unspecified.
The person1335263937150
Property218165101163100747
Good order543283538811,0802,696
Other offences2031255244172
              Totals3055595051,1351,2613,765

A further table shows the ages of distinct New-Zealand-born prisoners received into gaol during the last five years. The proportion of New-Zealand-born to total male prisoners at ages 20 and over was in 1921 44 per cent., as compared with the 52 per cent. shown previously as being the corresponding proportion in the population.

DISTINCT NEW-ZEALAND-BORN CONVICTED PRISONERS RECEIVED INTO PRISON, 1917–21.
Year.Under 15.15 and under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.Totals.
1917370136135338293975
1918..     62100122265192741
19191789595281226776
1920174151130239274869
1921..     80134120265290889

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.

The number of convictions of Maoris brought before Magistrates' Courts for the last ten years is shown in the following table:—

SUMMARY CONVICTIONS OF MAORIS (MAGISTRATES' COURTS), 1912–21.
Year.Offences.
Against the Person.Against Property.Against Good Order.Other Offences.Totals.
Drunkenness.Other.
1912441263203513641,205
19134523294332243937
1914511913353304061,313
1915691874224053731,456
1916441522963933781,263
1917501853203734901,418
1918661902974074581,418
19191502724116204821,935
19201002753904726141,851
1921752973144445481,678

Distinct Maoris convicted after arrest in 1921 numbered 368. The ages of these are given in the following table in combination with information as to the class of offence:—

AGES AND OFFENCES OF DISTINCT MAORIS CONVICTED (ARRESTS ONLY), 1921.
Offences againstUnder 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and over.Unspecified.Totals.
The person..     3423214
Property3133291136113
Good order5394362736228
Other offences13242113
              Totals377878798115368

The number of Maoris convicted in the higher Courts exhibits the extent of serious crime amongst the Native race. Those who are sentenced in the Supreme Court after pleading guilty in the lower Court have been included.

Year.Maoris convicted or sentenced in Supreme Court forTotals.
Offences against the Person.Offences against Property.Forgery and Offences against the Currency.Miscellaneous Offences.
1917374115
191841761845
19198248242
19206187..     31
192110206440

Thirty-three of the number for 1921 had been sent up from the Magistrates' Courts for sentence.

The number of distinct Maori prisoners received into gaol under sentence during 1921 was 99 (including 1 woman), as compared with 84 in 1920.

DRUNKENNESS.

The extent to which convictions for drunkenness swell the total of convictions is obvious from the information given throughout this section. Drunkenness is a peculiar class of offence, and one to which considerable attention is paid in New Zealand and elsewhere, and some further particulars concerning statistics of drunkenness are accordingly given below.

The number of convictions for drunkenness, including drunkenness with disorderly conduct, during 1921 (exclusive of convictions against Maoris) totalled 8,035 against males and 455 against females. In addition there were 314 convictions against Maoris—306 against males and 8 against females. The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness recorded, and the proportion per 1,000 of the mean population of each sex, excluding Maoris, during the last ten years:—

CONVICTIONS FOR DRUNKENNESS (EXCLUSIVE OF MAORIS), 1912–21.
Year.Convictions.Per 1,000 of Mean Population.
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Total.
191210,68884311,53119.561.7111.10
191310,81578311,59819.271.5410.85
191412,1331,01213,14521.341.9412.06
191512,01095212,96221.221.7811.79
19169,93776510,70218.011.409.73
19177,9716068,57714.661.097.83
19186,4675326,99911.980.946.35
19197,1814757,65612.550.836.70
19207,9955088,50313110.877.13
19218,0354558,49012.850.766.94

If the Maoris are included, the total convictions for drunkenness during 1921 will amount to 8,804 (8,341 against males and 463 against females). Of these, 8,405 (7,964 males and 441 females) were arrest cases, while 399 (377 males and 22 females) were cases brought before the Magistrate by summons. The following table shows the birthplaces and ages of all persons (including Maoris) arrested and convicted for drunkenness during the year. Birthplaces and ages in summons cases are not obtainable.

BIRTHPLACES AND AGES OF PERSONS CONVICTED FOR DRUNKENNESS (ARBESTS ONLY), 1921.
Birthplace.Under 20.20 and under 25.25 and under 30.30 and under 40.40 and under 60.60 and over, and Unspecified.Totals.
New Zealand—
    Maoris32445586224216
    Others343063781,1251,316803,239
Australia2306915924939548
England and Wales6711243988922291,720
Scotland32871190457158907
Ireland..     18511995822311,081
Other European110187113445279
Asia..     11616529
Africa..     1243111
America..     158283416101
Other (including unspecified)17976244274
              Totals505117762,2453,7511,0728,405

Among the New-Zealand-born population of European descent there is evidence of less drunkenness than among persons who have come from abroad. It will be seen that in all the age-groups given in the following table the percentage of convictions of New-Zealand-born males is lower than the corresponding percentage of population, while the reverse is, of course, true in respect of males born outside the Dominion:—

Age, in Years.Percentage of Male Population, Census 1916.Percentage of Convictions for Drunkenness, 1921 (Arrest Cases).
New-Zealand-born.Others.New-Zealand-born.Others.
20 and under 2580.1619.8462.8337.17
25 ″ 3071.1928.8149.0350.97
30 ″ 4065.5834.4251.4448.56
40 ″ 5059.6140.3940.4159.59
50 ″ 6036.1263.8827.7172.29
60 ″ 7014.2785.7311.8688.14
70 ″ 805.7094.303.6096.40

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the tables on the previous page. Dealing with arrests only (males, 7,964; females, 441: total 8,405), but excluding Maoris, it is found that the number of distinct persons convicted of this offence was 5,364 (5,102 males and 262 females), or 63.82 per cent, of the total “arrest” convictions (excluding Maoris) for drunkenness.

The total convictions (exclusive of those of Maoris) for all offences (arrests only) in 1921 were 13,764, but the distinct convictions amounted to only 11,888, the former total including 1,876 convictions for multiple charges against the same person. Of the latter, 1,118 were in respect of charges dealt with at the same time as the offender was convicted of drunkenness, the principal associated offences being,—

Offence.Number of Convictions.
Common assault50
Theft32
Wilful damage113
Assaulting, resisting, or obstructing police94
Indecent, riotous, or offensive conduct153
Obscene, threatening, or abusive language276
Vagrancy65
Breaches of by-laws44
Breaches of Licensing Act218
Prohibition orders issued48

Any person who has been three times convicted for drunkenness within the nine months immediately preceding any conviction for drunkenness may be declared an habitual drunkard. A Magistrate may, in addition to or in lieu of a penalty, commit an habitual drunkard to any institution authorized by the Governor-General to receive and detain such persons for any period not being less than twelve months. The law makes provision in respect of the discharge of inmates, their good conduct, discipline, and punishment for offences during detention, and for the proper inspection of such institutions.

Drunkenness is usually met with a fine, the returns for 1921 showing that of the 8,490 persons (exclusive of Maoris) convicted of drunkenness as many as 5,938 were fined, while 416 went to gaol in preference to paying the fine, 173 were peremptorily imprisoned, and 59 (including 44 habitual drunkards) committed to a Salvation Army Home or other such institution. Fifty-eight convicted persons were ordered to come up for sentence, and no fewer than 1,801 were convicted and discharged.

A calculation of the amount of alcoholic liquor consumed per head of mean population during the last five years is given below:—

CONSUMPTION OF BEER, WINE, AND SPIRITS PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION.
 Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
 Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.Beer. Gal.Wine. Gal.Spirits. Gal.
19179.9370.1240.66110.3870.1300.691
19189.2130.1090.5029.6290.1140.524
191911.6400.1460.57712.1470.1530.603
192012.1590.1930.76312.6670.2010.795
192111.2380.1770.79011.7220.1850.824

The quantity of each kind of alcoholic liquor used in the Dominion during the same period was as follows:—

 Beer for Consumption. Gal.Wine for Consumption. Gal.Spirits for Consumption. Gal.
191711,416,475142,859759,118
191810,621,229126,122578,177
191913,882,286174,333688,632
192015,106,653239,880947,660
192114,347,111225,9871,008,875

Chapter 10. SECTION X.—DEFENCE.

NEW ZEALAND MILITARY FORCES.

THE New Zealand Military Forces consist of the Permanent Forces, the Territorial Force, and the Senior Cadets.

The units of the Permanent Forces are the New Zealand Staff Corps, the Royal New Zealand Artillery, New Zealand Permanent Staff, New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps, and New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

The New Zealand Permanent Forces contain 100 professional officers, who are charged with the training of the Forces and the administration of all matters connected therewith.

The Royal New Zealand Artillery has an establishment of 100 “other ranks.” These supply the necessary instructors for the Territorial Artillery, provide cadres for the Field Artillery units, and maintain the harbour-defences and artillery equipment throughout the Dominion.

The New Zealand Permanent Staff, with a strength of 112, provides drill instructors and custodians of Defence property and equipment, and also carries out administrative functions.

The New Zealand Ordnance Corps comprises 6 officers and 100 other ranks, who are in charge of the mobilization equipment and bulk depots of the Forces.

The New Zealand Pay Corps comprises 5 officers and 13 other ranks.

For purposes of defence the Dominion is divided into three commands—the Northern Command comprising roughly the northern half of the North Island, the Central Command comprising the remainder of the North Island, and the Southern Command comprising the South Island, Stewart Island, and Chatham Islands.

These commands are each divided into four regimental districts, and each command contains the following units of the New Zealand Territorial Force:—

Three regiments of Mounted Rifles, seven batteries of Artillery, one Field Engineer Depot, one Corps of Signals Depot, four battalions of Infantry, one Army Service Corps Depot, and one Medical Corps Depot.

This organization on mobilization produces one complete division and three brigades of Mounted Rifles, and provides the machinery by which this force could be duplicated and kept up to strength.

The present strength of the Territorial Force is 776 officers and 13,894 other ranks.

The Senior Cadets are organized in battalions, and receive physical and elementary military training. The strength of the Senior Cadets is 322 officers and 23,286 other ranks.

Rifle clubs exist throughout the Dominion for the encouragement of rifle shooting, and in addition to minor fixtures a Dominion rifle meeting is held at Trentham annually when practicable.

All male inhabitants of New Zealand who have resided therein for six months, and are British subjects, are liable to be trained as follows:—

In the Senior Cadets—from fourteen years of age, or date of leaving school, as the case may be, to eighteen years of age (or in the case of those who at the age of eighteen are attending a secondary school, then to the date of their leaving school).

In the Territorial Force—from eighteen years (or from any later date on which they cease to attend a secondary school as aforesaid) to twenty-five.

New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War. These comprised a total of 6,500 officers and men.

Immediately the Great European War broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then went to the western front, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate against the Turks in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 100,000 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and nearly 17,000 lost their lives on active service.

On the Armistice being declared in November, 1918, New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent, of the total population of the Dominion in 1914, while it is known that a very large number of other New-Zealanders served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

The Headquarters of the New Zealand Military Forces is at Wellington. The General Officer Commanding is Major-General Sir Edward Chaytor, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., C.B., p.s.c.

NAVAL DEFENCE.

By the Australasian Defence Act, 1887, provision was made for the payment by New Zealand of a proportional part of the cost of the establishment and maintenance of a British Naval Force to be employed for the protection of trade in Australasian waters. Under this Act a sum of approximately £20,000 per annum was paid by New Zealand to the Imperial Government.

In 1903, consequent on the passing of the Australian and New Zealand Naval Defence Act, the annual contribution payable by New Zealand was raised to “a sum not exceeding £40,000.”

By the Naval Subsidy Act, 1908, the contribution of the Dominion was again increased, this time to a sum of £100,000 payable annually for ten years from the 12th May, 1909.

In 1909 New Zealand presented the battle-cruiser “New Zealand” to the Imperial Government. Full information concerning this vessel and her visit to New Zealand in 1913 appears in the 1913 issue of this book (pages 932–941). This ship is now to be scrapped as a result of the Washington Conference.

The Naval Defence Act, 1913, provides for the establishment of a New Zealand Naval Force by voluntary enlistment for a prescribed period of not less than two years, members on discharge to be drafted into the New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve for such period as may be prescribed—for service only in time of war: the ships and personnel forming the force to pass under the control and to be at the disposition of the Imperial Government in time of war.

A commencement was made with the formation of a New Zealand Division immediately prior to the war, when H.M.S. “Philomel” was commissioned with ranks and ratings lent from the Royal Navy to serve as a training-ship for the formation of a small Naval Force. The “Philomel” was employed under the orders of the British Admiralty throughout the war, and no opportunity was afforded for the commencement of a scheme of training.

In 1919 Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O., visited New Zealand in H.M.S. “New Zealand,” and presented his report making recommendations and suggestions for the naval defence of the Dominion.

In 1920 H.M.S. “Chatham” was presented to New Zealand by the Imperial Government, and was commissioned on the 1st October of that year with officers and men of the Royal Navy: the officers on loan therefrom, the men partly on loan, but mainly transferred to the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy. The “Chatham” flies the broad pennant of Commodore Alan G. Hotham, C.M.G., R.N., appointed in command of that ship, as Commodore Commanding the New Zealand Station and as Naval Adviser to the New Zealand Government. On the arrival of the “Chatham” in New Zealand waters the “Philomel,” which had been paid off. towards the end of the war, was again put into commission as a training-ship, for which purpose she had in the meantime been converted. The “Philomel” also carries out the duties of depot ship at Auckland The period of first engagement was, by Order in Council, fixed at twelve years, with subsequent re-engagement for periods of five years, on a system of deferred pay in lieu of pension; and the period of enrolment in the Reserve on discharge from the seagoing forces was fixed at ten years, or up to the age of forty, for service only in time of war. A commencement was made in May, 1921, with the recruiting of New Zealand boys and youths for training as seamen and stokers, of whom about 150 have been entered to date, in addition to a small number of specialist ratings.

Legislation was passed in February, 1922, authorizing the formation of a New Zealand Royal Naval Reserve by voluntary enlistment therein, in addition to the drafting thereto of ratings discharged from the seagoing forces. An Order in Council of 10th July, 1922, prescribes the conditions of service in the various classes of the Reserve. All reservists, other than those of the inactive Reserve as referred to above, are required to perform specified periods of training in ships of the New Zealand Division. The Reserve, when formed, will provide a nucleus for local defence.

A Naval Board was constituted by Order in Council of the 14th March, 1921, charged with the control of all matters relating to the Naval Forces, upon the policy directed by the Minister, and vested with the executive command of the Naval Forces: the Board to be composed of the Minister of Defence (President) and the following members: The Commodore Commanding New Zealand Station (First Naval Member), the Chief Staff Officer to the Commodore (temporarily, as Second Naval Member), the Secretary to the Commodore Commanding (Secretary to the Board).

By Order in Council of the 20th June, 1921, it was provided that the ships and personnel comprising the New Zealand Naval Forces shall be described respectively as forming and belonging to “The New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy,” which shall be the official designation of the Force.

H.M.S. “Veronica” which had been on the New Zealand Station since 1920, was recommissioned in March, 1922, for further service on the station. H.M.S. “Laburnum” arrived in New Zealand waters from England during the same month. These two sloops are provided and maintained by the Home Government, their duties consisting mainly of policing the South Pacific islands within the limits of the New Zealand Station.

Chapter 11. SECTION XI.—EXTERNAL TRADE.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

EARLY TRADE.

FROM the very earliest times New Zealand has inevitably been dependent upon foreign intercourse for its development and progress. The first European residents in New Zealand seem to have been the small party of sealers from Sydney who settled at Dusky Sound for ten months in 1792–93, and built there the first vessel made from local timber. The seals and whales of the South Seas attracted attention to the Islands as a convenient depot, and by 1800 there were established many little settlements where the blubber was tried out. In 1794 the timber trade was inaugurated by the visit of the “Fancy,” and the export of timber, mainly kahikatea (white-pine), rapidly grew to goodly proportions. The native flax (Phormium tenax) was also early recognized as a source of wealth, and a considerable export arose.

Thus, irregularly, the settlement of New Zealand went hand-in-hand with external trade, and was, indeed, promoted by the hope of commercial gain. The early exports were all local products as enumerated above, with the gruesome addition of tattooed Maori heads, while the imports were mainly muskets and powder.

The arrival of the New Zealand Company's expedition in 1840 stimulated the development of a more stable trade—wool had been exported to Hobart in 1839—and gradually the exports and imports of New Zealand took on their modern form. In 1852 the young colony was granted representative government, and from that date there is an accurate record of the external trade of the country. By 1856 full responsible or cabinet government was established.

By 1853 the export of flax had been practically ruined owing to increased competition from other sources, and the amount exported in that year was negligible. Timber, however, retained its place as a principal export, supplying 31 per cent. (£93,000) of the total exports; while wool had increased to 22 per cent. (£66,507). The value of grain exported was small, only £19,000 (6 per cent.); whale-oil amounted to £22,000, and potatoes to £30,000. The total exports in 1853 were £303,282, and the total imports £597,827.

THE GROWTH OF TRADE, 1853–1921.

A low and fluctuating level of trade was turned in 1860–63 into a rapidly increasing volume by the effect of the gold-discoveries which occurred in the early “sixties.” Both imports and exports were stimulated, the former to feed and clothe an ever-increasing population, the latter by the export of gold.

Trade remained stationary till the expenditure of borrowed money brought the land-boom of the early “seventies.” A great temporary increase of trade was succeeded by violent fluctuations and but slowly increasing trade as the effects of the bubble were slowly worked off. From 1873 till 1895 THE world level of prices was falling continuously, and this factor contributed not a little to the depression of New Zealand. Little headway could be made against a falling price of wool and a decreasing production of gold, which were the main features of those twenty years.

But in 1895 world prices began to rise, and the effect is seen immediately in the upward shoot of the external trade. On only four occasions has this upward tendency been checked—in 1908, when the commercial crisis which was felt in the Old World a year previously affected New Zealand; in 1913, on the occasion of another depression of trade; in 1917–18, as a result of shortage of shipping; and again during the twelve months ended April, 1921—a depression brought about by the adverse world-wide conditions prevailing as an aftermath of years of war.

The following table shows the increase in the total trade since the year 1853:—

TOTAL TRADE, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND, 1853–1921.
Year.Total Value.Value per Head.
Total Trade.Imports.Exports.Total Trade.Imports.Exports.
 £     £     £     £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1853901,110597,828303,2823009191871022
186310,510,0797,024,6743,485,4057210548952410
187312,075,0586,464,6875,610,37141193229419911
188315,070,0377,974,0387,095,999289515131382
189315,896,8796,911,5158,985,3642409109013119
190327,799,05312,788,67515,010,3783317101511101860
190428,040,04213,291,69414,748,3483338151471791
190528,484,80412,828,85715,655,947321410141411171911
190633,306,54015,211,40318,095,1373739161982041
190737,371,81817,302,86120,068,957401331816621169
190833,788,77817,471,28416,317,4943515118991754
190935,336,71515,674,71919,661,996367316272048
191039,231,79217,051,58322,180,20939104173622610
191138,574,36919,545,87919,028,4903802195218150
191242,747,15520,976,57421,770,58141210203920191
191345,275,02422,288,30222,986,72242732017121102
191448,117,54321,856,09626,261,4474428200112419
191553,477,74621,728,83431,748,9124812101915228178
191659,626,22026,339,28333,286,9375448231923056
191752,516,81220,919,26531,587,547471551907281410
191852,750,19524,234,00728,516,188471662119525171
191984,641,77330,671,69853,970,0757412261694745
1920108,037,77461,595,82846,441,94690119511211381810
192187,771,27042,942,44344,828,82771143351936126

TOTAL OVERSEAS TRADE, 1921.

Reference to the preceding table shows that the total trade of £87,771,270 for 1921 is only exceeded in the Dominion's history by that of the previous year, when the huge amount of £108,037,774 was dealt with. For 1921 the exports totalled £44,828,827, and the imports £42,942,443, the balance in favour of the Dominion being £1,886,384, as compared with an unfavourable balance of £15,153,882 for the preceding year. The unfavourable balance of 1920 had been brought about almost wholly by the large importations resulting from the fulfilment of delayed orders of a very considerable quantity and value. The figures for 1921, particularly for the latter months of the year, indicate a return, in so far as importations are concerned, to what are practically normal conditions, particularly so in regard to the quantity of goods imported.

It will be noted that while the imports have been reduced by 18 1/2 millions—from £61,595,828 in 1920 to £42,942,443 in 1921—the value of the Dominion's exports has not varied considerably, the figure for 1921 being only £1,613,119 less than for the twelve preceding months. In regard to the actual production that is represented in the export figures, the position is rather complicated by reason of the varying prices obtained for our primary products, but the general prices obtained in 1921 were lower than in 1920.

The following figures, which relate to the two years 1920 and 1921, and for the first seven months of 1922, present the monthly totals of exports and imports, and illuminate statistically the critical financial period which extended practically over the twelve months from April, 1920, to March, 1921:—

ACTUAL MONTHLY FIGURES OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS, 1920–22.
Month.1920.1921.1922.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
January4,348,9792,945,5375,336,5056,664,5744,253,2783,020,145
February2,748,6032,983,3033,305,0934,329,2684,962,4622,786,694
March4,321,2063,862,2214,547,0624,664,6602,946,8303,032,476
April3,594,0154,268,4046,063,9825,337,7005,308,1092,536,479
May4,368,1554,902,6683,934,6813,747,0394,585,5332,487,583
June3,443,9145,236,5413,997,5383,447,6264,836,1542,326,097
July4,269,8265,143,6984,947,6551,856,2523,728,5652,204,622
August3,993,1206,167,9462,524,9032,623,587..     ..     
September4,097,7497,669,3261,786,2262,732,169..     ..     
October3,905,9086,386,2522,205,8782,488,662..     ..     
November3,393,9455,991,7032,853,8142,036,117..     ..     
December3,956,5266,038,2293,325,4903,014,789..     ..     

The figures are now given grouped on the basis of a three-monthly moving average, the values shown for each month representing an average of that month and the months immediately preceding and following. The three-monthly moving averages present the more accurate view in that they smooth out undue fluctuations in the figures due to monthly shipping and other local conditions.

THREE-MONTHLY MOVING AVERAGE OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS, 1920–22.
Month.1920.1921.1922.
Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.Exports.Imports.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
January3,486,3012,836,9544,199,3755,677,3574,180,2732,940,543
February3,806,2633,263,6874,396,2205,219,5014,054,1902,946,438
March3,554,6083,704,6434,638,7124,777,2094,405,8002,785,216
April4,094,4594,344,4314,848,5754,583,1334,280,1572,685,513
May3,802,0284,802,5384,665,4004,177,4554,909,9322,450,053
June4,027,2985,094,3024,293,2913,016,9724,383,4172,339,434
July3,902,2875,516,0623,823,3652,642,488..     ..     
August4,120,2326,326,9903,086,2612,404,003..     ..     
September3,998,9266,741,1752,172,3362,614,806..     ..     
October3,799,2016,682,4272,281,9732,418,983..     ..     
November3,752,1266,138,7282,795,0612,513,189..     ..     
December4,228,9926,231,5023,477,5272,690,350..     ..     

The outstanding feature of the figures is the alarmingly high rate at which the country was importing during the latter half of 1920—namely, at 75 millions per annum. This rate was reduced to 46 1/2 millions per annum for the first six months of 1921, and still further to 29 1/2 millions per annum for the closing six months. The first seven months of 1922 disclose importations at the more normal rate of 32 millions per annum. The figures are graphically brought out in the following diagram:—

Reference to the above diagram will show that the period of greatest trade depression, when the imports were at the highest and the exports at the lowest, was October, 1920. From that point, however, the aggregate value of imports, on the one hand, began to fall rapidly, and exports, on the other, to rise. This movement continued until March, 1921, when the exports practically balanced the imports. The drop in prices, referred to earlier, accounts for the subsequent fall in the total value of exports, which have, however, remained steadily in advance of the import values except for a seasonal set-back at the close of the winter of 1921. The figures for the first seven months of 1922 are decidedly reassuring.

Although the figures for 1920 quoted above show an excess of imports of £15,153,882, the position is even then understated, by reason of the fact that certain of our primary products which had been purchased by the Department of Imperial Government Supplies in an earlier year were not shipped until 1920. This produce accordingly went to swell the nominal value of exports in 1920, and included the following: Wool, 413,370 bales; frozen meat, 4,466,364 60.1b. freight carcases; butter, 141,519 boxes; cheese, 172,568 crates. The payments or advances made on the purchase prices were: Wool, 100 per cent.: meat, 75 per cent.: butter, 90 per cent; cheese, 90 per cent.

A similar position obtained in 1921, but to a less extent. Produce purchased in an earlier year on which advances to the extent shown above had been made comprises: Wool, 53,943 bales; frozen meat, 1,386,477 60.lb. freight carcases: butter, 299,109 boxes. It will be noted that the position of the Dominion's trade was affected to a much greater extent by these operations in 1920 than in 1921.

On the other hand to what is said above, it should be pointed out that the nominal value of exports for 1917, 1918, and 1919 was really short-stated to the extent of produce purchased but not shipped; so that the position of the Dominion's trade would more correctly be seen from an average taken over the five years 1917 to 1921.

TRADE PER HEAD.

The trade per head, which is shown over a number of years in the first table of this subsection, was fairly great in the early years after 1853; but the amount was swelled by the relatively large imports which were necessary for the development of the young colony. The gold-discoveries raised the level of both imports and exports, and after 1870 the borrowing policy which was inaugurated greatly inflated trade, and especially imports. The highest level of imports per head, apart from the abnormal years of the early “sixties” and the last two years, was reached in 1874, and the consequent reaction saw an almost continuous decrease in the per capita trade as regards both imports and exports till 1895.

The diagram shows very clearly the rapid and almost continuous fall in the trade per head from 1863 to 1895, and the corresponding rise thereafter.

It is significant that the turning-point should have come in 1895, the year in which prices turned to rise all over the world. Since 1895 there has been an almost constant increase in the value of the Dominion's total trade per head of the population. It will be noticed that although there was a slight decline in 1917 and 1918, due to the acute shortage of shipping at that time, the total trade per head has advanced very rapidly during the last few years. The figure for the year 1921 is eclipsed only by that for 1920.

The large increases in recent years are largely but not entirely due to the increased market values of both imports and exports.

BALANCE OF TRADE.

The relation between imports and exports is of the greatest importance to a young country like New Zealand. In the very earliest years of occupation by Europeans the exports of phormium, timber, and skins were greatly in excess of the few imports, mainly muskets and gunpowder, a fact which is explained partly by the temporary residence of the traders and more by the weaker bargaining-power of the Maori. With the settlement of the regular colony in 1840 there was evident an inflation of imports occasioned by the amount of capital the new colonists brought in for the development of the country. From 1853 to 1870 there was an excess of imports, which, however, was tending to decrease.

A temporary excess of exports was changed in the early “seventies” by another great increase of imports, due to the borrowing policy inaugurated in that period. Except for a big decrease in 1880, the value of imports continued to be greater than exports until 1886. From that year onward there is a continued excess of exports, except for the three years 1908, 1911, and 1920. The year 1886 is worthy of note as marking an outstanding period in the history of New Zealand's trade. A more or less fluctuating excess of imports had obtained prior to that time, but from 1886 the exports began to form a preponderating feature of the total trade. The consequent balance of trade in favour of the Dominion has since remained remarkably unbroken. Indeed, on the basis of a quinquennial average, the figures relating to the three more recent years referred to earlier as showing an excess of imports recede into and form part of a continuous favourable balance of trade which has existed since 1886.

The balance of trade is intimately bound up, in later years especially, with the large imports of capital which have been brought in to assist in the development of the country. This has already been made evident in discussing the balance of trade in early years. The excess of imports from 1853 to 1870, and again from 1872 to 1886, can definitely be traced to the importation of capital in those periods.

The excess of exports in later years consists mainly of profits, interest, and other charges on the debt of New Zealand, public, local, and private. Other items, such as remittances abroad and subsidies, also swell the balance of exports. The amount necessary in each year to pay the interest on the debt of New Zealand cannot be definitely stated, owing to the lack of data concerning the private investments in the Dominion.

It may be noted, however, that the annual interest charge on the public debt at the 31st March, 1922, was £9,518,068, but of this amount approximately one-half must be deducted for stock and debentures held in the Dominion (see section on “Public Finance”). Added to this there is the interest on local bodies' debts of approximately twenty-six millions (of which, however, loss than eight and a half millions were raised abroad), and on the private debts of the Dominion, for which no statistics are available. It is evident that some five millions at least are needed each year to defray the charges on the various debts owing abroad.

Against this outgoing must be set the amount of new importations of capital in the shape of loans. While the expenditure on interest is fairly constant from year to year, the amount raised by new loans varies, and these variations are a big factor in the fluctuations of the balance of trade. The following table shows the comparison of this balance with the increase in the public debt since 1866:—

COMPARISON OF BALANCE OF TRADE AND INCREASE OF PUBLIC DEBT.
Period.Annual Average.
Imports.*Exports.*Excess of Imports.*Excess of Exports.*Increase of Net Debt.*

* In millions of pounds.

Most of this increase has been due to new loans raised in the Dominion.

 £   £   £   £   £   
1866–705.014.530.48..     0.69
1871–756.375.430.94..     1.91
1876–807.436.021.41..     2.24
1881–857.846.751.09..     1.03
1886–906.308.09..     1.791.02
1891–956.719.17..     2.460.99
1896–19008.5611.01..     2.451.26
1901–512.4114.39..     1.982.22
1906–1016.5419.26..     2.721.62
1911–1521.2824.36..     3.085.33
1916–2032.7538.76..     6.0118.32

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE AND BULLION.

There is no Mint in New Zealand, whilst there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion. Gold therefore ranks as an ordinary export of the Dominion, along with wool, frozen meat, and dairy-produce. In earlier days this export of gold was much more important than now, amounting in 1863 to 70 per cent, of the total exports, from which figure it shrank steadily to 6 per cent, in 1913. During the last five years there has been a further decrease in the percentage of gold to the total exports.

As all coin necessary for the commerce of the Dominion must be imported from abroad, the movement of specie affords a ready index of the state of trade. A bad year is reflected in an export of specie, while prosperous years show a steady inflow. A table is given showing imports and exports of specie during the ten years 1912–21.

VALUE OF SPECIE IMPORTED AND EXPORTED, 1912–21.
Year.Total Specie.Excess of Specie Imports over Exports.
Imported.Exported.
 £     £     £     
1912399,995258,955141,040
1913634,670176,359458,311
1914711,8697,522704,347
19151,070,114318,090752,024
19161,293,8805,8801,288,000
1917177,13570,475106,660
1918102,21535,61066,605
1919362,53162,150300,381
192041,97536,5805,395
1921198,321367197,954

The amount of gold bullion exported is shown in the following table:—

EXPORTS OF GOLD FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1912–21.
Year.Exports.Percentage of Total Exports.
To United Kingdom.To Australia.To other Countries.Total.
 £     £     £     £     £  
1912394,425950,706..     1,345,1316.18
1913353,7631,105,720161,459,4996.35
1914159,499735,81157895,3673.41
19155,060507,6591,181,8341,694,5535.34
1916134,827510,499553,8861,199,2126.01
1917690,025213,863..     903,8882.86
191827542,116..     42,3910.15
1919339,533558,656436,2131,334,4022.47
1920103,35312,167768,228883,7480.19
19212,7606,966602,442612,1680.14

The exports of gold to other countries included above were in 1920 and 1921 principally to the United States, being brought about by the unfavourable position of the rate of exchange. The actual exports of gold to the United States were £718,899 in 1920 and £602,308 in 1921.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.

It is customary to classify the trade of a country as “special” and “entrepôt,” according as it represents the exchange of domestic productions for imports for home consumption, or a mere transit trade. In many countries, such as Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom, the transit trade attains considerable importance, but New Zealand, owing to its geographical position, is precluded from developing in that direction. Her imports, except for a small forwarding trade to the Pacific islands, are for her own consumption, and the great bulk of her exports are commodities of domestic production.

The following table, which excludes specie, shows for the last ten years the very small proportion which re-exports bear to the total trade of the Dominion:—

PROPORTION OF RE-EXPORTS TO TOTAL TRADE (EXCLUDING SPECIE), 1912–21.
Year.Trade.Re-exports (included in two preceding Columns).Percentage of Re-exports
Imports.Exports.Total.To Imports.To Exports.
 £     £     £     £       
191220,576,57921,511,62642,088,205239,2211.161.11
191321,653,63222,810,36344,463,995232,4731.071.02
191421,144,22726,253,92547,398,152269,2081.271.03
191520,653,72031,430,82252,089,542387,9601.881.23
191625,045,40333,281,05758,326,460305,1501.220.92
191720,742,13031,517,07252,259,202429,1152.071.36
191824,131,79228,480,57852,612,370543,5682.251.91
191930,309,16753,907,92584,217,092603,5411.991.12
192061,553,85346,405,366107,959,219813,0721.321.75
192142,744,12244,828,46087,572,5821,213,0022.842.73

Before comparisons may properly be made with the trade of other countries care must be taken to ensure that the statistics are comparable in their methods of compilation and definition.

The value of imports into New Zealand has, since 1916, been reckoned at the fair market value in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus 10 per cent.; exports are valued f.o.b. In the United States and Canada, however, the value of imports also are calculated f.o.b., and the difference, representing freight, insurance, and charges, amounts to about 10 per cent, of the total value.

Again, in the United Kingdom the values of both imports and exports are obtained by assessment at current market prices in the United Kingdom.

A comparison of the “special” trade of various countries is shown in the table given below, the information being taken from the Commonwealth Official Year-book. Such a comparison (which covers in most cases the latest available year) necessarily ignores many of the elements considered above, but gives a sufficiently accurate idea of the relative trade of the various countries. The figures for Canada relate to the year ended 31st March, 1920, and for Australia to the year ended 30th June, 1920; in all other cases the figures refer to the calendar year.

TRADE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.—IMPORTS FOR HOME CONSUMPTION AND EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE, INCLUDING BULLION AND SPECIE.
Country.Year.Trade.*Trade per Inhabitant.
Imports.Exports.Total.Imports.Exports.Total.

* In thousands of pounds.

Excluding bullion and specie.

  £     £     £     £ s.d.£ s.d.£ s.d.
New Zealand192060,74645,592106,3385018838478933
Switzerland1920196,792152,180348,972491983813188129
Netherlands1920314,717163,412478,1294686242270108
New Zealand192141,72943,61685,345341113512869147
United Kingdom19201,714,3361,335,5693,049,90537175291016776
Denmark1920132,57866,453199,031431432118365126
Sweden1920188,436128,156316,5923283220105491
Canada1919–20218,744254,697473,4412465286452129
Norway191792,29543,779136,0743514161285140
Belgium1920220,780172,096392,876281710221055183
Australia1919–2098,063144,569242,6321813102711146411
Argentine192052,416206,208258,624667241823149
United States19191,082,2842,256,1393,338,423919620151130155
France1920656,864424,1221,080,986161191014227511
Japan1920375,516263,980639,496611741261141
Italy1920204,409100,567304,97651132149860
Brazil1920124,406107,514231,92041731067121

Utilizing the 1920 figures, which are more strictly comparable with the remainder of the table; New Zealand is seen to head the list as regards the total exports of domestic produce and imports of articles entered for home consumption, Switzerland taking second place. It will be noted that under the head of imports above Switzerland's trade per unit of population is 19s. less than the Dominion's, and in the case of imports it actually exceeds it by 8s. 6d. per capita. On the basis of the 1921 figures, however, New Zealand drops to third place, being second in regard to exports and sixth in the case of imports.

Prior to the war the trade per head of population was greatest in Belgium (£48 18s. 1d.), with New Zealand next (£41 14s. 3d.).

By themselves statistics of foreign trade are not a sure test of a country's prosperity, and they must always be interpreted with a knowledge of local conditions. An increase of imports may not be the result of increased purchasing-power, but may merely represent loans from another country, or even a failure of the home supply of certain commodities. Similarly, increased exports may mean greater productivity and increased purchasing-power, but they may also denote the payments on greatly increased liabilities.

In all countries the home trade is greatly in excess of the external trade, and in larger countries, which are more self-contained, a decrease in foreign trade may be due to development within the country itself. But New Zealand is far from self-contained, and from her position must attach a great importance to external trade. Under present conditions, only by export can a sufficient market be obtained for her rich resources, and only from abroad can be obtained the manufactures which are needed for common use. The development of the external trade since 1895 has been accompanied by increasing prosperity, and every advance in exports, followed by larger imports, represents an increase in the wealth of the Dominion.

SUBSECTION B.—EXPORTS.

METHOD OF RECORDING EXPORTS.

IN New Zealand the Department of H.M. Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination.

In all cases exports are valued “free on board at the port of shipment.” In many cases, however, the goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, and in such cases values must be assessed in New Zealand with reference to current prices.

The exports of New Zealand produce are shown separately from re-exports of imported goods.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as is practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPORT TRADE.

The table on the next page gives a summary of the main exports from New Zealand during the last twenty years. The main commodities are shown separately, and the progress of the Dominion during the last two decades is strikingly illustrated.

The main feature of the table is the prominence given to the primary products of the soil. The extractive industries of New Zealand have always supplied the overwhelming bulk of the exports, and, though the proportion of the different classes has varied from time to time, there has never been any considerable or even noticeable export of manufactured goods.

Until 1914 the statistical tables included a heading “Manufactures,” which showed a considerable total value in each year, reaching £987,072 in 1913. Included in this group, however, was phormium, the value of which (excluding tow) was in 1913 £721,924; and though the phormium is stripped and prepared in New Zealand, it leaves the Dominion as a raw fibre, which can hardly be termed a “manufacture.” Similarly, leather in 1913 amounted to £31,945, and copra was also included in this heading. There are some genuine manufactures exported, such as ale and beer, cordage, soap, and woollens, but their value is insignificant compared with the primary products.

Practically every item considered shows a great increase over the twenty years, and the total exports show a threefold increase in the period. This increase is practically continuous: there is; however, a slight check in 1904, and two more serious decreases in 1908 and 1911. The figures for 1917 and 1918 are considerably below those of the previous year, but the export values during 1919 constituted a record. Although the figures for 1921 show a further decrease as compared with 1919 and 1920. they are nevertheless still a long way ahead of any year prior to 1919.

In the past twenty years the proportions of the principal exports have changed a good deal. Wool, which reached its maximum percentage (47.9) in 1897, showed a tendency to decline till 1902, then partially regained its position, once more showing a marked fall in 1918, owing to a considerable portion of the clip being retained in the Dominion until the next year, when wool to the value of £19,559,537 was exported. Wool exported during the year 1921 amounted to the comparatively small figure of £5,221,479, which is the lowest amount attained since 1904. The total exports of wool during the six years 1916–21 aggregated nearly 69 millions sterling.

Frozen meat in recent years has supplied approximately 20 per cent, of the total exports, a proportion considerably exceeded in 1920 and 1921, when the value of this important item of export reached £11,673,696 and £11,164,345 respectively.

EXPORTS OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE, 1902–21.
Year.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.Tallow.Skins, Hides, and Pelts.Other Pastoral Produce.*

* The main items In this heading are bacon and hams, beef and pork (salted), live-stock, preserved meats, sausage-skins, and preserved milk.

The main Items in this heading are bran and sharps, chaff, flour, barley, beans and peas, maize, malt, hops, oatmeal, potatoes, and seeds.

 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
19023,354,5632,718,7631,205,802163,539550,131473,699338,371
19034,041,2743,197,0431,318,067194,998517,871566,178239,532
19044,673,8262,793,5991,380,460185,486357,974498,121189,942
19055,381,3332,694,4321,408,557205,171347,888675,201208,939
19066,765,6552,877,0311,560,235341,002455,026894,518257,313
19077,657,2783,420,6641,615,345662,355560,9651,055,650273,447
19085,332,7813,188,5151,171,182783,419481,335767,692231,142
19096,305,8883,601,0931,639,3801,105,390648,4521,018,103316,959
19108,308,4103,850,7771,811,9751,195,373756,8411,129,041468,298
19116,491,7073,503,4061,576,9171,192,057607,257911,519467,695
19127,105,4833,909,5692,088,8091,680,393684,7391,091,871370,616
19138,057,6204,449,9332,061,6511,770,297663,0881,199,375317,181
19149,318,1145,863,0622,338,5762,564,125694,3481,317,593433,331
191510,387,8757,794,3952,700,6252,730,211780,8281,450,276690,398
191612,386,0747,271,3182,632,2933,514,310785,3391,667,679637,409
191712,175,3665,982,4042,031,5513,949,251553,0161,861,817776,194
19187,527,2664,957,5763,402,2234,087,278847,6182,645,8641,170,011
191919,559,5379,628,2923,080,1287,790,9902,680,0063,439,4682,432,819
192011,863,82711,673,6963,022,3356,160,8401,748,7735,032,2422,058,463
19215,221,47911,164,34511,169,5308,199,183867,2981,980,1762,081,514
Year.Wheat.Oats.Other Agricultural Produce.Gold.Coal.Kauri-gum.Phormium Fibre and Tow.Timber.

* The main items In this heading are bacon and hams, beef and pork (salted), live-stock, preserved meats, sausage-skins, and preserved milk.

The main Items in this heading are bran and sharps, chaff, flour, barley, beans and peas, maize, malt, hops, oatmeal, potatoes, and seeds.

 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
190231,074666,664348,2481,951,426154,747450,223539,390208,005
190314,068453,702277,0752,037,832128,927631,102603,411240,713
1904126,035212,724220,4841,987,501139,898501,817714,147254,021
1905144,37499,664184,2422,093,936107,062561,444711,940318,895
19069,91576,981183,6462,270,904122,614522,486812,712304,941
19073264,656157,9852,027,490114,737579,888897,718311,862
1908344108,997156,3892,004,79985,846372,798420,520375,235
1909305,902453,314216,9542,006,900183,961552,698324,458337,740
1910216,65744,299220,5661,896,318259,562465,044480,519407,658
1911219,1969,211184,4081,815,251204,379395,707325,130439,353
191295,702483,756481,1471,345,131216,170401,305407,903490,508
191311,81629,252238,9081,459,499205,010549,106797,062319,055
19143,580165,930278,894895,367282,163497,444492,230422,864
1915128132,827541,3181,694,553329,731279,133610,059383,883
191617,83530,200135,6801,199,212326,553339,8821,078,632381,488
19175091,306178,087903,888236,063291,9171,232,608408,121
1918460872194,42242,391227,228157,3131,408,147556,309
191967933,671753,8371,334,405201,383255,812907,584439,935
192038852,502477,166883,748128,509556,756688,972697,608
192124384,434405,417612,168109,510367,197319,604503,785

The main feature of the period has been the great advance, relatively and absolutely, of butter and cheese, the export of which has increased beyond all expectations—viz., from £1,369,341 to £19,368,713. Other classes of pastoral produce have also increased to several times their total for 1902, and timber shows much the same result. The value of gold, coal, and phormium, however, has, on the other hand, decreased, their respective values in 1921 being considerably less than what they were in 1902. This is especially noticeable in the case of gold, the figures showing over the twenty years a decline from £1,951,426 to £612,168. Agricultural produce shows a fluctuating export with a tendency to decrease.

The relative importance of the main commodities is shown in the diagram given below.

In the following table the exports are classified under the main industries, according to a broad division, to illustrate the relative importance of the pastoral, agricultural, mining, forest, and other industries as far as the export trade is concerned. It must be remembered that in a particular industry the home trade may be relatively more important than the external trade.

The table indicates a tendency for the Dominion to rely more and more upon the pastoral industry for her main exports. The four main products of that industry — wool, frozen meat, butter, and cheese — provide an ever-increasing proportion of the total quantity of goods shipped overseas. On the other hand, the proportion of minerals has tended to fall, through decreasing exports of gold, and agricultural exports fluctuate with a downward tendency. It would seem that New Zealand is restricting her agriculture to a level barely sufficient to provide for her own needs in the matter of foodstuffs, and only in exceptional years is there a surplus available for export.

TABLE SHOWING PROPORTIONS OF EXPORTS SUPPLIED BY THE MAIN INDUSTRIES, 1902–21.
Year.Exports.Percentage of Total Exports.
Pastoral.Mining.Agricultural.Forest.Other.Pastoral.Mining.Agricultural.Forest.Other.
 £     £     £     £     £     Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
19028,804,8682,183,2111,045,986670,962939,95064.516.07.74.96.9
190310,074,9632,265,604744,845885,2571,039,70967.115.15.05.96.9
190410,079,4082,251,108559,243769,1881,089,40168.315.33.85.27.4
190510,921,5212,329,858428,280891,4101,084,87869.814.92.75.76.9
190613,150,7802,555,551270,542841,1661,277,09872.614.11.54.67.2
190715,245,7042,344,903162,967904,4861,410,89776.011.70.84.57.0
190811,956,0662,279,520265,730758,1151,058,06373.314.01.64.66.5
190914,635,2652,378,775976,170905,930765,85674.412.15.04.63.9
191017,520,7152,344,348481,522889,603944,02179.010.62.24.04.2
191114,750,5582,165,137412,815843,310856,67077.511.42.24.44.5
191216,931,4801,660,2801,060,605900,6711,217,54577.87.64.94.15.6
191318,519,1451,791,777279,976874,1101,521,71480.67.81.23.86.6
191422,529,1491,263,553448,404927,4821,092,85985.84.81.73.54.2
191526,534,6082,149,217674,273674,5331,716,28183.66.82.12.15.4
191628,894,4221,661,650183,797734,0341,502,00487.65.00.62.24.6
191727,329,5991,274,222179,902711,1881,593,04687.94.10.62.35.1
191824,638,531479,017196,291719,5381,903,63388.21.70.72.66.8
191948,611,2401,668,314788,187698,8491,537,79491.23.11.51.32.9
192041,560,1761,103,344530,0561,262,8941,135,82491.12.41.22.82.5
192140,683,525787,591490,094884,279769,96993.31.91.12.01.7

The diagram given on the page following shows clearly the relative importance in the external trade of the main classes of exports. The most noticeable feature is the extremely high proportion of the exports supplied by the pastoral industries. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,” but in the early years of the new century fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining produce. Since 1902, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1921 it amounted to 93 per cent. of the total.

On the whole, mining products are growing less important to New Zealand, mainly because of the overwhelming increase of the pastoral products. In later years especially this tendency to diminish is noticeable.

Agricultural exports showed an abnormal increase from 1899 to 1903, the period which covers the South African War, but since then their importance has steadily declined. Their lowest level (0.6 per cent. of total exports) was reached in 1916 and 1917. Forest products, too, though steady, showed a relative downward tendency, and therefore the strip representing them tapers toward the latter years.

Measured by their value in money the exports of 1921 show a slight decrease of 4 per cent. as compared with the previous year. The exports of 1919 constituted a record which was entirely due to the large increase in pastoral produce. Wool has for a number of years been the principal item of export, but the decline in the price of wool has been so great that the value of this commodity in 1921 amounted to only £5,221,479, or 56 per cent lower than in 1920. That this huge decrease is entirely due to the lower prices ruling in 1921 is easily seen when comparing the quantities exported during the last two years, the figures being 158,714,828 lb. in 1921, as against 162,327,176 lb. in 1920, a decrease of only 3,612,348 lb. Frozen meat stood at £11,164,345, a decrease of £509,351 when compared with the figure for the previous year.

INCREASES OR DECREASES IN THE MAIN EXPORTS IN 1921.
Article.Value.Amount ofPercentage.
1921.1920.Increase.Decrease.Increase.Decrease.
 £     £     £     £       
Wool5,221,47911,863,827..     6,642,348..     55.99
Frozen meat11,164,34511,673,696..     509,351..     4.36
Butter11,169,5303,022,3358,147,195..     269.57..     
Cheese8,199,1836,160,8402,038,343..     33.09..     
Preserved milk1,109,331795,612313,719..     39.43..     
Tallow867,2981,748,773..     881,475..     50.41
Skins, hides, and pelts1,980,1765,032,242..     3,052,066..     60.65
Gold612,168883,748..     271,580..     30.73
Coal109,510128,509..     18,999..     14.78
Kauri-gum367,197556,756..     189,559..     34.05
Phormium319,604688,972..     369,368..     53.61
Timber503,785697,608..     193,823..     27.78

In 1914 a new method of classification was adopted, and both imports and exports were divided into classes. The total exports of each class in 1921 are shown in the following table:—

EXPORTS BY CLASSES, 1921.
No.Class.Domestic Produce.Re-exports.
  £     £     
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)32,571,62218,401
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt309,85339,293
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic), and substances used in making up the same1,36127,766
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors2,28331,243
VTobacco and preparations thereof16814,836
VILive animals68,670103
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured), not being foodstuffs7,225,939267
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres547,93926,896
IXAApparel4,87992,435
IXBTextiles10,315168,920
IXCManufactured fibres21,17120,606
XOils, fats, and waxes883,525103,687
XIPaints and varnishes3969,797
XIIStones and minerals used industrially485,41224,581
XIIISpecie..     367
XIVAMetal (unmanufactured and partly manufactured) and ores679,7752,478
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines13,62158,559
XVMachinery and machines47,40850,337
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)1,668825
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes86,53919,904
XVIIATimber503,922883
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures7,6553,196
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cement, and cement materials14,4699,951
XIXAPaper1,6475,725
XIXBStationery15,45016,992
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods458147,552
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments4136,058
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares5,69317,324
XXIIBManures42923
XXIIIMiscellaneous16,981264,364
..     Parcels-post86,184..     
                 Totals43,615,4731,213,369

It will be seen that the great bulk of the exports fall into two classes–I, which includes butter and cheese, and frozen meat; and VII, which includes wool, hides, skins, and pelts. Mineral products fall under XII and XIVA, and timber under XVIIA; tallow is the main item in X, phormium, seeds, and fungus in VIII, while the main agricultural products are included in II.

The re-exports are spread mainly over various manufactured items.

The principal items of export may conveniently be grouped under six definite heads, and for nearly fifty years a decennial table has been published in the report on Trade and Shipping, using this method of summary. A comparative statement for the last five years, following the classification therein adopted, is given on the opposite page.

Practically all the main commodities are homogeneous articles, and it is therefore possible to give the quantities exported. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter contain the variable element of price.

QUANTITIES OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE EXPORTED, 1917–21.
Articles.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
The mine—
    Coal(tons)221,125182,603138,17480,08853,183
    Gold(oz.)218,62411,987320,210212,973149,595
    Silver787,152879,383453,567369,400480,023
    Other minerals(tons)1611711316515
The fisheries—
    Fish(cwt.)12,3708,6335,4997,8499,785
    Oysters(doz.)30,900142,80029,347121,23492,340
    Whalebone(lb.)..     ..     ..     7,0561,120
    Whale-oil(gal.)46,15164,940114,732115,09054,130
The forest—
    Fungus(cwt.)3,6102,0549891,5761,616
    Kauri-gum(tons)4,5942,4194,1286,4813,901
    Timber, sawn and hewn(sup. ft.)71,338,17474,932,81549,726,67069,664,01445,902,627
Pastoral products—
    Bacon and hams(cwt.)1,3593,475425369847
    Beef and pork, salted4,4164,9044,2747,59814,153
    Butter254,397431,023345,818312,009898,478
    Cheese885,743883,4301,572,3111,222,0501,368,786
    Hides and skins(number)237,906320,832440,492570,095796,025
    Live-stock—
        Cattle(number)357402309508416
        Horses283316134117203
        Sheep5,1583,2511,3554,5863,048
        Pigs714626456272502
    Preserved meats(cwt.)55,00874,903218,802117,55059,203
    Frozen meats2,446,9452,036,9043,822,6834,628,2824,322,754
    Sausage-skins18,13219,89922,86824,98723,443
    Rabbit-skins(number)4,944,6077,854,15214,340,00714,363,21613,922,446
    Sheep skins and pelts6,528,0538,741,5388,501,7569,221,55223,406,989
    Tallow(cwt.)251,980328,420937,480540,820554,240
    Wool(lb.)178,274,486108,724,575274,246,613162,327,176158,714,828
Agricultural products—
    Bran and sharps(tons)340275543277124
    Chaff354249575197166
    Flour7441,5412,8764,428111
    Grain—
        Barley(centals)91141270563619,729
        Beans and peas66,70554,297252,892116,712125,485
        Oats2,3071,30057,93190,811172,589
        Wheat902674974455277
    Hops(cwt.)2,8052,0102,2141,6162,099
    Oatmeal(tons)168778289
    Potatoes7274403,6031,3021,216
    Seeds (grass and clover)(cwt.)16,48415,99549,90623,82137,319
Miscellaneous—
    Ale and beer(gal.)11,98912,78216,30315,6828,519
    Cordage(cwt.)7,8727,3593,3549,0326,416
    Leather8452,2284,4333,1022,629
    Phormium fibre and tow(tons)26,01626,98225,60922,07511,167
    Soap(cwt.)9,2877,3616,5888,2734,684

The values of these principal commodities are tabulated in the following pages, and the statement of exports is rendered complete by the addition of miscellaneous groups and the provision of totals for each group and for all combined.

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES EXPORTED, 1917–21.
Articles.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
The mine—£     £     £     £     £     
    Coal236,063227,228201,383128,509109,510
    Gold903,88842,3911,334,405883,748612,168
    Silver105,299171,456103,03787,66565,647
    Other minerals28,97237,94229,4893,422266
          Totals370,334436,6261,668,3141,103,344787,591
The fisheries—
    Fish23,81819,20217,42527,52234,337
    Oysters2441,1143421,323965
    Whalebone..     ..     ..     3,100244
    Whale-oil5,51112,61822,90823,3047,505
    Other20125402299165
          Totals29,77432,95941,077.55,54843,216
The forest—
    Fungus10,6885,7842,5238,41312,852
    Kauri-gum291,917157,313255,812556,756367,197
    Timber408,121556,309439,935697,608503,785
    Other462132579117445
          Totals711,188719,538698,8491,262,894884,279
Pastoral products—
    Bacon and hams7,97421,9012,9933,3125,795
    Beef and pork, salted11,31013,86211,78722,18812,177
    Butter2,031,5513,402,2233,080,1283,022,33511,169,530
    Cheese3,949,2514,087,2787,790,9906,160,8408,199,153
    Hides and skins456,308532,510969,4831,142,006575,222
    Live-stock—
        Cattle11,38116,7438,91416,79811,963
        Horses20,44729,54427,7156,71627,224
        Sheep19,09616,9337,31129,02525,807
        Pigs3,1224,3503,1001,9672,296
        Other4851,0338858131,380
    Preserved milk and cream153,538341,797579,266795,6121,109,331
    Preserved meats278,753420,1791,283,218538,571273,591
    Frozen meats5,982,4044,957,5769,628,29211,673,69611,164,345
    Sausage-skins227,431257,871324,001454,280447,873
    Rabbit-skins105,321299,765775,118830,024448,180
    Sheep skins and pelts1,300,1881,813,5891,694,8673,060,212956,774
    Tallow553,016847,6182,680,0061,748,773867,298
    Wool12,175,3667,527,26619,559,53711,863,8275,221,479
    Other42,65746,493183,629189,181164,077
          Totals27,329,59924,638,53148,611,24041,560,17640,683,525
Agricultural products—
    Bran and sharps2,1111,8274,5552,9541,373
    Chaff2,9173,1555,8752,5241,532
    Flour13,59529,34153,18854,9422,784
    Fruits7223071,72914,68523,341
    Grain and pulse—
        Barley5133074815959,477
        Beans and peas72,07771,282319,516151,162120,317
        Oats1,30687233,67152,50284,434
        Wheat509460679388243
        Other8891,2403,9736,1651,249
    Hops12,03811,23416,30116,75119,142
    Oatmeal3402,0833,2671,062267
    Onions9,8142,0996,01812,9552,150
    Potatoes5,8164,27938,71812,8069,113
    Seeds (grass and clover)48,63542,215249,886147,369156,114
    Seeds (various)6,93724,37249,12750,27556,862
    Other1,6831,2181,2032,9211,696
    Totals179,902196,291788,187530,056490,094
Miscellaneous (including manufactures)—
    Ale and beer1,4561,4422,5082,3902,050
    Apparel55,80892,814136,0456,0264,155
    Cement5,5067,6516,9762,27811,956
    Cordage22,78126,63010,52529,93521,097
    Foods, infants' and invalids'3161215..     
    Leather10,45828,09564,64551,94059,562
    Phormium fibre and tow1,232,6081,408,147907,584688,972319,604
    Soap14,84614,72414,06921,69311,608
    Sugar62,10219,23826,69916,43820,706
    Woollen manufactures8,78010,6328,8662,4049,088
    Other148,896261,295318,788258,185266,927
          Totals1,563,2721,870,6741,496,7171,080,276726,753
Total exports (domestic produce)31,087,95727,937,01053,304,38445,592,29443,615,458
Specie70,47535,61062,15036,580367
Re-exports429,115543,568603,541813,0721,213,002
          Total exports31,587,54728,516,18853,970,07546,441,94644,828,827

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865 70 per cent., and even in 1871 44 per cent., of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping lines with the United Kingdom the Mother-land has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, having taken during the forty years 1875–1914 £365,880,997 (or almost exactly 80 per cent.) of a grand total of exports amounting to £469,347,969. This percentage, prior to the war, did not vary greatly from year to year, but there have naturally been considerable variations since 1914, the most notable being the marked fall in 1918. During 1919 and 1920 the proportion of the total exports destined for the United Kingdom has regained its original position, and, furthermore, during the year 1921 actually increased to 86 per cent.

The total amount sent to Australia fluctuates considerably from year to year, rising if the products of the Commonwealth are reduced by drought. The proportion of New Zealand's exports sent to Australia has declined considerably during the twenty years covered by the table on the next page.

Exports to Canada have increased enormously during the twenty years, rising from £2,118 in 1901 to £1,793,576 in 1918; but the figures show a slight falling-off during the last three years—indeed, the amount for the year 1921 is the lowest value of exports to that country since 1911. Even before the war Canada had become an important market for New Zealand's produce, having taken exports to the value of £606,662 in 1913, as compared with £199,587 two years earlier and only £24,051 in 1908.

Exports to the Pacific islands have risen steadily in total value, and have increased slightly as a proportion of total exports.

The value of exports to the United States fluctuated considerably up to 1912, with no definite indication of an increase. In 1913 and 1914, however, there was a substantial rise as compared with earlier years, and the war and post-war years have witnessed a huge further increase, with the result that the United States now ranks second to the United Kingdom as a purchaser of the Dominion's surplus production.

Prior to the war Germany's position in the export table was similar to that of Canada, exports having risen from £10,470 in 1901 to £205,931 in 1910 and £456,163 in 1914. The total value of exports sent direct to Germany during the year 1921 was £46,162.

The high totals for 1918 and 1919 shown for “other countries” are mainly due to temporary heavy exports to France in the former year and Egypt in the latter. With the exception of the three years 1914–16, during which a yearly average of £102,000 was exported to Japan, exports to that country have not exceeded the £10,000 mark.

Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.Pacific Islands.United States.Germany.Other Countries.*Total.
* The principal other countries are Hong Kong, Straits Settlements, India, France, Egypt, Java, and Japan.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
19029,450,6482,684,3507,366159,214489,9649,389844,04613,644,977
190311,345,0752,233,9962,421160,133669,64917,584581,52015,010,378
190411,876,2731,817,62215,961166,767598,92123,931248,87314,748,348
190512,087,8182,294,97151,329170,210716,30138,958296,36015,655,947
190614,047,1762,882,52229,815188,755642,79254,952249,12518,095,137
190716,533,4932,221,26078,015186,839714,06366,489268,79820,068,957
190813,143,7802,103,16124,051203,581326,41540,191476,31516,317,494
190916,193,1881,918,115180,975258,164684,81077,969348,77519,661,996
191018,633,1182,010,751160,842296,244553,603205,931319,72022,180,209
191115,134,7432,515,168199,587324,306434,586170,493249,60719,028,490
191216,861,2562,848,664542,271338,621620,988254,703304,07821,770,581
191318,130,1602,315,747606,662295,032912,051337,448389,62222,986,722
191421,383,8911,928,410595,611326,0251,028,054456,163543,29326,261,447
191525,389,0302,548,605925,813499,0632,006,5074379,89031,748,912
191626,869,9882,191,645691,986368,0692,493,9875671,35733,286,987
191726,023,3961,460,980961,653540,3801,894,3176706,81531,587,547
191818,244,2501,803,7391,793,576511,8424,045,648..     2,117,18328,516,188
191944,312,0482,249,827980,190548,1124,200,861..     1,679,03753,970,075
192034,354,3002,351,7991,357,774718,2837,456,04123203,72646,441,946
192133,716,5932,070,013454,597517,3632,702,10446,162321,99544,828,827

Included in the exports to the United Kingdom, however, are considerable quantities of produce which are shipped to London merely as a convenient depot, and which are retransferred to the Continent or to America. The total re-exports in normal pre-war years amounted to about £4,000,000 annually, but the amount fell, under war conditions, to £2,408,737 in 1915, £985,891 in 1917, and £565,529 in 1918, rising again to £1,691,168 in 1919, and still further to £3,578,617 in 1920.

The largest item in the re-exports is wool, which, to the value of nearly £2,000,000 annually, was redistributed in pre-war years from London to the manufacturing centres of Belgium, northern France, and Germany. This amounted to a big proportion of the Dominion's wool exports, averaging about 25 per cent.

The bulk of the kauri-gum, more than one-half of the phormium, and three-fourths of the sheep-skins were usually re-exported in pre-war years.

The principal items of New Zealand produce re-exported from the United Kingdom in 1920 were,—

 £     
Wool1,219,871
Frozen meat877,683
Sheep-skins418,164
Hemp282,926
Tallow131,505
Preserved milk96,067
Rabbit-skins60,424
Oleomargarine46,230
Kauri-gum40,300
Peas36,036
Butter and cheese24,541

The following table shows the exports for the five years ending with 1921, according to the countries of destination. The British possessions and protectorates are stated first, according to geographical order, followed by foreign countries in the same order.

DESTINATION OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1917–21.
Country.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £     £     £     £     £     
United Kingdom26,023,39618,244,25044,312,04834,354,30038,716,593
    British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
    Gibraltar232330
    Malta847457
 10506837
    British Possessions, &c.—ctd. Asia—
    Ceylon2,17299247810,24528,019
    Hong Kong10,7375,05212,26328,96413,192
    India14,38557,293328,87449,75642,917
    Straits Settlements.5,8331,12428,20742,343130,496
    Other 172783197
 33,11764,478369,849131,391214,821
Africa—
    Egypt157,3581,211,7221,059,5833,867121
    South African Union1,5887182,2415,5712,906
    Other417537780164
 158,9501,212,6151,062,2019,5183,191
America—
    British West Indies317121,889
    Canada961,6531,793,576980,1901,357,774454,597
    Other21119268
 961,6581,793,688980,2061,357,812456,494
Pacific islands—
    Australia1,460,9801,803,7392,249,8272,351,7992,070,013
    Fiji167,024136,076140,835203,568151,965
    Western Samoa119,04984,24193,062173,347127,917
    Tonga79,250107,310167,215187,438103,045
    Other10,1216,6687,3147,6896,277
    Foreign Countries and Possessions.1,622,5612,095,9182,658,2532,923,8412,459,217
Europe—
    Belgium 150575,010
    France481,792810,00798,57320314,893
    Germany6  2346,162
    Italy784670,813692,502
    Netherlands  44472,463
    Norway29,958996817
    Switzerland11012,1134034,927
    Other25,5938,39883255291
 507,581828,411172,6721,06576,265
Asia—
    China18033532,77935,224842
    Japan4,3885,4158,1784,90420,149
    Java4913,0278292,37522,332
    Other2437731,1741,4365,326
 5,3028,85472,96043,93948,649
Africa447125
America—
    Argentina8611234,4134,772
    Chile1,3991,6971,27713,35718,308
    United States of America1,894,3174,045,6484,200,8617,456,0412,702,104
    Other367901268201
 1,896,1694,048,2574,202,1877,473,8192,725,385
Pacific islands—
    Hawaii3,6347662,04611,92862,164
    Society Islands74,613118,865123,169123,66356,635
    Tutuila2,0754,3601,9434,1716,695
    Other84,11453,25612,5286,4793,163
 164,436177,247139,86146,241128,657

In the following table exports have been grouped in accordance with the classification adopted by the British Board of Trade in many of its tables. As might be expected from the large value of butter, cheese, and frozen meat exported during 1921, food is now easily the largest of the five divisions, raw materials (other than foodstuffs), which had up to recent years occupied first position, coming next. Many of the most important items in the former class are raw materials also, and the table is a further illustration of the fact that New Zealand is essentially a primary-producing country. Exports of manufactures in 1921 constituted only 4.81 per cent. of the total. A similar table given in the “Imports” subsection of this book shows that the reverse is the case in respect of imports—namely, a preponderance of manufactured goods received into the Dominion.

Countries.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified (including Parcels-post).Bullion and Specie.Total.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
United Kingdom31,697,1735,792,1741,095,342115,05016,85438,716,593
    British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
    Gibraltar..     ..     ..     30..     30
    Malta..     ..     ..     7..     7
Asia—
    British North Borneo Protectorate..     ..     ..     30..     30
    Burma19..     ..     2..     21
    Ceylon48..     3,2807724,61428,019
    Hong Kong5512,852140145..     13,192
    India1,342..     23,0611,18417,33042,917
    Malay States..     ..     ..     144..     144
    Sarawak and Brunei..     ..     ..     1..     1
    Straits Settlements89,1671,80539,368156..     130,496
    Weihalwei..     ..     ..     1..     1
Africa—
    British East Africa Protectorate..     ..     ..     7..     47
    British West Africa Protectorate..     ..     ..     11..     11
    Egypt..     ..     5368..     121
    Mauritius..     ..     ..     20..     20
    Northern Rhodesia..     ..     ..     31..     31
    Nyasaland Protectorate..     ..     ..     1..     1
    South African Union767161,688435..     2,906
    Southern Rhodesia..     ..     ..     54..     54
America—
    British Guiana..     ..     ..     8..     8
    British West Indies1,861..     ..     28..     1,889
    Canada200,554237,88112,8823,143137454,597
Pacific—
    Australia174,8821,110,639614,204161,2809,0082,070,013
    British Solomon Islands Protectorate2,166541,75436..     4,010
    Fanning Island1,451108310..     501,919
    Fiji63,7577,06874,6516,489..     151,965
    Gilbert and Ellice Islands..     ..     ..     1..     1
    Minor British Pacific islands14..     54..     23
    Nauru (Pleasant Island)8..     ..     ..     ..     8
    Norfolk Island49..     6430..     143
    Papua92..     ..     7..     99
    Pitcairn Island5..     1059..     7
    Tonga55,3222,74242,2662,405310103,045
    Western Samoa66,7003,15056,4481,6127127,917
    Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
    Austria..     ..     ..     35..     35
    Belgium384,912951..     5,010
    Czecho-Slovakia..     ..     ..     55..     55
    Denmark5..     ..     130..     135
    France..     14,386192315..     14,893
    Germany38545,554..     223..     46,162
    Hungary..     ..     ..     23..     23
    Italy..     2072,191104..     2,502
    Netherlands..     1,73964480..     2,463
    Norway..     ..     ..     17..     17
    Portugal..     ..     ..     3..     3
    Russia..     ..     ..     1..     1
    Sweden..     ..     ..     39..     39
    Switzerland..     ..     2,2552,672..     4,927
Asia—
    Asiatic Turkey..     ..     130129..     259
    China222..     257363..     842
    French Indo-Chinese Protectorate..     ..     ..     40..     40
    Japan13615,4914,299223..     20,149
    Java101..     19,2862,945..     22,332
    Minor Dutch East Indies672..     ..     2..     674
    Philippine Islands50..     ..     6..     56
    Siam89..     ..     66..     155
    Sumatra4,123..     ..     19..     4,142
Africa—
    Algeria..     ..     ..     1..     1
    Belgian Congo..     ..     ..     4..     4
America—
    Argentina..     ..     2,0762,696..     4,772
    Bolivia..     ..     ..     4..     4
    Brazil..     ..     ..     5..     5
    Chile..     ..     25018,058..     18,308
    Cuba..     ..     ..     11..     11
    United States of America557,9651,354,942137,39349,496602,3082,702,104
    Uruguay..     ..     59133..     192
Pacific islands—
    Hawaii61,040..     919205..     62,164
    Marquesas Islands..     ..     ..     2..     2
    New Caledonia25512..     ..     ..     267
    New Hebrides1,443..     32327..     1,793
    Society Islands31,30747320,7514,104..     56,635
    Tuamotu Archipelago740..     238125..     1,103
    Tutuila2,8083,1102716..     6,195
          Totals33,016,8118,609,3152,157,069375,014670,61844,828,827

More detailed information as to principal exports to the various countries is given in the following pages:—

PRINCIPAL ARTICLES EXPORTED TO VARIOUS COUNTRIES, 1917–21.
Class.Item.Article.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
United Kingdom.
   £     £     £     £     £     
I1Butter2,000,1613,266,2962,994,9642,630,23410,953,941
 3Casein12,5644,93760,12262,250108,078
 4Cheese3,851,9153,902,4877,526,0286,147,0238,191,233
 14Honey5,3425,81459,2349,08527,990
 16Bacon1,17817,403..     2584
  Meats, poultry and game—
 19    Beef, frozen1,981,140923,0011,056,6391,701,3251,706,180
 24    Kidneys, frozen30,07221,39454,75235,07236,067
 25    Lamb, whole carcases, frozen1,366,5111,168,2213,037,3571,915,7444,597,580
 27    Meat-extract2,9022,59316,92210,9303,148
 28    Mutton, whole carcases, frozen2,424,7651,566,8374,396,8135,394,0764,468,359
 29    Mutton, joints, frozen8,61630,64438,31642,18344,243
 30    Pork, frozen26,757..     ..     ..     20,288
 32    Potted and preserved192,964284,1131,040,062380,931150,592
 34    Rabbits, frozen in skins24,89152,78539,8335,28616,465
 35    Rabbits, frozen, other kinds..     ..     7,81310,55013,005
 36    Sausage casings and skins..     2548,27520,77556,980
 37    Veal, frozen5,7869,0118,80912333,751
 38    Other kinds, frozen33,66030,525163,38659,91531,599
  Milk and cream—
 40    Preserved, condensed, &c.101,328248,468494,424724,757989,395
  Fruits—
II59    Bottled and preserved in syrup2,134..     12,9621,4832,211
 67    Apples, fresh19..     ..     13,96519,198
  Grain and pulse, unprepared—
 79    Beans and peas62,76358,182289,125103,412100,499
 81    Oats..     ..     1,09039,55282,152
 101Hops..     ..     7,1276,4251,039
 103Jams, jellies, and preserves4,48511,66863,9022,6912,155
  Hides, pelts, and skins, undressed—
VII194    Cattle235,195121,60633,99774,60981,501
 196    Rabbit15,16111,20497,743457,084247,081
 198    Sheep, with wool610..     ..     ..     10,410
 199    Sheep, without wool364,75017,661499,685672,598367,665
  Wool—
 204    Greasy8,671,5333,811,13611,888,0136,983,0923,130,011
 205    Scoured1,316,604855,1163,510,3852,778,754633,118
 206    Sliped1,384,681856,3083,075,7962,080,747974,185
 207    Washed20,52073,62327,41019,0843,602
VIII208Copra3,178..     13,01530,2025,667
 216Phormium tenax374,592178,829427,870181,983103,119
 217Rags2,0422,75116,21313,3381,829
 218Tow2,857..     19,2674,902..     
 223Seeds, grass and clover20,8693,034170,23364,02871,368
 225Seed, other4,3981,0816,8971,6041,005
IXA234Apparel and ready-made clothing n.o.e.54,79378,659125,8332,05012,746
 244Boots and shoes, other..     14,65049,966101289
IXB283Piece-goods, silks, satins, velvets, &c.4574783,83215,369
 286Piece-goods, woollen3323221743,30438,920
  Tallow—
X340    Mutton-stock and oleomargarine118,02092,243398,372162,62194,703
 341    Unrefined296,190106,7291,688,9901,047,474726,808
XII357Coal, bunker117,414121,182137,34160,92790,728
 360Kauri-gum24,8814,19894,856109,984134,502
  Gold—
XIVA384    Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet688,972..     339,210101,7291,285
 397Metals, scrap (except iron and steel), not being precious15,1228,8424,4663,992570
 400Scheelite28,97237,92229,4891,378..     
 401Silver17,120..     6,46214,98015,569
  Leather—
XVIA581    Calf-skins, whole..     ..     ..     ..     19,896
 587    Hide-leathers, crust or rough tanned, but undressed..     ..     4,96424,3901,453
 588    Dressed..     ..     22,991..     23,737
 592    Sole, pump, and skirt leather5,344..     27,2432,73431,202
XXII788Sugar of milk9,99018,59620,572..     ..     
  Parcels-post13,23797,0145,98434,64142,300
India.
I40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.7,0601,6212,688..     1,337
XIVA384Gold—Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet..     ..     ..     23,884..     
 401Silver—Bar, ingot, and sheet5,26053,4949,48724,10417,330
Ceylon.
XIVA401Silver..     ..     ..     9,91024,614
Straits Settlements.
I40Milk and cream, dried, preserved, condensed, &c.77..     1,06328,35688,569
  Coal—
XII357    Bunker3,439..     ..     ..     1,805
Hong Kong.
VIII220Fungus10,2144,5592,5187,91312,852
Egypt.
I1Butter214,0219,3803,620..     
 4Cheese93,257180,718186,396..     ..     
 19Beef, frozen25,128736,534713,733..     ..     
 28Mutton, frozen33,404237,63350,355..     ..     
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.5,25024,3585,011..     ..     
Canada.
I1Butter2,640102,90754,753271,67882,908
 13Gelatine9613,76011,81722,2133,734
  Meats—
 19    Beef, frozen..     ..     ..     6,8311,827
 25    Lamb, frozen..     52,61125,32885,28919,699
 28    Mutton, frozen..     118,47123,12249,417146
 32    Potted and preserved16013,7598944,03914,177
 36Sausage casings and skins32,43050,46253,49495,59966,210
      Undressed—
VII193          Calf11,48110,77547,262105,35035,403
 194          Cattle190,000224,984299,519232,43959,794
 196          Rabbit30,96896,41088,66528,1567,136
 198    Sheep, with wool..     ..     ..     ..     1,599
 199    Sheep, without wool12,95779,358118,889225,22443,674
  Wool—
 204    Greasy161,168382,314..     ..     50,649
 205    Scoured..     19,6614,138..     2,106
 206    Sliped149,369170,515..     ..     26,659
VIII216Phormium tenax196,55789,87660,18467,2172,715
X341Tallow, unrefined59,918275,513116,84126,145..     
XII357Coal, bunker5,5328,26610,703783..     
 360Kauri-gum79,41281,49743,38753,1487,939
Australia.
I    1Butter11,5573,7915816,371310
     4Cheese2,3431,7041,0575,6404,734
   10Fish, fresh or preserved by cold process (other than oysters)19,54913,6437,25713,99825,186
   11Fish, preserved in tins or other airtight vessels4,7444,18011,72313,3869,251
   13Gelatine8,65516,5253,37614577
   30Pork, frozen..     37,076..     ..     ..     
   32Meats, potted and preserved28,816..     13,8837,25218,106
   40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.26,82159,45267,24126,57816,600
  Grain and pulse, unprepared—
II  79    Beans and peas9,00512,56521,32632,97918,932
   81    Oats2077631,39810,6601,130
 101Hops11,64910,6648,6629,43416,499
 130Sugar, refined25,4212223..     ..     
 135Vegetables—Potatoes..     1829,6884149
VI175Cattle for stud purposes6,12911,8544,3559,0095,931
 176Horses, ordinary15,96520,62023,75210,78323,801
 183Sheep for breeding purposes13,4399,6101,6431,7421,410
  Hides, pelts and skins—
      Undressed—
VII193        Calf6,07331,11722,08140,97748,215
 194        Cattle8,893125,335288,976435,399259,370
 199Sheep, without wool32,51114,6963,91616,26412,439
 201Horns, hoofs, and glue pieces1,0744362,0052,6601,511
  Wool—
 204    Greasy..     8,272..     319,412
 206    Sliped..     30,585..     ..     ..     
VIII216Phormium tenax146,893218,507133,461225,002161,174
 218Tow30,24319,73021,33235,12725,793
 223Seeds, grass and clover24,82422,28956,60744,30545,221
 224Linseed..     14,69035,91938,17448,733
 225Seeds, other6,2338,52516,14415,6207,825
  Textiles—
IXA234    Apparel n.o.e.1,1821,6061,5273,71629,648
IXB278    Piece-goods n.o.e.3,2242,65612,82520,95428,709
 283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.4,9143593,98792414,324
 286    Woollen n.o.e., of pure or mixed wool15,90954,5541,95412,079
IXC302Twine, binder18,49421,2416,14314,61016,702
X318Oil, whale5,51112,61412,77523,3047,501
 341Tallow, unrefined21,3553,99812,94236,31029,340
  Coal—
XII357    Bunker30,09128,09222,01424,76414,916
 358    Cargo3,4723,41110,58127,32115,894
 367Pumice-sand5,6605,2382,7327,0056,961
  Gold—
XIVA384    Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet189,58927,009548,3162,4861,902
 385    Concentrates, slimes, tailings, &c.24,31515,97210,5608,9784,106
 401Silver80,205115,71153,7101,7137,106
XIVB474Tinned sheets235753,18239,7254,943
  Timber—
XVIIA605    Flitches, other than kauri4,16818,3141,4264,503244
      Sawn, n.o.e., rough—
 632        Beechwood2,51411,0408,5642,57812,576
 635        Kauri77,20055,77748,6*311,12740,911
 636        New Zealand white-pine182,885231,358250,857515,781353,350
 638        Rimu or red-pine109,587196,49998,647124,80866,114
 639        Other1,69114,91217,09731,62524,920
XVIII666Cement, building, Portland, and other structural..     ..     ..     67,275
XX714Jewellery—Precious stones, unmounted23,748..     64,73071,284135,614
XXI724Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films..     1052041812,164
  Vehicles, motor, for road traffic, and materials therefor—
XXIII893    Cars, motor5,019..     5,25611,69416,444
 895    Rubber tires, covers, and tubes20,024..     2,2376,42440,782
 902Miscellaneous, manufactured27,5496231,86633,48033,233
  Parcels-post10,84813,87116,97342,71823,357
Fiji.
I1Butter7,0083,9667,54111,7346,242
 32Meats, potted and preserved14,39917,49315,65827,07718,201
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.1,1111,9133,7255,3963,686
II86Bran8609263,0581,374284
 87Flour, wheaten5,06616114,61915,7841,010
 130Sugar, refined5,1514,3644,7184,6594,938
 135Potatoes3,8132,1966,1077,0846,329
 149Tea, bulk1,0431,1482,6623,7001,799
IXB278Piece-goods—Cotton n.o.e.3,933..     7,70231,9745,777
IXC295Bags and sacks, jute and hessian2,8731,4271,29035013,741
X341Tallow, unrefined5,0954,0373,8379,2102,441
  Coal—
XII357    Bunker6,2796,9345,843121469
 358    Cargo5,5921302,09624,229
XIII375Silver (specie)28,300..     ..     ..     ..     
  Timber—
      Sawn, n.o.e., dressed—
XVIIA628        Kauri2,0344,1691,1724791,042
      Sawn, n.o.e., rough—
 635        Kauri15,84011,6283,859391295
XVIII666Cement, building, Portland, and other structural3,8934,1993,8301,6252,284
Tonga (Friendly Islands).
I    1Butter1,5382,2432,7834,7023,879
   11Fish, preserved in tins1,3701,7665,9405,041877
   20Beef, salted2,4623,7533,2457,0323,126
   32Meats, potted and preserved10,49917,56521,65244,26730,398
   41Provisions n.o.e.1,2741,1351,5332,5941,838
II  43Biscuits, ships' plain1,7651,5331,7221,2591,275
   87Flour, wheaten1,6404734,8522,831226
 130Sugar, refined3,5571,9424,8532,5705,520
IXA234Apparel9757812,3204,2932,433
IXB278Cotton piece-goods n.o.e.6,89716,46514,66519,29411,444
IXC301Cordage and rope n.o.e.1,8531,2981,3152,9611,656
X324Oil, kerosene2,6022,3156381,1091,415
XIII375Silver (specie)21,10025,75061,15025,460300
XXIII875Soap, common bar8486529711,754798
Western Samoa.
I    1Butter4,5563,7884,3925,3115,027
   11Fish, preserved in tins1,0281,1832,4054,337697
  Meats—
   20    Beef, frozen5,8487,4336,96412,8597,762
   32    Potted and preserved16,68617,18713,41529,17028,762
   40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.1,0951,2161,6402,8902,681
II  54Chaff2,5702,6143,3761,5791,059
 130Sugar, refined6,2141,5687,0175,7776,113
IXA234Apparel1,6851,5971,9932,8901,867
IXB278Piece-goods—Cotton n.o.e.6,2577,52310,36025,0045,610
XIVB422Hardware9641,0978274,1932,282
XXIIA765Medicinal preparations, &c.1,1787659492,7431,867
XXIII875Soap4,3171,8972,8974,8583,104
France.
  Wool—
VII204    Greasy467,899767,237..     ..     14,386
 205    Scoured3,592..     ..     ..     ..     
 206    Sliped..     9,639..     ..     ..     
X341Tallow, unrefined8,89826,597..     ..     ..     
Germany.
VII204Wool, greasy..     ..     ..     ..     39,533
Norway.
VIII216Phormium tenax..     9,957..     ..     ..     
Russia.
X341Tallow, unrefined22,4178,381..     ..     ..     
Switzerland.
  Parcels-post6511,5331682,672
Japan.
VII194Hides, pelts, skins—Cattle..     ..     1,2561,797..     
 204Wool, greasy..     ..     ..     ..     15,304
X341Tallow, unrefined..     3,744..     ..     2,704
Java.
XIV495Metal manufactures n.o.e...     3,023817..     100
United States.
I    1Butter8..     ..     67,778102,983
   25Lamb, whole carcases, frozen..     ..     1,0842,053,3269,652
   28Mutton, whole carcases, frozen..     ..     ..     307,485111,216
   32Meats, potted and preserved..     10,32359,69517,413918
   36Sausage casings and skins193,675204,783218,695335,383322,056
II  79Beans and peas49641713,09014,240737
  Hides, pelts, and skins—
      Undressed—
VII193        Calf..     ..     5,78427,48255,109
 194        Cattle..     16,614264,668207,50429,219
 196        Rabbit55,350191,077587,021338,269188,295
 199    Sheep, without wool889,3601,701,8743772,147,889532,977
  Wool—
 204  Greasy..     542,772885,392..     269,353
 206  Sliped..     88..     2,14417,547
VIII208Copra8,0491,5483,4286,135..     
 216Phormium tenax479,343890,594240,501173,07726,167
 223Seeds, grass and clover16,96816,54725,67539,71442,272
X319Benzine..     ..     12..     61,442
 326Motor-spirit n.o.e...     ..     11332,403
 340Oleomargarine39066,82490,714156,410..     
 341Tallow, unrefined20,726259,540318,162310,2308,843
XII357Coal, bunker16,10618,06317,36115,0851,375
 360Kauri-gum183,50866,723115,613389,467214,383
XIVA384Gold—Bar, dust, ingot, and sheet..     ..     234,998718,899602,308
  Parcels-post2,5442,3774,0458,6256,415
Argentina.
VI183Sheep for breeding purposes..     ..     ..     4,4002,579
Chile.
VI183Sheep for breeding purposes..     ..     ..     13,01318,015
XII357Coal, bunker1,3901,664401337..     
Hawaii (Sandwich Islands).
I  1Butter60242043,0478,420
 19Beef, frozen68..     ..     6838,127
 32Meats, potted and preserved28..     544,53155
 40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.2,622..     3502,26636
New Caledonia.
I  40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.2,719303075..     
II130Sugar, refined15,5222,042..     ..     ..     
Society Islands.
I    1Butter3,4924,6865,9647,3324,314
   20Beef, salted1,0289797781,484655
   32Meats, potted and preserved11,94718,58716,13421,6698,634
   40Milk and cream, preserved, condensed, &c.3,6054,9895,7906,9054,963
II  43Biscuits1,7003,8491,959849529
   87Flour, wheaten9,38828,07131,20333,318789
  Sugar—
 129    Raw3,1372,5613,2943,2102,193
 130    Refined3,3124,3355,8863,2704,434
 135Potatoes9338481,1471,313829
VI174Cattle, ordinary3,9874,1723,7603,8261,502
 179Pigs, ordinary2,1203,1272,2281,704628
IXB278Piece-goods, cotton3671,312,2651,954841
IXC301Cordage and rope n.o.e.5851,1081,1281,565458
XII357Coal, bunker2,0803,15311,690..     ..     
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films3,0971,4431,0108605,870
XXIII875Soap, common bar (yellow and blue mottled)8,6639,3969,16312,6915,695
Tutuila.
I  32Meats, potted and preserved1,0112,0481,1771,6812,553
“Guam.”
V168Cigarettes3,023..     1,326..     ..     
  Coal—
XII357    Bunker25,62710,4221,199..     ..     
 358    Cargo17,46518,4312,103..     ..     

In order to show at a glance the destinations of the main items of export, tables are appended showing the details for five years for each of the principal articles.

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS, 1917–21.
Country to which exported.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Wool.
 lb.     lb.     lb.     lb.     lb.     
United Kingdom168,062,04980,502,867258,388,501162,301,559145,385,964
Canada3,620,4498,191,76949,661..     2,353,978
Australia..     523,057..     36217,497
France6,591,98811,328,1941,482,037..     698,671
Germany..     ..     ..     ..     1,477,131
Japan..     ..     ..     ..     1,068,292
United States of America..     8,178,68813,294,50825,5317,241,051
Other countries..     ..     1,031,90636272,244
                Totals178,274,486108,724,575274,246,613162,327,162158,714,828
Frozen Meat.
 Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     
United Kingdom2,438,4561,537,6713,469,8423,747,9654,241,074
Canada2,58470,67118,67150,5945,449
Pacific islands5476035561,16221,912
Australia11275..     ..     3
United States of America..     6381,888829,56154,316
Egypt25,334427,034331,724..     ..     
                Totals2,466,9322,036,8923,822,6814,629,2824,322,754
Butter.
 Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     
United Kingdom250,721415,250336,606282,679878,737
Canada30411,8936,00019,5269,525
Pacific islands1,8721,4952,1263,0332,199
Australia1,49943661,52824
United States of America1..     ..     4,8437,899
Other countries..     1,9491,08040094
                Totals254,397431,023345,818312,009898,478
Cheese.
 Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     
United Kingdom865,152844,1981,517,1021,220,4091,368,051
Pacific islands279233273362309
Australia314256105539360
Egypt19,97538,64639,796..     ..     
Other countries2311215,07976066
                Totals885,743883,4451,572,3551,222,0701,368,786
Tallow.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
United Kingdom9,6723,52936,17019,46425,956
Pacific islands14310987179112
Australia464962404261,084
Canada1,2565,8722,261390..     
United States of America3756,0186,9856,682415
Other countries6897971,131..     145
                Totals12,59916,42146,87427,04127,712
Hides (Horse and Cattle).
United Kingdom98,14253,8489,99621,61061,516
Canada72,63382,94289,01365,75344,150
Australia7,55165,736118,506135,692194,545
United States of America..     6,434103,93664,66329,242
Other countries..     ..     438400..     
                Totals178,326208,960321,889288,118329,453
Calf-skins.
United Kingdom5,854..     ..     8001,552
Canada23,81618,84657,565133,017112,375
Australia21,23287,39241,62377,069162,465
United States of America..     ..     7,61340,371164,308
Other countries..     ..     6..     12
                Totals50,902106,238106,807251,257440,712
Rabbit-skins.
United Kingdom879,483254,8683,032,1889,578,7788,285,487
Canada1,611,0892,871,9801,633,067271,782150,486
Australia201,82252,91739,485113,524111,682
United States of America2,252,2134,674,3879,635,2674,399,1325,369,091
Other countries..     ..     ..     ..     5,700
                Totals4,944,6077,854,15214,340,00714,363,21613,922,446
Sheep Skins and Pelts.
United Kingdom1,786,15365,1632,638,3782,777,0643,016,289
Canada49,327340,620530,492681,609446,727
Australia205,809123,37022,46653,353149,852
United States of America4,486,7648,212,3855,310,4205,715,7304,823,323
Other countries..     ..     ..     ..     207
                Totals6,528,0538,741,5388,501,7569,227,7568,436,398
Sausage-skins.
 lb.     lb.     lb.     lb.     lb.     
United Kingdom..     498386,574249,400427,439
Canada267,730395,010396,189545,386389,009
Australia77,337230,243244,429178,303112,710
United States of America1,690,7351,635,2201,538,6331,858,4891,686,925
Other countries504591..     79818,621
                Totals2,036,3062,261,5622,566,0952,832,3762,634,704
Beans and Peas.
 Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.Centals.
United Kingdom58,21944,512230,49275,748106,344
Canada2,68445..     7519
South African Union..     ..     ..     332..     
Australia7,38510,25415,98732,25518,607
Pacific islands8386538589
France176..     ..     ..     ..     
United States of America4764489,2948,272500
Other countries48735..     ..     
                Totals69,07155,418255,831116,767125,559
Seeds (Grass and Clover).
 Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     
United Kingdom5,23077824,2895,77112,635
Canada3511401,817364518
Pacific islands23401620
Australia8,39810,65918,15313,14918,639
United States of America5,1114,4157,0084,8116,298
Other countries..     ..     ..     325
                Totals19,09215,99551,30724,14338,115
Gold.
 Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.Oz.
United Kingdom165,0017082,00924,969618
India..     ..     40,3505,670..     
Straits Settlements..     ..     5,370..     ..     
Hong Kong..     ..     2,0394,722..     
Canada..     ..     ..     1,08431
Australia53,62311,917133,2203,6192,256
United States..     ..     57,222172,908146,690
                Totals218,62411,987320,210212,972149,595
Coal.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
United Kingdom102,97090,01085,29930,57036,015
Canada5,5324,9595,947412..     
Pacific islands (other than Fiji)9,1666,08510,5304,3362,364
Australia32,07326,77326,49640,65419,315
Fiji12,6724,8716,109912,833
Egypt2062,506..     ..     ..     
Chile9941,100247150..     
United States of America15,64316,52712,4868,8211,100
Guam46,08729,3723,125..     ..     
Other countries3,50040054..     750
                Totals228,843182,603150,29385,03462,377
Kauri-gum.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
United Kingdom620691,7711,8511,875
Canada1,2291,16770374665
Australia1156193456
United States of America2,6891,1271,6353,8501,872
Other countries45..     ..     ..     33
                Totals4,5942,4194,1286,4813,901
Phormium Fibre.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
United Kingdom7,6693,28610,9115,3653,193
Canada3,5381,5721,4891,85376
Australia3,2494,5563,7646,6775,556
United States of America9,05915,5686,0595,046818
Other countries11851248..     
                Totals23,51625,16722,34718,9499,643
Timber (Sawn and Hewn).
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
United Kingdom163,98845,80073,65744,39349,454
Pacific islands (other than Fiji)665,975619,708290,532227,567102,887
Australia68,725,73272,965,07148,807,93269,281,24645,948,507
Fiji1,801,8601,301,936394,891113,29167,900
Other countries..     3005,268..     3,274
                Totals71,357,55574,932,81549,572,28069,666,49745,948,507

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30th JUNE.

New Zealand's exports consist almost wholly of seasonal products, and the calendar year often splits the seasons. The largest export, wool, is sheared from the sheep in the early summer, and the wool-sales are held in December and January. Exports of any season's wool-clip are therefore divided between one year and the next in varying proportion. A favourable season or a sudden demand may cause a great increase of exports in the December quarter, with the result that the March quarter of the next year shows low figures. The wool trade invariably bases its calculations on each season's clip, not on calendar years.

The same argument holds good in the case of butter and cheese, which are almost wholly exported in December and March quarters. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, since this division does not split the seasonal production of any main commodity, and more truly shows the results of each season as compared with previous seasons. The following table gives this information for the principal items of export during each of the last five “June” years:—

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE FROM NEW ZEALAND FOR YEARS ENDING 30TH JUNE, 1918 TO 1922 (INCLUSIVE).
Article.1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
The mine—£     £     £     £     £     
    Coal270,028195,573174,46594,350189,312
    Gold927,943635,7171,085,483836,911547,443
    Silver139,214128,464113,25674,47252,242
Fisheries—
    Fish24,05717,37424,74328,16640,694
The forest—
    Kauri-gum220,085193,902406,278418,968471,022
    Timber (sawn and hewn)457,317517,182544,229622,939526,435
Pastoral products—
    Beef, salted14,19810,82116,84523,3839,899
    Butter3,232,7883,592,8752,257,1458,447,1988,055,828
    Cheese4,010,8425,501,4526,930,1788,376,4956,027,286
    Hides558,560707,0571,071,639533,844371,225
    Live-stock66,23940,92050,83968,59765,250
    Meat, preserved534,256924,934708,702471,830211,870
    ″ frozen6,414,4714,911,58210,027,65613,933,37410,333,536
    Sausage-skins243,745262,288421,017478,128501,555
    Skins, rabbit258,246209,702653,663541,793419,298
    ″ sheep1,002,4761,937,2422,754,0761,875,835976,007
    Tallow615,4641,613,2502,155,7531,499,934876,433
    Wool9,519,19915,378,92313,206,0838,637,51511,051,952
Agricultural products—
    Beans and peas97,902170,012131,180162,817111,516
    Oats1,2284,75841,849103,36129,755
    Wheat49140197793133,365
    Hops6,12918,40914,48924,50915,200
    Potatoes5,0367,72239,99910,1897,709
    Seeds, grass and clover44,91298,066248,613137,065255,252
Miscellaneous—
    Leather29,36047,13337,856109,36033,615
    Phormium1,553,7911,059,316656,553443,624269,453
    Other New Zealand produce794,4281,523,1152,079,9241,968,5572,032,306
                Totals31,042,31539,708,19045,853,49049,901,21543,615,458

RE-EXPORTS.

The forwarding trade of New Zealand has never at any time been of great significance, and, prior to 1914, on only one occasion (in 1907) did the amount exceed a quarter of a million sterling. Since 1913, however, this amount has rapidly increased until in 1921 it reached the comparatively large figure of £1,213,002.

Items of re-exports consist partly of goods turned from New Zealand either as unsuitable or as finished with, though the bulk of the total amount is made up by various classes of machinery, hardware, metal manufactures, motor-cars, and also items such as apparel, books, tobacco, and spirits.

There is, however, a genuine entrepôt trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is still comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands, which are treated as part of the Dominion, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

The amounts for the last twenty years of the re-exports of New Zealand are shown in the table below:—

RE-EXPORTS (EXCLUDING SPECIE) FROM NEW ZEALAND, 1902–21.
..     £     
1902136,860
1903133,734
1904136,963
1905138,539
1906152,134
1907278,503
1908180,675
1909173,215
1910208,310
1911198,287
1912239,221
1913232,473
1914269,208
1915387,960
1916305,150
1917429,115
1918543,568
1919603,541
1920813,072
19211,213,002

The destination of this re-export trade is shown in the following table for 1917–21:—

Country.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £     £     £     £     £     
United Kingdom50,245103,580113,267103,955245,334
Australia217,168261,814263,689382,593590,065
Fiji36,43436,92740,93471,64556,308
Canada6,6707,00917,74429,62822,115
United States of America24,69717,00824,36449,386133,747
Tonga or Friendly Islands23,88133,05142,25765,71636,027
Samoa or Navigator Islands26,20125,35031,18278,52143,962
Tahiti or Society Islands18,01927,18323,16821,86621,417
Other countries25,80031,64646,9369,76264,027
                Totals429,115543,568603,541813,0721,213,002

EFFECT OF PRICES ON NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.

It is widely recognized that the price of wool and of the other principal exports has a vital bearing on the prosperity of New Zealand, and in the following pages an attempt is made to analyse the influence exerted upon the exports by these changes of prices. New Zealand has always been peculiarly dependent for her prosperity upon her external trade, and the early vicissitudes of the several settlements were caused in great part by the difficulty of finding an assured market for their products. After the gold-discoveries of the “sixties,” there was a steady export of that metal; but the great development of sheep-farming caused the export of wool to outstrip and finally to overshadow gold. Before refrigeration these two commodities comprised the overwhelming bulk of New Zealand's exports—on the average from 90 to 95 per cent.

This was the position when, in the early “seventies,” the world level of prices began to fall, which it continued to do steadily till 1895. About this time the first alluvial deposits of gold began to work out, and gold exports constantly decreased. At the same time the price of wool fell lower and lower, so that the colony found both its great sources of wealth shrinking fast. An ambitious borrowing policy, followed by a period of land speculation, precipitated the country into the severest crisis it has yet experienced, and economic conditions became rapidly worse, till a long period of depression ended in the early “nineties” in a banking crisis.

All through this period the quantities of goods exported constantly increased. Refrigeration came in 1882, and frozen meat and dairy-produce added to the country's wealth. But the depressing influence of falling prices continually minimized the effect of the strenuous efforts at increased production, and the condition of the country remained unpromising.

The years 1895–96 saw a complete change, which can be ascribed only to two facts: the world level of prices began to rise, and the beneficial effects of refrigeration began to make themselves felt; so that from this period dates the prosperity of New Zealand. Under the stimulus of rising prices, which always benefit debtors and producers, exports have increased by leaps and bounds, as will be seen by a reference to the chart in Subsection A of this section. Following the increase of exports there has been a great development of imports and of the home trade.

It is an economic axiom that rising prices tend to benefit producers, for the reason that all prices do not rise equally, and the main prices which lag behind the general level are the prices of the two biggest expenses of production—labour and capital. Hence the producer gets the benefit of rising prices for his produce, while his wages-bill and the interest on his borrowed capital do not increase so fast. It is the latter fact which is of value to New Zealand. The amount of interest which must be paid by New Zealand in each year is paid by the export of domestic produce, and is represented by a continued excess of exports over imports. In times of rising prices fewer bales of wool and carcases of mutton need be shipped each year to discharge this obligation.

At the same time New Zealand derives an extra benefit from the fact that her exports are rising faster than the average level of prices. Investigations into prices, not only in New Zealand but also in the older countries, show that raw materials and foodstuffs rise much faster than other commodities, and this feature is especially marked in animal products. In New Zealand Dr. McIlraith has demonstrated that prices of exports constantly rise faster than prices of imports.

All these influences, which are the principal effects of rising prices, tend to stimulate and increase production; but their exact extent can never be separated from the other causes of increased productivity: all that may be measured is the apparent effect upon the exports as disclosed by changing values. From these data it is possible to ascertain with some accuracy what extra value has been added by the element of prices; but the important influences increasing productivity are not touched by this method.

Practically all the main exports of New Zealand are primary products, either raw materials or foodstuffs. From their nature it is possible in nearly every case to obtain the quantities exported as well as the values. It is then an easy matter of computation to find what the value would have been, assessing the quantities for each year at the prices of a selected base year or period, and by comparison with the actual values recorded to estimate the effect of price-changes.

This method is used by the British Board of Trade and by the Commonwealth Statistician, and is very suitable for application to New Zealand. Of the total exports of New Zealand produce, 99 per cent. can, for the purpose of the present inquiry, be treated in this fashion, leaving only 1 per cent. to be calculated pro rata.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE, SHOWING VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF VALUES RULING IN 1900.
Year.Recorded Value.Value at Rates ruling in 1900.Index Numbers of “True” Volume of Exports.
Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.Total.Per Head.
 £     £     £     £       
190013,055,24917.1013,055,24917.1010001000
190112,690,46016.3113,885,22717.8510641044
190213,498,59916.9214,877,30218.6511401091
190314,838,19218.0915,148,50018.4711601080
190414,601,78717.2813,979,64416.541071967
190515,503,53017.8213,618,83815.651043915
190617,840,34619.9214,796,09716.521133966
190719,783,13821.5215,830,14917.2212131007
190815,894,53016.8214,554,75415.401115901
190919,462,93620.0317,886,54118.4113701077
191021,944,16322.1018,524,54018.6614191091
191118,781,89818.5116,131,86915.901236930
191221,272,40520.4717,754,86517.091360999
191322,577,89021.1317,506,32316.381341958
191425,984,71723.8319,807,86718.1715171063
191531,042,66228.2420,099,59218.2815401069
191632,975,90729.9918,681,65316.991431994
191731,087,95728.2815,567,99514.161192828
191827,937,01025.3312,401,37311.24950657
191953,304,38446.6424,826,91221.7219021270
192045,592,29438.2320,059,45916.821537984
192143,615,47335.6421,298,57317.4016311018

In order to show the effect of changes in price from year to year, and particularly in the latter years, it is interesting to construct a series of index numbers basing the figures for each year upon the prices of the previous year. In this way it is possible to compare succeeding years directly, instead of comparing each year with a given base. The method used is the same, except that the base is changed.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FOR EACH YEAR 1900–21, SHOWING VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF VALUES RULING IN THE PREVIOUS YEAR.
Year.Total Exports (Domestic Produce).Effect of Price-changes.
Recorded Value.Value at Prices of Previous Year.Gain.Loss.
 £     £     £     £     
190013,055,249..     ..     ..     
190112,690,46013,885,227..     1,194,767
190213,498,59913,597,171..     98,672
190314,838,19213,744,6651,093,527..     
190414,601,78713,693,279908,508..     
190515,503,53014,224,9241,278,606..     
190617,840,34616,843,708996,638..     
190719,783,13819,087,151695,987..     
190815,894,53018,189,260..     2,294,730
190919,462,93619,533,010..     70,074
191021,944,16320,157,1641,786,999..     
191118,781,89819,109,809..     327,911
191221,272,40520,671,508600,897..     
191322,577,89020,974,6231,603,267..     
191425,984,71725,546,190438,527..     
191531,042,66226,367,4134,675,249..     
191632,975,90728,852,7374,123,170..     
191731,087,95727,479,8363,608,121..     
191827,937,01024,764,4833,172,527..     
191953,304,38455,928,460..     2,624,076
192045,592,29443,068,4702,523,824..     
192143,615,47348,408,624..     4,793,151

The comparison of each year with the preceding year brings out the advantage gained by a rise in prices. The gain shown represents the surplus value added by rising prices to the exports of any year, and, similarly, the loss shows how falling prices penalize New Zealand. The gains due to the rise of prices in 1915 and the three following years are remarkable. The figures for the crisis years, 1908–9, for 1911, for 1919, and especially for 1921, are eloquent of what falling prices would mean for the Dominion. The recorded total of exports in 1921 would have been four and three-quarter millions greater had average prices of exports remained as in 1920.

The next table is based on June years, which, as stated previously, are preferable as giving a comparison between one season and another, and covers the four principal items of export from 1890–91 to 1920–21. Here again a huge increase in total values of exports on account of enhanced prices is very evident.

EXPORTS OF WOOL, FROZEN MEAT, BUTTER, AND CHEESE FOR YEARS ENDING 30TH JUNE, SHOWING VALUES AS ACTUALLY RECORDED AND AS ASSESSED AT THE AVERAGE PRICES OF 1890–99.
Year.Wool.Frozen Meat.Butter.Cheese.
Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890–99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890–99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890–99.Recorded Value.Value at Average Prices, 1890–99.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
1890–914,216,4193,641,7681,188,6201,136,432128,306143,79695,86693,699
1891–924,229,6833,735,4611,140,5711,103,579198,363206,47891,67083,578
1892–934,072,3423,999,3291,067,7801,018,744208,909189,97895,90392,232
1893–944,353,4154,274,7111,054,5371,022,559303,951299,575106,280100,779
1894–954,028,6514,329,7691,322,8101,337,768231,700242,471160,061163,260
1895–964,393,5744,345,4491,276,2321,243,269250,885256,159121,993137,210
1896–974,357,2444,449,2301,340,1691,344,449357,187366,728151,298159,899
1897–984,732,5425,032,1621,691,5461,831,138404,049404,127136,146142,455
1898–994,241,9844,847,2711,776,8431,804,212451,269452,348127,209126,913
1899–19004,889,1014,859,8062,298,1402,315,097693,666666,625224,238210,638
1900–13,890,5734,781,0592,193,4942,122,519858,543822,599239,325210,630
1901–23,079,2715,094,4462,526,6612,367,9311,044,317947,782171,886162,912
1902–34,034,7125,475,2773,310,0732,840,9371,211,2231,045,407186,412146,500
1903–44,313,0184,779,7452,846,0822,318,9581,445,8141,345,834194,779175,808
1904–55,468,5664,927,2852,714,0262,003,7091,417,9841,319,133180,215165,619
1905–66,605,7905,144,5592,882,3872,215,6181,540,3271,319,385300,056243,318
1906–77,415,4865,487,4273,143,7642,858,9031,631,1741,365,022568,058412,533
1907–85,649,6365,314,7793,165,0482,453,0431,133,665942,588761,100555,439
1908–95,965,2836,397,4533,775,9902,961,113l,491,8371,198,433977,358712,921
1909–107,962,6696,594,2953,631,1222,952,0411,712,6591,393,6131,275,148978,653
1910–117,164,8446,202,3353,875,3792,914,5071,685,0331,378,4741,093,715839,158
1911–126,965,4166,328,1673,671,9482,743,4771,891,2351,435,8841,496,7301,068,174
1912–138,217,6446,503,5454,315,4442,890,4242,027,8221,504,3181,914,2381,341,035
1913–148,262,1536,673,8035,079,2283,323,4332,197,6621,681,9152,317,9701,594,670
1914–159,907,6706,893,4205,737,6573,169,7062,336,8621,702,8562,277,5091,492,725
1915–1612,127,6976,247,7187,476,6373,954,7442,805,1521,668,1573,345,3141,919,876
1916–1710,628,3595,342,6686,953,9443,481,3472,767,1501,443,4103,982,0891,881,560
1917–189,519,1994,497,9836,414,4712,943,9703,232,7881,684,5374,010,8421,787,735
1918–1915,378,9237,340,7754,911,5822,221,0823,592,8751,715,7955,501,4522,319,330
1919–2013,206,0836,009,88310,027,6564,552,9922,257,1451,046,8136,930,1782,818,278
1920–218,637,5155,388,38213,999,5316,177,3118,447,1982,608,2068,376,4952,942,923
1921–2211,051,95210,500,43510,333,5364,793,9838,055,8283,877,7366,027,2862,691,800

The diagram above and those on pages 249, 250, and 251 show very plainly the tremendous divergence in recent years between the recorded and “assessed” value of these four items. A curve is added in each case showing the index number of export values, the decennium 1891–1900 being taken as the base = 1000.

The effect which war and post-war prices of products have exerted towards raising the Dominion's exports to an unprecedented height is best shown by the following comparison between the year ended 30th June, 1914, and the corresponding twelve-monthly periods ending in 1920, 1921, and 1922. On the recorded figures, exports for 1921–22 were nearly 75 per cent. higher than those for 1913–14, but the increase is seen to be due not so much to the greatly enhanced prices ruling in the latter year as to the huge rise that has taken place in the real volume of exports, which have increased by 50 per cent. over the base year. This remarkable increase in the export trade, and which has, moreover, taken place on a falling market for most items, can be readily traced to huge increases in the quantity of butter, wool, and sheep-skins shipped over last year. The table covers only fifteen principal items, which, however, represent more than nine-tenths of the total exports.

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE FOR THE TWELVE MONTHS ENDED 30TH JUNE, 1920, 1921, AND 1922, SHOWING VALUES AS RECORDED AND AS COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF PRICES RULING DURING THE YEAR ENDED 30TH JUNE, 1914.
Item.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1914.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1920.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1921.Twelve Months ended 30th June, 1922.
Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.Recorded Value.Value at 1914 Prices.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
Butter2,241,6562,257,1451,367,8118,447,1983,407,9938,055,8285,066,815
Cheese3,371,5406,930,1784,096,5738,376,4954,277,7536,027,2863,912,728
Beef, frozen829,3171,443,648917,7792,316,0851,496,869769,574739,019
Lamb, frozen1,053,1313,379,4902,522,4914,850,5423,230,7895,782,2728,797,447
Mutton, frozen1,240,7385,093,3853,221,7656,651,7714,261,5123,575,9542,788,685
Meat, preserved609,528708,702508,974471,830408,022211,870209,705
Hides454,3081,071,639355,373533,844428,147371,225432,519
Skins, rabbit80,203653,663215,001541,793186,702419,298174,039
Skins, sheep (without wool)965,4502,754,076950,7881,875,835788,013976,0072,449,075
Wool9,087,43813,206,0837,440,2178,637,5156,670,80211,051,95212,999,536
Phormium557,179656,553413,276443,624298,893269,453212,842
Tallow924,6862,155,753918,1641,499,934903,110876,433864,124
Kauri-gum172,717406,278357,659418,968280,240471,022291,005
Gold592,6241,085,4831,014,968836,911784,078547,443508,954
Timber, sawn308,760544,229296,805622,939294,610526,524249,679
        Totals22,489,27542,346,30524,597,64446,525,28427,717,53339,932,14134,696,172
Other N.Z. produce..     3,507,187..     3,375,931..     3,683,317..     
        Grand totals..     45,853,492..     49,901,215..     43,615,458..     

EXPORTS BY PORTS AND DISTRICTS.

From 1914 to 1921 the Customs Department allocated exports as far as possible to the appropriate district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or not, and no complementary figures in this connection are available to show the export trade of each individual port. From the 1st January, 1922, however, the system in force has been changed to allow of exports being credited to the final port of shipment, as was the case prior to 1914.

The export districts to which New Zealand produce and manufactures were credited during 1921 are as under:—

Auckland: Includes the counties of Mongonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Hobson, Whangarei, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata, Eden, Manukau, Raglan, Waikato, Ohinemuri, Thames, Hauraki Plains, Coromandel, Kawhia, Waipa, Great Barrier, Piako, Matamata, Rotorua, Whakatane, Franklin, Opotiki, Waitomo, Ohura, and West Taupo; but not including Kaipara exports.

Kaipara: Includes the exports through the Port of Kaipara.

Tauranga: Includes the County of Tauranga.

Gisborne: Includes the counties of Waiapu, Matakaoa, Waikohu, Uawa, and Cook.

Tokomaru Bay: Includes as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of Tokomaru Bay. Up to the end of 1920 was included in Gisborne.

New Plymouth: Includes as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of New Plymouth.

Waitara: Includes as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of Waitara.

Patea: Includes as nearly as possible the exports through the Port of Patea.

Wanganui: Includes the counties of Waitotara, Waimarino, Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina, Oroua, Kairanga, Manawatu, and Kaitieke.

Wellington: Includes the counties of Pahiatua, Akitio, Eketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Castlepoint, Wairarapa South, Featherston, Hutt, Makara, and Horowhenua.

Napier: Includes the counties of Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, East Taupo, Waipawa, Patangata, Waipukurau, Dannevirke, Woodville, and Weber.

Wairau (including Picton): Includes the counties of Awatere, Sounds, and Marlborough.

Nelson: Includes the counties of Waimea, Murchison, Takaka, and Collingwood.

Westport: Includes the County of Buller.

Greymouth: Includes the counties of Inangahua and Grey.

Hokitika: Includes the County of Westland.

Lyttelton: Includes the counties of Kaikoura, Amuri, Cheviot, Waipara, Tawera, Ashley, Kowai, Oxford, Rangiora, Eyre, Selwyn, Ellesmere, Halswell, Heathcote, Malvern, Paparua, Springs, Waimairi, Mount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa, Ashburton, and Chatham Islands.

Timaru: Includes the counties of Geraldine, Levels, Mackenzie, and Waimate.

Oamaru: Includes the County of Waitaki.

Dunedin: Includes the counties of Vincent, Maniototo, Waihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka, Bruce, and Clutha.

Invercargill: Includes the counties of Southland, Wallace, Fiord, Lake, and Stewart Island.

The system of crediting exports to the district of production was introduced in 1914 with a view to giving the smaller ports credit for goods produced in the surrounding district but shipped or railed to a larger port for overseas loading. This has not proved altogether satisfactory in practice, and, as indicated above, a reversal to the former system of crediting exports to the final port of shipment on through bill of lading to their destination abroad has been made from 1st January, 1922. No statistics are available from 1914 onwards as to the actual exports from each port, and it is thus impossible to classify ports in order of their importance as exporting ports. During the five years 1909–13, the latest for which “port” statistics were compiled, Wellington was the principal exporting port, followed by Auckland and Lyttelton in that order. Wellington is the most important transhipment port, and on that account suffered more than any other port under the district system.

A table follows giving the figures for each port for the quinquennium 1909–13, and for each district for 1917–21.

EXPORTS FROM VARIOUS PORTS OR DISTRICTS.
Port or District.Average of Five Years.
1909–13 (Ports).1917–21) Districts).
* Tauranga was not a port of export in 1909–13.
 £     £     
Auckland3,603,9248,582,916
Kaipara126,61579,495
Tauranga*63,610
Gisborne1,129,4062,136,746
New Plymouth591,4881,828,211
Waitara319,588337,447
Patea641,6881,772,191
Wanganui481,8383,131,883
Wellington4,407,9237,124,434
Napier1,735,0023,254,625
Wairau (including Picton)303,824493,874
Nelson144,211298,742
Westport56,78854,515
Greymouth385,806325,872
Hokitika28,06466,976
Lyttelton2,882,7924,874,143
Timaru1,197,4001,482,566
Oamaru199,520376,405
Dunedin1,520,5712,472,563
Invercargill1,329,4582,248,875
Parcels-post39,75582,829
                Totals21,125,60141,068,917

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS.

In 1901 a group of Pacific islands was annexed to New Zealand, and has since been administered by the Dominion. The islands are fertile and rich in tropical products, so that there is a growing trade between them and the Dominion proper. This trade is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the Dominion, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. Separate returns are made of the transactions between the Dominion and its dependent islands, and these are summarized below.

TOTAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM NEW ZEALAND TO COOK AND OTHER ANNEXED ISLANDS, 1902–21.
Year.Exports.
 £     
190222,973
190327,965
190428,644
190529,098
190635,452
190738,288
190839,284
190940,204
191060,647
191156,131
191275,774
191372,046
191459,056
191555,459
191652,831
191753,449
191879,309
191988,902
1920117,820
192182,398

The principal items exported to the islands in 1921 were,—

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS, 1921.
Class.Item.Article.Quantity.Value.
Produce of New Zealand.Other.Total.
    £     £     £     
I    1Butter116 cwt.1,515..     1,515
   11Fish, preserved in tins, &c.14,803 1b...     806806
   20Beef, salted216 cwt.638..     638
   32Meats, potted and preserved1,945 ″9,70329,705
   40Milk, dried and preserved19,856 1b.973631,036
   41Provisions n.o.e...     1,0037371,740
II  43Biscuits, ship's plain..     3,839..     3,839
   87Flour, wheaten5,438 centals5,814665,880
   96Rice, dressed391 cwt...     601601
 130Sugar, refined2,407 ″5,4831115,594
IV158Whisky202 gallons..     282282
V171Cut tobacco, manufactured3,524 1b...     1,5801,580
IXA234Apparel and ready-made clothing n.o.e...     1,7308132,543
 254Lace and laces n.o.e...     ..     363363
IXB267Drapery n.o.e...     1112,2862,397
 278Cotton piece-goods n.o.e...     ..     4,8974,897
IXC294Corn bags and sacks1,075 dozen79474553
XIVB422Hardware and ironmongery n.o.e...     1461,3331,479
 430Iron and steel, corrugated, plate and sheet182 cwt...     469469
XVIIA628Timber, sawn, dressed, kauri25,477 sup. ft.609..     609
 636Timber, sawn, dressed, white-pine27,894 ″586..     586
 639Timber, sawn, rough, other651,781 ″8,9821539,135
XVIII666Cement, building426 barrels548..     548
XXIIA765Medicinal preparations, drugs, &c...     4351,1861,621
XXIII864Matches, wooden2,976 gr. boxes..     961961
 875Soap, common bar743 cwt.1,59251,597

Further particulars regarding the trade of the Cook Islands will be found in the section of this book dealing with “Islands attached to New Zealand.”

SUBSECTION C. – IMPORTS.

METHOD OF RECORDING.

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. Prior to 1916 the import value taken was the c.i.f. or landed value in New Zealand, freight into the Dominion being thus included. For free goods and goods liable to specific duties this landed value in New Zealand was shown, but the landed value for ad valorem goods was taken as the fair market value of the goods when sold for home consumption in the principal markets of the country whence imported, and at the time when exported, plus 10 per cent. From and including the year 1916, however, the value shown for all merchandise imported is the fair market value for home consumption in the country of export at the time of exportation, plus 10 per cent.

DEVELOPMENT OF IMPORTS.

The earliest trade in New Zealand, as in most colonies, consisted more of exploitation and appropriation by visiting traders than of regular exchange. The whalers and sealers brought with them sufficient provisions to last their season, and they were never more than passing visitors to the Islands. The first genuine import trade sprang up when the Maoris became sensible of the great wealth to be won by bartering their flax for iron and other treasures of the white man. A new element was introduced when the Maori adopted the musket in preference to the old hand weapons, for the possession of firearms became a necessary precaution against the danger of extermination. Intertribal warfare was conducted on an ever-increasing scale, and muskets were the most prized of all possessions, so that when the chief Hongi returned from his visit to England in 1821 he changed all his valuable presents into firearms as soon as he reached Sydney.

With the incoming of the regular colonists, trade assumed its more modern form, and the import of firearms was quickly overshadowed by the more peaceful requirements of the settlers. It was many years before the Maori finally gave up the appeal to force in order to sustain his claims or his rights; but since the second Maori War in the “sixties” the Natives have settled more and more into European habits.

Permanent settlement in 1840 rendered necessary the continued and increasing import of clothing, metals, and manufactures to sustain the colonists and to develop the colony. For many years after the first landing imports were greatly in excess of exports, and this excess represents the import of capital which was necessary to put the young colony on a firm footing. Especially in the early years New Zealand, while supplying foodstuffs from her own resources, has been dependent upon the outside world for a great proportion of the manufactures necessary for development, and also of the luxuries and amenities of modern life.

The gold rushes brought a huge increase of population and also of imports, and reference to Subsection A of this section will show the effect of the stimulus given by the gold-discoveries. In the later “sixties” imports were declining; but the borrowing policy pursued in the “seventies” resulted once more in an increase of imports for a time. Violent fluctuations succeeded, with a general tendency to diminish until, in sympathy with the increased exports, the value of imports rapidly increased from 1895. The worst check was received in 1909, following the bad year of exports in 1908. The figures for 1917 also showed a substantial fall, largely due to shortage of shipping and restriction of exports from Europe.

The nature of the imports has changed little from the time of the first settlement in New Zealand, though new commodities have naturally been introduced, the principal groups of commodities being clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, and motor vehicles. The proportions of these imports have changed little for many years, except that motor vehicles have increased very rapidly in recent years.

The following table shows the total imports for New Zealand during the last decade:–

IMPORTS, 1912–21.
Year.Total.Per Head.
Including Specie.Excluding Specie.Including Specie.Excluding Specie.
 £     £     £s.d.£s.d.
191220,976,57420,576,579203919161
191322,288,30221,653,632201712053
191421,856,09621,144,2272001119710
191521,728,83420,658,72019152181510
191626,339,28325,045,4032319222157
191720,919,26520,742,130190818175
191824,234,00724,131,7922119521177
191930,671,69830,309,1672616926105
192061,595,82861,553,85351121151123
192142,942,44342,744,122351934186

IMPORTS BY PORTS.

The subjoined table exhibits the value of the imports received at each port in New Zealand during the five years 1917–21. The large decrease in the value of imports in 1921 as compared with the previous year is fairly evenly distributed over the various parts of the Dominion, but is very apparent in the case of the four chief ports. Kaipara and Greymouth are the only ports which show an increase.

Napier still holds the position of fifth importing port of the Dominion, closely followed by Invercargill, with Timaru, New Plymouth, and Wanganui next, in that order.

It will be observed that the number of ports participating in the direct importing trade of the Dominion is large. The four chief ports are far in advance of the rest, and amongst them the North Island ports, Auckland and Wellington, show a more rapid progress, so that now each of these two has a higher total than the whole of the South Island ports.

The imports credited to each port consist of the goods actually landed over the wharf at that port. The figures given in the following table therefore represent the actual shipping import trade of each port, though from the central ports the goods are afterwards distributed over the country either by rail or by coastal shipping:—

IMPORTS BY PORTS, 1917–21.
Ports.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Auckland6,413,4777,217,7329,567,40918,732,08214,677,394
Kaipara1,0341,3875,9551,4524,961
Tauranga6,0363,1952,9746,1776,162
Gisborne147,040141,334165,390331,414233,380
Napier401,783414,158575,4931,130,157878,581
New Plymouth194,677219,654230,089499,009463,682
Patea21,09230,36952,95277,21359,941
Wanganui248,954250,721317,007573,814461,695
Wellington6,730,5768,378,55710,626,87321,037,63913,196,788
Wairau (incl. Picton)41,72631,10143,76365,58561,038
Nelson91,89887,771110,014207,019148,715
Westport23,18032,93435,86763,69341,862
Greymouth60,43650,18377,616129,219133,986
Hokitika5,0055,7415,84610,26810,314
Lyttelton3,243,8613,781,1154,584,8229,774,2616,761,320
Timaru233,065298,863353,868717,133531,089
Oamaru78,61445,19256,630123,801109,304
Dunedin2,563,5242,842,1463,331,6557,057,8234,530,995
Invercargill413,287401,854527,4751,058,069631,246
                Totals20,919,26524,234,00730,671,69861,595,82842,942,443

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.

In 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports were compiled for the first time upon a new plan, a statistical classification being adopted which assembles the items in well-defined classes. The advantages of a stereotyped classification of this kind over an alphabetical arrangement of items are obvious. In the preparation of the classes adopted a good deal of weight has been attached to the recommendations of the Dominions Royal Commission which toured New Zealand in 1913. In a memorandum prepared for the Commission Professor A. L. Bowley submitted a scheme for uniformity of statistical work within the Empire, and suggested that New Zealand statistics should follow as closely as possible the lines laid down by Australia. The advantages of similarity of treatment in Australia and New Zealand are apparent, and in the classification of imports and exports, as in other matters, the statistics of New Zealand have been made comparable with those of Australia as far as possible.

The 1921 totals for the various classes of imports are presented below.

IMPORTS BY CLASSES, 1921.
No.Class.Value in 1981.
  £     
1Foodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)228,013
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt3,473,552
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making up the same419,980
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors987,501
VTobacco and preparations thereof1,048,633
VILive animals38,608
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured) not being foodstuffs20,548
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres520,077
IXAApparel3,494,233
IXBTextiles5,311,984
IXCManufactured fibres628,827
XOils, fats, and waxes2,948,636
XIPaints and varnishes393,648
XIIStones and minerals used industrially1,381,510
XIIISpecie198,321
XIVAMetal unmanufactured, partially manufactured, and ores538,288
XIVBMetal manufactures, other than machinery and machines6,293,609
XVMachinery and machines3,735,184
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)87,807
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof, including substitutes440,168
XVIIATimber813,816
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures203,181
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials1,113,719
XIXAPaper1,286,932
XIXBStationery864,683
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods772,633
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments445,077
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares1,082,436
XXIIBManures367,074
XXIIIMiscellaneous3,803,765
                 Total42,942,443

The decrease in value of all imports in 1921 as compared with 1920 is reflected in a large number of the classes, although some classes show minor increases, noticeably machinery and machines, wood, cane, and wicker manufactures, and stationery. The largest group of imports in 1921 was metal manufactures other than machinery and machines (Class XIVB), which occupied third place in the list in 1920. Class IXB, which was the largest group in 1920, is now second, while Class IXA has declined from second place to fourth. Class V, machinery and machines, shows an increase as compared with 1920, and has stepped into third position. Group II is rapidly assuming an important position as regards the amount contributed, the total value of goods coming under this heading amounting to £3,473,552 in 1921.

A somewhat different and more detailed system of classification, which allows of information being shown not only for groups of items but also for the principal definite items, has been adopted for the following table:—

MAIN GROUPS OF IMPORTS, 1917–21.
Group of Principal Articles Imported.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
* Includes methylated spirits, perfumed spirits, and spirits of wine.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Apparel (including hats and caps)1,346,5051,558,3851,780,8713,670,5082,122,061
Boots and shoes493,109589,642589,766l,443,879531,135
Drapery, haberdashery, linens, woollens, and other textiles2,783,2913,715,0454,251,1028,944,6254,854,881
Hosiery209,741311,356434,225704,314355,702
Silks277,962468,629504,171805,294328,960
              Totals5,110,6086,643,0577,560,13515,568,620192,739
Iron and steel (pig, wrought, wire, &c., and galvanized)681,546613,7091,762,9453,736,6672,565,108
Railway and tramway plant44,00752,214270,900342,4291,150,232
Machinery777,353702,0441,208,7392,131,6932,970,394
Sewing and knitting machines62,94665,78272,256132,995128,461
Hardware and ironmongery294,951208,158417,7431,000,793922,039
Tools and implements (including agricultural)274,654219,074519,241870,116824,109
Nails66,09258,130224,175141,521129,014
Other metals and metal manufactures708,078753,9661,174,4741,740,2031,967,083
              Totals2,909,6272,673,0775,650,47310,096,41710,656,440
Sugar1,136,722904,9571,114,0841,819,1382,066,683
Tea428,912415,244423,293959,943338,853
              Totals1,565,6341,320,2011,537,3772,779,0812,405,536
Beer17,53510,9206,49531,98011,353
Spirits*528,797868,645467,7661,321,710869,299
Wine73,33668,908112,546361,960106,849
Tobacco446,308690,9241,013,8882,013,1721,048,633
              Totals1,065,9761,639,3971,600,6952,728,8222,036,134
Paper485,300472,050672,4741,054,1021,152,777
Printed books236,267288,070324,170524,462427,318
Stationery207,789210,047302,764485,328461,339
              Totals929,356970,1671,299,4082,063,8922,041,434
Miscellaneous (specified articles)—..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
    Arms, ammunition, and explosives163,140156,017228,475971,358505,601
    Automobiles, motor-cars, and motor-cycles, and materials for1,254,6081,323,4882,244,7415,256,8092,227,030
    Bags and sacks219,955254,518326,920399,019341,370
    Bicycles and tricycles11,75514,69514,25560,26317,579
    Bicycle and tricycle fittings80,20490,192104,658259,47098,356
    Candles9,06426,23720,28846,20330,170
    Canvas94,692130,177216,924253,55190,341
    Carpeting and druggeting82,70359,307135,820495,962488,068
    Carts, carriages, and materials for41,57340,21467,318402,254149,587
    Cement7885272,21917,719106,383
    China, porcelain, earthenware, and parian ware114,261103,513159,386495,713500,067
    Coal214,152202,102382,016514,2491,321,040
    Drugs, chemicals, and druggists wares741,776994,1731,099,4541,482,1721,082,436
    Fancy goods and toys284,781292,539382,356711,266505,791
    Fish, potted and preserved104,819133,321121,599259,68262,656
    Floorcloth and oilcloth54,48229,54066,266128,39386,784
    Fruits (including fresh, preserved, bottled, and dried)493,733519,166367,7191,107,744611,271
    Furniture, cabinetware, and upholstery32,07275,41721,264167,35633,203
    Glass and glassware134,256134,921227,815604,975507,269
    Leather and leather manufactures372,051344,454405,0191,210,235412,896
    Manures328,762267,323319,620759,606367,074
    Musical instruments and materials for116,06299,692127,528302,833162,299
    Seeds294,520262,973151,065313,154204,492
    Oil943,4601,448,3181,305,0432,958,1352,804,709
    Timber160,914152,525174,666618,692813,816
    Woolpacks and wool-pockets113,926119,955198,90994,68775,505
    Total miscellaneous (specified articles)6,462,5097,275,3048,871,34319,892,00013,605,793
    Other imports (excluding specie)2,698,4203,610,5263,789,7367,425,0213,806,046
    Total imports (excluding specie)20,742,12424,131,79230,309,16761,553,85342,744,122
    Specie imported177,135102,215362,53141,975198,321
                Total imports20,919,26524,234,00730,671,69861,595,82842,942,443

It is not possible to classify imports so completely as exports. There are two big groups of items, however, which are of dominating importance, and are, moreover, fairly homogeneous. The first, “Clothing and textiles,” comprises practically all woven articles; but the second, “Metals and machinery,” is not altogether complete, since there are many items in the “Miscellaneous” group which are metal manufactures. The 'other three groups are well defined, and the value imported in each is, on the whole, steady.

The grand total of £61,595,828 shown for 1920 was easily a record, the figure being £30,924,130 in excess of, or almost double, that of the previous year. Although the figure for 1921 shows a large decrease as compared with 1920, it is still substantially larger than that for 1919, which had a higher value than any previous year. It should be remembered that part of the increase since the war is attributable to the higher prices ruling; but, nevertheless, it is evident that the effect of higher prices on imports could not account for the whole of this huge increase, but that the quantity of goods must have considerably increased. It will be observed that this increase is not confined to any one group, but is apparently spread over the whole number. Although a great many of the individual items show comparatively large increases, the most noticeable is the advance made by motor-cars and accessories. Whereas prior to 1911 the value of these never exceeded £300.000, it gradually increased until in 1920 it amounted to £5,256,809. In 1921, however, this item was valued at only £2,227,030, which is slightly lower than that recorded for 1919.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.

The import trade of the Dominion, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is yet confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States. In the days of the first settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia overshadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, tended to decrease steadily till from 60 per cent. in 1862 it had fallen to about 15 per cent., a figure which, except for a few variations, has remained fairly constant.

Most of the goods brought to New Zealand from overseas come from the United Kingdom, which in normal times supplies about 60 per cent. of the total imports. The proportion has fallen a good deal in recent years—in the “eighties” and “nineties” the figure was, on the average, nearer 70 per cent. than 60 per cent.

The cause of this decline is to be found in the development of trade with other countries in quite recent years, particularly with the United States, Japan, Canada, and in a less degree with Belgium, Italy, Sweden, and other European countries. The United States was sending goods to New Zealand practically from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent., though the proportion has now for some years been steadily climbing again, and has indeed actually surpassed its old level. In 1921 more than 18 per cent. of the imports came from the United States.

India captured the New Zealand jute-market in the early “eighties,” and since then there has been a regular import of corn-sacks, woolpacks, &c. In former times the colony imported its sugar from Mauritius, but after 1890 Fiji supplanted Mauritius, so that the imports from the Pacific islands are swelled to 4 per cent., while Mauritius practically disappears from the list of countries. Similarly the import of tea from China gave way about the same time to imports from Ceylon.

The present position is illustrated by the tables which follow. The imports of goods from the eight principal countries show a decrease over the previous year's figures, with the exception of Fiji, the figure (£1,909,102) being the highest ever recorded for that country.

IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, 1902–21.
Year.United Kingdom.Australia.Canada.India.Ceylon.Fiji.United States.Japan
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
19026,851,4521,715,29553,374286,061125,891327,9721,318,93756,087
19037,512,6682,154,96668,329252,570138,959461,9881,441,35886,192
19047,982,3401,893,036113,485276,106172,759516,5391,527,91584,629
19057,795,2841,815,71796,119297,128179,809456,6291,438,50179,260
19069,003,2292,775,312157,088290,725189,288378,0501,405,78199,653
190710,278,0193,127,553215,232370,655220,102625,6441,425,59694,298
190810,441,8372,841,426268,259345,180210,675557,7091,643,93788,211
19099,287,7862,764,210198,384367,999230,499590,2141,166,06386,865
191010,498,7712,359,393261,402399,991248,476580,0841,399,737103,113
191111,787,3002,944,991283,410326,360275,672728,8061,682,129123,248
191212,499,7872,583,887394,249395,298289,008764,7902,049,618154,587
191313,312,1932,914,848452,519421,209275,350846,4932,107,990151,106
191411,985,9463,376,371479,140486,978394,444738,7512,282,966187,501
191511,141,0673,554,535797,816527,942408,6971,128,9592,600,248304,322
191613,869,4554,002,171757,286572,257366,7531,053,7543,969,925562,974
19178,817,5133,660,931757,041612,063353,6131,203,3723,900,658628,822
19188,977,7255,133,349930,964712,633319,498939,3414,980,7481,214,865
191911,839,4305,081,9681,622,234772,838383,209980,1867,576,3141,258,016
192029,806,41610,555,6672,386,915900,577725,2781,824,01211,100,2591,470,071
192121,448,8176,486,8471,687,595593,151316,8131,909,1027,746,457593,343

The next table gives greater detail, and shows all the main countries which shipped goods to New Zealand, arranged in geographical order.

IMPORTS FROM MAIN COUNTRIES, 1917–21.
Country.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £     £     £     £     £     
United Kingdom8,817,5138,977,72511,839,43029,806,41621,448,817
    British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
    Gibraltar1524312
    Malta159240111246
 169764142248
Asia—
    Burma38,55392,56644,233121,39458,122
    Ceylon353,613319,498383,209725,278316,813
    Hong Kong20,67722,46110,25234,70718,349
    India612,063712,633772,838900,577593,151
    Sarawak and Brunei443357 2,4612,292
    Straits Settlements62,67883,69318,44280,38434,627
    Other1,50915064974315
 1,089,5361,231,3581,229,0381,874,7751,023,669
Africa—
    Egypt48,4494,39953,674107,3451,041
    South African Union56,39243,85662,628189,76734,864
    Other9850674152736
 104,93948,761117,043297,16436,641
America—
    British West Indies4,2934,4088,7088,58210,265
    Canada via East Coast438,563225,993849,7011,580,8411,086,829
    Canada via West Coast318,478704,971772,533806,074600,766
    Other2,4734,6884,300211581
 763,827940,0601,635,2422,396,7081,698,441
Pacific islands—
    Australia3,660,9315,133,3495,081,96810,555,6676,486,847
    Fiji1,203,372939,341980,1861,824,0121,909,102
    Tonga1,4093,1503,9801,0143,852
    Western Samoa16,30120,35924,11624,85511,486
    Other15416136628,62651,794
 4,882,1676,096,3606,090,61612,434,1748,459,229
        Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
    Belgium4142377285,482369,034
    Denmark66,80130,72457,91446,53571,916
    France33,73133,78341,12392,873184,470
    Germany733393235,46223,631
    Greece2 50 5,308
    Italy79,41457,53075,365277,648129,190
    Netherlands20,87323,27443871,22986,615
    Norway43,34322,6326,679102,02447,890
    Portugal7712,4681,8332,9041,215
    Russia501891181,2467,488
    Spain3,7519,5074,5651,2462,912
    Sweden99,29969,85889,819158,870197,570
    Switzerland48,97242,48248,89370,30269,284
    Other 8649,170805
 398,605292,750327,2611,124,9911,197,328
Asia—
    Asiatic Turkey7,3595,22851146,73681,540
    China70,711115,356105,970219,485136,590
    Dutch Borneo11,34818,48011,02426,35619,335
    Japan628,8221,214,8651,258,0161,470,071593,343
    Java34,490146,780240,270425,095159,772
    Philippine Islands26,38935,55032,47972,44722,946
    Sumatra87,96752,16997,141151,632236,966
    Other3,3501,0991,1393,006931
 870,4361,589,5271,746,5502,414,8281,251,423
Africa3,0504169631093,174
America—
    Argentine209806281,231632
    Brazil 1,439 6071,743
    Chile8,3603,758273,6402
    Cuba6,6051,6323,93116,1103,821
    United States of America—
        Via East Coast2,672,6401,766,1314,938,4828,161,3355,789,016
        Via West Coast1,228,0183,214,6172,637,8322,938,9241,957,441
    Other1,0883,6368,7381,591846
 3,916,9204,993,2937,589,63811,123,4387,753,501
Pacific islands—
    Hawaii3,7572,0734,32411,3841,890
    New Caledonia11,06710,17917,44022,81411,269
    Society Islands16,13713,3818,87915,0045,958
    Tuamotu Archipelago41,27137,94565,20974,01852,739
    Other8191863 
 72,24063,59795,853124,08371,868
Antarctica10    
Grand totals20,919,26524,234,00730,671,69861,595,82842,942,443

In 1914 a change was made in the system of compilation of trade statistics, and for the first time statistics of imports were obtained for countries of origin as well as countries of shipment. Before 1914 it was the practice to credit imports to the country from which the goods were shipped to the Dominion, and considerable care was taken to ensure that the original port of shipment was ascertained. But there was no means of discovering where the goods were actually produced. Importers are now required to declare the country of origin as well as the country of shipment of all goods imported. The following table permits the study of imports under both headings:—

IMPORTS FROM VARIOUS COUNTRIES IN 1921.
Country.Imports according to
Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
Value.Per Cent. of Total.Value.Per Cent. of Total.
 £      £      
United Kingdom21,448,81749.9820,832,52048.53
    British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
    Gibraltar2..     2..     
    Malta246..     573..     
 248..     575..     
Asia—
    Burma58,1220.1359,0690.14
    Ceylon316,8130.74320,1880.74
    Hong Kong18,3490.0418,5910.05
    India593,1511.38607,9261.41
    Sarawak and Brunei2,2920.012,4440.01
    Straits Settlements34,6270.0835,5240.08
    Other315..     327..     
 1,023,6692.381,044,0692.43
Africa—
    Egypt1,041..     2,2100.01
    South African Union34,8640.0884,7040.20
    Zanzibar318..     1,677..     
    Other418..     2,189..     
 36,6410.0890,7800.21
America—
    British West Indies10,2650.0317,0680.04
    Canada via East Coast1,086,8292.521,727,5034.02
    Canada via West Coast600,7661.40
    Other581..     980..     
 1,698,4413.951,745,5514.06
Pacific islands—
    Australia6,486,84715.105,460,38112.71
    Fiji1,909,1024.441,906,0384.44
    Nauru (Pleasant Island)46,1240.1146,1220.11
    Ocean Island1,271..     1,271..     
    Tonga3,8520.01101..     
    Western Samoa11,4860.0310,5850.02
    Other547..     11,6010.03
 8,459,22919.697,436,09917.31
    Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
    Belgium369,0340.86482,9271.12
    Czecho-Slovakia786..     17,6320.04
    Denmark71,9160.1786,6500.20
    France184,4700.43679,5151.58
    Germany23,6310.0625,7410.06
    Greece5.3080.016,2780.02
    Italy129,1900.30188,7930.44
    Netherlands86,6150.20143,5300.33
    Norway47,8900.1154,0560.13
    Portugal1,215..     9,9360.02
    Russia7,4880.0210,8300.03
    Spain2,9120.0129,2150.07
    Sweden197,5700.46218,5640.51
    Switzerland69,2840.16282,3260.66
    Other19..     1,022..     
 1,197,3282.792,237,0155.21
Asia—
    Asiatic Turkey81,5400.1991,5150.21
    China136,5900.32149,1440.35
    Dutch Borneo19,3350.0527,0150.06
    Japan593,3431.38603,2751.40
    Java159,7720.37160,8590.38
    Minor Dutch East Indies191..     2,0730.01
    Philippine Islands22,9460.0523,0600.05
    Sumatra236,9660.55237,0270.55
    Other740..     1,278..     
 1,251,4232.911,295,2463.01
Africa—
    Portuguese East Africa1,172..     1,172..     
    Other106..     2,0020.01
 1,278..     3,1740.01
America—
    Argentine632..     1,094..     
    Brazil1,743..     7,2030.02
    Chile2..     2,5080.01
    Cuba3,8210.014,4730.01
    Ecuador327..     1,084..     
    United States of America—
        Via East Coast5,789,01613.488,166,96719.01
        Via West Coast1,957,4414.56
    Other519..     2,4020.01
 7,753,50118.058,185,73119.06
Pacific islands—
    Hawaii1,8900.011,8890.01
    New Caledonia11,2690.0311,2600.03
    New Hebrides12..     148..     
    Society Islands5,9580.015,6470.01
    Tuamotu Archipelago52,7390.1252,7390.12
 71,8680.1771,6830.17
Grand totals42,942,443100.0042,942,443100.00

Direct shipments from the United Kingdom, it will be seen, exceeded by £616,297 the imports of goods produced in that country. In view, however, of the considerable quantity of British goods that enter New Zealand by way of Australia it would not be correct to take that figure as measuring the re-export trade done by Great Britain in goods from abroad intended for the Dominion.

Australia acts as a re-exporting centre for a certain proportion of goods received from Ceylon and India, just as Hong Kong does for Chinese goods. The British West Indies still produce considerably more of the imports than they ship direct. The 1921 figures for Canada are practically level. In the case of the United States, goods to the value of, roughly, £420,000 were imported indirectly in 1921.

The goods produced in European countries are often shipped via the United Kingdom, and, as might be expected, the total produce of these countries in every instance greatly exceeds the value shipped direct from their ports. Asiatic countries generally show similar results, Hong Kong and Australia take part of the Eastern entrepôt trade.

In the “Exports” subsection it has been shown that New Zealand is a primary-producing country—i.e., her exports consist principally of raw materials. It was also pointed out that the largest proportion of imports consisted of manufactures. The following table, grouped in the same manner as the export table referred to, illustrates this statement. Of the total imports in 1921 (£42,942,443), the United Kingdom supplied £20,832,520, or 48.53 per cent. Manufactured articles imported amounted to £33,223,422, of which the Mother-country supplied £18,267,144, or 54.98 per cent. The figures given refer to countries of origin.

Country.Food, Drink, and Tobacco.Raw Materials and Articles mainly unmanufactured.Articles wholly or mainly manufactured.Miscellaneous and Unclassified.Bullion and Specie.Total.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
United Kingdom1,570,644642,73318,267,144154,209197,79020,832,520
    British Possessions, Protectorates, &c.
Europe—
    Gibraltar..     ..     2..     ..     2
    Malta..     ..     573..     ..     573
Asia—
    Aden236..     1..     ..     237
    British North Borneo Protectorate..     ..     11..     ..     11
    Burma1,923..     57,146..     ..     59,069
    Ceylon314,5211,9443,723..     ..     320,188
    Cyprus..     ..     17..     ..     17
    Hong Kong13,7531,4403,398..     ..     18,591
    India39,0066,629553,6668,625..     607,926
    Malay States..     ..     17..     ..     17
    Sarawak and Brunei..     1522,292..     ..     2,444
    Straits Settlements30,9913,1931,3319..     35,524
    Weihaiwei..     ..     45..     ..     45
Africa—
    Anglo-Egyptian Sudan..     ..     907..     ..     907
    British East Africa Protectorate27663374100..     813
    British West Africa263..     180..     ..     443
    Egypt1,418..     792..     ..     2,210
    Northern Rhodesia..     ..     ..     20..     20
    Nyasaland Protectorate..     ..     4..     ..     4
    Seychelles..     ..     2..     ..     2
    South African Union12,52410,39459,6822,104..     84,704
    Zanzibar1,669..     8..     ..     1,677
America—
    British Guiana928454..     ..     977
    British West Indies15,851311,186..     ..     17,068
    Canada67,79490,7041,553,82715,178..     1,727,503
    Newfoundland3..     ..     ..     ..     3
Pacific—
    Australia1,167,8971,704,4812,552,50933,5721,9225,460,381
    Fiji1,905,348114576..     ..     1,906,038
    Lord Howe Island..     ..     ..     23..     23
    Nauru (Pleasant) Island..     ..     46,122..     ..     46,122
    New Zealand3,8191,6423,1912,18327711,112
    Norfolk Island1..     ..     2..     3
    Ocean Island..     ..     1,271..     ..     1,271
    Papua..     4582..     ..     460
    Pitcairn Island1..     ..     ..     ..     1
    Solomon Islands (Protectorate)..     ..     2..     ..     2
    Tonga374915..     ..     101
    Western Samoa9,3259782811..     10,585
    Foreign Countries and Possessions.
Europe—
    Austria..     ..     129..     ..     129
    Belgium1,42324,287457,19918..     482,927
    Bulgaria..     ..     35..     ..     35
    Czecho-Slovakia71..     17,53427..     17,632
    Denmark34,476..     37,55114,623..     86,650
    France99,6977,987554,74317,088..     679,515
    Germany2067625,44910..     25,741
    Greece5,52953696..     ..     6,278
    Italy13,100863174,459371..     188,793
    Luxemburg..     ..     35..     ..     35
    Netherlands67,4411,21668,9645,909..     143,530
    Norway7,6921,84944,515..     ..     54,056
    Portugal5,2644,60369..     ..     9,936
    Russia..     1309,707993..     10,830
    Servia..     ..     89..     ..     89
    Spain12,41713,5203,25127..     29,215
    Sweden8,0848,461201,084935..     218,564
    Switzerland17,42228263,8381,038..     282,326
    Turkey184..     550..     ..     734
Asia—
    Asiatic Turkey90,822318375..     ..     91,515
    China65,4203,37980,29550..     149,144
    Cochin-China53..     262..     ..     315
    Dutch Borneo..     2126,994..     ..     27,015
    Formosa60..     ..     ..     ..     60
    French Indo - Chinese Protectorate..     ..     95..     ..     95
    Japan2,436167,503432,848488..     603,275
    Java131,25528,0601,544..     ..     160,859
    Minor Dutch East Indies571401,876..     ..     2,073
    Nepal and Bhutan..     ..     2..     ..     2
    Persia5..     265..     ..     270
    Philippine Islands5,60217,1882682..     23,060
    Siam242..     17..     ..     259
    Siberia4..     273..     ..     277
    Sumatra127..     236,900..     ..     237,027
Africa—
    Abyssinia83..     ..     ..     ..     83
    Canary Islands53..     376..     ..     429
    Madagascar9748..     ..     109
    Madeira..     ..     434..     ..     434
    Morocco502..     23662..     800
    Portuguese East Africa..     1,172..     ..     ..     1,172
    Tripoli6..     141..     ..     147
America—
    Alaska115..     10..     ..     125
    Argentine17953124..     ..     1,094
    Bolivia..     ..     5..     ..     5
    Brazil5,069..     2,1322..     7,203
    Chile..     ..     2,508..     ..     2,508
    Colombia..     ..     14..     ..     14
    Costa Rica322..     ..     ..     ..     322
    Cuba4,402..     71..     ..     4,473
    Ecuador924..     160..     ..     1,084
    Mexico..     ..     104407..     511
    Nicaragua108..     ..     ..     ..     108
    Panama Canal Zone..     ..     13..     ..     13
    Peru..     ..     49..     ..     49
    Santo Domingo..     993..     ..     ..     993
    Surinam245..     ..     ..     ..     245
    United States413,621276,4417,398,64478,239228,166,967
    Uruguay14..     ..     ..     ..     14
    Venezuela..     ..     3..     ..     3
Pacific—
    Hawaii1,752..     1361..     1,889
    New Caledonia2..     11,258..     ..     11,260
    New Hebrides141..     7..     ..     148
    Society Islands2,8897202,038..     ..     5,647
    Tuamotu Archipelago..     ..     52,739..     ..     52,739
Totals6,157,6973,025,01533,223,422336,316200,01142,942,443

In order to give more detailed information concerning the trade of New Zealand with other countries the following tables have been compiled, giving for each of the last three years the main items of import from all the principal countries with which New Zealand trades. The information is shown both according to country of shipment and for country of origin.

Account has been taken only of those items of a minimum total value of approximately £10,000, so that the tables are not made too voluminous by the additions of great numbers of small items. The full details will be found in the Report on Trade and Shipping for the year 1921.

PRINCIPAL IMPORTS.
Class.Item.Article.Country of Shipment.Country of Origin.
1919.1920.1921.1919.1920.1921.
United Kingdom.
   £     £     £     £     £     £     
I11Fish preserved in tins, &c.7,50847,31313,4216,96938,33112,522
 41Provisions n.o.e.26,79157,84213,13515,68248,99213,094
II46Cocoa-butter, &c.2644,32428,1988144,44419,879
  Chocolate confectionery—
 48    In fancy packages10,739135,82625,70411,390124,60424,226
 49    In plain trade packages1,89931,2616,8861,92831,7446,709
 52Confectionery unenumerated12,55443,43821,14213,22441,68020,697
 88Maizena and cornflour1,43743,61118,0841,43143,61118,084
 102Infants' and invalids' foods n.o.e.6,63124,06311,9957,47924,06512,117
 107Mustard14,89843,87533,74614,89943,87533,746
  Nuts, edible—
 108    Almonds8,91234,4353,270220461594
 111    Other3,34110,1485,69925510927
 112Oilmen's stores n.o.e.10,14048,55010,4839,83645,88510,193
 117Sauces and chutneys6,99425,8614,2286,97725,8874,480
  Salt—
 121    In retail packages2,78310,2381,4902,78310,2381,490
 122    Other30,30079,41667,16830,30079,41667,168
III139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed1,59410,8573,095..     ..     ..     
 140Cocoa and chocolate82,968102,31818,33679,48985,70314,015
IV151Ale, porter, and beer6,21131,04411,1976,21631,07711,197
  Spirits (beverages)—
 154    Brandy19,12578,15625,4555626..     
 155    Gin, geneva, and schnapps33,84496,09921,02215,51445,87012,179
 156    Rum3,30718,5306,3572,0227,0753,027
 158    Whisky273,546805,754621,483296,390876,890675,889
  Spirits (other than beverages)—
 160    Flavouring-essences18,35929,02718,05818,90029,75218,836
 163    Perfumed spirits11,98742,67822,2959,40835,57812,461
  Wine, fermented—
 166    Sparkling16,29091,2368,011418181..     
 167    Still8,19461,93714,3395,68917,54810,380
V168Cigarettes369,255949,945254,975369,114950,393254,972
 169Cigars5,79216,3966,6544,94013,6944,960
 171Tobacco, manufactured, but30,890270,986249,199133,182272,758249,280
VII190Glue and size4,31810,5693,2144,16210,1922,948
VIII209Cork, but14,74252,84630,7017,00929,52117,272
 211Engineers' waste8,30314,34410,4938,30314,46510,551
  Seeds—
 223    Grass and clover7,47789,57141,4343,63938,32725,797
 225    Other88,109111,00765,34687,545106,41264,242
  Tanning-materials (crude)—
 230    Undefined17,25834,15522,27617,35333,58322,204
 233Yarns undefined21,27896,81489,33021,552101,03792,301
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.878,3292,001,5311,183,087864,1791,964,6671,146,525
  Boots and shoes—
 236    Children's (Nos. 0–6)1,6036,0838,6121,7136,2668,724
 238    Cork and sock soles: moulded rubber soles3,60728,7533,7143,57728,6683,562
 239    Goloshes and overshoes of rubber: gymnasium, &c.14,30020,27622,18114,72520,36122,138
 240    Grindery n.o.e.45,67286,71648,91946,14286,87148,114
 243    Vamps, uppers, and laces4,66819,63417,7484,52215,77116,439
 244    Other21,547105,474154,48523,150107,991154,572
 245Corsets34,210104,64369,06034,198104,64365,885
 246Furs and fur-trimmings41,71754,83836,68241,60952,67934,280
 247Gloves n.o.e.53,111135,74851,33425,56074,92433,777
  Haberdashery—
 248    Brace-elastic and brace-mountings, &c.4,09514,7328,2154,01914,7327,102
 249    Buttons, tapes, &c.472963,22448,90646,82754,12042,062
 250    N.o.e.33,40168,22360,14231,50364,90958,280
 251Hats and caps87,033173,562123,18777,081161,801117,382
 252Hatmakers' material51,597118,13494,84342,98784,71170,517
 253Hosiery226,382491,353266,882228,837489,070263,563
 254Lace and laces n.o.e.44,15791,18737,63132,36866,95126,708
 257Millinery unenumerated74,410186,467110,33563,445186,46787,269
 258Minor articles n.o.e. for making up apparel, &c.16,55740,08226,15912,23324,35721,261
 259Ribbons and crape103,241117,59898,9223,2276,4082,962
 260Tailors' trimmings110,143191,941124,587112,724191,637125,266
 262Umbrellas, material for making9,91917,49810,99410,26817,97910,888
IXB263Articles n.o.e., partly or wholly made up from textiles52,538107,02369,89049,468100,43263,296
 264Blankets, woollen1312,32718,2051312,24718,141
IXB266Carpets, carpeting, and floorcloth72,258359,076437,65177,848357,294429,715
 267Drapery n.o.e.160,787430,220255,789130,399356,417255,789
 270Matting n.o.e. and mats5,42026,17828,5566,34725,97228,468
 271Oilcloths, linoleum, and stair oil-baize27,27575,81881,36027,54875,69181,359
  Piece-goods—
 274    Canvas, sailcloth, &c.122,725203,59076,695124,385208,43378,034
      Cotton—
 275        Butter and cheese cloth1,95955,11647,15621,98954,75447,316
 276        Candle-wick14,69620,69517,55914,69621,09817,559
 277        Tubular woven, for meat-wraps25,289219,566155,05425,289253,985160,462
 278        N.o.e.1,828,7843,171,3361,803,0571,886,5403,236,6161,776,881
 279    Hessian n.o.e. and scrim50,879122,67570,77551,204123,37972,027
 281    Linen37,44690,58069,38240,12894,07770,711
 283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.112,903395,120118,44548,251116,38245,251
 285    Waterproof cloth9,61347,2207,3759,61347,3767,773
 286    Woollen n.o.e. of pure or mixed wool470,8652,358,7691,117,505503,0352,335,7971,111,685
 287    N.o.e.9,23034,4527,6518,61131,2757,085
  Rugs—
 288    Woollen1,11629,11231,9601,16527,14830,767
 289    Other1,92623,01111,3422,14223,05611,130
 290Sewing silks and cotton158,125240,091204,816160,547244,140207,005
IXC..     Cordage and rope—
 300    Iron and steel88,450122,91479,42189,444131,48185,220
 301    N.o.e.27,44142,71325,76627,68243,41025,983
  Twine—
 307    Net-makers'3,69611,2508,4823,69611,4258,467
 309    Other83,88172,10456,17684,41772,75856,263
  Oils (not essential), in bulk—
X325    Mineral lubricating oil2,87120,39811,0392,44217,97810,140
 338Oils (not essential) in vessels less than 1 gallon5,25921,8524,4915,30120,8174,337
 343Paraffin24117,17710,08424112,55110,079
  Paints and colours—
XI348    Ground in oil2,170161,411117,46928,414151,446116,985
 350    Other30,50093,56067,91931,53090,54167,294
 351    Unenumerated11,39229,26423,97011,46628,86122,396
 354Varnishes, lacquers, and gold-size10,82726,48519,26711,94226,82819,274
  Stone—
XII371    N.e.i. (not including slates for billiard-tables)5,23312,00312,9805,95712,33113,177
XIII375Silver336,81029,450180,030344,28531,050185,830
  Iron and steel—
XIVA388    Bar, bolt, and rod60,042203,715214,18262,1030,247210,784
 391    Pig10,06558,42721,86310,06558,57020,454
XIVB408Bolts and nuts46,63396,99396,91946,69797,29187,191
 414Chains and chain cables16,85332,43530,94916,92082,59331,115
 416Copper, plate and sheet, plain10,27524,18756,76910,27525,06257,099
 417Cutlery (including table forks and spoons)46,057113,57381,87446,082114,89982,750
 422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery n.o.e.163,035587,250595,394163,876597,267597,463
  Iron and steel—
 423    Angle and tee28,38841,19819,42729,63541,39719,400
 424    Channel and girders21,57953,12570,16822,25054,60569,822
 426    Hoop, black, n.o.e.56,47063,18943,49056,47063,53643,477
 430    Corrugated, galvanized236,358962,738265,410236,358973,429269,859
 431    Plain black49,581138,754123,06349,631140,915122,793
 432    Plain galvanized tubes, &c.88,307203,517100,60588,307205,923102,729
 436    Wrought tubes and pipes, 6 in. and under in Internal diameter103,025312,696352,154106,048318,281356,040
  Lamps (not electric), lanterns, and lamp wick—
 439    Gas-mantles8,6357,7033,9798,6688,0463,979
 441    Other15,07631,83919,14115,10531,61718,765
  Meters—
 447    Electricity4,10822,05438,5423,00819,92986,554
 448    Gas3,13919,09112,7913,13919,22912,903
  Nails—
 455Other, including dog-spikes49,64530,09920,99249,48929,57420,730
XIVB456Plate and plated ware43,061167,294157,38044,074170,316159,224
  Railway and tramway plant n.o.e.—
 461    Rails121,33793,580215,874121,91496,261219,275
 463    Other99,04166,226186,84099,10667,714187,054
 465Rivets and washers12,29335,12429,09712,15735,24528,468
 472Tanks and cisterns3,18217,89612,0513,27818,06512,051
 473Telephones and accessories therefor n.o.e.14,67627,58331,64914,04727,70532,573
  Tinware and tin manufactures—
 474    Tinned sheets and plates, plain353,17650,858158,535355,523170,714169,847
 475    Tinsmiths' furniture2,39810,0136,7542,39810,0137,199
 476    Other20,15154,15051,82720,16354,41152,115
  Tools and implements—
 481    Spades, shovels, and forks13,99531,77133,13213,99531,79133,196
 482    Other58,838220,896138,42958,706219,558138,731
  Wire—
 484    Bare copper32,59697,718208,82532,80395,271181,300
 485    Fencing, barbed11,84467,91723,00911,84462,38322,698
 486    Fencing, plain22,025141,53672,69422,334136,87371,488
 488    N.o.e.4,34413,68622,5284,16114,68522,770
 489    Netting16,633174,48750,59616,633178,26550,858
 490    Wove wire; expanded-metal fencing; electric - welded fencing4,08820,9498,1864,10821,0578,203
 491    Other, plain; metal cordage, not gold, iron, or silver6,30211,5207,5976,53911,7667,887
  Metal manufactures—
 494    Other (free)—viz., bellows-nails, &c.25,32556,31155,77625,61558,28856,617
 495    N.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)75,030230,278251,74177,344239,236258,379
  Agricultural implements—
XV511    Other, including materials for and parts of40,51064,13548,53641,71669,38048,555
  Electrical machinery, &c.—
 524    Electric batteries and cells6,33914,35430,6046,26314,59430,702
 525    Generators, motors, and transformers33,044100,321201,43933,667102,739203,216
 526    Insulated cable and wire67,933234,801401,99669,959236,620406,098
 527    Lamps36,92347,16147,55916,21933,68137,609
 529    N.o.e.40,540109,527166,58941,115111,682169,466
  Engines—
 531    Gas, oil, and hot-air—
          For motor-cars, motorcycles, and flying - machines50026,82925750025,014257
 532        Other31,84761,21887,18432,10261,92487,118
 537Steam boilers for (500 i.h.p. and under) feed - water heaters, &c.7,52727,91722,3317,52727,91725,477
 540Flying-machines..     49,8575,785..     49,8575,785
  Mining, engines for—
 551    Capstan and winding11,373..     2,04411,3732652,539
 553    Unenumerated7,18416,45122,3857,59420,40322,578
 557Printing machines and presses1,70014,90125,7892,43917,37725,711
 559Road-rollers and road-graders3,25410,69211,4943,25410,69211,494
 560Sewing-machines2,65596,50280,5343,19390,08978,692
 561Tools—Engineers' and metal, wood, glass, and stone workers'9,70473,715100,08011,82876,665102,072
  Woollen-mill machinery—
 567    Unenumerated30,90232,98397,03431,06133,15196,636
 570    N.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)35,26891,794157,66637,989107,048166,366
  Machinery and machines—
 571Materials for and parts of30,03666,43255,19130,06866,63353,761
 572
  Indiarubber and manufactures thereof—
XVLA573    Hose, tubing and piping10,04014,35413,75710,06614,54913,821
XVIB579Belting, other than leather49,29588,41763,80549,92888,84865,696
 592Sole, pump, and skirt leather6,312186,20735,5727,067182,93835,572
 597Portmanteaux, trunks, and carpet-bags1,28710,7145,4571,44610,7535,745
  Saddlery and harness—
XVIB598    Collar-check25,76032,68127,15325,76032,68127,153
 600    Saddlers' ironmongery and other material21,45555,80330,16121,50855,87630,174
 602    N.o.e. (including whips)13,313191,65624,74213,357191,97924,670
 603Unenumerated manufactures of leather4,58814,2028,1174,92314,4127,650
  Furniture, cabinetware, and upholstery—
XVIIB650    Billiard-tables and requisites5,33512,2784,3394,82110,1993,777
 651    Materials for—viz., blind webbing and tape, &c.10,96025,16017,16311,07625,88417,156
 653    N.o.e.5,37110,66111,2375,13110,80010,801
 661Woodenware and turnery n.o.e.4,06424,76710,9633,12223,45310,020
XVIII667China, porcelain, and parian ware25,15368,74490,66325,46972,06789,935
 669Earthenware n.o.e.48,902196,617257,21050,493201,869260,560
  Glass and glassware—
 671    Bottles, plain, empty4,22511,09821,2064,73613,26621,062
 673    Crown, sheet, and common window12,39569,46053,86813,00760,35044,651
 674    Glassware n.o.e.6,43924,06436,5616,58815,21623,726
 678    Other16,30425,22927,02517,22825,23823,958
 682Flooring, wall, hearth, and garden tiles n.o.e.14,09437,64059,79514,08937,43260,130
  Paper—
XIXA686    Bookbinders' materials4,93012,26117,6395,27013,14917,904
 689    Cardboard boxes, materials for, other5,98228,40531,3175,05522,34426,840
 692    Paperhanging10,02569,15947,64510,66668,88347,816
 693    Printing25,585173,609178,99125,922174,122178,464
 695    Writing (not less than “demy”)25,200125,390176,66426,840126,995175,489
  Stationery—
XIXB697    Artists' materials10,22216,03916,13310,09815,79415,618
 698    Books, papers, and music, printed, n.o.e.195,519358,965296,449217,719390,082315,686
 703    Handbills, circulars, and programmes; printed advertising matter n.o.e., &c.10,14118,79220,19310,43019,10020,599
 706    Manufactured n.o.e.40,13071,20368,92641,56574,19871,050
 709    Pictures, paintings, and photographs, n.o.e.8,15313,81310,0148,25313,65510,398
 711    N.o.e.55,233128,644134,16253,870124,590127,936
XX712Fancy goods76,989240,401161,92667,935213,276135,863
  Jewellery—
 714    Precious stones, unmounted82,18492,40171,60568,03492,91372,457
 715    Other27,99269,77939,44728,60670,57637,199
 716Sporting, gaming, and athletic requisites, &c.26,98886,70992,31926,74084,82792,016
 719Watches16,22630,61416,3596042,4453,750
 721Tobacco-pipes and cases, cigarette-papers, &c.47,305100,45771,95014,75158,46645,463
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films6,61810,43717,5976,6369,79618,519
  Photographic materials—
 730    Sensitized surfaces and albuminized paper23,97539,34627,73324,65939,50428,790
 732Scientific instruments n.o.e.6,86218,63614,9316,86119,07916,752
 733Surgical and dental instruments49,74683,32347,02444,44779,34049,378
  Drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares—
XXIIA741    Tartaric acid7,64032,13710,88511,87930,64311,831
 750    Chemicals and chemical preparations8,24510,50411,7129,18611,72212,448
 751    Cream of tartar9,38847,9574,7041,4995,023857
 752    Cyanide of potassium and of sodium23,26620,23029,36823,85120,37030,505
 753    Dyes22,38231,47834,61833,52446,41947,836
 757    Disinfectants13,07532,04617,09813,41331,64617,409
 761    Sheep-dip100,20379,60040,348100,42279,67542,789
 765    Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries, n.o.e., &c.131,462215,862151,074141,520227,104168,287
 768    Oils, essential (non-spirituous), n.e.i.9,54016,9619,1875,3808,4064,155
XXIIA772    Toilet preparations34,99175,21058,26429,94729,63847,749
  Soda—
 780        Ash7,2078,8467,3007,7318,9237,300
 781        Bicarbonate and carbonate10,5128,43110,19910,6928,46410,253
 782        Caustic40,19039,11514,76042,66139,18115,216
 791    Other3,56810,52711,0293,50610,37510,973
  Manures—
XXIIB792    Ammonia, sulphate of..     11,5222,806..     11,5222,806
 798    Basic slag and Thomas's phosphate14,17345,6475,82414,17345,6475,824
  Arms, ammunition, and explosives—
XXIII815    Cartridges, shot, 10–24 bore9,53353,63417,8589,62454,04017,858
 818    Detonators8,2315814,06710,1162,8184,067
 821    Explosives n.o.e.15,2306682,09115,3116682,091
 824    Firearms undefined1,91338,943226,4202,13638,559224,641
 831    Gelignite54,0561,249..     54,4961,249..     
 833    Lithofracteur, cordite, &c.2,02114,0339,2562,02114,0339,256
 834    Ordnance stores8,976709,872184,7218,976709,927184,727
 835    Blasting-powder13,70212,39515,44817,07914,08615,448
 838Articles and materials suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication or repair of goods within the Dominion, n.o.e.13,21439,83736,75112,56433,63135,396
  Asbestos—
 839    Sheets, slates, and tiles15,78337,19021,70515,81636,08519,258
 842Blue, laundry12,87333,00414,82312,89833,00414,823
 847Brushes, brushware, and brooms20,09671,36955,10318,21868,15152,289
 848Brushmakers' materials4,30517,56710,0372,1243,8395,275
 849Candles2,14819,92524,5982,14720,28224,600
 850Combs, hair and toilet3,4805,7824,0862,9494,3573,524
 853Educational apparatus and materials n.o.e.6,70414,71420,6906,86914,71620,456
  Instruments, musical—
 859    Pianos (including player-pianos and automatic pianos)22,86942,57235,52022,86242,47536,233
 861    Records for pianolas, graphophones, &c.9,24943,78516,43912,74850,20621,664
 862    Other3,03023,50818,3022,20515,27111,137
 863Wax matches and vestas3,16826,27734,3847,77327,00433,852
 867Packing, engine12,83919,50417,49413,49523,16818,017
  Polishes and dressings—
 871    Blacklead (including stove-polish)3,49713,37310,9783,49713,37310,978
 872    Brass and similar metal polishes3,07112,9686,6453,07112,9676,645
  Soap—
 876    Powder, dry, soft, and liquid2,93717,1429,0753,15117,5629,168
 877    N.o.e.27,87860,65011,67028,29061,43711,668
 882Bicycles and tricycles3,15440,26410,0013,40740,33310,336
  Bicycles and tricycles Materials and parts—
 883    Rubber tires, covers, and tubes15,79155,72722,26614,71148,02221,143
 885    N.o.e.25,29196,65232,19025,39397,18732,744
 886Motor bicycles and tricycles20,60566,24726,31120,48266,25026,331
  Motor bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 887    Rubber tires, covers, and tubes5,64027,83218,5135,64025,81217,611
 889    N.o.e.3,87314,2648,3583,90314,2348,421
 893Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles electrically driven by storage batteries50,455457,214441,59549,531445,179414,493
 895    Materials and parts—viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes135,187302,131160,71576,907208,192104,929
 899    Axles, axle-arms, and axle-boxes14,97128,00974,27014,98328,03174,160
 900    Springs, &c.; rubber tires n.o.e.10,20716,21018,60210,30316,21218,582
  Miscellaneous—
 902    Manufactured12,05823,54320,11511,83123,76920,443
Canada.
I11Fish, preserved in tins, &c.101,766118,20030,143102,363118,35330,965
  Confectionery—
II48    Chocolate confectionery, in fancy packages3,61227,0986,4523,61227,0986,452
 52    Unenumerated2,49514,8191,9142,53614,8231,918
  Fresh fruits—
 67    Apples15,8528,29313,13315,8528,29313,133
IV158Whisky37,1514081,65836,9755,2665,948
VIII223Grass and clover seeds5393,04210,1515391,54210,656
 231Wood-pulp8,06611,3643,4868,06611,3643,486
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.41,87093,51459,85042,20093,83060,133
 239Goloshes and overshoes of rubber16,21219,37618,84816,21220,15723,280
 241Gum boots10,3799,84211,84410,3819,84212,222
 245Corsets26,35045,38751,05726,35045,38751,522
 246Furs and fur-trimmings5,45523,9509,3245,50725,0389,324
 253Hosiery10,17936,57622,90510,18536,54623,153
  Paints and colours—
XI348    Ground in oil7,78944,2882,1297,78944,2882,129
 350    Other3,27920,1703,1414,02320,6313,162
  Iron and steel—
XIVA388    Bar, bolt, and rod21,40145,99916,52521,68646,26016,535
XIVB418Fencing-staples13,69010,1427,95313,69010,1427,953
 422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery, n.o.e.242,54122,28628,79424,25522,63928,736
  Iron and steel, plate and sheet—
 431    Plain black2,4677,91011,7212,5597,92111,850
 436Wrought tubes, &c., 6 in. and under in Internal diameter128,27040,866148,530132,46754,619153,731
  Nails—
 455    Other, including dog-spikes74,66038,23919,18574,66038,23919,230
 486Plain fencing-wire53,25226,8588,46054,83226,8588,480
 495Metal manufactures n.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)7,12610,3478,0357,32710,3588,103
  Agricultural implements—
XV511    Other, including material for and parts of11,83119,48318,80713,19522,18619,177
  Electrical machinery—
 526    Insulated cable and wire1210,6511,8751211,6751,875
  Leather—
XVIB589    Japanned and enamelled7,36020,79817,1347,36021,41911,774
 592    Sole, pump, and skirt11,43411,47859011,43411,4782,590
XVIIB649Doors and sashes1,69314,4538,9141,69314,4538,914
 653Furniture n.o.e.4,24018,7174,5704,23918,6654,485
 661Woodenware and turnery n.o.e.10,64334,11013,09110,80736,25812,534
  Paper—
XIXA687    Butter-paper7959,8521,07291310,0891,072
 689    Cardboard boxes, materials for2,60620,19911,0072,60620,21711,007
 692    Paperhangings17,54548,06355,45817,80148,58655,458
 693    Printing215,857333,793370,460217,267336,540371,269
 694    Wrapping, unprinted32,59452,77569,42634,95153,24570,265
 695    Writing-paper (not less than “demy”)28,13821,11221,82728,92821,12422,429
XXIIA748Calcium carbide15,7867,4757,37115,7867,5067,371
XXIII859Pianos4,55129,8787,9234,55129,8788,060
 882Bicycles and tricycles7,02113,4112,1386,86813,3912,138
 893Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles, motor301,351519,477151,856300,910519,782151,980
  Materials and parts of vehicles, motors, &c.—
 895    Rubber tires, covers, and tubes126,699254,88751,691131,433266,94564,969
 895A    Other15,88344,15536,56115,88346,58336,561
British West Indies.
II139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed5,8704,3206,1095,99210,1217,198
IV156Rum4554951,1051,74012,2933,992
South African Union.
IV167Wine, fermented: Still30,55275,60110,08331,71576,62410,648
VIII229Bark10,4867,5975,09922,30315,4485,329
XX714Precious stones, unmounted..     56,9645,80587,414110,89054,797
XXIII831Gelignite5,4508,65525,45014,6302
Burma.
II96Rice, dressed3,39815,4691,2254,3215,7931,451
X343Paraffin wax24,14975,03946,10426,44476,64446,104
XIII849Candles14,68718,1915,45914,68718,1915,459
Ceylon.
II47Coconut, desiccated10,63238,39910,73711,45638,82110,752
III139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed9,7419,2184,7969,7419,2184,796
 149Tea, in bulk665,125357,166295,673667,348360,571298,225
Hong Kong.
II103Jams, &c.4,66014,51811,2804,66414,57111,302
Straits Settlements.
II119Sago and tapioca6,43544,26716,9406,43546,97417,34
 124Unground spices n.o.e.7,90427,6956,0158,46427,8156,054
India.
III143Coffee, raw5,7698,9994,1456,8159,1074,603
 149Tea, in bulk25,36093,93225,52925,63393,93225,736
VIII214Kapok42522,5164,04742522,5164,047
 225Seeds, other than grass or clover74914,775..     1,39415,792..     
IXB266Carpets, carpeting, and floorcloth n.o.e.19,37143,92726,21720,81345,91826,586
  Bagging and sacking—
 272    Hessian and jute17,03010,2605,64117,03015,0065,715
  Cotton piece-goods—
 279    Hessian n.o.e. and scrim68,236117,71247,65169,151125,43652,477
  Bags and sacks—
IXC294    Corn255,458210,958254,088255,458212,869259,684
 295    Jute and hessian n.o.e.66,823156,79774,73566,838166,17274,829
 296    Woolpacks197,03892,07975,505197,03893,73675,505
  Oils (not essential), in bulk: Vegetable—
X329    Castor3,15220,1739,0773,29320,3599,077
 332    Linseed47,97217,6732,03248,16517,9102,032
XXIIB800Bonedust15,4529,93021,47515,4529,93021,475
Australia.
I7Liquid white and yolk of eggs7,16913,3572,6947,16913,3572,694
 11Fish, preserved in tins, &c.2,01519,4091,336..     24
 40Milk and cream, preserved condensed, or evaporated (other than dried)27,49439,3351,38727,34039,3361,387
 41Provisions n.o.e.22,41327,1667,25818,64822,5507,085
II44Biscuits, other than ship's plain4,13911,2987,8124,13911,2457,797
 46Cocoa-butter, &c.28,39928,92611,88923,57526,57811,653
  Confectionery—
 48    Chocolate confectionery, in fancy packages12,88330,80510,07510,91630,1429,044
 49    Chocolate confectionery, in plain trade packages5,38236,4759,8715,26535,6739,837
 52    Unenumerated42,392101,47736,48240,533100,79534,793
 58Foods for animals n.o.e.10,01714,5904,2399,86210,3653,797
  Fruits—
 59    Bottled and preserved in syrup12,562138,01127,49011,438135,95127,492
      Dried—
 61        Currants35,770116,0645,77435,770116,0645,664
 62        Dates1,32949,574697..     ..     ..     
 65        Raisins30,183254,86388,71430,038254,86388,689
      Fresh—
 72        Oranges15,18036,83346,76015,18036,81646,760
 75        Other11,35450,29644,32911,35450,29644,329
  Grain and pulse—
      Unprepared—
II78        Barley39,67988,13283939,67988,132839
 80        Maize1,95620,58421,0111,95620,58421,011
 81        Oats4,73221,71111,9094,73221,71111,909
 83        Wheat397,403585,54394,957397,403585,54294,957
      Prepared or manufactured—
 88        Maizena and cornflour16,8086,4581,23316,8086,4581,233
 92        Malt, other2,10923,6421,6992,04823,6421,699
 96        Rice, dressed47,27664,62134,79112,40854,15434,356
 103Jams, &c.2,24318,6412,1181,98718,4841,967
 105Macaroni and vermicelli6,31514,4457,0506,28414,2686,890
 108Almonds8,42214,5131467,1904,291..     
 113Peel, candied, drained, or dried9,40927,3581,8799,40927,2361,879
 122Salt, in bulk53,26953,77124,66551,63153,31724,665
 125Glucose18,53223,1244,56418,16122,8083,843
 130Refined sugar5,59517,021163,3905,59517,021163,390
 134Onions15,31920,24015,10315,19420,24015,103
III140Cocoa and chocolate31,99537,1888,20812,02122,7857,171
 142Coffee-essence4,30211,2252,3764,30211,2042,356
IV154Brandy5,97010,5745,0382,1244,7833,405
 158Whisky25,00594,54163,0192,33018,4484,323
IV164Spirits of wine9,42613,5357,83811,9609,1847,699
  Wine, fermented—
 166    Sparkling6,37913,4275,3777721,2212,922
 167    Still48,368106,76862,44726,17936,05150,165
  Tobacco—
V171    Manufactured, cut170,368232,611240,353128,901163,092240,271
 172    Manufactured, other98,423155,55998,91753,40293,62298,917
VI176Horses, ordinary8,11425,9945,8413,0946,7325,341
VIII209Cork, cut8,13011,3195,1562,0502,0023,174
  Seeds—
 223    Grass and clover12,16534,3245,88516,9269,2035,048
 225    Other7,58512,7095,3485,9296,2384,828
  Tanning-materials, crude—
 229    Bark20,80652,31032,94631,4218,30132,716
 230    Other12,01313,5691,2823,9437,732718
IXA234Apparel and ready-made clothing n.o.e.75,754221,275119,22023,00057,28885,912
  Boots and shoes—
 236    Children's (Nos. 0–6)26,42450,7008,31815,16025,8418,198
 240    Grindery n.o.e.25,26547,77529,26428,10720,47627,813
 244    Other273,727883,482127,528182,977271,542126,069
 246Furs and fur-trimmings10,97928,0979,5681,37610,3549,434
 249Buttons, tapes, &c.6,91116,6276,5861,0231,4991,519
 251Hats and caps37,926121,72815,65410,76635,48014,393
 252Hatmakers' materials8,70338,9655,2255,4735,6003,917
 253Hosiery18,15134,73221,1121594,93112,774
 254Lace and laces n.o.e.4,95812,2212,13836120537
 257Millinery unenumerated8,77828,41917,8566,4497,56216,590
IXB267Drapery n.o.e.9,85020,0355,9061,7343,1591,987
  Piece-goods—
 274    Canvas, sailcloth, &c.5,78410,0502,1251,6562,862665
      Cotton—
 277        Tubular woven, for meat-wraps..     34,4195,408..     ..     ..     
 278        N.o.e.94,324168,94543,5578,45016,5413,927
 283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.32,68021,5014,35711550074
 285    Waterproof cloth5,18011,7331,4611,5335,0981,062
 286    Woollen n.o.e. of pure or mixed wool50,23742,05617,75273915,2001,021
  Bags and sacks—
 295    Jute and hessian n.o.e.3,47615,5566,2632963,1676,110
  Cordage and rope—
 300    Iron and steel4,83510,1828,2902232852,474
  Oils (not essential), in bulk—
      Mineral—
X325        Lubricating34,08365,8766,3149,9114,45117,163
      Vegetable—
 330        Coconut4,73417,0476921,0643,755692
 332        Linseed20,30966,19847912,05519,996479
 334        Turpentine3,82512,881795848148
 336        Other13,70910,9845,5503,9896,7474,420
 339Stearine13,19118,86517,19316,93213,18517,193
  Paints and colours—
XI348    Ground in oil46,26554,28729,94422,34144,40229,731
 350    Other40,609144,90343,50833,18137,46142,044
XI354Varnishes, lacquers, and gold-size13,81930,61212,96410,23812,55112,607
  Coal—
XII358    Cargo325,739493,401814,237202,102325,739814,237
XIII375Silver specie17,5751,8003,358..     10,100858
  Iron and steel—
XIVA388    Bar, bolt, and rod26,680140,919125,57412,74423,653121,154
 393Lead, pig and bar14,12349,36616,75315,01314,12316,753
 402Tin, ingot48,43989,47725,20074,99547,28125,104
XIVB408Bolts and nuts11,69216,78712,6337,93410,85811,844
 422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery n.o.e.23,16770,90836,35815,46311,79528,437
  Iron and steel—
 423    Angle and tee3,49811,5294,82891810,7274,718
      Plate and sheet—
 430        Corrugated, galvanized6,19627,4334,844..     ..     346
      Tubes, pipes, and fittings—
 434        Cast: 9 in. and under in internal diameter11,06137,67536,35910,31335,67135,404
 436        Wrought: 6in. and under in internal diameter13,58631,33623,8275,65610,33813,539
 443Lead, sheet22,45637,03024,96021,68237,11424,872
  Nails—
 455    Other, including dog-spikes5,55037,86113,3413,58037,09312,697
  Railway and tramway plant n.o.e.—
 461    Rails14,067108,554161,87213,332104,979158,471
 463    Other15,80110,95039,64115,3939,18839,239
  Wire—
 486    Fencing plain5,42554,49214,3731,69745,77813,556
      Iron—
 488        N.o.e.1,30418,3876,11477416,6735,444
 48        Netting6,68422,8061,1066,68419,028817
 494Other metal manufactures (free), viz.: Bellows-nails, &c.10,79718,59111,8762,9007,1033,160
 495N.o.e. metal manufactures (20 per cent. ad val.)21,90983,28172,71316,77665,28759,080
  Machinery and machines—
      Agricultural implements—
XV511        Other, including material for and parts of11,17516,3126,9606,9077,3596,179
      Dairying machines—
 522        Other2,07041,39936,34419,13939,60734,224
      Electrical—
 525        Generators, motors, and transformers7,08115,62910,0773882,499984
 526        Insulated cable and wire11,39117,05726,9883,2869,32321,577
 529        N.o.e.11,43417,67120,0275,0488,81312,127
      Mining machinery—
 553        Unenumerated4,00911,1053,7773,4116,7033,541
 560    Sewing-machines17,34211,8046,2872,043955273
 561    Tools: Engineers' and metal, wood, glass, and stone workers'18,48338,70524,66013,04527,80715,962
 570    N.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)20,80554,38945,59814,58526,72428,547
 572    Materials for and parts of (free)9,31716,2328,8693,2503,5041,15
  Indiarubber—
XVIA573    Hose, tubing, and piping17,50130,22940,82417,12929,18940,381
 575    Other (free), viz.: Washer-rings, gloves, n.o.e., &c.13,18820,80115,64713,06420,68615,510
XVIB579Belting, other than leather6,35210,77611,0873,5649,1838,498
  Leather—
 580    Belt-leather, harness, welting, strap legging, bag, and bridle; kip, other than East India8,46322,7446,1578,38922,7446,099
 581    Calf-skins, whole17,66829,43315,09814,65828,31012,900
 585    Goat and kid skins51,80252,32718,20436,36348,60114,719
 588    Hide leathers (dressed), other than East India kip6,57917,23214,8106,20116,79614,056
 589    Japanned and enamelled9,25120,99314,7735,38012,1016,642
 591    Sheep-skins and lamb-skins n.o.e.14,02237,42610,96414,00037,19210,557
 592    Sole, pump, and skirt leather15,92498,08335,84315,16996,97735,843
 593    N.o.e.5,14714,0494,0633,61013,9924,063
XVIB595    Leather cut into shapes and leather leggings4,13811,0645864,13510,953482
 597    Portmanteaux, trunks, and carpet-bags4,63724,1274,7874,39323,9584,416
 603    Unenumerated manufactures of leather9,45023,04410,4648,95419,6408,611
  Logs, hewn—
XVIIA613    Ironbark19,14767,456100,31219,14767,456100,312
 614    Jarrah5731,40571,3125731,40571,312
 617    Other17,27929,73368,99517,27929,73368,995
  Logs, round—
 618    Ironbark20,67652,465113,84120,67652,465113,841
  Sawn timber n.o.e.. rough—
 633    Ironbark4,07020,21634,1234,07020,21634,123
 634    Jarrah2,74657,08261,5882,74657,08261,588
 639    Other25,78485,219129,71822,70682,323128,964
XVIIB661Woodenware and turnery n.o.e.5,61714,63310,0064,94711,2999,278
XVIII669Earthenware n.o.e.6,62515,18010,1963,4316,4645,674
  Glass and glassware—
 671    Bottles, plain, empty26,89472,67697,40326,09470,15596,951
 675    Jars, plain1,74913,1176,0071,45412,9415,858
 681Plaster-of-paris, gypsum, and other like preparations (not being manures)6,45310,70217,2696,42710,70017,269
  Paper—
XIXA685    Bags n.o.e.10,26721,0472,8929,34018,9802,662
      Cardboard boxes, &c.—
 689        Other11,36118,0076,7586,82012,7475,547
 693    Printing5,83215,2102,0898363435
 695    Writing (not less than “demy”)6,84114,5264,128229143212
  Stationery—
XIXB698    Books, papers, and music, printed, n.o.e.78,523104,49494,13055,40065,96370,381
 703Handbills, circulars, and programmes; printed advertising-matter, n.o.e., &c.11,37715,60815,9199,77113,17312,762
 706Manufactured stationery n.o.e.14,30428,69521,46112,57724,89818,650
XX712Fancy goods34,40765,50524,75727,89053,90319,976
  Jewellery—
 714    Precious stones, unmounted112,772100,94088,95624,70337,63138,255
 715    Other36,56978,57018,79234,85775,04518,577
 716Sporting, gaming, and athletic requisites n.o.e.3,97416,8938,7893,82916,5198,452
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films22,98323,88941,8707,3494,2924,496
  Photographic materials and goods—
 730    Sensitized surfaces and albuminized paper33,87640,62431,09531,23633,07528,454
 733    N.o.e.12,05121,92520,6132,9149,2163,853
XXIIA741Tartaric acid7,37111,6651,650423..     
 751Cream of tartar10,69812,1252,493..     63
 753Dyes26,47840,57936,9447,12611,8668,040
 759Insecticides and disinfectants n.o.e.4,89810,8432,8203,47210,3592,765
  Liquefied and compressed gases—
 762    Anhydrous ammonia26,43832,49327,09525,03030,78524,828
 763    Other18,93015,01816,52618,43213,04812,419
 765Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries, n.o.e., &c.142,184157,999150,18686,175109,870108,061
 772Toilet preparations22,09325,65717,88117,05520,45714,197
XXIIB792Ammonia, sulphate of1,25815,0502,8061,25815,0502,806
 797Nitrate of soda1,27510,6072,494..     ..     ..     
 800Bonedust39,13867,83230,51439,13867,83230,514
 802Guano and rock phosphates (including mineral earth)10,75236,8105,86110,71936,8105,861
 803Superphosphates96,638158,89739,72596,638158,89739,725
XXIII833Lithofracteur, cordite, &c.14,0735,754..     14,0735,754..     
  Asbestos—
 839    Sheets, slates, and tiles13,70732,99223,18513,09727,72222,867
 848Brushmakers' materials5,92313,6375,3914,95510,9374,933
XXIII860Pianolas. phonographs, and other musical instruments, mechanical14,40624,69013,4986,86414,9518,418
 861Records for phonographs, gramophones, grapho-phones, &c.10,90717,7809,6349372,424532
 863Matches and vestas, wax12,35214,86618,2087,74714,13917,224
  Soap—
 876    Powder, dry, soft, and liquid17,44320,3534,07917,17019,8553,756
 877    N.o.e.49,63751,45531,86747,37947,29830,470
  Bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 883    Rubber tires, covers, and tubes28,86778,09630,82628,83477,26030,747
  Motor bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 887    Rubber tires, covers, and tubes8,27127,01016,3248,12526,36916,329
  Vehicles for road traffic, and materials therefor—
 893    Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles (motor)11,74314,63220,517..     2,09612,761
 895    Materials and parts—viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes2,305459,006239,5591,163328,146161,327
 902Miscellaneous manufactures5,73411,22113,3324,6819,39810,876
Fiji.
II68Bananas78,128106,711127,05378,128106,711127,058
 129Raw sugar887,9651,683,1791,772,964887,9651,683,1791,772,964
III139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed7,53213,705157,53213,70515
Gilbert and Ellice Islands.
XXIIB802BRock phosphate (including mineral earth)..     27,722..     3327,722..     
Nauru (Pleasant) Island.
XXIIB802BRock phosphate (including mineral earth)..     ..     46,122..     ..     46,122
Western Samoa.
III139Cocoa-beans, uncrushed22,40420,9439,32222,40420,9439,322
Belgium.
IXB278Cotton piece-goods n.o.e...     3192,847..     29,34837,877
  Glass and glassware—
XVIII673    Crown, sheet, and common window..     151,04559,980..     160,37369,297
 674    Glassware n.o.e...     5,92019,164..     10,79226,722
 678    Other..     47,25337,902..     47,39840,969
XXIIB798Basic slag and Thomas's phosphate..     46,18170,649..     46,18170,649
  Asbestos—
XXIII839    Sheets, slates, and tiles..     20,16111,386..     22,33913,646
Denmark.
I41Rennet n.o.e.49,86127,42732,30853,07837,65833,938
VIII223Grass and clover seeds..     2,5276,3072,51423,79011,248
France.
IV154Brandy1,29820,81032,49621,763103,94558,669
  Wine, fermented—
 166    Sparkling2795,3373,55821,294107,16214,024
VIII222Resin6053,296..     2,77411,1804,551
 223Grass and clover seeds481217,6101,37213,23114,921
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.2,0001,4123,14914,63333,79724,118
 247Gloves n.o.e.7092,85136319,55244,60910,526
 252Hatmakers' material96961,3733,41612,0016,404
 257Millinery unenumerated178751,4609,04720,26320,626
 258Minor articles, n.o.e., for making up apparel, &c...     31214,51816,6685,137
 259Ribbons and crape7834541,27228,96350,68627,354
IXB267Drapery n.o.e.1,3191,62092613,92546,98017,010
  Piece-goods—
 278    Cotton n.o.e.17..     342,25910,2664,412
 283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.7419661,11257,062161,43841,922
 286    Woollen n.o.e., of pure or mixed wool9201,0311,46246,52116,013
XX712Fancy goods4021,2502,42810,21627,92924,930
 721Tobacco - pipes and cases, cigarette-papers, &c.1,4531392,32234,28744,17629,177
XXIIA751Cream of tartar7624201,3499,29934,1587,680
  Vehicles: Motors for road traffic—
XXIII893    Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles (motor) n.o.e...     1,23031,6902,49512,00453,566
 895    Materials and parts—viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes..     31,52863,161102154,547136,160
Italy.
II108Almonds29110,1915,4876,75347,1976,619
IXA247Gloves n.o.e.85783633810,04219,3864,846
 249Buttons, tapes, &c.7,4674,3664,5749,27910,77910,811
 251Hats and caps3,51328,65025,5627,12649,71029,994
 252Hatmakers' materials2,7077,8679543,90212,3633,240
 257Millinery unenumerated297278792,84610,1653,520
  Piece-goods—
IXB283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.1643346712,96416,9084,225
XXIIA741Tartaric acid2,1581,0593924,08711,4571,096
 751Cream of tartar..     5,4324,824..     19,1024,825
  Vehicles: Motors for road traffic, and materials therefor—
XXIII895    Materials and parts48,275159,36535,62748,290226,97041,494
Netherlands.
IV155Gin, geneva, and schnapps, unsweetened9837,88717,54918,90493,10326,771
XV527Electrical lamps109,69712,42821,10724,41822,493
Portugal.
IV167Wine, fermented: Still1,3352,3476296,96232,6285,096
Norway.
I11Fish, preserved in tins12050,0576,7241,70571,5897,682
XIXA687Butter-paper8219,5583,4971,00710,6123,550
XXIIA748Calcium carbide..     13,6919,038..     14,5729,257
Sweden.
I41Rennet n.o.e.15,00712,2567,88426,18913,8087,884
VIII231Wood-pulp3,21832,3838,0653,21832,3838,073
XV517Cream-separating machines44,05262,60060,26247,89565,92161,709
XXIII864Wooden matches and vestas2,29013,5819,1044,03324,19611,756
Spain.
IV167Wine, fermented: Still343674..     1,77317,7294,842
VIII209Cork, cut3,06751467914,80220,56813,346
Switzerland.
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.4829832,0039,10716,05119,801
 252Hatmakers' materials871,3283635,16112,66916,328
 259Ribbons and crape8507021,14672,39965,09072,538
IXB267Drapery n.o.e.1,8381,5411,11624,34335,47218,876
  Piece-goods—
 283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.2858517858,915103,09029,442
XX719Watches41,11045,17733,18858,73077,84447,079
United States.
I11Fish, preserved in tins, &c.6,59612,4933,2116,76214,5113,552
 36Sausage casings and skins27,95379,66535,70528,29080,54935,899
 41Rennet n.o.e.13,26924,83520,33113,70638,92520,351
II46Cocoa-butter, &c.27,63416,1234,49332,40317,3994,629
 48Chocolate confectionery, in fancy packages29,87143,96537231,18743,983372
  Fruits—
II59    Bottled and preserved in syrup12,01919,8064,78212,58320,7714,782
      Dried—
 60        Apples and apricots6406,9839,4176407,0679,417
 64        Prunes2,44033,14416,8312,57233,14416,831
 65        Raisins70,90686,36155,87971,05186,36155,879
      Fresh—
 71        Lemons14,51713,0029,98014,51718,0299,980
 72        Oranges22,63535,77817,10122,63535,79517,101
 88Maizena and cornflour4,33148,8262,5674,33148,8262,567
 96Rice, dressed1,3204,00667315,1235,152673
 122Salt, in bulk11,6417,3541,62813,0657,3541,628
 125Glucose18,75519,35315,75819,12619,66916,479
III140Cocoa and chocolate12,0296,87019431,30239,650505
  Tobacco—
V171    Manufactured, cut72,09497,48660,71477,087101,14560,715
 172    Manufactured, other112,634164,66752,465117,132166,90252,465
 173    Unmanufactured27,20056,68967,72327,20056,72867,728
VIII222Resin7,72326,2633,4829,86928,9834,472
  Seeds—
 223    Grass and clover23,55025,41730,58523,55027,31730,756
 225    Other11,2979,81016,35811,15010,16716,509
IXA234Apparel and ready-made clothing n.o.e.90,056117,30735,92796,123124,67160,619
  Boots and shoes—
 240    Grindery n.o.e.37,28835,02617,36239,50436,28919,007
 241    Gum boots11,82315,32912,26311,84915,32912,263
 244    Other52,00657,7022,79452,13857,93322,955
 245Corsets25,84417,9289,24426,07817,9479,244
 247Gloves n.o.e.9,59411,4379,09410,21113,3099,328
 249Buttons, tapes, &c.10,96516,5378,69214,18225,38112,923
 251Hats and caps30,14550,6627,13130,41950,7337,177
 253Hosiery165,773131,59843,361174,838139,79950,718
 257Millinery unenumerated12,27616,7494,39012,76317,0384,418
 259Ribbons and crape12,3308,4382,54512,6328,4682,555
IXB266Carpets, carpeting, and floorcloth n.o.e.30,65677,1489,16932,05977,1489,169
 271Oilcloths, linoleum, and stair oil-baize37,86151,6495,35638,63552,9365,424
  Piece-goods—
 274    Canvas, sailcloth, &c.58,70638,07410,99958,78938,33411,048
      Cotton—
 275        Butter and cheese cloth20,4908,1434,10420,4908,8574,115
 278        N.o.e.256,563283,147111,828267,190304,143115,285
 280    Leather cloth6,03311,5354,7786,32513,7274,766
 283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.33,01213,613,63934,79015,3463,800
 285    Waterproof cloth7,36610,574,7787,44810,5974,778
 290Sewing silks and cottons n.o.e.13,69026,2517,45414,22827,1207,592
  Cordage and rope—
IXC300    Iron and steel10,4102,6361,54310,4822,6891,550
X311Axle-greases and other solid lubricants11,8619,4089,85712,87012,47112,028
  Oils (not essential), in bulk—
      Mineral—
 319        Benzine399,028781,206440,286399,028781,376440,332
 323        Gasoline89,647411,911269,71689,647411,911269,716
 324        Kerosene143,117309,621248,051143,245310,258248,061
 325        Lubricating151,070153,173195,949181,132205,554245,999
 326        Motor-spirit n.o.e.195,576497,7271,078,620195,576497,7291,078,620
      Vegetable—
 334        Turpentine10,63527,92511,93914,37939,05414,093
 336        Other2,34413,3741,9556,66716,1342,875
 337        N.o.e.8,1773,8951,5258,5934,6151,806
 338Oils not essential), in vessels less than 1 gallon13,13415,2538,19913,48515,4468,429
 343Paraffin wax9,4357,55319,5439,83612,06519,608
  Paints and colours—
XI348    Ground in oil20,36239,0456,91221,98140,2207,076
 350    Other34,35938,42020,22935,60938,63020,345
 354Varnishes, lacquers, and goldsize10,40714,90813,56210,55814,94513,708
XII358Coal, go55,9313,849160,42055,9313,849160,420
XIVB408Bolts and nuts21,60712,71614,37922,37013,53514,769
  Brass—
 410    Plate and sheet, plain16,38521,30926,10716,38521,32626,107
  Copper—
 416    Plate and sheet, plain16,5325,98010,11816,69411,02210,287
 418Fencing-staples17,7459,54118,91617,9439,99618,916
XIVV422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery n.o.e.140,876188,109161,291149,829200,988164,879
  Iron and steel—
 428    Hoop and other iron for manufacture of spiral pipes1,27815,90913,0671,27815,90918,067
 430    Plate and sheet, corrugated, galvanized90,54626,1758,36396,74242,9178,412
 431    Plain, black19,6736,3919,55420,2807,6449,931
 432    Plain, galvanized39,4938,0879,13940,9509,9569,139
 436    Wrought tubes and pipes: 6 in. and under in internal diameter25,62227,37743,06926,06327,98143,930
  Lamps (not electric), lanterns, and lamp-wick—
 441    Other14,56017,15318,76914,53517,45319,026
 447Electricity-meters7,9249,32819,9787,9399,40420,235
 456Plate and plated ware11,07616,6289,78112,57716,6769,799
  Railway and tramway plant n.o.e.—
 461    Rails, &c.11,58226,70127,73711,74027,53527,737
 463    Other3,2678,02529,7383,5908,29929,926
 473Telephones and accessories therefor n.o.e.95,7597,52647,43797,6608,22148,401
 474Tinned sheet and plates, plain3,28046,83425,1573,28048,63131,647
 482Tools and implements, n.e.i.161,244166,065150,636..     169,463153,052
  Wire—
 485    Fencing, barbed25,95861,11548,48026,45167,92150,052
 486    Fencing, plain138,052120,96395,220139,891134,34096,037
      Iron—
 488        N.o.e.13,35910,7707,25513,93211,3947,739
  Metal manufactures—
 491    Other, plain metal cordage, not gold, iron, or silver14,9036,5683,44115,8446,6603,521
 494    Other (free)—viz.: Bellows-nails, &c.17,21117,60621,23325,44826,71727,670
 495    N.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)93,287119,799132,56295,621126,995138,544
  Agricultural implements—
XV504    Mowers, horse12,9788,8618,47813,0028,8618,478
 505    Ploughs7,52311,53416,3017,55311,55016,328
 507    Reapers and reapers-and-binders8,55410,8596,5158,55410,85910,658
 511    Other, including materials for and parts of40,76542,81934,66542,42343,66634,811
 513Calculating-machines5,94947,82944,1126,76848,93845,181
 514Cash-registers10,37812,24217,29710,37815,82917,297
 517Cream-separating machines18,97110,6357,29120,20111,0617,325
  Electrical machinery—
 524    Electric batteries and cells35,48825,36328,43635,86228,65228,651
 525    Generators, motors, and transformers62,243123,671182,57367,815133,483188,408
 527    Lamps35,52135,12535,28036,11736,73835,884
 528    Materials—viz., carbon in block, &c.13,9674,3906,80814,3615,8697,782
 529    N.o.e.130,268108,425169,790135,676114,343174,166
  Engines—
 532    Gas, oil, and hot-air, other31,12447,70248,17531,47550,21848,823
 533    Portable and traction69,68870,83111,51769,68871,21611,547
 553Mining machinery unenumerated5,17210,02720,3525,36010,47720,395
  Printing machinery—
 557    Printing machines and presses3,4318,8829,5033,89412,28811,947
 558    Type-setting and type-casting8,73110,84422,85912,14413,42127,330
 560Sewing-machines50,40414,11521,69565,15231,37729,114
 561Tools: Engineers, and metal, wood, glass, and stone workers'36,09652,10485,39639,41058,64191,301
 562Typewriters22,86732,61221,31626,26789,07824,362
 570Machinery n.o.e. (20 per cent. ad val.)38,014106,91391,63941,445118,88998,687
 571Materials for and parts of51,52760,99140,53563,03575,75450,364
 572machines (dutiable)
XVIB579Belting, other than leather30,56720,40616,17332,69021,54916,592
  Leather—
 581    Calf-skins, whole23,47520,6883,14826,36321,4135,371
 585    Goat and kid skins18,58838,3167,69633,65942,81811,186
 589    Japanned and enamelled10,28536,6091,44014,15644,9706,913
 592    Sole, pump, and skirt leather8,40710,7208,2408,40715,0958,240
  Timber, sawn, n.o.e., rough—
XVII637    Oregon pine23,05029,38171,07223,14129,56772,395
 639    N.e.i19,18664,29516,31721,78865,82717,089
  Handles for tools—
 655    N.e.i.17,45726,50625,72917,90427,57325,806
 661Woodenware and turnery n.o.e.8,45218,7199,2148,92819,6869,366
XVIII662Asphalt1,82915,0034,7811,92715,1014,811
  Glass and glassware—
 671    Bottles, plain, empty22,99917,35722,35023,07717,48422,844
 673    Crown, sheet, and common window46,0277,65254146,3629,651541
 674    Glassware n.o.e.11,37127,76440,22012,00729,66741,118
 678    Other25,4737,17724,73926,2507,52124,740
  Paper—
XIXA687    Butter-paper31,73412,57310,20932,78416,31710,250
      Cardboard boxes, materials for—
 689        Other45,93360,73237,36348,82665,58337,978
 692    Paperhangings13,75528,67711,81113,82428,73711,731
 693    Printing70,34714,57118,8373,54323,59319,024
 695    Writing (not less than “demy”)140,58723,75328,371143,89032,89729,551
XIXB698Books, papers, and music, printed, n.o.e.49,00260,15433,42449,25166,89936,742
 703Handbills, circulars, and programmes8,21512,75613,2569,34414,81115,795
  Printed advertising matter n.o.e., &c.—
 706    Manufactured n.o.e.7,13610,0448,1187,35110,7048,603
 711    N.o.e.52,54335,03621,51256,37942,53728,806
XX712Fancy goods45,65762,54224,31548,60666,11025,430
 717Clocks8,88822,52732,43112,32522,54432,527
 719Watches13,82932,45513,21914,34232,47813,266
 721Tobacco - pipes and cases, cigarette-papers, &c.7,3438,9605,8647,2419,2215,642
XXI725Cinematograph, bioscope, and kinetoscope films55,06265,05674,12171,67685,433109,044
 728Optical: Microscopes and telescopes16,16014,01815,33917,49315,19416,130
  Photographic materials and goods—
 729    Cameras15,71829,36226,36517,92133,98434,938
 730    Sensitized surfaces and albuminized paper8,77227,6175,81510,72334,9877,393
 733Surgical and dental instruments44,01142,35149,21237,70257,55462,318
X751Cream of tartar45,10867,14529,30155,15871,84229,306
 753Dyes16,39527,0119,13121,63036,75517,690
 765Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries n.o.e., &c.44,99846,80836,43779,57673,26555,876
 772Toilet preparations40,96366,49222,50443,08068,23623,342
 782Caustic soda15,2155,03735615,4536,9111,671
 788Sugar of milk..     37,67473,015..     37,67473,015
 789Sulphur36818,37517,29536818,39417,295
  Arms, ammunition, and explosives—
XXIII814    Cartridges, 25 calibre and under16,01827,9434,65516,40327,9894,655
 815    Shot (10 to 24 bore)16,4635,68324917,1885,683249
 824    Firearms, other16,01241,7367,58716,65142,0377,619
 838Articles and materials suited only for and to be used solely in the fabrication or repair of goods within the Dominion n.o.e.30,17145,66726,82231,14146,84828,781
 847Brushes, brushware, and brooms9,04420,4146,9009,49121,2557,046
  Instruments, musical—
 859    Pianos23,98061,9459,64624,31462,27210,009
 860    Pianolas, phonographs, and other instruments, mechanical7,78616,2675,64613,57324,5319,386
 861    Records for pianolas, grapho-phones, &c.2,5581,8884959,03110,7984,315
 864Matches and vestas, wooden1214,0381,4491614,0381,458
 867Packing, engine10,6978,1884,41210,8778,5395,742
XXIII874Harness - oil and leather - dressing13,13023,34047513,71123,821759
 877Soap n.o.e.16,85025,9486,75217,24227,8646,943
 889Motor-bicycles and tricycles, materials for, n.o.e.7,41611,0564,8917,62711,2225,227
  Vehicles: Motor for road traffic, and materials therefor—
 893    Cars, buses, carriages, and vehicles (motor)771,6431,928,014533,736782,3841,940,147539,458
 895    Materials and parts—viz.: Rubber tires, covers, and tubes480,718835,620300,297496,241857,248345,838
  Vehicles: Parts and materials n.o.e.—
 900    Springs, &c.; rubber tires n.o.e.9,20910,25610,5629,44410,44210,791
  Miscellaneous—
 902    Manufactured9,29214,82312,7199,85215,28013,180
Cuba.
V169Cigars3,92216,1103,7605,12218,2884,276
Chile.
XXIIB797Nitrate of soda..     3,459..     1,27514,0662,494
Asiatic Turkey.
II62Dates24138,80933,7211,38890,73140,930
 63Figs..     7,57310,334..     12,37112,147
Dutch Borneo.
X343Paraffin wax10,31714,44811,25910,95815,28617,549
Java.
  Sugar—
II129    Raw180,747..     ..     180,747..     ..     
 130    Refined1,90071,651109,0371,90071,651109,037
  Tea—
III149    In bulk29,668187,91911,09231,319187,91911,092
VIII214Kapok15,578135,56227,81615,829135,68527,966
Sumatra.
X319Benzine72,125102,87320,02072,125102,87320,020
 326Motor-spirit n.o.e.18,65036,122202,71118,65036,122202,711
Philippine Islands.
V169Cigars4,47324,5365,4646,28227,6665,566
VIII213Hemp27,30547,34216,63327,58047,34216,638
China.
  Eggs—
I6    Dessicated white and yolk6,33411,2652,0816,33711,3392,268
  Grain and pulse—
II84    Unprepared, n.e.i.3,18514,0057,8493,69514,6258,329
 96    Rice, dressed23,69640,71730,08034,91248,65230,289
IXA252Hatmakers' materials..     6,3244,593..     11,3246,494
 254Lace and laces n.o.e.16,80851,92920,60020,81555,39021,036
  Piece-goods—
 283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.15,80224,10012,23816,66231,83815,134
XXIII848Brushmakers' materials1,0938,0205,6071,87515,7569,315
Japan.
IXA234Apparel and ready - made clothing n.o.e.72,52276,82318,83474,37179,73919,215
 247Gloves n.o.e.18,5662,09143419,0452,446451
 249Buttons, tapes, &c.10,66619,0554,54011,69120,75,160
IXA251Hats and caps11,4256,27235411,9486,537539
 252Hatmakers' materials11,64518,0146,23013,13923,0626,591
 253Hosiery13,5877,79466813,7027,999716
IXB267Drapery n.o.e.14,2155,1601,60815,1106,9751,775
 270Matting, n.o.e., and mats28,18655,3877,94728,65555,9807,948
  Piece-goods—
 274    Canvas, sailcloth, &c.17,2721,21140617,2721,211408
      Cotton—
 277        Tubular woven, for meat-wraps17,1873,445..     17,1873,445..     
 278    N.o.e.248,278199,29459,480253,552203,104441
 283    Silks, satins, velvets, &c.308,007348,677187,279324,368359,247188,400
  Cordage and rope—
IXC300    Iron and steel19,95175..     23,43575..     
  Oils (not essential), in bulk—
X336    Vegetable n.o.e.6,0608,2744,6308,26910,6544,693
XIVB422Hardware, hollow-ware, and ironmongery, n.o.e.10,0798,6551,18910,07911,3661,196
  Electrical machinery and machines—
XV526    Insulated cable and wire37,9095,16094539,8845,521945
 529    N.o.e.7,38110,65216,8407,64710,84516,857
  Timber, sawn, n.o.e., rough—
XVII639    N.e.i.28,470167,84719,48528,813169,49119,485
 661Woodenware and turnery, n.o.e.1,91019,0041,2691,19219,0041,269
  Earthenware, china, glass, stoneware—
XVIII667    China, porcelain, and parian ware23,28944,3638,25923,75045,5398,899
 669    N.o.e.16,33546,0064,91317,88048,5405,132
  Glass and glassware—
 671    Bottles, plain, empty14,99423,5326,00015,98423,8786,161
 674    Glassware n.o.e.14,90846,39012,62816,11147,67012,751
XIXA689Cardboard boxes, materials for, n.o.e.31,09721,2102,44931,09721,2102,449
XX712Fancy goods74,34292,80912,91076,01694,50613,465
XXIIA765Medicinal preparations, drugs, and druggists' sundries n.o.e., &c.2,8537,4132,5533,4348,5812,945
 789Sulphur32,1617,03230432,7357,082321
XXIIB803Superphosphates..     73,71623,288..     73,71623,288
XXIII847Brushes, brushware, and brooms21,34021,6972,38822,69423,0932,433
  Bicycles and tricycles: Materials and parts—
 883    Rubber tires, covers, and tubes10,1015,3752,07210,1015,3752,072
Hawaii.
II59Fruits, bottled and preserved in syrup3,50210,8831,5913,91012,2211,591
Marquesas Islands.
X319Benzine in bulk72,12519..     72,125..     ..     
New Caledonia.
XXIIB802AGuano17,43522,81411,25817,43522,81411,258
Tuamotu Archipelago.
XXIIB802BRock phosphates65,20974,01852,73965,20974,01852,739

IMPORTS FROM COOK ISLANDS.

A small group of Pacific islands was annexed to the Dominion on the 11th June, 1901, and has since been administered as the “Cook and other annexed islands.” The following table shows the growth of the import trade from this group from 1902 onwards. Figures for previous years are included with those for the other Pacific islands:—

Year.Imports.
 £     
190232,163
190338,708
190445,517
190544,179
190663,477
190761,922
190867,483
190973,469
191090,039
191192,382
1912105,943
1913109,095
191494,620
191587,890
191663,702
191772,470
191870,374
191988,820
1920105,146
1921102,113

The principal articles imported for the last five years are as follows:—

Class.Item.Article.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
  Fruits, fresh—£     £     £     £     £     
II68    Bananas29,37624,99820,09116,77931,037
 72    Oranges21,15528,06033,90258,55035,141
 74    Tomatoes, plums, &c.3,6322,1368,36713,66615,359
 75    Other1,934..     5713571,725
 109Nuts—Coconuts6767741,7911,6311,483
 135Potatoes290..     1353601,034
III143Coffee, raw120396938330654
VIII208Copra11,70410,91815,4268,51810,512
 220Fungus31551362140
IXA251Hats and caps7731,9142,6201,9583,911
XXI725Cinematograph-films1,705400760290..     

SUBSECTION D.—TARIFF AND REVENUE.

TARIFF DEVELOPMENT.

The first Customs Ordinance in New Zealand was proclaimed in 1841. This Ordinance, which repealed the New South Wales Ordinance then in force in these Islands, was the first of two long series of enactments dealing with Customs law and the tariff of Customs duties.

The tariff of 1841 covered only a few items, and may be given in full as a type of all the early tariffs. It is noteworthy that, following the old mercantilist policy of colonial administration, preference was given to certain products of the Mother-land. The full schedule of duties was as follows:—

 £s.d.
Spirits or strong waters, not being the produce of the United Kingdom, of any British possession in America, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land, per proof gallon050
Spirits or strong waters, the produce of the United Kingdom, of any British possession in America, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land, per proof gallon040
Wine, for every hundred pounds' value1500
Tobacco, unmanufactured, per pound009
Tobacco, manufactured, except cigars and snuff, per pound010
Cigars and snuff, per pound020
Tea, sugar, flour, meal, wheat, rice, and other grain and pulse, for every hundred pounds' value500
On all other goods (except goods the produce and manufacture of the United Kingdom, or of New South Wales, or of Van Diemen's Land), for every hundred pounds' value1000

In 1844 alterations were made in the direction of increasing most of the duties, while the preference to the United Kingdom was dropped. A very interesting item was the duty of 30 per cent. imposed “on all guns or weapons of any description, or gunpowder, or any munition of war,” evidently imposed to check the growing import of firearms for the Maoris. The rate of duty on all unspecified goods, except personal baggage, living animals, and specie, was 5 per cent.

In 1846 preference was again introduced by the imposition of a duty of 12½ per cent. on all foreign unspecified goods, while similar British goods paid only 10 per cent. At the same time there appears the germ of the later free list, five items—glass bottles, bullion, live animals, books, and seeds and bulbs—being proclaimed free of duty.

The tariff of 1851 was the first elaborate scale of duties, and is noticeable for the liberal use of ad valorem duties, mainly at the rate of 10 per cent., though cottons, woollens, &c., were charged by the yard, calico by the bolt, and trousers by the pair.

The general tariff of 1864 comprised many items, but the duties were levied for revenue primarily; the rates were low, and were mostly specific duties, even drapery being charged at per cubic foot. Amendments of the tariff, mostly small and affecting only a few items, followed rapidly in 1866, 1867, 1871, 1873; but in 1878 some sweeping changes were made, particularly the reduction on sugar from 1d. per pound to ½d., and similar reductions on many foodstuffs, while tools were also made free of duty. Another Act in 1879 added a few dutiable articles—in this case, however, chargeable with ad valorem duty; and the Act of 1881 was similar. All these changes were revised and consolidated in the Customs Duties Consolidation Act, 1882, which also extended the range of the tariff a good deal. The tariff of 1888 was distinguished by a more liberal use of ad valorem duties, the most usual rate being 20 per cent., as against 10 per cent. in the earliest years, while a primage duty was also levied.

With the year 1895 the tariff took on its distinctive modern form, marked by the preponderance of ad valorem duties and a definitely protective intention. The scope of the tariff was greatly widened so as to enumerate in detail a number of new items, and there were many reductions, principally of the duties on foodstuffs such as dried fruits and cocoa.

The process of subdivision and protection then begun was continued in 1900, when further steps were taken in the direction of a free breakfast-table, and another notable remission was made, the duty on kerosene being abolished.

In 1907 the Customs tariff was completely revised and some important alterations made. Among articles placed upon the free list were: Sugar, molasses and treacle, currants, raisins, figs, dates, prunes, unground spices, mustard, maizena, cornflour, almonds and nuts (excepting walnuts), carbonate and bicarbonate of soda, tartaric acid, infants' foods, forfar, dowlas and flax-sheeting, vegetable oils, fencing staples and standards, sheet lead; gas, electricity, and water meters; rubber and pneumatic tires for carriages. Children's boots (Nos. 0–6) and tea in bulk were admitted free if of British manufacture or growth.

Increased rates of ordinary duty were imposed on certain articles, among which were: Flavouring-essences n.o.e., medicinal preparations, drugs and druggists' sundries, candles, paraffin-wax, hosiery, cash-registers, cartridges (shot, 10–24 bore), cartridge-cases, certain sizes of iron and fibre pipes, mouldings and panels.

Tea, the produce of British dominions, if in packages of 5 lb. in weight or over was admitted free; when put up in packages under 5 lb. there was a duty of 2d. per pound. The preferential duty on tea of foreign growth was 2d. per pound if in packages of 5 lb. in weight or over, and ⅖d. per pound if in packages of a less weight than 5 lb.

The Customs Duties Amendment Act, 1909, imposed a surtax of 1 per cent. on the amount of duty payable on tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes, and of 2½ per cent. on the amount of duty payable on all other dutiable goods. This surtax remained in operation until the 31st March, 1911.

In 1915 again changes were made in the rates of duty levied on certain articles, in order to meet the extraordinary expenses of the war. The duty was raised on spirits from 16s. to 17s. per gallon; gas and oil engines were made subject to 10 per cent., plus an additional preferential 10 per cent. if foreign, instead of being free and 20 per cent. preferential as before; electric motors, transformers, and lamps were charged 10 per cent. plus 10 per cent., instead of 10 per cent. plus 5 per cent.; and motor-cars were charged 10 per cent. plus 10 per cent. preferential surtax, whereas before the chassis was free and the body was liable to 20 per cent. duty. On the other hand, the 20 per cent. on bicycles was reduced to 10 per cent.

At the same time a primage duty of 1 per cent. was levied on all goods imported, with the exception of a few small classes of exempted articles. In addition, power was taken to gazette at any time an extra surtax of 50 per cent. on any goods which might be specified, being the produce or manufacture of any country then (October, 1915) at war with His Majesty. Power was also taken to impose an excise duty on aerated waters, cordials, and other beverages, subject to a report by an officer of Customs to be appointed as a Commission to inquire into the advisability of controlling and regulating this manufacture. Increases were also made in certain excise duties in 1915, and again in 1917.

In August, 1917, also, as part of the scheme of additional war taxation, further increases were made in the rates of duties to be levied on certain items of import. These increases were somewhat more accentuated in some cases by the Finance Act, 1917, which received the assent of the Governor-General on the 15th September of that year. The rates of duty as thus amended remained in force until the coming into operation of the 1921 tariff revision.

CUSTOMS TARIFF AT PRESENT IN FORCE.

During the earlier months of 1921 a Tariff Revision Committee was set up by the Government for the purpose of taking evidence and revising the tariff then existing, which had been in force with little amendment since 1907. On the Committee's report the Government based a new tariff, including excise duties on beer and tobacco, and this was brought into immediate operation by resolutions of the Legislature on the 3rd November, 1921. The tariff was subsequently included in a Customs Amendment Act passed later in the year.

Briefly, the main objects of the revision were to secure a larger revenue to the Dominion and to give a measure of protection to local industries. In attaining the first-named object the endeavour has been to avoid increases in the rates of duty on items that would directly affect the cost of living, and articles in the nature of luxuries have accordingly been made subject to the heavier duties. Substantial increases, referred to below, have been made in the excise duties on tobacco and beer.

The 1921 tariff is extended in detail to a greater extent than the repealed scale of duties, the number of items being increased from 483 to 566. An outstanding feature was the introduction of an intermediate tariff. Under the old conditions there were two scales—the general tariff on all dutiable goods and the additional preferential duties which were usually added to importations from foreign countries. Now there are three rates of duty—viz., “general,” “intermediate,” and “British preferential.” The general tariff, which applies to foreign goods, is in effect the general duty plus the preferential duty under the repealed legislation, while the British preferential tariff of 1921 corresponds to the general duty under the older scale. A common ad valorem rate of duty under the repealed tariff was—General, 20 per cent.; additional preferential, 10 per cent.: this had the effect of placing a duty of 20 per cent. on British goods and 30 per cent. on foreign. Under the 1921 tariff articles affected are usually dutiable at—General, 35 per cent.; British preferential, 20 per cent.: the effect being to leave the duty of 20 per cent. on British goods as formerly and to increase the rate on foreign importations from 30 per cent. to 35 per cent. The intermediate tariff is intended to apply to countries entering into reciprocal relations with New Zealand, and will allow of the Dominion's goods being accorded preferential treatment in other countries disposed to reciprocate. No country at present receives such preferential treatment, and the provisions of the Customs Act in this respect are virtually dormant. The special reciprocal arrangements in force with South Africa were not affected by the tariff enactment of 1921, although they have since been terminated by Order in Council as from the 1st August, 1922.

The rates of duty levied by the tariff now in force are divided into two classes, specific and ad valorem. In addition to these the primage duty of 1 per cent. on the value of all imports (with a few exceptions) is retained. The specific class includes—Spirits, 36s. per gallon, which is double the rate previously in force; perfumed spirits, 70s. per gallon for British goods, and 90s. per gallon for foreign. Cigars, 12s. per pound; cigarettes under 2½ lb. per 1,000, 25s. 6d.; tobacco, fine cut, 10s. per pound; also 2s. per pound on unmanufactured and 4s. 8d. per pound on manufactured tobacco. Wine, sparkling, 15s. per gallon; other kinds, 6s. Ale and beer are charged 2s. per gallon. The duty charged on cocoa, chocolate, chicory, and roasted coffee is 3d. per pound British, and 5d. foreign. The ad valorem duties range from 5 to 60 per cent., this latter figure being charged only on apparel made in a foreign country to the order of a resident of New Zealand. Motor vehicles and parts (including tires, which were formerly free) are dutiable under the British preferential tariff at 10 per cent., and under the general tariff are charged 25 per cent.; in addition, bodies are charged a further £5 to £22 10s. each.

A feature of the 1921 Customs legislation is the provision for the imposition of an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This ranges from 2½ to 25 per cent. ad valorem, according as to whether the depreciation at the date of exportation from the country of origin or intermediate country, as the case may be, is from 10 to 20 per cent. or from 90 to 100 per cent. or more. A further noteworthy feature of the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, is a provision for a special dumping duty which may be imposed by the Minister of Customs on goods imported into New Zealand of a class or kind produced in New Zealand if the selling-price to an importer is less than the current domestic value of the goods, and will have a prejudicial effect on an industry established in the Dominion. In such a case the special duty shall not exceed the difference between the actual selling-price and the current domestic value. No such dumping duty will, however, be levied where the imposition is not required in the public interest.

Considerations of space do not permit of the publication of the tariff in this book. It is, however, published in the Annual Statistical Report of the Census and Statistics Office on the Trade and Shipping of the Dominion.

Of the items dealt with in the tariff that which most nearly concerns the people as a whole is tea, a commodity which has fluctuated considerably in the tariff scale. Originally 5 per cent. ad valorem, the duty was raised in 1856 to 3d. per pound, two years later to 4d. per pound, and in 1864 to 6d. per pound. This rate remained till 1895, when the duty was reduced to 4d., followed in 1900 by a further reduction to 2d., British tea being in 1903 placed on the free list. In 1907 the charge of 2d. per pound was reimposed in the case of British tea put up in packages under 5 lb., and at the same time an additional preferential duty of 2d. per pound if in packages of 5 lb. or over and ⅖d. per pound if in packages under 5 lb. was imposed on tea of foreign growth. Under the tariff of 1917 tea paid a general rate of 3d. per pound if in bulk and 5d. per pound if in packages under 5 lb., with an additional preferential duty of 2d. per pound for all foreign tea. These same rates are virtually retained in the 1921 tariff, which provides for duties of 3d. and 5d. per pound on tea in bulk and in packages under 5 lb. in weight respectively if coming under the British preferential tariff, and a duty of 5d. and 7d. under the general tariff.

EXCISE DUTIES.

The excise duties are collected on two classes of manufactures—viz., beer and tobacco and its preparations. The more important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3¾d. per gallon when the specific gravity does not exceed 1,047, and increasing by d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by ⅛d. thereafter. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts determined in relation thereto. On the 2nd August, 1917, the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3¾d. to 4¾d. per gallon, and further (on the 15th September, 1917) to 5¾d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon. The Finance Act, 1921 (No. 2), repealed the excise duties then in force, and substituted, as from the 4th November, 1921, a rate of 11½d. per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts used does not exceed 1,047, and this is increased by d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047.

The excise duties on tobacco and the preparations thereof are second in importance. Cut tobacco is charged 2s. 4d. per pound; fine-cut tobacco suitable for the manufacture of cigarettes, 6s. 3d. per pound; other kinds, 1s. or 2s. 2d. per pound. These rates replaced (on the 4th November, 1921) the previous excise duty of 1s. per pound on tobacco. Under the Finance Act, 1917, cigars and snuff paid 4s. per pound, and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand was 5s. 6d. per pound on machine-made and 4s. per pound on hand-made cigarettes. These rates were not increased in 1921. All packages of manufactured tobacco must be labelled before leaving the manufactory, and it is necessary to obtain warrants to use cutting-machines for cutting duty-paid manufactured tobacco for sale (or to be used in the manufacture of cigarettes by hand), and to manufacture cigarettes by hand, under certain conditions.

Excise duties were formerly levied on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. By the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, this practice no longer operates. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, a special reduced schedule of duties is provided on alcohol imported for use in warehouses manufacturing these articles. In practice this means that alcohol used in manufacturing processes in New Zealand pays duties at the usual rate, and receives, on proof of use in the preparation of the specified articles, a refund of duty to the reduced rates payable. These rates are as follows: On alcohol used in the manufacture of perfumed spirits, 36s. per gallon; toilet preparations, 30s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 16s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent. of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon; and in similar preparations containing less than 50 per cent. the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.

In 1856 the first Gold Duty Act was passed, empowering the Governor to collect an export duty on gold at the rate of 2s. 6d. per ounce. This rate was amended by various Acts; but in 1890 the Gold Duty Abolition Act was passed, and a system of rating in mining districts substituted for the export duty as far as the South Island was concerned. The Gold Duty Act, 1908, consolidated and repealed all previous enactments. An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pine and kauri) by Acts of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The rate is 3s. per 100 superficial feet for flitches, and 5s. per 100 superficial feet for logs.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.

In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties produced a greater proportion of the revenue than it does to-day. There has been a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the table given below will show that, even in the last twenty years, this tendency has been very noticeable.

AMOUNT OF CUSTOMS AND EXCISE REVENUE, EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL TAXATION AND TOTAL REVENUE OF NEW ZEALAND.
Year ending 31st March.Total Revenue.Total Taxation.Customs and Excise Duties.
Amount.Percentage of Total Revenue.Percentage of Total Taxation.
 £     £     £     Per Cent.Per Cent.
19036,447,4353,277,9642,426,04337.6374.01
19047,130,1173,649,6012,698,04637.8473.93
19057,347,1973,754,3792,728,19337.1372.67
19067,650,0983,841,5962,795,54636.5472.77
19078,478,9574,264,5553,048,62235.9671.49
19089,063,9894,645,7543,217,53835.5069.26
19099,001,1854,377,7612,917,46232.4166.64
19109,238,9174,180,5162,786,49030.1665.63
191110,297,2734,837,3223,145,92930.5565.03
191211,061,1615,296,5903,398,14330.7264.16
191311,734,2765,606,8293,531,76130.1062.99
191412,229,6615,918,0343,553,78529.0660.05
191512,451,9455,880,8113,294,94326.4656.03
191614,507,5307,266,9663,524,06324.2948.49
191718,355,19410,549,6544,037,62822.0038.27
191820,206,22212,340,8533,601,38317.8229.18
191922,352,37213,801,6434,104,74918.3729.74
192026,081,34016,251,7695,185,38819.0831.91
192134,260,96122,184,4148,769,25125.6039.53
192228,127,00716,364,9025,554,33419.7533.93

In this table the financial year has been taken for purposes of comparison with total revenue and total taxation, figures concerning which are not available for calendar years. In subsequent tables the Customs taxation figures relate to the calendar year, which is the statistical year for trade purposes. Though the Customs revenue has increased greatly, the table shows that other forms of taxation and other sources of revenue have increased still faster, so that the proportion of taxation and of revenue furnished by the Customs duties has decreased considerably over the period. This relative decrease has been due in part to the extension of the governmental services in the Dominion increasing the revenue apart from taxation, to the greater use of direct taxation, and to the remissions and reductions of duty which have been made from time to time. These reductions have been mainly in foodstuffs, so that the tariff has tended towards the ideal of a free breakfast-table. War conditions necessitated in 1917 a partial reversal of this principle, whereby non-alcoholic beverages again became the subject of taxation, and the rates of duty then imposed have mainly remained unaltered in the 1921 tariff.

The tables hereunder show the amounts and percentages collected at intervals of five years, 1891–1911, and in each year since 1913, in respect of (1) foods and nonalcoholic drinks, (2) clothing and textiles, (3) alcoholic drinks and tobacco, and (4) all other articles. Excise duties on alcoholic liquors, tobacco, &c., are not included, nor are surtax and primage for the years during which these duties have been in force.

PRINCIPAL CLASSES OF IMPORTS FROM WHICH CUSTOMS REVENUE DERIVED.
Year.Amount of Duty derived fromTotal.
Foods and Nonalcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 £     £     £     £     £     
1891312,809276,072651,680320,1411,560,702
1896329,622322,947715,019400,2641,767,852
1901321,625434,112928,176512,8532,196,766
1906369,964610,8731,130,837787,4292,899,103
1911147,456682,7101,286,6011,048,8903,165,657
1913146,938790,8621,408,9771,078,6493,425,426
1914165,998822,3731,459,464906,7803,354,615
1915155,292727,8691,515,903745,2643,144,328
1916170,009985,3351,390,3221,036,2273,581,893
1917174,430794,4431,397,267805,4003,171,540
1918278,939935,2031,342,443801,9533,358,538
1919248,7621,097,4631,629,6801,245,1574,221,062
1920438,7402,432,7042,084,1962,424,0457,379,685
1921237,8781,297,1211,930,8981,826,3575,292,254
PERCENTAGE OF EACH CLASS TO THE TOTAL DUTY COLLECTED.
Year.Percentage of Total Duty collected on
Foods and Non-alcoholic Drinks.Clothing and Textiles.Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco.All other Articles.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
189120.0517.6941.7520.51
189618.6418.2740.4522.64
190114.6419.7642.2523.35
190612.7621.0739.0127.16
19114.6621.5740.6433.13
19134.2923.0941.1331.49
19144.9524.5143.5127.03
19154.9423.1548.2123.70
19164.7527.5138.8128.93
19175.5025.0544.0625.39
19188.3127.8439.9723.88
19195.8926.0038.6129.50
19205.9532.9628.2432.85
19214.4924.5136.4934.51

The Customs and excise duties received during the last five years are shown in more detail in the table given below, which also shows the rate of revenue per head of mean population, inclusive and exclusive of Maoris, for each year considered.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE REVENUE, 1917–21.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Customs Duties.£     £     £     £     £     
Spirits659,477522,401622,811861,943914,596
Wine35,81231,69838,83956,08056,023
Ale, beer, &c.8,0633,2372,9975,5933,785
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff287,777369,817472,256600,685461,148
Tobacco403,591413,226490,483554,704493,039
Coffee, cocoa, &c.3,2618,01213,09715,4553,300
Tea36,651129,145116,432138,829107,135
Opium2129285033
Other goods by weight141,089144,356148,494264,012160,967
Other goods ad valorem1,498,8051,613,9082,215,4714,707,3622,944,066
Other duties96,993122,709100,154174,972148,162
Primage196,863227,626281,292573,792372,684
Depreciated currency duty..     ..     ..     ..     6,777
            Totals, Customs duties3,368,4033,586,1644,502,3547,953,4775,671,715
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
Excise Duties.£££££
Tinctures—New Zealand9,89212,07811,49518,79314,581
Cigars, cigarettes, and snuff—New-Zealand-manufactured54386614,66759,31941,308
Tobacco—New-Zealand-manufactured3,4781,7451,5781,7531,355
Beer—New Zealand219,594261,536337,811363,597393,953
        Totals, excise duties233,507276,225365,551443,462451,197
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Revenue from Customs duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)314350318961354128
Ditto (including Maoris)218832331566804810
Revenue from excise duties per head of mean population (excluding Maoris)043050065075074
Ditto (including Maoris)041049062072071

The following table furnishes a general view of the ratio of Customs revenue to imports since 1895, which is taken as the base year:—

CUSTOMS REVENUE COMPARED WITH IMPORT VALUES FROM 1895.
Year.Imports.Revenue.Percentage of Revenue on Total Imports.Index Numbers of Customs Revenue compared with Imports.
Value.Value per Head.Amount.Actual Value per Head.Value per Head at 1895 Ratio.
 £     £s.d.£     £s.d.£s.d.Per Cent. 
13956,400,12994101,619,97026926925.311000
18967,137,320101111,765,0732911211124.73977
18978,055,22311331,912,1612130216623.74938
18988,230,60011371,961,7262133216723.83942
18998,739,633111312,042,0022145219023.36923
190010,646,0961318102,170,3542161036420.39805
190111,817,915153102,191,79821643161118.55733
190211,326,723143112,285,04321733111020.17797
190312,788,6751511102,501,8963103181119.56773
190413,291,694151472,650,189329319819.94788
190512,828,8571414112,652,666310314820.68817
190615,211,403161982,899,10334946019.06753
190717,302,861181663,079,422370415417.80703
190817,471,28418992,903,086315413716.62656
190915,674,71916272,653,617214741816.93669
191017,051,58317362,954,9892196461117.33685
191119,545,87919523,165,65732549216.20640
191220,976,57420393,335,71934352215.90628
191322,288,302201713,425,42634155715.37607
191421,856,096200113,354,61631651615.35606
191521,728,834191523,190,883218150114.68580
191626,339,283231923,823,01139661414.51573
191720,919,26519083,368,403313416416.10636
191824,234,007211953,586,164350511214.79584
191930,671,698261694,502,3543189615914.06556
192061,595,8285112117,953,4776135131312.91510
192142,942,44335195,671,7154128817613.28522

With regard to the foregoing table, it may be explained that the figures given in the column “Value per head at 1895 ratio” indicate the amount of revenue per head of population which would have been obtained had the same high ratio of Customs taxation been levied as prevailed in 1895. The last two columns in the table show clearly the substantial decline in the proportion which the Customs revenue bears to the value of the imports, and demonstrate that the increase, both total and per capita, in the Customs revenue is not due to heavier imposts, but has actually been achieved in spite of very considerable reductions in the scale of duties. In 1895 the proportion of revenue to the total imports was one-fourth; in 1921 it had fallen to little more than one-eighth.

In the following table the Customs revenue collected under the operation of the old and new tariffs respectively is given. The description of the several classes is given in the table on the next page.

CUSTOMS REVENUE BY CLASSES OF IMPORTS, 1921.
Class.Revenue collected.
Old Tariff (1st January, 1921, to 3rd November, 1921).New Tariff (4th November, 1921, to 31st December, 1921).Total.
General.Additional PreferentialTotal.General.British PreferentialTotal.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
I25,6152,27627,8912,0712,3894,46032,351
II67,3482,53069,87816,6746,39323,06792,945
III92,1385,54697,6843,19411,70414,898112,582
IV949,6086949,61426,81128627,097976,711
V847,755..     847,755106,432..     106,432954,187
VI68..     68..     ..     ..     68
VII52011531214768599
VIII20,1441,85021,9943572,1822,53924,533
IXA680,61847,860728,47820,50840,99361,501789,979
IXB437,60732,993470,60015,10021,44236,542507,142
IXC19,55340619,9592601,4481,70821,667
X58,4078,50366,91016,7551,46018,21585,125
XI13,9891,16315,1521,6314,6746,30521,457
XII6,884846,9682342464807,448
XIII..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
XIVA..     4,0364,036360..     3604,396
XIVB332,68055,450388,13015,74825,58741,335429,465
XV207,94260,418268,36015,39011,14326,533294,893
XVIA30711741462..     4621,203
XVIB19,7412,08521,8262,1443,2995,44327,269
XVIIA19,240..     19,2402,352402,39221,632
XVIIB23,6923,23326,9251,6391,2352,87429,799
XVIII100,74310,829111,5725,28117,73523,016134,588
XIXA11,2037,20918,4121,1062,4413,54721,959
XIXB65,8215,22571,0463,7923,8497,64178,687
XX100,58513,027113,6128,8648,49617,360130,972
XXI2,1104,4686,5783,6631853,84810,426
XXIIA85,8339,64495,4779,9437,82317,766113,243
XXIIB..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
XXIII230,76785,623316,39037,27213,26650,538366,928
 4,420,641365,1864,785,827318,064188,363506,4275,292,254

Rather less than one-fifth of the Customs revenue collected during 1921 was furnished by Class IV—spirits and alcoholic liquors (£976,711). This class furnished more of the Customs revenue than any other class, a position which also obtained up to and including 1917. During 1918, 1919, and 1920, however, this class was surpassed by both tobacco (Class V) and apparel (Class IXA), and in 1920 also by textiles (Class IXB).

FREE AND DUTIABLE IMPORTS.

The next table gives the imports of free and dutiable goods arranged according to the statistical classification. The main features of the table are the overwhelming proportion of dutiable goods in the classes containing beverages (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic), tobacco, foodstuffs of animal origin, paints and varnishes, and apparel, and the high proportion of free goods in stones and minerals (mainly coal), specie, raw metals, paper, and manures. It has been necessary for the purposes of this table and that on the succeeding page to use as a basis of classification the old tariff only. This means that all goods imported under the new tariff after the 3rd November, 1921, have been treated as having come in under the old tariff. The objections to this are not such as to materially vitiate the results shown.

FREE AND DUTIABLE GOODS BY CLASSES, 1921.
No.Class.Value of Imports.Percentage of Total.
Free.Dutiable.Total.Free.Dutiable.
  £     £     £       
IFoodstuffs of animal origin (excluding live animals)70,617157,396228,01330.9769.03
IIFoodstuffs of vegetable origin, and common salt3,006,603466,9493,473,55286.5613.44
IIIBeverages (non-alcoholic) and substances used in making the same41,230378,750419,9809.8290.18
IVSpirits and alcoholic liquors666986,835987,5010.0799.93
VTobacco and preparations thereof..     1,048,6331,048,633..     100.00
VILive animals10,71727,89138,60827.7672.24
VIIAnimal substances (mainly unmanufactured) not being foodstuffs16,0354,51320,54878.0421.96
VIIIVegetable substances and non-manufactured fibres399,744120,333520,07776.8623.14
IXAApparel529,7662,964,4673,194,23315.1684.84
IXBTextiles2,827,9672,484,0175,311,98453.2446.76
IXCManufactured fibres517,969110,858628,82782.3717.63
XOils, fats, and waxes2,522,258426,3782,948,63685.5114.46
XIPaints and varnishes38,094355,554393,6489.6890.32
XIIStones and minerals used industrially1,349,80231,7081,381,51097.702.30
XIIISpecie198,321..     198,321100.00..     
XIVAMetal, unmanufactured, partially manufactured, and ores516,40621,882538,28895.934.07
XIVBMetal manufactures other than machinery and machines3,855,1332,438,4766,293,60961.2538.75
XVMachinery and machines1,977,5251,757,6593,735,18452.9447.06
XVIAIndiarubber and manufactures thereof (not including tires)83,5024,30587,80795.104.90
XVIBLeather and manufactures thereof (including substitutes)200,470239,698440,16845.5454.46
XVIIATimber471,471342,345813,81657.9342.07
XVIIBWood, cane, and wicker manufactures78,494124,687203,18138.6361.37
XVIIIEarthenware, china, glass, stoneware, cements, and cement materials422,908690,8111,113,71937.9762.03
XIXAPaper1,137,380149,5521,286,93288.3811.62
XIXBStationery511,728352,955864,68359.1840.82
XXJewellery, timepieces, and fancy goods188,010584,623772,63324.3375.67
XXIOptical, surgical, and scientific instruments389,33755,740445,07787.4812.52
XXIIADrugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares608,048474,3881,082,43656.1743.83
XXIIBManures867,071..     367,074100.00..     
XXIIIMiscellaneous1,762,7342,041,0313,803,76546.3453.66
                   Totals24,100,00918,842,43442,942,44356.1243.88

By classifying the different rates of duty as is done in the following table it will be found that even if specie is excluded, on the average rather over half the imports into New Zealand are duty-free, while the value of goods which are liable to specific duties is about one-eighth. The most usual ad valorem rate during the period covered by the table has been 20 per cent., followed by 25 and 30 per cent. The 15-per-cent. figures are composed mainly of the imports of boots, while the 30-per-cent. figures consist of the value of goods which are liable to 20 per cent. general duty plus an additional preferential duty of 10 per cent.

IMPORTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO RATE OF DUTY, 1917–21.
Nature of Duty.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Free (excluding specie)11,301,52713,272,26216,302,65529,915,63823,901,688
Specific duties2,995,3954,236,4394,256,33710,747,6595,393,749
Ad valorem duties—
    5 per cent.28,52429,25581,422101,342228,841
    10 ″387,617353,161751,2491,735,0991,245,999
    15 ″282,475350,902599,5451,015,283311,761
    19⅖ ″2715169191,321..     
    20 ″3,042,6902,672,9504,167,88810,887,6427,251,414
    22½ ″69,13785,123154,313139,15993,054
    24 ″9,88321,62331,18767,94617,808
    24¼ ″173503482,152..     
    25 ″1,478,0091,561,6401,803,4294,258,6342,491,517
    30 ″1,062,8831,412,2731,792,6902,790,2481,701,332
    33¾ ″12,7878,6308,72619,1806,844
    37½ ″380,824515,354703,783920,480403,019
    40 ″2,7882,2923,4044,6103,191
    60 ″6210442821199
        Totals, ad valorem6,758,1137,013,87310,099,33121,943,30713,754,879
Specie117,135102,215362,53141,975198,321
        Grand totals of imports20,919,26524,234,00730,671,69861,595,82842,942,443

The value of boots imported is included under both specific and ad valorem duties: 1917, £312,905; 1918, £390,782; 1919, £349,156; 1920, £1,052,751; 1921, £306,194.

The table following shows for the years immediately preceding and following the general tariff revisions of 1895 and 1907, and for 1921, the value of free and dutiable imports, the percentage admitted free of duty, and the duty per cent. on dutiable imports and on all merchandise imported:—

1894.1896.1906.1908.1921.
* Including excise duties levied on certain imports manufactured in bond.
Merchandise—£     £     £     £     £     
    Free1,871,7722,263,0915,476,9498,658,11124,100,009
    Dutiable4,118,4054,772,2888,826,2218,589,05118,842,434
Imports (less specie)5,990,1777,035,37914,303,17017,247,16242,942,443
..     Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Percentage of free merchandise31.2532.1738.2950.2056.12
..     £     £     £     £     £     
    Total net duty received*1,572,4671,767,8522,903,1312,907,1515,728,959
Duty per cent. of imports—Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
    (a.) On dutiable imports38.1837.0432.8933.8530.40
    (b.) On all merchandise26.2525.1320.3016.8613.34

The average rate levied on dutiable goods in 1921, whether taken as a percentage of all imports or of dutiable imports only, was thus lower than before the tariff revision of 1907. The proportion of imported merchandise free of duty amounted to 56.12 per cent. in 1921, the corresponding figures for 1919 and 1920 being 53.79 and 48.64 per cent. respectively, and for 1906, 38.29 per cent.

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.

Preference to British countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand—that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent, and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. The reciprocal arrangement entered into was terminated in the manner provided by statute by an Order in Council which came into operation on the 1st August, 1922. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since the 1st September, 1922, and is referred to more particularly below.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act, 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items.

The following table shows the extent of the imports which are affected by preference, by giving the percentage of the total imports and of foreign imports so affected. It will be seen that the proportions have increased generally after the tariff changes of 1903, 1907, and 1917. On account of the change of tariff during the year, the percentages for 1921 are not strictly comparable with those of previous years.

IMPORTS AFFECTED BY PREFERENTIAL SURTAX.
Year.Value of Imports.Imports on which Surtax was paid.Percentage of
Total.British Empire.Foreign Countries.Total Imports.Foreign Imports.
 £     £     £     £     Per Cent.Per Cent.
190413,291,69411,029,6942,262,000487,8673.6721.57
190512,828,85710,709,6422,119,215599,7644.6828.30
190615,211,40312,890,0162,321,387620,6004.0826.73
190717,302,86114,942,1832,360,678658,0273.9827.87
190817,471,28414,780,2762,691,008895,0075.1233.26
190915,674,71913,554,9622,119,757842,4075.3739.74
191017,051,58314,465,8242,585,7591,000,2675.8738.68
191119,545,87916,497,3403,048,5391,159,3425.9338.03
191220,976,57417,073,2723,903,3021,337,1826.3734.26
191322,288,30218,348,2493,940,0531,325,0575.9533.63
191421,856,09617,649,7844,206,3121,228,2075.6229.20
191521,728,83417,727,1374,001,6971,321,8536.0833.03
191626,339,28320,833,4615,506,8222,071,1757.8637.61
191720,919,26515,591,3085,327,9572,251,42810.7742.26
191824,234,00716,017,5548,216,4533,457,00414.2742.07
191930,671,69819,519,61911,152,0794,794,24915.6342.99
192061,595,82843,861,29917,734,5297,610,75612.3542.91
192142,942,44331,160,29911,782,1444,122,2969.5934.99

The system of recording imports was changed in 1914, and for that and subsequent years statistics are available of the countries of origin as well as the countries of shipment, so that it is now possible to get better comparisons of the value of goods produced each year in the various countries with which New Zealand trades. In the table on page 299 the imports credited to any country prior to 1914 were those shipped to New Zealand from that country, but for 1914 and later years the figures relate to country of origin.

For the purpose of studying better the scope and effect of the preferential surtax, imports for the last three years have been classified in the next table into four groups, viz.:—

  1. Goods duty-free, whether of British or of foreign origin:

  2. Goods duty-free if of British origin, but dutiable if of foreign origin:

  3. Goods dutiable and with same rates of duty whether of British or of foreign origin:

  4. Goods dutiable but with additional preferential duty when of foreign origin.

TABLE SHOWING THE IMPORTS OF GOODS OF BRITISH OR FOREIGN ORIGIN CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF DUTY PAYABLE DURING THE YEARS 1919, 1920, AND 1921.
1919.1920.1921.
British.Foreign.British.Foreign.British.Foreign.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
Free in any case9,966,2985,516,03418,698,9718,381,61314,571,1966,833,386
Free when of British origin, but dutiable when of foreign origin1,182,854412,0962,877,029355,6652,695,427345,195
Dutiable with same rates whether of British or foreign origin1,806,232841,7964,625,4401,741,6592,996,021826,462
Dutiable, with additional preferential duty when of foreign origin6,564,2354,382,15317,659,8597,255,59210,897,6553,777,101
            Totals19,519,61911,152,07943,861,29917,734,52931,160,29911,782,144

NOTE.—In the above table British protectorates and mandated territories have been included among British countries, though, with the exception of Samoa, the imports having origin in these are subject to preferential duty.

Taking the year 1921, it is found that of foreign goods imported 58 per cent. were free of duty, as compared with 47 per cent. in 1920, while a further 7 per cent. (10 per cent. in 1920), though dutiable, paid no higher rate than if they had been of British origin. This leaves 35 per cent. (43 per cent. in 1920) with the disadvantage of the preferential duty. Of a total of £31,160,299 in 1921 of British origin, £13,593,082 had the advantage conferred by the preferential surtax. This is equivalent to 44 per cent., as against 47 per cent. in 1920.

It should be explained that for statistical purposes British protectorates are classed as British countries, as are also territories administered by the United Kingdom or British dominions under mandate of the League of Nations. For the purposes of the preferential tariff, however, these two classes of countries, with the exception of Western Samoa, are treated as foreign. There is therefore a slight discrepancy in some cases between the actual total of imports on which surtax was paid and the aggregate shown in the above table for foreign goods under headings (2) and (4).

RECIPROCITY WITH SOUTH AFRICA.

As stated above, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with British South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was terminated on the 1st August, 1922.

The principal item affected was wine (other than sparkling), which paid a duty of only 2s. per gallon. Sparkling wine paid only 5s. per gallon, while tobacco paid 2s. 6d. per pound. Other items specially provided for were feathers, fish, fruit, maize, and tea; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits, a reduction of 3 per cent. was made.

The following table shows the growth of the volume of imports from South Africa during the last ten years. It also discloses a tremendous decrease in the exports to South Africa between the earlier and later years of the descennium.

Year.Imports.Exports.
According to Country of Shipment.According to Country of Origin.
* Not available.
 £     £     £     
191213,733*83,229
19137,796*61,651
191433,22998,43760,826
191543,65455,82611,279
191671,300105,0006,681
191756,39298,5381,588
191843,856110,645718
191962,628169,2222,241
1920189,767263,6535,571
192134,86484,7042,906

Although goods of South African origin to the value of £84,704 were imported in 1921, only £14,376 of this received the benefit of the reciprocal tariff, the remainder either having reached New Zealand after transhipment from some other country or being duty-free in any case. As an example of the latter class may be mentioned unmounted precious stones, the imports of which in 1921 amounted to £54,797, as compared with £110,890 in 1920, £87,414 in 1919, and £60,395 in 1918.

The following table shows for each of the last five years the principal items coming within the scope of the reciprocal tariff:—

PRINCIPAL IMPORTS FROM BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA AFFECTED BY RECIPROCAL TARIFF.
Class.Item.Article.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
   £     £     £     £     £     
II80Maize..     ..     4,8203,4461,112
IV166 & 167Wine8,16811,09032,02677,55510,837
V171Tobacco, cut7488131,3831,029184
IXA234Apparel6514891,554156
 256Ostrich-feathers28262832867
XXIII849Candles..     2,4551,848..     ..     

RECIPROCITY WITH COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA.

Prior to the amendment of the Customs tariff in 1921 Australian goods entering the Dominion were accorded British preferential treatment, although articles of New Zealand origin or manufacture entered Australia under the general tariff. From the 1st December, 1921, however, the Commonwealth was placed on the general tariff, and was required in consequence to pay the same duties as were levied on foreign goods. Since the 1st September, 1922, a tariff agreement, confirmed by the Tariff Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act, 1922, has been in operation by which, with the object of promoting trade between the Commonwealth and the Dominion, New Zealand and Australia grant mutual concessions in the matter of Customs duties.

In addition to these reciprocal arrangements, which have operated from the 1st September, 1922, the tariff agreement provides further that goods which are imported into Australia and are subsequently transhipped to New Zealand, and which, if they had been imported direct from the country of origin into New Zealand, would have been entitled to be entered under the British preferential tariff, shall be admitted to the Dominion under the British preferential tariff. A similar provision relates to goods imported into the Dominion and transhipped to the Commonwealth. These concessions operate from the 1st May, 1922.

The main reciprocal agreement covers 129 items, in some cases the reduction of the rate of duty amounting to less, and in some more, than that accorded British goods under the ordinary scale of preferential duties. In any instance where the rate of duty has not been lowered at least to the extent provided for British goods, the reason may generally be found in the fact that protection is sought for the development of a secondary industry in the country retaining the higher rate of duty. Then, apart from the 129 items which are thus specifically mentioned, all other goods which are produced or manufactured in either Australia or New Zealand are admitted to the other country concerned at British preferential rates of duty.

It is difficult to indicate concisely the items of trade upon which the agreement will produce the most marked effect, for the reason that one primary object of the reciprocal arrangement is to encourage expansion of trade in some classes of goods which at present do not figure very largely in commercial activities between the Commonwealth and the Dominion. The effect on future trade is therefore to a degree problematical. Conclusions based on present trade relations are similarly liable to be erroneous.

Nevertheless it is of interest to consider the trade position as it has developed of recent years, and to examine in connection with the main items the alterations that have been effected in the rates of duty. The table on the opposite page has accordingly been prepared to indicate the amendment, on the one hand, in the rate of duty on importations into Australia of New Zealand goods, and, on the other, in the rate imposed on imports into New Zealand of articles of Australian origin or manufacture under the tariff agreement.

The item which figures most largely in the trade of both countries is timber (rough-sawn). Australian-produced timber now enters New Zealand free, in lieu of the former general duty of 2s. per 100 superficial feet. New Zealand timbers, similarly, now enter the Commonwealth free, the rates superseded varying from 1s. per 100 superficial feet on timber for the manufacture of boxes (mainly white-pine) to 4s., 5s. 6d., and 7s. per 100 superficial feet on larger sizes. All agricultural and dairying machines, which were formerly dutiable in both countries, have, with one or two exceptions, been placed in the free list under the new agreement. The duty on imports from Australia of grain and pulse in an unmanufactured condition has been reduced from 2s. per cental to 1s. 6d. per cental, and boots, shoes, &c., from Australia benefit also by a reduction of duty from 45 per cent. ad valorem to 35 per cent. ad valorem.

In the tables now presented the average annual value of exports to, and imports from, Australia over the three calendar years 1919, 1920, and 1921 are shown. From these figures an idea may be formed of the extent to which the various items will be affected by the reciprocal arrangements.

MAIN ITEMS AFFECTED BY AUSTRALIAN TARIFF AGREEMENT.
Article.Exports to Australia.Imports from Australia.
Average Yearly Value, 1919–21.Australian Duty.Average Yearly Value, 1919–21.New Zealand Duty.
Old.Reciprocal.Old.Reciprocal.
 £       £       
Horses, other than for stud purposes17,345FreeFree5,716£1 eachFree.
Chocolate confectionery—
    (1) In plain trade packages..     ..     3d. per lb.16,9255d. per lb.3d. per lb.
    (2) In fancy retail packages..     ..     20% ad val.16,70135% ad val.20% ad val.
Fish, fresh, or preserved by cold process15,4801½d. per lb.Free..     15s. per cwt.Free.
Fish, preserved in tins or other airtight process10,1242½d. per lb.Free23d. per lb.Free.
Fruits, preserved in syrup..     VariousVarious58,21740% ad val.35% ad val.
Grain and pulse, not prepared or manufactured39,2131s. 6d. per cental1s. 6d. per cental432,8342s. per cental1s. 6d. per cental.
Hops11,5321s. per lb.9d. per lb.7831s. per lb.9d. per lb.
Milk, dried16,6054d. per lb.25% ad val.4740% ad val.25% ad val.
Milk, preserved, condensed, or evaporated20,1992½d. per lb.25% ad val.22,66340% ad val.25% ad val.
Onions2,431£6 per ton£1 per ton16,846£1 10s. per ton£1 per ton.
Soaps9240% and 45% ad val.30% ad val.55,31345% ad val.30% ad val.
Vegetables, fresh16,0282s. per centalFree18,48035% ad val.Free.
Wine, Australian (not sparkling)..     ..     ..     58,2315s. per gal.4s. per gal.
Wine, Australian (sparkling)..     ..     ..     2,27415s. per gal.10s. per gal.
Apparel and ready-made clothing n.e.i.15055% ad val.25% ad val.111,41640% ad val.25% ad val.
Hats and caps n.e.i...     45% ad val.30% ad val.66,86840% ad val.30% ad val.
Leather belting..     40% ad val.15% ad val. or 3d. per lb.12,41125% ad val. or 5d. per lb.15% ad val. or 3d. per lb.
Leather bags, trunks, portmanteaux—
    (1) Under 10 in. in length..     50% ad val.25% ad val.5,33335% ad val.25% ad val.
    (2) 10 in. and over in length750% ad val.25% ad val.10,92240% ad val.30% ad val.
Boots, shoes, clogs, &c.345% ad val.35% ad val.494,13645% ad val.35% ad val.
Timber, rough-sawn535,789Various (1s. to 7s. per 100 sup. ft.)Free137,9472s. per 100 sup. ft.Free.
Nails (excluding horse-shoe)1£8 per ton£2 per ton22,204£4 per ton£2 per ton.
Paints, ground in oil or turpentine..     Various20% ad val.42,38825% ad val.20% ad val.
Varnishes, lacquers, gold-size, and terebene..     Various20% ad val.22,12725% ad val.20% ad val.

SUBSECTION E.—IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT SUPPLIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN Subsection A of this section reference has been made to the effect on the trade statistics of recent years caused by the accumulation in New Zealand of supplies purchased by the Imperial Government. Early in the war the Imperial Government instituted its vast system of purchases for army and civilian needs, a system which, so far as New Zealand was concerned, encouraged and stimulated production through its guarantee of a ready market to the producer.

The Department of Imperial Government Supplies, primarily constituted for the purpose of controlling the purchase of New Zealand meat, commenced operations on the 3rd March, 1915. Its activities were later extended to include many other items of New Zealand produce, notably wool, butter, cheese, and hides. In addition a considerable amount of business was undertaken by the Department on behalf of the New Zealand Government, such as the purchase of butter and cheese for use in camps and on transports, the administration of the butter equalization funds, the internal arrangements in connection with the sale and shipment of kauri-gum, and the accounts in connection with the purchase of wheat from the Australian Government.

The contracts for the purchase of produce for the Imperial Government continued for some considerable time after the termination of the war, the 31st March, 1921, marking the completion of purchasing operations in the case of butter. The dates of termination in respect of the principal commodities were,—

Frozen meat30th June, 1920.
Cheese1st July, 1920.
Wool and sheep-skins30th September, 1920.
Butter31st March, 1921.

Considerable stocks of the various items remained on hand after the dates mentioned, and it was not until October, 1921, and September, 1922, that the final stocks of meat and wool respectively were shipped.

The total disbursements of the Department from the 3rd March, 1915, to the 31st August, 1922, totalled the huge sum of £160,604,710.

Particulars of the various classes of commodities covered by the purchase scheme are given below.

FROZEN MEAT.

The requisition of frozen meat on behalf of the Imperial Government commenced on the 3rd March, 1915, and from that date to the 30th June, 1920, comprised all beef, mutton, and lamb in store or produced at freezing-works available for shipment.

The preliminary arrangements in connection with this requisition were made at conferences convened by the Prime Minister and attended by representatives of the industry, and the schedule of prices and general arrangements necessary in connection with the requisition were agreed upon and subscribed to by all parties interested.

A condition applying to the prices fixed on the 20th October, 1916, was that they should operate for at least three months after the termination of the war, and that the storage rate previously paid should be reduced by 25 per cent. as from the 1st November, 1916. Important amendments with regard to storage charges, insurance, delivery, and transfer of ownership were embodied in an agreement completed in December, 1917. Provision was also made in this agreement for the withdrawal from storage of meat required for local consumption.

Payment for meat up to June, 1918, was made only when shipment had been effected. After that date, however, advances were made to the extent of 75 per cent. of the value after the meat had been in store six weeks.

The rates are quoted hereunder:—

 Prices operating.
Description.From 3rd March, 1915, to 19th October, 1916.From 20th October, 1916, to 30th June, 1920.
..     d.d.
Wethers, first quality, 72 lb. and under5⅜
″ first quality, over 72 lb. and up to 85 lb.5⅛
″ first quality, over 85 lb. and up to 98 lb. (subject to special approval by Inspector)44⅞
″ second quality5⅛
Ewes, first quality, 72 lb. and under44⅞
″ first quality, over 72 lb. and up to 85 lb.4⅝
″ second quality4⅝
Lamb, specially prime and Canterbury quality, 42 lb. and under5⅝
″ first quality, 42 lb. and under6⅜
″ first quality, over 42 lb.6⅛
″ second quality6⅛
Beef, prime ox5
″ second and heifer
″ boning in quarters4
″ cow, prime
″ cow, second4
″ boneless5
Mutton, legs6⅜
″ shoulders5⅜
″ loins5⅜
″ haunches5

Between the 3rd March, 1915, and the 30th June, 1920, 3,671,885 quarters of beef, 17,447,046 carcases of mutton, 17,681,218 carcases of lamb, and 370,469 carcases (60 lb.) of other meat had been shipped under the Government-purchase scheme. The total payments to the 31st August, 1921, in respect of meat-purchases amounted to £53,160,051.

The shipments during each season since the inauguration of the scheme were,—

Season.Beef (Quarters).Mutton (Carcases).Lamb (Carcases).
1914–15337,7351,986,9612,889,508
1915–16769,8802,421,6903,148,714
1916–17517,7081,575,6001,315,506
1917–18612,9471,871,1971,871,444
1918–19533,4733,182,8863,273,200
1919–20498,0754,236,9654,433,814
1920–21390,2902,139,911740,025
            Totals3,660,10817,415,21017,672,211

The difference between the totals of purchases and shipments is due to the condemnation of 477 quarters of beef, 25,139 carcases of mutton, and 9,007 carcases of lamb, and the loss of 6,697 carcases of mutton (4,987 by fire, and 1,710 by accident to a scow during loading operations). In addition, 11,300 quarters of beef were in store on the 31st August, 1921, and were shipped later.

In addition to frozen beef, mutton, and lamb, purchases were also made of corned beef and mutton, and frozen and canned rabbits.

CHEESE.

During the 1915–16 season one-third of the first grade factory cheese produced in New Zealand was purchased by the Imperial Government on the basis of 7¼d. per pound f.o.b.

In 1916–17 the whole of the output of first- and second-grade factory cheese was purchased at the rates of 9½d. and 9¼d. per pound f.o.b. respectively.

During the 1917–18 season the prices were fixed at 10d. and 9¾d. per pound for first- and second-grade factory cheese respectively, and, in addition, dairy cheese was purchased at 8½d. and 8d. per pound for first and second grades.

Arrangements were also completed to enable the shipment of third-grade factory cheese on the condition that it would be valued on arrival in the United Kingdom and purchased at a price not exceeding 9¼d. per pound. The subsequent valuation of the cheese in London enabled the Imperial Government to authorize the payment of 9½d. per pound instead of the maximum of 9¼d. previously fixed in the negotiations.

The whole output was again purchased in 1918–19 and 1919–20, the prices fixed being 10¾d., 10½d., and 10d. for first-, second-, and third-grade factory cheese respectively, and 9¼d. and 8¾d. for first- and second-grade dairy cheese.

The purchases of cheese during each of the five seasons covered were,—

Season.Number of Crates.Amount.
1915–16189,502918,104
1916–17518,3233,271,982
1917–18756,1425,024,020
1918–19789,5505,667,522
1919–20884,2486,308,040
Totals3,137,765£21,189,668

BUTTER.

The Dominion's output of butter was requisitioned by the Imperial Government as from the 20th November, 1917, the requisition continuing in force until the 31st March, 1921. The f.o.b. prices per hundredweight paid during the four seasons covered were,—

Description.1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.
Creamery—s.d.S.d.s.d.s.d.
    First grade1740181018102800
    Second grade: For each grade-point below first grade, 1s. per cwt. less (1920–21, 1s. 6d. per cwt. less)..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Whey and dairy—
    First grade1508162416242614
    Second grade1460157815782568
Milled—
    First grade1414148414842474
    Second grade1368143814382428

It was also arranged that 50 per cent. of any profit arising from the sale of the butter in the United Kingdom should be distributed to producers.

The purchases of butter during the four seasons aggregated 3,148,510 boxes, of a total value of £16,979,748, the figures for each season being,—

Season.Creamery.Whey and Dairy.Milled.Total.
 Boxes.Boxes.Boxes.Boxes.
1917–18691,55529,4883,652724,695
1918–19635,17629,6142,437667,227
1919–20514,71839,12429553,871
1920–211,157,64934,95510,1131,202,717
Totals2,999,098133,18116,2313,148,510

“GLAXO.”

In October, 1917, arrangements were completed by the Imperial Government for the purchase of considerable quantities of “Glaxo” (dried milk) from the manufacturers in the Dominion.

Up to the 31st March, 1919, some 163,923 tins, valued at £660,769, were purchased for the Imperial Government.

CONDENSED MILK.

The Imperial Government commenced the purchase of condensed milk in the Dominion on the 27th November, 1916. The shipments during the period the system was in operation totalled 66,666 cases, valued at £70,955, the figures for the three financial years affected being,—

Year ended 31st March.Quantity. Cases.Value. £
191719,99821,381
191839,15941,689
19197,5097,885
Totals66,66670,955

SCHEELITE.

The demand for tungstic acid occasioned by the war drew the attention of the Imperial Government to New Zealand's small but useful supplies of scheelite, most of the output of which in years prior to the war had been forwarded to Germany. Accordingly on the 6th September, 1915, notice was given that all supplies were to be requisitioned by the Imperial Government. The price fixed was £2 15s. per unit—i.e., per 1 per cent. tungstic trioxide in respect of ore assaying at least 65 per cent., with a reduction in cases where the assay fell below that point down to 50 units per ton.

From the 1st January, 1917, an additional allowance was made to shippers to cover increased freight and insurance charges. On the 1st January, 1918, the price was increased to £3 per unit for ore assaying 65 per cent. tungstic acid, together with an allowance of 3s. 10d. per unit to cover increased charges since the requisition commenced. From the 1st May, 1918, the price was again increased to £3 8s. per unit—this, however, to cover the allowance previously given.

On the termination of the contract on the 30th April, 1919, the Imperial Ministry of Munitions agreed to pay compensation on the basis of 50 per cent. of the deliveries during the preceding twelve months, or, in certain cases, on the estimated production during the six months following the date mentioned. The total compensation distributed was £19,128.

Shipments of scheelite to the 30th April, 1919, totalled 774 tons, and the payments, inclusive of compensation, amounted to £175,970.

WOOL.

At the request of the Imperial Government, the Dominion Government made arrangements for the purchase of the 1916–17 wool-clip for war purposes.

The prices paid for the wool-clip were fixed at a 55-per-cent. advance on those ruling in 1913–14. The scale of qualities and values (to which 55 per cent. must be added) is as follows:—

Description of Wool.Ranges of Values per Pound, according to Quality.
Superior merino combingsFrom 12d. to 14½d.
Medium to good merino″ 9¾d. ″ 11½d.
Inferior merino″ 8½d. ″ 9½d.
Superior half-bred″ 12d. ″ 14d.
Medium to good half-bred″ 9¾d. ″ 12d.
Inferior half-bred″ 9d. ″ 10d.
Superior crossbred″ 10½d. ″ 12d.
Medium to good crossbred.. ″ 9d. ″ 11d.
Inferior crossbred″ 7¾d. ″ 9d
Lincoln and Leicester″ 8¾d. ″ 10½d.
Lambs, good″ 11d. ″ 13d.
Lambs, medium.. ″ 9d. ″ 10¾d.

The 1917–18, 1918–19, and 1919–20 wool-clips were also accepted on the same terms. In addition the Imperial Government undertook to return to New Zealand wool-growers half the profits on wool sold for other than military purposes.

During the term of the requisition 2,086,951 bales of wool were purchased, representing a total value of £51,296,644. These figures do not include freezing companies' slipe wool, of which 68,869 bales (£2,029,064) were purchased for valuation in the United Kingdom, and 192,323 bales (£5,506,970) were purchased under New Zealand valuations.

The full schedule of prices for freezing companies' slipe wool cannot be given here, but may be found in parliamentary paper H.–38 (1921). The f.o.b. prices per pound tanged downwards from a maximum of 24¾d. for 56's of lamb's combing wool of good quality.

SHEEP-SKINS.

The purchase of sheep-skins by the New Zealand Government on behalf of the Imperial Government commenced on the 5th February, 1917, and continued to the 30th September, 1920. The scale of prices (per pound ex brokers' stores) on which purchases were made is as follows:—

Skins.Merino.Half-bred.Fine Crossbred.Coarse Crossbred.
 d.d.d.d.
Three-quarter to full-woolled, sound10½–11½13–1412–13ll½–12½
Half-woolled, sound8¾–9¾11–1210½-11½10–11½
Short to quarter-woolled, sound7½–8½9¼-10¾9¼-10¾8½–10¾
Shorn, sound5¾–6¾8–98½–9½8–10
Lamb-skins, sound11–12½

All skins with damaged or faulty pelts were valued at prices proportionate to those shown above. After purchase, the skins were allocated to fellmongers for treatment, the resultant slipe wool and pelts being shipped to the United Kingdom.

The total number of skins purchased was 7,666,864, the total disbursements amounting to £3,280,663.

HIDES AND CALF-SKINS.

The purchase of hides and calf-skins on behalf of the Imperial Government commenced on the 19th March, 1917, and ceased on the 28th March, 1918. The schedule of prices was as follows:—

Description.Prices per Pound f.o.b.
Ox-hides—d.
        First quality, over 45 lb., up to freezing companies' best standard13
        First quality, over 45 lb., others12
        Second quality11½
Cow-hides—
        First quality, up to freezing companies' best standard12
        First quality, others11
        Second quality10½
Bull-hides, good quality9
Yearling-hides, first quality11
Calf-skins—
        First quality, under 8 lb.13
        First quality, 8 lb. to 11 lb.12
        First quality, over 11 lb. to 16 lb.11

Other grades and qualities, including cut, scored, and slippy hides, were valued at proportionate prices.

The total number of hides and calf-skins purchased was 370,507, of which 212,649 were sold and the balance (157,858) shipped by the Imperial Supplies Department. The total payments on account of hides and calf-skins were £741,208.

Chapter 12. SECTION XII.—SHIPPING.

REGISTERED VESSELS.

THE number and tonnage of the registered vessels belonging to the several ports of registry in the Dominion on the 31st December, 1921 (distinguishing sailing-vessels and steamers), were as under:—

Port.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.Totals.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
Auckland1068,1196,71222523,35511,90633131,47418,618
Napier4266253283,7832,201324,0492,454
Wellington144,6704,3293813,6456,9335218,31511,262
Nelson49579194,2112,120234,3062,199
Lyttelton113,6283,4892011,2326,3603114,8609,849
Timaru1733690194248821,6751,178
Dunedin207,6087,3356264,10538,1788271,71345,513
Invercargill134231481,09851991,440833
        Totals16125,46123,201401122,37168,705562147,83291,906

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 331 vessels on the Auckland register being under 60 tons. At Dunedin many of the vessels of the Union Steamship Company of New Zealand are registered. Shortly after the outbreak of war, however, several of the principal vessels of this company were transferred to the London register, the large decrease in 1914 as compared with 1913, shown in the next table, being due to this cause.

Year.Sailing-vessels.Steam-vessels.Totals.
Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.Vessels.Gross Tonnage.Net Tonnage.
191224236,55834,308374208,887121,772616245,445156,080
191322533,93131,619391220,186127,691616254,117159,310
191419722,71420,984384135,83877,901581158,55298,885
191519623,54621,762385126,54971,695581150,09593,457
191619023,66421,853390124,83370,442580148,49792,295
191718424,35622,404376115,68365,092560140,03987,496
191817825,20023,158379116,55165,388557141,75188,546
191917424,35422,216382116,26164,943556140,61587,169
192016323,33421,223384116,61164,837547139,94586,060
192116125,46123,201401122,37168,705562147,83291,906

The number of sailing-vessels on the register has decreased rapidly during recent years, there having been a continuous decline since 1907, in which year 323 vessels were on the register. This represents a decrease of 50 per cent. in the number, and the tonnage has decreased by almost the same extent.

OVERSEA SHIPPING.

The number and tonnage of oversea vessels fell steadily throughout the war, and only a partial recovery was effected in 1919. During the year 1920, however, a total of 744 vessels direct from oversea ports was entered inwards, this number constituting a record, as did also the total tonnage for the year—viz., 2,062,370. A fall occurred in 1921, but the grand total of tonnage for that year was nevertheless greater than for any year prior to 1920.

Of late years the tendency has been for vessels of a larger size to be employed in the New Zealand trade, in order to cope with the growing imports and exports of the Dominion and for the purposes of the passenger traffic. The increase over a period of years is thus more noticeable on a comparison of tonnage than by comparing the number of vessels. The number of vessels entered inwards and cleared outwards in 1912 was 1,343, of an aggregate tonnage of 3,340,722 tons—an average of 2,487 tons. The 1,356 vessels in 1921 aggregated 3,884,577 tons, the average being 2,865 tons. Dealing with steamships only (1,154 in 1912 and 1,221 in 1921), the average tonnage is found to be 2,807 and 3,101 tons respectively. The number of sailing-vessels arriving and departing decreased from 189 in 1912 to 135 in 1921, the aggregate tonnage falling in the same time from 101,254 to 97,849 tons.

The number and tonnage of vessels entered and cleared during each of the last ten years, separating steam from sailing, are as shown in the following table:—

OVERSEA SHIPPING, 1912–21.
Year.Entered.Cleared.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.
Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.
1912582951,619,41152,681572941,620,05748,573
1913563821,692,92946,056559761,658,45741,350
1914567791,676,84048,009582751,735,60146,380
1915581571,613,67927,746585641,604,05031,883
1916520541,418,99129,526534561,461,59729,996
1917485581,378,67627,100486611,353,97527,907
191838584867,72953,44335457930,42727,282
1919472921,427,75953,124475991,444,20661,050
1920665792,025,17537,195637701,942,90333,352
1921611671,891,30948,927610681,895,41948,922

NATIONALITY OF VESSELS.

The next table shows the number and tonnage of British, colonial, and foreign vessels entered and cleared in each of the ten years 1912 to 1921.

Year.British.Colonial.Foreign.Total.
Vessels.Tons.     Vessels.Tons.     Vessels.Tons.     Vessels.Tons.     
Entered.
1912153672,289462931,8116267,9926771,672,092
1913171765,943430905,0344468,0086451,738,985
1914191791,529398847,9105785,4106461,724,849
19153141,145,609290439,2923456,5246381,641,425
1916255998,388283388,9613661,1685741,448,517
19172491,008,759262336,0273260,9905431,405,776
1918193838,198289374,1306167,2205431,279,548
19192661,114,479239285,3835981,0215641,480,883
19203631,477,965302403,02579181,3807442,062,370
19213531,386,467280438,68045115,0896781,940,236
Cleared.
1912152680,774459930,6275557,2296661,668,630
1913171748,769420886,4404464,5986351,699,807
1914194826,358407867,1845688,4396571,781,981
19153171,138,873293437,3883959,6726491,635,933
19162591,027,088294400,6463763,8595901,491,593
1917253995,346261327,8223358,7145471,381,882
1918203872,204289377,3835261,0405441,310,627
19192731,139,812239286,0626279,3825741,505,256
19203451,421,814291393,09171161,3507071,976,255
19213561,388,147267417,78655138,4086781,944,341

British vessels have shown a great increase in tonnage over the period under review, and the tonnage of foreign vessels, which, however, represents only a small percentage of the total, has also risen considerably in the past few years. The decrease in the colonial tonnage is mainly duo to the transfer of many of the larger New-Zealand-owned vessels to the London registry early in the war.

The nationality of the foreign-owned vessels entered inwards and cleared outwards in 1911 and 1921 is as follows:—

NATIONALITY OF FOREIGN VESSELS, 1911 AND 1921.
Nationality.1911.1921.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
Vessels.Tons.     Vessels.Tons.     Vessels.Tons.     Vessels.Tons.     
American43,03232,2113281,0143690,720
Danish31,0042694..     ..     ..     ..     
French25,10525,10526,99837,144
German36,03736,037..     ..     ..     ..     
Italian22,85122,851..     ..     ..     ..     
Japanese12001200718,2521026,561
Norwegian2828,6073029,984..     ..     12,533
Peruvian..     ..     ..     ..     15451545
Russian..     ..     ..     ..     11,63311,633
Swedish..     ..     ..     ..     26,64739,272
        Totals4346,8364347,08245115,08955138,408

DIRECTION OF OVERSEA SHIPPING.

Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during the years 1911 and 1921 are given below:—

Country.1911.1921.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.No.Tonnage.
United Kingdom94471,927110513,24977415,020100535,273
Christmas Island24,710..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
India310,828..     ..     412,106..     ..     
Straits Settlements..     ..     ..     ..     13,95611,201
Seychelles Islands11,183..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
South African Union..     ..     ..     ..     26,623..     ..     
Canada1657,887624,71040167,9511269,416
Australia361640,674416777,611407888,2874971,178,138
Fiji2548,3102140,0742870,4612356,223
Maiden Island54,08153,740..     ..     ..     ..     
Nauru (Pleasant) Island..     ..     ..     ..     59,752..     ..     
Norfolk Island280628061403..     ..     
Solomon Islands..     ..     11514031403
Tonga1829,7611931,476363141,695
Western Samoa..     ..     1800179179
Belgium..     ..     ..     ..     28,07813,941
France22,851..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Sweden1928..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
China14,295..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Japan23,188..     ..     23,790..     ..     
Minor Dutch East Indies..     ..     ..     ..     11,201..     ..     
Celebes Island1384..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Sumatra..     ..     ..     ..     11,201..     ..     
Portuguese East Africa32,489..     ..     11,946..     ..     
Argentine46,823..     ..     11,633..     ..     
Brazil1800..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Chile720,17712,153..     ..     ..     ..     
United States of America55147,9261231,53880324,0892484,571
Bismarck Archipelago..     ..     32,944..     ..     ..     ..     
Caroline Islands..     ..     43,295..     ..     ..     ..     
New Caledonia45,007612,12652,92821,022
New Hebrides..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1403
Society Islands1317,3431522,0131011,06299,226
Tuamotu Archipelago..     ..     ..     ..     47,44211,847
Tutuila..     ..     ..     ..     11,1941903
Antarctica..     ..     2852..     ..     ..     ..     
            Totals6211,482,3786241,467,4026781,940,2366781,944,341

OVERSEA SHIPPING.—TONNAGE AT VARIOUS PORTS.

The net tonnage of oversea shipping entered and cleared at the various ports during the years 1911 and 1921 is given in the next table. Vessels arriving from abroad are recorded at the first port of call, and those departing oversea are cleared at the port from which they finally sail.

Port.1911.1921.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
Kaipara6,27638,1901,8466,425
Auckland733,311479,781986,554570,270
Gisborne7,14613,61323,91720,538
Napier2,38610,17722,00924,035
Waitara7,358..     9,817..     
New Plymouth2,4511,16321,85140,297
Wanganui3,8503,00814,1757,855
Wellington417,622472,900573,671831,965
Picton3,1778,8132,7494,979
Nelson1,0676795,1551,208
Westport10,28736,0843,3189,569
Greymouth60628,3352,50826,997
Lyttelton38,04071,636140,923137,892
Timaru9,0289,18116,36311,008
Oamaru1,6073,459..     5,918
Dunedin86,925122,49367,240199,989
Bluff151,056167,70548,14045,396
Totals1,482,3781,467,4021,940,2361,944,341

COASTWISE SHIPPING.

The extensive coast-line and numerous harbours of New Zealand facilitate travelling and the distribution of goods by sea. The total tonnage of coastwise shipping, as shown below, includes that of oversea vessels which, after entry at the first port of arrival, proceed to other ports within the Dominion for the purpose of delivering and loading cargo, each movement until the final sailing being recorded as coastwise shipping.

COASTWISE SHTPPING, 1912–21.
Year.Entered.Cleared.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.
Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.Steam.Sailing.
191223,6543,84312,451,499180,69823,6223,87012,457,316181,718
191321,9373,76411,332,143173,49421,9223,73311,330,078172,715
191423,0193,88012,217,206175,75723,0263,84612,154,108179,761
191521,8903,20410,918,580133,10221,9273,20210,899,058133,519
191621,2283,0929,919,576129,25321,1563,13119,713,698127,182
191718,5032,2838,172,12493,84518,4032,2958,164,40795,808
191817,4921,9676,942,341113,12417,4931,9237,041,489103,059
191917,6311,9767,274,63591,49417,633,1,9747,277,28190,593
192017,8571,5478,068,61075,24117,870,1,5428,097,96873,982
192116,7361,6198,051,11786,66216,7721,5928,012,15782,710

The decrease in 1913 as compared with 1912 is largely accounted for by the strike during the latter part of the year, many coastal vessels being laid up for several weeks during the strike period. Coastwise shipping naturally reflects on a larger scale the effects of the war noticeable in overseas shipping. That this is so will be more readily understood if it be observed that the normal rate of progress from year to year is much greater in the overseas shipping. Despite the difference of ten years (during which there might be expected to be a large increase in shipping commensurate with the Dominion's developments in other directions), there is a big drop shown in the coastwise shipping handled in 1921 as compared with 1912.

In the next table is given information showing tonnage of vessels entered and cleared coastwise at each port in the years 1911 and 1921.

COASTWISE SHIPPING AT VARIOUS PORTS, 1911 AND 1921.
Ports.1911.1921.
Tonnage entered.Tonnage cleared.Tonnage entered.Tonnage cleared.
Herekino2,9333,020..     ..     
Mangonui28,73328,73324,45424,464
Whangaroa51,16350,58545,58444,066
Russell62,30362,63050,02543,726
Whangarei142,926138,531201,619204,630
Whangape6,9935,2961,484830
Hokianga31,10019,10715,69910,184
Kaipara55,4578,1379,4624,883
Whangaparapara..     ..     4,3704,370
Auckland1,088,8391,339,649774,9121,210,491
Onehunga134,469133,93492,06191,262
Coromandel25,75425,7547,2807,280
Whitianga..     ..     9,1649,164
Thames121,159117,95877,84877,746
Tauranga52,89851,15753,48753,487
Whakatane..     ..     37,36046,857
Gisborne649,316643,125323,083323,253
Napier849,207838,888464,197440,672
Waitara55,39463,49950210,240
New Plymouth167,353168,072194,674166,071
Patea18,34318,34516,41316,432
Wanganui145,109145,217133,516147,052
Foxton23,98423,0553,4233,392
Wellington2,577,0922,516,7512,124,0801,850,200
Wairau20,13220,1068,9719,027
Picton422,481417,501283,931280,571
Nelson404,173404,263229,836230,290
Westport647,971622,165247,491241,785
Greymouth381,821344,451194,903170,519
Hokitika3,0723,181345345
Lyttelton2,099,0112,098,7431,375,0981,369,185
Timaru434,523424,388301,700307,055
Oamaru168,083166,11999,46896,129
Dunedin997,344951,535561,879430,846
Bluff397,518381,876169,430168,373
Totals12,266,65412,235,7718,137,7798,094,867

PRINCIPAL PORTS.

Viewed from the standpoint of shipping handled in 1921, Wellington is the principal port of the Dominion, followed by Auckland and Lyttelton. Wellington and Lyttelton are the termini of the daily inter-Island ferry service, and to this fact is due a large part of the coastwise shipping entered and cleared from these two ports. The table which follows summarizes the shipping of the principal ports of the Dominion for the year 1921:—

Port.Oversea.Coastwise.Total.
Entered.Cleared.Entered.Cleared.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tone.
Wellington573,671831,9652,124,0801,850,2005,379,916
Auckland986,554570,270774,9421,210,4913,542,257
Lyttelton146,923137,8921,375,0981,369,1853,023,098
Dunedin67,240199,989561,879430,8461,259,954
Napier22,00924,035464,197440,672950,913
Gisborne23,91720,538323,083323,253690,791
Timaru16,36311,008301,700307,055636,126
Wairau (including Picton)2,7494,979283,931280,571590,228
Westport3,3189,569247,491241,785502,163
Nelson5,1551,208229,836230,290466,489
Bluff48,14045,396169,430168,373431,339
New Plymouth21,85140,297194,674166,071422,893

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.

The examinations for masters, mates, engineers, &c., of vessels are controlled by the Marine Department, and the regulations relating to these examinations are based upon those of the Imperial Board of Trade, with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions; but the British Board of Trade recognizes the following New Zealand certificates only as of Imperial validity: Master, extra; master, ordinary; master, steamship; first mate, only mate, and second mate, ordinary and steamship; first- and second-class marine engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the British Board of Trade.

New methods of examination were adopted by the Board of Trade in 1918, and corresponding regulations were made in New Zealand and came into force on the 1st October, 1918.

During 1921–22 some 551 candidates sat for examinations. Of the 430 who passed, 236 were masters, mates, and engineers of seagoing ships, and 29 of ships plying within restricted limits; 60 were engineers of seagoing motor-propelled boats, and 105 engineers of such boats plying within restricted limits.

SURVEY OF SHIPS.

The Shipping and Seamen Act of 1908, and its amendment of 1909, provide for an annual survey by Government surveyors of all vessels, with a view to ensuring their seaworthiness. Certificates of survey were issued in 1921–22 to 278 steamers, 532 oil-engine vessels, and 51 sailing-vessels.

LIGHTHOUSES.

The long coast-line of the Dominion is marred in many places by hidden rocks or reefs and other perils to navigation. This has compelled the erection of some sixty-five lighthouses of various types. No fewer than seventeen of these are situated in the stormy area of Cook Strait and the bays opening therefrom, reaching from where the red and white rays of Cape Farewell light give warning of the seven-mile-long sandspit at the northern extremity of the South Island to the bluff shore marked by the Cape Palliser light at the southern point of the North Island.

The buildings are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations. In some thirty-three cases the light apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its rays through a combination of surrounding lenses. The Aga light is used in twenty lighthouses, while the remainder have the Pintsch-gas system, incandescent lights, port lights, or Wigham beacon-lamps.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen Island, which, placed some 70 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32½ miles. Next in order come the Cape Brett light (altitude 510 ft.), visible at 30½ miles; Godley Head (altitude 450 ft.), visibility 29 miles; Cuvier Island light (altitude 390 ft.), Manukau (altitude 385 ft.), and Mokohinau (altitude 385 ft.), all of which have a visibility of 27 miles. Seventeen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over.

The majority of lighthouses are equipped with flags and lamps, the keepers being competent to receive or transmit messages. Lights outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities are maintained by the Marine Department.

The average cost of erection and equipment of the coastal lighthouses was about £6,000 per light. The two most costly were Cape Brett Lighthouse (£11,237) on the Auckland Peninsula, and Dog Island Lighthouse (£10,481) in Foveaux Strait. The average cost of maintenance for 1921–22 was: Salaries, £671; oil and stores, &c., £219: total, £890. Light dues collected at the various ports in 1921–22 were as follows: Auckland, £17,950; Wellington, £10,925; Lyttelton, £3,805; Dunedin, £1,737; other ports. £6,894: making a total of £41,311.

WRECKS.

In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in or near the coast of New Zealand a Collector of Customs, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer where the damage has resulted from his wrongful act or default.

Should any wreck occur on the coast the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

During the year 1921–22 sixty-two inquiries into shipping casualties were held, seven of which were Magisterial. Only one life was lost during the year, the master of the oil-engine vessel “Turanga” being drowned in the wreck of the vessel on the Mokau River bar.

A summary of shipping casualties in or near New Zealand coasts in the past year is as follows:—

Strandings—No.Tonnage.
    Total wrecks2106
    Partial loss4333
    Slight damage62,173
    No damage1131
Foundered177
Collisions—
    Partial loss515,148
    Slight damage22,777
    No damage71,074
Fires—
    Total loss3552
    Partial loss3417
    Slight damage24,953
    No damage23,897
Miscellaneous248,832
                  Totals6240,470

Chapter 13. SECTION XIII.—RAILWAYS.

RAILWAY history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860 only. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton. The first portion of this line was opened on the 1st December, 1863, so that to Canter bury Province belongs the honour of first having railway communication within its borders. Four years later the Lyttelton Tunnel (1½ miles long) had been pierced and the line completed. Meanwhile other lines were being proceeded with inland towards the Canterbury Plains. Following the lead of Canterbury Province, the Provincial Council of Southland commenced in 1863 a line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour, which was opened on the 5th February, 1867. Driven by the necessity for efficient military transport, the Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

The effect of the various short railways being constructed by different authorities is apparent in the divers gauges adopted. The General Government recommended the adoption of a 5 ft. 6 in. gauge; nevertheless the Canterbury lines were using a 5 ft. 3 in. gauge, while the Auckland and Otago lines had the standard English gauge of 4 ft. 8 in.

Happily, these troubles were solved by the historic Railways Act of 1870. At this date only forty-six miles of railway were in operation. This Act, which was part of the public-works policy of the late Sir Julius Vogel, provided a general railway policy for the colony. Six years later, when the abolition of provinces placed the earlier-constructed lines in the hands of the General Government, railway mileage had risen to 718 miles.

Although practically all the railways are State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and Wellington–Manawatu Railway Companies. The former line, of which some eighty-seven miles were in use, was taken over by the Government on the 27th May, 1895. The latter, from Wellington to Longburn, a distance of some eighty-four miles, was acquired for the State by purchase in December, 1908.

STATE RAILWAYS.

At the present time them are some 3,021 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into nine distinct sections, as follows:—

Section.Length. Miles.
North Island main lines and branches1,133
Whangarei80
Kaihu20
Gisborne49
            Total, North Island1,282
South Island main lines and branches1,429
Westland157
Westport36
Nelson61
Picton56
            Total, South Island1,739

Government railways are constructed by the Public Works Department, and are transferred to the Railways Department when completed.

The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., and a steel rail of 70 lb. weight per lineal yard is the standard for the permanent-way, and is in use on some 1,354 miles of line. Some 1,518 miles are still in 53 1b., 55 1b., and 56 1b. steel rails, and most of the remainder is of lighter material. Sleepers, which are laid down to the number of 2,100 to the mile, are principally Australian hardwoods or New Zealand silver-pine or totara.

ROLLING-STOCK.

Since 1901 all carriages and wagons required for use on the State railways have been manufactured in the railway workshops of the Dominion. Most of the locomotives also are now built in the Dominion, partly in the railway workshops and partly by an engineering firm at Thames. The Railways Department commenced building new engines in 1889 in the Addington Workshops (Christchurch). Since that year building operations have been gradually extended, the work being restricted to two of the four principal workshops of the Department. One of these, Addington, has specialized in tender-engines, while the other, Hillside (Dunedin), has confined itself to the construction of tank engines. Up to the present time 194 new locomotives have been built by the Department, of which 72 were tender-engines and 122 tank engines. The weights of the tender-engines in working trim vary from 63 to 94 tons, while those of the tank engines run from 29½ to 71 tons.

A new passenger locomotive, Class AB, was brought into operation during 1915, and has been adopted as a standard type. This is a simple superheated tender-engine of the “Pacific” type—weight in working trim, 79 tons; tractive power, 20,000 lb. The AB locomotive is of sufficient power to be also easily adapted for use as a goods engine. The standard goods locomotive used is of the four-cylinder balanced compound type, weighs 94 tons, and has a tractive power of 29,840 lb. Standard carriages are 50 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate forty-four passengers, and lighted by the Pintsch-gas system. The Westinghouse brake is fitted to all rolling-stock with the exception of that on the Kaihu, Picton, Nelson, and Westport Sections.

Information as to the rolling-stock in use on the State railways in each of the last ten years is given in the following table:—

Year ended 31st-March.Locomotives.Passenger Vehicles.Wagons and Brake-vans.
19135131,28219,515
19145341,36320,251
19155571,39721,226
19165851,45221,994
19176071,48022,380
19186241,48822,517
19196201,48922,658
19206161,49222,937
19216081,49223,119
19226371,49623,974

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.

The following statement shows the number of miles of Government railways open in the Dominion, the number of train-miles travelled and of passengers carried, and the tonnage of goods traffic for the last twenty years:—

Year ended 31st March.Length open (Miles).Train-mileage.Passengers.Season Tickets issued.Goods and Live-stock.*
* The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given.
     Tons.
19032,2915,443,3337,575,390118,4313,918,261
19042,3285,685,3998,306,383129,9194,259,217
19052,3746,107,0798,514,112140,4534,185,468
19062,4076,413,5738,826,382147,9894,415,166
19072,4586,755,4549,600,786165,5044,824,563
19082,4747,051,2749,756,716185,1745,070,176
19092,6747,458,23610,457,144192,5475,135,408
19102,7177,889,16611,141,142199,3715,490,018
19112,7538,141,07511,200,613222,1045,863,674
19122,7988,371,68711,891,134236,9575,887,908
19132,8519,016,22413,123,879265,2596,246,128
19142,8549,319,26813,355,893287,0376,019,633
19152,9459,383,42013,565,772302,9126,453,472
19162,9609,356,52214,201,506330,6226,370,945
19172,9609,146,33114,173,115355,8326,239,172
19182,9837,468,64611,408,156322,4875,742,968
19192,9837,477,58311,374,521351,1245,613,739
19202,9967,408,60812,760,814400,6216,000,279
19213,0099,303,39215,315,640464,6916,487,279
19223,0218,717,26514,262,440472,8656,321,351

The figures for passengers in the foregoing table are exclusive of season-ticket holders. If these be included the total number of passengers in 1921–22 becomes 28,121,763, as against 28,821,783 in 1920–21.

In the railway traffic returns a distinction is made between timber, minerals, cattle, and sheep and pigs. The figures for each of these commodities for the last twenty years are,—

Year ended 31st March.Timber.Minerals.Cattle.Sheep and Pigs.
 Tons.Tons.Number.Number.
1903436,0081,604,426102,4613,883,177
1904509,7121,744,323107,4353,826,646
1905493,3271,806,360110,9243,490,752
1906534,5331,938,548119,3113,441,387
1907567,8352,135,446133,0314,776,223
1908616,8922,319,913150,7514,719,087
1909582,8602,342,048159,8845,329,115
1910523,8452,486,121176,4125,253,692
1911627,1072,655,250210,8486,071,670
1912718,4142,676,783207,5465,601,711
1913695,0602,760,983221,5955,524,935
1914676,8582,551,614254,2917,006,268
1915621,9632,988,028314,2197,086,461
1916625,8662,831,959371,5297,387,269
1917579,4282,787,523402,7697,269,544
1918523,7842,572,576362,1346,502,090
1919487,7292,444,007346,5446,691,760
1920611,1712,300,760357,9767,316,556
1921717,7012,515,464376,7457,129,222
1922708,2122,481,048279,9047,635,515

Up to and including 1915–16, wool and grain figures were also shown separately, but are not available for subsequent years. Grain carried in 1915–16 aggregated 1,061,987 tons, and wool 154,633 tons.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.

The total cost of construction of open lines up to the 31st March, 1922, was £39,309,097. The amount spent on lines in course of construction and not handed over to the Working Railways Department for traffic purposes was £5,380,651, making the total capital invested in State railways £44,689,748. The figures for each of the last five years are given.

CAPITAL INVESTED IN STATE RAILWAYS, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22:
 £     £     £     £     £     
Lines open for traffic36,001,43236,167,68136,390,11537,235,25439,309,097
Lines under construction2,796,7313,093,2013,607,2254,190,2425,380,651
            Totals38,798,16339,260,88239,997,34041,425,49644,689,748

So varied are the geographical features of the Dominion that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. The numerous mountain-chains and the innumerable rivers fed by the heavy rainfall make railway-construction in general both difficult and expensive, as the next statement shows:—

COMPARISON OF COST AND REVENUE OF EACH SECTION, 1921–22.
Section.Capital Cost of Open lines to 31st March, 1922.Capital Cost per Mile (Open Lines).Net Revenue, 1921–22.
Per Mile of Open Line.Per Cent, of Capital Cost.
* Loss.
North Island—£     £     £     £     
    Whangarei877,24410,966– 133.37*– 1.22*
    Kaihu100,2655,013– 47.15*– 0.94*
    Gisborne688,37814,049116.880.83
    Main lines and branches17,725,19315,644461.882.95
                  Totals19,391,08015,126403.612.67
South Island—
Westland2,206,55114,05487.520.62
    Westport600,00516,833829.784.93
    Nelson444,7817,291–136.25*–1.87*
    Picton684,68612,227– 36.61*–0.30*
    Main lines and branches15,377,59510,761– 97.62*–0.91*
                  Totals19,319,61811,111– 61.09*–0.55*
Lake Wakatipu steamer service43,708..     ..     –12.17*
Stock of stores, &c.554,691..     ..     ..     
                Grand totals39,309,09713,012134.351.03

The cost of construction has been relatively greater in the North Island than in the South, but the net revenue per mile of open line and per cent. of capital cost has in recent years been considerably greater in the North than in the South. The Westport Section shows a greater capital cost per mile than any other section, but it gives in general the highest percentage of net revenue.

REVENUE.

The railways of New Zealand have been looked upon more as adjuncts to the settlement of the country and the development of its natural resources than as an investment from which large profits should directly accrue. For many years a profit of 3 per cent. was regarded as sufficient, and any excess over this rate was followed by reductions in passenger charges or in freights. Consequent on the extension of settlement and the soundness of the Dominion's industries, a higher rate than 3 per cent. has been aimed at in recent years. The rate looked for in 1909–10 was 3¾ per cent., in 1910–11 4 per cent., followed in 1911–12 by a return to 3¾ per cent. These rates were obtained, as will be seen from the table following. The rates for 1913–14 and 1914–15 fell below expectations, a result due in the earlier year to the extended strike which obtained during nearly three months of the year and to the outbreak of smallpox in the North Island, and in the later year to the outbreak of the European War. In 1915–16 and 1916–17, however, there were considerable increases, bringing the revenue up to 4¾ per cent. and 5¼ per cent. respectively. The returns for the next three years all fell slightly below the figure for 1916–17; in 1920–21 there was an abrupt fall to somewhat less than 3½ per cent., and in 1921–22 the unprecedentedly low figure of slightly over 1 per cent. was reached, a state of affairs brought about by high running-costs, the competition of motor transport, and especially the state of depression which was in evidence during the year.

Information as to the revenue of the railways during each of the last twenty years is given in the following table:—

RAILWAY REVENUE, 1902–3 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Gross Revenue fromTotal Gross Revenue.Net Revenue.Percentage of Net Revenue to Capital Cost.
Passenger-fares.Parcels, Luggage, and Mails.Goods and Live-stock.Rents and Miscellaneous.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £s.d.
1903625,69887,2731,189,10171,9661,974,038630,623361
1904704,660110,1511,293,16972,6612,180,641741,9173118
1905738,158115,0511,277,97678,0462,209,231716,331360
1906786,873142,6421,346,03874,1512,349,704728,465349
1907892,053151,9131,498,68681,9482,624,600812,118391
1908912,978176,8761,582,32889,7562,761,938812,179368
19091,011,658187,0401,630,704100,1242,929,526814,711327
19101,171,040192,5851,772,547113,6183,249,7901,080,3163160
19111,223,412193,7891,961,078115,9033,494,1821,190,910413
19121,319,114203,3342,032,785121,2763,676,5091,210,6133197
19131,461,873215,2092,157,686136,2343,971,0021,265,393409
19141,450,480236,7612,209,398146,6894,043,3281,163,0053123
19151,482,382227,5212,249,399146,1554,105,4571,185,0023107
19161,722,702236,7052,423,493165,4564,548,3561,637,4734144
19171,873,048243,8322,498,862185,0684,800,8101,873,9465511
19181,802,597254,1102,465,241165,7524,687,7001,644,79341111
19191,950,281258,5252,608,336171,4904,988,6321,680,05741211
19202,303,987290,4532,956,237201,8105,752,4871,647,4204108
19212,658,079335,7543,676,665238,0336,908,5311,271,931384
19222,418,227339,4823,646,594239,2886,643,590405,864108

The revenue from passenger-fares during the year 1921–22 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £1 17s. 7d. per head of mean population, including Maoris. The total revenue was equal to £5 33. 4d. per capita.

A table is added showing information as to railway revenue in each of the Australian States for the year ended 30th June, 1921. Figures for New Zealand for the year ended 31st March, 1921, are also given.

REVENUE OF GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1920–21.
State.Miles of Line open.Train-miles run (,000 omitted).Gross Revenue (,000 omitted).Net Revenue.
Amount (,000 omitted).Per Train-mile.Per Cent, of Capital.
* Loss.
   £     £s.d. 
Queensland5,75210,7365,27923000.56
New South Wales5,04322,79214,2673,2342103.93
Victoria4,26715,9099,7961,96023.27
South Australia2,3335,7132,942287101.48
Western Australia3,5384,9182,72029811.64
Tasmania6301,38760012412.30
Federal lines1,733811333–166*–4*–1.49*
Totals for Australia23,29662,26635,9375,9671112.51
New Zealand3,0219,3036,6431,2722342

EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure on State railways open for traffic during the year ended 31st March, 1922, amounted to £6,237,727, or 93.89 per cent. of the gross revenue, as compared with 81.59 per cent. in 1920–21 and 60.97 per cent. in 1916–17. The figures for each of the last twenty years are as follows:—

 Expenditure.
Year ended 31st March.Amount. £Per Cent, of Revenue.
19031,343,41568.05
19041,438,72465 98
19051,492,90067.58
19061,621,23969.00
19071,812,48269.06
19081,949,75970.59
19092,114,81572.19
19102,169,47466.76
19112,303,27265.92
19122,465,89667.07
19132,705,60968.13
19142,880,32371.24
19152,920,45571.14
19162,910,88364.00
19172,926,86460.97
19183,042,90764.91
19193,308,57566.32
19204,105,06771.37
19215,636,60181.59
19226,237,72793.89

The expenditure under various heads for each of the last ten years has been as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Maintenance of Way.*Locomotive Power.Carriages and Wagons.Traffic.Lake Wakatipu Steamers.Head and Departmental Offices.Total.
* Including “Signal and Electrical “—£72,343 in 1921–22.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
1913765,860833,146226,146768,9366,619104,9022,705,609
1914763,207921,564232,745838,2227,046117,5392,880,323
1915738,550954,868228,145870,3926,085122,4152,920,455
1916740,349934,737225,968889,9916,377113,4612,910,883
1917720,840937,780238,868904,3186,602118,4562,926,864
1918710,655902,222283,248954,1427,664124,9763,042,907
1919752,5581,075,489306,3081,032,6096,985134,6263,308,575
1920837,9101,397,993387,4981,301,9357,964171,7674,105,067
19211,053,0492,124,877531,9351,712,37610,458203,9065,636,601
19221,184,2272,567,382506,7821,703,04913,339202,9486,237,727

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.

The number of men employed in operating the State railways at the 31st March, 1922, was 15,602. The staff is divided into two divisions—namely, the first or clerical division, and the second or out-of-door division—and is further classed in four branches, as shown in the following table, which gives the number of employees in March of each of the last ten years:—

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
As at 31st March.General.Traffic.Maintenance.Locomotive.Total.
19137184,4694,2404,78614,213
19146004,6763,9524,94814,176
19156324,7534,0655,16414,614
19106935,0413,9315,30314,968
19176754,7983,5864,64913,708
19186604,6123,4104,32013,002
19196614,5053,3473,87812,391
19208764,7403,3644,40513,385
19219274,9303,5764,81914,252
19229745,1383,8555,69515,662

Railway employees are under a system of classification, first introduced in 1896, and revised at various times since then.

Appeal Boards (one in each Island) have been constituted to hear and redress grievances of men dissatisfied with decisions respecting the withholding of annual increments, promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline involving fines in excess of £2. Each Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railway service elected by the members thereof. The Minister of Railways has the power of veto in respect of any decision of the Board.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railway service was established in 1903. Full information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Pensions, Superannuation, &c.”

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.

The history of railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from accidents of a serious nature. A table is given dealing with railway accidents during each of the last ten years.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.To Passengers.To Employees.To Others.FatalSerious,Minor.Total.
1913886839225888915
1914181,008252741,0201,051
191515973282879811,016
19162891927336935974
19172585222248867899
191811765292213770805
191933715292322732777
192022827394234812888
1921109874124449701,038
192281,2151622431,1741,239

Of the persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1921–22, 4 were passengers, 7 employees, and 11 neither passengers nor employees. Of the non-fatal accidents, 103 were classified as train accidents, 334 as accidents on line (other than train-running), 120 as shunting accidents, 228 as accidents on wharves and in sheds, and 432 as accidents in railway workshops.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.

Private railways have a total mileage of 135 miles. A complete list is as follows:—

Railway.Location.Length of Railway.
  M.c.L.
Waipa Railway and Collieries (Limited)Ngaruawahia5500
Taupo Totara Timber Company (Limited)Putaruru50400
Waihi Gold-mining Company (Limited)Waikino5720
Sanson TramwaySanson–Himatangi1700
Castlecliff RailwayWanganui–Castlecliff3400
Napier Harbour Board's linePort Ahuriri12450
Waronui Coal CompanyMilton5330
Taratu Coal CompanyLovell's Flat7470
Kaitangata Coal CompanyStirling5450
Dunedin City Corporation's Ocean Beach RailwayDunedin(about)3140
Nightcaps Coal CompanyWairio–Nightcaps23363
Ohai RailwayFrom Wairio5600
Westport Harbour BoardWestport–Cape Foulwind and quarries16140
Denniston Incline (Westport Coal Company's line)Waimangaroa–Conn's Creek120
Paparoa Company's Railway(Worked by N.Z.R.)16821
Reefton Coal CompanyReefton2200
Tongariro Timber CompanyKakahi..     ..     ..     
                          Total mileage..     135334

Chapter 14. SECTION XIV.—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC.

POST-OFFICES.

AT the 31st December, 1921, there were 2,178 post-offices in New Zealand, this number being exclusive of 58 receiving offices and 10 travelling post-offices. At the same date there were 1,907 street letter-boxes in the Dominion. The number of post-offices, reckoning only those which are combined receiving and delivering offices, has shown a decrease in each of the last five years, the figures for which are,—

Year.Number of Post-offices.
19172,305
19182,288
19192,240
19202,207
19212,178

POSTAL BUSINESS.

The following table, showing the number of articles posted and delivered during each of the last ten years, gives an indication of the extent to which the people of New Zealand utilize the postal facilities:—

Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Pattern-packets.Parcels.Newspapers.
1912214,184,11911,252,52761,364,9173,359,39743,460,016
1913223,961,20010,462,89456,127,6844,275,83443,572,769
1914233,901,32010,585,04265,709,9085,055,14743,779,983
1915242,547,8599,242,79257,693,1305,724,57641,311,635
1916242,121,3618,133,69748,868,5376,085,10341,807,999
1917245,796,9457,549,86744,934,2186,314,87640,366,792
1918242,527,3697,145,60642,301,2306,376,46935,476,212
1919247,143,1837,292,92244,320,3856,193,47535,498,263
1920259,743,2346,937,55449,619,1616,588,29337,859,247
1921253,767,1316,548,65553,635,9516,464,24438,680,982

The average number of letters, &c., actually posted in the Dominion per head of mean population in the last ten years is as shown in the next table:—

ARTICLES POSTED PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION, 1912–21.
Year.Letters and Letter-cards.Post-cards.Books and Parcels.Newspapers.Total.
1912102.065.0031.5218.89157.47
1913101.914.3628.1417.81152.22
1914105.014.5133.3718.15161.04
1915111.533.7731.4016.94163.64
1916109.543.2025.8017.20155.74
1917110.273.0024.4716.60154.34
1918112.572.9423.5716.14154.22
1919111.332.9924.2714.64153.23
1920109.092.6225.0414.18160.93
192199.462.3426.7913.49142.08

During recent years the Post Office has made very substantial extensions in the establishment of rural-mail deliveries. Many of these are performed by officers mounted on motor-cycles. By means of such deliveries it has been possible to give settlers living in the back country an efficient service.

PARCEL-POST.

The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and without the Dominion have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 11 lb. in weight being sent to almost all the important countries of the world, and up to 28 lb. in weight for inland parcels for or from places served the whole way by railway or steamer.

The following table shows the number of parcels exchanged with the United Kingdom, the Australian States, &c., in 1921:—

Country.Number of Parcels.
Received.Despatched.
 Number.lb.     Number.lb.     
United Kingdom and foreign countries, via London128,373741,48221,67983,386
United States of America38,167237,9264,16117,676
Canada4,15926,3661,2684,256
Victoria20,86097,1444,37713,860
New South Wales33,647139,3877,97326,366
South Australia7541,9575231,430
Queensland1,1203,1551,0042,697
Tasmania3115795411,454
Western Australia5411,1724401,185
Fiji4921,4641,6385,828
Ceylon3831,674110433
Cape of Good Hope8602,510140561
Natal..     ..     373987
India1,85810,2647814,023
Tonga532017763,194
Tahiti1346981,2629,378
Hong Kong1,75914,5183611,375
Straits Settlements2278252761,001
Solomon Islands..     ..     1733
                Totals233,6981,281,32247,700179,123

The declared value of the parcels received from places outside the Dominion during 1921 was £1,318,733, on which the Customs duty amounted to £244,684.

NEWSPAPERS.

There are (January, 1922) 271 publications on the register of newspapers for New Zealand. Of these, some 60 are published daily, 15 being morning papers and 45 evening papers. Thirty appear three times per week, 26 twice per week, 71 weekly, 1 every ten days, 4 fortnightly, and 79 monthly.

MONEY-ORDERS AND POSTAL NOTES.

The number of offices open for the transaction of money-order business at the end of 1921 was 844.

During 1921, 669,383 money-orders, for a total sum of £4,850,820, were issued at the various post-offices. The money-orders from places beyond New Zealand and payable in the Dominion numbered 34,259, for the amount of £194,860.

The number of offices open for the sale of postal notes at the end of 1921 was 1,069: 2,377,622 postal notes were sold, value £739,783. The notes paid numbered 2,363,766, of a total value of £708,917.

British postal orders issued in the Dominion during the year numbered 99,892, of a value amounting to £58,063. Those paid numbered 36,997, and represented £21,372.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

Up to the 31st March, 1922, a total sum of £5,090,522 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1921–22 was £681,076.

There were 13,767 miles of telegraphic and inter-urban telephone pole line open at the end of March, 1922, carrying 52,177 miles of wire. Of the latter, 11,571 miles were in use exclusively for telephone toll traffic, 13,847 exclusively for telegraphic traffic, and 26,759 simultaneously for toll and telegraphic traffic, making totals of 38,330 available for toll traffic and 40,606 for the transmission of telegrams. A total of 9,071 miles of wire have been gained to the 31st March, 1922, for the purpose of telegraphic transmission, by the superimposing of existing telephone circuits.

During the year ended 31st March, 1922, telegrams and toll communications to the number of 12,934,465 were transmitted, 12,782,037 of these being “paid” messages, and the balance free Government telegrams. The revenue from telegrams was £685,855, to which should be added £614,367 revenue of telephone exchanges, and £12,009 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £1,312,231.

A table is given showing the growth of telegraph business since 1866. A falling-off in volume is disclosed for the last two years.

Year endedNumber of Telegrams and Toll Messages forwarded during the Year.Revenue (including Miscellaneous Receipts).Value of Government Messages.Total Value of Business done during the Year.
Private and Press.Government.Total.Telegraph.Telephone.
    £     £     £     £     
30 June, 186624,7612,74627,4075,562..     4836,045
″ 1876890,382160,7041,051,08662,716..     16,15478,870
31 Dec., 18861,583,717252,5491,836,266106,639..     27,281133,920
31 Mar., 18961,899,632224,5792,124,21197,17825,93325,844148,955
″ 19065,351,084289,1355,640,219184,36989,54224,168298,079
″ 191610,708,910127,84110,836,751549,627287,5479,085846,259
″ 191710,734,168140,95210,875,120527,249317,27510,774855,298
″ 191811,510,710114,01011,624,720516,865344,3686,949868,182
″ 191911,989,882101,13512,091,017615,786373,1695,036993,991
″ 192014,957,615116,45215,074,067619,188419,3185,8301,044,336
″ 192113,884,466116,38514,000,851704,228533,5357,0361,244,799
″ 192212,782,037152,42812,934,465697,864614,3678,4581,320,689

Prior to the 1st September, 1869, inland telegrams were charged for on a mileage basis. From that date a uniform rate was fixed of 2s. 6d. for ten words and 6d. for each additional five words. From the 1st April, 1870, the minimum charge was reduced to 1s. From the 1st November, 1873, the rate was further reduced to 1s. for ten words and 1d. for each additional word, address and signature, hitherto charged for, being free up to ten words. From the 1st July, 1877, there was introduced the “urgent” code, at double the ordinary rate. From the 1st July, 1878, a “delayed” system was introduced, the rate being fixed at 6d. for ten words, exclusive of address and signature, up to ten words and ½d. for each additional word. From the 1st February, 1892, the number of words allowed for the minimum charge in each case was increased to twelve, with free address and signature up to six words. From the 15th August, 1892, the ordinary rate was fixed at 1s. for eighteen words, including address and signature. From the 1st June, 1896, the rate was fixed at 6d. for twelve words, including address and signature, and 1d. for each additional word, and “delayed” telegrams were abolished. From the 1st November, 1906, the charge for additional words was reduced to ½d. each. From the 23rd September, 1915, the ordinary rate was increased from 6d. to 8d. for twelve words (“urgent,” 1s. 2d.); and on the 1st August 1920, it was further increased to 1s. for twelve words and 1d. for each additional word; (“urgent,” 2s. and 2d. for each additional word); Sundays and holidays, double rates. From the 1st November, 1920, there was introduced a system of night letter-telegrams, to be delivered by post on the morning following the day of presentation. The rate for night letter-telegrams is 1s. 6d. for thirty-six words and ½d. for each additional word.

TELEPHONES.

At the 31st March, 1922, there were 301 telephone exchanges in the Dominion, being an increase of 5 during the year.

The telephone-exchange system in use is generally of the magneto type, branching multiple switchboards being installed in the principal exchanges. In three installations the common battery system is in operation.

Automatic-telephone exchanges (Western Electric type) were opened at Masterton on the 31st May, 1919, Courtenay Place and Wellington South on the 18th October, 1919, Blenheim on the 28th April, 1920, Hamilton on the 29th August, 1920, and Oamaru on the 28th January, 1922. The installations at Courtenay Place and Wellington South form part of the Wellington urban network, which will eventually include additional exchanges in Featherston Street, Kelburn, Khandallah, and the Hutt Valley.

The installation of automatic exchanges (Western Electric type) is now proceeding at several Auckland stations (where the system will eventually embrace the whole of the urban area), Palmerston North, and Kelburn. At Wanganui the installation of an automatic exchange (Strowger type) has been commenced. At other centres at which it has been decided to install automatic exchanges buildings are being erected to accommodate the necessary equipment.

The demand for telephone connections at the four centres has been exceptionally heavy; and, as the original manual boards could not be further extended, auxiliary branch exchanges—both automatic and manual—have been installed as a temporary relief of the situation.

The number of telephone connections at 31st March, 1922, was 94,683, including 14,371 extensions. Service telephones numbering 1,376, and 2,633 telephone bureau stations, are included. The average distance of subscribers from the exchanges with which they are connected is 70 chains for the Dominion as a whole, and 87 chains for the average of the four chief centres.

The distribution of telephones to the population of the Dominion and of the four principal centres on the 31st March, 1922, was as follows:—

 Inhabitants per Telephone.
Dominion13
Auckland15
Wellington10
Christchurch13
Dunedin12

The “party” line system of telephone service is being largely availed of, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from the exchange. In March, 1922, the number of party-line connections was 5,937, with a total of 20,988 subscribers.

The first coin-in-slot telephones erected in the Dominion were installed at Wellington on the 17th August, 1910. There are now 339 such instruments in use in the Dominion, the charges for which are as follows:—

One penny280
Twopence37
Threepence14
Sixpence8

The revenue of slot telephones during the year ended 31st March, 1922, was £20,188

The telephone-exchange system included on the 31st March, 1922, 5,984 miles of pole line and 207,529 miles of wire, of which 141,274 miles were in use.

Originally the system was worked by single aerial earth-connected wires, but these were replaced some years ago at the more important exchanges by aerial and subterranean lead-covered cables, and the circuits made wholly metallic. The system of subterranean and aerial cabling is now being extended to the smaller exchanges, and work in connection with the conversion of earth-working exchanges to metallic-circuit exchanges is proceeding.

An analysis of the wire in use in connection with telephone exchanges is as follows:—

In lead-covered cables—Miles.
        Underground50,872
        Aerial46,385
Open aerial—
        Metallic circuit38,805
        Earth-working5,212
..     141,274

The capital expenditure on the equipment, &c., of the several telephone exchanges up to the 31st March, 1922, was £2,955,183, equal to an average cost of £31 4s. 3d. for each connection. The telephone-exchange revenue for the twelve months ended 31st March, 1922, was £614,367, which exceeded working-expenses by £24,480.

RADIO-TELEGRAPH.

The first wireless-telegraph station opened for commercial use was that at Wellington, on the 26th July, 1911. Details of the seven stations now under the control of the Post and Telegraph Department are,—

Station and Call-sign.Hours of Service.Wave-length, in Metres (Normal in Heavy Type).Daylight Range (in Knots) on Normal Wave-length.
Awanui (V.L.A.), 173° 18' E., 34° 54' S.8 am. to 11 p.m. Continuous listening service300, 600, 1,000, 2,000, 2,500, 3,500S.W. 500; L.W. 1,200.
Awarua (V.L.B.), 168° 23' E., 46° 30'6 a.m. to 8 p.m.300, 600, 1,000, 2,000, 2,500, 3,500S.W. 500; L.W. 1,200.
Apia, Samoa (V.M.G.), 171° 49' W., 13° 51' S.Continuous300, 600, 1,000, 2,000, 2,400, 2,800, 3,300, 4,000S.W. 500; L.W. 1,500.
Wellington (V.L.W.), 174° 46′ 39″ E., 41° 17′ 5″ S.Continuous300, 600300.
Chatham Islands (V.L.C.), 176° 57' W., 43° 57' S.4 p.m.. to midnight300, 600300.
Auckland (V.L.D.), 174° 46′ 8″ E., 36° 50′ 37″ S.Continuous300, 600300.
Rarotonga, Cook Islands (V.M.R.), 159° 48′ 30″ W., 21° 12′ S.6 p.m. to 2 p.m.300, 600, 1,000, 1,700300; 450 on 1,700 metres.

The Rarotonga station is of the Marconi synchronous gap type; the remainder use the Telefunken quenched gap (500 cycles) system. The aerial system in most cases comprises an umbrella aerial with earthed counterpoise for long waves and a T aerial for short waves.

The radio business transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the last five years was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Forwarded.Received.
Messages.Words.Value.Messages.Words.Value.*
* Amount earned by New Zealand.
   £       £     
19182,85160,3933,0824,33873,0503,330
19194,48293,5075,2456,570235,8896,227
192011,589192,8229,11419,109248,0635,272
192111,267181,8537,20120,756246,4074,861
192212,152223,5626,50320,086226,8864,328

The foregoing table does not include free (service) messages.

The general rate for transmission of radio-telegrams has been fixed at 5d. a word for all vessels on the Australian or New Zealand register.

The New Zealand coast stations are all reliably connected with the land-line systems. Complete arrangements exist for the prompt transmission of wireless telegrams over them, and for ensuring that distress-signals shall be immediately communicated to the proper authorities.

OCEAN CABLES.

The Pacific cable, opened for traffic between New Zealand and Australia and Fiji on the 9th April, 1902, was completed to Bamfield, Vancouver Island, on the 31st October following, and opened for international business on the 8th December, 1902.

The route is from Auckland to Vancouver, via Norfolk Island, Fiji, and Fanning Island. The Australian connection is at Norfolk Island. The deep-sea portion of the Vancouver – Fanning Island cable is stated to be the longest in the world. Following the opening of the cable, a much faster service with America and Europe has resulted.

Direct communication between Auckland and Sydney was established on the 31st December, 1912, thus giving the Pacific Cable Board an alternative route to Australia.

During the year 1921–22 the Pacific route took 68 per cent. of the outward business, and the Eastern route 32 per cent., the messages sent by the two routes numbering 147,781 and 69,515 respectively.

The length of submarine cable in use in the Dominion, apart from ocean-cable services, is 416 knots.

STAFF.

The huge volume and multifarious business of the Post and Telegraph Department entails the employment of a numerous staff. The Secretary, under the Ministerial control of the Postmaster-General, is the administrative head.

A return of the staff as at 31st March, 1922, is as follows: Permanent, 7,657; temporary, 1,181: total, 8,838.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the financial year 1921–22 are shown in the following table:—

RECEIPTS.
Item.Postal.Telegraph.Total.
 £     £     £     
Postages1,410,251..     1,410,251
Money-order and postal-note commission49,657..     49,657
Money-order commission received from foreign offices908..     908
Private box and bag rents and rural-delivery fees33,884..     33,884
Miscellaneous receipts4,60412,00916,613
Paid telegrams..     685,855685,855
Telephone exchanges..     614,367614,367
                              Totals1,499,3041,312,2312,811,535
PAYMENTS.
Item.Postal.Telegraph.Total.
* Balance of payments over receipts.
 £     £     £     
Salaries (classified officers)656,866895,0291,551,895
Salaries (country Postmasters and telephonists, and contributions to Railway Department)32,11043,89076,000
Conveyance of mails by sea57,818..     57,818
Conveyance of inland mails157,327..     157,327
Conveyance of mails by railway83,426..     83,426
Money-order commission credited to foreign offices2,884..     2,884
Maintenance of telegraph and telephone lines..     170,395170,395
Miscellaneous147,073204,754351,827
                                Totals1,137,5041,314,0682,451,572
Balance of receipts over payments361,800–1,837*359,963

The figures of receipts and payments in 1881–82, 1891–92, 1901–02, 1911–12, and each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Receipts.Payments.
..     £     £     
1882234,529233,291
1892320,058268,343
1902488,573465,756
19121,087,710988,911
19131,167,8261,069,272
19141,269,9211,173,314
19151,359,0591,246,850
19161,695,7571,296,522
19171,809,3171,370,810
19181,837,2601,489,446
19191,972,5391,702,048
19202,106,9951,944,161
19212,590,4412,591,786
19222,811,5352,451,572

SCOPE OF SERVICE.

In addition to its ordinary business, the Post and Telegraph Department performs an enormous amount of work for almost every other Department of State. The monetary value of this business reaches many millions of pounds annually, and the operations during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1922, range from the receipt of land and income-tax payments (£3,796,653) to the sale of fishing licenses (£1,755), and from the payment of pensions (£2,722,439) to the performance of marriage ceremonies.

Chapter 15. SECTION XV.—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, ETC.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE total area of the Dominion, excluding Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901, is 66,292,232 acres. Of this total, 43,528,337 acres were returned in 1922 as being in occupation, including reserves and Native lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Native land held on the communal system.

OCCUPATION OF LAND.

According to information published by the Lands Department, the following is the condition of the land in the Dominion:—

* Includes portions of 1,732,512 acres of provisional State forests shown under previous heading of “Provisional State forests.”
 Acres.
Total area held on freehold17,952,017
Total area granted under Acts without money payment or reserved for public purposes9,978,608
State forests1,689,511
Provisional State forests5,404,806
Total area of Crown leases18,964,512*
Total area open for selection426,245*
Total area of Native land6,308,155
Estimated area of barren and worthless land2,530,917*
Estimated area occupied by roads, rivers, lakes, &c.2,288,117*
Total area remaining for future disposal (excluding land classified above)2,481,856*
                    Total66,292,232

The numbers of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation in groups of sizes, as returned at the last five collections, are given below:—

OCCUPIED LANDS.—HOLDINGS.
Area, in Acres.Number of Holdings.Percentages of Total.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
(Inclusive)          
          1 to 1015,73515,67415,55415,74615,62919.6319.4819.0618.7318.41
        11 ″ 5013,23213,29113,36713,66213,89816.5116.5216.3816.2516.37
        51 ″ 1009,4799,52410,03910,70811,07311.8311.8412.3112.7413.04
      101 ″ 20012,69812,74513,07913,80114,01515.8415.8416.0316.4116.51
      201 ″ 3208,2178,2778,5008,7188,73910.2510.2810.4210.3710.29
      321 ″ 6409,94010,03110,16610,37510,37812.4012.4612.4612.3412.23
      641 ″ 1,0004,1204,1334,0804,1864,2305.145.135.004.984.98
  1,001      ″  5,0005,6235,6995,7225,7935,8447.027.087.016.896.88
  5,001      ″  10,0005655625505515650.710.700.670.660.67
10,001      ″  20,0002912872993133010.360.360.370.370.35
20,001      ″  50,0001851831741631680.230.230.210.190.20
Over 50,000 acres61626260590.080.080.080.070.07
                Totals80,14680,46881,59284,07684,899100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Seventy-five per cent. of the holdings are seen to be not more than one-half a square mile in area. These, however, represent only 13 per cent. of the total area of occupied land in the Dominion, and from the two following tables showing areas of holdings in occupation by size-groups, and the percentage each group represents of the total area in occupation, it is seen that 68 per cent. of the occupied land is held in areas of over 1,000 acres, and 42 per cent. in areas of over 5,000 acres.

OCCUPIED LANDS.—AREAS.
Sizes of Holdings, in Acres.Aggregate Area of Group (Acres).
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
(Inclusive)..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
            1 to 1072,41372,52472,19173,45273,445
          11 ″ 50372,509373,737376,722386,046392,768
          51 ″ 100737,054741,469780,437830,488860,009
        101 2001,890,1521,895,1191,942,2522,041,4122,072,357
        201 ″ 3202,114,8022,129,4492,186,2332,238,5962,240,664
        321 ″ 6404,525,3864,576,7824,641,7794,734,5344,737,640
        641 ″ 1,0003,330,3643,365,1453,301,2923,376,2213,417,338
  1,001 ″ 5,00011,015,76111,199,38511,305,73311,432,48511,453,335
  5,001 ″ 10,0003,949,5003,905,0733,824,6233,826,9813,891,874
10,001″20,0004,091,0224,033,0384,235,6894,424,3734,252,754
20,001 ″ 50,0005,727,3995,654,0735,371,2154,991,5605,094,088
Over 50,000 acres5,385,7175,396,9125,434,9135,190,6095,042,065
        Totals43,212,07943,342,70643,473,07943,546,75743,528,337
Sizes of Holdings, in Acres.Percentage of Total Area occupied.
1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
(Inclusive)..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
1 to 100.170.170.170.170.17
11 ″ 500.860.860.870.880.90
51 ″ 1001.711.711.801.921.98
101 ″ 2004.374.374.474.694.76
201 ″ 3204.894.915.035.145.15
321 ″ 64010.4710.5610.6810.8710.88
641 ″ 1,0007.717.767.597.757.85
1,001 ″ 5,00025.4925.8426.0026.2526.31
5,001 ″ 10,0009.149.018.808.798.94
10,001 ″ 20,0009.479.319.7410.169.77
20,001 ″ 50,00013.2613.0512.3511.4611.71
Over 50,000 acres12.4612.4512.5011.9211.58
            Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Taking the years 1917 and 1922, it is now possible to show the increase or decrease in the percentages of numbers and areas of holdings according to size-groups.

OCCUPIED LANDS.—INCREASE OF DECREASE IN PERCENTAGES OF NUMBERS AND AREAS OF HOLDINGS BY SIZE-GROUPS.
Size of Holdings, in Acres.1917.1922.
Per Cent. of Total.Increase or Decrease compared with Percentages of 1917.
Number.Area.Number.Area.
(Inclusive)..     ..     ..     ..     
1 to 1019.910.16–1.50+ 0.01
11 ″ 5016.450.86–0.08+0.04
51 ″ 10011.821.71+1.22+0.27
101 ″ 20015.854.38+ 0.66+ 0.38
201 ″ 32010.264.91+ 0.03+ 0.24
321 ″ 64012.3210.45–0.09+0.43
641 ″ 1,0005.067.59–0.08+ 0.26
1,001 ″ 5,0006.9725.53–0.09+ 0.78
5,001 ″ 10,0000.719.19–0.04–0.25
10,001 ″ 20,0000.359.30..     +0.47
20,001 ″ 50,0000.2212.73–0.02–1.02
Over 50,000 acres0.0813.19–0.01–1.61

The following table gives the numbers and average areas of holdings for each land district in the Dominion as ascertained at the 1922 collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics.

As regards counties, Eden County is the most closely settled, the average area of holdings being 15.90 acres, while Fiord County shows the largest average—viz., 6,839.33 acres. There are no counties in the North Island having an average in excess of 2,500 acres, but in the South Island there are no fewer than seven—viz., Awatere, Amuri, Tawera, Mackenzie, Vincent, Lake, and Fiord.

The average area of holdings for the Dominion is 512.71 acres, and this average is exceeded by twenty-three counties out of seventy-seven in the North Island, and by twenty-seven out of fifty-two in the South Island. The average area for the North Island is 371.88. acres, and for the South 717.61 acres.

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBERS AND AVERAGE AREAS OF HOLDINGS FOR EACH LAND DISTRICT IN THE DOMINION.
Land District.Number of Holdings.Total Area occupied.Average Area of Holdings.
  Acres.Acres.
North Auckland13,7153,002,905218.95
Auckland12,2814,497,316366.20
Hawke's Bay6,6674,551,025682.62
Taranaki6,5701,724,611262.51
Wellington11,0844,935,982445.32
Nelson3,9241,332,892339.62
Marlborough2,0092,488,8491,238.85
Westland1,5161,731,0491,141.85
Canterbury13,3598,114,144607.39
Otago7,9357,934,840999.98
Southland5,8393,214,724550.56
            Totals, Dominion84,89943,528,337512.71

TENURE OF OCCUPIED LANDS.

Land in occupation in each land district, tabulated according to tenure, is given in the following table:—

OCCUPIED LANDS.—TENURE, 1922.
Land District.Total of Holdings.Freehold (occupied by Owner).Leased from Private Individuals or Public Bodies.Leased from Natives.Held from Crown under different Tenures (not Including Land held on Deferred Payment).
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland3,002,9052,392,712129,06279,778401,353
Auckland4,497,3162,829,700185,113455,6751,026,828
Hawke's Bay4,551,0252,718,351342,738600,459889,477
Taranaki1,724,611897,747225,02590,887510,952
Wellington4,935,9823,267,988461,970450,423755,601
Nelson1,332,892619,12160,81214,429638,530
Marlborough2,488,849811,70265,268.19,4191,592,460
Westland1,731,049172,68926,5843,9511,527,825
Canterbury8,114,1443,144,360626,7529,4264,333,606
Otago7,934,8401,630,096290,6637,5696,006,512
Southland3,214,7241,450,056246,6785,8131,512,177
        Totals43,528,33719,934,5222,660,6651,737,82919,195,321

The acreage in the fifth column does not agree exactly with the figures published in the report of the Lands and Survey Department, for the reason that, although these figures include Crown reserves leased, they do not include Crown lands alienated but not in occupation at the time of collecting the agricultural and pastoral statistics. Further, all land held on deferred payment is shown as freehold, irrespective of whether in process of purchase from the Crown or not; also, the figures given below are as at the 31st January, whilst the figures published by the Lands and Survey Department are as at the 31st March.

In point of area the most important Crown-lands tenure is “pastoral run,” the area for 1922 being 9,993,296 acres. Considerable areas are also held under the following tenures: Small grazing-runs, 2,783,747 acres; lease in perpetuity, 1,696,885 acres; occupation with right of purchase, 1,398,181 acres; renewable lease, 2,028,558 acres.

Further details of tenure, &c., of Crown lands will be found in Subsection B of this section.

Lands in occupation are, however, not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands have passed into the hands of Europeans which were never made waste lands of the Crown. It must also be remembered that of the freehold land in the Dominion a considerable area is unoccupied and unused.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS.

A special classification of holdings (according to purpose for which principally used) is made triennially. The following table gives a comparison of the last two triennial classifications—viz., 1916–17 and 1919–20. Figures exclude borough holdings and holdings under 1 acre in extent.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS, 1916–17 AND 1919–20.
Classification.1916–17.1919–20.
Number of Holdings.Area.Number of Holdings.Area.
  Acres. Acres.
Agricultural12,5092,792,76110,1462,220,207
Dairying24,3493,775,67229,1114,244,986
Pastoral and other (including unspecified)42,67836,176,28642,33537,007,886
All holdings79,53642,744,71981,59243,473,079

Maori holdings are classified in the same way each year, and a comparison of the last two years is given, 1916–17 being given in addition for comparison with the above. It should be noted that Maori holdings include those held and worked by full-blooded, three-quarter-caste, and half-caste Maoris. Maori lands held on the communal system are excluded.

CLASSIFIED HOLDINGS (MAORIS ONLY), 1916–17, 1920–21, AND 1921–22.
Classification.1916–17.1920–21.1921–22.
Number of Holdings.Area.Number of Holdings.Area.Number of Holdings.Area.
  Acres. Acres. Acres.
Agricultural1688,31115810,0771215,503
Dairying578112,262740110,601839135,791
Pastoral and other (including unspecified)1,735695,8471,935759,9801,700660,955
              All holdings2,481816,4202,833880,6582,660802,249

CONDITION OF OCCUPIED LAND.

The land in occupation in the Dominion for the season 1921–22 is classified according to condition and use as follows:—

 Acres.
In grain and pulse crops954,094
In grasses and clovers (for hay and seed) and green and root crops1,020,647
In fallow147,678
In grasses and clovers, not cut for hay or seed16,112,598
In vineyards and orchards31,300
In market gardens, nurseries, and seed-gardens4,657
In private gardens and pleasure-grounds57,927
In plantations52,462
                  Total area in cultivation18,381,363
Unimproved land25,146,974
                  Total area in occupation43,528,337

Further details of land in cultivation and of the various crops grown are given under their respective headings in Subsection B of the next section. Unimproved lands are not again referred to, and accordingly a table is appended showing by land districts more detailed information as to the condition of unimproved occupied land.

UNIMPROVED OCCUPIED LAND, 1921–22.
Land District.Phormium Tenax.Tussock and other Native Grasses.Fern, Scrub, and Second Growth.Standing Virgin Bush.Barren and Unproductive Land.Total Unimproved Occupied Land.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland2,211215,641789,051372,71181,0581,460,672
Auckland6,739293,4981,104,250784,69457,9112,247,092
Hawke's Bay621569,492460,473310,13037,8381,378,554
Taranaki675,71874,545295,4395,558381,327
Wellington15,403538,777319,326414,75898,7951,387,059
Nelson1,916352,465138,865441,84942,492977,587
Marlborough7541,305,245235,333215,169325,4382,081,939
Westland6,980134,02893,8041,036,182327,2101,598,204
Canterbury2,5424,203,68498,560239,354668,4675,212,607
Otago9585,578,143403,626292,572283,3176,561,616
Southland5,7051,412,912180,276176,42784,9971,860,317
        Totals43,89614,609,6033,898,1094,579,2852,016,08125,146,974

The diagram on the next page shows clearly the condition of land in occupation on 31st January, 1922. Of the total of 43,528,337 acres, unimproved land amounted to 25,146,974 acres, and improved land to 18,381,363 acres. As might be expected in a pastoral-dairying country like New Zealand, permanent pasture (16,112,598 acres) forms a considerable portion of the land occupied. Grain and pulse crops, grasses and clovers (cut for hay or seed), and green and root crops aggregated 1,974,741 acres, or about 4½ per cent. of the total area occupied. The various subdivisions of these crops are given in smaller diagrams alongside that giving the broader general divisions.

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Prior to 1870 conveyancing in New Zealand was based upon the English laws of real property as existing at the date of the constitution of the colony, varied in some important particulars by the Conveyancing Ordinance of 1842 and other colonial legislation, now embodied in the Property Law Act, 1908. Considerable areas of land in all parts of the Dominion are still held and dealt with under this system. Although provision is made for the registration of deeds affecting such land, registration is no guarantee of their validity, and a purchaser has to rely for the security of his title upon the skill and care of his legal adviser.

By the Land Transfer Act, 1870, the system of title by registration was introduced. The title to land under this system is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land Transfer Department assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

DEEDS REGISTRATION.

Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration Act, 1908, for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it.

Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production.

The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees.

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the last six years is given in the following statement:—

Year ended 31st March.Deeds recorded.Fees. £
191715,66414,371
191813,67313,226
191912,79813,148
192024,65025,157
192225,35221,956
192138,12232,251

LAND TRANSFER.

The land-transfer system in New Zealand originated, as stated above, with the Land Transfer Act, 1870. This re-enacted with amendments is now the Land Transfer Act, 1915.

The land subject to the Land Transfer Act comprises all land alienated from the Crown since 1870, all land included in any order under the Native Land Acts vesting such land in any person in freehold tenure, and all land vested in any person in fee-simple by virtue of any Act of the General Assembly, besides land which has been brought under the Act on the application of the proprietors after investigation and acceptance of the title by the Department.

Full information concerning the land-transfer system is given in the 1914 and preceding issues of this book.

Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last five years is given in the next table:—

Year ended 31st March.Applications.
Number.Area.Value.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£     
19183169989,388965,089
191929113376,441776,403
192049717585,2371,343,243
192161920870,5361,767,397
192249119731,7861,181,317

The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last ten years. Included in the totals are those certificates issued in lieu of Crown grants, 2,055 being the number for 1921–22.

CERTIFICATES OF TITLE ISSUED.
Year ended 31st March.Number.
191313,075
191412,867
191511,074
191610,525
191710,350
191810,230
19197,988
192011,637
192116,010
192219,653

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last five years:—

TRANSFERS REGISTERED.
Year ended 31st March.Number.Area.Consideration-money.
Town and Suburban.Country.
  Acres.Acres.£     
191819,9496,1562,008,37018,083,634
191922,49621,1561,992,31225,197,384
192045,128107,4323,775,25162,446,574
192155,74616,1544,557,32881,790,063
192233,78410,6521,984,69535,436,823

Information as to mortgages registered under the Land Transfer Act is contained in the section of this book dealing with “Mortgages.”

SUBSECTION B.—CROWN LANDS.

ADMINISTRATION.

THE Crown lands are administered under the authority of the Land Act, 1908, the Land for Settlements Act, 1908, and the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, by the Minister of Lands at Wellington, his executive officer being the Under-Secretary of Lands, who is the permanent head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into eleven land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner of Crown Lands and a Land Board. The Commissioner's office is known as the principal land office, and in some of the larger districts there are one or more local land offices. It is with these land offices the selector has to transact all business, from the first consultation of the maps to the final receipt of the Crown title.

The names of the land districts and of the towns where the principal office of each is situated are as under:—

Land District.Principal Land Office situated at
North AucklandAuckland.
Auckland
TaranakiNew Plymouth.
Hawke's BayNapier.
WellingtonWellington.
NelsonNelson.
MarlboroughBlenheim.
WestlandHokitika.
CanterburyChristchurch.
OtagoDunedin.
SouthlandInvercargill.

Commissioners of Crown Lands are executive officers of the land districts, having large discretionary powers under the Act. Each is the Chairman of the Land Board of his district, and transacts all its routine business in the sale, letting, and occupation of Crown lands. The Commissioners deal with trespassers and intruders (persons and cattle), removing the former and prosecuting the owners of the latter; they recover all penalties, ascertain the boundaries of Crown lands, enforce all contracts for the disposition of Crown lands, recover rents and other moneys, deal with determinable contracts, prosecute and defend suits, and do whatever is necessary in the course of their duties.

LAND BOARD.

A Land Board consists of five members—viz., the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district (who is ex officio Chairman), three members nominated by the Governor-General, and one member elected by the Crown tenants of the district.

The Boards transact all business connected with the sale, letting, disposal, and occupation of Crown lands, and all matters connected with the management and control of the public lands in their hands. They are the sole judges of the fulfilment of conditions in leases and licenses, and they can declare them forfeit. All meetings are open to the Press and public, with certain limitations.

APPLICATIONS FOR LAND.

A selector may purchase for cash, or may select for occupation with right of purchase or for renewable lease. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and must apply for Crown land solely for his own use and benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person, whilst, including the land he applies for, he is not to be the owner, holder, or occupier under any tenure of more than one year's duration, either severally or jointly or in common with any other person or persons, of any land anywhere in New Zealand exceeding in the whole 5,000 acres of land, computed as follows:—

  1. Every acre of first-class land is reckoned as 7½ acres;

  2. Every acre of second-class land is reckoned as 2½ acres;

  3. Every acre of third-class land is reckoned as 1 acre.

The annual rental payable for occupation-with-right-of-purchase selections is 5 per cent. on the cash price of the land, and for lands selected for renewable lease the annual rental is 4 per cent. on the cash price of the land.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.

Crown land may be selected and occupied under the following tenures and systems:—

  1. Town, suburban, and village lands—

    1. For cash and deferred payment, by public auction;

    2. By lease for terms up to ten years;

    3. By renewable lease for thirty-three years.

  2. Rural land (unimproved), (under optional system)—

    1. For cash, by application;

    2. Occupation with right of purchase for twenty-five years;

    3. Renewable lease for sixty-six years.

  3. Village settlements—

    Under the three foregoing tenures of optional system.

  4. Improved-farm settlements (rural land)—

    Under special conditions, and either (a) on occupation-with-right-of-purchase license or (b) on renewable lease.

  5. Special settlements (rural land)—

    On renewable lease for sixty-six years and under special regulations.

  6. Land-for-settlement estates (improved rural and pastoral land)—

    1. Under renewable lease for thirty-three years, with limited right to acquire freehold;

    2. For cash or on deferred payments, by auction.

  7. Pastoral land—

    1. By small-grazing-run lease for twenty-one years, with right of renewal (maximum area, 20,000 acres);

    2. By pastoral license on terms up to thirty-five years.

  8. Land within mining districts—

    1. On pastoral licenses under special regulations, with right to acquire the freehold or exchange to a renewable lease;

    2. On occupation leases under special regulations, with similar rights as to purchase of freehold and exchange.

  9. Miscellaneous—

    1. Temporary occupation on terms up to five years;

    2. Salo or occupation for special purposes;

    3. Outlying land.

CONDITIONS OF OCCUPATION AND LEASES.

Full particulars are given in the Crown Lands Guide, issued periodically and obtainable at any land office, as to the conditions of lease and occupation. A certain amount of improvements is required to be effected on rural land purchased for cash or held under occupation-with-right-of-purchase or renewable-lease tenures, and residence is compulsory for certain periods on many Crown leaseholds. Rebate of rent is given in many cases when the half-yearly instalment of rent is paid within thirty days of its becoming due. Applications for mortgage, transfer, and sublease of a Crown leasehold have to be approved by the Land Board of the district under most of the tenures.

DISPOSAL OF ENDOWMENTS AND RESERVES ADMINISTERED BY LAND BOARDS.

National endowments may be disposed of under renewable lease, small-grazing-runs lease, or pastoral license. These lands are occupied on the same conditions as ordinary Crown lands, with the exception that the freehold cannot be acquired while such lands continue to be included in the endowment. Under section 11 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1920, the Governor-General is authorized to remove from the endowment certain lands comprised therein, including lands occupied by discharged soldiers under any tenure, and small grazing-runs held under leases issued under the Land Act, 1892, or the Land Act, 1908, up till the 10th December, 1918. Upon the removal of such lands from the endowment the occupiers thereof can acquire the freehold in manner prescribed by section 11 of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1920.

Education endowments are available for leasing under the Education Reserves. Amendment Act, 1910 (modifying the Education Reserves Act, 1908), which permits of a lease being granted under the Public Bodies' Leases Act, 1908, as well as under the Land Act, 1908. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

Public reserves not vested in trustees or a local authority may be leased under the Public Reserves and Domains Amendment Act, 1911, for any term not exceeding twenty-one years, with right of renewal for a further term. The freehold of the land cannot be acquired.

LANDS OPENED FOR SELECTION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1922, an area of 244,980 acres of land was offered for selection under the various tenures provided by the Land Act, Land for Settlements Act, and Education Reserves Acts.

Under renewable lease an area of 117,028 acres was offered, 64,479 acres being national endowment, 40,988 acres land for settlements, 7,160 acres ordinary Crown lands, and 4,401 acres education-endowment lands. The pastoral-run area comprised 35,952 acres.

In addition to the above a total area of 46,670 acres of Crown, settlement, and national-endowment lands was set apart for selection by discharged soldiers under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act and the Land for Settlements Act, and the special tenures of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act. Fuller particulars regarding these lands will be found at the end of this subsection.

The total selections during the year covered an area of 310,076 acres, by 1,710 selectors. These figures include, however, 218 purchases of small town, suburban, and rural lands, aggregating 11,410 acres, offered for sale at auction. The ordinary Crown lands holdings represented .191,491 acres; land for settlements and Cheviot Estate, 55,937 acres; national endowment, 36,173 acres; and educational, 26,475 acres. Selections by discharged soldiers are included in the foregoing totals.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.

Areas under this heading include all lands sold for cash or selected on the deferred-payment system, small grazing-runs, and leases under the following tenures: Renewable lease, occupation with right of purchase, mining districts land occupation leases, educational-endowment leases, and pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations. A five-years summary is as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Sold for Cash.Deferred-payment Licenses.Leases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small Grazing-runs.Totals.
1918180147085907
1919127445731745
1920253941,007111,365
19213011291,260171,707
192221821377991,219

The acreage represented by the selections included in the foregoing table is as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Sold for Cash.Deferred-payment Licenses.Leases and Licenses (Ordinary Settlement).Small Grazing-runs.Totals.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
19184,696992151,85431,093188,635
19192,225632136,7542,532142,143
19203,9572,110247,925128,437382,429
192117,9974,433304,58278,029405,041
192211,4101,443165,44221,161199,456

CROWN LAND HELD OR MADE FREEHOLD.

The following table shows in a condensed form the area of Crown land held at 31st March, 1922, the yearly rental payable, and the area made freehold to that date:—

Tenure.Total Number of Selectors.Total Area held.Total Yearly Rental or Instalment Payable.Total Area made Freehold.
Number of Purchasers.Area.
  Acres.£      Acres.
Cash lands..     ..     ..     ..     13,226,184
Deferred payment1,522292,93355,72510,1781,212,382
Perpetual lease22317,9151,2373,063855,443
Occupation with right of purchase4,4991,398,181111,0934,1291,089,294
Lease in perpetuity7,8701,696,885199,9112,915507,519
Renewable lease7,0502,028,558460,23319234,365
Agricultural lease12319141,408140,896
Mining districts land occupation leases68520,8231,562912,883
Homestead..     ..     ..     6180,453
Pastoral licenses in mining districts under special regulations834195,3814,9046615,025
Small grazing-runs8662,783,747102,8594352,847
Pastoral runs6639,993,29689,013..     ..     
Miscellaneous leases and licenses6,3341,161,44639,5908010,138
              Totals30,55819,589,4841,066,14122,22617,227,429
Thermal-springs leases (Rotorua)3322,5392,107..     ..     
Education endowments—
    Primary3,312757,877105,810386
    Secondary43639,9277,489..     ..     
              Totals4,080800,343115,406386
              Grand totals34,63820,389,8271,181,54722,22917,227,515
Other endowment lands766363,76417,55945,036

The next table shows the area of Crown land made freehold during the year ended 31st March, 1922, together with the amount of purchase-money. The information is given for the various tenures under which the land was held immediately prior to the freehold being acquired by the occupier.

CROWN LAND MADE FREEHOLD, YEAR ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1922.
Tenure.Area.Amount realized.
 Acres.£     
Cash lands sold11,410117,257
Freehold acquired under following tenures—
    Deferred payment (Acts of 1877 and 1885)6251
    Deferred payment (Acts of 1912 and 1913)5,84822,163
    Perpetual lease2,5091,596
    Occupation with right of purchase25,77328,606
    Lease in perpetuity7,24410,353
    Renewable lease7533,981
    Mining districts land occupation lease232676
    Pastoral licenses in mining districts3,7593,563
    Small grazing-runs420
    Miscellaneous11311
                          Totals57,549188,777

SUBDIVISION OF LAND.

Much of the land legislation of recent years has been in the direction of preventing large areas of good land from being acquired or retained by a single individual. The Land Laws Amendment Acts of 1912 and 1913 went further in the direction of encouraging or compelling subdivision of land held in large areas. Part III of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1912, makes provision for agreements between the Minister of Lands and the owner in fee-simple of any land for the subdivision of that land, and for the disposal by public tender of the allotments by way of sale or by way of lease with right of purchase.

Section 49 provides for similar agreements between the Minister and the owners of Native freehold land in respect of the disposition by sale or lease of that land.

In Part VI of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1913, provision is made whereby the Minister of Lands may at any time in writing notify an owner of land that such land or a portion thereof is required for purposes of settlement. The owner of land is required, within six months after such notice has been gazetted, to notify the Minister whether he elects (a) to himself subdivide and offer the land for sale in subdivisions, or (b) to enter into an agreement with the Minister as above, or (c) that the land shall be taken compulsorily under the Land for Settlements Act.

In Part VII of the Land Laws Amendment Act, 1913, provision is made for compulsorily taking private land (not within a borough or town district) in cases where in the opinion of the Board of Land Purchase Commissioners such land has been acquired by way of aggregation, and where such aggregation is contrary to the public interest. Compensation is payable for all land so taken.

LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS.

The purchase of private lands by the Crown for closer settlement purposes is authorized by the Land for Settlements Act, 1908, and amendments thereof. In each land district is a local Land Purchase Board, of which the Commissioner of Crown Lands is the Chairman, and its recommendations are dealt with by the Dominion Land Purchase Board (Wellington), consisting of the Land Purchase Controller (Chairman), the Under-Secretary of Lands, the Surveyor-General, and a nominated member.

The number of estates offered during the year ended 31st March, 1922, was 148, of an area of 137,611 acres. In addition a number were submitted direct to the Commissioners of Crown Lands of the several districts and considered by the local Boards. The figures given herein do not include any purchases under section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917. The area purchased and settled during the year was 5,165 acres, of a value of £97,887. The area purchased for individual soldiers (47) under section 3 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, was 3,099 acres, of a value of £122,059.

The total number of estates purchased since the inception of the land-for-settlements scheme is 623, of a total area of 1,979,225 acres, the aggregate amount of purchase-money being £12,931,972. The figures for each land district are,—

SUMMARY OF ESTATES ACQUIRED UP TO THE 31ST MARCH, 1922.
Land District.Number.Area.Purchase-money.
* Including North Auckland, now a separate district.
  Acres.£     
Auckland*92385,3291,481,461
Hawke's Bay60301,4702,291,637
Taranaki2527,628369,818
Wellington142156,5752,216,957
Marlborough20223,277734,665
Nelson1448,821150,473
Westland25,1258,343
Canterbury172447,3493,444,252
Otago71293,0141,776,805
Southland2590,637457,561
                Totals6231,979,22512,931,972

The transfer of certain areas from Crown to settlement lands, and the adjustment of areas to account for ascertained surpluses or deficiencies, bring the total area to 2,166,933 acres at the 31st March, 1922. Of this, 187,010 acres have been sold for cash or made freehold, the total purchase-money being £719,130; and 24,602 acres are occupied by roads or by reserves unlet. At the 31st March, 1922, 6,970 selectors were holding a total of 1,786,384 acres, the annual rental for which amounts to £587,110; and the remaining 168,937 acres were unlet. The figures for each land district are as follows:—

POSITION OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS AT THE 31ST MARCH, 1922.
District.Net Area acquired, including Ascertained Surplus.Area occupied by Roads and Reserves unlet.Area of Land unlet, including land forfeited, surrendered, or resumed and not relet, and also Land not yet offered for Selection.Total Area purchased for Cash or made Freehold to Date.
Number of Purchasers.Area.Price realized.
 Acres.Acres.Acres. Acres.£     
North Auckland40,9928383,2571631,67920,804
Auckland354,5757,316103,293600117,164254,163
Hawke's Bay301,3292,7051,15211321,244136,114
Taranaki28,2312465,544341,20929,451
Wellington141,4291,1412,0141166,87176,083
Nelson62,15095818,78561,6352,953
Marlborough235,1772,6922,796326,45421,004
Westland5,12578..     2192116
Canterbury604,6114,50110620913,799107,841
Otago296,1143,13931,985445,88128,455
Southland97,20098857710,88242,146
        Totals2,166,93324,602168,9371,396187,010719,130
POSITION OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENTS AT THE 31ST MARCH, 1922—
District.Total Lands leased at 31st March, 1022.Rent and other Payments received during the Year.Total Receipts from Inception to 31st March, 1922.
Number of Selectors.Area.Annual Rental.
  Acres.£     £     £     
North Auckland25035,21814,86411,511100,168
Auckland941126,80244,10743,809665,629
Hawke's Bay847276,228109,00371,087299,868
Taranaki14221,23214,35410,636117,889
Wellington896131,40393,28863,230546,061
Nelson5440,7724,4942,71936,289
Marlborough488223,23537,26728,009505,012
Westland314,85553747411,406
Canterbury1,891586,205169,995130,1882,217,259
Otago1,079255,10978,46961,5881,011,229
Southland35185,32520,73216,982304,383
                    Totals6,9701,786,384587,110440,2335,815,193

LAND-SETTLEMENT FINANCE ASSOCIATIONS.

On the 1st January, 1910, the Land Settlement Finance Act, which is described fully in the 1915 issue of this book, came into force. The associations incorporated now number forty-six. There were no transactions during the year.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, and amendments, any person is entitled to the benefits of the Act who has been a member of a New Zealand Naval or Expeditionary Force, has served beyond New Zealand in connection with the late war, has returned to New Zealand and has received an honourable discharge, together with any person who immediately prior to the commencement of the war was a bona fide resident of New Zealand, and has also served during the war with some portion of His Majesty's Naval or Military Forces (not being Forces raised in New Zealand) and has received an honourable discharge therefrom. In addition, all discharged members of an Expeditionary Force who, having been classed as medically fit for service beyond the seas, have served as members of that Force in a camp of military training and remained attached to that camp on the 12th November, 1918 (being the date of the cessation of hostilities with Germany), are entitled to apply for advances or private land under section 2 or 3 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act. 1917.

TENURES UNDER WHICH LAND MAY BE SELECTED.

There is power to dispose of land under the ordinary tenures of the Land Act, 1908, and the Land for Settlements Act, 1908—i.e., for cash, or occupation with right of purchase, or on renewable lease under the former Act, and renewable lease under the latter Act; also under the “special tenures” of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, which are cash, deferred payment, or a renewable lease with a purchasing clause. The various tenures mentioned may be explained as under, and are given under two headings—viz., “Ordinary Tenures” and “Special Tenures.”

(A.) Ordinary Tenures.

Cash.—In all cases of purchase of land for cash the applicant is required to pay one-fifth of the purchase-money at the date of the sale, and the balance, with the Crown-grant fee, within thirty days from the date of the approval of the application.

Occupation with Right of Purchase.—Term, twenty-five years; rental, 5 per cent. on the capital value of the land; right of purchase after the license has been held six years, provided the residence and improvement conditions have been complied with. If the licensee does not acquire the freehold prior to the expiration of the term of twenty-five years he has a prior right to a renewable lease.

Renewable Lease under the Land Act.—Term, sixty-six years, with a perpetual right of renewal; rental, 4 per cent. on the capital value of the land. There is no right to the freehold.

Renewable Lease under the Land for Settlements Act.—Term, thirty-three years, with perpetual right of renewal; rental, 4½ per cent. on the capital value of the land. Right of purchase at any time during the currency of the lease. Purchase of the freehold may be made on the deferred-payment system if desired.

(B.) Special Tenures.

Cash.—The remarks already under “Cash” heading apply to cash selections under “Special Tenures.”

Deferred Payment under Special Tenures.—Term, such period as the Board may determine, usually nineteen years; licensee to deposit 5 per cent. of the purchase-money, and thereafter pay the balance of 95 per cent. by equal annual payments, together with interest at 5 per cent., payable half-yearly, on all outstanding balances. The licensee has the right to pay off the whole or any part of the outstanding money at any time during the currency of the license.

Renewable Lease with Purchasing Clause under Special Tenures.—Term may be for any period not exceeding thirty-three years in the case of settlement land, and sixty-six years in the case of Crown land, with perpetual rights of renewal for thirty-three years or sixty-six years as the case may be. Freehold may be acquired any time during the currency of the lease. Purchase of the freehold may be made on the deferred-payment system if desired.

PRIVATE LAND.

Under section 3 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, one or more discharged soldiers may apply to the Land Board with a view to the acquisition by the Crown on their behalf of any private land. The Land Board, however, cannot deal with such application until an offer in writing to sell the land to the Crown has been submitted to the Board by the owner of the land. It can then consider the application and offer, and forward them to the Minister of Lands with such recommendations as it thinks proper. The Minister may thereupon refer the offer to the Land Purchase Board for consideration, and if the land or any part thereof is acquired by the Crown it may then be disposed of under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act to the applicant.

SOLDIERS' DWELLINGS.

The Minister may set land apart for the purpose of soldiers' dwellings, and may erect suitable buildings thereon. The land and dwellings may then be disposed of to discharged soldiers in the same manner generally as in the case of workers by the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910.

TRANSFERS.

No transfer of land selected under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act will be permitted for a period of ten years, except with the approval of the Land Board and the Minister of Lands.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE.

Section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917, provides that financial assistance may be given to discharged soldiers for the following purposes: (a) The purchase of private or Native land; (b) the acquisition by assignment or transfer of the lease of any land; and (c) the discharge of any mortgage affecting any land owned by a discharged soldier or held by him under license or lease from a Land Board. The maximum amount for any of these purposes that may be advanced to any one person is £2,500, with a further advance of £750 for improvements, stock, &c., where necessary. Repayment of advances may be secured by flat mortgage for ten years, with interest at 5 per cent., or by instalment mortgage extending over a period of thirty-six years and a half, with an annual charge of 6 per cent., which includes interest and sinking fund.

If assistance is required for the purchase of a residential site with dwelling thereon an advance not exceeding £1,000 may be made, or, in the event of the site being owned by the applicant, an advance not exceeding £900 may be made towards the erection of a dwelling thereon. Repayment of advances may be secured by flat mortgage for ten years, with interest at 5 per cent., or by instalment mortgage extending over a period of twenty-five years and a half, with an annual charge of 7 per cent., which includes interest and sinking fund.

In addition, financial assistance may be given to discharged soldiers who own freehold land or are the lessees or licensees of any land administered by a Land Board, for any of the following purposes: The clearing, fencing, draining, and general improvement (including erection of buildings) of the land, and the purchase of plant, stock, implements, seeds, trees, &c. Except in the case of a house to be built on other than rural land, the maximum total amount that may be advanced for all the foregoing purposes is £500 (not more than £250 of this being for a dwelling and other buildings), unless there be special circumstances in which the amount would be inadequate, when the Minister may authorize an additional advance not exceeding £250.

Advances are secured by a mortgage over the land, with the addition, at the option of the Minister, of a bill of sale over the stock, implements, &c. The rate of interest is 5 per cent.

Advances for improvements or buildings may be made by progress-payments up to 75 per cent. of the value of any work done.

Applications for assistance, giving full particulars, must be made to the Land Board for the district in which the land affected is situated. Before making its recommendation the Board will require the applicant to appear personally before it, or before such person as it may appoint. No application for an advance to assist in the purchase of land can be considered unless accompanied by an option to purchase the fee-simple, or lease, or license, as the case may be.

At the 31st March, 1922, advances amounting to £20,409,571, to 20,392 settlers, had been authorized. Advances actually made to the same date reached a total of £19,744,950, of which £1,457,659 has already been repaid.

The following table shows the total area proclaimed under the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915. Of the total area proclaimed, ordinary Crown lands amounted to 546,609 acres, Cheviot Estate to 3,356 acres, land for settlements to 387,492 acres, and national-endowment land to 430,304 acres.

District.Under Section 3 of the Act. (Ordinary Tenures.)Under Section 4 of the Act. (Special Tenures.)Total Area proclaimed.
For the Year ended 31st March, 1922.Total to 31st March, 1922.For the Year ended 31st March, 1922.Total to 31st March, 1922.For the Year ended 31st March 1922.Total to 31st March, 1922.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland3,70123,1566,36736,86910,06860,025
Auckland99761,57313,945147,32414,942208,897
Hawke's Bay..     27,2632,877151,5412,877178,804
Taranaki..     15,65740437,32340452,980
Wellington..     2,4907,694106,6327,694109,122
Nelson..     35,3806,98033,4996,98068,879
Marlborough..     ..     ..     19,853..     19,853
Westland..     27,752..     480..     28,232
Canterbury173254,401..     46,347173300,748
Otago..     239,7803,45875,4403,458315,220
Southland..     10,8247414,1777425,001
            Totals4,871698,27641,799669,48546,6701,367,761

During the year ended 31st March, 1922, 878 applications were made under the provisions of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, and allotments were made in the case of 403 applicants. The following table shows the number of applications for land in each of the several land districts of the Dominion, and also the number of applications granted, together with the areas so allotted:—

District.Applications.Allotments.
Number.Area.
   Acres.
North Auckland60466,854
Auckland24711518,674
Hawke's Bay1484211,355
Taranaki34256,486
Wellington26811428,064
Nelson223,690
Marlborough64162
Westland..     ..     ..     
Canterbury51101,206
Otago454221,017
Southland173464
                    Totals87840397,972

SUBSECTION C.—NATIVE LANDS.

NATIVE lands and Native affairs generally are administered by the Native Department as indicated below.

The Native Land Court is a Court of record, and deals, inter alia, with the investigation, partition, and exchange of Native lands, succession, probate and letters of administration, consolidation of interests, incorporation of owners, and other matters.

Maori Land Boards, of which there are seven, are concerned with the confirmation and approval of alienations, the disposal of lands vested in them by way of sale or lease, and the administration of Native blocks as farms.

The Board is composed of a President, who is the Judge of the Native Land Court District, and the Registrar, who is also the administrative officer of the Maori Land Board.

Native land vested in a Maori Land Board or the Native Trustee cannot be dealt with by the individual Native. In addition there are other classes of Native lands subject to statutory restrictions. In an ordinary case where the owners in a title number not more than ten they may be dealt with individually, but if more than ten, then the “assembled-owners” provision of dealing by resolution through the Maori Land Board must be resorted to. The Native Land Act provides safeguards for the Native owner in disposing of his land, and special requirements are necessary as to execution, and the Native alienating must in no case be rendered landless thereby. Before entering into negotiations it is advisable to make the fullest search into the title, and inquiry as to the proper method of execution and completion.

The terms “partition” and “individualization,” as applied to Native Land Court dealings, are often confused. To individualize is to partition in severalty, and not merely to define relative interests, which may be done without partition. To partition is to cut out certain interests in a block of land, and may not necessarily be for an individual. The term “customary land,” which is also sometimes misunderstood, is applied to land not yet clothed with a Native Land Court title. Customary land is also known as “papatupu land.”

The purchase of lands on behalf of the Crown is conducted by a Native Land Purchase Board.

Maori Councils elected for defined districts, and composed of Natives and an “official member” (usually a European), supervise matters generally affecting the Maori settlements and kaingas, more particularly as regards sanitary arrangements.

NATIVE LAND COURT.

Particulars of the business dealt with by the Native Land Court during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1922, are as follows:—

Number of sittings106
Number of cases notified23,543
Number of cases for which orders were made7,309
Number of cases dismissed3,353
Number of cases adjourned sine die11,774
Number of partitions made898
      Area affected (acres)226,783
Number of investigations of title15
      Area affected (acres)44,534
Number of succession orders made5,969
Number of other orders made2,477

From the Native Land Court an appeal lies to the Native Appellate Court.

MAORI LAND BOARDS.

The total area vested in and administered by the various Maori Land Boards up to the 31st March, 1922, was 776,331 acres.

During the year 2,804 acres of vested land were disposed of by lease, 5,933 acres were sold, while 19,021 acres were revested in the Native owners.

With regard to Native freehold land, the Boards during the year approved of 499 leases, comprising 48,139 acres, and confirmed 1,122 transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 49,105 acres of freehold land.

NATIVE-LAND PURCHASE.

During the year some 129 blocks, comprising 45,780 acres, were proclaimed Crown land. The actual purchases made during the year, including individual interests, totalled an area of 114,035 acres. During the twelve years which have elapsed since the coming into operation of the Native Land Act, 1909, the total area of Native land alienated by way of sale has been approximately 2,699,666 acres. Of this total an area of some 1,247,200 acres has been acquired on behalf of the Crown for settlement purposes, at a purchase price of £2,952,092.

EXTENT OF NATIVE LANDS.

The total area of lands held by Maori owners at the 31st March, 1922, is estimated at 4,746,531 acres, of which 4,472,349 acres are situated in the North Island.

In many cases Natives are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying industry, and some of the leases granted by Maori Land Boards are to Natives. The Maori Land Boards and East Coast Commissioner also farm blocks for them. Drawback to success by individual Natives is often met with in the difficulty of adequately financing their farming ventures, but some effort is being made through the Native Trustee to assist such cases with advances out of Maori-owned funds.

By the Native Trust Act, 1920, provision was made for the appointment of a Native Trustee, who administers all Native reserves, and undertakes the functions with regard to Natives formerly vested in the Public Trustee, except (unless in special circumstances) in the case of the estates of deceased Natives.

Chapter 16. SECTION XVI.—AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUBSECTION A.—GENERAL.

THE Dominion of New Zealand is a country specially favoured for primary production. The soil covering is varied in character, a considerable portion of it being of exceptional fertility; but even the poorer soils are largely capable of profitable utilization by reason of the comparatively mild and equable weather conditions. The best grasses and fodder plants flourish in the congenial environment, and the country has gained a world-wide reputation for the quality of its pastures. Numerous streams intersect the country and present to the farmer a great potential source of cheap power, which is already being used in individual cases for shearing sheep, separating milk, crushing grain, cutting firewood, and lighting the home.

A conspicuous feature of New Zealand farming is that the stock do not require to be stalled in the winter, though the pastures are more or less supplemented by fodder crops in the colder months of the year. This fact, combined with the factor of soil-fertility, enables the New Zealand farmer to produce stock at a much smaller cost than the farmer in countries where artificial feeding has to be employed or where droughts periodically occur.

New Zealand is primarily a grazing-country, and, while more of the land is every year being given up to the cultivation of fodder crops, its future will, no doubt, be inseparably associated with stock-raising, principally of dairy cattle and sheep. Though less than a century has elapsed since the colonization of New Zealand, sixteen million acres of land in the Dominion have been sown down in English grasses. A great proportion of the crops grown in the Dominion are for the production of such commodities as meat, wool, and dairy-produce.

Grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are grown on a fairly large scale in the eastern and southern districts of the South Island. Barley is also grown, but to a very much smaller extent. Much of the crop of oats produced is chaffed for stock-feeding purposes within the country. Root crops, principally turnips, are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock-fattening purposes, more particularly in the South Island. Owing to the comparative difficulty of growing large areas of turnips free from disease, other stock-foods are coming into prominence. Mangolds are being cultivated to a larger extent, and farmers are beginning to realize the great value of lucerne. Ensilage-making, particularly in the stack form, is increasing in the dairying districts. Quite a feature of milk-producing operations is the growing of green fodder crops to maintain the milk-supply during the drier months of the year. It will be seen that live-stock in New Zealand is for the most part maintained on food produced on the farm itself.

THE NORTH ISLAND.

The North Island of the Dominion is remarkable for the congenial environment it furnishes for many phases of primary production. In no part is the winter really severe, and the question of stalling stock during the colder months of the year has not to be considered. It is more a grazing than an agricultural country, and practically all the cereal crops raised are used for feeding to farm stock. The dominant industries are dairying and sheep-farming. There is probably no finer sheep-country in the world than the limestone downs of the province of Hawke's Bay. It may be said with every confidence that there is more butterfat produced to the acre on many farms in the Taranaki District than on any equal area in the world when it is considered that all the food provided for the stock is produced on the farm itself. The standard of dairy-farming is steadily improving, not only by reason of special fodder being provided for the drier parts of the summer and the colder months of the year, but on account of the fact that the farmer is coming to realize the value of herd testing and culling.

In various parts of the Island fruitgrowing, principally of apples, pears, and peaches, is being placed on a sound commercial basis. In the northern portion citrus fruits can be successfully produced, and, with the adoption of better storage and marketing methods, lemons in particular are being cultivated on a considerable scale. Outdoor grapes are freely grown. Both the North and the South Islands have established an export trade in apples, and to a less extent in pears.

During recent years the Waikato district and the Auckland Province in general have shown themselves to be admirably adapted to the dairy industry, and dairying has made remarkable development. The Auckland District, in fact, has become easily the largest exporter of butter in the Dominion, while it also leads in the production of milk-powder.

With the adoption of improved methods in the treatment of the land, and the demonstration of correct manurial treatment, farming in the Auckland Province has been placed on a much more stable basis. Assisted by a favourable climate, of which a short and mild winter is a feature, stock-raising of all descriptions is being carried on with conspicuous success. The country is eminently adapted for the production of root and fodder crops, and stock can be brought to maturity and fattened for the market at a minimum of cost.

THE SOUTH ISLAND.

The South Island was the portion of the Dominion where agriculture proper was first established, the settlement of the land being greatly facilitated by the fact that on the eastern, southern, and northern portions large fertile plains, rolling downs, and hills were available devoid of the forests which in a very large portion of the North Island have had to be cleared before the land could be utilized by the farmer. Agricultural operations in the South have been maintained at a high standard for many years, principally in Otago and Canterbury, many of the pioneers of which districts were British yeomen farmers who brought with them the best methods of the Old Land. So in the breeding of live-stock, many of the original holders of land in the South and the shepherds and herdsmen they employed were well trained in stock-management by live-stock breeders of the Mother-country. The South Island may be fairly said to have been the nursery of the live-stock of the Dominion, and the high quality of the stock bred in the country is in a large measure due to the capacity of the men who founded and developed the flocks and herds in the eastern and southern districts. Growing of the finer wools, and of fat lambs for the frozen-meat industry, are features of primary production in the South Island, while the dairy industry is also well represented, especially in Otago and Southland. Draught horses of a very fine stamp are also bred on a considerable scale in some districts.

While the climate in the southern districts of the South Island is not so congenial as that in the northern, there are only a few portions where the winter is at all rigorous. The Nelson Province, in the north-west corner of the Island, is noted for its climate, which is remarkably equable in character. Nelson has a sunshine-record which is equalled in but few parts of the Temperate Zone. The district is specially suitable for fruitgrowing, which is being developed on a rapidly expanding commercial scale. At the other end of the Island, in Central Otago, a peculiar configuration of the country enables fruitgrowing to be prosecuted with great success. The winter is comparatively severe, but the warm summer sun and the absence of wind make it an ideal environment for fruitgrowing.

In some sections, particularly in Canterbury, Otago, and Marlborough, grain-growing is prosecuted on a considerable scale. The Canterbury Plains, extending a hundred and fifty miles north and south and running inland for forty miles from the sea, represent an area of over 3,000,000 acres. This forms the principal grain-growing area. Wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated to a large extent. In Otago and Southland oats are the grain principally produced. In some of the richer lands the yield of wheat has reached very high figures, even up to 80 or 90 bushels per acre, while over 100 bushels to the acre have been recorded for crops of oats. In root crops up to 70 tons per acre of turnips have been secured, while the yield of mangolds has frequently reached 90 tons.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture the Department of Agriculture is a service which is mainly concerned in advancing the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Live-stock, Dairy, and Horticulture, also a Chemist and a Biologist in charge of sections.

While the service is mainly educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Live-stock Division, all meat exported is inspected by qualified officers. Cattle are inspected for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles; sheep and swine also receive attention; slaughterhouses are licensed and controlled, and all stock exported and imported are examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in swine husbandry and wool growing and handling. The Division is provided with a well-equipped laboratory mainly devoted to veterinary research, &c.

Dairy-produce is inspected and graded prior to shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture in butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd-testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk-samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers.

Supervision is exercised over the control of noxious weeds and the suppression of rabbits, and assistance is rendered in connection with the system of co-operative field experiments. A special staff is employed to grade New Zealand phormium fibre prior to export.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work and instruction to beekeepers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It inspects orchards and apiaries, and generally controls diseases of plants and bees.

The Chemistry Section carries out analyses of soils, limestones, fertilizers, water, &c. The Biology Section investigates and gives advice in agricultural botany, plant-pathology, entomology, and related subjects. Well-equipped laboratories form part of the organization of both sections.

There are several experimental farms and horticultural stations which carry out experiments and demonstrations of national as well as local import, including the breeding of purebred cattle and sheep. Several of the farms were established to solve local problems, and the objective in each case has been attained. The principal establishments are those of Ruakura (Hamilton), Weraroa (Levin), Moumahaki (Waverley), Te Kauwhata (Lower Waikato), and Ashburton. Other experimental areas are operated at Puwera (Whangarei), Albany (Auckland), Marton, Gore, Winton, and Galloway (Central Otago).

The agricultural instructional work covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or letters of advice. Thousands of farmers visit the experimental farms and areas. Comprehensive educational displays are frequently made at winter shows, largely illustrative of the experiments conducted by the Department. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. A monthly journal, the New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, is published at a low rate of subscription, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer can obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination-capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described, and remedies suggested—all these services being rendered free of charge.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

By an Act of Parliament passed in 1913 provision was made for the establishment of a Board of Agriculture, consisting of not more than twelve members appointed by the Governor-General, of whom not more than four were to be appointed on the recommendation of the agricultural and pastoral societies of the North Island, and an equal number on the recommendation of such societies in the South Island. The functions of the Board are to advise the Minister of Agriculture on matters relating to the development of agricultural and other rural industries in New Zealand. In particular, but without limiting the application of the term “agricultural and rural industries,” the functions of the Board extend to the following matters:—

  1. The aiding, improving, and developing of agriculture and all rural industries, including fruit-culture, horticulture, forestry, dairying, the breeding of stock and poultry, beekeeping, and the flax industry;

  2. The prevention and control of disease in stock and poultry, the control of rabbits and noxious weeds, and the dipping of sheep;

  3. The establishment of agricultural colleges and agricultural education generally; and

  4. The aiding or facilitating of the carriage and distribution of produce

COLLECTION OF AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL STATISTICS.

In the years previous to and inclusive of 1908–9 complete agricultural and pastoral statistics were collected annually by sub-enumerators appointed by the Department of Agriculture; in 1909–10 full statistics were not collected, but the areas under the principal grain and root crops were ascertained, and an estimate made of the yields; for 1910–11 complete information was obtained in connection with the 1911 census. In the four succeeding years returns were collected by post regarding the acreage and yield of the principal crops; but this method of collection was found to be less satisfactory than the personal visit, and the figures for these years are probably not quite accurate.

Beginning with the 1915–16 season, a new and comprehensive system of collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics was instituted. Under this system complete collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics are made annually by the Census and Statistics Office through the agency of officers of the Police Department. Practically every holding of 1 acre or over (with the exception of those within borough boundaries and Maori lands held on the communal system) is canvassed personally. Interim returns of principal crops and live-stock are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and when the collection is completed the full statistics are published in the “Report on Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics.”

In addition to the main collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics the following supplementary inquiries are undertaken: Areas sown or intended to be sown in wheat and oats (taken at the end of September); stocks of flour, wheat, and oats in the hands of millers, merchants, storekeepers, and farmers (at the end of November); estimated yields of wheat and oats (early in February); and returns of wheat and oats threshed (throughout the threshing season). The results of these first three inquiries are gazetted, and they are also, together with the figures of threshings, published from time to time in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

FARM MACHINERY AND EMPLOYEES.

Summarized statistical information concerning agricultural and pastoral production will be found in Subsections B and C respectively of this section. Farm machinery and farm employees are probably best dealt with together (the more particularly as part of the machinery in use cannot be definitely allocated to one branch or the other of farming), and are accordingly referred to in this subsection.

Information concerning farm machinery is of value as showing in some measure the degree of reliance placed upon mechanical labour. The number of persons employed upon farms (including working proprietors or managers) is also given in the appropriate tables.

DAIRYING MACHINERY.

The number of milking plants shown in the returns for 1922 was 12,468, as against 10,450 in 1921. Cream-separators numbered 38,861, being an increase of 6,837 over the number shown for 1921 (32,024). Information collected for the first time in 1922 has revealed the fact that some 45,819 cows are capable of being milked simultaneously by the machinery in use in the Dominion, the approximate number of cows milked by machinery on 31st January, 1922, being 533,345.

DAIRYING MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1921–22.
Land District excluding Interior Boroughs).Persons employed on Holdings used principally for Dairying Purposes (including Working Proprietors or Managers).Milking Plants.Cream-separators (all Holdings except Boroughs).
Males.Females.Total.Number (all Holdings except Boroughs).Cows capable of being milked simultaneously (all Holdings except Boroughs).
* Not available.
North Auckland8,5573,94312,5001,5465,7396,328
Auckland11,5454,92516,4703,56613,3966,587
Hawke's Bay2,2047632,9675601,8622,709
Taranaki7,2843,47610,7602,5339,4161,279
Wellington6,7602,4379,1972,0077,0723,901
Nelson1,1982681,4662307731,647
Marlborough2881544421876221,036
Westland62721884590312434
Canterbury2,8111,2734,0847322,4077,449
Otago2,6651,6854,3502931,1564,164
Southland3,3592,2215,5807243,0643,327
    Totals, 1921–2247,29821,36368,66112,46845,81938,861
    Totals, 1920–2142,03418,90860,94210,450*32,024

PASTORAL MACHINERY.

The number of shearing plants returned in 1922 was 5,468, controlling 17,788 stands. As against this, the number of shearing plants was 5,354 in 1921, and the number of stands was 17,618. Wool-presses totalled 8,253 in 1922, as against 7,903 in 1921.

PASTORAL MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1921–22.
Land District (excluding Interior Boroughs).Persons employed on Holdings used principally for Pastoral and other (Including unspecified) Purposes (including Working Proprietors or Managers).Shearing-machines (all Holdings except Boroughs).Wool-presses (all Holdings except Boroughs).
Males.Females.Total.Plants.Stands.
North Auckland3,2556243,879288752341
Auckland3,8506904,5404191,077571
Hawke's Bay5,7157766,4911,1995,1611,361
Taranaki1,9414192,360269851385
Wellington6,9871,3998,3861,7075,3732,113
Nelson1,4372021,63992211295
Marlborough1,5533691,922182614405
Westland46580545152328
Canterbury7,0681,7568,8248642,4581,449
Otago4,5041,7056,299297914927
Southland2,6527883,440136354378
    Totals, 1921–2239,4278,89848,3255,46817,7888,253
    Totals, 1920–2144,9609,85354,8135,35417,6187,903

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY.

Agricultural tractors numbered 412 in 1922 (380 in 1921), with nominal horsepower of 6,949 (as against 6,694 in 1921). The number of reapers-and-binders was 15,645; of threshing-machines, 390; and of chaff cutters, 3,179. In 1921, reapers-and-binders numbered 13,105, threshing-machines 387, and chaff cutters 3,140. Particulars regarding other machinery used specifically for agricultural purposes are not collected.

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1921–22.
Land District (excluding Interior Boroughs).Persons employed on Holdings used principally for Agricultural Purposes (including Working Proprietors or Managers).Agricultural Tractors (all Holdings except Boroughs).Reapers-and-binders (all Holdings except Boroughs).Threshing-machines (all Holdings except Boroughs).Chaffcutters (all Holdings except Boroughs).
Males.Females.Total.Number.Nominal Horsepower.
North Auckland7711018722947527733559
Auckland301213221011,69398126303
Hawke's Bay7141058194168861832238
Taranaki26..     2661045073118
Wellington838140978671,31294559392
Nelson1,102471,149122163238147
Marlborough42363486141886663083
Westland..     ..     ..     24764197
Canterbury7,4881,6179,105741,2035,972122328
Otago2,2968143,110264773,09551812
Southland1,1553871,542405462,19725102
    Totals, 1921–2215,1143,29518,4094126,94915,6453903,179
    Totals, 1920–2114,3613,14417,5053806,69413,1053873,140

ENGINES.

Farm engines cannot be allocated to any definite branch of the farming industry. Information concerning the various classes of farm engines is given below for the season 1921–22, and 1920–21 figures are given for comparative purposes:—

FARM ENGINES AND PERSONS EMPLOYED, 1921–22.
Land District (excluding Interior Boroughs).Total Persons (including Working Proprietors or Managers) employed on Holdings, 1921–22.Stationary Engines.Portable or Traction Engines.
Water-wheels or Motors.Electric Motors.Steam.Internal Combustion.
Number.Approximate Horse-power.*Number.Nominal Horse-power.Number.Nominal Horse-power.Number.Nominal Horse-power.Number.Nominal Horse-power.
* Being aggregate power of cases where specified.
North Auckland17,2512310738115522372,1036,72648410
Auckland21,33245268181457953763,88811,22731225
Hawke's Bay10,27745243401411275811,5436,0252941,210
Taranaki13,1463211,039189580592712,2706,457745
Wellington18,56171462602761637273,48911,7912491,525
Nelson4,25462224927452424241,21487287
Marlborough2,85021180747452213801,39222215
Westland1,390186326147699296..     ..     
Canterbury22,0131991,097187710583641,6705,9071811,304
Otago13,7599047945136311648473,43281564
Southland10,562392172086512418382,53765413
    Totals, 1921–22135,3959344,3797782,5817403,50017,55157,0041,0656,198
    Totals, 1920–21133,2606402,8284561,6117193,76115,68552,2501,0396,313

SUBSECTION B.—AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS.

OF the total area of 18,381,363 acres under cultivation in 1921–22, 954,094 acres were in grain and pulse crops. If from this total be deducted areas under crops not intended for threshing, the total is reduced to 587,601 acres. The areas and the total and per-acre yields of grain and pulse crops for threshing are given below for each of the last ten years:—

GRAIN AND PULSE CROPS, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Areas.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and Beans.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1912–13189,869386,78637,4864,683..     
1913–14166,774361,74132,0225,942..     
1914–15229,600287,56118,3475,477..     
1915–16329,207212,68830,2048,0869,209
1916–17218,942177,33229,6486,35911,905
1917–18280,978156,20218,8608,15111,685
1918–19208,030172,68618,7539,79217,929
1919–20139,611179,80022,9079,06414,416
1920–21219,985147,55946,80211,51414,466
1921–22352,918170,65533,07810,52212,789
Total Yields.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and Beans.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
* The figures shown for 1912–13 to 1914–15 (inclusive) do not represent actual results, but were obtained by applying to ascertained average yields per acre the areas stated by growers to be intended for threshing. It would appear, however, that in many cases farmers included under the heading “Oats for Threshing” areas which were intended or used for chaffing or other purposes. The yields given are therefore probably overstated.
1912–135,179,62613,583,924*1,377,610222,115..     
1913–145,231,70014,740,946*1,205,628307,736..     
1914–156,644,33611,436,301*596,828275,274..     
1915–167,108,3607,653,208820,174340,372163,273
1916–175,083,2775,371,249758,935274,332243,297
1917–186,807,5364,942,759568,702367,761312,582
1918–196,567,6296,884,609710,932413,595505,950
1919–204,559,9346,967,862815,807405,775369,306
1920–216,872,2625,225,1151,586,711500,845355,395
1921–2210,565,2756,752,6631,151,813488,452339,398
Average Yields per Acre.
Season.Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Peas and Beans.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
1912–1327.2835.1236.7547.43..     
1913–1431.3740.7537.6551.79..     
1914–1528.9439.7732.5350.26..     
1915–1621.5935.9827.1542.0917.73
1916–1723.2230.2925.6043.1420.43
1917–1824.2331.6430.1545.0926.73
1918–1931.5739.8837.9142.1728.16
1919–2032.6638.7535.6144.7625.62
1920–2131.2435.4133.9043.5024.54
1921–2229.9439.5634.8146.4226.54

Information as to the area and yield of wheat and oats from the season 1868–69 to that of 1921–22 is given in the following table. Probably the most remarkable feature of this table is the decline in the production of oats (grain). Oats, however, are more generally grown for chaffing than for threshing, whilst the amount of wheat grown for purposes other than threshing is relatively insignificant. The production of wheat in the season 1921–22 reached eight figures in bushels for the fourth time in the history of the country, being exceeded only by the 1898–99 season. On the other hand, the amount of oaten grain produced last season is the fourth from lowest since the late “seventies.”

AREA AND YIELD (TOTAL AND PER ACRE) OF WHEAT AND OATS FROM 1868–69 TO 1921–22.
Season.Wheat.Oats.
Area.Yield.Yield per Acre. Area.Area.Yield.Yield per Acre.
* Yield probably overstated for seasons immediately preceding 1915–16, due to total being obtained by applying ascertained averages to areas returned by farmers as sown for threshing. In view of results disclosed by collection under present system, it is evident that areas returned in previous years as intended for threshing were, in many cases, eventually utilized for other purposes.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
1868–6964,5171,619,16925.1085,0562,655,29431.22
1869–7086,1632,349,91427.2799,4753,329,58633.47
1870–7177,8431,833,54823.55121,8293,802,72931.21
1871–72108,7202,448,20322.52139,1853,726,81026.78
1872–73131,7973,188,69624.1996,9582,618,08527.00
1873–74132,4283,391,63425.61109,4723,292,80730.08
1874–75105,6742,974,34028.14157,5455,548,72935.22
1875–7690,8042,863,61931.54168,2526,357,43137.78
1876–77141,6144,054,37728.63150,7184,707,83631.24
1877–78243,4066,336,36926.03190,3445,929,96231.15
1878–79264,8616,076,60422.94278,0318,365,58630.09
1879–80270,1987,610,01228.16330,20812,062,60736.53
1880–81324,9498,147,79725.07215,0306,891,96132.05
1881–82365,7158,297,89022.69243,3876,924,84828.45
1882–83390,81810,270,59126.28319,85810,520,42832.89
1883–84377,7069,827,13626.02262,9549,231,33935.11
1884–85270,0436,866,77725.43354,79412,360,44934.84
1885–86173,8914,242,28524.40329,4888,603,70226.11
1886–87253,0256,297,63824.89387,22811,973,29530.92
1887–88357,3599,424,05926.37336,47410,512,11931.24
1888–89362,1538,770,24624.22367,22510,977,06529.89
1889–90335,8618,448,50625.15426,07113,673,58432.10
1890–91301,4605,723,61018.99346,2249,947,03628.73
1891–92402,27310,257,73825.50323,50811,009,02034.03
1892–93381,2458,378,21721.98326,5319,893,98930.30
1893–94242,7374,891,69520.15376,64612,153,06832.27
1894–95148,5753,613,03724.32351,85210,221,39329.05
1895–96245,4416,843,76827.88364,78812,263,54033.62
1896–97258,6085,926,52322.92372,59711,232,80330.15
1897–98315,8015,670,01717.95354,8199,738,39127.44
1898–99399,03413,073,41632.76417,32016,511,38839.56
1899–1900269,7498,581,89831.81398,24316,325,83240.99
1900–1206,4656,527,15431.61449,53419,085,83742.45
1901–2163,4624,046,58924.76405,92415,045,23337.06
1902–3194,3557,457,91538.37483,65921,766,70845.00
1903–4230,3467,891,65434.26409,39015,107,23738.57
1904–5258,0159,123,67335.36342,18914,553,61142.53
1905–6222,1836,798,93430.60354,29112,707,98235.86
1906–7206,1855,605,25227.18351,92911,201,78931.83
1907–8193,0315,567,13928.84386,88515,021,86138.82
1908–9252,3918,772,79034.75406,90818,906,78846.46
1909–10311,0008,661,10028.00377,00013,804,00037.00
1910–11322,1678,290,22125.73302,82710,118,91733.41
1911–12215,5287,261,13833.69403,66819,662,668*48.71
1912–13189,8695,179,62627.28386,78613,583,924*35.12
1913–14166,7745,231,70031.37361,74114,740,946*40.75
1914–15229,6006,644,33628.94287,56111,436,301*39.77
1915–1632,2077,108,36021.59212,6887,653,20835.98
1916–17217,7435,051,22723.19177,5245,371,43630.29
1917–18280,9786,807,53624.23156,2024,942,75931.64
1918–19208,0306,567,62931.57172,6866,884,60939.88
1919–20139,6114,559,93432.66179,8006,967,86238.75
1920–21219,9856,872,26231.24147,5595,225,11535.41
1921–22352,91810,565,27529.94170,6556,752,66339.56

WHEAT.

Wheat is principally grown in the central and southern portions of the South Island. Seventy-one per cent. of the grain produced now comes from Canterbury; Otago and Southland together produce 25 per cent., while the remainder of the South Island and the whole of the North Island contribute the remaining 4 per cent.

RELATION OF AREA TO YIELD OF WHEAT.

Reference to the diagram on the next page will give a clear conception of the relationship between area and yield of wheat for the period 1868–69 to 1921–22. It is seen that in later years the yield curve diverges considerably from that for the area, the tendency being upward. As a matter of fact, the average yield per acre for the ten seasons at the end of the curve is fully 2 bushels more than the average for the first ten seasons.

By referring to the two scales it is deduced that the heavy black like can be taken not only as the area sown (in acres), but also the yield which that area would have produced had a standard yield of 25 bushels per acre been maintained throughout. Prior to the 1899–1900 season the average yield per acre fell to, or below, 25 bushels per acre on fifteen occasions, whilst subsequent to that date the yield was above 25 bushels per acre, except on only four occasions. This increase in the average yield has been ascribed to various reasons, the main one being the increased use of artificial manures. Whilst this reason is not without foundation, due weight must also be given to the economic law of marginal utility, whereby, following the varying fortunes of demand and supply, varying classes of land will be sown. When the demand is insufficient to induce farmers to grow on the poorer lands, the average yield must certainly, other things being equal, tend to be higher than would be the case where the demand (or anticipated demand) is greater. This law is well illustrated by the fact that the fifteen occasions upon which the demand (or anticipated demand) was sufficient to induce 300,000 acres or more to be sown include six occasions upon which the average yield fell below 25 bushels per acre. The average yield over the whole period amounts to 27.1 bushels per acre, whilst for the fifteen occasions upon which 300,000 acres or more were sown the average was 24.88 bushels per acre.

PRODUCTION PER HEAD OF POPULATION.

The area (for threshing) and the production of wheat per head of population (including Maoris) for the last ten years are now given. The population is taken at the 1st April, a date corresponding approximately to harvest-time.

Year.Per Head of Population.Year.Per Head of Population.
Area.Production.Area.Production.
 Acres.Bushels. Acres.Bushels.
1912–130.174.711917–180.245.90
1913–140.165.031918–190.185.57
1914–150.205.781919–200.113.69
1915–160.296.181920–210.175.42
1916–170.194.421921–220.278.12

Unless there is a considerable carry-over from the previous season, importation of wheat requires to be made when the production falls below about 6 bushels per head of population. The carry-over from 1911–12 made up the deficiency of the 1913 harvest; but in 1914, 121,737 bushels were imported; in 1915, 522,617 bushels; in 1916, 51,512 bushels; in 1917, 719,977 bushels; in 1918, 1,370,542 bushels; in 1919, 1,336,222 bushels; in 1920, 1,905,163 bushels; and in 1921, 306,257 bushels.

CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT.

It is estimated that New Zealand annually requires an average of at least 7,250,000 bushels of wheat, about 6,600,000 bushels of this total being milling wheat, and representing 137,500 tons of flour at the rate of 48 bushels of wheat to the ton of flour. Of the remaining 650,000 bushels of wheat about 400,000 bushels are annually required for seed purposes, and, roughly, 250,000 bushels are of threshing-millers' seconds. The latter would probably be used entirely for fowl-wheat. No information is available as to the amount of wheat rejected for milling purposes.

In former years the Dominion produced considerably more wheat than was required within the country, but the position is now reversed. This is shown by the fact that in 1880 the export of wheat amounted to 3,120,643 bushels, whilst forty years later (1920) the quantity imported reached 1,905,170 bushels.

The following information is based on the production figures as ascertained at the last five collections of agricultural and pastoral statistics, whilst due weight is given to imports and exports of wheat and estimated carry-over. The calculations below give an estimated annual consumption of 7,259,116 bushels.

WHEAT-CONSUMPTION, 1917–21.
Year.Production of Wheat at Harvest.Excess of Imports over Exports of Wheat.*Total.
* Including flour converted on the basis of 48 bushels of wheat to ton of flour.
 Bushels.Bushels.Bushels.
19175,083,2771,075,5616,158,838
19186,807,5361,403,9688,211,504
19196,567,6291,187,8167,755,445
19204,559,9341,780,8636,340,797
19216,872,262304,3637,176,625
Total for five years29,890,6385,752,57135,643,209
Average5,978,1281,150,5147,128,642
        Plus average net decrease in carry-over130,474
        Estimated average annual consumption7,259,116

Information concerning carry-over or surplus at the end of the season was first collected under the present system in 1916. At the 30th November, 1921, there was a surplus (allowing for flour) of 1,477,740 bushels, whilst the carry-over on the 30th November, 1916, was 2,130,108 bushels (or the equivalent), the surplus having thus suffered a net reduction during the five years of 652,368 bushels, or at the rate of 130,474 bushels annually.

The amount of wheat sown per acre for seed purposes varies in different districts, but after making due allowance for these differences it is estimated that on the average about 1½ bushels are sown to the acre throughout the Dominion. The following table gives particulars upon which this estimate is based:—

District.Amount of Seed sown per Acre.Mean Sowings per Acre.Area under Wheat in 1921–22.Estimated Sowings, 1921–22.
 Bushels.Bushels.Acres.Bushels.
North Auckland, Auckland2 to 2½2.2506371,433
Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa1 1/4 to 21.6253,7186,042
Taranaki, Wellington (excluding Wairarapa)2 to 2½2.2505,10311,482
Nelson, Marlborough, Westland, Canterbury, North Otago1 to 1 3/41,375305,563420,149
South Otago, Southland2 to 32.50040,369100,922
            Dominion totals1 to 31.519355,390540,028

Taking an average of the last five seasons it is found that 243,510 acres are annually put down in wheat for all purposes, and at the rate of 1½ bushels per acre this would represent an average annual seed requirement of 364,215 bushels. A liberal estimate of the seed requirements of the Dominion would therefore be 400,000 bushels per year.

The amount of fowl-wheat annually consumed within the Dominion is extremely difficult to assess. Wheat for this purpose comes into competition with oats, and therefore price-variations must necessarily play a prominent part among the various factors concerned in the amount used for this purpose. Moreover, in years of plenty flour-millers will tend to be more strict in the application of standards, and thus much wheat (which in other years would be ground into flour) would be rejected. This wheat would probably all be sold subsequently as fowl-wheat. The proportions of millers' seconds and of firsts for the last four seasons are given below, these being the only seasons for which such information is available:—

Season.Proportion of Total Yield.
Firsts.Seconds.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.
1918–1996.773.23
1919–2096.483.52
1920–2196.843.16
1921–2294.835.17

The average for the four seasons gives 3.77 per cent. as seconds, and this represents over 250,000 bushels annually. It is noteworthy that the proportion of millers' seconds is greatest when the harvest is poorest, and least when the harvest is exceptionally good.

The total amount of wheat consumed annually within the Dominion has (as stated before) been put at 7,250,000 bushels. Of this, 400,000 bushels are estimated to be required for seed purposes, and 250,000 bushels are fowl-wheat—a total of 650,000 bushels. By deduction, the total amount of milling-wheat would therefore be 6,600,000 bushels, or 5 bushels per head of the present population (including Maoris).

WHEAT CONTROL AND GUARANTEE.

A résumé of the course of wheat control and guarantee was given in the 1921–22 issue of this volume, and it is not considered necessary to repeat this. The following table, however, shows the prices fixed for the 1922 harvest—the last season of fixation under the system previously outlined:—

Sold for Delivery inPrice per Bushel.
Velvet or Pearl.Hunters (Varieties).Tuscan or Longberry.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.
January-April, 1922635956
May, 192263 3/459 3/456 3/4
June, 192264 1/2510½5
July, 192265 1/4511 1/458 1/4
August, 1922666059
September, 192266 3/460 3/459 3/4
October, 1922 (or later)66510½

These are guaranteed minimum prices, and it is provided that should the market price exceed these, then the market price will be paid.

The following varieties of wheat are included under the headings outlined:—

“Pearl”—Pearl, Velvet, Bobs.

“Hunters”—Hunters, Webb's Challenge, Webb's Stand-up White, Velvet-ear, Redchaff.

“Tuscan”—Tuscan, Talavera, Dreadnought, Red Marvel, Federation, Yandalla King, John Brown, McCallum's Bordier, Sensation, and Victor; also all varieties not classed as Hunters or Pearl above.

WHEAT-PRODUCTION OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1920–21.

The area and yield of wheat in 1920–21 for each State in the Commonwealth of Australia and in New Zealand were as follows:—

State.Wheat Crop.
Area.Total Yield.Average Yield per Acre.
 Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
Queensland177,3203,707,35720.91
New South Wales (including Federal Territory)3,127,37755,625,00017.79
Victoria2,295,86539,468,62517.19
South Australia2,167,64634,258,91415.80
Western Australia1,275,67512,248,0809.60
Tasmania28,284565,87420.01
        Totals for Commonwealth9,072,167145,873,85016.08
New Zealand219,9856,872,26231.24
        Grand totals9,292,152152,746,11216.44

The average production per acre for the last ten seasons is—for New Zealand, 28.20 bushels per acre; and for Australia, 10.69 bushels per acre.

It may be said that although from twenty to thirty countries in the world generally produce more wheat than does New Zealand, only one or two European countries have a better record of production per acre. This says much for the fertility of the soil of the Dominion, for cultivation here is naturally less intensive than it is in the closely settled Continental countries.

OATS.

In point of area oats is the most important grain crop of the Dominion. About 80 per cent. is grown in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, 5 per cent. in the remainder of the South Island, and 15 per cent. in the North Island. The greater portion of the oat crop is usually converted into chaff without threshing, but the proportion so dealt with depends on market conditions. In 1915–16, 33.12 per cent. of the crop harvested was threshed; in 1916–17, 33.36 per cent.; in 1917–18, 33.41 per cent.; in 1918–19, 36.40 per cent.; in 1919–20, 35.82 per cent.; in 1920–21, only 25.67 per cent.; and in 1921–22, 33.16 per cent.

The total and average yields per acre of grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the last seven seasons were as follows:—

Season.Grain.Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage.
Total Yield.Average per Acre.Total Yield.Average per Acre.
 Bushels.Bushels.Tons.     Tons.     
1915–167,653,20835.98572,4351.33
1916–175,371,43630.26432,8781.22
1917–184,942,75931.64419,4341.35
1918–196,884,60939.87461,7391.53
1919–206,967,86238.75467,6401.45
1920–215,225,11535.41557,0231.36
1921–226,752,66339.56538,1941.56

EXPORT OF OATS.

New Zealand has no regular export of oats, and in some years has practically no surplus available for export. In 1901 the export reached 10,514,924 bushels, in 1909 5,133,473 bushels, and in 1912 4,123,920 bushels, as compared with only 3,250 bushels in 1918. The quantity exported in each of the last ten years was as follows:—

Year.Bushels.
19124,123,920
1913239,268
19141,323,362
1915682,652
1916220,265
19175,767
19183,250
1919144,827
1920227,027
1921431,472

OAT CROP OF AUSTRALIA.

The oat crop for 1919–20 in the States of the Commonwealth of Australia was as follows:—

 Acres.Bushels.Average per Acre. Bushels.
Queensland3632,8717.91
New South Wales76,117586,7587.71
Federal Capital Territory2243,25514.53
Victoria559,5476,603,06711.80
South Australia192,1531,634,2398.50
Western Australia191,9312,436,91812.96
Tasmania48,1851,242,25825.78
Totals for Commonwealth1,068,52012,559,36611.75

BARLEY.

The area under barley for threshing for the season 1921–22 was 33,078 acres, the crop amounting to 1,151,313 bushels, an average of 34–81 bushels per acre. In 1920–21 the area under barley was 46,802 acres, and the yield 1,586,711 bushels, or 33.90 bushels per acre.

MAIZE.

The returns for 1921–22 show that there were 10,522 acres sown for grain, being a decrease of 992 acres on the area for the previous season (11,514 acres). The yield for the 1921–22 harvest was 488,452 bushels of corn, an average of 46.42 bushels per acre, and in 1920–21 500,845 bushels, an average of 43.5 bushels per acre. With the exception of a few acres in the South, maize is grown only in the North Island. In 1921–22 the Land District of North Auckland had 581 acres: Auckland, 5,992 acres; Hawke's Bay, 3,896 acres; Taranaki, 10 acres; Wellington, 17 acres; Nelson, 22 acres; Canterbury, 2 acres; and Otago, 2 acres.

PEAS AND BEANS.

The area under peas and beans for threshing in the season 1921–22 was 12,789 acres, yielding 339,398 bushels. The area under these crops in 1920–21 was 14,466 acres.

New Zealand has a considerable export of peas and beans, the figures for the last ten years being,—

EXPORT OF PEAS AND BEANS, 1912 TO 1921.
Year.Bushels.
1912464,609
1913339,998
1914305,053
1915201,942
191684,168
1917111,175
191890,495
1919451,595
1920208,414
1921224,080

CHAFF, HAY, ENSILAGE, AND GREEN FODDER.

Particulars of the areas under cereals, grasses, and clovers cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage, or for use as green fodder, are next given for each of the last seven seasons, together with information as to yields. Similar information for the three seasons prior to 1915–16 is not available.

CEREALS AND GRASSES FOR CHAFF, HAY, OR ENSILAGE, AND FOR GREEN FODDER.
Areas.
Wheat for Chaff, &c.Oats for Chaff, &c.Barley for Chaff, &c.Maize for Ensilage. &c.Grasses and Clovers for Hay.Green Fodder.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1915–166,215429,4372,04062494,330229,496
1916–173,738354,5501,240711106,723218,452
1917–182,258311,316634613111,181180,867
1918–191,646301,724530272131,557149,622
1919–202,125322,174711589117,110166,758
1920–211,623410,059670667161,820185,284
1921–221,252344,0517931,039187,363201,351
Yields.
Wheat.Oats.Barley.Maize.Hay.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tone.Tons.     
1915–167,440572,4353,3873,493177,165
1916–175,186432,8782,1515,107179,505
1917–183,549419,4341,2403,335180,436
1918–192,554461,7399381,378225,549
1919–203,172467,6401,1822,909184,115
1920–212,481557,0231,2204,418272,515
1921–222,443538,1941,4696,470336,273

LINSEED.

The great increase in the area sown in wheat in the 1921–22 season has led to a reduction in almost all other crops of importance. This reduction is very marked in the case of linseed for threshing, the area sown last season being only 5,880 acres, as compared with 9,663 acres for the previous season. The following table summarizes the information available in regard to this crop:—

Season.Area sown.Total Yield.Yield per Acre.
* Not available.
 Acres.Tons.     Tons.     
1916–171,431**
1917–181,456**
1918–193,890**
1919–205,0462,2910.45
1920–219,6634,5520.47
1921–225,8802,8300.48

By far the greater portion of the linseed is grown in Canterbury (5,763 acres in 1921–22).

SEED AND ROOT CROPS.

The areas and yields of seed and root crops for each of the seven years 1915–16 to 1921–22 are next given. It should be understood that the areas shown for seed crops represent only those crops actually cut for seed.

SEED AND ROOT CROPS.
Areas.
Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Potatoes.Turnips.Mangolds.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
1915–1643,09513,2935,7871,64388829,809572,13713,046
1916–1779,13516,1345,5142,9781,33026,156526,2839,073
1917–1870,22016,5954,3726,9073,72222,854450,8198,712
1918–1931,25019,3182,3296,6826,79819,169438,0458,233
1919–2039,58016,7893,4256,1812,28424,933542,3109,546
1920–2156,47117,5273,4696,3473,35622,068551,1909,170
1921–2251,35614,9876,2316,9103,03019,418508,52010,063
Yields.
Rye-grass.Cocksfoot.Chewings Fescue.Red Clover and Cow-grass.White Clover.Potatoes.
* Of 20 lb.
 Bushels.*lb.     lb.     lb.     lb.     Tons.     
1915–16795,4161,577,2851,230,219385,638141,469128,807
1916–171,152,4871,907,0431,247,545443,861143,465133,642
1917–181,355,6122,410,5571,013,0421,076,360461,853100,596
1918–19646,1943,761,814551,5881,255,478958,360105,483
1919–20652,6722,201,729827,7691,146,882335,203144,705
1920–211,015,5072,724,816680,1161,554,770512,480126,648
1921–22952,9332,713,6401,650,3271,518,824362,812112,090

POTATOES.

The area under potatoes in 1921–22 was 19,418 acres, yielding a return of 112,090 tons, or at a rate of 5.76 tons per acre, against 22,068 acres and 126,648 tons (or 5.72 tons per acre) in 1920–21.

These figures do not include areas of less than a quarter of an acre, so that a considerable quantity of potatoes grown for private use has not been taken into account.

The following table shows the average yield per acre of potatoes in each of the Australian States and in New Zealand from 1915–16 to 1919–20. Later figures for Australia are not available.

AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE OF POTATOES, 1915–16 TO 1919–20.
State.1915–16.1916–17.1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
Queensland1.282.182.061.721.77
New South Wales2.272.022.211.452.49
Victoria3.052.552.722.662.71
South Australia2.994.292.724.043.23
Western Australia2.902.882.522.973.69
Tasmania2.711.952.582.262.32
Federal Territory3.572.922.271.503.43
Commonwealth2.752.382.552.342.58
New Zealand4.335.114.385.505.79

TURNIPS AND MANGOLDS.

Turnips form a most important crop in a sheep-breeding country such as New Zealand, and in 1921–22 the area under this crop was 508,520 acres, while there were 10,063 acres of mangolds.

The figures for these crops for 1920–21 were 551,190 acres and 9,170 acres respectively.

GRASSES AND CLOVERS FOR SEED.

The area under rye-grass for seed in the season 1921–22 was 51,356 acres, yielding 952,933 bushels of 20 lb., or an average of 18.47 bushels per acre, as against 1,015,508 bushels from 56,471 acres (average 17.89 bushels per acre) in 1920–21.

In cocksfoot there were 14,987 acres, which yielded 2,713,640 lb., or an average of 180.91 lb. per acre. The area in the previous season was 17,527 acres, and the total yield 2,724,816 lb., the average yield per acre being 155.46 lb. The area returned by farmers as being under cocksfoot is decreasing steadily, having been 41,918 ages in 1910–11. Much of the waste land of the Dominion is laid down in cocksfoot, including a large proportion of the land enclosed with the State railway lines. Much of this is harvested, but no record of the amount obtained from this source is kept. Second or catch crops are taken account of in the yield figures, the total yield including crops obtained from areas which had previously yielded some other crop in the season concerned. The areas, however, do not include second crops, and average yields cannot therefore be obtained by the mere division of the total yield by the area shown.

HOPS.

There were 540 acres under hops in 1921–22, 536 acres of this area being in the Nelson Land District. The total produce amounted to 679,205 lb., an average of 1,257.79 lb. per acre.

MINOR CROPS.

Of the minor crops for threshing, rye is the most important, amounting to 1,233 acres in the 1921–22 season. Vetches and tares aggregated 416 acres. The following table gives details for the seasons 1920–21 and 1921–22:—

Area.Yield.
1920–21.1921–22.1920–21.1921–22.
Acres.Acres.Bushels.Bushels.
Rye8851,23314,71530,148
Vetches, tares1094162,5816,800
Lupins12610970
Millet..     41..     545
Mustard9..     50..     
Unspecified287437,6911,114
                          Totals1,2911,75925,04739,577

Minor green and root crops (including certain “industrial” crops) amounted to 2,294 acres in 1921–22, as against 2,226 acres in 1920–21. The following table gives details for the two seasons:—

1920–21.1921–22.
 Acres.Acres.
Kumeras (sweet potatoes)149145
Pumpkins, marrows, &c. (for stock)485716
Carrots (for stock)726816
Millet22115
Linseed..     37
Chicory1112
Sugar-beet1..     
Sorghum2..     
Tobacco37111
Osiers3840
Unspecified755302
                                Totals2,2262,294

PHORMIUM TENAX.

Large areas (43,896 acres in 1921–22) in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium tenax, the fibre of which is largely used for ropemaking, &c. At the census of industrial manufacture for the year 1921–22 thirty-six mills were returned, employing 815 hands, the total value of output being £344,086. The export of fibre and tow during each of the last ten years was as follows:—

PHORMIUM EXPORTED, 1912 TO 1921.
Year.Fibre. Tons.Tow. Tons.
191218,6413,388
191328,0926,299
191419,7024,226
191523,2203,465
191627,6744,578
191723,5162,500
191825,1671,815
191922,3473,262
192018,9493,126
19219,6431,534

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.

In 1921–22 there were 4,262 acres in market gardens, 395 acres in nurseries and seed gardens, and 57,927 acres in private gardens and pleasure-grounds. The area in plantations (not virgin bush) was 52,462 acres.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.

The area in orchard in 1921–22 (exclusive of that within borough boundaries) was 31,121 acres; in 1920–21 there were 31,507 acres exclusive of boroughs.

The following table gives particulars, by land districts, of areas for private use and for commercial purposes:—

AREA IN ORCHARD, 1921–22.
Land District.For Private Use only.For Commercial Purposes.Total Area in Orchard.
Not bearing.Bearing.
 Acres.Acres.Acres.Acres.
North Auckland1,2702,1032,9566,329
Auckland1,0001966011,797
Hawke's Bay4616421,6942,797
Taranaki154333190
Wellington738543961,188
Nelson3262,8946,6859,905
Marlborough19698566860
Westland56..     2177
Canterbury9406381,3032,881
Otago5639753,3394,877
Southland206113220
            Dominion5,9107,60417,60731,121

Commercial orchards are defined for statistical purposes as “those producing fruit for sale to the value of £50 and upwards annually, or, if not in full bearing, or if for any reason the crop has been a failure, that are calculated to produce fruit for sale to that value when in full bearing or in normal seasons, as the case may be.” Private orchards consist chiefly of small areas the produce of which is consumed principally on the holding, or, if sold, does not aggregate an annual value of £50. Larger areas which, through age, disease, or other cause, are incapable of producing a yearly revenue of the stipulated amount are also included in private orchards.

Large areas have of recent years been planted in fruit-trees, especially in the Nelson Land District, where tracts of land which until recently bore nothing but stunted manuka, and were looked upon as practically useless, have now been proved to be very suitable for growing fruit, particularly apples. A good market exists locally for choice, clean fruit, but, as the large areas recently planted come into bearing, growers are having to look to outside markets to take the surplus.

The Department of Agriculture assists orchardists by supplying information on fruitgrowing generally, and as to the most up-to-date methods to adopt for the control of diseases and insect pests, pruning, &c. Practical demonstrations of pruning, spraying, and the grading and packing of fruit are given regularly by the Orchard Instructors attached to the Department.

Extensive experiments have been carried out in the growing of tomatoes and the control of diseases affecting them, many thousands of pounds having been lost through failure of the tomato crops grown under glass during the last few years. The results of these experiments have proved of great value, and have enabled growers to adopt successful methods for the production of large and profitable crops. There are approximately 880 glasshouses in the Dominion used for the production of tomatoes, table grapes, &c.

The total acreage in vineyards outside of borough boundaries is 179 acres. The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay. The greater portion of the crop is used for wine-making, but a considerable quantity of outdoor-grown grapes is sold for table use.

Since 1913 the State has had authority to borrow money for the purpose of making advances for the establishment of cold stores for fruit and of fruit-canning works, and otherwise for the assistance of the fruitgrowing industry. The total amount of the advances outstanding on the 31st March, 1922, was £65,155.

The Orchard-tax Act, 1916, provided for the levying, in each year from 1916 to 1921, of a tax of 1s. per acre on commercial orchards (with a minimum of 2s. 6d.), the proceeds to be paid over to the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, and to be expended in aid of the fruitgrowing industry.

PASTURE GRASSES.

New Zealand is essentially suited for grazing purposes. Wherever there is light and moisture English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off, and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are few places where there is not some growth even in the coldest months of the year, enabling stock to winter on the pastures.

Sown-grass land, as might be expected, heads the list of cultivations. At the beginning of the year 1922 there were 16,112,598 acres under artificial (pasture) grasses. Seeds for sowing pasture lands are used much as in Great Britain.

In addition to the artificially sown pastures, the returns for 1921–22 show that 14,609,603 acres in tussock or native grass belonged to the occupied holdings, and were available for stock-feeding by the sheep and cattle farmers.

SUBSECTION C.-PASTORAL PRODUCTION.

SUMMARY OF LIVE-STOCK.

THE numbers of live-stock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations are as shown in the following table. With the exception of the figures for sheep as disclosed by the special annual collection of sheep returns as at the 30th April, the figures relate to the 31st January.

1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Horses378,050363,188346,407337,259332,105
Asses and mules253296262245266
Dairy cows..793,215826,135893,4541,004,6661,137,055
Cattle (including dairy cows)2,869,4653,035,4783,101,9453,139,2233,323,223
Sheep shorn during season23,749,70023,720,81823,075,25021,923,00921,100,550
Lambs tailed during season11,194,16710,485,3519,447,7529,614,54810,267,550
Sheep (including lambs) as at 30th April26,538,30225,828,55423,919,97023,285,03122,222,259
Pigs258,694235,347266,829349,892384,333
Goats—
    Angora5,9316,4465,4475,5335,904
    Other11,79910,4789,08711,83411,576

The following table gives the number of the principal kinds of live-stock in Australia and New Zealand for the year 1920–21:—

State.As atSheep.Cattle.Horses.Pigs.
* Sheep, 30th April, 1921; others, 31st January, 1921.
New South Wales30 June, 192133,691,8383,367,880661,846305,967
Victoria1 Mar., 192112,171,0841,575,159487,503175,275
Queensland31 Dec., 192017,404,8406,455,067741,024104,370
South Australia30 June, 19216,359,944376,399268,18778,395
Western Australia31 Dec., 19206,532,965849,803178,66460,581
Tasmania1 Mar., 19211,570,832208,20239,11738,116
Northern Territory31 Dec., 19206,062659,84037,8371,416
Federal Territory30 June, 1921159,9907,3871,332286
Totals for Commonwealth..     77,897,55513,499,7372,415,510764,406
New Zealand*23,285,0313,139,223337,259349,892

The following diagram will give an idea of the large increase in the number of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs in New Zealand since 1858:—

NOTE.—The base of each small rectangle represents an interval of one year, and the vertical height the number of animals, as follows: Sheep, one million; cattle, one hundred thousand; horses and pigs, each fifty thousand.

SHEEP.

The Dominion is eminently suited for sheep-breeding, practically every description of sheep finding a favourable local habitat. In the hilly and down country of the South Island the merino has been bred for very many years, and was the original sheep depastured. In fact, the merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock which has made Canterbury mutton famous on British meat-markets. In the early days of the Canterbury meat trade the English Leicester of the original type was the favourite ram for putting to the merino ewe. Of later years the Lincoln has been largely employed to cross with the merino, and black-faced rams have been further employed to put to the crossbred ewes. Systematic inbreeding of merino longwool half-bred sheep produced the now world-known Corriedale breed. In the North Island the Romney sheep, which suits the rather moist climate of this portion of the Dominion, has become the most popular sheep; it is also increasing in numbers in the South Island. The Lincoln and the Border Leicester are also favoured in both Islands, while the Southdown is taking the lead for fat-lamb production throughout the Dominion.

The flocks of the North Island increased from 5,285,907 sheep in the year 1886 to 10,009,731 in 1906 and 13,880,799 in 1916, or at the rate of 89.37 per cent. in the first twenty years of the period, and of 38.67 per cent. between 1906 and 1916; but there has been a continuous decrease from year to year since 1918.

The number of sheep in the South Island has fluctuated considerably, decreases from previous years having occurred in 1913, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1921, and 1922.

YearNorth Island.South Island.Total.
18865,285,9079,888,35615,174,263
191313,145,44511,046,36524,191,810
191413,155,95811,642,80524,798,763
191513,315,91611,585,50524,901,421
191613,880,79910,907,35124,788,150
191714,567,12810,703,25825,270,386
191814,758,27811,780,02426,538,302
191914,211,94411,616,61025,828,554
192013,166,75010,753,22023,919,970
192112,774,32310,510,70823,285,031
192212,095,80510,126,45422,222,259

There were fewer sheep in the Dominion in 1922 than in any year since 1907.

In the table given above the Chatham Islands are included in the South Island, as they form portion of the Canterbury-Kaikoura Sheep District. In dealing with land districts, however, they are included with Wellington.

The following table shows the number of sheep and of breeding-ewes in the Dominion on the 30th April, 1922 and 1921. It will be noted that of the land districts Hawke's Bay had most sheep in 1922, Wellington came next, and Canterbury occupied third place.

Land District.Sheep on 30th April,Breeding-ewes on 30th April,
1921.1922.1921.1922.
North Auckland678,219632,965325,507338,371
Auckland930,647818,691442,912450,472
Hawke's Bay5,274,7255,203,2942,703,6832,999,531
Taranaki800,462674,509352,569351,601
Wellington5,177,8014,857,5922,522,1972,675,545
Nelson488,606448,415253,183244,853
Marlborough1,095,6201,031,111531,622525,433
Westland62,49156,67530,88832,062
Canterbury4,499,8674,301,8382,749,2442,614,052
Otago2,782,4832,813,0441,409,3051,457,510
Southland1,494,1101,384,125826,678816,624
            Totals23,285,03122,222,25912,147,78812,496,054

There was a considerable increase in the number of breeding-ewes amounting to 348,266, and this fact is significant as pointing to a wise conservation for future breeding requirements. The number of rams (stud and flock) in the Dominion on the 30th April, 1922, was 322,072, as against 322,144 in 1921, a decrease of 72. The following table shows the number of breeding-ewes and of rams in the Dominion for the last five years; the number of dry ewes is also given.

As at 30th April,Rams (Stud and Flock).Breeding-ewes.Dry Ewes.
1918325,11113,022,0341,598,749
1919321,30412,341,9001,811,397
1920306,62111,569,6751,824,194
1921322,14412,147,7881,345,819
1922322,07212,496,054960,068

The number of breeding-ewes has varied considerably from time to time, the maximum having been attained in 1917, in which year the number of rams in the Dominion was also the greatest. The number of dry ewes recorded on the 30th April, 1922, reached a very low figure, being 385,751 below the figure for the previous year.

The number of lambs returned in 1922 was the smallest since 1906. The figures for the last five years are as follows:—

 Number of Lambs.
As at 30th April, 19187,895,888
″19197,431,321
″19206,317,738
″19215,834,481
″19225,716,461

Although there has been a substantial decrease in the total number of sheep since 1918, the number of flocks has actually increased. From the following table it will be seen that the whole of the increase has occurred in flocks under 500 in number, flocks of over 500 having fallen from 12,600 to 10,733 between 1918 and 1922. The year 1922, however, saw a total decrease of 293 owners. Especially in flocks of over 5,000 is this decrease noticeable.

NUMBER OF FLOCKS.
Size of Flocks.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Under 50011,56211,71912,28613,04513,067
    500 and under 1,0005,6035,4665,2495,1674,803
  1,000    ″    2,5004,7474,6374,4114,2364,047
  2,500    ″    5,0001,4071,4401,3141,2761,233
  5,000    ″    10,000622611636505492
10,000    ″    20,000187162139140139
20,000 and upwards4030252419

The average size of the flocks is found to have been 1,098 sheep in 1918, 1,073 in 1919, 998 in 1920, 957 in 1921, and 934 in 1922.

The numbers of the different classes composing the flocks in April, 1922, were as follows:—

North Island.South Island.Total in Dominion.
Stud sheep (entered in Flock-book)—
    Merino123,61123,612
    Lincoln18,2492,42220,671
    Romney85,75837,695123,453
    Border Leicester1,22319,88221,105
    English Leicester..1,39923,79825,197
    Shropshire7382,5223,260
    Southdown13,5476,97820,525
    Corriedale35333,07833,431
    Other breeds210681891
                    Totals121,478150,667272,145
Sheep of a distinctive breed, but not entered in Flock-book—
    Merino35,614806,679842,293
    Lincoln151,35030,327181,677
    Romney1,868,280565,3402,433,620
    Border Leicester10,39196,367106,758
    English Leicester3,20197,317100,518
    Shropshire2,8856,2269,111
    Southdown37,6646,58844,252
    Corriedale15,058547,353562,411
    Half-bred4541,129,6571,130,111
    Other breeds5,19145,00150,192
                    Totals2,130,0883,330,8555,460,943
Flock sheep—
    Crossbreds and others not otherwise enumerated9,844,2396,644,93216,489,171
                    Grand totals12,095,80510,126,45422,222,259

Statistics for each of the last two seasons show that the Romney was the predominating breed in all land districts with the exception of Marlborough, where half-breds occupied the premier position, and Canterbury, where merinos hold pride of place.

MUTTON AND LAMB.

Figures showing sheep and lambs slaughtered for food purposes during each of the last ten years, together with the exports of frozen mutton and lamb, are given in the tables following.

In addition to the figures of slaughterings given below there are the killings by farmers for their own use. During the 1921–22 season farmers killed 769,198 sheep and 68,916 lambs for food, and on the basis of these figures it is estimated that about 5,500,000 sheep, representing a weight of 330,000,000 lb., and 500,000 lambs, of a weight of 18,000,000 lb., were killed by farmers for local consumption during the ten years shown. This gives a total of approximately 1,350,000,000 lb., equal to an average annual consumption per head of population, including Maoris, of about 120 lb.

SHEEP.
Year ended 31st MarchSheep slaughtered for Food Purposes.Frozen Mutton exported.
Number.Approximate Weight.Number of Carcases, including Pieces at 60 lb. to a Sheep.Weight.
  Cwt.      Cwt.     
19133,306,5881,771,3862,208,3301,092,692
19144,019,8312,153,5702,557,6391,271,935
19153,999,4602,139,8892,522,4481,244,399
19164,018,5782,152,8092,939,6111,498,843
19173,601,2841,929,2592,409,8991,228,696
19183,631,3441,945,3632,150,5051,118,014
19194,381,0052,346,9671,300,047680,732
19205,512,4822,953,1164,127,8532,097,678
19214,615,5202,472,2945,488,9762,740,493
19224,127,2262,210,7173,340,5481,737,025
        Totals for ten years41,213,31822,075,37029,045,85614,710,507
LAMBS.
Year ended 31st March.Lambs slaughtered for Food Purposes.Frozen Lamb exported.
Number.Approximate Weight.Number of Carcases.Weight.
  Cwt.      Cwt.     
19133,505,9861,126,9242,956,249901,146
19144,338,1801,394,4153,854,3481,186,638
19154,471,8611,597,0933,692,0031,120,682
19164,091,0851,314,9913,750,5901,152,736
19173,431,9431,103,1252,797,290838,569
19182,695,443866,3922,048,612623,022
19192,950,316948,315916,914277,822
19203,280,6011,054,4783,420,2201,070,340
19213,563,9701,161,4604,350,9641,342,193
19225,085,2691,659,6904,842,5451,491,450
Totals for ten years37,414,65412,226,88332,629,73510,004,598

SHEEP IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The number of sheep in the Australian States and in New Zealand for the years 1900, 1905, 1910, 1915, and 1920 was as follows:—

1900.1905.1910.1915.1920.

* Includes Northern Territory.

† Figures for April following.

Queensland10,339,18512,535,23120,331,83815,950,15417,404,840
New South Wales40,020,50639,506,76445,560,96932,874,35933,691,838
Victoria10,841,79011,455,11512,882,66510,545,63212,171,084
South Australia*5,283,2476,339,5426,324,7173,744,7476,366,006
Western Australia2,434,3113,120,7035,158,5164,831,7276,532,965
Tasmania1,683,9561,583,5611,788,3101,624,4501,570,832
Federal Territory..     ..     ..     134,679159,990
New Zealand†19,355,19519,130,87523,996,12624,788,15023,285,031
      Totals89,958,19093,671,791116,043,14194,493,898101,182,586

SHEEP FLOCKS OF THE WORLD.

The following figures, compiled mainly from “The Statesman's Year-book” (1922 edition), give some idea of the sheep flocks in the principal countries in respect of which the information is available:—

* Including 1918 figures for towns, villages, and Native reserves, 1920 figures not being available.

†Russia in Europe only, and not including Siberia, Poland, and the Caucasus.

‡ New boundaries.

§ Excluding towns.

Country.Number of Sheep.
Australia (1920–21)77,897,555
Argentine Republic (1920)45,303,419
United States (1921)45,067,000
South African Union (1920)29,305,241*
United Kingdom (1921)23,749,500
New Zealand (1922)22,222,259
British India (1919–20)21,983,573
Spain (1921)20,521,677
Russia, Soviet (1921)18,200,000†
Italy (1918)11,753,910
Uruguay (1916)11,472,852
Brazil (1920)10,633,000
Jugo-Slavia (1920)9,771,985
France (1921)9,599,560‡
Algeria (1919)9,139,722
Bulgaria (1917)7,340,904
Morocco, French (1920)6,708,728
Rumania (1919)6,159,982
Germany (1920)6,149,676
Greece (1918)5,467,828
Chile (1919)4,500,196
Portugal (1920)3,850,733
Canada (1921)3,676,000
Tunis (1921)2,037,551
Hungary (1920)1,817,405
Sweden (1919)1,563,654
Mexico (1920)1,089,976
Lithuania (1921)1,056,000
Czecho-Slovakia (1920)975,889
Norway (1920)956,607§

PRODUCTION OF WOOL.

Wool obtained from sheep for the season 1921–22 amounted to 155,847,225 lb., whilst lambs yielded 4,033,883 lb. The following table shows the amount of wool produced in each land district in the Dominion during the season 1921–22, whilst figures for 1920–21 are also given for purposes of comparison:—

WOOL PRODUCED, 1920–21 AND 1921–22.
Land District (including Interior Boroughs).Wool obtained during Season 1920–21 fromWool obtained during Season 1921–22 from
Sheep.Lambs.Sheep.Lambs.
 lb.     1b.lb.     lb.     
North Auckland4,563,481173,1144,669,687115,984
Auckland6,608,532460,3276,120,322354,348
Hawke's Bay41,604,5651,233,51039,817,301920,904
Taranaki6,934,087481,7835,921,169362,619
Wellington41,118,5552,267,70938,221,2042,225,339
Nelson2,393,83010,8472,369,16019,575
Marlborough7,505,18611,9627,243,88512,256
Westland318,5968,536296,7307,342
Canterbury28,593,11364,50526,583,29111,344
Otago16,513,5413,23216,729,4743,654
Southland8,232,2261327,875,002518
                Totals164,385,7124,715,657155,847,2254,033,883

The following table gives the average weight of fleece for each land district in each of the last five years:—

AVERAGE WEIGHT OF FLEECE, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
Land District.1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
 lb.     lb.     lb.     lb.     lb.     
North Auckland6.616.606.486.837.11
Auckland6.726.996.937.166.88
Hawke's Bay7.637.897.588.157.95
Taranaki6.727.207.457.767.34
Wellington7.858.127.888.248.09
Nelson5.695.895.595.825.60
Marlborough7.127.296.867.617.13
Westland5.945.925.935.765.63
Canterbury7.317.297.087.056.92
Otago6.876.716.716.626.80
Southland6.906.656.536.156.43
Dominion7.327.457.257 487.39

The quantity of wool exported in 1921 was 158,714,828 lb., a decrease of 3,612,348 lb. when compared with the quantity exported in the previous year. The approximate annual production of wool for the last twenty years, taking the exports for the twelve months immediately preceding the commencement of shearing and adding thereto the quantity used in the Dominion for manufacturing purposes, is shown in the next table, but no addition has been made for wool on sheep-skins exported, nor for loss in scouring and washing.

Year ended 30th September.Quantity exported.Quantity purchased by Local Mills.Total.
 lb.     lb.     lb.     
1902155,652,5634,203,312159,855,875
1903160,919,6935,294,652166,214,345
1904141,031,6995,191,451146,223,150
1905146,889,7673,651,343150,541,110
1906152,765,2324,372,472157,137,704
1907164,006,5794,116,722168,123,301
1908163,930,7224,779,198168,709,920
1909187,619,1815,202,821192,822,002
1910194,472,9345,642,113200,115,047
1911184,854,1496,048,164190,902,313
1912189,553,7236,284,114195,837,837
1913195,353,5336,823,545202,177,078
1914196,499,8966,846,960203,346,856
1915208,908,1186,628,019215,536,137
1916200,119,0168,772,467208,891,483
1917162,043,6347,590,445169,634,079
1918110,054,3157,488,932117,543,247
1919258,363,5246,720,400265,083,924
1920165,821,5088,599,212174,420,720
1921174,950,1905,307,495180,257,685

The following summary is interesting as showing the various classes of wool purchased by the New Zealand mills. For 1920–21 greasy wool represents over 99 per cent. of the total. More than half of the wool used at mills is shown to be half-bred. one-quarter crossbred. and less than one-quarter merino.

Merino.Half-bred.Crossbred.Total.
 lb.     lb.     lb.     lb.     
Greasy853,5322,382,2881,992,0385,227,858
Washed..     7008521,552
Scoured3,0311706,2029,403
Sliped6,39017,31344,97968,682
        Totals, 1920–21862,9532,400,4712,044,0715,307,495
        Totals, 1919–201,990,9274,384,4542,223,8318,599,212

The percentages of greasy, scoured, and washed wool to the total quantities exported during the last ten years are,—

Year.Greasy.Scoured and Sliped.Washed.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191280.9618.770.27
191383.2816.430.29
191483.4516.280.27
191578.6221.090.29
191679.2720.240.49
191781.7718.070.16
191877.9221.210.87
191971.7828.070.15
192065.5334.290.18
192174.5025.420.08

The following diagram shows the increase in the weight of wool exported since 1882, also the great expansion of the frozen-meat trade in the same period. The decrease during the war period is attributable to lack of shipping facilities.

CATTLE.

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in the Dominion by herds bred on sound lines, though the development of the beef-breeds of later years has received a check owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations. There are still very many fine Shorthorn herds of the beef type, while Hereford and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are also largely bred. There are herd-books for each of these breeds.

The breeding of dairy cattle has made great progress in recent years. Herd-book societies are now well established for the Jersey, Friesian, Ayrshire, and Milking Shorthorn breeds, and the Red Poll breeders have recently formed an association. The various societies have heartily co-operated in a scheme for establishing registers of merit in connection with the certificate-of-record testing of purebred dairy cattle, thus giving a great fillip to the breeding of purebred dairy stock. The dairy-farmer is encouraged to use purebred bulls and thereby to assist materially in raising the standard of the dairy stock of the country. He is now coming to appreciate the value of herd-testing work, and thus, knowing the really profitable cows in his herd, will be anxious to secure a bull which will enable them to perpetuate their good qualities.

An important factor responsible for the improved position of dairy cattle in New Zealand is the milking-machine, which is making the farmer more independent of hired labour. With the higher price of land there is a gradual tendency towards smaller farms and the keeping of fewer but better cows. Also, there is a growing realization of the necessity of a more liberal system of feeding, particularly in the direction of growing special fodder crops to maintain the milk-flow at all seasons of the year. Generally, dairy-farming in New Zealand is being conducted on a sound basis, and the industry now ranks fully with meat and wool production in importance.

A policy which has been partly responsible for placing the breeding of dairy cattle on up-to-date principles has been the establishment of purebred herds at three of the State experimental farms, where they are bred according to an exact record of performance. High-priced stock have been imported in order that the foundation herds at the farms may be of the best quality. The yearling bulls from these State milk-record herds command high values. The appreciation of the farming community for this officially tested stock has been chiefly responsible for the gratifying manner in which private breeders of pedigree stock have participated in the certificate-of-record testing system of the Department of Agriculture and the herd-book societies. With regard to the testing of dairy-farmers' herds, the Department in the season of 1910–11 established a model herd-testing association in the Wairarapa district, carrying out the work of testing and of recording results free of all charge to the farmers taking part. This had the effect of creating at once wide interest in the important herd-testing movement, and the following season model associations were established in several leading dairying districts. This was intended not only to demonstrate the value of herd-testing when properly conducted and with full comparative records published at the end of the season, but also to encourage farmers to establish co-operative testing associations on their own account. The object was achieved, and many associations are now in operation. The larger number of these are supervised by the Department of Agriculture.

The total number of cattle in the Dominion at the enumeration of 1922 was 3,323,223, as against 3,139,223 in 1921. The figures, according to the classification in use, are as follows:—

Bulls two years old and over, for stud—
    For beef purposes14,152
    For dairy purposes44,028
Cows and heifers two years old and over, for dairying—
    In milk998,400
    Dry118,428
Cows and heifers two years old and over, other than for dairying474,090
Heifers one and under two years old371,850
Steers two years old and over540,742
Steers and bulls one and under two years old207,647
Calves (heifer and steer) under one year old520,610
Cattle in boroughs, &c.33,276
                                  Total3,323,223

The increase of 184,000 cattle was fairly evenly distributed, although of this number the increase for the North Island amounted to 145,892, as against 38,108 for the South Island. Out of a total of 3,323,223 cattle, the North Island had 2,634,170, or 79.27 per cent., while the South Island had 689,053, or 20.73 per cent. The figures for each land district were,—

Land District.Number.
North Auckland463,089
Auckland650,121
Hawke's Bay495,638
Taranaki375,187
Wellington650,135
Marlborough47,176
Nelson62,774
Westland44,369
Canterbury212,328
Otago142,517
Southland179,889
                    Total3,323,223

The total number of dairy cows and heifers intended for dairying was 1,137,055, and of this number the North Island had 862,683, or 75.87 per cent., and the South Island 274,372, or 24.13 per cent.

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

In connection with the enumeration of live-stock in 1921 information was collected as to breeds of cattle, horses, and pigs in addition to the usual details of age, sex, &c. A summary of the results of this enumeration as regards cattle is given below:—

TABLE SHOWING DETAILS OF CATTLE IN THE DOMINION ON 31ST JANUARY, 1921, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO BREED, SEX, AND AGE. (INCLUDING BOROUGHS.)
Breed.Bulls of All Ages for Stud.Cows and Heifers Two Years Old and over.Heifers under Two Years Old (including Heifer Calves).Steers Two Years Old and over.Steers under Two Years Old (including Steer Calves).Total Cattle.
Purebred—
     Jersey4,0305,8082,8955121312,997
     Guernsey5163..     226
     Alderney12..     ..     ..     3
     Friesian1,4582,3591,1888785,091
     Ayrshire3971,293474412,169
     Red Poll344133..     10118
     Highland1117..     221
     Shorthorn (including Milking Shorthorns)1,9104,7051,782411478,585
     Hereford1,4202,1751,0683871715,221
     Polled Angus1,0071,4105594131943,583
     Devon518..     ..     ..     23
Crossbred with predominating strain of—
     Jersey and other Channel Island breeds9,972303,476126,40312,59916,742469,192
     Friesian5,164117,18347,98720,88618,911210,131
     Ayrshire1,11930,77010,1602,2122,25046,511
     Milking Shorthorn16,985579,873219,60131,51434,977882,950
     Red Poll524963474862721,635
     Danish Red1520080..     ..     295
     Other dairy breeds (including unspecified)16312,5314,5523,1812,80823,235
     Shorthorn6,865191,880110,665291,909209,347810,666
     Hereford5,907156,10778,465116,00983,045439,533
     Polled Angus2,72978,80235,42447,75535,434200,144
     Devon721,1114554063282,372
     Other beef breeds (including unspecified)374,0362,3235,0223,30414,722
          Total, purebred10,26817,8388,00990481837,837
          Total, crossbred49,0801,476,465636,462531,961407,4183,101,386
          Dominion totals59,3481,494,303644,471532,865408,2363,139,223

CONSUMPTION OF BEEF.

The following table shows the number and approximate weight of cattle slaughtered for food purposes in each of the past ten years, together with the weight of beef exported:—

Year ended 31st March.Cattle slaughtered for Food Purposes.Weight of Frozen Beef exported.
Number.Approximate Weight.
  Cwt.     Cwt.     
1913259,9351,856,679260,880
1914299,4092,139,529325,593
1915347,3532,481,093716,289
1916369,6472,640,336750,938
1917385,1292,750,9211,008,689
1918341,3002,437,857882,982
1919355,3572,538,264804,512
1920413,2062,951,471576,054
1921366,5652,618,421810,322
1922261,7181,869,491839,598
Totals for ten years3,399,61924,284,0626,975,857

In addition to these figures there were 5,998 bullocks and cows and 4,058 calves slaughtered by farmers for local consumption during the twelve months ended the 31st January, 1922.

THE WORLD'S CATTLE.

Such information as is available concerning cattle in the main countries of the world is appended hereto. Figures have been compiled mainly from the 1922 edition of “The Statesman's Year-book,” though some figures are extracted from “Agricultural Statistics, 1920” (Vol. 1v, Part III—Cmd. 1363), published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London.

Country.Number of Cattle.
 

(a) Russia in Europe, and not including Siberia, Poland, and the Caucasus.

(b) New boundaries.

(c) Including 1918 figures for towns, villages, and Native reserves, 1920 figures not being available.

(d) Cows.

(e) Including Chosen (Korea), Taiwan (Formosa), Karafuto, and Konang-Toung; in the case of Konang-Toung, buffaloes are included as cattle.

(f) Bullocks,

(g) Including buffaloes.

(h) Cattle two years of age and over.

(i) Excluding live-stock in towns.

British India (1919–20)117,428,365
United States (1922)67,464,000
Brazil (1920)30,705,000
Argentine Republic (1920)27,392,126
Germany (1920)16,805,950
Russia, Soviet (1921)(a) 13,500,000
Australia (1920–21)13,499,737
France (1921)(b) 13,343,440
United Kingdom (1921)11,887,000
Canada (1921)10,206,000
Uruguay (1916)7,802,442
South African Union (1920)(c) 7,655,072
Italy (1918)6,239,741
Jugo-Slavia (1920)5,496,531
Paraguay (1915)5,249,043
Rumania (1919)4,771,812
Czecho-Slovakia (1920)4,213,454
Turkey (1919)4,118,000
Cuba (1918)3,965,600
Spain (1921)(d) 3,718,189
New Zealand (1922)3,323,223
Japanese Empire (1919)(e) 3,247,855
Siam (1920–21)(f) 2,625,476
Denmark (1921)2,590,903
Sweden (1919)2,550,828
Hungary (1920)2,221,988
Chile (1919)2,163,141
Mexico (1920)2,162,984
Netherlands (1919)1,968,609
Bulgaria (1917)(g) 1,885,620
Austria (1919)1,719,000
Ceylon (1920)1,598,833
Morocco, French (1920)1,494,173
Belgium (1920)1,487,361
Switzerland (1920)1,382,116
Finland (1919)(h) 1,100,486
Norway (1920)(i) 1,094,818
Algeria (1919)1,092,996

DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The Dairy Industry Act, 1908, a consolidation of previous legislation, provides for the appointment of inspectors of dairy stock and factories or other places used for the manufacture of dairy-produce, and power is given to condemn or forbid their use, if necessary. The sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy-produce is prohibited, and provision is made for the inspection, grading, and shipping of all such produce exported. Provision is made for the framing of regulations for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture or sale of the produce, the registration of trade-marks or brands, and for inspection and grading. A fine not exceeding £50 may be inflicted for any offence under this part of the Act.

Authority is given for State advances to dairy companies, on the security of their assets, for the purposes of acquiring land or of erecting buildings and machinery for carrying on the manufacture of dairy-produce. Loans are repayable by equal half-yearly instalments within fifteen years, and bear interest at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum.

The Act also provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies, and shareholders are protected in the event of certain contingencies.

A short amending Act was passed in 1915, but does not affect the main points of the measure as summarized.

The census of industrial manufacture showed that during the year ended 31st March, 1921, 812,467½ cwt. of butter was produced by butter-factories in the Dominion. In addition to this, 17,230½ cwt. of whey-butter was manufactured, and for the twelve months ended 31st January, 1921, 46,179 cwt. of butter was produced on holdings of one acre and over, followed by 52,188 cwt. for the year 1921–22. The quantity of butter exported during the year ended 31st March, 1921, was 476,730 cwt.

Returns from cheese-factories give the quantity manufactured during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1921, as 1,115,650 cwt. The quantity of cheese exported during 1920–21 amounted to 1,208,263 cwt.

The total export of butter and cheese in the last twenty years, and the total quantity of each commodity sent to the United Kingdom, are tabulated below:—

Calendar Year.Total Export of Butter.Butter exported to the United Kingdom.Total Export of Cheese.Cheese exported to the United Kingdom.
 Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     Cwt.     
1902253,998170,20774,74650,325
1903285,106249,01674,78064,661
1904314,360299,17184,52682,046
1905305,722282,27588,56285,653
1906320,225306,739131,206129,321
1907328,441314,081236,833234,517
1908229,971211,242280,798276,212
1909321,108301,693400,607398,619
1910356,535345,400451,915449,167
1911302,387283,505439,174435,616
1912378,117316,857577,070572,562
1913372,258288,224611,663608,933
1914434,067361,381863,776859,986
1915420,144371,959817,258803,917
1916358,632336,412949,416942,773
1917254,397250,721885,751865,152
1918431,023415,250883,445844,198
1919345,818336,6061,572,3551,517,102
1920312,009282,6791,222,0701,220,409
1921898,478878,7371,368,7861,368,051

Exports of butter to countries other than the United Kingdom in 1921 include 9,525 cwt. to Canada and 7,899 cwt. to the United States.

The quantities of butter and cheese exported continued about equal till the close of the year 1895. During the period 1896–1907 butter assumed the lead, reaching its maximum of comparative importance in 1903, in which year the export was nearly four times that of cheese. A remarkable rise then took place in the cheese exports, and the increase in the exports continued so rapidly that 1920 saw the quantity of cheese nearly five times that of butter.

The huge increase in butter exports in 1921, as compared with recent preceding years, was due to the despatch in 1921 of stocks of butter purchased by the Imperial Supplies Department for the Home Government in previous years. A similar explanation applies to cheese exports in 1919; and, in general, exports of butter and cheese, especially since 1914, are not necessarily a reflex of the corresponding year's production, as the product on of one year may not be exported until the next year.

HORSES.

There were 332,105 horses in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1922, being a decrease of 5,154 on the total for the previous year. The following table gives details by land districts:—

Land District.Stallions Three Years Old and over.Geldings Three Years Old and over.Mares Three Years Old and over.Fillies under Three Years Old.Colts or Geldings under Three Years Old.Other Horses and Horses unspecified.Total Horses.
Dry.With Foal at Foot or to foal this Season.
* At the time of collecting the borough figures the classification for age was as to whether two years old and over, or under two years.
North Auckland16517,01813,8261,08384972026033,921
Auckland26921,54219,2781,7181,9421,58459946,932
Hawke's Bay16814,75813,1281,6281,5311,41363533,261
Taranaki79,94210,1154354303886921,454
Wellington21217,74717,3811,5931,5121,22974240,416
Nelson463,1823,247190222167297,083
Marlborough403,0102,685374383324326,848
Westland151,0361,06010311657292,416
Canterbury21226,80624,9202,4512,9482,4101,24660,993
Otago19714,20514,1631,3311,5271,40761033,440
Southland6611,97911,9239231,04184410326,879
    Totals1,465141,225131,72611,82912,50110,5434,354313,643
    Boroughs, &c.*..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     18,462
    Total, Dominion..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     332,105

Details of breeds of horses, as ascertained at the collection of 1921, are as given in the following table:—

TABLE SHOWING DETAILS OF HORSES IN THE DOMINION ON 31ST JANUARY, 1921, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO BREED, SEX, AND AGE. (INCLUDING BOROUGHS.)
Thoroughbred.Draught.Other Breeds (Harness and Saddle).Ponies under 14 Hands.Total Horses.
Stallions for stud3286653601201,473
Geldings two years old and over3,30073,86874,5983,705155,471
Dry mares two years old and over3,40159,61576,4684,973144,457
Mares with foal at foot or to foal this season8284,4575,89146011,636
Fillies under two years old5323,5454,8043179,198
Colts or geldings under two years old4382,9824,0832967,799
Other horses and horses unspecified3401,1794,9297777,225
              Total horses9,167146,311171,13310,648337,259

The numbers of horses in each of the last five years are as follows:—

Year (31st January).Number of Horses.Numerical Increase or Decrease.Increase or Decrease per Cent.
1918378,050+ 4,450+ 1.19
1919363,188−14,862−3.93
1920346,407−16,781−4.62
1921337,259−9,148−2.64
1922332,105−5,154−1.50

The following table gives additional information in regard to horses three years old and over outside borough boundaries. Draught horses numbered 123,536; horses suitable for spring-cart or light artillery work, 76,505; and light horses (including thoroughbred and trotting), 89,980.

HORSES OVER THREE YEARS OLD, 31ST JANUARY, 1922.
Land District (excluding Interior Boroughs).Draught.Spring-cart or Light Artillery.Light (including Thoroughbred and Trotting).Total Horses over Two Years Old.
North Auckland7,12611,70813,42432,258
Auckland15,31415,33812,55743,209
Hawke's Bay8,3466,64715,26030,253
Taranaki5,0759,1756,36520,615
Wellington10,79312,02414,78137,598
Nelson2,4972,6671,5266,690
Marlborough3,1082,0151,0056,128
Westland5361,0396652,240
Canterbury35,2367,46312,88555,584
Otago18,6204,7907,05030,460
Southland16,8853,6394,46224,986
                Totals123,53676,50589,980290,021

ASSES AND MULES.

Asses and mules numbered 266 as at the 31st January, 1922, being an increase of 21 on the figures for 1921.

PIGS.

There were 349,892 pigs in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1921. The following table shows the classification by breeds:—

Breed.Boars of All Ages for Stud.Sows of All Ages used or intended for Breeding.Other Figs.Total Pigs.
Pure Berkshire4,95217,63462,24984,835
Pure Yorkshire5532,0964,1366,785
Other purebred pigs2941,3734,6826,349
Crossbred pigs3,57629,126219,221251,923
                Totals9,37550,229290,288349,892

As regards the number of pigs in recent years, a decrease of 23,347 was recorded between 1918 and 1919, but a recovery of 31,482 was shown between 1919 and 1920. The number of pigs returned as at 31st January, 1922 (384,333), was the largest ever shown for the Dominion, being an advance of 34,441 on the figure for 1921. Details by land districts for 1922 are as follows:—

Land District.Pigs under One Year Old.Breeding-boars One Year Old and over.Breeding-sows One Year Old and over.Other Pigs One Year Old and over.Total Pigs.
North Auckland37,8061,5036,6417,27953,229
Auckland65,8112,46412,2769,17989,730
Hawke's Bay15,7275973,2553,03222,611
Taranaki30,5911,3466,23510,21448,386
Wellington38,2771,5787,4876,44053,782
Nelson9,4122871,36584811,912
Marlborough5,5191989448577,518
Westland2,988954275504,060
Canterbury41,8261,1796,4436,11855,566
Otago13,4594292,1311,72217,741
Southland8,9643091,6171,61912,509
            Totals270,3809,98548,82147,858377,044
            Boroughs, &c...     ..     ..     ..     7,289
            Grand total..     ..     ..     ..     384,333

During the ten years ended the 31st March, 1922, 1,984,360 pigs were slaughtered in New Zealand for food purposes, the weight of pork, bacons, and hams being 2,302,979 cwt. For the twelve months ended the 31st January, 1922, 56,578 pigs were slaughtered by farmers. During the ten-yearly period roughly 18,000 cwt. of hams and bacons were exported, leaving 99 per cent. for home consumption.

Figures showing the slaughter for each of the last ten years are given below:—

Year ended 31st March.Number of Pigs.Weight of Pork, Bacon, and Hams.
  Cwt.     
1913192,407223,330
1914191,797222,622
1915241,683280,525
1916219,041254,244
1917202,834235,432
1918179,540208,395
1919155,960181,024
1920200,952233,104
1921169,700196,852
1922230,446267,451
Totals for 10 years1,984,3602,302,979

GOATS.

The number of Angora goats in the Dominion on the 31st January, 1922, was 5,904, an increase of 429 since 1921. Other goats decreased during the period, the number in 1922 being 11,576.

POULTRY.

The number of poultry in New Zealand at the taking of the 1921 census was ascertained to be 3,991,009, an increase of 525,371 over the number for the year 1916 (3,465,638).

The figures of poultry for each of the last four censuses are as follows:—

Census Year.Fowls.Ducks.Geese.Turkeys.Total.
19062,784,269281,99944,30077,1013,187,669
19113,215,031329,23045,38997,9333,687,583
19163,141,354220,80846,95556,5213,465,638
19213,491,567379,98846,23473,2203,991,009

In connection with the census of 1921 statistics were compiled as to the sizes of flocks of fowls, and the results are instructive as showing that, though poultry-farming as a definite branch of farming exists to some small extent, poultry-keeping is generally carried on merely as a side-line. The classification of flocks of fowls is,—

Size of Flock.Number of Flocks.
Under 1243,913
    12 and under 2554,130
    25 ″ 5032,180
    50    ″    758,285
    75    ″    1002,102
  100    ″    1501,414
  150    ″    200422
  200    ″    250205
  250    ″    300113
  300    ″    400147
  400    ″    50071
  500    ″    60033
  600    ″    70016
  700 and under80023
  800    ″    90016
  900    ″    10008
1,000    ″    125021
1,250    ″    15005
1,500    ″    17006
1,700    ″    20005
2,000    ″    22501
2,250    ″    25001
2,500    ″    3000..     
3,000 and over2
            Total143,119

The average number of fowls per flock was thus only two dozen. The total number of households keeping poultry of any kind was 145,993, of which no fewer than 61,459 were in boroughs.

BEES.

Bees were first introduced into New Zealand in 1839, and after early vicissitudes bee-farming has steadily increased. The census returns of 1921 show that there were 8,426 households keeping bees in the Dominion, the number of colonies being 85,861. Comparative figures for the last four censuses are given.

Census Year.Number of Households keeping Bees.Number of Beehives.Honey produced during Year.Beeswax produced during Year.
   lb.     lb.     
190615,39674,3411,003,94031,682
191111,01171,6051,457,42928,061
19168,24457,5401,363,33431,032
19218,42685,8612,807,34651,180

Of the colonies in 1921, 29,672 were of black, 26,184 of hybrid, 25,925 of Italian, and 4,080 of other (including unspecified) bees.

A classification of the number of hives in apiaries at the census of 1921 is given below for each provincial district:—

BEES.—SIZE OF APIARIES.
Provincial District.Number of Cases in which the Number of Hives in the Apiary wasTotal Number of Apiaries.
Under 5.5 and under 10.10 and under 25.25 and under 50.50 and under 100.100 and over.
Auckland1,4733662378356542,269
Hawke's Bay23454341553345
Taranaki2889545141010462
Wellington60916597382021950
Marlborough2025020542283
Nelson40682562274577
Westland9327221143160
Canterbury9232812088838381,576
Otago—
    Otago portion705224163392541,160
    Southland portion4121207220128644
              Totals5,3451,4649543351811478,426

Exports of honey for the last five years were,—

Year.Quantity.Value.
 lb.     £     
1917248,3415,589
1918172,0145,964
19191,701,80159,846
1920935,81134,122
1921861,92128,428

The Department of Agriculture maintains apiary instructors and inspectors, who give practical instruction in management, preparation of products for market, &c. The grading of honey for export is now compulsory.

Regulations gazetted under the Apiaries Amendment Act, 1913, require all beekeepers to make application to the Director of the Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture, for registration of their apiaries. Registration must be re-effected every third year. In the case of apiaries being established or transferred from one beekeeper to another, application for registration of such establishment or transfer must be made within twenty-one days.

Chapter 17. SECTION XVII.—FORESTRY.

FORESTRY LEGISLATION AND POLICY.

THE conservation of Crown timber lands in New Zealand was first enacted by the New Zealand Forests Act, 1874, which was described as being “An Act to provide for the establishment of State forests and for the application of the revenue derivable therefrom.” The provisions of this Act were modified or added to by subsequent Acts, till in 1908 the legislation then in force was consolidated by the enactment of the State Forests Act, 1908. This Act provided, inter alia, for the appointment of one of the responsible Ministers of the Crown to be Commissioner of State Forests; the establishment of a State Forests Account and the borrowing of money to be paid to this account; the granting of licenses to cut timber; the appointment of forestry officers; the making of regulations; the establishment of schools of forestry; and the co-operation of the State with local authorities in afforestation. Under section 34 of the War Legislation and Statute Law Amendment Act, 1918, authority was provided for the cutting and selling of timber by the Commissioner of State Forests; the purchase of private lands; the proclamation of Crown lands as and for provisional State forests; the constitution of every afforestation purpose as a public work under the Public Works Act, 1908; the limiting of the export of timber; and the prohibiting of the sale of, and the granting of licenses to cut, standing timber on public or private lands of any tenure, except subject to such conditions as might be prescribed.

The State Forests Amendment Act, 1919, provided for the proclamation of national-endowment lands as provisional State forests. In the Finance Acts of 1916, 1918, and 1920 authority was provided for raising moneys (not exceeding £500,000 in the aggregate) for forestry purposes. Section 315 of the Land Act, 1908, provided for the leasing for farming purposes of open areas of State forest reserves. Section 69 of the Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act, 1915, gave authority for the disposal of young forest-trees to farmers and the giving of advice on tree-planting. A new Forests Act, in which there is embodied the necessary provisions of the existing Acts, and containing additional provisions which experience had proved to be necessary, was passed in the session of 1921–22.

The administration of the State forests and of the afforestation activities was for many years under the control of the Lands and Survey Department, but in 1919 a separate Forestry Department was formed. This was reorganized in 1920 as the State Forest Service, with a Director of Forestry at its head, assisted by a Secretary, a Chief Inspector, five Conservators of Forests, and a staff of field and clerical officers.

The present forest policy may be summarized as follows: (1) The assurance of ample timber-supplies at reasonable prices for both the present and the future population of New Zealand; (2) the protection and regulation of stream-flow by the maintenance of protection forests at the headwaters of all important streams; (3) the maintenance of forests as productive forest capital on non-agricultural areas which, if deforested, might be turned into useless impoverished wastes; and (4) the transference to forest management of all existing and future forests where stream-flow, soil-fertility, climate, and public health are dependent upon them.

THE FORESTS ACT, 1921–22.

The Forests Act, 1921–22, makes “provision for the management and protection of forests, and for other purposes in relation thereto”; and expresses the best of modern experience in the administration of national forests. Whilst the forest laws and codes of other British and English-speaking communities have been drawn upon, nevertheless the Act is essentially a forest law designed for New Zealand conditions. A clear line of authority and responsibility has been defined from the legislative head downwards. Power has been taken to appoint a consultative Advisory Board in order that ideals may be allied with practical needs. Ample power has been given for the dedication of permanent and provisional State forests, the creation of forest plantations, the formation and regulation of forest working-plans, and the definition of fire districts. A special feature of the Act is the provision for the management of Maori forests by the Forest Service. By the operation of the power contained in this portion of the Act the Native owners may secure a permanent and perpetual periodic revenue from any native bush which may be dedicated as “Maori forest.”

The Act, which became law on the 1st April, 1922, assures a unity of control and administration of the national forest estate; it eliminates overlapping of services, and ensures continuity of policy and a certain permanency of action which, unfortunately, has not heretofore characterized the national forestry effort.

AREA OF INDIGENOUS FORESTS, AND FOREST RESERVATION.

The total area of New Zealand is 103,284 square miles, and at the time when organized European settlement was first started (about 1840) there were about three-fifths (62,000 square miles) of this area under forest. The rapid advance of settlement (too often indiscriminate), the operations of sawmills, and the ravages caused by fires of kauri-gum diggers, mining prospectors, and other pioneers, have resulted in this area being rapidly reduced, so that at the present time it is estimated (in the absence of correct surveys) that the remaining total area of forest in New Zealand is only about 11,500,000 acres. A considerable proportion of this area, however, being ordinary Crown land, Native land, and privately owned land, will probably be deforested and surrendered for settlement. The area of permanent State forests is 1,689,511 acres, of provisional State forests 5,404,806 acres, and of the former specially created forest reserves 87,658 acres, making a total of 7,181,975 acres controlled by the State Forest Service. A considerable part of this area is, however, alpine meadow-land or subalpine scrub-land, and until further surveys have been made the area containing merchantable forest cannot be safely stated.

In addition to the State forests and provisional State forests, some 2,600,000 acres of forested Crown lands have been defined by the State Forest Service, but have not yet been dedicated as provisional State forests.

A commencement of the forest inventory and stock-taking of the Dominion's forest resources was made during 1921, and 50 per cent. of the field-work was completed. This economic survey embraces an investigation of all commercial and protective forests, their ownership, the quantity and quality of timber, distribution, accessibility, and value. This national inventory will serve as a starting-point from which to build specific working-plans so necessary to the adequate production of perpetual and sustained wood crops. The findings of the inventory make possible a very close prediction as to the life of our virgin supplies, and this data, combined with statistics of the rate of growth and yield, will determine the effectiveness of the indigenous-forest asset in a scheme of permanent national forestry.

This most important project has already revealed the existence of large masses of merchantable-timber bodies in out-of-the-way corners. One definite forecast already clearly indicated is the widespread distribution and exceptional yield of the beech group. The forest inventory work is bringing clearly to light the intimate relation between agricultural settlement, water-conservation, and stream-flow. In the Rotorua region, for example, it has been found that 95 per cent. of the forest-bearing land is unfitted for settlement, and a very large proportion of those forest lands may be regarded as absolutely necessary for soil-protective purposes.

DESCRIPTION OF FORESTS.

The forests of New Zealand consist of two classes—the rain forest and the southern-beech forest. With one or two exceptions most of the lowland forests belong to the first class. From the number of species, the abundance of lianes, perching plants, tree-ferns, filmy ferns, &c., the rain forests have the appearance and general character of tropical forests. The components of the rain forests vary, however, in different localities, and often one or two species dominate the association to such an extent as to warrant the application of a type name—e.g., “tawa association,” “tawhero association.”

The southern-beech forest is found generally on the higher elevations, but near Wellington, at the Marlborough Sounds, and at the south-east extremity of the South Island it descends to sea-level. As a rule it is composed of one or two of four species of southern beech (Nothofagus) (called “birch” by the settlers), but in some localities there is an admixture of rain-forest trees. Unlike the rain forest the southern-beech forest has few lianes (they are often absent) and tree-ferns, and comparatively little undergrowth. It has a close relationship to the southern-beech forests of western Tasmania and of Patagonia.

Though the forest-trees of New Zealand are ninety-nine in number, there are only about twenty of them which are of value as timber-trees; in fact, at present only six are being used to any extent by sawmillers, and of these five are coniferous (soft-wood) timbers. There are already indications that the high prices and growing scarcity of many of our best timbers will bring about the use of many of those now neglected. There are several timbers—e.g., puriri, kohekohe, pukatea—which possess very high qualities, but which are now to be obtained only in such small quantities that they are of little commercial importance. A short description of each of the chief forest-trees follows.

CHIEF FOREST-TREES.

KAURI (agathis australis).—This is the largest tree of the New Zealand forest, and as far as volume of timber is concerned it is also one of the largest trees of the world. The average height of kauri is about 100 ft. The maximum diameter which has been measured is 22 ft., and a few trees now exist with diameters of 14 ft. The average diameter is, however, about 40 in. It grows only to the north of 38° south latitude. The timber is light yellowish-brown in colour; it is straight in the grain, strong, easily worked, and remarkably free from knots and defects; probably there is no more generally useful softwood in the world. Though formerly much used for house-building, its present high price confines its use to such purposes as railway-carriage building, cabinet and general joinery purposes. Mottled and figured kauri is much prized for cabinet-work. The kauri-tree yields a very valuable resin called kauri-gum. It is regrettable that the remaining stand of this valuable timber is now very limited.

TOTARA (Podocarpus Totara and P. Hallii).—Totara is found more or less throughout the whole of New Zealand, though in many localities it is rare. It is most plentiful in the forests of the central portion of the North Island. The average height is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber is reddish when first cut, seasoning to a reddish-brown. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle. Its great durability has caused it to be much used for railway-sleepers, wharf-piles, telegraph-poles, and posts. Its high price and its freedom from warping and shrinking are now, however, causing it to be used for such special purposes as window and door frames; it is also much used for veranda-posts, flooring, and steps.

RIMU, or RED-PINE (Dacrydium cupressinum).—This, the principal timber-tree of the New Zealand forest, is to be found more or less in all forests except the pure beech forests. The average height is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber when first cut is reddish-brown, which changes when seasoned to a light brown with darker and lighter streaks. It is fairly straight in the grain, and easily worked. It is the chief timber used in house-building. It is often beautifully figured, and such timber is used for furniture, doors, and panelling.

KAHIKATEA, or WHITE-PINE (Podocarpus dacrydioides).—This tree is found more or less in all forests (except the beech forests) from north to south of the Dominion; formerly it was found in almost pure stands in swampy areas, but most of these stands have now been exploited. The average height of the tree is about 120 ft., and the average diameter about 32 in. The sapwood, which comprises the greater part of the log, is white, and the heartwood yellow. The timber is straight in the grain, easily worked, and long clean lengths can be obtained. The yellow heartwood is durable, but the sapwood is very susceptible to the attacks of the larvæ of the white-pine borer. The timber is inodorous, and is used mainly for butter-boxes, cheese-crates, and other packages.

MATAI, or BLACK-PINE (Prumnopitys spicata).—The distribution of this tree ranges from the extreme north to the extreme south of the Dominion. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 24 in. The timber is light yellowish-brown in colour, straight in the grain, easily worked, but somewhat brittle and rather heavy. In the ground it is of second-rate durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is used chiefly for weatherboarding and flooring.

YELLOW SILVER-PINE (Dacrydium Colensoi).—The distribution of this tree ranges from Hokianga in the north to the extreme south of the Dominion. The average height of the tree is about 45 ft., and the average diameter about 18 in. Though the tree is small, there is a large proportion of heartwood. The timber is whitish when first cut, darkening to a light yellowish-brown; it is straight in the grain and easy to work. Owing to its extreme durability it has been used mainly for railway-sleepers, telegraph-poles, and posts; it is occasionally beautifully mottled, and is then used for cabinet-work. The remaining supplies are now very limited.

KAIKAWAKA, or MOUNTAIN-EDAR (Libocedrus Bidwillii).—Though the distribution of this tree is often local, its range extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the forests of South Otago. It is most plentiful on the west coast of the South Island. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., with an average diameter of about 18 in. The timber is dark red in colour, easy to work, light, and rather weak; it has considerable resemblance to totara, but it is not so strong, and generally not so durable. The timber has been used for telegraph-poles, shingles, and palings; and with the lessened supply of totara, its use for these purposes will increase.

RED-BEECH (Nothofagus fusca).—This tree is more commonly known under the names red, brown, or black birch. Its distribution extends from near Mangonui in the north to the extreme south of the Dominion. In many places it is found in almost pure stands. The average height of the tree is about 100 ft., and the average diameter about 30 in. The timber when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split, durable, and of about the same weight as English ash. Red-beech is liable to warp in seasoning, and for this reason it has not been much used for house-building; its chief use at present is for posts and mine-props, and it is used to a small extent for sleepers and bridge-work. With the increasing scarcity of Australian hardwoods it is likely to have a much more extended use in the future.

SILVER-BEECH (Nothofagus Menziesii).—This tree is more commonly known under the names silver, white, cherry, or totara birch. Its distribution extends from the Hauraki Gulf to the extreme south of the Dominion, in some places being found as the dominant forest-tree. The average height of the tree is about 80 ft., and the average diameter about 2 ft. The timber is of a pinkish colour when first cut, but it changes to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, strong, and of about the same weight as red-beech; it is, how ever, not durable in contact with the ground. It is now being used for furniture, agricultural implements, tool-handles, and packing-cases, and its use for these and in other directions is sure to extend.

PURIRI (Vitex lucens).—The inland distribution of this tree extends from the North Cape to the vicinity of Te Aroha, but it follows the coast on the east as far south as Poverty Bay and on the west to New Plymouth. The average height of the tree is about 40 ft., and the average diameter about 22 in. The timber when seasoned is a dark rich brown; it is extremely hard, dense, strong, durable, and heavy. Owing to its interlaced fibres it is difficult to work. It has been so much used for railway-sleepers, posts, and house-blocks that the supply is now almost exhausted. It is an extremely beautiful tree, and, being of quick growth, it should be planted for ornamental purposes in frost-free localities.

TAWA (Beilschmiedia Tawa).—This tree is to be found in most forests of the North Island up to an altitude of about 1,700 ft. In the South Island it exists in small quantities in the coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. The average height of the tree is about 60 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is light brown in colour, rather hard, straight in the grain, but somewhat brittle. At present it is used to a small extent for inside lining and packing-cases only, but with preservative treatment its use could be much extended.

TARAIRE (Beilschmiedia Taraire).—This tree is plentiful in forests to the north of Auckland, but to the south it occurs occasionally only in forests as far south as the East Cape on the east coast and Raglan Harbour on the west coast. The average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter about 18 in. The timber is light brown in colour, straight in the grain, easily worked, and somewhat resembles plain oak in appearance. It has a limited use for furniture - making, but with preservative treatment its use could be much extended.

RATA (Metrosideros robusta and M. lucida).—The first-mentioned of these trees is found in most forests below 2,000 ft. in the North Island; it is rather rare in the South Island, being found only occasionally in the lowland forests of Marlborough, Nelson, and Westland. This tree generally starts as a “perching-plant” in the forks of other large trees, and therefrom sends down huge roots, which generally envelope and strangle the supporting tree. These roots generally (but not always) coalesce; and when they do they form a huge bole (with an average diameter of about 54 in.) which is generally hollow. The other rata, though found only rarely in the North Island, is plentiful in the South Island. It has the same habit of growth as an ordinary tree; its average height is about 50 ft., and the average diameter is about 20 in. The timber of both trees is reddish-brown in colour, extremely hard, heavy, strong, and (out of the ground) very durable; it is highly valued as firewood, but is also used to a small extent for arms for telegraph-poles and for wheelwrights' work. Its use could be much extended.

KAMAHI, or TAWHERO (Weinmannia racemosa).—This tree is to be found in most forests from north to south of the Dominion. Its habit of growth and size vary considerably in different localities; in some places it has a short irregularly formed bole which is often hollow, but in some localities (especially in the South Island) it forms a clean solid bole. The average height of the tree is about 50 ft., and the average diameter about 20 in. The timber is dark brown or reddish in colour, and often has dark streaks running through it; it is strong and tough, but rather irregular in the grain; when worked up it has a very handsome appearance, but it is difficult to season without warping and checking. At present it is used to a limited extent only as rails for bush tram-lines, but owing to its abundance it has considerable possibilities, especially for manufacture of wood-pulp.

TANEKAHA, or TOATOA (Phyllocladus trichomanoides)—This tree is found in the North Island locally from the North Cape to Taranaki and Hawke's Bay; in the South Island it is found only in the northern parts of Marlborough and Nelson down to Westport on the west coast. The timber is yellowish-white, free from knots, close-grained, dense, heavy, and very strong, and shrinks very little in seasoning. It is of uncertain durability in the ground, but is very durable out of the ground. In the past it was used for bridge-building, sleepers, and mine-props. It is now used in railway-carriage construction. The bark is very valuable, containing as much as 28 per cent. of tannin.

PUKATEA (Laurelia novae zealandiae).—The pukatea was formerly abundant throughout the North Island, especially in swampy situations; though still well distributed, it is nowhere plentiful. In the South Island it is found in Nelson, Marlborough, and Westland, but is rare and local. It is a tall tree with an average height of about 90 ft. and an average diameter of about 2 ft. above its big supporting buttresses. The wood of the pukatea is pale brown in colour, often with darker or paler streaks, and often very ornamental. Though soft, it is strong, very tough, light, difficult to split, and takes a fine finish. In the ground it is of uncertain durability, but it is very durable out of the ground. It is a timber which has been much neglected, having been used only to a small extent for boatbuilding, weatherboards, furniture, and posts in sandy land.

MANUKA, or KANUKA (Leptospermum ericoides). TEA-TREE.—The distribution of the manuka extends from the North Cape to the Bi; The manuka, according to locality, may be a shrub or tree, reaching occasionally 60 ft. in height and a diameter of 3 ft. The wood is red, dense, heavy, straight-grained, hard, very strong, tough, and elastic. Owing to its exceptionally good burning qualities it has been very much used for fuel, but settlers and miners have made considerable use of it for handles of axes, picks, bill-hooks, &c. It makes good wheel-spokes. There is another manuka (L. Scoparium) which is often called “red manuka,” but it seldom exceeds the size of a shrub.

BLACK-MAIRE (Olea Cunninghamii).—The black-maire occurs in all forests (except the beech forests) throughout the North Island, but it is only in the central portion that it is at all plentiful. In the South Island it is found only in the Marlborough District, and is there very rare. It occasionally reaches a height of 70 ft. and a diameter of 4 ft., but the average height and diameter are 40 ft. and 18 in. respectively. The wood is light brown, often with dark streaks, with considerable resemblance to that of its relative, the European olive. It is extremely dense, heavy, hard, strong, and (out of the ground) durable; it has been used to a small extent for framing for machinery and for bridge-building, but owing to its exceptional heat-giving property its chief use has been for firewood. It is quite suitable for all those turnery purposes for which the wood of the European olive is used.

REWAREWA, or HONEYSUCKLE (Knightia excelsa).—In the North Island this tree is common in most forests (it is absent from the beech forest), but in the South Island it is rare, and is found only in the forest on the lands bordering Cook Strait. The rewarewa occasionally reaches a height of 90 ft. and a diameter of 3 ft.; but the average height and diameter are respectively about 60 ft. and 20 in. The timber of rewarewa is yellowish-brown, and when cut on the quarter the medullary rays show as reddish-brown splashes; the timber is then extremely handsome. It is very strong, tough, and elastic. Its chief use is for cabinet-work, ornamental turnery and inlaid work, and its use in these directions might be much extended.

MANGEAO, or TANGEAO (Litsea calicaris).—The mangeao is found from the North Cape to the East Cape on the east coast and Mokau on the west coast, but it is nowhere plentiful. It reaches a maximum height of 60 ft., with diameter of 3 ft., but the average height is 40 ft. and the average diameter 18 in. The timber is light brown in colour, tough, strong, and of great elasticity, and of about the same weight as English ash It is used in coach and railway-carriage building, and only its scarcity prevents its wider use.

HINAU (Elaeocarpus dentatus).—The hinau is fairly common from the North Cape to South Otago. It is a tree from 40 ft. to 60 ft. in height, and from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in diameter. The sap is white in colour, and the heartwood is dark brown; it is hey, very strong, tough, and durable. The trees are very often hollow, and are seldom milled. Owing to the great durability of the heart timber it is much used for fencing-posts.

KOHEKOHE (Dysoxylum spectabile).—The kohekohe (occasionally called “cedar”) is abundant in forests near the coast of the North Island. In the South Island it is found only in the forests bordering the Marlborough Sounds and on D'Urville Island. The kohekohe reaches a maximum height of 60 ft., with a diameter of 3 ft.; the average height is about 45 ft., with a diameter of about 18 in. The timber is reddish in colour, rather soft, but strong and tough, very ornamental, and easily worked. It much resembles Honduras mahogany, and could be used for the same purposes. Unfortunately kohekohe is not now found in large quantities, and the tree also suffers from heart-rot.

OUTPUT AND CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER.

The principal timbers milled in New Zealand at present are rimu and kahikatea. The figures of the output of sawn timber by bush mills for the year 1915–16 and for each of the last two years for which statistics are available are as follows:—

Kind.1915–16.1919–20.1920–21.
 Sup. ft.Sup. ft.Sup. ft.
Rimu134,462,145141,825,326153,529,022
Kahikatea85,353,95581,369,93173,168,750
Matai11,609,66917,761,54221,329,043
Kauri49,707,73826,094,82220,393,788
Totara10,983,35220,507,16217,984,189
Beech5,710,0603,435,3566,348,594
Tawa623,342..     728,291
Rata31,300..     49,503
Puriri50,000..     ..     
Silver-pine18,00024,00056,667
Taraire490,077..     ..     
Pukatea3,3005,000..     
Yellow-pine2,400..     ..     
Pinus insignis25,0005,867,9519,711,918
Bluegum..     ..     36,251
Poplar..     ..     711,319
Undefined9,497,9404,184,8623,620,499
                Totals308,568,278301,075,952307,667,834

A huge decrease in the output of kauri is disclosed, while all other principal timbers show increases between 1915–16 and subsequent years. The first-mentioned year saw a modest beginning of the utilization of Pinus insignis as a timber-tree in the Dominion, some 25,000 ft. having been milled in that year. Four years later the annual output had increased to nearly 6,000,000 ft., and a further substantial increase is shown for the following year.

During the year 1921 some 45,869,594 superficial feet of timber, valued at £813,816, was imported. The chief varieties were: Oregon pine (sawn, rough). 12,431,779 superficial feet, value £120,635; ironbark (logs and sawn timber), 12,195,746 superficial feet, value £248,276; and jarrah (logs and sawn timber), 7,371,631 superficial feet, value £132,900. Exports amounted to 45,902,627 superficial feet, of a value of £503,785, including kahikatea, 31,561,547 superficial feet (£353,467); rimu, 7,834,463 superficial feet (£66,198); and kauri, 2,729,797 superficial feet (£46,354).

If to the quantity of imports be added laths, palings, posts, shingles, and unenumerated items of a total value of £26,715, which are included in the value but not in the quantity shown above, the imports somewhat more than balance the exports on a quantity basis, while the value of imports is 61 per cent. greater than that of exports.

SILVICAL RESEARCH.

A programme of silvical research of kauri, rimu, totara, and miro forests and trees was commenced some time ago, and was continued during the year 1921–22 with satisfactory progress results. Further investigations bearing on forest problems have been undertaken by Canterbury, Victoria, and Auckland Colleges. During the year it was possible, in co-operation with Auckland University College, to begin a technological testing programme of considerable magnitude of all the important indigenous timber-trees of New Zealand. A series of tests was partially completed for tawa and silver - beech, and will be continued during the current year. This branch of research is a most important one in New Zealand, for the annual timber-wastage amounts to 8,000,000 tons.

FIRE-PREVENTION.

One of the greatest problems of forest-conservation is that of fire-prevention, and in New Zealand the problem is probably greater than in countries of the Northern Hemisphere, the primitive taxad timber-trees of the Dominion being much more susceptible to death or damage by the agency of fire than are modern types of conifers.

The Forests Act, 1921–22, makes special provision for the prevention of and the coping with forest fires, and a commencement has been made with the creation of fire districts. During 1921–22 a system of fire patrols was inaugurated in hazardous districts in the Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, and Southland Provinces, and substantial assistance was rendered by settlers and others in the suppression and prevention of fires. The fire season, extending from October to April, was marked by frequent rains and periods of cold weather, which, combined with the preventive measures undertaken, contributed towards keeping down controllable losses to a minimum. Some 5,200 acres of wood land, valued, however, at only £4,010, were destroyed during the season.

AFFORESTATION.

The method first adopted in New Zealand for inducing the planting of forest-trees for production of timber was by means of “land grants”—a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. In Canterbury, where the system was adopted in the early “seventies,” an area of as much as two acres of Crown lands for one acre planted with trees was sometimes granted. Several large plantations that were established in Canterbury by this method may now be seen; and in some cases very good returns have during late years been obtained from the milling of these. The returns got from Pinus insignis plantations have been extraordinarily good. The Selwyn and Ashburton County Councils planted a considerable area of their reserves with trees; and the Railway Department planted on the railway reserves in Canterbury and Auckland Districts a large quantity of trees with the idea of subsequently utilizing them for railway-sleepers, &c. In 1896 an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed, and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island, and at Rotorua in the North Island. Shortly afterwards afforestation was started on an extensive scale at these and other localities.

The total expenditure on State afforestation up to the 31st March, 1922, has been £582,051. None of the State plantations is yet sufficiently old to produce saw-timber, but a small revenue has been received from thinnings from the first-planted larch and eucalyptus. The rapid-growing Pinus insignis has been extensively planted only during the last few years.

STATE PLANTATIONS.

The total area of State plantations is now 41,868 acres. of which 27,568 acres are in the Rotorua district, in four plantations—Whakarewarewa (7,983 acres), Waiotapu (9,540 acres), Kaingaroa West (1,570 acres), and Kaingaroa Plains (8,475 acres).

The reserve known as Whakarewarewa Plantation is situated immediately behind Rotorua Nursery (where all trees required in the North Island plantations are raised), whence it extends in a southerly direction for a distance of seven miles. Waiotapu Plantation, which is twenty miles distant by road from Rotorua, comprises a large block of undulating country lying to the east of the Rotorua-Taupo Road. Joining this plantation on the east are the two reserves on the Kaingaroa Plains, distant from Rotorua some thirty miles, and comprising a comparatively small part of the extensive plateau which lies between the Rangitaiki River on the east and the Waiotapu Valley on the west. Here are situated the youngest portions of the State plantations and the present centre of the tree-planting activities.

Whilst a considerable number of species were experimented with in the initial stages of the work, the chief species used to any considerable extent in the Rotorua district were European larch, Austrian pine, Corsican pine, Western yellow-pine, and a variety of eucalypti. Of more recent years the species used for planting have been Douglas fir, Western yellow-pine, Pin insignis, Corsican pine, and, to a smaller extent, Weymouth pine.

With the exception of a small plantation of 1,200 acres at Puhipuhi, North Auckland, where an area of cut-out kauri-forest land has been replanted with exotic trees, the remainder of the State plantations are in the South Island. The South Island plantations have an aggregate area of 13,100 acres, of which 4,372 acres are in the northern portion of the Canterbury Land District, 2,227 acres in Central Otago, and 6,248 acres in South Otago, whilst the balance of 253 acres consists of small experimental plots in various localities.

During the period over which State afforestation has been in progress in the South Island practically all the best-known commerce trees of the Northern Hemisphere have been experimented with, but many have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, until at the present time operations are being conducted with a comparatively small range of conifers of proved economic importance, which experience has shown will most readily adapt themselves to local conditions. The principal species now being raised for afforestation purposes are Pinus radiata, P. ponderosa, P. Laricio, and Douglas fir.

STATE NURSERIES.

To provide trees for the State plantations and also for distribution to local bodies and private individuals, four nurseries are maintained, the principal being that at Rotorua, where 76,536,488 trees have been raised since 1898. The South Island nurseries are situated at Hanmer Springs, Tapanui, and Ranfurly. These, with two other nurseries now closed, had raised 50,388,896 trees to the 31st March, 1922, the total for all State nurseries to that date being 126,925,384.

Of the total trees raised in nurseries to the 31st March, 1922, 102,997,142 had been utilized in the State plantations and 7,059,827 for distribution to local bodies and settlers, the balance remaining in stock in the nurseries.

During the year ended 31st March, 1922, the nurseries disposed of 5,852,722 trees, of which 4,955,170 went to the State plantations and 897,552 to settlers, &c.

PRIVATE AFFORESTATION.

In recent years considerable attention has been devoted to tree-planting by settlers and also by local authorities. In 1915 the Government inaugurated a system whereby trees are supplied by the State nurseries at cost price, and to date some 7,059,827 trees have been supplied, of which 897,552 represent the total for the year ended 31st March, 1922. In addition, many trees are obtained for private afforestation from the Dominion Federated Nurserymen's Association, and it is estimated that more than 4,000,000 trees were disposed of to private planters during the year from the two sources mentioned. The State Forest Service also supplied 400 lb. of tree-seeds to growers.

The Service, through its two tree-planting Inspectors, supported by the splendid tree-nursery facilities at Rotorua, Hanmer, and Tapanui, and the expert knowledge of its afforestation staff, is able to take a leading part in the stimulation of private tree-planting. Sixty-one tree-planting demonstration lectures were delivered during the year by the two forest-extension officers to nearly two thousand interested planters, and nearly five thousand memoranda, letters, and reports giving advice and instruction were prepared for private planters.

SAND-DUNE RECLAMATION.

A pressing and important economic problem is the reclamation and bringing into productivity of the several hundred thousand acres of New Zealand's coastal wandering sand-dunes. The menace of these useless sand-wastes to contiguous fertile lands along the west coast of the North Island is serious and actual. During the year 1921 a sand-dune-reclamation experiment station was established at the mouth of the Rangitikei River, about nine miles north of Foxton. The chosen area contains about 2,000 acres of west - coast littoral, and may be considered typical of the North Island conditions. During the year the area was fenced, 35 acres of wandering dunes were planted with marram-grass, 250,000 stool shorts were set out in a suitable nursery, and several small nursery plots were established throughout the area and sown down with marram-seed. A large variety of cuttings, seeds of shrubs, and several hundred Douglas fir, Pinus insignis, and Pinus ponderosa were planted in order to ascertain the species suitable for use as protective belts. Definite forms of foredune fences for the fixation of the sand-dunes were established, and costs of construction have been carefully kept. As a result of this sand-dune-reclamation work, which will be continued for three or four more years, the State Forest Service will be able to present a definite procedure of construction, cost, method, and result for the purpose of bringing into national production at least 300,000 acres of land which to-day is not only worth nothing, but is ever encroaching on the most fertile and valuable agricultural lands in the North Island.

Chapter 18. SECTION XVIII.—FISHERIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN her fisheries, both sea and fresh-water, New Zealand possesses a most valuable asset, as her natural advantages in this connection are undoubtedly superior to any other country in the Southern Hemisphere. With its great extent of coast-line, splendid harbours, and numerous sheltered bays, and with an abundance and splendid variety of edible fishes, this Dominion must in time become a great fishing-centre in the South Pacific, providing for its people a regular and abundant supply of this necessary food, besides developing a large export trade in fresh, cured, and canned fish to other countries.

In all countries which possess large supplies of food fishes the harvest of the sea is recognized as a great and extremely reproductive one for the employment of capital, and there is no doubt that when the fishing industry of this Dominion is placed on a proper footing capital will be readily invested, and that it will at once become one of the important and profitable sources for the employment of labour. The value and importance of New Zealand's fisheries at the present time are as nothing compared with the possibilities which the future holds.

It is important to call attention to the fact that the resources of the sea, unlike food resources produced from the land, are not endangered in time of war and international trouble. A nation with well-developed sea-fisheries is never in danger of starvation. The vast schools of fish in the sea, unlike the resources of the land, are available at practically all times, and can be most economically and reliably utilized. Great international crises and dangers of war do not affect the inhabitants of the deep, which do not require constant human labour to cultivate. Agriculture, stock-raising, &c., demand such constant labour and so much investment of capital that in time of trouble the utilization of these resources may be seriously interfered with, and farms are liable to be laid waste, and the activities essential to their cultivation and utilization may be turned to military duties or to other purposes. It is not too much to say, therefore, that the fish resources are amongst the most valuable and most lasting of all national resources.

LIST OF EDIBLE FISHES.

In the issue of the Journal of Science and Technology for June, 1921, appeared an article by Mr. W. J. Phillipps, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., on the edible indigenous fishes of New Zealand. The following list of ninety principal food fishes found in New Zealand waters is taken from the article referred to and from a later article by the same author in co-operation with Mr. E. R. Hodgkinson, published in the issue of the Journal for May, 1922:—

Common Name.Scientific Name.
Groper; hapukuPolyprion oxygencios.
Bass; moeonePolyprion americanus.
Red perchCaesioperca lepidoptera.
SowfishParistiopterus labiosus (Maccullochia labiosus).
KahawaiArripis trutta.
Red bait-fishEmmelichthys nitidus.
MokiLatridopsis ciliaris.
Red mokiLatridopsis aerosa.
Trumpeter; koiroLatridopsis lineata.
Marble-fish; kekeAplodactylus meandratus.
TarakihiDactylopagrus macropterus (Dactylosparus macropterus).
PoraeDactylopagrus douglasii.
Maratea; nanuaChironemus spectabilis.
Mangrove-fish; black-fish; paroreGirella tricuspidata.
Blue-fish; korokoropounamuGirella cyanea.
DrummerKyphosus sydneyanus.
Snapper; tamurePagrosomus auratus
Red mulletUpeneus porosues (Upeneichthys vlamingii).
MaomaoScorpis violaceus.
Scarlet parrot-fishPseudolabrus miles.
Girdled parrot-fishPseudolabrus cinctus.
SpottyPseudolabrus coccineus (Pseudolabrus miles).
Spotted pigfish; pakurakuraVerreo oxycephalus.
Banded pigfishVerreo oxycephalus var bellis.
Kelp-fishOdax vittatus.
Butterfish; marariCoridodax pullus.
Trevally; araaraCaranx platessa.
Yellowtail; koheruDecapterus koheru.
Horse-mackerel; hatureTrachurus novœ-zelandiae.
Kingfish; hakuSriola lalandi.
Southern mackerel; tawatawaScomber australasicus.
Long-finned albacoreGermo germon.
BonitoGymnosarda pelamis.
Barracouta; mangaThyrsites atun.
Southern kingfishJordanidia solandri.
Frost-fish; paraLepidopus caudatus.
Anchovy; kokowhawhaEngraulis australis (Engraulis antipodum).
Pilchard; mohimohiSardinia neopilchardus.
Sprat; kupaeClupea antipoda.
SmeltRetropinna retropinna.
Common eel; tunaAnguilla australis.
Auckland eelAnguilla aucklandii.
Conger-eel; koiroLeptocephalus conger.
Silver-eelCongarmuraena habenata.
Yellow-eel; puhikorokoroMuraena kru.
GudgeonGalaxias brevipinnis.
Minnow; inangaGalaxias attenuatus.
KoaroGalaxias huttoni.
Grayling; upokororoPrototroctes oxyrhynchus.
SkipperScombresox forsteri.
Garfish; piper; takekeHemiramphus intermedius.
Grey mullet; kanaeMugil cephalus.
Common mullet; auaAgonostomus forsteri.
Silver-fishSeriolella punctata.
WarehouSeriolella brama.
BreamEurumetopos johnstonii.
Javelin-fishCoelorhynchus australis.
WhitingMerluccius gayi.
Red cod; hokaPhysiculus bachus.
Golden snapper; koareaAustroberyx affinis.
Sea-perch; pohuiakaroaHelicolenus percoides.
Red rock-cod; matuawhapukuScorpaena cardinalis.
Southern pigfish; puramoruaCongiopodus leucopaecilus.
John-dory; kuparuZeus faber.
Boar-fishZanclistrus elevatus.
Mirror-doryZenopsis nebulosus.
Silver-doryCyttus novae-zealandiae.
MegrimCaulopsetta scapha.
BrillAmmotretis guntheri.
TurbotAmmotretis nudipinnis.
Lemon solePelotretis flavilatus.
Sand-flounder; patikiRhombosolea plebeia.
Yellow-flounder; patiki-totaraRhombosolea millari.
Green-back flounderRhombosolea tapirina.
Black flounder; patiki-mohoaoRhombosolea retiaria.
Sole; patikiroriPeltorhamphus novae-zeelandiae.
Red gurnard; kumukumuChelidonichthys kumu.
GurnardLepidotrigla brachyoptera.
Spotted gurnardPterygotrigla picta.
FlatheadKathetostoma giganteum.
Star-gazerLeptoscopus macropygus.
Panokonoko; papaneCheimarrichthys fosteri.
Blue cod; rawaruParapercis colias.
Maori chiefNotothenia macrocephala.
Ling; hokarariGenypterus blacodes.
Leather-jacket; kokiriCantherines convexirostris.
Skate; whaiRaja nasuta.
Elephant-fish; reperepeCallorhynchus milii.
PiokeSqualus fernandinus.
LampreyGeotria australis.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.

Provision exists in the Fisheries Act, 1908, whereby owners of boats and fish-curers may be required to make returns to the Marine Department in such form and in such manner as may be prescribed by the Governor-General in Council, but advantage of this provision has not yet been taken to enable information to be collected as to quantity of fish caught.

The Chief Inspector of Fisheries estimates that approximately 263,121 cwt. of fish, exclusive of oysters and the products of the whale-fisheries, was brought in from the fishing-grounds during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1922, representing a value of £362,397. In addition, the produce of the oyster-fisheries was valued at £23,104, and of the whale-fisheries at £12,063. The figures for each fishing-port are as follows:—

Port.Kinds of Fish caught.Quantity.Total Value.
* Information not available.
  Cwt.     £     
WhangaroaHapuku, kahawai, mullet, flounder, crayfish5801,075
RussellMullet, snapper, kahawai, flounder, hapuku, trevally, crayfish23,00017,200
HokiangaMullet, flounder, snapper, kahawai**
WhangareiSnapper, mullet, flounder, hapuku, trevally, mussels2,5042,614
KaiparaMullet, snapper, flounder, kahawai, gurnard, trevally11,00011,950
AucklandSnapper, mullet, flounder, gurnard, hapuku, king-fish, garfish, trevally, whitebait65,70099,000
ThamesSnapper, flounder, gurnard, trevally, kahawai, mullet, eels14,95921,188
TaurangaSnapper, hapuku, trevally, kahawai, flounder, gurnard, moki, red cod, kingfish, herring, garfish, mullet, maomao2,0004,500
GisborneFlounder, gurnard, hapuku, moki, red cod, snapper, sole, tarakihi2,6606,450
NapierFlounder, sole, brill, snapper, gurnard, butterfish, moki, kingfish, crayfish, whitebait18,39734,300
New PlymouthSnapper, hapuku, blue cod, flounder, gurnard, kahawai, crayfish8001,200
WanganuiBlue cod, hapuku, snapper, flounder, kahawai, mullet, gurnard250750
FoxtonFlounder, snapper, kahawai, whitebait4001,500
WellingtonSnapper, hapuku, moki, kingfish, warehou, terakihi, gurnard, butterfish, blue cod, flounder, sole, crayfish18,13425,400
PictonHapuku, kahawai, snapper, moki, blue cod, red cod, butterfish, flounder, sole, herring2,6003,250
BlenheimBlue cod, red cod, flounder, sole, snapper, groper, tarakihi, gurnard, kahawai, butterfish, kingfish, whitebait1,0762,623
NelsonSnapper, flounder, hapuku, blue cod, butterfish, moki, kahawai, gurnard, crayfish1,1301,264
WestportHerring, sole, flounder, snapper, hapuku, red cod, gurnard, ling, moki, blue cod, whitebait1,0651,847
GreymouthSole, flounder, groper, snapper, whitebait53148
Hokitika..     **
KaikouraGroper, trumpeter, kingfish, butterfish, blue cod, ling, tarakihi7,11214,050
RangioraWhitebait, flounder, herring107750
KaiapoiWhitebait, flounder2501,680
SouthbridgeFlounder, herring, red cod2401,250
LytteltonFlounder, sole, blue cod, red cod, ling, tarakihi, trevally, butterfish, kingfish, groper, barracouta6,20011,625
Akaroa..     **
TimaruFlounder, sole, brill, groper, ling, red cod, gurnard, kingfish, barracouta, tarakihi, elephant-fish**
OamaruGroper, blue cod, red cod, moki, barracouta, ling, warehou, crayfish2,8252,769
MoerakiGroper, blue cod, red cod, moki, barracouta, crayfish, ling3,5735,018
DunedinFlounder, sole, brill, groper, kingfish, ling, tarakihi, moki, blue cod, red cod, barracouta, trumpeter, trevally, gurnard, garfish, skate, kahawai57,84051,840
InvercargillGroper, ling, kingfish, barracouta, blue cod, red cod, mullet, sole, flounder1,2393,860
BluffBlue cod, flounder, groper7,28516,248
Stewart Is.Blue cod, red cod, trumpeter, moki, butterfish, groper6,47810,405
Chatham Is.Blue cod, hapuku, trumpeter3,6646,643
..     ..     263,121362,397

Included in New Zealand produce exported during the last five years were,—

Item.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Fish23,81819,20217,37727,52234,377
Oysters2441,1143421,323565
Whalebone..     ..     ..     3,100244
Whale-oil5,51112,61822,90823,3047,505
Ambergris..     ..     ..     1,700..     
Other products of fisheries20125..     ..     165
            Totals29,77432,95940,62756,94943,216

The value of fish imported in 1921 was £62,656.

VESSELS AND PERSONS EMPLOYED IN FISHING INDUSTRY.

A further table is given on the next page showing the number of steam trawlers, oil engine trawlers, and other vessels employed in line and net fishing, with the number of fishermen employed, and approximately the total number of persons engaged in the fishing industry at each port for the year ended the 31st March, 1922:—

Name of Port.Steam Trawlers.Oil-engine Trawlers.Line- and Net-fishing Vessels.Number of Fishermen employed.Persons other than Fishermen employed.Total Number of Persons employed.
* No return supplied.
Whangaroa..     ..     76..     6
Russell..     ..     4695..     95
Hokianga..     ..     1828..     28
Whangarei..     ..     1730636
Kaipara..     ..     42501262
Auckland8..     184121136257
Thames..     ..     327824102
Tauranga..     ..     3030..     30
Gisborne2130681078
Napier10..     271594163
New Plymouth..     ..     2860565
Wanganui..     ..     1416..     16
Foxton..     ..     2145449
Wellington1..     64140105245
Picton1..     2455..     55
Blenheim..     ..     1014418
Westport1514241034
Greymouth..     ..     1120..     20
Kaikoura..     ..     2550454
Rangiora..     ..     1820..     20
Kaiapoi..     ..     2626..     26
Southbridge..     ..     13151530
Lyttelton231232537
Akaroa*..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Timaru382032840
Oamaru..     ..     918..     18
Moeraki..     ..     1836..     36
Otago District3774157100257
Invercargill and Bluff1..     37301646
Stewart Island..     ..     2975883
Chatham Islands..     ..     1224832
            Totals32249121,5544842,038

The registration and licensing of fishing-boats and of boats engaged in taking oysters was made compulsory in July, 1904. A table is appended showing the number of registered and licensed fishing-boats at the various ports of the Dominion during the year 1921:—

Port.Number.
Auckland264
Awanui2
Bluff and Invercargill81
Chatham Islands10
Dunedin104
Greymouth18
Hokianga19
Hokitika2
Kaipara101
Lyttelton275
Mangonui10
Napier85
Nelson78
New Plymouth33
Oamaru35
Patea4
Picton36
Poverty Bay32
Russell46
Tauranga39
Thames35
Timaru22
Wairau8
Wanganui20
Wellington122
Westport12
        Total1,493

OYSTER-BEDS.

The principal oyster-beds round the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland Peninsula. The Foveaux Strait beds are very extensive, and are considered to be inexhaustible. An official prospecting cruise was carried out in respect of these beds in 1904, resulting in a number of new beds being discovered and reliable information being ascertained concerning the areas and qualities of the various beds.

During the 1921 season 24,546 sacks of oysters, valued at £15,341, were picked from the Foveaux Strait beds. Of these, 1,620 sacks, valued at £965, were exported to Australia.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, including the leasing of the beds to individuals and the licensing of pickers to take oysters on payment of a fee. but owing to stripping of the beds close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. For some years an export duty of 6d. per hundredweight was payable on all North Island oysters exported, and in 1899 the export of rock-oysters and also of mangrove-oysters was absolutely prohibited. A further step towards conserving the beds was taken in 1908, when the picking and wholesale marketing of rock-oysters from the North Island beds was undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. A table is given showing the quantity and value of oysters picked and sold by the State during each of the last five years; also the cost of picking and selling, this item including interest and depreciation on the cost of the oil-launches used by the Inspectors. It will be seen that a profit accrues to the State, and the scheme has, moreover, resulted in the conservation and extension of the beds.

Season.Oysters sold.Prices realized.Cost of Picking and Selling.
 Sacks.£     £     
191710,3576,8905,819
191810,4227,5176,822
19197,2565,3313,765
19206,7975,9685,495
19217,1607,7634,531

Various attempts were made several years ago by private persons to form artificial oyster-beds, but none of these met with success.

Realizing the necessity for extending and improving the oyster-beds in the Auckland District, the Marine Department in 1909 and 1910 commenced replanting the bays and foreshore on the Coromandel coast. These beds had been practically wiped out by the old system of licensed picking. The system adopted by the Department for stocking depleted areas consisted of taking rock covered with oysters of all ages from well-stocked beds and planting them in suitable places along the foreshore. The work done on the Coromandel coast has been very successful, and several of the replanted beds are now well stocked with mature oysters. Within the last two years the formation of new beds has been undertaken. This consists of the building of hollow rock walls in sheltered bays and on tidal flats. In the spawning season the oyster-spat attaches itself to the under-side of the rocks, which are allowed to remain in that position until a month or two before the next spatting season comes round, when they are turned over and the other side of the rocks in turn becomes covered with spat.

During the last two years at Bay of Islands, Great Barrier, Whangarei, and Coromandel coast a total of over five miles of walls has been built. On a good part of this there is now a heavy fixing of young oysters, and the work done is promising very satisfactory results.

WHALING.

In the earlier part of the nineteenth century New Zealand was the centre of an important whale-fishery, many whaling-stations being established in the North of Auckland and in Cook and Foveaux Straits. The industry gradually declined in importance until at present only two or three stations remain. The whales caught are mostly of the hump-back variety. At Whangamumu, North Auckland, a whaling-steamer, fitted with the most modern appliances for killing and handling whales, has been placed in commission, and a very serviceable whaling plant has been established. Forty whales were taken last season in this locality, yielding 181 tons of oil and 40 tons of bonedust, of a total value of £8,000. Whaling operations are also carried on from Kaikoura and Tory Channel, in Marlborough. The value of the product of the Marlborough whale-fisheries in 1921–22 (181 tons of oil and 7 cwt. whalebone) was £4,063, the number of whales caught being fifty humpback and two “right” whales.

An attempt to revive the whaling industry on a large scale was made some few years ago, and a fleet of vessels was sent out from Norway, but their operations did not meet with the success anticipated.

SEALS.

A close season for seals existed in New Zealand from the end of August, 1894, until 1913, but owing to poaching, which it was found impossible to stop, the seals did not increase to any great extent. It was proposed a few years ago to grant licenses for the right to take seals, one of the conditions of which was that a royalty should be paid on each skin. Tenders were invited for the licenses, but none were received. At present the taking of seals is prohibited.

MARINE FISH-HATCHERY.

A site for a marine fish-hatchery was selected at Purakanui, Otago, in 1900, but this being found unsuitable for its intended purpose another site was chosen at Portobello, in Otago Harbour. The erection of the hatchery was carried out by a Board set up to superintend the work of the hatchery, funds being provided by the State, and grants being made by the Otago Institute, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and a number of acclimatization societies. The State makes an annual grant towards the maintenance of the hatchery, the buildings and equipment of which have also been added to from time to time.

Experiments have been carried out with a view to introducing English food fishes to New Zealand waters, and these have been fairly successful as regards the three species dealt with so far—viz., lobsters, edible crabs, and turbot. Much valuable work has also been done in the direction of hatching the spawn of various indigenous fishes and in making a study of their life-habits.

INLAND FISHERIES.

The early colonists who emigrated from Britain to New Zealand were much surprised to find a country with such splendid rivers and lakes, but with no fish of any commercial or sporting value in them. In a few years the question of introducing some of the British salmonidæ was considered, and as early as 1864 the matter assumed definite shape when the Otago Provincial Council took it up, and voted a sum for the importation of Atlantic salmon and English brown trout. There was, however, some delay in arranging for shipment, and it was not until 1868 that the first consignments of salmon and trout eggs arrived. Since that time the English brown trout (S. fario), Loch Leven (S. levenensis), American rainbow (S. irideus), American brook-trout (S. fontinalis), Quinnat salmon (O. tschawytscha), English perch and tench, have been successfully acclimatized. From the information which has now come to hand this spawning season there is no doubt that we can now claim that the Atlantic salmon (S. salar) is also successfully acclimatized. The following is a brief account of the efforts which have been made to acclimatize this splendid sporting and commercial fish.

As already stated, the first shipment of eggs arrived in 1868, and from that year to 1902 altogether about fifteen consignments were brought out. Some of the earlier shipments arrived in bad condition, and none had a loss of less than 25 per cent. Up to 1908 there was no proof that these fish had been acclimatized, and the Government that year decided to make a vigorous and systematic effort to establish them in one of our best rivers. The Waiau, in Southland, was chosen as the most suitable, and a hatchery, capable of accommodating a million eggs, was erected on a cold-water creek near the lower end of Lake Te Anau. A quarter of a million eggs were obtained from eastern Canada in 1908, and one million from England in 1909, and the same number from England in 1911. In each case an expert was sent to pack the eggs and attend to them on the voyage out, with the result that each shipment arrived with a loss of not more than 1 per cent. As already stated, there is now definite proof that this salmon is established in the Waiau, for during the last two years salmon-smolts have been taken near the mouth of the river by trout-anglers, and this spawning season a watch has been kept on the Upukuroro, the tributary into which most of the young fish hatched from these three shipments were liberated. The manager from the Government Salmon-hatchery at Hakataramea, who was sent to inspect the Upukuroro, reports that quite a number of salmon had spawned in that river, and three specimens caught on the spawning-beds have been identified as Atlantic salmon.

The first importation of quinnat-salmon eggs was made in 1875, and from that date to 1880 several shipments were made. On the arrival of these consignments the eggs were parcelled out to the different acclimatization societies, and the young fish hatched were planted in rivers from the north of Auckland to the far south, but no results were obtained from these shipments.

In 1900 the Government decided to make a vigorous effort to establish this fish, and decided to confine its efforts to one of the rivers considered to be the most suitable, and the Waitaki was chosen, as in its general characteristics it bears a considerable resemblance to some of the salmon rivers on the Pacific Coast of America. The first shipment of eggs for the Government salmon-hatchery arrived in January, 1900. From that year to 1907 annual importations of half a million eggs each year were made, and, as they were specially packed and attended to by an expert during the voyage, they invariably arrived in splendid condition; the loss would not be more than 1/2 per cent. The result of the systematic effort made to establish the quinnat has been highly successful. In the seasons of 1905 and 1906 they were found spawning in the Hakataramea and other tributaries of the Waitaki, and in 1907 fifty thousand eggs were collected from salmon caught in the Hakataramea. Since then there has been a steady increase in the Waitaki every season, and they have now spread into all the snow-fed rivers north as far as the Waiau, North Canterbury. The Marine Department has continued collecting salmon-eggs every season for the purpose of stocking suitable rivers in other parts of the Dominion, and this season (1922) a total of 1,578,000 eggs was collected, and, when “eyed” out, were distributed to the hatcheries on the Wairau and Hokitika Rivers, and on the Clutha and Kawarau branches of the Molyneux River. This season's run of salmon has been by far the largest experienced, not only in the Waitaki, but also in all the large rivers as far north as the Waiau. Some very fine specimens were handled this spawning season: while the average weight was about 18 lb., yet quite a number running from 30 lb. to 40 lb. were taken, and several went from 40 lb. to over 50 lb. These fish are now so solidly established in New Zealand waters that the time has come when large quantities could be put on the market.

Ova of the sockeye or blue-back salmon were imported in 1902, and specimens of this fish were caught in 1907. A number exist in Lake Ohau, having acquired a land-locked habit. These fish run up creeks at the head of the lake and spawn there every season in March and April.

Several shipments of whitefish-ova have been made since 1898, the fry being liberated in Lakes Kanieri and Tekapo. Reports as to the fish having been seen are received from time to time, but so far as is known none have yet been caught.

MUNICIPAL FISH-MARKETS

Municipal fish-markets have been established at Wellington and Auckland with a view to bringing the fishermen and the public into closer contact, and enabling the former to dispose of his catch at a figure which ensures a good return to himself and is reasonable from the point of view of the public.

AUCKLAND.

The market is under the management of a Markets Committee appointed by the City Council. The office and premises are situated at Hobson Street Wharf, where the two Municipal trawlers discharge their loads of fish. Two motor-lorries are engaged delivering the fish to the various hotels and fish-shops in Auckland City and suburbs, while an increasing trade is also being done with country districts. At the market facilities are provided for handling and treating fish, and for the performance of necessary work in connection with the industry.

The market is open from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. daily, and a night staff is provided for receiving, cleaning, and smoking fish for the next day's business. The sales at the wholesale market for the year ended 31st March, 1922, totalled £34,900. In addition, at the retail premises in Queen Street, conducted by a manager, three salesmen, a cashier, and an oyster-opener, the turnover was £10,810.

The quantity of fish brought in by the Municipal trawlers was 21,100 baskets (approximately 100 lb. each) of mixed fish, largely snapper. The quantity of fish brought in by net and line fishermen was 292 tons 10 cwt.

WELLINGTON.

For several years a Municipal Fish-market was conducted by the Wellington City Corporation in a building situated on Jervois Quay, near the waterfront. The building is now conducted as a shop only.

Chapter 19. SECTION XIX.—MINING.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN no other country of equal size to New Zealand are indications of a greater number of economic minerals to be found, yet, with the exception of iron-ore, the known mineral reserves are not great in comparison with those in many other countries. The coal reserves of the Dominion are considerable, however, and their duration will be extended by the utilization of the enormous hydro-electric-power resources of the country.

The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, has for a number of years continued to decline in importance, in common with the experience of most other gold-producing countries. The causes of such decline are found in the approaching exhaustion of the most accessible known alluvial-gold deposits, and of ore from the zones of secondary enrichment, also the increased cost of material and labour.

The following statement shows the quantity and value of the production of mines and of stone-quarries under the Stone-quarries Act during 1921 and 1920:—

Mineral.1921.1920.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
* In respect of gold, ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.
 OZ.£     OZ.£     
Gold and silver (estimated)*551,875547,105474,650528,317
 Tons. cwt. Tons. cwt. 
Quicksilver0142311141,378
Tungsten-ore3871,7853921,956
Sulphur87302,61974602,238
Manganese..     ..     ..     2010
Asbestos0550115105
Stone..     ..     358,362..     ..     314,470
Pumice2,94507,9582,84307,499
Coal1,809,09501,809,0951,843,70501,843,705
            Totals..     ..     2,727,205..     ..     2,699,678

The production of gold and silver is of necessity taken together, as separate figures are not available. Kauri-gum, the fossilized resin of former kauri forests, is counted as a mineral, but the production figures are not available.

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals exported from the 1st January, 1853, to the 31st December, 1921, with separate details for the years 1920 and 1921.

1921.1920.Increase or Decrease.Total from 1st January, 1853, to 31st December, 1921.
 £     £     £     £     
Gold612,168883,748Dec. 271,58089,624,275
Silver65,64787,665″ 22,0182,714,597
Quicksilver21900″ 8797,662
Tungsten-ore..     1,378″ 1,378299,311
Kauri-gum367,197556,756″ 189,55919,505,017
Manganese..     10″ 1061,915
Other minerals8,9888,745Inc. 243385,247
Coal109,510128,509Dec. 18,9995,096,072
            Totals1,163,5311,667,711Dec. 504,180117,694,096

GOLD-MINING.

Gold-mining operations in New Zealand are divided into three branches, viz: (1) quartz-mining, (2) alluvial mining, and (3) dredging.

The actual figures of gold-production are not available owing to no distinction being made between gold and silver in the case of mines which, produce both. The following statement shows the value of the bullion-production during 1921, also the number of persons employed, and the number of gold-mines and dredges:—

Production of Bullion.*Number of Persons ordinarly employed at Productive and Unproductive Mines.Number of Productive Mines and Dredges.
Quantity.Value.
* Including a proportion of silver.
 OZ.£       
Quartz-mining527,855433,4881,43823
Dredge mining7,30236,17913611
Alluvial mining16,71877,438438150
        Totals, 1921551,875547,1052,012184
        Totals, 1920474,650528,3171,903157

The increased production as shown above, although satisfactory, should not be taken as an indication of a revival in the gold-mining industry, it being due chiefly to improved methods and to the encouragement received during 1920 to work low-grade mines owing to the premium paid above the mint value of gold due to the low exchange on the paper pound sterling. The approximate mint value of fine gold is £4 5s. per ounce, but during 1920 the open-market price paid in England averaged £5 12s. 6d. per ounce; unfortunately, however, the price declined during 1921 to £5 2s. 11d., and the premium has now almost disappeared—a result of which will be the closing of some low-grade mines.

Dividends paid by registered companies engaged in gold mining and dredging during 1921 aggregated £56,728 as against £105,426 in 1920.

QUARTZ-MINING.

The most important gold-mining operations in New Zealand consist in the working of quartz lodes and the extraction of the precious metals therefrom. Quartz-mining is conducted in the North Island in the Ohinemuri County, and to a less extent in the Tauranga, Thames, and Coromandel counties. The mountain-ranges and hills of andesite and other volcanic rocks which form the Hauraki Goldfields are intersected by lodes containing gold and silver. In the South Island quartz-mining operations are carried on in the Reefton and Blackwater districts, also to a small extent in the Wakamarina Valley (Marlborough). In Otago operations are generally confined to the working of quartz-mines in which scheelite is associated with gold.

ALLUVIAL-GOLD MINING.

Alluvial gold is found chiefly on the west coast of the South Island and in Otago, where mining operations have been conducted over an area of 17,000 square miles. On the West Coast the auriferous alluvium originated from the weathering and denudation of the gold-bearing lodes during countless ages. The rich leads or defined placers of auriferous wash are the result of concentration. The first transportation of auriferous gravel from the mountains was by streams, and following this the glaciers carried much material from the interior seawards. During the advance and retreat of these glaciers immense masses of drift were deposited all over the low lands and even high up on the lower hills. Since glacial times the rivers have continued the movement of auriferous gravel from the interior to the sea. In Otago the conditions are different—the alluvial gold rests in the hollows of the denuded surface of the schistose rocks, from which it has most probably been derived.

The method of working these deposits depends on the depth of the superincumbent strata and the elevation at which they occur; where there is ample fall and a good supply of water hydraulic sluicing has been generally adopted; but where the material is mainly or partly below water-level, and is comparatively free from hard boulders or hard matrix, hydraulic sluicing and elevating or dredging is employed.

GOLD-DREDGING.

This system of gold-mining, which originated in New Zealand, is generally employed upon rivers and streams and at places where the sluicing method may not be advantageously applied owing to the absence of water-supply or to excessive water in the deposits. Gold-dredging is rapidly declining in importance, the number of productive dredges having decreased from 167 during 1906 to eleven during 1921.

The greatest weekly output by a New Zealand gold-dredge was attained by the “Lady Ranfurly” during six days ended the 4th November, 1904, when operating on the River Molyneux (Clutha), 1,273 oz. of gold being obtained.

The following table shows the result of dredge-mining operations in New Zealand from 1912 to 1921 inclusive:—

Year.Total Number of Dredges working.Value of Production.Average Production per Dredge.Dividend-paying Dredges owned by Registered Companies.Number of Persons employed.
Number.Dividends.
  £     £      £      
191287257,3332,9582838,841694
191374195,8482,6461118,750621
191464191,1122,9861623,080491
191552164,6053,1652126,333427
191645125,3172,785109,915392
19173591,6662,61964,800260
19182863,6912,27454,925187
19191947,8382,46442,845138
19201234,6722,88911,400112
19211136,1793,2891600136

GOLD-PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD.

The following figures showing the world's gold-production are taken from the Statistical Abstract of the United States:—

World's Gold-production, 1899–1919.
Year.Fine Ounces.
189914,837,775
190012,315,135
190112,625,527
190214,354,680
190315,852,620
190416,804,372
190518,396,451
190619,471,080
190719,977,260
190821,422,244
190921,965,111
191022,022,180
191122,348,313
191222,549,335
191322,249,596
191421,240,416
191522,674,568
191621,970,788
191720,289,546
191818,556,920
191917,664,910

SILVER.

Nearly the whole of the silver exported from New Zealand, amounting in value at the end of 1921 to £2,714,597, was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz-mines, principally from those of the Hauraki Goldfield, where the two precious metals are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in this country.

IRON-ORES.

Iron-ore occurs in New Zealand at Parapara, Golden Bay; on the seashore in Taranaki; at Kerr Point and Waitangi River, North Auckland; in the Raglan-Kawhia district; on Mount Peel, Nelson; on Mount Royal, near Palmerston North; on Table Hill, near Milton; in the Lake Wakatipu district; and in the Mount Cook district, Westland.

The most extensive iron-ore deposits occur near Parapara and Onakaka, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Province.

The limonite-deposit of this locality is of great extent, and is estimated in “Iron-ore Resources of the World,” published by the International Geological Congress, to contain 64,000,000 metric tons, of which about 30,000,000 tons occur in the Onakaka Block.

At Onakaka the ore and crystalline limestone flux occur at an altitude of about 1,200 ft. above the works, and they are conveyed thereto by aerial tramway 8,000 ft. in length.

During 1921 the Onakaka Iron and Steel Company was engaged upon the construction of a blast-furnace installation on its lease at Onakaka. On the 26th April, 1922, the blast furnace was blown in, and was kept in blast until the 4th May, about 80 tons of pig iron being produced. The furnace-charge consisted of Onakaka limonite, Onakaka crystalline limestone flux, and coke from the Borehole seam, Wallsend Colliery, New South Wales, containing 0.37 per cent. sulphur. The results attained were very satisfactory, a soft grey marketable foundry pig iron being produced, as shown by the following analyses of samples taken by the Inspecting Engineer of Mines and analysed by the Dominion Analyst. This company is now constructing coke-ovens with a view to manufacturing its own coke.

TABLE SHOWING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ONAKAKA PIG IRON (TAPPED 29TH APRIL, 1922), AND, FOR COMPARISON, THAT OF THE PRINCIPAL BRANDS OF FOUNDRY PIG IRON MANUFACTURED ELSEWHERE.
Brand of Pig Iron.Chemical Composition per Cent.Kind of Iron.
Iron.Graphitic Carbon.Combined Carbon.Silicon.Phosphorus.Sulphur.Manganese.
Onakaka, sample 292.102.890.193.920.220.040.64Foundry.
Carron, Scotland (as imported to New Zealand)91.823.500.142.800.700.0351.00No. 1 foundry.
Ditto92.633.350.202.150.700.060.91No. 2 foundry.
Summerlee (as imported to New Zealand)92.033.000.252.750.800.030.85No. 3 foundry.
Lithgow (Hoskins), New South Wales. 1914..     ..     ..     2.000.850.031.00Foundry.
Characteristic samples quoted in “The Manufacture and Properties of Iron and Steel,” by H. H. Campbell92.373.520.132.441.250.020.28No. 1 grey.
92.312.990.372.521.080.020.72No. 2 grey.
Alabama..     3.490.072.8 to 3.5..     ..     ..     No. 1 foundry.
ANALYSES OF ORE, FLUX, AND SLAG.
 Iron-ore (Limonite).Crystalline Lime stone (Flux).Slag from Furnace.
* Equivalent to metallic iron, 50.16 per cent.
Silica (SiO2)12.1310.2640.03
Alumina (Al2O3)2.792.1212.87
Ferrous oxide (FeO)..     ..     2.73
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)71.66*1.76..     
Titanium dioxide (TiO2)0.200.170.49
Lime (CaO)0.1047.1040.27
Magnesia (MgO)0.331.241.19
Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5)0.230.070.10
Manganous oxide (MnO)0.72..     0.45
Calcium sulphide (CaS)..     ..     2.54
Sulphur (S)0.130.21..     
Loss on ignition12.0137.18..     
 100.30100.11100.67

Along the seashore from Patea to New Plymouth occur large quantities of magnetic ironsand more or less titaniferous. This has originated through the disintegration of hornblende-andesites and their tufas, which occur very extensively near New Plymouth around the volcanic cone of Mount Egmont. It is quite impossible to give any definite idea of the quantity of this ironsand; undoubtedly, however, it exists in immense quantities, and is measurable in millions of tons.

The most extensive deposit of ironsand occurs near Patea, the quantity of which has been estimated to be at least 5,374,000 tons of high-grade ore in addition to a great quantity of low-grade ironsand.

Between the years 1869 and 1918 several attempts were made to smelt Taranaki ironsand.

Near the Breakwater, New Plymouth, the New Zealand Iron-ore Smelting Company (Limited), which was formed for working the beach ironsand, commenced smelting during the latter part of 1917, and after several trials pig iron was obtained in grades varying from white to grey. The company subsequently went into liquidation, and the furnace was removed to Onakaka.

The following is an analysis of the ironsand which, after magnetic concentration, was used in the blast-furnace charge:—

* Equivalent to phosphorus, 0.30 per cent.

Equivalent to metallic iron, 56.36 per cent.

Silica (SiO2)5.40
Alumina (AlO3)1.53
Lime (CaO)1.81
Magnesia (MgO)2.80
Phosphoric anhydride*0.69
Titanium dioxide (TiO2)10.45
Ferrous oxide (FeO)†28.71
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)†48.61
..     100.00

At Kerr Point the deposit of iron-ore consists of limonite, but does not probably exceed 100,000 tons. The iron-ore near the head of the Waitangi River is also limonite of excellent quality, but does not exceed 100,000 tons. The limonite-deposits in the Kawhia-Raglan district and on Table Hill, so far as known, are not large. Little authentic information exists concerning the iron-ore deposits at Mount Peel or at Mount Royal. In the Lake Wakatipu district from Moke Creek, through Benmore in the direction of Mount Gilbert, a band of hæmatite has been reported to occur, also at Maori Point, Shotover River. On the Westland side of Mount Cook large quantities of magnetite are disseminated through chlorite schist.

TUNGSTEN-ORE.

Scheelite, one of the principal ores of tungsten, was until recently mined at the gold-scheelite-quartz mines near Glenorchy, Paradise, Macrae's, Stoneburn, Hyde, and Barewood, Otago; also at Wakamarina Valley, Marlborough; at which places milling and concentrating plants are installed.

The following statement shows the quantity and value of scheelite exported since the year 1900:—

Year.Quantity exported.Value.
 Tons.     £     
1900542,635
1901283
1902391,200
1903421,439
190417791
1905..281,848
1906553,407
190713715,486
1908686,055
1909584,263
191014315,070
191113811,853
191213513,347
191322122,933
191420421,498
191519427,784
191626649,070
191716128,972
1918169 1/237,922
191913129,489
192010 1/101,378
1921..     ..     
      Totals2,272 3/5296,523

Since the termination of the war there has been a considerable collapse in the tungsten-ore-mining industry owing to the great decline in price on the Home market due greatly to accumulated stocks. During the war the Empire's supply was commandeered, and the price increased to £3 8s. per unit (on a 65-per-cent. WO3 basis per ton); the price now quoted is less than a quarter of that. The industry is now practically dormant pending an improvement in prices.

COPPER.

Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two localities, but during the last fifty years attempts at their successful exploitation have been unprofitable, the total recorded copper-production at the end of 1921 amounting in value to only £19,390. Prior to the inauguration of systematic records there was a considerable production from mines on Great Barrier and Kawau Islands.

Copper-mines have been worked on Kawau and Great Barrier Islands in the Hauraki Gulf, and on the Dun Mountain, near Nelson. Underground prospecting has been carried on near Kaeo, Whangaroa; at Maharahara, near Woodville; and at Mount Radiant, near Karamea; but no conclusive results have been obtained.

MANGANESE-ORE.

Manganese-ore has been found at Otau, Wairoa, Bay of Islands, Purua Bay, Mangapai, Otonga, Waiheke Island, and Taieri Mouth. Many years ago a considerable amount of manganese-ore was mined at Tikiora, near the Bay of Islands At a later period operations were carried on at Waiheke Island, distant about twelve miles from Auckland. On that island manganese-ore may be traced for several miles, where it occurs in massive but bunchy form and of excellent quality, bulk analyses returning 56.5 per cent. metallic manganese. Some thousands of tons have been exported, but it is supposed that fluctuating prices prevented expansion of this industry. The total quantity of manganese-ore exported to the end of 1921 amounted to 19,366 tons, value £61,915.

CINNABAR.

After several unsuccessful attempts, extending over a number of years, to work cinnabar-deposits in the Auckland Province, satisfactory results have been obtained by the New Zealand Quicksilver-mines (Limited), whose mine and furnace are situated at Puhipuhi, about twenty-eight miles by road from Whangarei. This company, to the end of 1921, had produced 15 1/2 tons quicksilver, valued at £7,872.

For the purpose of encouraging the cinnabar-mining industry the Government has notified that a bonus of 4d. per pound would be paid on the production of the first 100,000 lb. of good marketable retorted quicksilver, free from impurities, from any mine in New Zealand on the following conditions:—

  1. That at least 34,875 lb. is produced on or before the 31st May, 1922, and the remaining 65,125 lb. on or before the 31st March, 1923.

  2. The first instalment of the bonus will be paid when 34,875 lb. of quicksilver has been produced as stipulated to the satisfaction of an officer to be appointed by the Minister of Mines, and on whose certificate alone the bonus will be paid.

  3. In the event of more than one person producing the required quantities of quicksilver before the dates named, inquiry will be made by the officer above referred to, when, if it is found that each applicant is equally entitled to a bonus, the amount will be divided in proportion to the quantities produced by each applicant, but in no case shall any bonus be paid until at least 34,875 lb. of quicksilver has been produced in the aggregate.

TIN.

Cassiterite in the form of “stream-tin” occurs near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, where it has been worked to some extent. “Lode-tin” has been found in the same locality, and is now being prospected. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream-gravels of the Reefton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.

In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand platinum is stated to occur in several places associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been mined and exported.

The Customs Department has not kept any separate record of the quantity and value of platinum entered for exportation, the value of this metal exported being included in a general total of exports by parcel-post, by which means platinum has generally been despatched from the Dominion.

In Southland native platinum occurs in auriferous wash, and is distributed on the beaches and coastal terraces from Blue Cliffs, west of Invercargill, to Longbeach, Waikawa River, east of Invercargill, over a distance of about ninety-two miles. It is probable that the platiniferous sands of Southland have been derived from serpentine or other olivine-bearing rocks, which are known to occur in Fiordland. In Russia and in Lapland platinum has been found in a matrix of serpentine (altered peridotite).

Native platinum has been obtained in payable quantities from claims at Cameron Creek, Groveburn, Orepuki, Pahi, Round Hill, Steel Head, Bushy Point, Waipapa, Otara Beach, Twelve-mile Beach, and Waikawa. The coarsest and heaviest samples have been obtained from west of Waiau River, that obtained east of Otara being extremely fine. Direct from the gold-saving mats at the alluvial workings at the Waikoau River, Rowallen, as high a proportion as 1 oz. platinum to 3 oz. gold has been obtained.

The platinum is collected by miners as a residue, after amalgamation, of alluvial gold, and is reduced by further washing to about a 50-per cent. concentrate, the remainder of the concentrate being chiefly iridosmine (osmiridium).

During the earlier and more prosperous era of gold-mining alluvial miners did not save the platinum, as the banks would not give more than a few shillings per ounce for mat concentrates of platinum and osmiridium; consequently by far the greater proportion collected on the gold-saving matting at alluvial claims was thrown away. As years passed the price increased; during 1921 it was quoted on the London metal-market at £19 10s. per ounce.

The following are the results of assays of concentrates taken direct from the gold-saving mats of Smith's Claim, Round Hill: No. 1 sample—Gold per ton of concentrate, 55 oz.; platinum per ton of concentrate, 72 oz. No. 2 sample—Gold per ton of concentrate, 15 oz.; platinum per ton of concentrate, 51.5 oz.

The following is the result of an assay of a sample of concentrate from rich wash from the Otara Claim: Osmiridium, 15 dwt. 7 gr. per ton; platinum, 7 dwt. 14 gr. per ton; gold, 4 dwt. 22 gr. per ton; monazite, 2.07 per cent.; thoria, 0.67 per cent.

SULPHUR.

Native sulphur in sufficient quantity to be profitably worked is known to occur only in the thermal districts of the North Island, near Rotorua and Lake Taupo, and at White Island. With the exception of the small lake deposit on White Island, all the known native sulphur in payable quantity occurs in the form of pockets in pumice, or sinter around fumaroles or thermal springs (from which it has been sublimed in crystalline form), and as black sulphur. The fumarolic deposits, although of high grade generally, are inextensive when compared with those of massive form in seams or in veins as extensively worked in Japan, Sicily, and North America.

The only recent operations in connection with the sulphur-deposits have been carried out near Rotorua, where, during 1921, 873 tons of crude sulphur were obtained, as against 746 tons during the previous year.

COAL.

Coal, varying in grade from anthracite to lignite, occurs in many parts of New Zealand. In proportion to the present yearly consumption of somewhat under 2,300,000 tons (10 to 15 per cent. of which is in normal times imported), the supply may be considered relatively large, but in comparison with probable future needs it is decidedly small. It is likely, indeed, that the proved bituminous-coal resources of the Dominion will be practically exhausted within a hundred years. The resources of brown coal are very much greater.

The following is an estimate of the proved and probable coal in New Zealand by the Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand:—

Class of Coal.Proved.Probable.Possible.
 Imperial Tons.Imperial Tons. 
AnthraciteVery little.Very little.Small.
Bituminous187,000,000477,000,000Moderate.
Semi-bituminous68,000,000196,000,000
Brown194,000,000728,000,000Large.
Lignite161,000,000420,000,000
                Totals610,000,0001,821,000,000Large.

No individual coal-seam has yet been traced for more than a few miles in any direction. The variations in thickness are extraordinary. There are many instances of seams 10 ft. to 20 ft. thick thinning to 1 ft. or 2 ft. in distances of a quarter of a mile or less. The following instances of thick seams may be mentioned: In the Waikato district (Auckland), 50 ft. to 60 ft. of brown coal; in the Buller-Mokihinui district (Nelson), 53 ft. of bituminous coal; in the Kaitangata district (Otago), 30ft. or more of brown coal; at Coal Creek, near Roxburgh, Central Otago, 80 ft. (or, according to Professor Park, 100 ft.) of lignite; at Nightcaps (Southland), 36 ft. of brown coal.

In New Zealand the difficulties in settling the relative ages of the principal coalfields are such that for many years the subject has been a controversial one. The known facts may be summarized as follows: In south-east Otago (Waikawa, Catlin's River) and in Southland (Hokonui Hills) small seams of coal occur in Jurassic rocks, but in no case is a workable seam known to be present. The chief coal-bearing rocks are probably of early Tertiary age, but late Cretaceous coal-seams almost certainly occur. There are also considerable quantities of lignite of Miocene, Pliocene, and possibly even Pleistocene age.

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1921 is summarized as follows:—

Class of Coal.Output of Coal during 1921.Total Output to the End of 1921.
Northern District (North Island).West Coast District (South Island).Southern District (South Island).Totals.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
Bituminous and semi-bituminous83,325810,520..     893,84533,949,532
Brown431,282155268,683700,12016,580,317
Lignite..     200214,930215,1303,163,639
        Totals for 1921514,607810,875483,6131,809,09553,693,488
        Totals for 1920483,492821,507538,7061,843,70551,884,393

The annual production of coal and the quantity of coal imported since 1911 is as follows:—

Year.Coal produced.Coal imported.Total Quantity of Coal produced and imported.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
19112,066,073188,0682,254,141
19122,177,615364,3592,541,974
19131,888,005468,9402,356,945
19142,275,593518,0702,793,663
19152,208,624353,4712,562,095
19162,257,135293,9562,551,091
19172,068,419291,5972,360,016
19182,034,250255,3322,289,582
19191,847,848391,4342,239,282
19201,843,705476,3432,320,048
19211,809,095822,4592,631,554

During 1921 the production of brown coal declined by 15,589 tons, and that of bituminous coal by 29,730 tons, the latter owing chiefly to the large increase of that class of coal imported into the Dominion—viz., 822,459 tons, as against 476,343 tons during 1920. An increase of 10,709 tons in the production of lignite occurred. Of the coal imported 627,659 tons were produced in Australia. After making allowance for the restoration during the year of the depleted coal reserves of the Government railways, freezing-works, and other large consumers, it may be reasonably estimated that, although there is a considerable decline in the output, the annual rate of consumption—viz., about 2,300,000 tons—has been maintained, notwithstanding that the utilization of hydro-electric power is constantly increasing. New collieries are being laid down at Hikurangi by the Hikurangi Coal Company; near Pukemiro by the United Coalfields Company (Farmers' Co-operative); and by the State near Dunollie. The Kaitangata No. 1 and Castle Hill collieries, the property of the New Zealand Coal and Oil Company, have temporarily ceased production. The establishment of the proposed State Colliery near Waikokowai in the Huntly district has been stopped.

The following statement shows the tons of coal and shale raised, persons employed, lives lost by accidents in or about coal-mines, &c., from 1902 to 1921:—

YearOutput.Persons employed above and below Ground.Tons raised per each Person employed Underground.Lives lost.
Number.Per Million Tons raised.Per Thousand Persons employed.
* Year of Ralph's (Huntly) explosion.
19021,365,0402,88565521.460.69
19031,420,2292,85266542.811.40
19041,537,8383,28860942.601.21
19051,585,7563,26965163.781.83
19061,729,5363,69268763.461.62
19071,831,0093,910662126.553.07
19081,860,9753,89464152.681.28
19091,911,2474,19163373.651.79
19102,197,3624,599634167.283.55
19112,066,0734,290706146.773.26
19122,177,6154,32868194.132.08
19131,888,0054,25059063.181.38
1914*2,275,6144,7346394921.5310.35
19152,208,6244,15671194.072.16
19162,257,1353,98875062.651.50
19172,068,4193,98371541.931.00
19182,034,2503,99470362.51.50
19191,847,8483,944648105.412.53
19201,843,7054,07863010.54024
19211,809,0954,367574105.522.28
Totals to date53,707,931..     ..     358..     ..     

STATE COLLIERIES.

The Coal-mines Act of 1901 provided for the acquisition and working of State coal-mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines.

Up to 1920 two State collieries-viz., Point Elizabeth and Liverpool—were worked, but during that year the former ceased operations owing to exhaustion of the seams.

A valuable extension of the Point Elizabeth coal-measure has been proved in the low coastal hills to the north of the Point Elizabeth Colliery, towards Nine-mile Creek. The underground development of this area, known as the James State Colliery, was continued during 1921, and the erection of the coal tipping and screening plant and the installation of the machinery connected therewith have been completed.

The Government was compelled to close the MacDonald Mine at Waikokowai owing to the enormous increase in the estimated cost of developing and equipping the colliery, including the erection of houses, drainage, and lighting, as well as the construction of a railway-line, and also owing to the acute financial position prevailing.

A total area of 37 1/2 acres has been planted with trees suitable for mining purposes, at a cost of £511.

During 1921–22 the Liverpool Colliery produced 133,636 tons of marketable coal, a decrease of 15,418 tons on the previous year's production.

The disposal, inclusive of stock on hand at beginning of year, was as follows:—

Supplied toScreened.Unscreened.Small.Total.
 Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     
Depots9,5635,3543,25418,171
Railways6078,874..     9,481
Other Government Departments2,8171,7423114,870
Shipping companies23430,8742,74233,850
Gas companies1,30838,23117,13556,674
Other consumers2,3795,308..     7,687
                Totals16,90890,38323,442130,733

The total sales of State coal from the mine for the year amounted to 130,733 tons, value £222,819, as compared with 148,335 tons, value £222,127, for 1920–21, a decrease of 17,602 tons, but an increase in value of £692.

The average price realized by the mine on the total sales for the year was £1 14s. 1.05d., an increase of 4s. 1.65d. on the previous year's average.

The sales of coal, &c., through the medium of the depots totalled 87,871 tons, value £213,860, as against 60,912 tons, value £137,910, for 1920–21.

The profit at the mines was £13,831, and at the depots, &c., £7,935, making a total of £21,766, out of which £4,552 was applied to Sinking Fund Account, leaving £17,214 to be carried forward.

WORLD'S COAL-PRODUCTION.

According to the figures published in the Statistical Abstract of the United States, the world's coal-production in the ten years 1910 to 1919 was approximately as shown below. The quantity is stated in short tons (of 2,000 lb.).

  Short Tons.
1910..     1,141,600,000
1911..     1,309,600,000
1912..     1,377,000,000
1913..     1,478,000,000
1914..     1,346,000,000
1915..     1,169,600,000
1916..     1,244,600,000
1917..     1,312,500,000
1918..     1,306,300,000
1919..     1,107,100,000

PETROLEUM.

Drilling for petroleum has been carried on in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, and Westland. Throughout the Dominion twenty-six deep bore-holes in search of petroleum have been drilled or are in progress, the deepest being that of the Blenheim Oil Company at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which has attained a depth of 5,726 ft. Petroleum of good quality but in limited quantity has been proved at Moturoa, but up to the present time boring for petroleum in the Dominion has attained only a small and intermittent flow.

During 1921 no drilling was done by the Taranaki Oil-wells (Limited) and the Blenheim Oil Company (Limited) at Moturoa, both companies having gone into liquidation.

At Waipatiki and Waitangi, near Whatatutu, boring was discontinued, results being negative.

The Kotuku Prospecting Syndicate, operating near Greymouth, drilled a hole to a depth of 930 ft. with negative result.

Oil-prospecting operations throughout the Dominion have received very liberal financial assistance from the Government in the forms of bonus, subsidies, and loans.

KAURI-GUM.

The kauri-gum industry is under the administration of a separate Department controlled by a Superintendent. During 1921 3,901 tons of kauri-gum, valued at £367,197, were exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1921 being 370,802 tons, valued at £19,505,017.

The European market for this fossil resin—used in the manufacture of varnish and linoleum—being greatly restricted by the recent war, new but smaller markets were obtained. The Kauri-gum Industry Act, 1914, providing for State purchase of gum from diggers and the disposal of the gum, served a useful purpose in enabling the industry to keep going in spite of the disorganization occasioned by the war.

PHOSPHATE ROCK.

At Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, considerable deposits of phosphate rock were discovered in 1902, and have since been actively worked. A thin bed of phosphatic rock has been identified at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff, in Marlborough. A similar bed occurs near Port Robinson. Phosphatic nodules are found in the Kaikorai Valley (near Dunedin), at Weka Pass (North Canterbury), and elsewhere. A limestone containing 10.6 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate occurs in the neighbourhood of Onewhero, Waikato district. Other districts where phosphatic material of good quality, though, so far as known, not in commercial quantity, is found are Amberley, Dipton, Oamaru, Waimate, Wangapeka, Clarence Valley, Tutira Block (Mangaharuru Survey District, Hawke's Bay), and Whangarei.

Phosphatic minerals, the most common of which is the hydrous iron phosphate, vivianite, have been discovered in numerous other localities besides those mentioned above, but commercially these occurrences are of little importance.

The only operations during 1921 in connection with the quarrying of phosphates were those of the Ewing Phosphate Company at Clarendon and Milburn, Otago, which produced 6,012 tons.

GREENSTONE.

The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” whenever observed in situ, occurs as rounded segregations in talc or talc-serpentine rocks. These segregations vary up to 2 ft. or even more in lateral dimensions. As a rule they average less than 1 ft. in width. So far as known, the mineral has been found in its original locus only in the Griffin Range, Turiwhate Survey District, North Westland.

Pounamu is a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches. With the wearing-away of the enclosing matrix the segregations are freed as rounded masses, and were once transported by the Arahura, Taramakau, and other glaciers, and are now found as boulders in the glacial debris along the lower streams of the Arahura and Taramakau Valleys. From boulders all greenstone ornaments have hitherto been manufactured.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.

New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building-stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, andesite, porphyrite, and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. Besides these rocks are the Whangarei limestone and Raglan stone, the former an excellent building-stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there is a granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay, and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. The new Parliamentary Buildings at Wellington were constructed of this marble. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, North Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building-stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building-stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there is the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

Many of the principal buildings in New Zealand have been constructed in stone from local quarries.

The stone-quarrying industry continues to advance in importance, during 1921 the value of stone, &c., produced being £358,362, as against £314,470 for the previous year.

The following is a table showing the number of quarries under the Stone-quarries Acts, also the number of persons ordinarily employed thereat, and the annual output and value of crude stone during 1921:—

Provincial District.Number of Working Quarries under the Act.Number of Persons ordinarily employed.Output of Crude Stone.
Stone or Gravel for Macadamizing or Ballast.Stone for Harbour-works.Building or Monumental Stone.Limestone for Agriculture.Limestone for Cement or Mortar.Phosphate for Agriculture.Claysone for Bricks or Tiles.Value at Quarry.
   Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     Tons.     £     
Auckland118637318,55988,12522035,178126,179..     2,190137,993
127733,139..     366..     ..     ..     ..     13,405
Hawke's Bay218926,48450,677..     ..     14,000..     ..     15,564
Taranaki114513,90621,288..     ..     ..     ..     ..     9,321
Wellington3621280,63716,121..     11,000..     ..     ..     32,594
Canterbury108277,3695,079306,920..     ..     ..     28,764
Nelson13887,5007,5008333,26212,717  18,597
Westland
Otago36331109,6459,87010,18367,43627,8556,012 102,124
Southland
    Totals, 19212571,561667,239198,66011,632123,796180,7516,0122,190358,362
    Totals, 19202411,468578,262317,46119,023142,252169,9535,3411,600314,470

By section 2 of the Stone-quarries Amendment Act, 1920, the application of the Act was extended to include every place, not being a mine, in which persons work in quarrying stone and any part of which has a face more than 15 ft. deep, and also in any tunnel in the construction of which explosives are used. The Act, however, does not apply to any Government operations, or any road or railway-cutting, or excavations for buildings.

ACCIDENTS AT MINES AND QUARRIES.

The following is a table showing the number and proportion of persons killed at coal-mines, metal mines, and at quarries and places under the Stone-quarries Act for the last ten years:—

Year.Coal-mines.Metal-mines.Stone-quarries.
Number of Deaths.Proportion per 1,000 Persons employed.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 1,000 Persons employed.Number of Deaths.Proportion per 1,000 Persons employed.
* Year of the explosion at Raiph's Colliery, Huntly.
191292.0850.9521.00
191361.38102.0221.90
19144910.3561.3421.00
19159*2.16102.3821.27
191661 5092.4221.23
191741.0072.0322.00
191861.5020.7721.40
1919102.5341.8210 71
192010.2410.51..     ..     
1921102.2810.4810.64
PERSONS EMPLOYED AT MINES AND AT PLACES UNDER THE STONE-QUARRIES ACT.
1921.1920.Increase.
Metalliferous mines2,0701,930140
Coal-mines4,3674,078289
Stone-quarries1,5611,46893
                Totals7,9987,476522

STATE AID TO MINING.

In no other country does the State offer so liberal and varied assistance to miners and prospectors as in New Zealand. During and since the war State aid to mining in this Dominion has been given in several forms, as—

(1) Geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) Government prospecting-drills; (4) loans for mining operations; (5) schools of mines; (6) subsidized roads to mining-fields; (7) Government water-races.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND REPORTS.

Since the first discovery of coal and the precious metals in New Zealand the Government has employed skilled geologists, who have reported, after examination, on all the known mineral deposits. Since 1916 the Geological Survey Branch of the Mines Department has been enlarged, and has included on its staff the most eminent geologists of the Dominion.

During the past year geological surveys have been conducted in the Dargaville, Waiapu, and Ohura districts. The total area surveyed in detail amounted to about 1,520 square miles. Mining is being carried on in none of these districts, but all probably contain mineral resources that will be utilized in the future. The year's work has been in the nature of a “stock-taking,” so that some idea of the value of the mineral resources of New Zealand may be formed. In the Dargaville district the limestone and coal deposits have been examined; in the Ohura district the extent of the thick coal of the Waitewhena Coalfield has been determined as closely as possible and in the Waiapu district the structure of the large areas over which indications of petroleum occur has been studied.

FINANCIAL AID TO PROSPECTING.

As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, loans, expert and technical advice, use of plant, &c. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Native land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licenses for coal.

Assistance is offered to prospectors as under:—

  1. Subsidies for prospecting (vide Regulation 127 under the Mining Act):—

    1. For prospecting new ground by parties of not less than two men, a subsidy not exceeding £1 10s. per week per man.

    2. For sinking in dry ground by parties of not less than two men—from surface to 15 ft., 1s. 6d. per foot; from 15 ft. to 30 ft., 2s. 6d. per foot; from 30 ft. to 60 ft., 3s. per foot; over 60 ft., 4s. per foot.

    3. For sinking in wet ground where slabbing is necessary, double the foregoing rates. For sinking in solid rock by blasting, 7s. 6d. per foot; but if the cost exceeds £1 10s. per foot, then 10s. per foot may be paid.

    4. For tunnelling or driving through drift or blue reef—up to 400 ft., 1s. 6d. per foot; 400 ft. to 700 ft., 2s. 6d. per foot; 700 ft. to 1,000 ft., 3s. per foot; over 1,000 ft., 4s. per foot.

    5. For tunnelling or driving through hard rock by blasting, a subsidy of 5s. per foot is offered; but if the cost exceeds £1 per foot, then 6s. 8d. per foot may be paid. When timbering by sets is necessary, then a subsidy not exceeding 2s. per foot of driving, or one-half the cost of the timber, may be paid.

    By amended regulation gazetted on the 9th September, 1920, the above subsidies were increased by 30 per cent.

  2. Subsidies for prospecting deep levels for gold-quartz lodes down to a depth of not less than 1,000 ft., and for alluvial drift not less than 250 ft. (vide Regulation 125 under the Mining Act): Such subsidies up half the estimated cost of the work, but not to exceed £10,000.

  3. The identification and assaying, free of charge, of samples from bona fide prospectors, at the Dominion Laboratory, Wellington, or at the goldfields school of mines.

  4. Any prospector desiring information regarding favourable localities, or the most suitable method of prospecting, or any other matter connected with mining, may receive free advice upon application to the Mines Department, Wellington.

During the year ended 31st March, 1922, twenty-nine approved prospecting-parties were granted subsidies amounting to £1,980, of which £502 was expended during the year. In addition, £3,261 authorized during previous years was expended.

Upon subsidized prospecting operations sixty-five persons were intermittently employed during the year; in five cases the results attained were satisfactory.

GOVERNMENT PROSPECTING-DRILLS.

Prospecting-drills of various types suitable for the conditions existing in the Dominion are lent to bona fide prospectors free of all charge except that of maintenance in good order and condition, a authority for which a deposit of £50 is required. The Government pays the salary of the expert drill-superintendent who has charge of the drill. The hirer is required to furnish to the Mines Department weekly journals of boring-results.

For boring in rock for coal and oil-shale seams or for mineral lodes (reefs) the following drills are available:—

Three Schram-Harker steam-power-driven diamond drills of 2,500 ft., 1,500 ft., and 600 ft. capacity respectively.

One Sullivan C.N. steam-power-driven diamond drill of 900 ft. capacity.

The above drills produce cores of the rocks penetrated.

One oil-engine-driven percussion drill of 300 ft. capacity. This drill produces samples in the form of debris.

For boring in gravel or other alluvium for alluvial gold:—

Three Keystone percussion traction drills, driven by steam-power, of 150 ft. capacity in favourable ground.

Considerable use was made of the Government prospecting-drills. during 1921, an aggregate of 6,156 ft. being drilled in thirty-one holes for five hirers upon seven properties, as follows:—

Number of Holes drilled.Aggregate Depth drilled.Mineral searched for.Type of Drill used.Cost per Foot.Results.
Drilling.Transport.
 Ft.  s.d.s.d.s.d. 
51,227CoalDiamond14 to4208 1/2Coal in one hole, 7 ft.
62,196CoalDiamond10 to1808 1/2Coal in three holes from 3 ft. 9 in. to 6 in.
2370CinnabarDiamond92 to11512No payable ore found.
21,317CoalDiamond54 to10551No workable coal found.
1289CoalCable percussive..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     Not determined; faulted.
9468Alluvial goldKeystone..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     Gold averaging 2 1/2d. per cubic yard.
6289DittoDitto..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     Gold averaging 11d. per per cubic yard.

LOANS FOR MINING.

A number of loans of sums amounting to £10,000 have been made to mining companies and operators. In two cases only has the loan been repaid, and in no case has a profitable mine been developed by any loan.

SCHOOLS OF MINES.

For the education of prospectors and mining students seven schools of mines are subsidized or entirely supported by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Coromandel, Thames, Waihi, Huntly, Reefton, and Westport.

The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended the 31st March, 1922, was £5,848, as against £4,427 during the previous year.

The attendance of mining students was poor, but numerous young people avail themselves of the schools for technical and secondary education.

SUBSIDIZED ROADS.

The expenditure on roads and tracks by subsidies and direct grants out of the Public Works Fund vote “Roads on Goldfields” during the year ended 31st March, 1922, amounted to 11,329, as compared with £11,050 during the previous year.

GOVERNMENT WATER-RACES.

To enable alluvial-gold mining to be carried on in the neighbourhood of Kumara (Westland) and Naseby (Central Otago), the Government, during former years, constructed or acquired water-races of great capacity, at an approximate cost of about £350,000, and for a number of years the water from these races, which was supplied to parties of miners at a reasonable price, enabled considerable quantities of gold and silver to be won, and thus gave profitable employment to many persons. Of late years, however, the good-production has greatly declined.

During the year ended 31st March, 1922, claims, employing 28 miners, were supplied with water from Government races, and gold to the approximate value of £5,633 was obtained. The expenditure upon the upkeep of the races was £3,806, and the cash received for sales of water £1,492.

FAVOURABLE FIELDS FOR PROSPECTING FOR GOLD.

Another form of Government assistance to mining consists of the publication of information as to localities recommended to the attention of prospectors. The undermentioned localities are so recommended:—

North Island.—Gold-silver Quartz Lodes.

Coromandel County.—Between Cabbage Bay and Tokatea, also from Mahakirau to Gumtown. In different parts of these localities loose specimen ore has been found. Numerous lodes varying in size have been discovered, some of which by assay contain payable values; but the source of the rich specimen ore referred to has not hitherto been located. At Mahakirau there is a small Government battery.

Thames County.—A large area of unprospected country occurs on the main range between Waikawau and Whangamata. The locality which offers the best prospects lies between Tararu and Tapu Creek. Some rich pockets have been found, but in most cases this ore is accompanied by lead and zinc, and the treatment plants installed, with the exception of that at the New Sylvia Mine, have failed to reduce this class of ore.

Thames Borough.—All the auriferous ground within this borough has been well prospected. Numerous shoots of exceedingly rich ore have been found above the 500 ft. level, but these invariably gave out at depth. The total value of bullion obtained within the borough exceeds £5,000,000. Prospecting by driving at the 1,000 ft. level proved nothing of value, and operations were stopped on account of large quantities of carbon-dioxide gas being given off in the workings, rendering mining dangerous. By cessation of pumping the mine-water has been allowed to rise to sea-level.

Ohinemuri County.—A large area of promising unprospected country exists behind the Talisman Mine and Te Aroha Mountain. Large lodes are known to exist, and it is possible that rich ore may be found.

Piako County.—The low levels of Hardy's Mine, Waiorongomai, expose large mineralized lode which for 100 ft. assayed up to £3 per ton.

Tauranga County.—No attempt has yet been made to prospect the country surrounding the recently opened mine of Muir's Gold Reefs (Limited), near Te Puke. Quartz lodes outcrop on the main range two miles from that mine. the country there being similar to that at the mine.

South Island.—Gold-quartz and other Lodes.

Buller and Waimea Counties.—Between Karamea and Wangapeka, embracing all the country up to Collingwood. In the far north of this area a number of quartz lodes have been worked more or less in past years, and a variety of minerals has been found; this somewhat inaccessible region has not been systematically prospected, it being difficult to convey supplies.

Westland County.—The locality of the Upper Arahura River, including the Wilberforce River country. Auriferous quartz lodes have been found in this locality. The country is difficult of access, and, owing to its altitude, cannot be prospected during winter. The Bald Hill Range, in Totara Survey District, due east from Mount Green-land, deserves attention, as lodes are in evidence. At the head of Donnelly's Creek small quartz lodes have been worked. In the ranges eastward of Okarito, which are rough and difficult of access, some quartz lodes have been found, but owing to difficulty of access but little prospecting has been done, although there are reasonable prospects of the discovery of gold-quartz lodes.

Otago and Southland.—Gold-silver and Scheelite Lodes.

Payable returns were obtained from quartz-mines in the following localities in the early days of mining, and there are possibilities of new lodes or new lenses of known lodes being found at lower levels than hitherto developed.

Taieri County.—Hindon and Barewood.

Tuapeka County.—Waipori.

Vincent County.—Bendigo, Carrick Range, and Old Man Range.

Lake County.—Macetown, Upper Shotover, and head of Lake Wakatipu.

Alluvial-gold Deposits.

Deep leads of auriferous-quartz drifts are known to occur in Central Otago, in the Maniototo County at St. Bathan's, Matakanui, Block No. 3, Hamilton, and Hyde. These leads may best be prospected by Keystone drills, which are lent free of charge by the Government to bona fide prospecting-parties. The conditions on which they may be had are obtainable from the Mines Department, Wellington.

BOARD OF EXAMINERS.

Examinations are held by the Board of Examiners annually of candidates for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers, battery-superintendents, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, 1908, and for certificates as first-class and second-class mine-managers under the Coal-mines Act, 1908. Examinations of candidates for certificates as underviewers and firemen and deputies under the Coalmines Act, 1908, are held periodically when necessary. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners stating that his certificates of service comply with the Acts and regulations, and have been accepted by the Board.

COAL-MINERS' RELIEF FUND.

As required by the Coal-mines Act, 1908, the owner of every coal-mine contributes 1/2d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of the coal-miners who may be injured whilst working, and for the relief of families of coal-miners who may be killed or injured. The proceeds of this levy are administered partly by the Public Trustee, under the above title, and partly by miners' medical associations, under the title of “Sick and Accident Fund.”

The following is a statement of the Coal-miners' Relief Fund Account during the last two financial years::—

 Year ended 31st March, 1921.Year ended 31st March, 1922.
 £     £     
Contributions1,7531,413
Allowances on account of accidents, &c.1,1631,120
Balance carried forward11,52612,343

MINER'S PHTHISIS ACT, 1915.

The benefits under the Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, were extended by the Finance Acts, 1919 and 1920.

In order to qualify an applicant must be totally incapacitated for work owing to miners' phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in the mines of New Zealand.

The pension for a married man or widower with children under the age of fourteen years is £1 15s. a week, for a single man £1 5s. a week, and for the widow of a miner entitled to a pension and who dies of miners' phthisis 17s. 6d. a week during widowhood. It is further provided that a miner in receipt of a pension may be absent from New Zealand for a period not exceeding two years and still be entitled to a pension.

The following is a statement showing the amount of pensions payable, in force, and granted to the 31st March, 1922:—

Amounts paid since inception:—£     
      Year ended 31st March, 1916 (five months)1,509
      Year ended 31st March, 19178,066
      Year ended 31st March, 191813,275
      Year ended 31st March, 191913,276
      Year ended 31st March, 192016,652
      Year ended 31st March, 192126,972
      Year ended 31st March, 192231,212
..     £110,962
Number of new grants for 1921–2278
Annual value of new grants£5,538
Number of pensions in force at 31st March, 1922506
Annual value of pensions in force at 31st March, 1922£31,505
Average pension payable per annum£62
Total number of pensions granted to 31st March, 1922863

Of the total number of pensions granted to 31st March, 1922, 151 were granted to unmarried miners, 302 to married miners, and 415 to widows of miners.

Chapter 20. SECTION XX.—INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE.

STATISTICS of industrial manufacture were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census—viz., in 1867, 1871, 1874, 1878, and 1881, and quinquennially thereafter. Commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one.

Under the regulations authorizing the collection of statistics of industrial manufacture a “factory” is defined as an establishment engaged in manufacture, repair, or preparation of articles for wholesale or retail trade or for export which employs at least two hands or uses motive power, with the exception of the following, which are expressly excluded: Bakeries, butcheries, laundries, smithies, waterworks, shops engaged in retail trade only, and farmers or others using motive power for their own individual and private use. The following are, however, required to furnish returns even although employing less than two hands and not using motive power: Tanneries; bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories; brickyards; and limeworks.

The definition is fairly comprehensive, and clearly includes such industries as, for instance, jewellery and watch repairing, boot, shoe, and saddlery repairing, and similar trades. In former years a number of small establishments thus engaged were included in the statistics, but it has now been decided to exclude such unless also engaged in actual manufacture employing at least two hands. This has had the effect of showing an apparent decrease in the number of establishments in some industries and also in the total of all industries; but in other respects the effect on the statistics is negligible, the number of employees, materials used, products, &c., thus excluded in the trades concerned being comparatively small.

It should be noted that these statistics do not cover, and do not purport to cover, all establishments registered as factories in the Dominion, for the following reasons: “One-man” businesses are excluded, with the exception of tanneries, bacon, butter, cheese, soap or candle factories, brickyards, or limeworks; some small repair-shops (as explained previously) are excluded, even although they may employ two or more hands; and in some cases where a factory has two or more branches it has been found impracticable to obtain separate returns, and all the branches have been treated as one establishment.

In comparing previous years with the 1919–20 and 1920–21 collections the foregoing remarks should be borne in mind, and also the fact that in some of the earlier years, owing to the longer intervals between collections, lax methods of book-keeping more widely prevailing, less understanding of the requirements of the Statistical Office, and less appreciation of the necessity for and value of the statistics compiled, no doubt to a certain extent impaired the accuracy of the published results.

NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS.

As previously stated, the omission of small repair-shops from the 1919–20 and 1920–21 collections resulted in an apparent decrease in the number of establishments of the former as compared with 1915–16, but the figures for 1920–21 show a considerable increase, the comparative totals being—1915–16, 4,670; 1919–20, 4,357; and 1920–21, 4,804 respectively. The industries principally affected by the omissions referred to are—boot and shoe making, saddlery and harness making, coachbuilding, and tinned-plate and sheet-metal working.

The numbers and per-cent. increases or decreases in the principal industries since 1901 are as follows:—

Industry.1900–1. Number.1910–11.1920–21.
Number.Increase or Decrease per Cent.Number.Increase or Decrease per Cent.
* Comparison invalidated owing to inclusion in some years of small repair-shops.
Meat freezing and preserving344120.65150.0
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacturing24834037.142370.6
Sawmilling and sash and door making33453459.838916.5
Engineering37120248.6143286.5
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding18824128.225133.5
Coachbuilding16018012.51674.4
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring11979–33.654–54.6
Furniture and cabinet making14420743.825375.7
Woollen-milling1010..     1220.0
Tailoring175448156.0354102.3
Dress and millinery making29038231.731910.0
Boot and shoe making12674*74*
Clothing-manufacture7171..     197177.5
Flax-milling10181–19.836–64.4

EMPLOYEES.

The most nearly comparable figures of employees (those returned as productive) are given for the years 1900–1, 1910–11, and 1920–21, together with the increase or decrease per cent. for all and for the principal industries.

Industry.1900–1.1910–11.1920–21.
Number.Number.Increase or Decrease per Cent.Number.Increase or Decrease per Cent.
All industries46,84756,234..     70,255..     
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others..     4,013..     2,049..     
Comparative figures for industries common to all years46,84752,221+ 11.568,206+ 45.6
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving2,2213,978+ 79 18,328+275.0
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,2211,560+ 27.83,089+153.0
Sawmilling, sash and door making6,8126,877+ 1.08,385+ 23.1
Engineering1,4422,442+ 69.43,274+127.1
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding3,1344,222+ 34.74,126+ 31.7
Coachbuilding1,1851,439+ 21.41,102−7.0
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,9631,372−30.11,069−45.5
Furniture and cabinet making1,3101,689+ 28.92,066+ 57.7
Woollen-milling1,6931,410−16.72,176+ 28.5
Tailoring1,6214,225+160.62,527+ 55.9
Dress and millinery making2,8884,128+ 42.93,010+ 4.2
Boot and shoe making2,6962,072−23.12,103−22.0
Clothing-manufacture3,2992,952−10.56,270+ 90.1
Flax-milling1,6981,244−26.7931−45.2

Previous to 1918–19 productive employees only were asked for; employees are now, however, required under three heads—viz., administrative, productive, and distributive. In the light of information now available it is obvious that on previous occasions employees other than those directly productive were often included, so that no strictly comparable figures are available.

Employees returned in 1915–16 numbered 57,823, while productive employees were returned in 1920–21 as 70,255, an increase of 12,432, or 21.5 per cent. The increase is in reality greater, for the reason stated.

Total employees, 1920–21, were classified as follows (all and principal industries):—

EMPLOYEES IN MANUFACTORIES, 1920–21.
Industry.Administrative.Productive.Distributive.Total.
Male.Female.Male and FemalePer Cent. of Total.Male.Female.Male and Female.Per Cent. of Total.Male.Female.Male and Female.Per Cent. of Total.Male.Female.Male and Female.
All industries2,3714042,7753.554,24016,01570,25589.15,1426815,8237.461,75317,10078,853
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving197372342.78,270588,32896.55316690.88,5201118,631
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture3904343311.53,019703,08982.1214262406.43,6231393,762
Sawmilling, sash and door making16261681.88,363228,38591.8559235826.49,084519,135
Engineering598672.03,239353,27496.63710471.43,335533,388
Printing, publishing, and book-binding277733507.13,1339934,12684.1333954288.83,7431,1614,904
Coachbuilding455504.31,072301,10294.577141.21,124421,166
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring434474.11,042271,06992.4383413.51,123341,157
Furniture and cabinet making477542.41,9471192,06692.869371064.82,0631632,226
Woollen-milling104140.61,0141,1622,17698.7123150.71,0361,1692,205
Tailoring281291.19401,5872,52797.62013331.39881,6012,589
Dress and millinery making514190.6452,9653,01097.61242541.8623,0213,083
Boot and shoe making422441.91,3757282,10392.0106331396.11,5237632,286
Clothing-manufacture6010701.17655,5056,27097.280321121.79055,5476,452
Flax-milling11..     111.3813281597.75381.08295834

The average number of employees per establishment at various enumerations is shown below. It should be borne in mind that the rejection of schedules from small establishments engaged in retail repairs only has decreased the number of establishments in 1920–21, and consequently is responsible for a portion of the considerable increase in the number of employees per establishment. All administrative and distributive employees are also included in 1920–21.

Industry.1900–1.1905–6.1910–11.1915–16.1920–21.
All industries12.713.512.812.416.4
          Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving67.188.199.9132.9169.2
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture4.95.84.65.48.9
Sawmilling and sash and door making20.420.512.920.123.5
Engineering38.530.320.416.923.7
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding16.616.317.515.819.5
Coachbuilding7.48.07.94.47.0
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring16.513.517.320.121.4
Furniture and cabinet making9.18.98.17.18.8
Woollen-milling169.3154.9141 0189.7183.8
Tailoring9.39.79.46.37.3
Dress and millinery making9.99.010.810.89.7
Clothing-manufacture119.6242.743.132.8
Flax-milling16.816.915.416.523.2

SALARIES AND WAGES.

Both the total amount paid in wages (nominal) to productive workers and also the average wage per worker show large increases from one census to another, particularly since 1905–6, the average wage per worker having more than doubled during this period. No distinction is made as regards ages of workers, so that the subjoined figures include adults and young persons of each sex.

Males.Females.Males and Females.
Total.Average.Total.Average.Total.Average.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
All industries, 1900–12,972,19381.9330,45431.33,302,64770.5
            “        1905–63,979,59388.5478,02641.94,457,61979.1
            “        1910–114,865,426115.1706,84450.65,591,27099.4
            “        1915–165,868,788133.5785,71656.76,654,504117.1
            “        1919–208,821,821176.51,197,22279.910,019,043154.3
            “        1920–2111,055,079203.81,514,82594.612,569,904178.9
Principal Industries, 1920–21.
Meat freezing and preserving1,641,908198.56,128105.71,648,036197.9
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture584,803193.78,241117.7593,044192.0
Sawmilling and sash and door making1,856,321222.02,358107.21,858,679221.7
Engineering635,240196.13,29494.1638,534195.0
Printing, publishing, and book-binding707,834225.9102,115102.8809,949196.3
Coachbuilding222,505207.62,73391.1225,238204.4
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring223,645214.61,27147.1224,916210.4
Furniture and cabinet making384,421197.412,198102.5396,619192.0
Woollen-milling205,199202.4118,858102.3324,057148.9
Tailoring198,857211.6172,819108.9371,676147.1
Dress and millinery making9,890219.8249,93184.3259,82186.3
Boot and shoe making279,552203.377,391106.3356,943169.7
Clothing-manufacture164,751215.4517,27494.0682,025108.8
Flax-milling143,393176.411155.5143,504176.3

In 1920–21 total salaries and wages paid on account of administration, production, and distribution were returned as shown in the next table. Percentages of total salaries and wages are given in each case for purposes of comparison (all and principal industries).

Administrative.Productive.Distributive.
Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.Amount.Per Cent. of Total.
 £      £      £      
All industries805,8695.512,569,90485.81,269,8288.7
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving74,7074.31,648,03694.815,1000.9
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture75,99110.7593,04483.343,2146.0
Sawmilling and sash and door making59,5992.91,858,67991.3118,6005.8
Engineering21,0513.1638,53495.96,4901.0
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding125,44312.4809,94979.878,8927.8
Coachbuilding13,1845.5225,23893.71,8320.8
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring16,0816.3224,91688.513,2975.2
Furniture and cabinet making17,3434.0396,61991.619,1814.4
Woollen-milling5,2181.6324,05797.23,9861.2
Tailoring9,3532.4371,67696.35,0981.3
Dress and millinery making4,8521.8259,82195.57,3762.7
Boot and shoe making17,7414.4356,94388.727,8686.9
Clothing-manufacture30,3744.2682,02593.119,9952.7
Flax-milling3,7732.6143,50496.71,0950.7

MOTIVE POWER.

The total horse-power in use in 1920–21 was 217,173, an increase of 71,132 since 1915–16. The average horse-power per establishment was 45.21, and per employee 3.09—increases of 13.94 and 0.56 respectively. Comparative figures for five collections are given in the following table:—

1900–1.1905–6.1910–11.1915–16.1920–21.
          All Industries.
Total horse-power39,11360,335100,587146,041217,173
Average per establishment10.714.422.931.2745.21
Average per productive employee0.81.71.82.533.09
          Principal Industries (Total Horse-power).
Meat freezing and preserving7,0579,49816,53128,76738,434
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture2,339347595,99512,89010,372
Sawmilling and sash and door making8,74413,27819,48416,81624,918
Engineering5411,1093,3333,3224,468
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding9561,5203,3704,2405,783
Coachbuilding1283956571,018888
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,1089801,9271,8902,696
Furniture and cabinet making3697061,3391,8532,704
Woollen-milling1,5541,9452,6413,0803,788
Boot and shoe making1843286808311,082
Clothing-manufacture67135576488794
Flax-milling1,1903,0872,5163,3162,554

A comparison is now given between 1915–16 and 1920–21, showing the numbers of engines and motors of each kind in use in each provincial district and in the principal industries:—

Steam.Gas.Oil.Electric.Water.Other and Unspecified.Total.
1915–16.1920–21.1915–16.1920–21.1915–16.1920–21.1915–16.1920–21.1915–16.1920–21.1915–16.1920–21.1915–16.1920–21.
Provincial districts—
    Auckland553608243234801157121,44237422..     1,6272,441
    Taranaki33918117191833992098659..     ..     559501
    Hawke's Bay12611854631632761553..     4..     279368
    Wellington355468222292416458992711201..     1,2191,771
    Marlborough31548143914213..     ..     5782
    Nelson93116313712163543914..     ..     180226
    Westland1121611822153188..     ..     142197
    Canterbury2291691237627344711,1032219..     ..     8721,401
    Otago2061865938214044478252433..     7851,089
    Southland187205341620247314878..     ..     321401
              Dominion (all industries)2,2312,2668098112393722,5164,81226321610..     6,0418,477
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving34827246651020525955345..     ..     9631,317
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture58358326201313339534353..     692746
Sawmilling and sash and door making50279635791394..     7..     ..     525911
Engineering4341714913101252281217..     ..     264345
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding74153115275142855624181..     640744
Coach building103403140286310051..     ..     158163
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring534487674916124..     ..     118223
Furniture and cabinet making2878771..     218824841..     ..     207348
Woollen-milling161657..     ..     143413..     ..     3660
Boot and shoe making5..     2515..     1701261..     ..     ..     101142
Clothing-manufacture32146..     19123411..     ..     109244
Flax-milling722324265326114..     ..     11462

As regards kind of power used, the most remarkable development is the large increase in electric motors. Where electric current is available new installations of power are almost invariably of this type, and with increasing facilities no doubt will become correspondingly preponderant. The subjoined table shows the number of engines or motors of each kind in use at five censuses, together with the percentage each represents of the total number of engines or motors in the respective years:—

Kind of Power.1900–1.1905–6.1910–11.1915–16.1920–21.
No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.No. of Engines or Motors.Per Cent. of Total.
Steam1,35964.71,37259.92,21847.42,23136.92,26626.7
Coal-gas40719.445219.785318.280913.45776.8
Suction gas2342.8
Oil311.5974.22314.92394.03724.4
Electric150.7552.41,08423.22,51641.64,81256.8
Water21610.31978.62294.92363.92162.5
Others and unspecified733.41205.2651.4100.2..     ..     
        Totals2,101100.02,293100.04,680100.06,041100.08,477100.0

MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.

The value of materials used or operated upon does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry and another, for the reason that the change made during the process of manufacture varies very considerably. For instance, materials used or operated upon in the tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring industry were in 1920–21 valued at £2,792,869, while those used in printing, publishing, and bookbinding were valued at less than half this amount (£1,213,039). If, however, value of output be considered, it is found that the figure for tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring (£3,435,212) is very little in excess of that for printing, &c. (£3,395,276), the added value in the former case being only £642,343, as against £2,182,237 in the latter.

The appended table gives the value of materials used in all and the principal industries as ascertained in 1900–1, 1910–11, and 1920–21:—

COST OF MATERIALS USED OR OPERATED UPON.
Industry.1900–1.1910–11.1920–21.
* Information not available.
 £     £     £     
All industries6,997,48020,810,21155,511,163
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others..     416,2711,232,730
Comparative figure for industries common to all years6,997,48020,393,94054,278,433
Principal Industries...     ..     ..     
Meat freezing and preserving*6,533,36311,443,249
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,195,6003,304,99316,400,926
Sawmilling and sash and door making*1,253,1531,324,660
Engineering186,208315,371691,453
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding200,243314,7631,213,039
Coachbuilding88,229156,829278,264
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,391,3231,788,7722,792,869
Furniture and cabinet making101,595215,031586,405
Woollen-milling196,081248,187659,317
Tailoring122,853364,389724,614
Dress and millinery making173,211285,573349,971
Boot and shoe making273,325334,880901,504
Clothing-manufacture241,854297,9131,732,802
Flax-milling53,06473.83578,945

PRODUCTS.

The following table gives values of products of all and principal industries for the years 1900–1, 1910–11, and 1920–21, together with the percentage increase during each period:—

Industry.1900–1.1910–11.1920–21.
Value of Products.Value of Products.Increase per Cent.Value of Products.Increase per Cent.
 £     £      £      
All industries12,863,96931,729,002..     82,473,569..     
Deduct figures for industries included in some years and not in others..     1,009,413..     2,380,567..     
Comparative figures for industries common to all years12,863,96930,719,589138.880,093,002160.7
          Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving3,720,4757,304,67696.313,669,10287.1
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,535,1503,919,184155.319,002,047384.8
Sawmilling and sash and door making1,268,6892,699,888112.84,712,00374.5
Engineering361,958751,485107.61,837,651144.5
Printing, publishing, and book-binding704,2851,377,92695.63,395,276146.4
Coachbuilding216,077396,01283.3700,23676.8
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,888,1072,036,7707.93,435,21268.7
Furniture and cabinet making241,024497,681106.51,238,539148.9
Woollen-milling359,382377,7135.11,332,451252.8
Tailoring301,356936,237210.71,386,40548.1
Dress and millinery making312,436575,05984.1723,06925.7
Boot and shoe making529,254619,87317.11,496,474141.4
Clothing-manufacture446,173507,12513.72,859,439463.9
Flax-milling203,492284,39939.8344,08621.0

For comparative purposes value of output per productive employee is frequently calculated and given over a period of years, but owing to increased prices of commodities it would appear that such a procedure would show to a considerable extent a fictitious increase in the productivity of labour. It has been thought advisable, therefore, to substitute for the unit “productive employee” an arbitrary unit “£100 expended in productive wages.” The results of this are now given from 1900–1 to 1920–21.

VALUE OF OUTPUT PER £100 EXPENDED IN PRODUCTIVE WAGES.
1900–1.1905–6.1910–11.1915–16.1920–21.
 £     £     £     £     £     
All industries541526569683637
          Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving1,8131,1281,2801,637829
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture1,5921,9692,3052,9393,204
Sawmilling and sash and door making247255349204254
Engineering283260289281288
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding247266281287419
Coachbuilding259254264297311
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring1,1851,7911,4811,8801,527
Furniture and cabinet making264246279212312
Woollen-milling321378275382411
Tailoring293269273282373
Dress and millinery making398292308277278
Boot and shoe making275292313336419
Clothing-manufacture326293299384419
Flax-milling201722512608240

FIXED (REAL) ASSETS.

In connection with the following table it should be understood that the figures given are of necessity only approximate, the principal reason for this being that where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries an apportionment has to be made between the industries, and this cannot be done with absolute accuracy. Furthermore, in many instances fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an understatement owing to appreciated site-value, or an overstatement owing to insufficient allowance being made for depreciation, obsolescence, &c. Where premises occupied are rented or leased (particularly if only a portion) it has been found impossible to arrive at the correct value; in the latter case it must obviously be so. In such circumstances the practice has been to ascertain the annual rental value and capitalize this.

APPROXIMATE VALUE OF LAND, BUILDINGS, MACHINERY, AND PLANT, 1900–1, 1910–11, AND 1920–21.
1900–1.1910–11.1920–21.
 £     £     £     
All industries7,959,63114,430,35539,564,837
          Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving893,7201,741,1705,514,410
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture388,750954,1223,160,404
Sawmilling and sash and door making703,6201,806,6282,407,517
Engineering155,081514,809876,584
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding559,5381,302,4972,022,374
Coachbuilding150,811320,974379,136
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring235,952261,456398,689
Furniture and cabinet making170,338327,682640,312
Woollen-milling277,422289,089611,320
Tailoring211,016483,719929,872
Dress and millinery making193,998359,819519,141
Boot and shoe making176,992227,057332,438
Clothing-manufacture97,092194,481784,685
Flax-milling64,446342,638603,002

CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION.

As previously mentioned, a number of small repair-shops in some industries are now omitted from the statistics, and as these are practically all either under individual ownership or carried on as partnerships, this will account for a considerable portion of the apparently large decrease in the number of establishments thus organized. Details for the years 1915–16, 1919–20, and 1920–21 are as follows:—

Character of Organization.1915–16.1919–20.1920–21.
No.Output.No.Output.No.Output.
  £      £      £     
Individual2,2225,371,4791,6877,021,6991,8038,211,269
Private firm or partnership1,0423,881,7189525,668,3721,0306,216,102
Public registered company44521,623,87042827,891,08848329,239,960
Private registered company5956,833,22078814,972,33195418,498,940
Municipal3667,743,8971102,067,9661242,720,326
Co-operative and miscellaneous3667,743,89739212,158,84041017,586,972
                Totals4,67045,454,1844,35769,780,2964,80482,473,569

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIES.

Appended is a table showing the number of all and principal industries in each provincial district in 1920–21:—

Auckland.Taranaki.Hawke's Bay.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago.Southland.Dominion.
All industries13122502931028541531097485702874804
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving11451011..     77551
Butter, cheese, and condensed-mile manufacture9068268610138343157423
Sawmilling and sash and door making10892271123645242933389
Engineering39683413421216143
Printing, publishing, and book-binding72131258284353413251
Coachbuilding50131034173251410167
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring10369..     1..     118654
Furniture and cabinet making84171653184362311253
Woollen-milling1..     11..     ..     ..     44112
Tailoring952224682107584919354
Dress and millinery making75102069..     82654525319
Boot and shoe making361..     15..     ..     ..     129174
Clothing-manufacture622344..     ..     ..     44375197
Flax-milling6..     12022..     1..     436

AGES OF INDUSTRIES.

A table is now given showing for all industries, and individually for the principal industries, the number established during the periods indicated:—

Prior to 1860.1860–69.1870–79.1880–89.1890–99.1900–9.1910–19.1920.Not stated.Total.
All industries5820127339449097131332894574804
Principal Industries.
Meat freezing and preserving12..     134417..     1051
Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture..     ..     11767108186440423
Sawmilling and sash and door making33183032711236445389
Engineering410911142745320143
Printing, publishing, and bookbinding6273632474235224251
Coachbuilding271529163241916167
Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring2271210872454
Furniture and cabinet making11151527481181711253
Woollen-milling..     ..     4511..     ..     112
Tailoring56102044811471922354
Dress and millinery making316112220521413024319
Boot and shoe making..     288717243574
Clothing-manufacture5212121129942112198
Flax-milling..     ..     21112133436

GENERAL SUMMARY FOR ALL INDUSTRIES.

The following table gives a general summary of various particulars as at the 31st March, 1921:—

Number of Establishments.Average Number of Employees for Year ended 31st March, 1921.Total Amount paid in Salaries and Wages during Year ended 31st March, 1921.Total Horse-power available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Products.Approximate Value of Land, Buildings, Machinery, and Plant.
* Information not shown where the number of establishments is so small that individual particulars might be identified.
Animal food  £      £     £     £     
    Meat freezing and preserving518,6311,737,84338,43411,443,24913,669,1025,514,410
    Ham and bacon curing3422141,773619513,345599,131161,031
    Fish curing and preserving89423,15811780,462123,67044,997
    Butter, cheese, and condensed-milk manufacture4233,762712,24910,37216,400,92619,002,0473,160,404
Vegetable food—
    Grain-milling53644150,3964,2382,819,3183,426,965584,914
    Biscuit and confectionery manufacture511,698230,8441,692792,2451,270,996475,958
    Fruit-preserving and jam-making1031044,210168208,392316,67571,210
    Sugar-refining1******
    Baking-powder manufacture2******
Drinks, narcotics, and stimulants—
    Brewing and malting561,129289,8232,297648,5661,463,588699,142
    Colonial-wine making4162,88742957,91910,576
    Aerated-water and cordial manufacture124537102,192643136,445370,613276,570
    Coffee and spice grinding and preparing10588,76721144,51260,86928,835
    Tobacco-preparing and cigarette-making3******
    Sauce, pickle, and vinegar making1527548,174222119,605184,52881,169
    Tea blending and packing2626237,346116547,031639,068126,855
Animal matters (not otherwise classed)—
    Soap and candle making2237477,594560360,150536,402185,917
    Sausage-casing manufacture2036881,37136184,520269,35435,573
    Boiling-down and manure-making62673133,2023,583777,9241,090,879492,138
Working in wood—
    Coopering and casemaking2625046,661957231,107322,111110,607
    Sawmilling and sash and door making3899,1352,036,87824,9181,324,6604,712,0032,407,517
    Woodware and turnery manufacture173955192,6922,137273,736585,978334,131
Number of Establishments.Average Number of Employees for Year ended 31st March, 1921.Total Amount paid in Salaries and Wages during Year ended 31st March, 1921.Total Horse-power available.Cost of Materials used or operated upon.Value of Products.Approximate Value of Land, Buildings, Machinery, and Plant.
* Information not shown where the number of establishments is so small that individual particulars might be identified.
Vegetable produce for fodder—  £      £     £     £     
    Grain-crushing9628,49923252,11366,13955,989
Paper-manufactures—
    Paper-milling3******
    Paper bag and box making1118825,4337743,652116,13948,317
Heat, light, and power—
    Gas making and supply501,856345,961..     623,6491,438,4413,288,034
    Electricity generation and supply781,022206,07275,992636,755900,8583,912,792
    Electric tramways112,605638,005..     637,6051,298,3063,721,772
Processes relating to stone, clay, glass, &c.—
    Stone-crushing2528450,8841,3938,99491,374106,561
    Lime crushing or burning and cement-making23773150,6088,902285,416638,685815,534
    Brick, tile, and pottery making601,113216,0803,04240,640494,597505,762
    Asphalt-making9559,5298334,60253,78835,461
    Monumental masonry2924958,68030568,048164,85073,198
    Leadlight-making and glass-bevelling1615128,87811653,095100,37539,815
    Electroplating117311,496797,10729,34232,227
    Concrete block or pipe and fibrous-plaster making3021045,22717254,911123,98071,807
    Kauri-gum refining9459,98550206,804288,69667,549
Metals other than gold or silver—
    Tinned-plate and sheet-metal working91858161,778528389,489670,655310,669
    Iron and brass founding, boilermaking34528104,873623160,069356,222165,310
    Engineering1433,388666,0754,468691,4531,837,651876,584
    Electrical engineering2927642,4478475,533147,52784,345
    Rangemaking527155,49830184,213161,40965,724
    Wireworking1413529,34812575,918130,04950,812
Precious metals—
    Jewellery and watch making5326748,00910568,917160,963148,480
Books and publications—
    Printing, publishing, and bookbinding2514,9041,014,2845,7831,213,0393,395,2762,022,374
Musical instruments—
    Piano, &c., making and repairing118713,7964212,70929,99522,792
Ornaments and minor art products—
    Picture-frame making20498,9661618,39939,04641,124
    Basket, perambulator, &c., making3421629,2163542,768103,49469,096
Equipment for sports and games—
    Billiard-table making4409,6604618,46833,29016,504
Designs, medals, type, and dies—
    Engraving and stamp-making7366,662133,84616,89613,190
Ammunition and explosives—
    Ammunition, explosives, and fireworks making1******
Machines, tools, and implements—
    Agricultural-machinery making291,080236,172799418,311800,673270,761
    Brush and broom making820434,77116070,747137,67038,872
Carriages and vehicles—
    Coachbuilding1671,166240,254888278,264700,236379,136
    Motor and cycle engineering3982,098362,7761,404363,649975,9371,300,383
Harness, saddlery, and leatherware—
    Saddlery and harness making6142482,12129150,471264,150117,895
    Leather-goods manufacture2021732,727895,565145,93365,358
    Tanning, fellmongering, and wool-scouring541,157254,2942,6962,792,8693,435,212398,689
Ships, boats, and their equipment—
    Ship and boat building27926233,083551188,137459,74895,996
    Sail, tent, and oilskin making3328940,924117187,745261,863109,902
House-furnishings—
    Furniture and cabinet making2532,226433,1432,704586,4051,238,539640,312
    Blindmaking5243,038147,94811,9057,490
    Mattress-making1127943,316179156,671257,11763,236
Chemicals and by-products—
    Ink-manufacture2******
    Starch-manufacture3******
    Chemicals-manufacture711014,1062873,08298,29345,395
    Paint and varnish manufacture5275,9859027,48241,32621,190
    Sheep-dip manufacture1******
    Match-manufacture2******
    Boot-polish manufacture5466,8041657,16468,25314,735
    Patent medicines and preparations manufacture1615823,56213099,063170,14742,245
Textile fabrics—  £      £     £     £     
    Woollen-milling122,205333,2613,788659,3171,332,451611,320
    Flock-milling4264,82020025,39831,71810,979
Apparel—
    Tailoring3542,589386,12730724,6141,386,405929,872
    Dress and millinery making3193,083272,04913349,971723,069519,141
    Boot and shoe making742,286402,5521,082901,5041,496,474332,438
    Hosiery-making821521,0773997,332146,75044,472
    Umbrella-making6354,489317,08431,64018,314
    Clothing and waterproof making1976,452732,3947941,732,8022,859,439784,685
Fibrous materials—
    Rope and twine making1023642,9031,395153,441281,95377,178
    Bag and sack making411615,02462220,425247,37330,287
    Flax-milling36834148,3722,55478,945344,086603,002
    Industries (included above) for which the number of schedules received was so small that operations of individual establishments might be identified..     1,002189,2403,1612,296,2032,697,087385,319
    Miscellaneous (not included above)3721042,298280183,824289,481142,461
                  Totals4,80478,85314,645,601217,17355,511,16382,473,56939,564,837

Chapter 21. SECTION XXI.—WATER-POWER.

ALTHOUGH abundant water-power is available throughout New Zealand, comparatively little use had been made of it before 1900, but since then the development has been extensive, and promises to be still more extensive in the early future. In 1903 water-power to the extent of 9,911 horse-power was actually in use. By 1913 this amount had risen to 34,956 horse-power, and by 1922 to 56,086 1/2.

The Public Works Act, 1908, vests the sole right to use the water-power of the Dominion in His Majesty, subject to any existing rights, and gives the Government the right to develop such power, or to delegate such power to any local authority, or, outside a mining district, to any person or company, subject to conditions. Advantage has been taken of this in several cases, the right in the case of local authorities being issued subject to a royalty of 1s. per year per kilowatt of maximum output, and in the case of private concerns developing water-power for electrical distribution, subject to a royalty of 4s. per year per kilowatt of maximum output.

POWER IN USE.

The following table shows the actual horse-power in use in the various districts at the 31st March in the years indicated:—

1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Auckland15,20615,11315,47315,42317,152 1/217,910 1/2
Hawke's Bay55 1/29094109137137
Taranaki3,1223,2553,3743,1204,054 1/24,219 1/2
Wellington713749844859863 1/2825
Marlborough and Nelson681 3/4636666153153 3/4240 1/4
Westland3,6093,6113,6114,1414,034 1/24,096
Canterbury9,040 1/212,46812,45511,49112,324 1/216,223
Otago10,78910,62510,50410,71510,447 1/210,478 1/2
Southland1,9251,9391,9491,9721,946 3/41,956 3/4
            Totals45,141 3/448,48748,97047,98351,114 1/256,086 1/2

It will be observed from these figures that progress during the years 1918–19 and 1919–20 was exceedingly slow, but that 1920–21 and 1921–22 show a distinct forward movement.

The following table gives the analysis of the purposes for which water-power was employed as on the 31st March, 1922:—

WATER-POWER IN USE ON THE 31ST MARCH, 1922.
District.Mining.Electric Supply.Flax-mills.Sawmills.Flour-mills.Dairying.Construction-works.Freezing-works.Paper-mills.Miscellaneous.Total.
Auckland North..     2,680..     ..     ..     20..     ..     ..     472,747
Auckland2,6601,3851025 1/2..     14946..     1,4525,646 1/2
Auckland South..     9,42530..     ..     21 1/2..     ..     ..     40 1/29,517
Hawke's Bay..     79..     15..     27..     ..     ..     16137
Taranaki North..     1,931 1/2..     3024678..     ..     ..     1042,767 1/2
Taranaki..     90710..     ..     376 1/2..     ..     ..     158 1/21,452
Wellington North..     562..     ..     ..     3..     ..     ..     ..     565
Wellington..     68..     20..     46..     ..     ..     126260
Nelson and Marlborough11 3/4374647589 1/2..     ..     ..     31240 1/4
Westland1,2262,015673..     12600..     ..     1644,096
Canterbury..     15,88453..     655..     ..     ..     6716,074
Canterbury South..     5830..     54..     ..     ..     ..     7149
Otago1010,144 1/2275113 1/2..     ..     ..     ..     178 1/210,478 1/2
Southland68534629459..     1,20045056 3/41,956 3/4
        Totals3,975 3/445,229258244 1/2359 1/21,221 1/26941,2064502,448 1/456,086 1/2

The following table gives details of the chief hydro-electric installations from which power is distributed for public supply. Of the twenty-nine stations mentioned, twenty-one are operated by local authorities, three by the State, and five by private companies.

Locality.Supply Authority.Power installed.Max. Load, Kw., Year ending 31st March, 1922.Distance transmitted: Miles.Voltage of Transmission.
H.P.KW.

* Diesel auxiliary.

Gas auxiliary.

Steam auxiliary.

§ Lake Coleridge plant.

|| Overload.

Waipori plant.

Wairua FallsWilsons (N.Z.) Cement Co.3,3002,0001,6102222,000
HorahoraWilsons (N.Z.) Cement Co.3,3002,0001,6102222,000
HorahoraPublic Works Department8,4006,3005,8005550,000
Te ArohaBorough Council25515014433,300
Thames*1501051251460
Tauranga1,1008004601811,000
RotoruaTourist Department380200200136,600
Havelock NorthTown Board2401443863,300
New PlymouthBorough Council1,15085082056,600
Inglewood2001207533,200
Stratford*1509016922,200
KapongaTown Board18014032..     230
Hawera*Electric Light Company600445369125,500
PateaBorough Council120905043,000
WaverleyTown Board60401722,300
OhakuneBorough Council1601207512,400
Raetihi130964343,300
Taihape†1331001582460
MangawekaTown Board47353232,400
Brightwater†Waimea Electric Company53404842,300
MurchisonCounty Council140901563,300
Reefton ‡Electric Supply Company10075901230
Lake KanieriCompany700500460511,000
Canterbury§Public Works Department8,0006,0007,600||6566,000
AkaroaBorough Council5030311220
FairlieCounty Council6040..     ..     400
Oamaru†Borough Council150112162..     3,300
Dunedin¶City Council8,0006,0006,880||3735,000
GoreBorough Council320240185611,000
Mataura1007545..     440

LAKE COLERIDGE WORKS.

The Aid to Water-power Works Act of 1910 empowered the State to establish hydro-electric-supply installations, and the first—at Lake Coleridge, sixty-five miles west of Christchurch—has been in operation for some years. This plant has been designed for a total capacity of 12,000 kilowatts (16,000 horse-power), but natural features of the lake and adjacent rivers allow of a very large extension of the supply up to 58,000 h.p. During March, 1921, the Harper River was diverted into the lake, and the level of the water in the lake has been appreciably raised thereby, thus ensuring an ample supply to meet the present demands.

The transmission-line is constructed in duplicate by separate routes to Christ-church, thus ensuring continuity of supply, each line having a capacity of 5,000 kw. A third transmission-line of 12,000 kw. capacity is now under construction (1922). The installed plant capacity is 16,000 h.p., and preparations are being made for driving a second tunnel and the installation of two extra 10,000 h.p. units to bring the total capacity up to 36,000 h.p. The population being served is over 110,000, and a large demand for power is being made. Contracts have been made for the bulk supply to the Christchurch City Council and to power boards and other local bodies for retail distribution, for bulk supply to the Christchurch Tramway Board, and for power-supply to the large meat-freezing works and dairy factories, tanneries, flour-mills, woollen-mills, and other factories and industries of Canterbury. The contract entered into with the Christchurch City Council provides for a charge for the first 300 kw. (400 h.p.) of £8 13s. 4d. per annum per kilowatt of maximum load (equivalent to £6 10s. per horse-power), and all over 300 kw. at £5 per annum per kilowatt of maximum load (equivalent to £3 15s. per horse-power). This enables the Council to retail it to the public for lighting at 5d. per unit, flat rate, or 6d. per unit for forty hours of maximum demand and 1d. per unit thereafter, and at 1 1/2d. per unit for power in small units, and special rates ranging from 1/2d. to 1/3d. per unit for special contracts. The standard rate of sale by the Public Works Department is based on £16 per kilowatt year (£12 per horse-power year).

The growth of the supply and the general financial results are as follows:—

Results of Operation forFirst Year (ending March, 1916).Third Year (ending March, 1918).Fifth Year (ending March, 1920).Sixth Year (ending March, 1921).Seventh Year (ending March, 1922).
Capital outlay£320,330£389,754£422,076£499,957£671,608
Working-costs£9,383£14,449£17,760£21,341£25,911
Interest, 4 per cent.£11,398£14,871£16,863£18,639£20,981
Depreciation, 2 per cent.£5,386£7,013£7,623£7,946£8,424
Total costs£26,167£36,333£42,246£47,926£55,316
Total revenue£8,518£32,092£45,831£51,373£56,814
Maximum load, kw.—
    Power-house1,3725,4387,0667,4127,600
    Substation1,2204,8006,2606,7126,720
Units output—
    Power-house4,860,26022,403,66033,010,13036,309,58037,929,750
    Substation4,128,23220,539,43029,572,16032,588,32033,947,100
Total units sold3,994,76719,844,67628,017,97631,402,35132,943,934
Average weekly load factor, per cent.—
    Power-house44.358.059.961.462.9
    Substation43.358.458.660.562.0
Working-cost per unit sold0.56d.0.175d.0.15d.0.15d.0.188d.
Capital charge per unit sold1.01d.0.265d.0.21d.0.20d.0.214d.
Total cost per unit sold1.57d.0.44d.0.36d.0.36d.0.403d.
Revenue per unit sold0.51d.0.388d.0.39d.0.39d.0.414d.
Total cost per kw. substation maximum£21.4£7.57£6.75£7.14£8.23

To the above costs must be added the cost of retailing by the various local authorities, and the gross results of distribution in the district for the year ended 31st March, 1922, are given in the following table:—

GROSS FINANCIAL RESULTS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAKE COLEBIDGE POWER IN CANTERBURY, 1921–22.
Distributing Authority.Number of Consumers.Capital Outlay.Revenue from Consumers.Paid for Electricity.Maintenance Expenses.Interest.Sinking Fund.Depreciation.Net Profit.

* After deducting amount of sales to other distributing bodies.

Net loss.

  £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
Public Works Department466671,60830,991*..     25,91120,981..     8,4241,498
Christchurch City Council15,153392,86487,644*18,89026,19814,172..     20,26610,523
Halswell County Council1255,4031,10340517726350..     208
Heathcote County Council64614,5703,4411,604836422327..     252
Kaiapoi Borough Council3704,5002,06183446723645225254
Lyttelton Borough Council2305,0002,082676944250100..     112
Riccarton Borough Council4996,8242,370794887305..     ..     384
Rangiora Borough Council2507,2661,74051625434955218348
Rangiora County Council19812,2071,608637359536100..     –24†
Sumner Borough Council4409,3982,43164771831560144547
Tai Tapu Dairy Company1204,5691,779879541282..     300–223†
Waimairi County Council1,81642,4009,3492,0802,5772,032..     ..     2,660
Eyre County Council1085,1606142665811815..     157
Totals20,4211,181,769147,21328,22859,92740,26175229,57716,696

The column “Revenue from Consumers” omits, in the cases of the Public Works Department and Christchurch City Council, the revenue from the sale of energy to other local authorities for distribution, as this is resold and the actual revenue from the consumers is included in the revenue of the distributing local authority. The amounts thus paid for power in bulk for resale are shown in the column “Paid for Electricity.”

WAIKATO ELECTRIC-POWER SUPPLY.

In November, 1920, the Waihi Gold-mining Company's electric-power plant at Horahora was acquired by the State for £212,500. The capital account to the 31st March, 1922, stands at £348,031.

The main features of the plant acquired are the headworks and generating-station on the Waikato River at Horahora, seventeen miles from Cambridge, with a plant capacity of six generators each capable of generating 1,050 kw. or a total of 6,300 kw.; the transmission-line of three No. O.S.W.G. copper conductors on steel towers from Horahora to Waikino (fifty-five miles); and the transformer-station at Waikino, for transforming the energy supplied to the Waihi Company's mine. Designs for extending the power-house installation by the addition of two 2,000 kw. units have been approved, and contracts have been let for the necessary plant.

As shown in the accounts, the operations for the twelve months ended the 31st March, 1922, resulted in a gross revenue of £28,207, or £20,233 in excess of working-expenses. Interest on the purchase-money amounted to £13,187, and depreciation at 2 per cent. per annum, as required by law, to £4,512, leaving a surplus after paying working and capital charges of £2,534.

The total number of units generated over the twelve months was 25,659,550, and the number delivered to consumers was 23,093,595, so that 2,565,955 units, or 10 per cent. of the amount generated, were lost in transmission. The maximum demand on the power-house was 5,800 kw.

The following shows the average cost of production for the year ended 31st March, 1922:—

Costs.Per Unit generated.Per Unit sold.Per Kilowatt of Power-house Max. per Year.
 £     d.     d.     £  
Generating3,7350.0350.0390.64
Transmission9110.0080.0090.15
Distribution1,2440.0120.0130.21
Management2,0840.0200.0220.37
      Total working-costs7,9740.0750.0831.37
Interest13,1870.1240.1372.27
Depreciation4,5120.0420.0470.78
      Total costs25,6730.2410.2674.42

The revenue represented a return of 0.29d. per unit generated, 0.26d. per unit sold, and £4.86 per annum per kilowatt of power-house maximum.

The total power installed at Horahora (6,300 k, or 8,400 h.p.) is dealt with as follows:—

 Horse-power.
Spare standby unit1,400
For Waihi Gold-mining Company3,300
For Arapuni construction-works200
For special industries500
For losses in transmission600
Available for local authorities2,400
..     8,400

In allocating the power the population and other considerations, such as existing installations, have been taken into account, and the following allocation is the result of a careful investigation into the whole of the factors:—

 Horse-power.
Thames Valley Power Board900
Te Awamutu Power Board600
Cambridge Power Board200
Central Power Board350
Hamilton Borough Council300
Waihi Borough Council50
..     2,400

WAIPORI WATER-POWER SUPPLY.

The only other hydro-electric development of any size is the power-station of the Dunedin City Council on the Waipori River, thirty-two miles from the city. This plant was started in 1907 with two units of 1,000 kw. (1,340 h.p.) each. Two similar units were added in 1910, and two more were installed in 1913, which brings the total capacity up to 6,000 kw. (8,000 h.p.). Tenders have recently been let for one 3,000 kw. generator, bringing the capacity up to 9,000 kw. installed. The retail rates charged range from 5d. to 1d. per unit for lighting, and from 2d. to 1/2d. per unit for power purposes.

The output for the year 1921–22 was as follows:—

 Units sold.Average Price per Unit.
 Number.d.
Private lighting3,264,8303.714
Public lighting463,7542.400
Power and heating10,476,9520.773
Tramways3,409,5420.674
            Total supply17,615,0781.385

The total outlay to the 31st March, 1922, was £653,334, including distribution, standby plant, and public lighting; the total revenue for the year ended the 31st March, 1922, £101,651; and the total expenditure, including interest, sinking fund, depreciation, and renewal funds, £83,374, leaving a net profit of £18,277. The number of consumers supplied was 11,203, and the total capacity of all connections to the mains at the 31st March, 1922, was 22,840 kw.

STATE SCHEME FOR NORTH ISLAND.

A larger and comprehensive scheme is now under construction for the supply of electrical energy in the North Island, with the object of making it generally available, as far as possible, to all the towns and districts throughout the Island. It is anticipated that the productiveness of the country will be greatly increased, the dairying industry in particular being capable of expansion with the provision of cheap electric power.

A complete scheme was outlined in a report dated October, 1918, by Mr. Evan Parry, B.Sc., M.I.C.E., M.I.E.E., then Chief Electrical Engineer of the Public Works Department. He estimates the demand at 0.2 h.p. per head of population, exclusive of large blocks of power required for electro-chemical and metallurgical industries, and allowing for losses in transmission and distribution the power required on this basis for the North Island is 160,000 h.p. This it is proposed to obtain from three sources—the Mangahao River, near Shannon (24,000 h.p.) Lake Waikaremoana (40,000 h.p.), and the Arapuni Rapids, on the Waikato, near Putaruru (96,000 h.p.). Of these the Waikaremoana scheme is capable of further development up to a total of 130,000 h.p., and Arapuni to a total of 160,000 h.p. In connection with Mangahao, contracts for the construction and erection of the pipe-lines and for the complete generating plant, &c., have been let. Contracts for the supply and erection of 1,000 h.p. construction plant at Waikaremoana have been let, of which 500 h.p. will be reserved for the Wairoa Electric-power Board.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE.

The complete estimate to provide for the general scheme of electricity-supply, based on 12 per cent. in excess of pre-war costs, is as follows:—

Amount.Per Horse-power.
Generating-stations (total plant capacity, 160,000 h.p.)—£     £     
..     H.P.Cost.Per H.P...     ..     
..     ..     £     £     ..     ..     
        Mangahao24,000438,65418.30..     ..     
        Waikaremoana40,000544,36913.16..     ..     
Arapuni96,0001,078,70010.80..     ..     
..     ..     ..     ..     2,061,72312.88
..     160,000..     ..     ..     ..     
Main transmission-lines1,553,88011.22
Extra branch transmission-lines at lower voltage to main substations not on main lines241,360
Main substations838,8085.24
Distribution-lines and secondary substations2,086,00013.04
..     ..     ..     ..     6,781,77142.38
Interest during construction271,2711.69
Assistance to local authorities and power-users100,0000.62
Working capital150,0000.94
                                  Total..     ..     ..     7,303,04245.63

The capital charges for interest, depreciation, and sinking fund at 7 1/2 per cent. will amount to £547,728 per annum. The working-expenses should not exceed £220,000 per annum, making a total annual expenditure of £767,728, requiring an average return of £5.9 per horse-power per annum of maximum load—i.e., about £8 per kilowatt.

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.

The policy of the Government generally is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of the local authorities. Formerly the only local authorities available were the cities, boroughs, counties, and town districts, but with the extension of electric supply into the country areas a stronger organization became necessary, and this was provided under the Electric-power Boards Act of 1918. This Act provides for several local districts to combine for the purpose of electric-power distribution, and to set up a special Electric-power Board to carry out the work, with rating-powers over the district concerned.

Amendments to the original Act, based on the results of experience, were passed in 1919, 1920, and 1921.

The provisions of this Act have now been taken advantage of by twenty-three districts, details of which are set out in the table following. The total area covered by these twenty-three districts is 31,141 square miles, being 30 per cent. of the total area of the Dominion, and the total population included is 470,000, being 30 per cent. of the population of the Dominion. Sixteen of the Boards have laid out their reticulation systems and submitted the necessary loans to the ratepayers for approval. Of these, three—i.e., Southland (Lake Monowai), Teviot (Teviot River), and Opunake (Waiaua River)—include generating-stations, and the other twelve provide for taking power in bulk from the Public Works Department.

The total amount of loans authorized by the ratepayers of these twenty-three districts amounts to £4,886,500. This is £10.4 per head of population concerned, and 4.4 per cent. of the unimproved rateable value.

Name of Electric-power District.Proclamation constituting District gazetted.Number of Members on Board.Approximate Area of District.Population.Value of Rateable Property (unimproved).Amount of Loan.Voting for Loan Poll.
For.Ag'nst
   Square Miles. £     £       
Southland19/11/19129,98665,45013,600,4711,500,0006,516415
Thames Valley8/1/20122,30416,0006,814,993550,0001,50328
Te Awamutu8/1/20103096,0001,759,558120,000359..     
Cambridge8/1/2081045,0001,683,63260,0001983
Banks Peninsula8/1/2073723,5003,430,817100,00033123
Wairarapa25/3/2092,07321,8003,114,718260,0001,704225
Central8/7/2073009,1103,667,904200,00051519
Wairoa29/7/20101,3693,9002,417,251100,00050431
Springs-Ellesmere8/7/2072425,4002,627,46860,00030216
Teviot22/7/2071201,800169,13735,00019127
Opunake18/8/2172403,227536,15370,00017020
Auckland1/4/2212227128,00021,502,118600,0004,179288
Ashburton17/11/21122,54216,6919,346,863296,5001,59096
Manawatu-Oroua1/12/21121,30138,33012,944,573500,0001,14496
Dannevirke11/8/211067611,8483,555,382175,00065193
Horowhenua1/12/21963011,7953,403,255260,00097326
Wanganui-Rangitikei1/12/21122,61441,56410,864,130Poll notyet taken...     
Tararua23/3/22107008,4852,859,070..     
Taranaki19/5/2271,96934,5582,865,396..     
Hutt Valley6/7/22947122,4502,659,074..     
Buller11/5/2251,81810,057686,209..     
Westland28/10/2097503,272196,268..     
Reefton30/6/215241,85059,316..     
                Totals31,141470,087110,763,7564,886,50020,8301,406..     ..     

WATER-POWER FOR MINING PURPOSES.

Water-power is extensively used for hydraulic mining in New Zealand, and to a smaller extent for hydro-electric transmissions and for water-motors installed to drive mining machinery.

During 1921 water was used for sluicing auriferous alluvium at 150 claims, employing 438 persons, in Otago and Southland and on the West Coast. The quantity of water utilized per claim ranges up to about 40 cubic feet per second. Most of the sources of water-supply are privately owned, but on the West Coast and in Central Otago the Government has constructed, and now maintains, very extensive water-races for the use of miners.

On the West Coast the Waimea-Kumara Government water-races, in length about thirty-nine miles, have a capacity of 182 cubic feet per second. The cost of construction has been approximately £223,262, and the value of gold obtained by use of water is about £1,413,262. In the Mount Ida district (Central Otago) the Government water-races, about twenty-two miles in length, have a capacity of 51 cubic feet per second; the cost of these races to the Government has been about £80,000. The water is generally sold from Government races at a charge per hour of 2 1/2d. per “sluice-head,” which is equivalent to a flow of 1 cubic foot per second. Of recent years the cash received for water sold has been less than the cost of the upkeep of the races.

There are three hydro-electric mining transmissions. On the Waikato River the Waihi Gold-mining Company installed a 9,000 h.p. plant at Horahora Falls, near Cambridge, a distance of fifty miles from the mines and reduction-works at Waihi and Waikino. The transmission pressure is 50,000 volts. This source of supply has been taken over by the Government, which now sells the power to the public.

At Kanieri Forks, near Hokitika, there is a hydro-electric power-station, formerly the property of Ross Goldfields (Limited). The water-supply is carried from Lake Kanieri, and from the Pelton wheels at the power-house 675 h.p. is obtainable. This power is now used by the Rimu Gold-dredging Company, also for lighting the Borough of Hokitika.

From the Fraser River, near Alexandra, Otago, water is taken by the Earnscleugh Gold-mining Company for hydro-electric power for its two gold-dredges, 300 electrical horse-power being utilized.

UNDEVELOPED POWER.

In addition to the developed power in New Zealand there is a practically unlimited amount of undeveloped power. The following table gives the particulars of the more important available water-powers, showing also the nearest market, consisting of a city or an actual or potential port. A considerable number of these are suitable for general industrial development, but the largest ones, as a rule being in the unsettled portions of the South Island and near the deep-water sounds, are particularly suitable for utilization in connection with electro-chemical or electro-metallurgical industries.

NORTH ISLAND.
Source of Power.Position of Power-house.Available Flow: Cubic Feet per Second.Available Head: Feet.Average Power on 50 per Cent. Load Factor.Nearest City, Port, or Deep Water.Distance: Miles.
H.P.Kw.

* Signifies storage available to utilize 50 per cent. daily load factor.

Signifies seasonal storage made available.

North Auckland District.
Wairua FallsWairua Falls3001303,2002,400Whangarei16
OmapereUtakura Stream11248220*15..     ..     
South Auckland District.
KaitunaKaituna River500†;78460,000*45,000Tauranga25
..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     Auckland125
Wairoa RiverWairoa420803,100*2,300Tauranga..     
Waikato RiverAratiatia Rapids4,400†;170136,000*100,000Auckland154
Orakeikorako Rapids4,400†;3514,00010,000148
Aniwhaniwha Falls4,400†;032,00024,000142
Atiamuri Rapids4,400†;2510,000*7,500139
Arapuni Gorge5,300165163,000*120,000105
Horahora Rapids5,3002713,00010,00097
Pokaiwhenua River1651704,600*3,40097
OmanawaOmanawa1601081,5001,100Tauranga16
Marakopa FallsMarokopa904203,1002,300Te Kuiti27
Wairere FallsWairere Falls1606086060018
Hawke's Bay District.
WaikaremoanaUpper Waikaretaheki530†;1,10097,000*75,000Gisborne50
Lower Waikaretaheki530†;36032,000*;24,000Napier60
Te Reinga FallsTe Reinga Falls121251,3001,000Gisborne35
Waikohu RiverWaikohu45†;8476,000*4,50026
Wanganui District.
Lake Roto-airaPatu River26052011,000..     Wanganui105
Mangawhero RiverRaukawa Falls12590940..     45
Wanganui River1256807,100..     24
Rangitikei RiverMakohine1,50030075,000*..     48
Wangaehu RiverWangaehu River260701,500..     25
KarioiKarioi3001808,800*6,600..     
Taranaki District.
Waitara RiverWaitara River4001404,600..     New Plymouth12
WaiwakaihoWaiwakaiho150†;2506,200*..     4
Wellington District.
Mangahao RiverShannon144†;89524,000*..     Wellington65
Makuri RiverMakuri Gorge1003843,200..     Pahiatua20
WaiohineWoodside1201202,400*..     Masterton15
Hutt RiverMungaroa200†;33011,000*..     Wellington24
TauherenikauFeatherston15044010,800*8,000Wairarapa..     
SOUTH ISLAND.
Source of Power.Position of Powerhouse.Available Flow: Cubic Feet per Second.Available Head: Feet.Average Power on 50 per Cent. Load Factor.Nearest City, Port, or Deep Water.Distance: Miles.
H.P.Kw.

* Signifies storage available to utilize 5 per cent. daily load factor.

†; Signifies seasonal storage made available.

Marlborough District.
Clarence (Ericaburn)Shades64015816,500*;12,400Blenheim..     
WaihopaiWaihopai100961,600*;1,200..     
Nelson and Buller District.
Boulder LakeAorere River502,60011,0008,000Golden Bay10
Rotoiti LakeBuller River2001,20020,00015,000Westport48
      Nelson48
Rotoroa LakeGowan River90040030,00022,000Westport48
      Nelson48
Buller RiverLyell1,600..     25,00018,000Westport24
Inangahua RiverBlackwater River781258,0006,00018
Four-mile CreekFour-mile Creek234501,700*;1,275..     
Wairoa RiverWairoa12045880*;660Nelson12
Westland District.
Lake BrunnerStillwater1,75020029,00022,000Greymouth10
Kumara Water-raceKumara873302,4001,80012
Otira RiverOtira407002,3001,70052
Rolleston River367002,0001,50052
Kanieri LakeKanieri River1003302,8002,100Hokitika20
Toaroha RiverToaroha River1507609,5007,10017
Whitcombe RiverHokitika River25080016,00012,00020
Kakapotahi RiverKakapotahi River1005804,8003,60026
Wanganui RiverHende's Ferry83058040,00030,00036
Wataroa RiverWataroa1,36070080,00060,00048
Canterbury District.
Clarence RiverJollie's Pass2001,16020,00015,000Christchurch82
Conway River1,1501,050100,00075,00088
      Kaikoura25
Waiau-ua RiverCulverden1,60020027,00020,000Christchurch75
Waimakariri RiverGorge Bridge2,0009015,00011,00030
Lake ColeridgeRakaia River100†;4808,000*;6,00065
Acheron River50†;4804,000*;3,00070
Harper River420†;48032,000*;24,00070
Wilberforce River1,10048044,00033,00070
Rakaia RiverGorge Bridge2,600306,5004,80025
Lake HeronRakaia River3002004,0003,00088
Rangitata RiverArundel1,10025023,00017,000Timaru35
Opihi RiverOpihi Gorge2004006,7005,00030
Opuha River2004006,7005,000Christchurch100
Tekapo LakeFairlie5,100900400,000300,000Timaru40
Ohau LakeWaitaki River5,000600250,000180,000..     52
Otago and Southland Districts.
Ahuriri RiverWaitaki River60020010,0007,500Oamaru62
      Timaru100
Waipori FallsWaipori River230†;70026,800*;20,000Dunedin29
Lee StreamOutram157501,28097018
Deep StreamTaieri River1109008,4006,30020
Taieri RiverDeep Stream70022012,0009,00044
Talla BurnClutha River308902,2001,60060
Teviot RiverRoxburgh100†;1,90030,000*;21,00090
Mauwherika RiverChatto Creek2003505,8004,400127
Hawea LakeWanaka Lake2,500†20580,000*60,000170
Wakatipu LakeKawarau River11,000544500,000375,000140
ShotoverWakatipu Lake50025014,50011,000Invercargill112
Lake HallDoubtful Sound2202,62548,00036,000On seaboard..     
Lake CecilLake Te Anau20090015,00011,200..     
Lake Hilda1,5501,19055,00041,080..     
Lake Te AnauGeorge Sound12,630694750,000560,000..     
Lake ManapouriSmith Sound8,400600420,000315,000..     
Lake MonowaiWaiau River700†;18020,000*15,000Invercargill60
Lake HaurotoTewaewae Bay2,300514100,00075,00051

Chapter 22. SECTION XXII.—PUBLIC FINANCE.

SUBSECTION A.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

THE legislation relating to the custody, administration, and audit of the public moneys and securities is contained in the Public Revenues Act, 1910, and amending Acts. All public moneys, excepting those payable to or received by the Post Office, the Government Insurance Office, the Public Trust Office, the Commissioners of the Public Debt Sinking Funds, the State Advances Office, the State Fire Insurance Office, and the deposits under the New Zealand Consols Act, are paid into one account at the bank called the “Public Account,” and are carried to one or other of the following funds or accounts in the books of the Treasury:—

  1. The Consolidated Fund.

  2. The Public Works Fund.

  3. Separate accounts or funds specially created.

The main Consolidated Fund Account records the ordinary public revenue and expenditure. There are certain subsidiary accounts to this fund which come under the third head in the above category. The Public Works Fund Account contains receipts from loans or transfers from the Consolidated Fund and the expenditure on public works, immigration, or special services legally chargeable to that account.

The financial year commences on the 1st day of April and ends on the 31st day of March. The revenue of any financial year is the money received into the Public Account at the bank at Wellington within the year; the expenditure is the money paid at the Treasury within the year, and the money paid by imprestees of which accounts are received at the Treasury within the year. Imprests not accounted for at the end of a financial year are included in the accounts of the following year.

At the end of each financial year the Appropriation Acts lapse, but the Minister of Finance is authorized for a period of three months from the commencement of the next financial year to pay money in respect of any service, provided that the amount does not exceed the unexpended balance voted for that purpose in the previous year, together with an amount equal to one-fourth of such vote.

The usual practice is for Parliament to meet at the end of June in each year, and vote supplies from month to month until the estimated expenditure for the year has been approved and the annual Appropriation Act is passed.

AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE.

In the audit of expenditure both the pre-audit and post-audit systems are in operation. Pre-audit is applied to vouchers in respect of payments on account of salaries of new appointees, temporary officers, and officers claiming more than one month's salary at any time; interest, loan transactions, and return of deposits; on account of unauthorized expenditure; or chargeable against the accounts of local bodies. Post-audit is applied to all other payments.

Vouchers must be certified as correct by the proper officer, and forwarded by him to the Head of his Department for approval. Vouchers subject to pre-audit are then forwarded to the Audit Office, and on being found correct are sent on to the Treasury to be entered on requisitions for payment. Vouchers subject to post-audit are transmitted by the Head of the Department direct to the Treasury. Payment is made by the Treasury, and the claim is afterwards submitted for audit.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.

The total revenue and expenditure of the Consolidated Fund Account for the financial years ended the 31st March, 1913 to 1922, is shown in the following table, together with the excess of revenue for each year and the amount of such excess transferred to the Public Works Fund in the succeeding year:—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.Excess of Revenue over Expenditure.Amount of Excess transferred to the Public Works Fund.
* Excess of expenditure over revenue.
 £     £     £     £     
191311,734,27111,082,038652,233750,000
191412,229,66111,825,864403,797675,000
191512,451,94512,379,80372,142350,000
191614,507,53012,493,1072,014,423..     
191718,355,19414,058,7704,296,424..     
191820,206,22215,120,2885,085,934..     
191922,352,37218,673,5993,678,773..     
192026,081,34023,781,5242,299,816..     
192134,260,96128,068,7306,192,231500,000
192228,127,00728,466,838339,831*..     
        Totals, ten years200,306,503175,950,56124,355,9422,275,000

To the amount of excess revenue for the ten years must be added the sum of £807,276 brought forward from the financial year ended the 31st March, 1912, and an amount of £14,960, representing sinking funds set free (£2,607 in 1915–16 and £12,353 in 1916–17), making a total of £25,178,178. From this excess transfers to other funds have been made at various times, and to ascertain the balance carried forward as at the 1st April, 1922, deductions require to be made for these amounts—namely, £2,275,000 to the Public Works Fund during the ten years above, £14,171,811 for debt-reduction or capital purposes (£11,400 in 1913–14, £13,380,400 in 1919–20, and £780,011 in 1921–22), and £1,200,000 to the London Reserve Fund in 1920–21, a total of £17,646,811. Deducting this total from the sum of £25,178,178 referred to, there remains a balance of £7,531,367, which has been carried forward to the current year's account.

The total amount of excess revenue transferred to the Public Works Fund during the thirty-one financial years ended the 31st March, 1922, was £10,805,000.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—REVENUE.

An analysis of the revenue received during each of the last ten financial years is made in the next table.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—REVENUE, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Revenue derived fromTotal Revenue.
Taxation.Services.Crown Lands.Other Sources.
 £     £     £     £     £     
19135,606,8295,379,966313,923433,55311,734,271
19145,918,0345,551,913262,846496,86812,229,661
19155,880,8115,706,929318,393545,81212,451,945
19167,266,9666,423,452311,969505,14314,507,530
191710,549,6546,885,422301,758618,36018,355,194
191812,340,8536,729,524306,136829,70920,206,222
191913,801,6437,180,258311,5581,058,91322,352,372
192016,251,7698,034,644331,5971,463,33026,081,340
192122,184,4149,687,978319,6412,068,92834,260,961
192216,370,5169,663,475303,1781,789,83828,127,007
Totals, ten years116,171,48971,243,5613,080,9999,810,454200,306,503

Revenue under the head of “Taxation” includes Customs and excise duties, land-tax, income-tax, death duties, a tax on bank-note issue, totalizator-tax, and amusements-tax. Revenue from “Services” consists of railway, post, telegraph, and telephone receipts, and certain fees paid in return for special services. Revenue from “Crown Lands” includes proceeds of sales for 1912–13, but not for subsequent years. The other items in Crown-lands revenue are rents and national-endowment net revenue. The amounts shown under “Other Sources” include miscellaneous revenue and sundry amounts recovered in respect of expenditure of previous years.

Up to the end of 1920–21 the total revenue shows in each year very large increases, and this feature is particularly apparent in the period immediately following the war. These increases were due in part to increases in taxation levied, as set out in the next subsection, but the exceptional increase in 1920–21 was due to the great increase in the total value of imports, and consequently in Customs revenue. A further reason was the increased charges for certain services to the public, notably railway fares and post and telegraph charges. The increased revenue from these latter sources has, however, been comparatively small, and in no way kept pace with the heavily increased expenditure. The decrease of some £6,000,000 in revenue in 1921–22 is almost wholly accounted for by the diminished receipts from Customs duty—due to the fall in the value of importations, and to the shrinkage of the income-tax revenue—the indirect result of a rapid fall in the price of the Dominion's primary products.

The total revenue per head of population (excluding Maoris), and the amounts per head derived from taxation and from other sources, during the last ten years are shown in the following table:—

REVENUE PER HEAD OF POPULATION, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Revenue per Head derived fromTotal Revenue per Head.
Taxation.Other Sources.
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
191357251711143
1914510051741174
19155756001175
1916612161171338
191791111720161311
191811397271864
1919127271322004
1920140989922106
192118901001028910
192213579101022165

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—EXPENDITURE.

Expenditure out of the Consolidated Fund is grouped under two main headings by the Treasury, “Permanent” and “Annual.” Permanent appropriations, as the name implies, are those fixed by special Acts of the Legislature. Annual appropriations are voted each year by resolution of Parliament, and include the cost of the business undertakings of the State. In the following table this grouping has not been adopted, as it is considered more desirable to show the growth of the main items of expenditure during the last ten financial years:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount expended onTotal Expenditure.
Working Railways.Post and Telegraph.Education.Interest, &c., on Public Debt.Other Expenses.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
19132,817,1411,066,9221,148,8972,717,0133,332,06511,082,038
19143,004,1811,170,8831,206,6782,887,9813,556,14111,825,864
19152,881,0871,245,2241,288,7953,071,4483,893,24912,379,803
19162,964,0061,294,7121,441,3983,190,7983,602,19312,493,107
19172,871,9771,368,4901,525,1064,032,8854,260,31214,058,770
19183,067,6581,487,1451,640,9884,430,7794,493,71815,120,288
19193,415,5951,699,7011,737,0366,086,7695,734,49818,673,599
19204,305,9651,941,4942,190,5877,249,4268,094,05223,781,524
19216,211,0112,588,3602,633,9777,831,5938,803,78928,068,730
19226,473,2342,448,6882,652,2998,442,2788,450,33928,466,838

The charges of the public debt are found to have absorbed 24.64 per cent. of the revenue in 1912–13 and 30.02 per cent. in 1921–22.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE, 1921–22.

The total receipts of the Consolidated Fund for the financial year 1921–22, including a balance of £8,591,209 brought forward from the previous year, were £36,778,216 (inclusive of £60,000 repaid by the Southland Electric-power Board), and the total expenditure for the same period was £29,246,849 (inclusive of £780,011 transferred to other accounts), leaving a balance of £7,531,367 to carry forward.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—RECEIPTS, 1921–22.
From taxation—£     £     
      Customs revenue5,095,436 
      Excise duty458,898 
      Land-tax1,637,816 
      Income-tax6,002,987 
      Death duties1,512,754 
      Bank composition227,080 
      Totalizator revenue515,248 
      Amusements-tax103,815 
      Other taxation (duty on instruments, &c.)816,482 
  16,370,516
From services—
      Railways6,683,236 
      Postal1,464,881 
      Telegraph703,996 
      Telephone575,603 
      Other services235,759 
  9,663,475
Land revenue—
      Crown-lands rents, royalties, &c.200,697 
      Net revenue from national-endowment lauds102,481 
  303,178
Miscellaneous..     1,789,838
                                  Total..     £28,127,007

Taxation represented 58.20 per cent. of the total revenue for the year 1921–22, and services contributed 34.36 per cent. For the last financial year preceding the war (1913–14) the proportions were 48.39 per cent. and 45.40 per cent. respectively.

The amount of £102,481 shown as net revenue from national-endowment lands represents the money received from that source during the previous financial year. The method adopted is to place the amount received under this head each year to a separate account, and, after deducting necessary expenses, to transfer the balance to the Consolidated Fund Account. Of this balance 70 per cent. is expended on education and 30 per cent. on old-age pensions.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—EXPENDITURE, 1921–22.
Permanent charges—£     £     
      Civil List29,883 
      Interest and sinking fund8,442,278 
      Pensions2,717,539 
      Other1,612,723 
                Totals, permanent charges 12,802,423
Annual appropriations—
      Legislative Departments79,843 
      Treasury Department41,103 
      Land and Income Tax Department60,533 
      Stamp Duties Department101,415 
      National Provident and Friendly Societies Department24,935 
      Working Railways6,473,234 
      Post and Telegraph working-expenses2,448,688 
      Public buildings109,092 
      Government domains4,513 
      Maintenance and improvement of roads62,280 
      Maintenance of irrigation-works1,295 
      Native Department22,862 
      Department of External Affairs21,478 
      Department of Industries and Commerce157,518 
      Department of Justice45,875 
      Supreme and Magistrates' Courts101,219 
      Prisons Department79,545 
      Crown Law Office6,021 
      Police Department411,056 
      Cook Islands15,406 
      Pensions Department138,734 
      Mines Department47,076 
      Department of Internal Affairs367,062 
      Audit Department21,685 
      Public Service Commissioner's Office8,861 
      Printing and StationeryCr. 10,219 
      Mental Hospitals269,199 
      Department of Health223,388 
      Naval defence303,517 
      Defence415,451 
      Customs Department136,475 
      Marine Department151,695 
      Department of Labour35,762 
      Department of Lands and Survey215,671 
      Valuation55,278 
      Electoral6,295 
      Department of Agriculture275,176 
      Tourist86,943 
      Education Department2,652,299 
      Services not provided for2,156 
                  Totals, annual appropriations 15,664,415
                  Grand total, expenditure..     £28,466,838

In the table of expenditure above, the net amount of national-endowment residue (£102,481) has been allocated on the basis already referred to between the items “Pensions” and “Education,” in lieu of including it with other permanent charges.

A comparison of the revenue of the Consolidated Fund for the year 1921–22 with that of the previous year, together with the percentage which each item bears to the totals, and the increase or decrease, as the case may be, is given in the table following:—

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—REVENUE FOR 1921–22 COMPARED WITH 1920–21.
Head of Revenue.Revenue of Consolidated Fund.Increase for 1921–22.
1920–21.Per Cent. of Total.1921–22.Per Cent. of Total.Numerical.Per Cent.
* Decrease.
Taxation—£     ..     £     ..     £     ..     
    Customs and excise8,769,25125.605,554,33419.753,214,917*36.66*
    Land1,688,9794.931,637,8165.8251,163*3.03*
    Income8,248,94524.086,002,98721.342,245,958*27.23*
    Death duties1,106,9253.231,512,7545.38405,82936.66
    Other taxes2,370,3146.921,662,6255.91707,689*29.86*
Services—
    Railways6,918,49220.196,683,23623.77235,256*3.40*
    Postal1,253,5133.661,464,8815.21211,36816.86
    Telegraph691,4842.02703,9962.5012,5121.81
    Telephone533,5351.56757,6032.69224,06842.00
    Other services290,9540.85235,7590.8455,195*18.97*
    Land revenue319,6410.93303,1781.0816,463*5.15*
    Miscellaneous2,068,2286.031,607,8385.71460,390*22.26*
              Totals34,260,261100.0028,127,007100.006,133,254*17.90*

The expenditure of the Consolidated Fund Account for the last two financial years is presented in the next table in similar form to the above.

CONSOLIDATED FUND.—EXPENDITURE FOR 1921–22 COMPARED WITH 1920–21.
Head of Expenditure.Expenditure of Consolidated Fund.Increase for 1921–22.
1920–21.Per Cent. of Total.1921–22.Per Cent. of Total.Numerical.Per Cent.
* Decrease.
 £      £      £      
Interest and sinking fund7,831,59327.908,442,27829.66610,6857.80
Pensions2,870,34610.232,717,5399.55152,807*5.32*
Permanent charges under special Acts1,431,1265.101,612,7235.66181,59712.69
Working Railways6,211,00122.136,473,24322.74262,2424.22
Post and Telegraph working-expenses2,588,3599.222,448,6888.60139,671*5.40*
Judicial and legal630,2332.24643,7162.2613,4832.14
Defence (including naval)579,7332.06718,9672.52139,23424.02
Education2,530,4299.022,652,2999.32121,8704.82
Other expenditure3,395,91012.102,757,3859.69638,525*18.80*
            Totals28,068,730100.0028,466,838100.00398,1081.42

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE.

Included in the figures dealt with under the head of “Public Works Fund” is the Public Works Fund properly so called, and the separate subsidiary accounts relating to the Railways Improvement Authorization Act, 1914, Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement, and electric supply. The receipts consist mainly of the proceeds of loans raised for the construction of public works. From time to time the fund has been aided by substantial transfers of surplus revenue from the Consolidated Fund Account. The receipts for the last ten years are shown in the next table.

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Amounts received.Recoveries on account of Expenditure of Previous Years.Receipts from Other Sources.Total Receipts.
From Loans.Transfers from Consolidated Fund.Receipts from Sales of Electric Energy.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
19132,420,685750,000..     9,751120,2933,300,729
19142,763,884675,000..     9,05130,8163,478,751
19151,857,742350,000..     13,4553,2942,224,491
19163,166,830..     ..     6,46013,8643,187,154
19171,095,000..     ..     5,7125,1251,105,837
19181,025,100..     16,41543,4926,1881,091,195
19191,180,000..     35,06320,1765,4411,240,680
19202,082,000..     42,761112,8645,7642,243,389
19214,433,000500,00052,89619,6276,6335,012,156
19229,639,682..     64,70011,616153,2349,792,916

The principal regular item under the heading of “Receipts from Other Sources” is receipts under sections 17 and 18 of the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 1910, which includes payments from the Consolidated Fund, payments from gold-mining companies, and an allotment from gold duty in fixed proportions but varying amounts, together with interest on securities. Another standing item covers receipts in connection with the Ellesmere and Forsyth reclamation; and, commencing with 1917–18, there have been miscellaneous receipts (other than from sales) under section 8 of the State Supply of Electrical Energy Act, 1917. Included in the figures for 1912–13 is the sum of £25,000, which was formerly held in the Deposit Account, for the purchase of permanent-way material; also £86,970, receipts under section 16 of the Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act, 1912. This column for 1913–14 includes a further amount of £21,890, receipts under the Act mentioned. Included in the amount of £153,234 shown for 1921–22 is the sum of £68,416, representing interest on investments of the Electric Supply Account.

In addition to the amounts shown above, the sum of £8,030,000 was transferred during the years 1891–92 to 1911–12 from the Consolidated Fund Account to the Public Works Fund. The next table shows the expenditure at intervals of five years from 1884–85 to 1909–10 and for each of the last ten financial years upon services which are charged to the fund. As will be seen further on, the whole of what may be termed public works are not included in this account.

EXPENDITURE ON SERVICES PROVIDED FOR BY THE PUBLIC WORKS FUND.
Year ended 31st March.Immigration.Railways.Roads.Development of Mining.Telegraph Extension.Public Buildings.Lighthouses, &c.Other Services.Total.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
188557,148663,063317,0438,02925,799117,36134,033114,2511,336,727
1890867289,57284,12628416,34635,4739,43446,362482,464
1895101247,545164,8335,86519,22954,1903,1459,578504,486
1900385417,937285,53221,81526,771115,4279,026116,330993,223
19056,482811,994230,0126,25879,298116,6785,99097,4461,354,158
191017,0021,279,807367,23018,598123,422276,94916,683116,7062,216,397
191314,6941,179,554376,07810,644251,375445,14216,785254,6462,548,918
191438,9141,144,756382,0974,889392,648369,6009,059423,8352,760,798
191533,2191,156,073514,7982,384288,395417,00017,131308,3642,737,364
191610,0101,205,287424,6376,602249,554335,77413,673337,6752,583,212
19176,533846,983219,7944,592203,311251,4313,768239,1011,775,513
19183,856607,931135,64227213,955229,2882,976208,1621,401,837
1919Cr. 12,018467,737226,073518198,611235,8465,392265,5021,387,661
1920Cr. 62,561842,082388,5621,173249,379469,1953,498341,4852,232,815
1921Cr. 7,8061,428,982538,5742,153336,468502,2114,838852,8203,658,240
1922247,5103,265,879564,1592,130579,899361,10818,7741,336,1776,875,636

The receipts and expenditure of the fund during the financial year ended 31st March, 1922, were as under:—

PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—RECEIPTS, 1921–22.
 £     £     
Balance, 1st April, 1921 1,603,979
Consolidated stock under Finance Act, 19212,250,000 
Inscribed stock issued under Finance Act, 1921173,112 
Debentures issued under Finance Act, 1921250,000 
Debentures issued under Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 19211,963,550 
Inscribed stock issued under Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act, 1921191,740 
Debentures issued under Finance Act, 1920560,000 
Consolidated stock issued under Railways Improvement Authorization Act, 19141,000,000 
Inscribed stock issued under Railways Improvement Authorization Act, 191476,938 
Debentures issued under Railways Improvement Authorization Act, 19141,029,200 
Debentures issued under Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 1910, and Finance Act, 191948,000 
Consolidated stock under Finance Act, 1920750,000 
Inscribed stock issued under Finance Act, 192057,704 
Consolidated stock under Electric-power Works Loan Act, 19191,000,000 
Inscribed stock issued under Electric-power Works Loan Act, 191976,938 
Deed executed as security for payment of purchase-money, Horahora Electric-power Works212,500 
  9,639,682
Recoveries on account of expenditure of previous years11,616 
Receipts in connection with Ellesmere and Forsyth Reclamation and Akaroa Railway Trust Account1,583 
Sales of electric energy64,700 
Miscellaneous receipts under the State Supply of Electrical Energy Act, 19172,084 
Interest on securities held by Investment Account under the State Supply of Electrical Energy Act, 191768,417 
Receipts under the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act, 19104,834 
  153,234
                    Total..     £11,396,895
PUBLIC WORKS FUND.—EXPENDITURE, 1921–22.
 £     £     
Public works, departmental128,283 
Railways3,265,879 
Public buildings—
        General87,057 
        Courthouses4,358 
        Prisons41,740 
        Police-stations22,544 
        Postal and Telegraph112,906 
        Agricultural1,115 
        Mental hospitals41,838 
        Hospitals and charitable institutions30,713 
        School buildings2,469 
        Timber-supply, sawmills, &c.16,369 
Lighthouses16,351 
Harbour-works2,424 
Tourist and health resorts17,996 
Immigration247,510 
Roads, &c.552,895 
Roads on goldfields11,264 
Development of mining2,130 
Telegraph extension579,899 
Contingent defence15,586 
Improved-farm settlementCr. 16 
Lands, miscellaneous17,478 
Irrigation and water-supply82,713 
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement64,291 
Development of water-power1,006,116 
Plant, material, and stores106,432 
Services not provided for11,434 
Charges of raising loans385,862 
  6,875,636
        Balance, 31st March, 1922 4,521,259
                    Total..     £11,396,895

The expenditure on roads out of the Public Works Fund does not comprise all of the moneys spent under that head by the General Government. Between 1896–97 and 1910–11 the sum of £469,236 was expended on construction of roads to open up Crown lands out of the moneys raised for loans to local bodies, and further sums have been spent from time to time for this purpose and for the opening-up of national-endowment lands out of the Land for Settlements and National Endowment Accounts respectively. Since 1910–11 this further expenditure, including £6,787 out of the National Endowment Account in 1916–17, has amounted to £616,501, the amount for the last financial year being £51,471.

The roading of lands purchased for closer settlement is made a charge upon the Land for Settlements Account, and is included in the value upon which the rentals of those lands are based. The reclamation by drainage and opening up by means of roads of an area of the Hauraki Plains is provided for out of moneys borrowed for that purpose and shown in a separate account.

SEPARATE SUBSIDIARY ACCOUNTS OR FUNDS.

The accounts included under this heading in some cases comprise revenue of different kinds mixed up with loan-money, while others are merely records of transactions which of their nature cannot be considered as properly belonging to the Public Account. Among the former may be counted the State Forests and State Coalmines Accounts, and among the latter the accounts of local bodies, which consist of revenue collected on behalf of and paid over to local authorities, and the Deposit Accounts, consisting partly of moneys held in trust and partly of moneys held in suspense for various reasons. As further indicating the function of these special accounts one or two of more recent creation may be mentioned: the War Expenses Account, which was called into existence by the war; the Waimarino Bush-fire Relief Account, which was created in 1918 for the purpose of providing funds for the relief of settlers who suffered loss through the disastrous bush-fires in the vicinity of Raetihi; the Education Loans Account, originated in 1919 for the purpose of raising money for acquisition of land and construction of buildings for educational purposes; and the Fishing Industry Promotion Account of the same year, making provision for assistance to the fishing industry by means of advances not exceeding £5,000.

While in some instances transactions in the accounts have been on a fairly large scale, yet from the nature of the subject it will readily be seen that most of the receipts and expenditure have been directly concerned with the special matters which were the objects of the creation of the separate funds. In the two tables following a summary is given of the receipts and expenditure of each separate account, together with the balances at the beginning and end of the financial year respectively. In order that the summary may the more completely indicate the main transactions of the whole of the public moneys, the main totals of the Consolidated and Public Works Funds, which have been treated earlier in this section, have also been included.

RECEIPTS OF SEPARATE ACCOUNTS.

Receipts classified according to the source of revenue are shown in the table immediately following. Included in “Other Sources” are transfers and advances from the surplus of the Consolidated Fund.

SEPARATE ACCOUNTS.—BALANCE AT 1ST APRIL, 1921, AND RECEIPTS DURING YEAR 1921–22.
Account.Balance, 1st April, 1921.Receipts fromTotal.
Loans.Rents, Interests, and Repayments.Other Sources.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Consolidated Fund (proper)8,591,209..     ..     28,127,00736,718,216
State Forests9,53786,78030,836..     127,153
State Coal-mines48,293..     837273,576322,706
Scenery Preservation2,90160,0002,330..     65,231
Nauru and Ocean Islands28,172..     21,612116,964166,748
Local Bodies'7,879..     70829,76838,355
Deposits2,095,541..     ..     3,596,8065,692,347
Public Works (proper)489,4894,251,280..     1,150,3205,891,089
Railways Improvement7,2062,106,139..     ..     2,113,345
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement27,75148,000..     4,83480,585
Electric Supply1,079,5332,097,14268,41766,7843,311,876
Cheviot Estate160,712..     6,33316,194183,239
Land for Settlements373,75617,000412,610138,795942,161
Land for Settlements (Discharged Soldiers Settlement)173,146175,00077,4691,375426,990
Native Land Settlement90,693125,00028,271128,998372,962
Land for Settlements (Opening up Crown Lands)18,035..     ..     42,44360,478
Conversion6,267..     ..     ..     6,267
Waimarino Bush-fire Relief41,479..     3,233..     44,712
War Expenses3,424,283707,260..     507,0584,638,601
Westport Harbour..     ..     1,737135,415137,152
Hauraki Plains Settlement9,378122,0007,8476,508145,733
National Endowment102,481..     107,035..     209,516
Workers' Dwellings52,100..     ..     ..     52,100
Mining Advances1,69613,200398..     15,294
Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings..     82583..     908
Fishing Industry Promotion964,085784..     4,965
Education Loans55,429517,580..     ..     573,009
National Endowment Trust10..     ..     7787
Housing..     142,000912116,570259,482
Bank of New Zealand875,000..     ..     ..     875,000
Reserve Fund2,000,000..     ..     ..     2,000,000
New Zealand Consols475,992..     ..     ..     475,992
Kauri-gum Industry7,41822,0008722,99352,498
Loans Redemption125157,834..     ..     157,959
Rangitaiki Land Drainage4,82280,000..     10,94395,765
Fruit-preserving Industry2,382..     4,9045,81913,105
Discharged Soldiers Settlement3,478,454538,3761,221,1705,1215,243,121
Discharged Soldiers Settlement Loans Act 1920 Depreciation Fund50,000..     1,77550,000101,775
Swamp Land Drainage29,05795,000..     ..     124,057
Cold-storage Advances22,819..     19,147..     41,966
Hunter Soldiers' Assistance Trust..     ..     183..     183
Advances to other Governments..     ..     ..     146,551146,551
Silver and Bronze Coin17,405..     ..     ..     17,405
                    Totals23,860,54611,366,5012,018,71834,700,91971,946,684

EXPENDITURE OF SEPARATE ACCOUNTS.

The table next presented shows the expenditure from each separate account. The balance at the end of the financial year is also given, the amount held in cash and in investments being distinguished.

SEPARATE ACCOUNTS.—EXPENDITURE DURING YEAR 1921–22, AND BALANCE AS AT 31ST MARCH, 1922.
Account.Expenditure.Balance, 31st March, 1922.Total.
Recoupment of Interest to the Consolidated Fund.Other Directions.In Cash.In Investments.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Consolidated Fund (proper)..     29,186,8495,172,1842,359,18336,718,216
State Forests10,185107,5919,377..     127,153
State Coal-mines9,177258,33835,19120,000322,706
Scenery Preservation3,87558,2433,113..     65,231
Nauru and Ocean Islands30,000111,86424,884..     166,748
Local Bodies..     28,7309,625..     38,355
Deposits..     4,698,261205,476788,6105,692,347
Public Works (proper)..     5,461,407429,682..     5,891,089
Railways Improvement..     209,18078,1651,826,0002,113,345
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement9,91254,37916,294..     80,585
Electric Supply171,952968,80766,6572,104,4603,311,876
Cheviot Estate9,357423,700170,140183,239
Land for Settlements391,524167,49966,738316,400942,161
Land for Settlements (Discharged Soldiers Settlement)136,394279,69310,903..     426,990
Native Land Settlement114,589217,92740,446..     372,962
Land for Settlements (Opening up Crown Lands)8,96551,47142..     60,478
Conversion..     1496,118..     6,267
Waimarino Bush-fire Relief3,1452,0492,51837,00044,712
War Expenses..     928,162212,4383,498,0014,638,601
Westport Harbour83,67747,9655,510..     137,152
Hauraki Plains Settlement11,821125,5648,348..     145,733
National Endowment..     112,05125,46572,000209,516
Workers' Dwellings..     ..     ..     52,10052,100
Mining Advances2,09113,073130..     15,294
Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings178178552..     908
Fishing Industry Promotion1303,5461,289..     4,965
Education Loans..     563,4119,598..     573,009
National Endowment Trust..     ..     87..     87
Housing15,592228,54415,346..     259,482
Bank of New Zealand..     ..     ..     875,000875,000
Reserve Fund..     ..     ..     2,000,0002,000,000
New Zealand Consols..     ..     7475,985475,992
Kauri-gum Industry1,20849,3451,945..     52,498
Loans Redemption..     ..     5,509152,450157,959
Rangitaiki Land Drainage12,59980,7962,370..     95,765
Fruit-preserving Industry10,2881,5881,229..     13,105
Discharged Soldiers Settlement336,9254,073,441170,285662,4705,243,121
Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act 1920 Depreciation Fund..     ..     1,775100,000101,775
Swamp Land Drainage13,78092,05518,222..     124,057
Cold-storage Advances5,0643693,84332,69041,966
Hunter Soldiers' Assistance Trust..     ..     183..     183
Advances to other Governments..     136,54510,006..     146,551
Silver and Bronze Coin..     19,930Cr. 2,525..     17,405
                    Totals1,392,42848,339,0426,672,72515,542,48971,946,684

Summarizing the foregoing the position may be given thus:—

Receipts.£     
Balance, 1st April, 192123,860,546
From loans11,366,501
From rents, interest, and repayment of advances2,018,718
Other sources34,700,919
                    Total£71,946,684
Expenditure.£     
Recoupment of interest to the Consolidated Fund1,392,428
In other directions48,339,042
Balance, 31st March, 1922— 
    Cash£6,672,725 
    Investments15,542,489 
  22,215,214
Total..     £71,946,684

It will be understood that in adding together the figures of the various accounts a certain amount of money is counted twice, as for instance money transferred from the Consolidated Fund to the Public Works Fund and expended out of the latter.

The State Advances Account, which is administered directly by the Advances Board, is not included in the above statement, and only the balances of the Loans Redemption Account have been utilized. In addition there are the funds of the Government Life Insurance Department, the State Fire Insurance Department, and the Public Trust Office, which are administered by the Departments concerned. Reference to the working of these Departments will be found elsewhere in this book.

SUBSECTION B.—TAXATION.

TOTAL TAXATION.

ALL revenue collected by means of taxation is applied to general purposes. Customs duties on imported goods, and excise duties on beer and tobacco, constitute the indirect taxation; while land and income taxes, death duties, a tax on bank-note issues, duties on cheques and on receipts for payments, a tax on totalizator investments, and an amusements-tax are the main sources of revenue by direct taxation.

Particulars of the collections during the last ten years, under the main headings, are shown in the following table:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount of Taxation derived fromTotal.
Customs and Excise Duties.Land-tax.Income-tax.Death Duties.Other Taxes.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
19133,531,761728,636462,994458,265425,1735,606,829
19143,553,785767,451554,271613,751428,7765,918,034
19153,294,943799,641540,318796,232449,6775,880,811
19163,524,0631,048,3561,392,119610.350692,0787,266,966
19174,037,628713,1184,262,126570,040966,74210,549,654
19183,601,3831,385,7085,619,561805,511928,69012,340,853
19194,104,0161,512,6936,219,336869,3711,096,22713,801,643
19205,185,7281,557,9036,369,765978,0952,160,27816,251,769
19218,769,2511,688,9798,248,9451,106,9252,370,31422,184,414
19225,554,3341,637,8166,002,9871,512,7541,662,62516,370,516

The percentage under each heading to the total amount collected for each year is as under:—

Year ended 31st March.Proportion per Cent. derived from
Customs and Excise Duties.Land-tax.Income-tax.Death Duties.Other Direct Taxes.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
191362.9913.008.268.177.58
191460.0512.979.3710.377.24
191556.0313.609.1913.547.64
191648.4914.4319.168.409.52
191738.276.7640.405.409.17
191829.1811.2345.546.537.52
191929.7410.9645.066.307.94
192031.919.5939.196.0213.29
192139.537.6137.184.9910.69
192233.9310.0036.679.2410.16

Some remarkable alterations in percentages are noticed during the last few years, these being due to war and post-war conditions and to consequential alterations in the relative incidence of taxation.

TAXATION PER HEAD.

The revenue from taxation per head of mean population during the last ten years is shown in the next table.

Year ended 31st March.Including Maoris.Excluding Maoris.
 £ s.d.£ s.d.
1913523572
19145525100
1915529575
19166646121
191793791111
1918101411139
1919111711278
1920131111429
1921171441890
1922121481357

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION.

During the year ended 31st March, 1922, the sum of £5,095,436 was collected, after deduction of drawbacks, for duty on imported goods, and £458,898 for excise duties, a total of £5,554,334. The amount of revenue derived from these sources for each of the last ten years is shown below.

Year ended 31st March.Customs Duties.Excise Duties.Total.
 £     £     £     
19133,407,538124,2233,531,761
19143,426,744127,0413,553,785
19153,167,283127,6603,294,943
19163,366,171157,8923,524,063
19173,849,675187,9534,037,628
19183,364,308237,0753,601,383
19193,830,682273,3344,014,016
19204,787,483397,9055,185,388
19218,408,726360,5258,769,251
19225,095,436458,8985,554,334

The revenue from Customs and excise duties in 1911–12 was £3,398,143, and the increase for the ten years is therefore over 60 per cent. In the ten calendar years corresponding to the above period the value of imports (excluding specie) increased from £18,782,608 to £42,744,122, or approximately 127 per cent. The outstanding feature in regard to the figures for the year ended 31st March, 1922, is the very marked decrease of close on three and one-third million pounds in the Customs duty as compared with the previous year. This decrease, however, still leaves the total amount of such duty collected in the last financial year substantially in excess of any previous year, if the exception of the year already referred to is made. The abnormally high Customs revenue collected in 1920–21 was the direct outcome of the large importations resulting from the fulfilment of delayed orders of a very considerable quantity and value.

Generally speaking, in spite of slight increases in Customs and excise duties as part of the war taxation, the average rate of duty has not increased greatly during the ten years. The increase in the total duties collected is thus almost entirely due to the increased prosperity of the country as reflected by its trade.

For a fuller discussion of Customs taxation than can be given here the reader is referred to the section of this book dealing with “External Trade.”

LAND AND INCOME TAX.

Except in regard to minor details, the system of land and income taxation in force in 1915 had remained unaltered for many years. Probably the only noteworthy point was the gradual hardening-up of the graduated land-tax, designed to prevent aggregation of land and to compel the cutting-up of large estates rather than to secure additional revenue.

The war taxation of 1915, however, not only included increased rates of 33 per cent. in the case of income-tax, ¼d. in the pound in the case of land-tax payable on mortgages, and 50 per cent. in the case of graduated land-tax, but also involved an important change of principle. Among the incomes formerly exempt from income-tax were those derived directly from land, but income-tax is now payable on such incomes, including those derived from mortgages of land. In the case of mortgages, however, the income-tax is reduced by such amount as has been paid for land-tax, provided such amount does not exceed the total amount of income-tax.

With the exception of the abolition of the land-tax on mortgages and the substitution of an income-tax in its place, the principles of land-tax assessment were not altered in 1916, were the rates increased, but an entirely new scheme known as the excess-profits tax was brought into operation in respect of income-tax, the 1915 system remaining also, with increased rates, for ordinary income-tax. The excess-profits tax being found inequitable and otherwise unsatisfactory, a system of progressive land and income tax, with a special war-tax on incomes, was adopted in 1917.

In 1920 a complete revision of the rates of taxation was made. The new rates, which are referred to in detail below, became effective on assessments for the year commencing on the 1st April, 1921, and for following years. A feature of the new legislation was the introduction of a deduction from the amount of tax payable of 10 per cent. in respect of tax assessed on “earned income.”

LAND-TAX.

Land-tax is assessed on the unimproved value of land after deductions provided for by statute have been made by way of special exemption. These exemptions are referred to hereunder.

The basis of taxation prior to 1917 was a double system of ordinary and graduated tax. For some years the ordinary rate had been 1d. for each pound of unimproved value, while the graduated tax ranged at a varying rate from d. to d. in the pound, according as to whether the value of the land was from £5,000 to £200,000 or more. This system of taxation was abolished in 1917, and in its place was instituted a single progressive tax.

As the amended law operated for the four financial years 1917–18 to 1920–21, the scale of taxation ranged from 1d. to 7d. in the pound. The 1d. rate applied in cases where the unimproved value on which tax was payable did not exceed £1,000, and the rate was increased by of a penny for every pound in excess of £1,000 up to a maximum of 7d. These rates, however, proved to be merely nominal, as for the four years concerned a super-tax of 50 per cent. virtually increased the rates from a minimum of 1½d. to a maximum of 10½d. in the pound. A further 50-per cent. increase on the total amount assessed is imposed in the case of absentees, including shareholders in companies, but not in the case of companies themselves.

Further alteration in the rate of land-tax was made by the Legislature in 1920, and became effective for assessments after the 1st April, 1921. The scale of taxation of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,000 remains as before at the rate of a penny in the pound, but the rate thereafter is increased by of a penny every pound in excess of £1,000 up to a maximum of 7½d. For the year 1921–22 the rate of super-tax was reduced to 33 per cent., and on the whole of the land-tax a rebate of 10 per cent. was allowed for prompt payment. The super-tax is continued for the year 1922–23 at the rate of 10 per cent. only, without any rebate.

After the 1st April, 1921, it is provided that in the case of unimproved land on which there are not improvements either to the value of £1 per acre or equal to one-third of the unimproved value the rate of land-tax shall be 50 per cent. more than the rate fixed by the annual taxing Act for other land.

The special exemptions deductible from the unimproved value for the purpose of arriving at the assessable amount have not recently been materially altered. Under

the law as it has operated since the 1st April, 1917, an owner of land the unimproved value of which does not exceed £1,000 is allowed an exemption of £500, and where the unimproved value lies between £1,500 and £2,500 there is a similar exemption, diminished, however, by £1 for every £2 over the £1,500 mark, so that no exemption is allowed when £2,500 is reached. Where the land is subject to a registered mortgage an alternative scale is provided. Up to the 1st April, 1921 this was on the basis of £1,500 in cases where the unimproved value did not exceed £3,000, and the amount was diminished by £1 for every £2 above £3,000 where the unimproved value lies between £3,000 and £6,000. For assessments after that date, however, the law provides for an alternative exemption of £4,000 in cases where the unimproved value does not exceed £6,000, and the exemption of £4,000 is to be diminished by £2 for every £1 above the margin of £6,000. When the unimproved value lies between £6,000 and £8,000, where the capital value of the mortgage is less than the amount of deduction provided, such capital value is to be deducted instead. After the 1st April, 1923, all special exemptions at present provided for are, in cases where the taxpayer has owned the land for three years or more, to be abolished.

In lieu of the special exemptions set out above, the Commissioner of Taxes has discretionary powers to grant relief in certain specified cases of hardship. Subject to deductions provided, lessees and life tenants are liable to tax, and joint owners are to be assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and also severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and any other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if half of the paid-up capital of one company is held by shareholders who also hold half of the paid-up capital in another company.

The total number of land-tax payers and the amount of revenue during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

LAND-TAX.—NUMBER OF PAYERS AND REVENUE RECEIVED.
Year ended 31st March.Number of Payers.Revenue.
  £     
191338,232728,636
191440,889767,451
191544,270799,641
191645,4091,048,356
191735,859713,118
191851,2751,385,708
191953,4841,512,693
192053,8071,557,903
192154,3631,688,978
192254,7151,637,816

The fall in the amount of land-tax in 1916–17 was due to the alteration in system referred to above, whereby income derived from mortgages of land now bears income-tax instead of land-tax as formerly. Increases since that date are due principally to the increased value of land in districts revised under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1908.

INCOME-TAX.

Income-tax is payable on the full incomes of registered companies and of absentees, and in other cases on incomes in excess of £300 per annum. Between £600 and £900 the exemption is reduced by £1 for every £1 above £600, and no exemption at all is allowed for incomes above £900. Certain specified incomes are wholly exempt from taxation, and a further £50 is deductible from assessable income for each child under eighteen years of age. Prior to 1920 this deduction was £25, and the age-limit was sixteen years. Sundry other deductions are also provided for, of which that most generally applicable is a maximum exemption of 15 per cent. allowed for life-insurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions.

For the four financial years 1917–18 to 1920–21 the rates of progressive income-tax ranged from 6d. to 3s. in the case of persons and firms, and from 1s. to 3s. for companies. The 6d. rate for persons and firms applied where the taxable income was not more than £400, and the 1s. rate for companies where the taxable income did not exceed £1,600, the rates being increased by of a penny for every additional pound until the maximum tax of 3s. in the pound was reached. Income derived by holders of company debentures from such debentures bore a uniform tax of 1s., plus a special war-tax of 1s. 6d.

The special war-tax also applied to assessable income in excess of £300 of all other income-tax payers. For incomes up to £400 the rate of special war-tax was 9d. in the pound, and this was increased by of a penny for every additional pound of income, but so as not to exceed 4s. 6d. in the pound. The maximum total rate of income-tax was thus 7s. 6d. in the pound.

New rates of income-tax were, however, enacted in 1920, which affect all assessments made after the 1st April, 1921. A flat rate of 3s. in the pound is levied on income derived from company debentures, and of 2s. 6d. in the pound on income from debentures issued by local bodies in the Dominion. This distinction has been made to enable local authorities to more easily raise loan-moneys which they may require from time to time.

On the income of persons and firms the rate is 1s. in the pound up to a £400 limit of income, and between £400 and £6,000 the tax is increased by of a penny for each pound of income in excess of £400. On incomes exceeding £6,000 the rate is 5s. 8d. in the pound, increased by of a penny for each pound in excess of £6,000, with a maximum tax of 7s. 4d. in the pound. In addition to these rates a super-tax of 20 per cent. was levied in 1921–22, and the whole of the income-tax was made subject to a rebate of 5 per cent. for prompt payment. Both super-tax and rebate have now been discontinued.

A new principle of taxation was introduced in the 1920 Act with regard to “earned income,” which is defined to mean the salary or wages (including bonuses) received by the taxpayer in relation to his employment, and further includes all income derived by a taxpayer (other than a company or local body) by reason of his personal exertions. The tax on such income is, up to a limit of £2,000, subject to a reduction of 10 per cent.

The powers of the Commissioner with regard to land-tax in the case of companies consisting of substantially the same shareholders now apply equally to income-tax.

The following table shows the number of income-tax payers and the revenue received for each of the last ten years:—

INCOME-TAX.—NUMBER OF PAYERS AND REVENUE RECEIVED.
Year ended 31st March.Number of Payers.Revenue.
  £     
191313,167462,994
191414,277554,271
191513,967540,318
191620,0721,392,119
191730,2304,262,125
191837,9495,619,561
191943,2806,219,336
192044,0846,369,765
192144,5978,248,945
192237,8136,002,987

The very striking increases of recent years in this source of taxation are due mainly to the large growth in both number and incomes of taxpayers brought about by the increased value of business, particularly during the year ended 31st March, 1920, on which the taxation for 1921 is based, and in part to the investigation work and closer inspection by the Land and Income Tax Department of taxpayers' returns.

A classification of income-tax payers yields some interesting results. The figures which are available for the financial years 1917–18 and 1920–21 are presented in the next table. It should be noted, however, that the amount of tax assessed does not agree with the actual revenue, by reason of the fact that the latter includes payments on account of arrears due from earlier years.

CLASSIFICATION OF INCOME-TAX PAYERS.
Taxpayer.1917–18.1920–21.
Number of Payers.Tax assessed.Number of Payers.Tax assessed.
Amount.Per Cent.Amount.Per Cent.
  £       £      
Companies1,9453,107,19654.172,3174,970,64761.86
Traders and manufacturers7,637495,9768.6310,466997,81212.42
Non-resident traders24529,4430.5163749,4070.62
Professional persons2,537134,5822.342,129172,6692.14
Salaried persons8,070116,0652.017,283219,3772.73
Landowners12,5481,480,77525.7811,648779,0469.69
Deceased persons' estates and other trusts2,211209,6743.642,742246,3423.06
Miscellaneous (income from investments, &c.)2,756168,8702.927,375598,9817.48
                    Totals37,9495,742,581100.0044,5978,034,281100.00

DEATH DUTIES.

The law dealing with these classes of duty is embodied in the Death Duties Act, 1921, which is principally a consolidation of enactments previously in force. The main heads of taxation are estate and succession duties, which are generally referred to by the collective title of “death duties.” In addition to these there is provision for a gift duty and a Native succession duty. The incidence of each is dealt with further on in this subsection. Estate and succession duties are due and payable to the Commissioner of Stamp Duties within six months after the death of the deceased, gift duties at the time the gift is made, and Native succession duties before the registration of the succession order by the Native Land Court. Generally the decision of the Commissioner of Stamp Duties in regard to matters of fact incidental to the assessment of duty is final, but there is an appeal on points of law by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court.

The net revenue received from death duties, including gift and Native succession duties, during each of the last ten years was,—

Year ended 31st March.Amount.
 £     
1913458,265
1914613,751
1915796,232
1916610,350
1917570,040
1918805,511
1919869,371
1920978,095
19211,106,925
19221,504,532

ESTATE DUTY.

An estate duty is levied upon the final balance of all property in excess of the value of £1,000 which is situated in New Zealand at the time of the death of the owner. In the case of any estate the final balance of which does not exceed £10,000, any interest acquired by the wife of the deceased up to the value of £5.000 is exempt from estate duty, but the rate of duty on the whole estate must be determined before the deduction is made.

Up to 1920 duty was leviable on property in excess of £500, and the scale of duties ranged from 1 per cent. in cases where the net estate was between £500 and £1,000 to a maximum of 15 per cent. for large estates. The amendment made to the scale in 1920 considerably increased the duty payable, and the rates, which are now embodied in the Act of 1921, run from 1 per cent. on estates not exceeding £2,000 in value to 20 per cent. on estates of more than £100,000. The scale of duties is shown in the table on the next page.

SCALE OF ESTATE DUTY.
Final Balance of Estate.Rate per Cent.
      ££     ..     
  1,000 to2,0001
  2,000 to3,0002
  3,000 to4,0003
  4,000 to6,0004
  6,000 to8,0005
  8,000 to10,0006
10,000 to15,0007
15,000 to20,0008
20,000 to25,0009
25,000 to30,00010
30,000 to35,00011
35,000 to40,00012
40,000 to45,00013
45,000 to50,00014
50,000 to60,00015
60,000 to70,00016
70,000 to80,00017
80,000 to90,00018
90,000 to100,00019
100,000 andover20

SUCCESSION DUTY.

In addition to the estate duty referred to above, a succession duty is payable by any person who acquires a beneficial interest in the estate of a deceased person either by will or by intestacy. An exemption from duty is made in favour of charitable trusts, and special provision is made that the wife, lineal descendant, or lineal ancestor of a soldier who has met his death on account of the late war is allowed an additional £5,000 exemption to the amounts shown below.

The rates of duty vary according to the nearness of kin of the beneficiary to the deceased person. The rates shown below were introduced in amending legislation in 1920, and, as in the case of the estate duties, are embodied in the 1921 consolidating Act.

SCALE OF SUCCESSION DUTY.
If Successor isValue of Estate.Rate per Cent.
 £      
WifeUp to 10,000Nil.
10,000 to 20,0002
Over 20,0004
HusbandUp to 500Nil.
500 to 1,5001
1,500 to 2,5002
Over 2,5003
Brother or SisterUp to 500Nil.
500 to 20,0005
Over 20,00010
Child or lineal descendantUp to 1,000Nil.
1,000 to 5,0001
5,000 to 10,0002
10,000 to 15,0003
15,000 to 20,000
Over 20,004
Other relative to 4th degreeUp to 500Nil.
500 to 10,0005
Over 10,00010
Other personUp to 500Nil.
500 to 20,00010
Over 20,00020

In respect to moneys exceeding £1,000 that may be payable to persons domiciled out of New Zealand, and where the beneficiary is not the husband or wife of the deceased or a relative of the deceased within the third degree of consanguinity, there is an additional rate equal to 10 per cent. of the excess over £1,000.

NATIVE SUCCESSION DUTY.

Where any succession order is made by the Native Land Court on the death of a Native, no death duty in the ordinary way is payable on the property included in it, but a Native succession duty of 2 per cent. is payable on the value of the property, with a general exemption of £200.

GIFT DUTY.

A gift means any disposition of property which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without full and adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts made at the same time or within twelve months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary, otherwise than by way of a charitable trust, does not exceed the value of £1,000, and by the Finance Act, 1921–22, exemption from gift duty is provided in cases of the voluntary discharge of a mortgage debt where the donor and beneficiary are not connected by ties of blood or marriage. The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made are required to be furnished for assessment of duty within one month of the date of the gift, and in default an additional duty of 50 per cent. is payable. Where duty is payable, the rate is based on the following scale:—

Value of Gift.Rate of Duty.
£1,000 to £5,0005 per cent.
£5,000 to £10,0007½ ″
Over £10,00010 ″

These rates, which were introduced in 1920, superseded the flat rate then in force of 5 per cent. on all gifts exceeding £1,000 in value. The revenue from gift duty amounted to £69,441 for the financial year ended 31st March, 1922, the figures for the last six years being as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.£     
191732,671
191836,551
191931,736
192054,160
192174,885
192269,441

These amounts, it should be noted, are included under the revenue shown previously under the head of “Death Duties.”

TOTALIZATOR-TAX.

The Government tax on totalizator investments is 2½ per cent. of the gross amount passed through the machines. Prior to the 1st March, 1910, the percentage was 1½.

From the 1st November, 1915, a tax of 1 per cent. was imposed on the total value of all stakes, and a tax of 2½ per cent. on totalizator dividends, in addition to the tax on totalizator investments. From the 22nd December, 1921, the tax on stakes has been increased to 10 per cent., and that on dividends to 5 per cent.

The following table shows for each of the last ten years the number of totalizator licenses issued, the amount of investments by the public, and the amount paid to the Treasury as a percentage of such investments. The amounts shown as “Percentage paid to Treasury” represent the amounts paid in respect of the race meetings held during the year as shown, but do not in all cases coincide with the amount of totalizator revenue received during the financial year, for the reason that the percentage in respect of race meetings held late in March may not be paid to the Treasury until after the end of the financial year.

Financial Year.Number of Totalizator Licenses issued for Meetings held during Financial Year.Days.Percentage paid to Treasury.Total Amount invested by the Public.
   £     £     
1912–1314826586,0953,600,465
1913–1412623192,2603,690,390
1914–15141255110,7334,429,320
1915–16180285119,3794,775,120
1916–17171279127,3875,095,480
1917–18135205110,8454,433,816
1918–19134201122,1544,886,156
1919–20183302209,3458,373,787
1920–21185299262,75710,510,265
1921–22168275207,1118,284,446

In addition to the amount shown as percentage paid to the Treasury in 1921–22, the sum of £261,333 was received as dividend duty, £30,482 as tax on stakes, and £6,009 from gate-money, licenses, &c, giving a total revenue from all racing sources of £504,935.

The following figures, taken from successive annual reports of the Inspector of Totalizators and covering the four years during which the system of inspection has been in operation, relate not to the financial year but to the racing year, which ends on the 31st July:—

-Year ended 31st July.
1919.1920.1921.1922.
* Retained by the clubs, except for the period 1st July to 21st December, 1921, during which the unpaid fractions were payable into the Consolidated Fund.
Number of racing-days236284288286
Number of races1,8482,2352,2712,263
 £     £     £     £     
Amount of stakes383,070502,225610,675653,285
Totalizator investments5,732,4808,792,57010,121,2128,141,457
Amount paid in dividends5,002,7737,673,4048,834,2036,986,238
Government taxes—
    On totalizator investments143,312219,814253,030203,552
    On dividends129,001197,841227,688303,301
    On stakes3,8315,0226,10746,265
                Totals276,144422,677486,825553,118
7½ per cent. of totalizator investments retained by clubs429,936659,443759,091610,656
Unpaid fractions*7,45842,06847,20037,709

AMUSEMENTS-TAX.

A form of tax first introduced in 1917 is the amusements-tax, payable on payments for admission to entertainments. “Entertainment” is defined as “any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment.” No duty is payable where the charge for admission is not more than 9d., but on each shilling or part of a shilling in excess of that amount a tax of 1d. is imposed. In addition to the tax so calculated, a further sum of 1d. is payable where the price for admission exceeds 3s. 6d. These charges are operative from the 1st January, 1922, and are an increase in the rates which were in force from the initiation of the tax up to that date. Provision is made for exemption in certain specified cases—viz., shows promoted by agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, or poultry societies, meetings held for educational, scientific, patriotic, or philanthropic purposes, and swimming-sports.

Since the introduction of the tax the following amounts have been collected:—

Year ended 31st March.Amount collected.
 £     
191816,093
191939,845
192068,064
192179,921
1922107,383

LOCAL TAXATION.

Local governing authorities have power under various Acts of the Legislature to impose taxes for general or special purposes as set out in another section of this book. The amount of revenue collected for local purposes during ten years is shown below:—

Year ended 31st March.Local Revenue derived fromTotal.
General Rates.Special and Separate Rates.Licenses and other Taxes.
 £     £     £     £     
19121,156,718521,159113,1061,790,983
19131,252,717546,582169,4681,968,767
19141,359,776645,862181,8962,187,534
19151,484,430655,495185,5692,325,494
19161,607,764747,391187,0652,542,220
19171,695,572838,967185,6112,720,150
19181,791,028883,513192,4822,867,023
19192,028,151911,455199,3663,138,972
19202,106,3971,037,816245,0783,389,291
19212,338,5391,211,051264,3203,813,910

Of recent years there has been great activity in local enterprise, the necessary funds being provided partly out of general rates, but mainly by borrowing, interest on loans and payments to sinking funds being secured in most cases by special rates. The increase in the amount of general rates collected during the ten years 1910–11 to 1920–21 was £1,220,427, or 109 per cent.; special and separate rates increased by £736,562, or 155 per cent.; and total rates by £2,113,075, or 125 per cent. Licenses and other taxes show an increase for the ten years of £156,086, or 144 per cent.

A table is given setting out in greater detail the taxation by local authorities during the year ended the 31st March 1921.

REVENUE FROM LOCAL TAXATION, 1920–21.
Local Bodies.Rates.Licenses.Other Taxes.Total.
General.Special and Separate.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Counties1,252,809233,03326,04427,7581,529,644
Boroughs783,083884,99175,680124,6841,866,438
Town districts40,46326,3055,3422,69174,801
Road districts82,65515,07487190299,502
River districts17,5872,765..     ..     20,352
Land-drainage districts24,43010,856..     ..     35,286
Harbour districts85,617..     ..     ..     85,617
City and suburban drainage districts51,89541,518733993,759
Tramway districts..     1,800..     ..     1,800
Local railway district..     1,954..     ..     1,954
Water-supply districts..     1,204..     ..     1,204
Electric-power districts..     1,5512..     1,553
                    Totals2,338,5391,211,051107,946156,3743,813,910

The figures quoted above are exclusive of wharfage dues, charges, fees, and tolls received by Harbour Boards.

SUBSECTION C.—STATE INDEBTEDNESS.

INTRODUCTORY.

EARLY in the history of the settlement of New Zealand the necessity for financial assistance to open up the forest-clad rugged country was made apparent. In the year 1856 the first Loan Act was passed by the General Assembly, and under that authority £500,000 was raised. In addition to the requirements for necessary initial public works, the opposition to settlement by the Maoris, resulting in active hostilities, compelled considerable borrowing. At the conclusion of the Maori War the work of road and railway construction was mainly carried on under the administration of Provincial Councils, who exercised control over expenditure within their respective districts, the General Government being responsible for undertakings of a national character. Under this system of divided responsibility no general and comprehensive scheme of public works could be carried out.

Up to the end of the year 1870 the General Government had borrowed £4,543,316, while the debt of the Provincial Councils amounted to £3,298,575. In that year the General Government brought forward a public-works and immigration policy, by which it was proposed to raise a loan of ten millions for the construction of main trunk railways, roads, and other public works of importance to the country as a whole, as well as for the promotion of settlement on a large scale, the expenditure to be spread over a period of ten years. This policy was accepted by the Legislature, and embodied in the Immigration and Public Works Act, 1870. The necessity for local railways and other works soon caused the original proposals to be exceeded, and to a far greater amount than was at first contemplated. Broadly stated, the system of opening up the lands in advance of settlement was adopted, the State retaining the ownership and control of facilities for transport and communication.

In 1892 the General Government began the repurchase of lands already alienated. The money required for this purpose has been borrowed, but the rentals obtained by the leasing of the lands are sufficient for the payment of interest and sinking fund on the amount raised. In 1894 the Advances to Settlers Act was passed, authorizing the raising of loans for advances on the security of real estate. This was followed by the Advances to Workers Act in 1906. Provision was also made for local bodies borrowing from the Advances Office, including power to borrow for workers' dwellings. Both interest and sinking funds are derived from special revenues produced by rentals and charges, and are thus not a charge on the Consolidated Fund. Until early in the war period money raised for the use of the State Advances Office formed a comparatively large part of the public indebtedness, amounting at the 31st March, 1914, to approximately 30 per cent. of the total debt.

By far the most rapid increase in the national indebtedness, however, has taken place as a result of activities necessitated by the European War. Of the total gross debt of 219 millions of pounds at the 31st March, 1922, no less than 125 millions have been incurred since 1914, including 82 millions attributable to loan-money required for the European War; and this latter amount does not include 11 millions raised by the Government for the settlement of discharged soldiers.

HOW LOANS MAY BE RAISED.

The Minister of Finance may raise loans when authorized by Parliament so to do, by the issue of debentures, or scrip, or stock, in New Zealand or elsewhere at his discretion, and may prescribe the mode and conditions of repayment of loans, the rates of interest (not exceeding the maximum rate fixed by the authorizing Act), and the times and places of payment of principal and interest respectively. Power is given to convert debentures or scrip into consolidated stock, and the Minister may specify the terms of conversion at the time when a loan is raised, or arrange that terms shall be subsequently agreed upon. For the purpose of paying off or renewing at maturity any debenture, scrip, or other security, new debentures or other securities may be issued and disposed of if necessary. Authority also exists for the conversion of loan-money which has not yet matured.

During the war period provision was made for the issue to the public of “Post Office investment certificates” of a nominal value of £1 and upwards, and in 1920 legislation was enacted which sanctioned a continuous issue of these certificates, with a currency of five years or more. Receipts from this source are utilized for the purposes of any loan which may be authorized by Parliament.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of the Dominion. No portion of the public estate is pledged for payment of either principal or interest.

INDEBTEDNESS—GROSS, NET, AND PER HEAD.

The gross and net indebtedness of the General Government, the amount of sinking fund accrued, and the rate of indebtedness per head of population (exclusive of Maoris), for each of the last twenty years, are given in the following table:—

As at 31st March.Estimated or Census Population.Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Gross Indebtedness per Head of European Population.Amount of Sinking Fund accrued.Net Indebtedness.Net Indebtedness per Head of European Population.
  £     £ s.d.£     £     £ s.d.
1903814,84255,899,019681201,357,73954,541,28066188
1904838,95457,522,215681141,500,68756,021,52866156
1905864,97159,912,00069541,650,71858,261,2826772
1906889,96862,191,040691771,661,51960,529,5216803
1907913,87364,179,04070472,042,06862,136,972671910
1908937,58766,453,897701761,268,36165,185,53669106
1909968,31370,938,53473521,479,22469,459,31071148
1910987,48174,890,6457516101,503,22573,387,4207464
19111,008,46881,078,122807111,754,48679,323,63678132
19121,031,50084,353,913811572,160,60382,193,31079138
19131,061,74890,060,763841652,603,64287,457,1218275
19141,089,82799,730,427911023,063,99291,689,8358428
19151,100,586100,059,910901843,178,05596,644,45587163
19161,100,406109,637,397991283,679,964105,957,4339659
19171,101,166129,836,1051171824,263,590125,572,51511409
19181,104,783150,840,0551361084,971,605145,868,45013208
19191,128,630176,076,260156025,951,056170,125,204150149
19201,187,139201,170,755169927,257,564193,913,191163611
19211,218,913206,324,319169558,763,072197,561,22216217
19221,248,216219,054,38517591110,655,394208,241,121166167

Loan-money aggregating £4,976,000 raised at the end of 1913–14, £237,400 on the 30th March, 1915, £25 in 1920–21, and £157,870 in 1921–22, was for the redemption of debentures falling due early in the succeeding financial year in each case. These amounts are therefore included in the gross debt of the appropriate years, but not in the figures relating to net indebtedness.

NATURE OF PUBLIC-DEBT EXPENDITURE.

In considering the indebtedness of a country it is important to know whether the money borrowed has been utilized for productive or for unproductive purposes. New Zealand's public-debt expenditure is usually divided into four classes, as follows: (1) Directly reproductive undertakings; (2) investments; (3) indirectly productive public utilities; (4) unproductive.

Much of the money borrowed is obtained for specific purposes, and can be accurately placed in one or other of the four classes shown. On the other hand, however, general public-works loans are obtained to cover the cost of a number of undertakings ranging from railways (directly productive) to public buildings (unproductive). As the Public Works Fund receives from time to time transfers from the Consolidated Fund, and as no distinction is made between expenditure out of revenue and expenditure out of loan, it is necessary to allocate the loan-money over the various items according to the total expenditure on each. The result is accurate enough for practical purposes.

In considering the increase of the public debt, the position at the end of the financial year 1890–91 has been selected as the first basis of comparison, because that date marks the beginning of a period during which the functions of the State have been widely extended, most notably as regards financial assistance to settlers, workers, and local bodies, the repurchase of alienated lands, the working of coalmines, and the establishment of State fire- and accident-insurance offices. In every department these new activities, as well as the old, have been directly successful, while the indirect benefits are incapable of measurement. A considerable portion of the annual interest on the debt, although paid out of the Consolidated Fund, does not fall upon the whole of the taxpaying community, the revenue derived from several of the more important undertakings being sufficient to meet the interest on the money borrowed in respect of them.

The advent of the European War created a second point of demarcation in the history of the loan expenditure of the General Government, necessitating as it did the postponement of all public works, &c., except those of pressing necessity. Expenditure of an unproductive nature was necessarily continued during the progress of the war, and up to the end of the financial year 1919–20 may be fairly regarded as forming part of this period. Although in the years immediately following the period 1914–15 to 1919–20 considerable sums have been provided by loan-money for purposes directly arising out of the war—for example, discharged soldiers' settlement—yet the bulk of such money has been expended in undertakings in the nature of investments, and so should not be regarded as partaking of the nature of unproductive war expenditure.

ALLOCATION OF PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS

Up to the 31st March, 1891, loan expenditure had been chiefly concerned with railways and roads, the taking-over of the loan liabilities of the Provincial Governments on their abolition, and the Maori War. The following table presents the position as existing on the 31st March, 1891, allocated as far as possible over the various classes of expenditure referred to earlier:—

ALLOCATION OF GROSS PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS AS AT 31ST MARCH, 1891.
Directly reproductive.£     £     
Railways14,580,000 
Telegraphs and telephones769,000 
Lighthouses and harbours484,000 
  15,833,000
Investments.  
Purchase of Native lands1,546,000 
Loans to local bodies325,000 
  1,871,000
Indirectly productive.  
Roads and bridges; lands improvement5,106,000 
Development of mining571,000 
Immigration2,459,000 
  8,136,000
Unproductive.  
Public buildings1,800,000 
Maori War2,357,000 
Defence1,638,000 
Deficiencies in revenue, charges and expenses of raising loans, provincial liabilities, &c.7,195,350 
  12,990,350
                    Total £38,830,350

A summary of the gross public indebtedness, grouping the transactions according to whether they occurred prior to the 31st March, 1914, from 1914 to 1920, or from 1920 to the present time, is now given.

ALLOCATION OF GROSS PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS.
Class of Undertaking.Up to 31st March, 1914.From 31st March, 1914, to 31st March, 1920.From 31st March, 1920, to 31st March, 1922.Total Gross Indebtedness at 31st March, 1922.
*Decrease.
Directly reproductive.£     £     £     £     
Railways28,421,3044,579,2156,898,27939,898,798
Telegraphs and telephones2,208,8841,352,411963,8804,525,175
Lighthouses and harbours612,97140,913905,5111,559,395
Tourist and health resorts168,99520,90938,703228,607
State coal-mines225,0002,601..     227,601
State forests..     130,000156,775286,775
Water-power development and electric supply218,920243,3713,504,6523,966,943
Swamp drainage..     73,000150,000223,000
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers development100,00030,000136,000266,000
                Totals31,956,0746,472,42012,753,80051,182,294
Investments...     ..     ..     ..     
Advances to settlers8,677,325605,871..     9,283,196
Advances to workers2,536,927*117,580..     2,419,347
Advances to local authorities2,568,067207,461..     2,775,528
Mining advances15,00011,50023,20049,700
Kauri-gum industry advances..     53,00022,00075,000
Fruit-preserving industry advances..     69,610..     69,610
Cold-storage advances..     120,750..     120,750
Land for settlements7,230,0931,745,43027,0009,002,523
Discharged soldiers' settlement and lands for discharges soldiers' settlement..     11,120,000*1,784,2709,335,730
Native-land settlement929,6001,525,431350,0002,805,031
Opening up Crown lands251,911..     ..     251,911
Hauraki Plains settlement100,00085,000176,000361,000
Rangitaiki land drainage45,000205,000110,000360,000
Waimarino bush-fire relief..     75,000..     75,000
Purchase of Native lands2,715,217..     ..     2,715,217
Loans to local bodies3,507,000..     ..     3,507,000
Investments of New Zealand Consols475,992..     ..     475,992
Bank of New Zealand shares500,000375,000..     875,000
Reserve Fund securities800,000..     ..     800,000
Fishing-industry promotion..     ..     5,5755,575
Housing and employers' workers' dwellings..     ..     416,375416,375
Nauru and Ocean Islands..     ..     600,000600,000
Samoan loan..     ..     77,00077,000
                Totals30,352,13216,081,47322,88046,456,485
Indirectly productive...     ..     ..     ..     
Roads and bridges; lands improvement7,975,3341,783,1921,173,78611,136,982
Irrigation and water-supply..     59,672144,998
Development of mining896,99213,4794,478914,949
Immigration2,521,878*38,709256,6122,739,781
                Totals11,394,2041,817,6341,579,87414,791,712
Unproductive.£     £     £     £     
Public buildings6,443,5561,721,334899,4229,064,312
Scenery-preservation74,00020,00060,000154,000
Maori War2,357,000*400..     2,356,600
Defence (naval and contingent)3,720,01147,51625,5563,793,083
Great European War..     80,089,0251,754,51881,843,543
Education loans..     ..     787,580787,580
Deficiencies in revenue, charges and expenses of raising loans, provincial liabilities, &c.8,456,850167,926..     8,624,776
                    Totals21,051,41782,045,4013,527,076106,623,894
                    Grand totals94,753,827106,416,92817,883,630219,054,385

It will be noticed that there is included in the total indebtedness of £94,753,827 existing at the 31st March, 1914, the amount of £38,830,350 (less redemptions that may have taken place in the meantime) already referred to as existing on the 31st March, 1891. The increase between 1891 and 1914 is accordingly £55,923,477, spread over the following classes of undertakings, viz.: directly reproductive, £16,123,074; investments, £28,481,132; indirectly productive, £3,258,204; and unproductive, £8,061,067.

The increase of the gross public debt since the 31st March, 1891, amounts to £180,224,035. Excluding war expenditure, referred to later, the largest item in the increase is £9,283,196 raised for advances to settlers, with which should be classed advances to workers (£2,419,347), and to local authorities (£2,775,528). In addition to this latter amount, £3,507,000 was raised for loans to local bodies prior to the inauguration of the present system of making such loans through the State Advances Office. Of more recent growth is the expenditure on discharged soldiers' settlement (including lands for discharged soldiers' settlement), amounting to £9,335,730 on the 31st March, 1922. These items, as well as a number of smaller ones, represent investments by the Government bearing interest and lent on continually improving security, the principal being repaid by instalments. Other considerable items which may be considered as interest-bearing investments are those under the heads “Land for settlements,” “Native-land purchases,” “Lands improvement,” “New Zealand Consols,” “Bank of New Zealand shares,” and “Reserve Fund securities.” An item on which loan-money is being liberally expended is water-power development and electric supply. During the last two years the gross indebtedness on this account has totalled £3,504,652. Such expenditure is, as in the case of railways, regarded as directly reproductive.

EUROPEAN-WAR INDEBTEDNESS.

The tabulated statement given above reveals the phenomenal increase in the public debt on account of the European War. Although no precise date can be given to indicate the definite termination of war borrowing, yet for the purposes of this discussion it has been deemed advisable to delineate the war period as covering the six financial years from 1914–15 to 1919–20. At the conclusion of that quinquennium the rate of unproductive expenditure was very considerably reduced, and the moneys borrowed by the Government have since been directed to undertakings mainly in the nature of investments. The tremendous, though necessary, increase in unproductive expenditure for the war period is more clearly illustrated in the following table, showing the percentages of the various classes to the total for each of the well-defined periods that have been referred to in the course of what has been noted above:—

GROSS PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS AT VARIOUS PERIODS, SHOWING PROPORTION EXPENDED ON VARIOUS CLASSES OF UNDERTAKINGS.
Time (as at 31st March in Years shown).Indebtedness expended on
Directly Reproductive Undertakings.Investments.Indirectly Reproductive Undertakings.Unproductive Undertakings.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Up to and as at 189140.784.8220.9533.45
Between 1891 and 191428.6550.936.0114.41
Up to and as at 191433.6232.0312.1322.22
Between 1914 and 19206.0815.111.7177.10
Between 1920 and 192271.320.138.8419.71
Up to and as at 192223.3721.216.7548.67

The directly interest-earning portion of the debt as at 31st March, 1922, amounts to 44.58 per cent. of the total debt and is represented by assets which are of much greater value than the amount of borrowed money spent upon them, a considerable amount of surplus ordinary revenue having been expended from time to time on railways and other public services, as well as other moneys of the nature of special receipts. The small proportion represented by unproductive loan-money raised during the period 1891 to 1914 (14.41 per cent.) is in strong contrast to the similar proportion for the period 1914 to 1920 (77.10 per cent.). It will be noted that for the two financial years 1920–21 and 1921–22 this necessarily abnormal proportion of unproductive indebtedness has been reduced to 19.71 per cent. For the same period also directly reproductive indebtedness formed 71.32 per cent. of the total, as compared with the small ratio of 6.08 per cent. of the war period. The cumulative effect of war expenditure on the Dominion's present gross indebtedness is seen by a comparison of the position as at 31st March, 1891, 1914, and 1922. The diagram given below graphically illustrates for the various classes of indebtedness the features referred to.

INCREASE IN THE PUBLIC DEBT DURING 1921–22.

The loan transactions in connection with the public debt during the financial year 1921–22 are now referred to. The additions to the debt totalled £13,461,391, while the amount discharged was £731,325, giving an increase in the gross public debt of £12,730,066. Most of the loans falling due during 1921–22 were met either by conversion, renewal, or the issue of fresh debentures to provide cash to repay the amounts. The amount of £731,325 referred to as being definitely wiped off from the debt was provided for from three sources—namely, by transfer of £730,011 from the accumulated surpluses of the Consolidated Fund, the release of sinking funds amounting to £1,289, and the use of £25 which had been raised in 1920–21 for loan-redemption purposes, but not applied in that year. The additions to the debt comprised £12,423,026 in loans raised for special purposes, £157,870 raised for redemption of debentures falling due early in the following financial year (1922–23), and the loan liability of the Westport Harbour Board, amounting to £880,495, taken over in terms of the Westport Harbour Act, 1920. The details of the loans raised are as follows:—

LOANS RAISED DURING 1921–22.
 £     
State forests86,775
Scenery-preservation60,000
Public Works Fund5,388,402
Railways improvement authorization2,106,138
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement48,000
Electric supply2,097,142
Land for settlements17,000
Land for settlements (discharged soldiers' settlement)175,000
Discharged soldiers' settlement538,376
Native-land settlement125,000
War expenses707,103
Hauraki Plains settlement122,000
Mining advances13,200
Loans to employers for workers' dwellings825
Fishing industry promotion4,085
Education loans517,580
Housing142,400
Kauri-gum industry22,000
Rangitaiki land drainage80,000
Swamp-land drainage95,000
Samoan loan77,000
Westport Harbour liability880,495
Redemption (1922–23) of war loans157,870
                                Total£13,461,391

Allocating the above new indebtedness under the various classes already referred to in discussing the total debt, the following distribution is arrived at:—

ALLOCATION OF LOANS RAISED IN 1921–22.
Directly reproductive.£     
Railways5,455,571
Telegraphs and telephones619,920
Lighthouses and harbours900,565
Tourist and health resorts19,238
State forests86,775
Water-power development and electric supply2,097,142
Swamp drainage95,000
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement48,000
                                Total9,322,211
Investments...     
Mining advances13,200
Kauri-gum industry22,000
Land for settlements17,000
Discharged soldiers' settlement and lands for discharged soldiers' settlement713,376
Native-land settlement125,000
Hauraki Plains settlement122,000
Housing and employers' workers' dwellings143,225
Fishing industry promotion4,085
Rangitaiki land drainage80,000
Samoan loan77,000
                                Total1,316,886
Indirectly productive.£     
Roads and bridges and land improvement621,761
Irrigation and water-supply88,421
Development of mining2,277
Immigration264,592
                                Total977,051
Unproductive...     
Public buildings386,029
Scenery-preservation60,000
Defence16,661
Great European War864,973
Education loans517,580
                                Total1,845,243
                                Grand total£13,461,391

ALLOCATION OF LOANS DISCHARGED, 1921–22.

An allocation of the amount of £731,325, which was discharged from the public debt during 1921–22, has been made in order that the nature of the remaining public debt might be arrived at. The items concerned abate accordingly as shown below:—

 £     
War expenses560,000
Discharged soldiers' settlement170,000
Roads650
Railways650
Miscellaneous25
                                Total£731,325

After deducting this amount of £731,325 from the new indebtedness of £13,461,391 referred to above, an allocation of the balance can be made under the various classes of undertakings already referred to in discussing the total debt. The result has already been incorporated in the preceding part of this section relating to the allocation of the total public debt as at the 31st March, 1922.

Summarizing the foregoing in a slightly different way, and utilizing as headings the large classes of expenditure referred to earlier in this section, the increase of £12,730,066 in the public debt during 1921–22 may be shown as follows:—

Indebtedness.At 31st March, 1921.At 31st March, 1922.Increase.
 £     £     £     
Ordinary public debt101,515,324113,397,04111,881,717
Discharged soldiers8,792,3549,335,730543,376
War debt81,538,57081,843,543304,973
State advances to settlers, workers, and local bodies14,478,07114,478,071..     
                                Totals206,324,319219,054,38512,730,066

CHARACTER OF STOCK.

The whole of the public debt, as stated in the foregoing tables, comprises inscribed stock and debentures with varying periods of currency. The following table shows the relative increase of the different classes of securities during the last ten financial years:—

Year ended 31st March.Inscribed Stock.Debentures.Total.
 £     £     £     
191359,960,10530,100,65890,060,763
191466,076,25033,654,17799,730,427
191568,008,38932,051,521100,059,910
191668,689,63040,947,767109,637,397
191768,689,93561,146,170129,836,105
191877,760,48573,079,570150,840,055
191987,373,48088,702,780176,076,260
192095,095,914106,074,841201,170,755
1921101,306,498105,017,821206,324,319
1922109,068,009109,986,376219,054,385

FLOTATION OF LOANS.

Until comparatively recent years the large proportion of the productive power of the Dominion diverted to the construction of railways, roads, &c., and engaged in the preparation of land for farming, necessitated the borrowing of capital from abroad; but of late the accumulation of savings, chiefly of small sums deposited in the savings-banks, has enabled the Government to raise considerable amounts from time to time locally. This was more particularly the case in connection with war loans.

Between the 31st March, 1912, and the corresponding date in 1922 the amount raised (and remaining outstanding) in London increased from 55 to 74 millions, while that raised in New Zealand increased from 16 to 111 millions. The amount raised in Australia is negligible. The following table shows, of the total amount outstanding in each of the last ten years, the amount raised in London, Australia, and New Zealand:—

PUBLIC DEBT: WHERE RAISED.
Year ended 31st March.Inscribed Stock.Debentures.Total.
London.New Zealand.London.Australia.New Zealand.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
191359,484,214475,8919,445,2504,213,98516,441,42390,060,763
191465,600,259475,99113,024,0504,286,80016,343,32799,730,427
191567,532,398475,9918,877,6033,979,00019,194,918100,059,910
191668,213,639475,99113,251,1093,520,65024,176,008109,637,397
191768,213,943475,99215,663,8753,385,65042,096,645129,836,105
191868,213,9439,546,54220,493,8753,385,65049,200,045150,840,055
191968,213,94319,159,53727,494,3853,385,65057,822,745176,076,260
192068,213,94326,881,97127,494,3853,385,65075,194,806201,170,755
192168,213,94333,09,55527,494,3853,385,65074,137,786206,324,319
192274,102,88634,96,12331,816,2732,287,44075,882,663219,054,385

The percentage of the total debt raised in each of the markets and outstanding in 1911–12 and 1921–22 was,—

Market.1911–12. Per Cent.1921–22. Per Cent.
London75.8848.35
New Zealand19.1350.60
Australia4.991.05
..     100.00100.00

FLOTATION OF LOANS FOR WAR PURPOSES.

The gross indebtedness of the General Government on account of moneys raised for war purposes has already been stated as £81,843,543 as at the 31st March, 1922, and it is of considerable interest to note that of this amount £54,990,765 was raised in New Zealand, £500,000 (nominal value £512,533) in London, and £25,840,000 was advanced by the Mother-country, mainly for the maintenance of our troops in the field. To the last-mentioned amount, however, must be added a capital liability thereon of £500,245, making a total of £26,340,245. Put another way, 67.2 per cent. of moneys raised for war purposes up to the 31st March, 1922, have been provided by the people of the Dominion itself.

The rates at which this money was raised are as follows:—

 £     
3 per cent.2,810
3½ per cent.1,168,421
4 per cent.3,044,750
4½ per cent.52,212,988
5 per cent.14,180,471
5 per cent.9,900,000
6 per cent.1,334,103

Included in the total gross liability as at the 31st March, 1922, on account of moneys borrowed for war purposes is the sum of £157,870 raised during the year for redemption of debentures maturing early in the succeeding financial year.

DATES OF MATURITY OF LOANS.

A summary of the loans outstanding on the 31st March, 1922, showing the amounts falling due in each financial year, is given.

Due Date: Year ending 31st March.Amount.
 £     
19152,100*
19181,000*
19211,475*
19224,400*
19239,082,356
19249,548,865
192511,648,007
192615,383,907
19274,482,720
19283,673,560
192913,895,400
193032,117,802
19317,968,040
1932883,440
19334,252,430
1934600
193617,730
19371,000
19383,000
193926,788,925
194026,691,682
1941781,815
19422,532,350
1945200,000
194617,074,121
194811,995,600
19491,923,600
19501,106,500
19525,899,000
196310,884,628
Unspecified208,932
                    Total£219,054,385

The amounts that have matured or will mature during the current financial year, with their due dates, are as follows:—

Due Date.£     
* Overdue.
1914, July 152,100*
1918, January 11,000*
1920, December 15475*
1921, January 11,000*
1922, January 14,400*
1922, April 11,302,100
1922, April 130,000
1922, April 1914,000
1922, May 115,000
1922, May 315,000
1922, May 1818,000
1922, June 516,000
1922, June 2120,000
1922, June 3017,000
1922, July 175,000
1922, July 1110,000
1922, August 11,175,000
1922, August 425,000
1922, September 131,500
1922, September 68,000
1922, September 111,000,000
1922, September 2420,200
1922, October 184,400
1922, October 211,500
1922, October 11300,000
1922, October 1660,000
1922, October 23750,000
1922, October 2710,000
1922, October 31939,766
1922, November 145,100
1922, November 710,000
1922, November 1310,000
1922, December 1290,300
1922, December 330,000
1923, January 1771,340
1923, February 11,006,600
1923, February 6200,000
1923, February 75,000
1923, March 1761,550
1923, March 55,000

INTEREST.

Of the total amount of public debt outstanding at the end of March, 1922, over 41 Millions bore interest at the rate of 5 per cent. or over, more than 81 millions at 4½ per cent., and close on 64 millions at 4 per cent. Only £31,916,788, or 14.57 per cent. of the total, bore interest at a lower rate than 4 per cent., as against 48.39 per cent. of the total at 31st March, 1914. The following are the rates of interest payable on the whole public debt:—

Rate of Interest.Amount at each Rate.
 £     
6 per cent.7,551,120
5½ per cent.4,954,695
5⅜ per cent.9,90,000
5;¼ per cent.500,000
5 per cent.18,688,284
4½ per cent.81,612,408
4¼ per cent.20,000
4 per cent.63,902,115
3¾ per cent.792,500
3½ per cent.21,461,498
3 per cent.9,662,790
Overdue8,975
        Total£219,054,385

The total amount of interest payable to bondholders on the full amount of the public debt (excluding interest on £8,975 shown as overdue) is £9,518,068, which gives an average rate of £4 6s. 11d. per £100. On the total public debt outstanding on the 31st March, 1891, the average interest charge was £4 10s. 3d. per £100. The increase per £100 in 1921–22 as compared with 1913–14 was 10s. 6d.

The foregoing refers to interest payable to bondholders only, and has nothing to do with sinking-fund requirements, which are included in the whole annual charge of the public debt.

The actual payments during the last twenty years for interest and sinking fund out of the Consolidated Fund are shown in the following table, together with the rate per head of population and the percentage of ordinary and territorial revenue absorbed by the public-debt charges:—

Year ended 31st March.Amounts actually paid for Interest and Sinking Fund out of the Consolidated Fund.Rate per Head of Mean PopulationPercentage of Revenue absorbed by Public debt Charges.
Public Debt.Treasury Bills.Total
Interest.Sinking Fund.Total.Interest.
 £     £     £     £     £     £ s.d. 
19031,817,70150,4641,868,16532,8141,900,97927529.77
19041,875,37653,4081,928,78429,1791,957,96327427.89
19051,914,29654,9331,969,22924,5001,993,729261027.38
19062,006,53756,1672,062,70424,5002,087,20427727.52
19072,048,99097,3512,146,34125,7512,172,09228225.86
19082,085,01881,8422,166,86020,5592,187,41927324.15
19092,149,73991,4382,241,17717,1882,258,36527525.09
19102,282,18295,1242,377,30620,1562,397,46229025.95
19112,381,00054,1042,435,10423,3482,458,45229323.87
19122,446,493198,3882,644,88111,4592,656,340212124.02
19132,506,025202,7572,708,7828,2312,717,0132111123.15
19142,649,796221,7262,871,51216,4682,887,980213823.61
19152,788,513247,5703,036,08335,3653,071,448216124.67
19162,888,533257,0363,145,56945,2293,190,798218021.99
19173,701,040326,9244,027,9644,9214,032,885313421.97
19183,935,118494,6994,429,8179624,430,77940421.93
19195,409,210677,5596,086,769..     6,086,76959027.23
19206,352,344897,0827,249,426..     7,249,42665327.80
19216,805,4221,026,1717,831,593..     7,831,593610322.86
19227,382,6991,051,4148,434,1138,1658,442,278617030.02

The above amounts shown as interest and sinking fund do not comprise the whole of the interest and sinking fund paid in respect of moneys raised by way of loans. For loans raised for the purposes of State advances to settlers, workers, local authorities, &c., and under the Land for Settlements Acts, the interest, although made a charge upon the Consolidated Fund, is recovered from the receipts derived from the leasing of the lands or from instalments paid by borrowers. Other loan-money coming within the same category is that raised for State coal-mines, Native-land settlement, the purchase of the Cheviot Estate, the Rangitaiki land drainage, the Hauraki Plains settlement, the Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement, and a number of other purposes.

The amount of interest charged and recovered during last year in respect of the loan-money raised for such purposes was £1,899,849. The details are as follow:—

 £     
Land for settlements379,225
Land for settlements (discharged soldiers' settlement)130,811
Land for settlements (opening up Crown lands)7,981
Discharged soldiers' settlement325,481
Cold-storage Advances Act4,830
Advances to settlers346,664
Advances to workers95,979
Advances to local authorities103,196
Loans to employers for workers' dwellings178
Mining advances2,020
Housing15,069
State coal-mines9,177
Scenery-preservation3,693
Kauri-gum industry1,105
Native-land settlement109,400
Cheviot Estate9,357
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers improvement9,302
Hauraki Plains settlement11,298
Fruit-preserving industry advances10,153
State forests9,797
Electric supply171,952
Waimarino bush-fire relief3,000
Fishing industry promotion126
Rangitaiki land drainage12,599
Swamp drainage13,779
Nauru and Ocean Islands30,000
Westport Harbour83,677
                                Total£1,899,849

Such interest does not become a burden upon the taxpayer, and consequently is not included in the figures upon which the rate per head of mean population is calculated.

The amount actually paid for interest and sinking fund out of the Consolidated Fund during 1921–22 was £8,442,278, or £610,685 more than that for the previous year, and the rate of charge per head of population shows an increase of 6s. 9d.

SINKING FUNDS.

From time to time in the earlier financial history of the Dominion sinking funds were created in respect of various loans. These loans have now all been paid off, with the exception of an item of £2,100 which matured on the 15th July, 1914, as part of a loan of £266,300 raised under the New Zealand Loan Act, 1863, but which has not yet been paid off. A sinking fund of £2,207, which covered this loan, is held by the Consolidated Fund to meet the debentures when presented.

More recently provision was made for sinking funds for the repayment of loans raised for local bodies and for war and defence loans. A sinking fund was also provided for in the case of the loans raised under the Naval Defence Act, 1909, All of these funds are invested with the Public Trustee.

Another class of sinking fund which has come into existence in later years may more correctly be termed an “internal reserve fund,” because the accumulations are immediately converted into capital, although kept apart in the accounts. Part of the surplus revenue of the various accounts of the State Advances Department, equal to 1 per cent. of the loan liabilities at the end of each financial year, is set apart as a sinking fund. Under the same head also fall the sinking funds for the liquidation of the amount borrowed for State coal-mines, electric-power works, swamp-land drainage, Rangitaiki land drainage, and the Nauru and Ocean Islands Accounts. The sinking fund for the wiping-off of the Samoan loan is held by the Treasury.

The whole of the public debt for which no special sinking fund exists has been provided for by the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, referred to in detail below.

On the 31st March, 1922, the accrued sinking funds amounted to £10,655,394, made up as follows:—

 £     
New Zealand Loan Act, 18632,207
Government loans to local bodies799,601
War and defence loans192,691
War loans (1914–18)3,451,107
Naval Defence Act, 1909931,429
State advances to settlers1,322,155
State advances to workers70,362
State advances to local authorities271,021
Land for settlements996,457
Native-land settlement11,976
Guaranteed mining advances781
Hauraki Plains settlement2,176
Opening up Crown lands for settlement3,416
Rangitaiki land drainage904
Public Debt Extinction Act, 19102,313,330
Coal-mines Act, 190824,580
Westport Harbour Loans261,201
                                Total£10,655,394

PUBLIC DEBT EXTINCTION.

A scheme making provision to repay the existing public debt, with application to future borrowings, was embodied in the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910. This Act provides for the setting-apart each year, on the certificate of the Controller and Auditor-General, out of the Consolidated Fund an amount equal to the sum which, if invested for seventy-five years at a rate equivalent to the average net interest earned by the funds invested under the Act during the previous three years, would repay the whole of the public debt as at the preceding 31st March. In this manner, for every loan raised in the future an additional proportional amount will be contributed to the fund to enable such new loan to be extinguished at the expiry of seventy-five years from the date of issue.

The fund is administered by a Board constituted under the Act, and must be invested in loans to settlers, to workers, and to local authorities. The accumulated capital of various funds invested with the Public Trustee at the date of the passing of the Act, however, remains invested with him, and interest thereon is paid to the Consolidated Fund each year. It is expressly forbidden to invest any of the moneys in New Zealand Government securities. If at any time the funds cannot be invested as above stated the Board may purchase at or below par, and cancel any New Zealand Government stock or debentures charged upon the consolidated revenue. In order to preserve the continuity of the fund it is provided that in the event of any stock or debentures being redeemed before the expiry of the seventy-five years there shall be paid annually out of the Consolidated Fund into the Sinking Fund Account a sum sufficient to compensate for the loss of earnings of the money so expended. There is also a provision that if the earnings of the fund should fall below the determined rate of interest any deficiency must be made good out of the Consolidated Fund Account.

The most prominent features of the scheme are—(1) the mode of investment, which is intended to prevent any improper use being made of the accumulations;

(2) the provision for preserving the continuity of the fund by the adjustment of the annual contributions; and (3) the automatic action of the fund whereby the total debt existing at any given date will be extinguished in seventy-five years from such date.

The contributions to the fund to the 31st March, 1922, amounted to £1,742,217, interest, &c., bringing the amount to the credit of the fund to £2,313,330. The payments to the fund in each of the last ten years have been,—

Year ended 31st March.£     
1913149,343
1914151,572
1915169,404
1916161,870
1917171,301
1918155,038
1919143,301
1920140,076
1921152,295
1922203,132

The amount required to be set aside during the financial year 1922–23 is £216,913. It was ascertained by actuarial calculation that an additional amount of £150,227, together with interest thereon from the 31st March, 1921, to date of payment, would require to be paid in respect of the financial years 1915–21.

The average net rate for the three years ended the 31st March, 1922, has been ascertained to be £4 6s. 6d., as against £4 5s. 6d. per cent. for the triennium ending 31st March, 1921.

The sum of £258,817 was at the 31st March, 1922, invested in mortgages to settlers, and £1,404,643 to local authorities. The former amount bears interest at 5 per cent., reducible to 4½ per cent. if instalments are paid within fourteen days of due date. Of the amount advanced to local authorities, £87,225 bears interest at 4⅛ per cent., and the balance at 4½ per cent.

WAR LOANS SINKING FUND.

A War Loans Sinking Fund has been established for the special purpose of providing for the extinguishing of loans raised for the European War expenses; the provisions of the Public Debt Extinction Act, 1910, do not apply to such moneys. Provision is made for the Minister of Finance to pay out of the Consolidated Fund each year a sum equal to 1 per cent. of the total capital moneys borrowed and outstanding at the 31st March in the preceding year. Such payments are invested by the Public Trustee, together with accumulations thereon. Interest on the investments of the sinking funds is received at the rate of 4½ per cent., and it is calculated that each war loan will be extinguished in approximately thirty-nine years from the date of raising.

A statement is given showing for each year since the initiation of the scheme the payments to sinking fund, the interest on the amount invested, and the accumulated sinking fund.

Year ended 31st March.Payment to Fund.Interest credited.Accumulated Sinking Fund.
 £     £     £     
191621,053..     21,053
191781,595859103,507
1918267,2554,972375,734
1919461,85225,925863,511
1920684,60055,7701,603,881
1921800,890102,3942,507,165
1922815,386128,5563,451,107

The amount payable for the year ended 31st March, 1923, in respect of the debt outstanding at 31st March, 1922, is £818,435.

PRICES OF NEW ZEALAND STOCK.

The highest and lowest London prices for the New Zealand 4-, 3½-, and 3-percent. stock, taken over a range of twenty years, are quoted.

QUOTATIONS, NEW ZEALAND STOCK.
Year.4-per-cents. (1943–63.)4-per-cents. (1929.)3½-per-cents. (1940.)3-per-cents. (1945.)
Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.Highest.Lowest.
1902..     ..     113¼109109½102⅛9793⅝
1903..     ..     110⅛105104¾99½9688
1904..     ..     107½104½101½96¾9086¼
1905..     ..     110¼105¼100⅛97⅝89⅞89½
1906..     ..     110¾104⅝102½98⅜91¼87¼
1907..     ..     108¾103¼1019889¾84
1908..     ..     109⅝105⅛10198¼90½85¾
1909..     ..     108⅜104¾99¾97⅜88⅜85⅝
1910..     ..     106¾1039994¼88⅜84¾
1911..     ..     106¾102⅛98½95¼87⅜85
1912..     ..     10510097¾90⅜87¾79½
191310196⅜102½95½91⅞87¾80¾76¼
1914100⅜96¼103⅛9892¾8783½77
191597½9599½189587½83¼77¾76
191695⅛779583¾83⅜697662
191782⅝7686½81¼74½6964⅜60
191885½78¼90⅞847971¾68¾61¾
19198677⅛90837968⅛69⅛60
192079½68¼86¼7970¾64½62½56¼
192175⅞68898272666557½

PUBLIC DEBT OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The following figures show the gross and net public debt of each State of the Australian Commonwealth, and of the Commonwealth itself, on the 30th June, 1921, and of New Zealand on the 31st March, 1921:—

State.Gross Indebtedness.Accrued Sinking Funds.Net Indebtedness.Indebtedness per Head.
Gross.Net.

* £56,213,603 deducted for debts counted twice.

Information not available.

 £     £     £     £ s.d.£ s.d.
New South Wales164,336,492409,988163,926,50478417802
Victoria97,317,8312,579,01994,738,812637261137
Queensland80,382,052376,89980,005,15310481104010
South Australia48,556,5521,438,41547,118,13797111194141
Western Australia49,039,6677,641,56441,398,1031474312476
Tasmania18,776,306815,83517,960,4718811684146
Total, Australian States458,408,90013,261,720445,147,1808414811111
Commonwealth401,720,0246494
Total Commonwealth and States*803,915,321148108
New Zealand206,324,3198,763,072197,561,2471695516217

New Zealand has at present a greater per capita debt than any of the Australian States. If the Commonwealth debt be added to that for each State, however, it will be seen that, except in the cases of New South Wales and Victoria, the debt per unit of population is greater than in the Dominion.

The gross indebtedness of the Dominion is nearly £21 per head greater than that of Australia, but if full information as to the net indebtedness of the Commonwealth were available it would probably be found that the net debt per head in New Zealand approximates a little more closely to that of Australia than is indicated by the figures of gross indebtedness.

SUBSECTION D.—FINANCES OF LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

A STUDY of the finance of local governing bodies from their incipient stages to the present time reveals a process of evolution from a state of semi-dependence on the Central Government to a stage where, with the exception of subsidies on rates and occasional grants for special works, all expense is borne locally. While local bodies were the proper authorities to deal with such matters as the construction of roads and bridges, it was recognized that work of this nature was to a large extent of national significance, and governmental aid was freely accorded. This is evidenced by a consideration of the fact that under various Acts, including the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, advances were made under which the recipient body, although bound to pay a half-yearly interest for a number of years, the period varying inversely with the rate of interest, was relieved from all further liability, ipso facto, on payment of the last instalment. With the increase in population and growth of prosperity, however, the opinion grew that local authorities should, in all fairness, bear the greater part of the expense of their own activities. This resulted in the withdrawal of such advantageous conditions, and at the present time, although the credit of the State is still available for the benefit of those local bodies requiring loans, and such assistance as indicated above is given, they are to all intents and purposes self-supporting.

A perusal of the tables contained later in this section elicits the information that by far the greater part of the revenue of local bodies is expended on public works. Pari passu with the development of the local authority, notably the borough, has grown the tendency to extend its activities to public-utility trading concerns, such as tramways, gas- and electric-supply works, which, being of the social monopoly type of industry, are pre-eminently suitable for municipal undertaking.

The sources from which the various classes of local bodies secure the moneys necessary to exercise their functions vary greatly according to the nature of the statutory duties of the local body concerned. Generally, however, receipts fall under one of three main classes—viz., rates, licenses and fees, and receipts which cannot properly be regarded as revenue. These three classes are dealt with in detail further on in this subsection, where the nature and relative importance of each is more particularly referred to.

SYSTEM OF RATING.

The local authority of any district (other than a district wherein the system of rating on the unimproved value is in force) may from time to time by resolution determine whether the system of rating on the annual value or the capital value shall be in force in the district. The system of rating on the unimproved value can be adopted only by a poll of the ratepayers, and after three years the ratepayers may, by another poll, revert to the system previously in force in the district.

Section 29 of the Rating Amendment Act, 1910, as amended by section 7 of the Amendment Act of 1913, provides that when the union of two or more boroughs takes place the rating system in force in the borough having the largest population shall be observed throughout the united borough, unless otherwise agreed between the Councils of the united boroughs.

The system of rating in the Dominion is upon the basis that 1s. in the pound on the annual value is deemed to be equivalent to ¾d. in the pound on the capital value of rateable property; or where in a district not rating on the annual value it is necessary for any purpose to ascertain the annual value of any rateable property, then the annual value thereof is equal to 6 per cent. on the capital value of such property. Rating on the unimproved value must be so adjusted as to equal as nearly as may be, but not to exceed, in producing-capacity the limit of rating-power on the capital or annual value, as the case may be, a rate on the annual value being for this purpose first transposed into one on the capital value on the basis above mentioned.

Prior to 1911 the system of rating on the unimproved value did not apply to water rates, gas rates, electric-light rates, sewage rates, or hospital and charitable-aid rates, which could be levied on the annual or capital value only; but by the Rating Amendment Act, 1911, it was provided that the system should apply to these rates. This provision is not retrospective, but a poll in any district where the system was previously in force is, on petition, to be taken on the proposal that it shall apply to them.

The annual value is deemed to be the letting value, less 20 per cent. in case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and 10 per cent. of land, but in no case is the rateable value to be less than 5 per cent. of the value of the fee-simple. The capital value is deemed to be the selling-value of the land, including improvements, at the time of valuation. The unimproved value is deemed to be the selling-value of the land at the time of valuation, excluding the value of any existing improvements.

MAXIMUM RATING-POWERS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

Local authorities are largely dependent for funds to carry out their activities on revenue from rates, and even loans raised for special purposes are ultimately liquidated by such revenues—known then as special rates. As, however, the revenue from rates is not usually received till about half of the financial year has elapsed, the law has for many years allowed local bodies to borrow money in anticipation of the year's revenue. This borrowed money in many cases tended to become a permanent debt, and from time to time power had to be given to local bodies to raise a loan for the purpose of paying off such debts. This was done in 1913, but since then the debts again accumulated, and many local bodies were in financial difficulties. Consequently, in 1921, the Legislature dealt with the matter by passing the Local Bodies' Finance Act, which compelled any local body which had an overdraft or temporary deposits to capitalize its liability, forming what is known as an “antecedent liability,” and to pay off this liability either (a) by seven annual instalments out of revenue, or (b) by a direct loan, or (c) by levying a special rate in each of seven years sufficient to cover each annual instalment. The powers of a local body to borrow by overdraft or by temporary deposit were also limited to three-fourths of its total revenue for the preceding year, and at the end of a year there is not to be owing a greater sum than the amount of revenue then outstanding. This will, of course, compel local bodies to live within their income, and will also ensure that money borrowed by overdraft or temporary deposit will simply be a temporary expedient in anticipation of revenue.

A synopsis of the statutory rating-powers of the various local authorities is now given. Generally, in addition to the statutes specified below, the provisions of the Rating Act, 1908 (and amendments), are applicable.

BOROUGHS.

Under the Municipal Corporations Act, 1920, cities and boroughs have conferred on them the following rating-powers, which represent the maximum a Council is empowered to levy in any one financial year:—

General Rate.—2s. 6d. in the pound on the annual value, or 2d. in the pound on the capital value of all rateable property, or its equivalent on the unimproved value. In divided boroughs the rate levied may vary in different wards, but must not in any case exceed the above limit.

General Separate Rates for Special Works.—¾d. in the pound in any one year on the capital value, or 1s. in the pound on the annual value, or its equivalent on the unimproved value of the rateable property. These rates can be made only on a petition of a majority of the ratepayers, and are known as general separate rates, in contradistinction to particular separate rates now immediately referred to.

Water-supply.—Ordinary supply, 10s. per annum where the annual value does not exceed £12 10s.; in excess of £12 10s., 6 per cent. Where rating on unimproved value in respect of water-supply is in force the charge must not exceed the equivalent of 1d. in the pound on the capital value, with a minimum of 10s. Half-rates only are to be levied on stores or warehouses, and all land and buildings to which water can be but is not supplied, situate within 100 yards from any part of the waterworks. The rate or charge for extraordinary supply may be fixed by the Council.

Lighting Streets and Public Buildings.—6d. in the pound on the annual value.

Sanitation.—A rate, or in lieu thereof a uniform annual fee, may be levied of such an amount that the total proceeds of such fee shall be sufficient to meet the estimated expenditure on the service for the year.

Drainage.—6d. in the pound on the annual value of property served by a public drain.

Library.—1d. in the pound on the annual value.

Harbour.—Any Council appointed a Harbour Board may, for the purpose of constructing or maintaining harbour-works, levy a rate not to exceed in any one year 3/8d. in the pound on the capital value.

In addition to the rating-power referred to above, certain Acts of the Legislature have conferred powers on Borough Councils to levy further separate rates for the purposes now indicated.

Hospital and Charitable Aid.—Under the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1909, section 41, a rate sufficient to produce the amount of contribution for which the borough may be liable.

Fire.—By the Fire Brigades Act, 1908, section 21, a Borough Council within a fire district may, in order to raise the amount required to be contributed to the Fire Board, levy a separate rate, on the value of the buildings only, within the fire district.

Small Birds Nuisance.—Borough Councils are by the Injurious Birds Act, 1908, section 18, empowered to raise funds for the destruction of injurious birds by levying a general rate not exceeding 1/16d. in the pound on the capital value, or its equivalent on the annual or unimproved value.

Health.—The Health Act, 1920, section 140, enables a separate rate to be levied to meet the expenses of carrying out the provisions of the Act.

Special Rates (Payment of Loan Charges).—Rates under this head are termed “special,” and are levied for the purpose of producing interest, or interest and sinking fund, upon any special loan. They are not limited by statute. A special rate shall be made a continuing rate for a period of years equal to the currency of the loan. With certain exceptions no special loan may be raised without the consent of a majority of the ratepayers affected. Special rates are subject to the provisions of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913.

In certain exceptional cases a Council's power may be subject to one or more of the three conditions referred to below.

Increase of Rating-power authorized where Revenue lost in consequence of the Reduction or Prohibition of Licenses.—A Borough Council which suffers loss of revenue from license fees under the Licensing Act in consequence of the reduction or prohibition of licenses in the district may, by section 41 of the Licensing Act, 1908, make good such loss by an equivalent sum to be levied and collected by an increase of the general rate in the district.

Rates on Native Land.—By the provisions of section 3 of the Rating Amendment Act, 1910, Native land that has become freehold and is held under individual title is liable to full rates, subject to certain exemptions. Lands held by Natives under Native custom are, however, totally exempt from rating.

Rating of Mining Property in the South Island.—All mining property held by an occupier in any borough within a mining district in the South Island of the Dominion is liable to be rated by the Borough Council in the same manner as other rateable property in the district, but subject to special provisions of the Rating Act, 1908, sections 45 to 47.

TOWN DISTRICTS.

The maximum general and separate rates that may be levied by the Board of a town district in any one year are set forth in the Town Boards Act, 1908, and amendments, indicated below.

General Rate.—By the Finance Act, 1921, section 34, a Town Board may levy a rate of 2d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent on the unimproved value, or 2s. 6d. in the pound on the annual value. In the case of town districts which are also subject to county control, however, the County Council has power to levy in addition a general rate up to 1 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value.

Particular Separate Rates.—On petition from a majority of the ratepayers in any portion of the district for a special work to be undertaken, the. Board may by special order define such portion and make and levy a separate works rate not exceeding in any one year 1s. in the pound on the annual value or its equivalent.

The provisions of the Municipal Corporations Act, 1908, relating to water-supply, lighting, sanitation, drainage and library rates, as already referred to under the head of “Boroughs,” apply equally to town districts. In like manner Town Boards may levy separate hospital and charitable-aid, fire, small-birds nuisance, and health rates under the statutory provisions indicated.

Special Bates.—The powers of Town Boards are the same as Borough Councils.

In the same way as they operate in boroughs the provisions relating to the rates on Native land, rating on mining property in the South Island, and the increase of the rating-power consequent on prohibition of licenses, apply to town districts.

COUNTIES.

Most of the provisions relating to the rating-powers of County Councils are included in the Counties Act, 1920. These are now briefly referred to.

General Rate.—In counties where there are no road or town districts a maximum rate of 3d. in the pound, or where there are road or town districts 3d. in the pound in outlying districts, and in all other parts of the county 1 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value of rateable property, or its equivalent on the unimproved or annual value. The total amount of the general and separate rates together, however, must not exceed the maximum rate above, with the exception that the drainage rate may be additional to the maximum mentioned.

Special-works (Separate) Rates.—These rates may be levied on the county or a portion of the county upon a majority petition of ratepayers; the total amount that may be levied in one year is 3/4d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent.

Particular separate rates which may be levied by County Councils refer to the following matters:—

Water-supply and Drainage.—For the purposes of any constructional work a rate of 1a in the pound on the capital value on the county or subdivision, as the case may be. To provide for maintenance after construction a rate of 3/4d. in the pound may be levied.

Sanitation and Harbours.—The provisions relating to boroughs apply, mutatis mutandis, to counties.

Library.—1d. in the pound on the annual value or its equivalent. The rate is levied by virtue of the Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act, 1908, and only applies where the library is managed by the County Council.

Other Separate Rates.—The expenses of a county in connection with lighting, &c., which come within its jurisdiction are met either from the General Account of the county or the Separate Accounts of the ridings. In regard to hospital and charitable-aid, health, injurious-birds, and fire rates, the provisions of the statutes as noted above under the head of “Boroughs” apply.

Special Rates.—The provisions of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913, apply in the same manner as indicated for Borough Councils above. Special rates to provide interest, or interest and sinking fund, on loans are not limited by statute as to amount.

Bridge Rate.—In addition to other special rating-powers referred to, a special rate of 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value may be levied under section 5 of the Local Bodies' Loans Amendment Act, 1922, for reconstruction of bridges.

In the same way as they operate in boroughs the provisions relating to the rates on Native land, rating on mining property in the South Island, and the increase of the rating-power consequent on prohibition of licenses, apply to counties.

ROAD DISTRICTS.

For the main statutory provisions in regard to the rating-powers of Road Boards it is necessary to refer to the Road Boards Act, 1908. A summary of these, as amended by various statutes, is given below.

General Rate.—1 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent on the unimproved value, or 2s. in the pound on the annual value, as the case may be. In the event of a Receiver being appointed, the power is extended by 3/8d. in the pound if the Counties Act is suspended, or 3/16d. in the pound if the Act be in force, upon the capital value.

Separate Rates (in Subdivided Road Districts).—May be levied over any or every subdivision of the district, but must not, together with the general rate, exceed the limit of 1 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent.

Special Rates for Particular Works.—3/4d. in the pound on the capital value over the whole or any portion of the district.

Water-supply for Domestic Use and Irrigation.—Water-supply is according to the scale prescribed for boroughs, as indicated above. This applies only to certain Road Boards specially authorized. With regard to irrigation, the provisions of the Water-supply Act, 1908, and amendments, provide that where the Counties Act is not in operation, or is suspended, two or more adjoining road districts may amalgamate for the purpose of forming a water-supply district with the full rating-powers of such districts. Any Road Board which had constructed water-races or irrigation-works prior to 1891 may continue to exercise in this respect the same rating-powers as a County Council.

Library.—1d. in the pound on the annual value or its equivalent, only where the public library is managed by the Road Board in terms of the Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act, 1908.

Harbour.—Should a Road Board be declared a Harbour Board it may, by consent of the ratepayers, levy a special rate for the construction or maintenance of harbour-works, such rate not to exceed in any one year 3/8d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent.

Other Particular Separate Rates.—The provisions of special statutes with regard to hospital and charitable-aid, health, injurious-birds, and fire rates apply to road districts in the same manner as to boroughs.

Special Rates.—The powers of Road Boards are the same as Borough Councils.

In the same way as they operate in boroughs the provisions relating to the rates on Native land, rating on mining property in the South Island, and the increase of the rating-power consequent on prohibition of licenses, apply to road districts.

ELECTRIC-POWER DISTRICTS.

General and Separate Rates.—The Electric-power Boards Act, 1918, and amendments provide that when the expenditure of a Board exceeds the amount of income in any year, the balance, or part of it, may be raised by a general or separate rate over the whole or part of district. The Power Board may collect the rate itself, or may request the local authority in whose district the rate is levied to recover the amount on its behalf.

Special Rates.—The provisions of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913, apply to Power Boards, and the Power Boards Act, 1918, also allows of a uniform rate being levied over the whole district to secure money borrowed for the preliminary work and expenses of a Board.

HARBOURS.

For any purpose connected with a harbour, or for interest, or interest and sinking fund, on loans, authority is contained in section 221 of the Harbours Act, 1908 (as amended in 1910), to levy a rate not exceeding the maximum specified in any special Act authorizing the Board to levy a rate, or, if no such limit is fixed, a maximum rate of 3/4d. in the pound on the capital value, or its equivalent on the annual or unimproved value.

RIVER DISTRICTS.

General Rate.—By section 87 of the River Boards Act, 1908 (and amendments), a River Board may levy a general rate of 1 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent leviable on a uniform scale or graduated according to the classification of lands in the district.

Separate Rates.—These shall not, together with the general rates levied, exceed the amount limited in respect to general rates.

Special Rates.—Not limited by statute as to amount; may be levied to secure the interest and provide a fund for the repayment of loans.

LAND-DRAINAGE DISTRICTS.

General Rate.—The Land Drainage Act, 1908, section 31, provides for the levying of a general rate, according to the classification of the lands in the district, not exceeding 1 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value. By the Amendment Act of 1913 this rate may be increased to 3d. in the pound on a ratepayers' petition representing a majority of three-quarters in number and half in rateable property.

Special Rates.—As in the case of river districts.

WATER-SUPPLY DISTRICTS.

Special Rate.—By the Water-supply Act, 1908, section 34, a special rate may be levied on all lands in a water-supply district or subdivision to pay interest and provide for the repayment of any loan. The rate is levied according to a classification of the rateable lands.

RABBIT NUISANCE.

General Rate.—Under the Rabbit Nuisance Act, 1908, section 98, a Rabbit-proof Fencing Board may levy a general rate of 1/4d. in the pound on the capital value of all rateable property in the district under the control of the Board. Section 5 of the Rabbit Nuisance Amendment Act, 1918, provides that a Rabbit Board may levy a rate of 1d. in the pound on the capital value or its equivalent of all rateable property within the rabbit district, with a maximum of 1s. per acre for each holding affected, the proceeds of such rate to be expended in the destruction of rabbits.

Special Rates.—These are not limited by statute as to amount; may be levied to secure the interest and provide the repayment of loans.

SYSTEM OF RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUE OF LAND.

The Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, was passed by the General Assembly to afford local bodies the opportunity of adopting the principle of rating which is expressed in the title of the measure. The Act is now incorporated in the Rating Act, 1908. It is entirely at the option of the bodies to adopt the system, and prevision is made for a return to the old system of rating, if desired, after three years' experience of the new one. The Act provides that a proportion of the ratepayers on the roll, varying from 25 per cent. where the total number does not exceed 100, to 15 per cent. where the number exceeds 300, may by demand in writing, delivered to the chairman of the district, require that a proposal to rate property on the basis of the unimproved value may be submitted to the ratepayers, whose votes shall be taken between twenty-one and twenty-eight days after delivery of the demand. The poll is to be taken in the same manner as in the case of a proposal to raise a loan in the district under the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1908.

Under the original Act it was necessary for a minimum number of one-third of the ratepayers to vote, and a majority of their votes carried the proposal. Now, the question of adoption or otherwise is decided by a bare majority of the valid votes recorded, irrespective of the number of ratepayers who have voted.

A rescinding proposal can be carried at a poll by the same means as one for adoption, but not until after three years have elapsed; and, vice versa, rejection of a proposal bars its being brought forward for a similar period.

The valuation roll is supplied to the local authority by the Valuer-General under the provisions of the Valuation of Land Act, 1908, and the definitions of “capital value,” “improvements,” “unimproved value,” and “value of improvements” found in that Act apply also to rating on unimproved value. Provision is made for adjustment of rating-powers given under previous Acts by fixing equivalents. Thus a rate of 1s. in the pound on the annual value under former Acts is to be considered equal to 3/4d. in the pound on the capital value.

The adjustments are to be made so that the rates on the unimproved value shall be such as to produce as much as, but not more than, the rates under the Rating Act, 1908. For instance, supposing a local authority has a rating-power up to 3/4d. in the pound on the capital value, then it can levy any rate in the pound on the unimproved value of land in its district so long as the producing-capacity of such rate is not greater than would be the producing-capacity of a 3/4d. rate on the capital value of the district. When a fixed rate, under the older system of rating, is security for a loan, the Controller and Auditor-General is given power to interfere and fix the new rate himself if of opinion that the new rate on the unimproved value does not afford equally good security to the one to be given up.

It should be noted that some local authorities automatically adopt rating on unimproved value. For example, a town district, borough, or another county, formed from part of a county which itself rates on unimproved values, automatically rates on the system in force in the county; also two boroughs amalgamating adopt the system in force in the district with the greater population, unless their Councils agree to the contrary.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES RATING ON UNIMPROVED VALUES.

Local districts in which a poll on the question of rating on unimproved value has been taken since the 31st March, 1914, are as shown below up to the 31st March, 1922. The result of all polls prior to the 31st March, 1914, are given on pages 876–79 of the Year-book for 1914.

RESULTS OF RATING POLLS, 1914–22.
Local District.Date of Poll.Result of Poll.Votes recorded.
For.Against.Informal.

* For rescission.

At that time a town district.

Avondale Road District1 June, 1918Rejected2313001
Bay of Islands County17 Nov., 1920Carried490187..     
Cambridge Borough9 Sept., 1919..     153612
Carterton Borough26 Nov., 1919..     277133..     
Christchurch City*4 Mar., 1915Rating on U.V. remains1,9142,086..     
Ellerslie Town District8 Mar., 1916Carried175251
Featherston County16 Feb., 1915..     3151642
Geraldine Borough29 April, 1921..     17910014
Great Barrier County11 May, 1914..     637..     
Hauraki Plains County10 Mar., 1921..     30114..     
Havelock North Town District3 Nov., 1920..     10779..     
Huntly Town District20 Oct., 1915..     301..     
Inglewood County16 Mar., 1921..     160252
Manawatu County29 Jan., 1919..     6771933
Mangaorongo Road District13 Mar., 1918..     451..     
Mangapapa Town District13 Oct., 1915Rejected10916414
Mangapapa Town District1 July, 1920Carried244804
Manurewa Town District19 Nov., 1921Rejected66108..     
Mataura Borough*3 Nov., 1915Rescission carried1361292
Mataura Borough12 Dec., 1919Rejected1181455
Moa Road District26 Mar., 1919Carried205321
Mosgiel Borough*28 Mar., 1916Rating on U.V. remains115240..     
New Plymouth Borough30 April, 1919Carried781595..     
Ngaruawahia Borough21 Mar., 1921..     477..     
Normanby Town District*24 May, 1919Rating on U.V. remains33411
Northcote Borough30 April, 1919Rejected123140..     
Onehunga Borough9 Mar., 1915Carried5633917
Otaki Borough4 Mar., 1919..     132441
Otautau Town District*8 Mar., 1916Rescission carried40331
Otorohanga Native Township30 Oct., 1914Carried435..     
Paeroa Borough30 April, 1919..     15571..     
Raglan Town District15 Nov., 1916..     5419..     
Rangiora Borough*19 June, 1919Rescission carried1511451
Rodney County21 April, 1921Carried520433..     
Taihape Borough26 Mar., 1919..     14121..     
Taradale Town District15 Sept., 1919..     12839..     
Taranaki County20 Mar., 1920..     5301093
Tauranga Borough6 Oct., 1920Rejected1472956
Te Awamutu Borough19 Nov., 1919..     89127..     
Thames Borough19 June, 1919Carried26050..     
Timaru Borough27 April, 1921..     1,53283873
Uawa County26 May, 1920..     26089..     
Waiatarua Drainage Board24 Dec. 1918..     191..     
Westport Borough25 April, 1917..     46734630
Whakatane Borough21 Sept., 1915Rejected701051
Whakatane Borough30 April, 1919Carried1639210
Whakatane County8 Nov., 1919..     319166..     
Whangarei County11 Nov., 1914..     73623622

The unimproved value of land is the basis on which some 38 per cent. of the local authorities (excluding harbour districts) assessed their rates for the year 1920–21. A comparative table is,—

SYSTEMS OF RATING IN FORCE, 1920–21.
 System of Bating.Total.
Unimproved Value.Capital Value.Annual Value.Acreage Basis.Nil.
* Includes one district having unimproved basis as well.
Counties4675..     ..     8129
Boroughs672129..     ..     117
Town districts30336..     170
Road districts1459..     ..     578
River-protective districts1322*11340
Land-drainage districts2132..     1..     54
Water-supply districts..     6..     ..     ..     6
City and suburban drainage districts..     2*..     ..     13
Tramway districts11..     ..     ..     2
Local railway district..     3..     ..     ..     3
                  Totals19225436218502

Although the figures referred to indicate that the number of local authorities rating on unimproved values is approximately 38 per cent. of the total, yet on a population basis the figures reveal that in reality a larger proportion of the ratepayers are being so rated. Dealing with the system of unimproved rating as at the 31st March, 1922, and taking the census population figures (17th April, 1921), the position in regard to the four major classes of local authorities is as follows:—

POPULATION RATED ON UNIMPROVED VALUES.
Districts.Bating on Unimproved Values.Total for Dominion.Ratio of Unimproved Values to Dominion.
No.Population.No.Population*No.Population.
* Exclusive of persons on shipboard, &c
     Per Cent.Per Cent.
Counties (excluding all town districts)46155,323129485,37035.932.0
Boroughs67416,739117682,09857.361.1
Town districts (dependent)154,8853311,38345.442.9
Town districts (independent)1517,9653733,98940.752.9

In addition to the foregoing, two road districts (parts of other counties), with a population of 1,918, rated on unimproved values, thus making, with the figures shown above, a total of 596,830 inhabitants who were being rated under the system in the various counties, boroughs, and town and road districts. Taking this figure as a percentage of the Dominion population of 1,218,913, it will be seen that approximately half (48.96 per cent.) of the people of New Zealand are rated on unimproved values.

FINANCIAL STATISTICS OF LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.

The figures given in the following tables are for the year ended 31st March, except in the case of certain Harbour Boards whose own financial year is taken in each case. The financial year of the Wellington Harbour Board ends on the 30th September (six months before the usual financial year); for the Coromandel, Grey-mouth, Half-moon Bay and Horseshoe Bay, Kaikoura, Kawhia, Mangonui, and Wairoa Harbour Boards the year ends on the 31st March, but in all other cases the Harbour Board year ends on the 31st December, or three months prior to the usual financial year.

RECEIPTS.

Local governing bodies received by way of rates in the financial year 1920–21 a total amount of £3,549,590, of which £2,338,539 consisted of general rates and £1,211,051 special and separate rates. The sum of £107,946 was raised by licenses, and £156,374 by other taxes, making £3,813,910 altogether, which sum is equivalent to £3 1s. 10d. per head of the mean European population, as compared with £2 16s. 4d. for 1919–20, an increase of 5s. 6d.

Revenue derived from rates increased from £1,677,877 in 1911–12 to £2,549,590 in 1920–21. Revenue from the Government increased in the same period from £223,808 to £287,583. Receipts other than “revenue” were £2,425,258 in 1911–12, and £3,429,662 in 1920–21; but these figures vary from year to year according to circumstances, such as large operations by way of construction of works, for which money has to be specially raised.

The receipts of local governing bodies, divided into the various groups shown above, are given for each of the last ten years.

Financial Year.Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total Receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Fees, Rents, and other Sources.Government.Total Revenue.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
1911–121,677,8772,075,126223,8083,976,8112,425,2586,402,069
1912–131,799,2992,306,424225,2624,330,9852,383,1236,714,108
1913–142,005,638.2,484,893234,2194,724,7502,411,5757,136,325
1914–152,140,0862,622,221239,0765,001,3832,595,7067,597,089
1915–162,355,1552,705,562262,0835,322,8002,469,2757,792,075
1916–172,534,5393,001,324242,6185,778,4811,411,4227,189,903
1917–182,674,5413,034,894248,8555,958,2901,250,0477,208,337
1918–192,939,6063,184,741267,3306,391,677942,7807,334,457
1919–203,144,2134,219,608266,9747,630,7953,329,00310,959,798
1920–213,549,5905,048,791287,5838,885,9643,429,66212,315,626

A summary of receipts for the year 1920–21 is given on the next page.,'. The. total revenue of the local bodies for the financial year was £8,902,510, and they further received a sum of £3,429,662 which could not properly be termed “revenue,” making altogether a grand total of receipts amounting to £12,332,172. The rates. formed 39.87 per cent. of the revenue proper; licenses, rents, and other sources yielded 56.72 per cent.; and 3.41 per cont. was granted by the General Government.

While the revenue proper of the counties amounted to £1,875,419, of winch £1,475,842, or 78.69 per cent., was raised by way of rates, the Road Boards' revenue was only £125,171, of which £97,729, or 78.07 per cent., represented the result of their rating. It is seen that these bodies rely on their taxing-powers for the greater part of their income. In the case of boroughs, on the other hand, whose revenue totalled £5,092,173, rates accounted for £1,668,074, or only 32.75 per cent. of the total. Receipts by way of licenses, rents, &c, yielded the considerable sum of £3,382,816, representing 66.43 per cent. of the aggregate income.

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS, 1920–21.
 Revenue fromReceipts not Revenue.Total receipts.
Rates.Licenses, Rents, &cGovernment.County.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
Counties1,476,842173,037226,540..     737,7182,613,137
Boroughs1,668,0743,382,81641,283..     1,261,0626,353,235
Town districts66,76842,2704,772..     112,061225,871
Road districts97,72912,46013,8451,13766,335191,506
River districts20,35213,901..     ..     28,16262,415
Land-drainage districts35,2861,4566..     32,60869,356
Water-supply districts1,2042,591..     ..     613,856
Tramway districts1,800259,485..     ..     253,150514,435
City and suburban drainage districts93,4132,817,..     ..     8,828105,058
Railway district1,95417,987..     ..     3,47123,412
Harbour districts85,6171,139,107;16,546..     718,4711,959,741
Electric-power districts1,551864..     ..     207,735210,150
              Totals3,549,5905,048,791302,9921,1373,429,66212,332,172

RATES.

As stated above, rates contributed in 1920–21 the sum of £3,549,590 to the revenue of local governing bodies. General rates levied brought in £2,338,539, and special and separate rates £1,211,051. Of the latter, £884,991 was received by boroughs, and £233,033 by counties. The whole of the rates in harbour districts were general rates, while all those collected by Tramway Boards came under the heading of “special and separate.”

General rates bring in about two-thirds of the total revenue from rates.

RATES LEVIED BY LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES, 1911–12 TO 1920–21.
Financial Year.General.Special and Separate.Total.
 £     £     £     
1911–121,156,718521,1591,677,877
1912–131,252,717546,5821,799,299
1913–141,359,776645,8622,005,638
1914–151,484,591655,4952,140,086
1915–161,607,764747,3912,355,155
1916–171,695,572838,9672,534,539
1917–181,791,028883,5132,674,541
1918–192,028,151911,4662,939,606
1919–202,106,3971,037,8163,144,213
1920–212,338,5391,211,0513,549,590

Separate rates are of two classes—“general” and “particular.” General separate rates are levied for the construction, maintenance, &c, of any public work, for the acquisition of land or buildings, or for engaging in any undertaking for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district. Particular separate rates are levied in respect of water-supply, lighting, sanitation, and libraries. Special rates are those levied as security for the repayment of loans.

It is of interest to note that for the year 1920–21 the total of all rates collected by counties was equal to £5.21 per £1,000 of rateable capital value (land and improvements). In boroughs it was £11.81; independent town districts, £9.12; town districts forming parts of counties, £5.88; while in road districts the rate was as low as £2.86.

LICENSES, TOLLS, RENTS, ETC.

Rates are not the only form of local taxation. Local authorities derive a certain amount of revenue from publicans' licenses, auctioneers' and hawkers' licenses, abattoir fees, dog-taxes, pound-taxes, tolls, &c Sources of revenue not classed as taxation are—Rents; fines and penalties; market dues; sales of material; sale of light and power from gasworks and electric-supply works; tramway receipts; interest on deposits; wharf dues, &c

RECEIPTS FROM GENERAL GOVERNMENT.

Revenue received from the Government comprises—Rates on Crown and Native lands; timber and flax royalties; goldfields revenue and gold duty; fees and fines; subsidy on rates; one-third of receipts from lands sold on deferred payment and from perpetual leases; one-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs; other. In addition there are special grants from the General Government for various local works of a public or semi-public character. These are not considered revenue, and are included with “Receipts not revenue.”

A further class of receipts from the Government is provided by loans under the various Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts and from the New Zealand State Advances Office.

A statement of all receipts by' controlling bodies of local districts from the Government during the last five financial years is given in the next table.

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—RECEIPTS FROM GOVERNMENT.—QUINQUENNIAL SUMMARY.
 Year ended 31st March.
1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Rates on Crown and Native lands1322021,9148,1439,834
One-third receipts from land sold on deferred payment and from perpetual leases40,90335,73135,09420,46742,737
One-fourth of rents from small grazing-runs6,6195,3917,7225,6557,568
Timber and flax royalties5,5914,2885,1003,9614,900
Goldfields revenue and gold duty27,89434,34025,82226,56520,672
Subsidies on rates152,217160,032168,835177,074192,241
Fees and fines3,2222,3594,5643,0674,010
Other receipts14,2436,55518,279. 18,12821,030
            Total Revenue Account250,821248,898267,330263,060302,992
Loans from Government under Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts and from New Zealand State Advances Office169,804118,373208,158515,3631,130,371
Grants for special works, &c134,66287,362156,354248,110304,233
Total receipts from Government555,287454,633631,8421,026,5331,737,596

Of the total of £1,737,596 for 1920–21, no less than £730,462 went to counties, boroughs received £516,684, while harbour districts accounted for £49,010.

The expenditure of local governing bodies during each of the last twenty years is as follows:—

EXPENDITURE.

Financial Year.Expenditure.
£
1901–22,528,092
1902–32,867,506
1903–43,230,712
1904–53,497,321
1905–63,601,506
1906–73,897,515
1907–84,491,113
1908–94,800,711
1909–104,898,482
1910–115,360,261
1911–126,074,372
1912–136,637,769
1913–146,796,314
1914–156,806,567
1915–166,920,736
1916–176,758,593
1917–187,103,073
1918–197,320,277
1919–2010,883,586
1920–2112,761,690

The expenditure of the various classes of local governing bodies during 1920–21 is shown below in more detail:—

LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES.—EXPENDITURE, 1920–21.
Public Works.Hospitals and Charitable Aid.Management.Interest on Loans and Overdraft.Other.Total Expenditure.
* Included in Public Works.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
Counties1,961,233260,560240,403193,404167,7292,823,319
Boroughs5,176,748178,788254,159806,051403,8676,819,613
Town districts160,7985,64419,70421,2515,213212,610
Road districts136,62811,38415,82710,3749,140183,353
River districts46,188..     6,8016,7025,33365,024
Land-drainage districts46,104155,59412,1692,35066,232
Water-supply districts1,189..     2,14966753,479
Tramway districts309,544..     *28,28138,074375,899
City and suburban drainage districts48,688..     9,78260,9904,092123,552
Railway district37,491..     *2,55742140,469
Harbour districts1,077,212..     169,837305,961270,6021,823,612
Electric-power districts217,561..     *4,4242,543224,528
              Totals9,219,384456,381724,2561,452,230909,43912,761,690

It is seen that during the year the total expenditure was £12,761,690, of which £9,219,384, or 72.24 per cent., was expended on public works and £1,452,230, or 11.38 per cent., on debt charges. The item “management expenses” does not rank very high in the aggregate, though the table following shows that in some classes of local bodies the expenses of management account for a fair percentage of the revenue:—

 Management Expenses as Percentage of
Revenue.Total Receipts.Expenditure.
 £     £     £     
Counties12.819.198.51
Boroughs4.994.003.73
Town districts17.318.729.26
Road districts12.768.268.63
River districts19.8510.8910.46
Land-drainage districts15.228.068.44
Water-supply districts56.6255.7361.77
City and suburban drainage districts10.169.317.91
Harbour districts13.878.749.31
          All above districts8.406.255.97

The table following gives, in respect of boroughs only, the expenditure out of loan-money during the last ten years, classified under various heads:—

EXPENDITURE OUT OF LOANS.—BOROUGHS ONLY, 1911–12 TO 1920–21.
Year ended 31st March.Streets, Footways, and Bridges.Drainage and Sanitation.Waterworks.Tramways.Abattoirs, Slaughterhouses, and Pounds.Lighting and Power Services.Other Public Works.Management, Interest, and Sundries.Total.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
1912149,057206,393246,485114,6533,626137,59998,17614,651970,640
1913182,251205,373169,44761,22415,596134,873103,98516,433889,182
1914244,619131,547129,60147,4273,074199,75758,36820,491834,884
1915153,20968,06170,30628,8895,463201,65158,98225,098611,659
1916175,24898,36686,86445,3903,860235,07178,39817,818741,015
191798,59592,67784,01221,49714,970130,48960,90216,794519,936
191872,29086,34645,9176,880..     104,35957,08612,571385,449
191992,92362,71040,593..     67168,27634,0145,163304,350
1920109,85877,47149,3831,231,571..     84,283100,2482861,653,100
1921227,774118,73095,10793,1135,141158,473128,1528,437834,927

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES.

The assets and liabilities of local governing bodies at the end of the financial year 1920–21 are as shown in the table following. The figures shown in the column “other assets” are taken from the respective balance-sheets, but are far from complete. In quite a number of cases no assets whatever are shown, while in the majority of the others nothing is included for the reserves held. These totals can only be taken as a very approximate indication of the property held in addition to the actual cash assets.

Assets.Liabilities.
Cash Assets.Other Assets (as estimated in published Balance-sheets).Loans (excluding Government Loans and those from the State Advances Office).Loans from State Advances Office. (Net Indebtedness on 31st March, 1921.)Inscribed Stock, i.e., Loans from Treasury under Loans to Local Bodies Acts. (Estimated Present Indebtedness.)Liabilities other than the Loans included in preceding Columns (Bank Overdrafts, Outstanding Accounts, &c).
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
Counties761,430954,825999,6241,479,467758,189246,285
Boroughs1,312,40418,369,87412,810,4451,465,543524,182356,958
Town districts64,060348,583351,180134,8359,06218,845
Road districts77,83782,17260,153117,05131,45313,008
River districts17,44367,52053,6593,09536,0902,121
Land-drainage districts29,38125,80528,853170,02556,0023,925
City and suburban drainage districts39,610598,4101,194,500167..     9,001
Tramway districts393,315936,228852,571..     ..     1,197
Water-supply districts5101,36020,115..     58920
Railway district5,59167,93129,373..     ..     2,356
Harbour districts1,118,08810,993,1006,681,925122,191..     203,544
Electric-power districts31,221250,202147,686..     ..     77,115
            Totals3,850,89032,696,01023,230,0843,492,3741,415,567934,375

LOANS OF LOCAL BODIES.

The net indebtedness of local governing bodies on account of outstanding loans has increased in the twenty years 1900–1 to 1920–21 from £6,776,251 to £23,230,084, exclusive of moneys borrowed from the Government, which represented a further indebtedness of £4,907,941 at the end of March, 1921, made up as follows: Inscribed debt—i.e., debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, converted, and amounts borrowed from the Treasury under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts, £1,415,567; and loans from the New Zealand State Advances Office, £3,492,374.

The outstanding loans of local bodies at the end of each of the last twenty years are shown in the following table:—

As at 31st March.Debentures and Stock in Circulation.Loans from State Advances Office.Inscribed DebtTotal Debt.
Gross Debt.Net Debt.Gross Debt.Net Debt.Gross Debt.Present Indebtedness.Gross Debt.Net Debt.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
19027,839,0957,016,632..     ..     1,405,6691,133,9069,245,3648,150,538
19038,217,1967,338,676..     ..     1,669,4801,354,5169,886,6768,693,192
19048,898,9107,975,320..     ..     1,857,1521,493,05510,756,0629,408,375
190510,018,2429,005,196..     ..     2,038,4941,621,49112,056,73610,626,687
190810,718,0519,722,081..     ..     2,155,1141,679,95812,873,16511,402,039
190711,616,04810,536,505..     ..     2,287,1051,748,08613,903,15312,284,651
190812,532,33411,343,352..     ..     2,399,0171,798,83414,931,35113,142,186
190913,303,62212,184,409..     ..     2,617,1351,943,72815,920,75714,128,137
191014,037,68513,765,802..     ..     2,872,2322,119,02317,809,91715,884,825
191115,727,61314,462,770405,195404,1632,972,7952,173,29319,105,60317,040,226
191216,590,87715,161,7271,195,6801,186,6112,985,9982,169,44720,772,55518,541,224
191317,483,33215,882,9261,740,9251,711,7972,988,2982,168,25222,212,55519,791,022
191418,923,48217,202,7642,063,0052,007,7972,842,1502,079,57023,828,63721,189,985
191519,454,47517,602,6692,339,4202,312,7542,780,4921,975,86024,634,38721,803,351
191620,754,16818,822,8962,680,2452,562,9702,728,1741,872,99026,102,58723,196,157
191721,432,76719,277,7062,836,0552,676,4072,690,4121,795,08026,959,23423,708,368
191822,260,53719,782,8452,962,1902,762,9002,630,2441,681,33027,852,97124,210,714
191922,673,71219,922,1533,095,7402,846,8372,654,4011,552,42328,323,85324,321,413
192024,608,29321,917,2353,406,2903,108,4582,471,1911,466,72730,485,77426,492,420
192126,186,96023,230,0843,852,4653,492,3742,425,6231,415,66732,465,04828,138,026

Of the total not indebtedness of £28,138,025 at the 31st March, 1921, boroughs were responsible for no less than £15,078,335, which represents 10.68 per cent, of their rateable capital value. In the case of counties, which have a much less per capita expenditure on public works, the percentage is only 1.31, while in road districts it is as low as 0.66. As may be expected, it is higher in town districts, the figure being 5.79.

The loans outstanding, other than Government loans, at the end of the financial year 1920–21 are shown below, classified according to various rates of interest and as to whether raised in New Zealand or abroad:—

Rate of Interest: Per Cent.Raised in New Zealand.Raised Abroad.Total.
 £     £     £     
Under 4 per cent.106,9132,000,5002,107,413
4 per cent.2,599,440645,0003,244,440
4 1/4 per cent.992,200963,0001,955,200
4 1/3 per cent.90,000..     90,000
4 1/2 per cent.3,818,9822,165,1005,984,082
4 5/3 per cent.11,000..     11,000
4 3/4 per cent.288,415376,000664,415
4 7/8 per cent.3,000..     3,000
5 per cent.4,002,6541,155,8445,158,498
5 1/8 per cent.121,500..     121,500
5 1/4 per cent.4,300,705107,3254,408,030
5 1/2 per cent.1,070,538120,4001,190,938
5 3/4 per cent.270,050..     270,050
6 per cent.62,494915,900978,394
                Totals17,737,8918,449,06926,186,960

A further table is given showing for each of the last twenty years the amount of the debt raised in New Zealand and elsewhere, other than loans from the General Government. Columns are added showing the interest payable and the average rate of interest per cent. It will be noticed that the amount of outstanding loans shown to have been raised in New Zealand was only a small percentage of the total at the end of the first of the twenty financial years shown, but increased gradually at first, and rapidly later, till at the end of the year 1912–13 it was nearly £3,000,000 in excess of the amount raised abroad. During 1913–14, however, the New Zealand amount decreased slightly, while the loans raised abroad showed a large increase. During the war period there have been decreases in the amounts raised abroad and increases in the amounts raised in New Zealand, making a difference between the two amounts of over £9,000,000 at the 31st March, 1921.

INDEBTEDNESS AND INTEREST CHARGES.
Financial Year.Raised in Now Zealand.Raised Abroad.Total Indebtedness.Interest.Average Rate per Cent.
 £     £     £     £     £     
1901–22,287,5955,552,1007,839,695396,4605.06
1902–32,880,5965,336,6008,217,196409,2384.91
1903–43,369,4105,529,5008,898,910439,8794.94
1904–53,479,6425,638,60010,018,242487,1454.86
1905–65,250,5515,467,50010,718,051515,1884.81
1906–76,145,5485,470,50011,616,048548,3874.72
1907–87,246,8345,285,50012,532,334587,5644.69
1908–97,785,9225,517,70013,303,622616,3304.63
1909–107,967,3856,970,30014,937,685684,6304.58
1910–118,254,3137,473,30015,727,613715,2894.55
1911–129,574,5277,016,35016,590,877748,8054.51
1912–1310,134,7827,348,55017,483,332787,8274.51
1913–1410,106,0828,817,40018,923,482855,0634.52
1914–1510,998,7758,455,70019,454,475870,9924.48
1915–1612,793,5437,960,62020,754,168948,5114.57
1916–1713,218,6178,214,15521,432,767983,4084.59
1917–1814,096,1878,164,35022,260,5371,034,2724.64
1913–1914,749,7637,923,94022,673,7121,048,9994.63
1919–2016,854,7257,753,57924,608,2951,137,0574.62
1920–2117,737,8918,449,06926,186,9601,221,5494.66

The average rate of interest shows a steady fall throughout the twenty years shown, with, however, a check in the last four years of the period.

The total indebtedness at the end of 1920–21, excluding loans from the State Advances Office and the inscribed debt under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts (the latter including stock exchanged for debentures under the Roads and Bridges Construction Act), was £26,186,960, as shown above. Against this were sinking funds amounting to £2,956,876, leaving the net indebtedness, other than to the State, £23,230,084. The annual charge for interest was £1,221,549, and for sinking fund £240,785. The net indebtedness to the State Advances Office was £3,492,374, representing loans originally amounting to £3,852,465. The instalments of principal and interest on this amounted to an annual charge of £204,119. The section of this book dealing with State advances contains further information regarding State advances to local authorities.

The estimated net indebtedness under the Government Loans to Local Bodies Acts, including inscribed stock exchanged for debentures under the Reads and Bridges Construction Act, 1882, was £1,415,567 at the end of the year. This debt is decreasing yearly, and will be extinguished in course of time. The amount outstanding is repayable by annual instalments of £89,498.

Detailed tables showing the statistics of individual local bodies will be found in the Annual Statistical Report relating to local governing bodies; also, as regards boroughs, town districts, and harbour boards, in the “Municipal Hand-book.” published biennially.

Chapter 23. SECTION XXIII.—STATE AID TO SETTLERS, WORKERS, ETC.

INTRODUCTORY.

As has been shown in Subsection C of the preceding section, an appreciable proportion of the public debt of New Zealand is represented by money borrowed by the State not for its own requirements, but for the purpose of lending out at easy rates of interest for various defined purposes.

As early as 1892 the Government commenced the purchase of lands for cutting up for sale or lease to private individuals, and two years later the passing of the Advances to Settlers Act, 1894, marked the inauguration of a series of schemes for lending money to settlers, workers, &c, for the purchase of homes, the improvement of farms, and the development of resources and of industries. The schemes vary considerably in detail, but all lie in one of two main classes—those in which the money is advanced on security, and those on which the expenditure is incurred by the Government itself in the first place and recouped from sales or leases. Advances to settlers, workers, discharged soldiers, and local authorities are the principal examples of the former class, and the purchase of land for settlements (including the settlement of discharged soldiers) and the erection of dwellings for purchase by workers the principal of the latter. The system of land-purchase is dealt with in the section of this book dealing with land tenure and settlement, and information concerning other principal branches of State financial assistance is given below.

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS.

The Advances to Settlers Office was established by an Act passed in 1894. An administrative officer called the Superintendent was appointed early in the following year, and a Board set up to advise and co-operate with the Superintendent. Advances can be granted only with the consent of the Board.

The capital fund was limited to £3,000,000, which was to be, raised within two years after the passing of the Act at an annual rate of interest not higher than 4 per cent. The first issue of £1,500,000 realized £94 8s. 9d. per £100 stock. The minimum advance was fixed at £25, and the maximum at £2,500, repayable in thirty-six years and a half by half-yearly instalments of 3 per cent, on the amount borrowed.

The legislation has been amended at different times, and is now embodied in the State Advances Act, 1913. It authorizes the borrowing of moneys for the purpose of lending to settlers, workers, and local authorities. Each year there may be borrowed for advances to settlers £1,500,000, to workers £750,000, and to local authorities £1,000,000.

From the inception of the scheme of advances to settlers in 1894, applications have been received to the number of 71,194 for loans totalling £30,507,629. The Advances Board authorized loans of £20,988,830 to 54,752 applicants, the total actual payments to 31st March, 1922, being £20,631,015, of which £12,708,080 has been repaid in respect of principal, leaving £7,922,935 still outstanding. A table is given showing the business to date and for each of the last ten years.

ADVANCES TO SEXLERS, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £      £     £     £     
19133,1871,164,2252,114749,590937,435698,938
19143,6041,400,2482,390878,855978,395710,590
19153,8701,826,2652,100749,0401,136,475754,810
19162,507982,8002,022746,630814,555713,177
19171,619660,9751,412515,270539,975843,751
19181,228511,532984353,465367,160501,009
19191,326579,022986363,875350,140529,023
19202,8411,520,1282,2191,031,855808,1801,118,486
19212,5051,661,9742,0851,107,4301,060,2601,065,003
19222,1971,321,4801,524773,375805,975552,269
Totals to 31st March, 192271,19430,507,62954,75220,988,83020,631,01512,708,080.

Not all the advances to settlers are made by the Advances to Settlers Branch of the State Advances Office. Part of the business shown in the above table relates to the Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch and the Advances Office Sinking Fund Branch. The advances to settlers authorized by the three branches during 1921–22 are as follows:—

Branch.Advances authorized.
Number.Amount.
  £     
Advances to Settlers987429,845
Public Debt Sinking Funds93,065
Advances Office Sinking Fund528340,465
                        Totals1,524£773,375

The advances authorized in each provincial district during the year, and the total to 31st March, 1922, are next shown.

Provincial District.Advances authorized, 1921–22.Total Advances authorized to 31st March, 1922.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £      £     
Auckland580276,98518,5896,644,583
Taranaki7036,4855,5552,596,684
Hawke's Bay12165,8702,8571,050,965
Wellington386209,11513,0145,330,043
Marlborough2815,4501,347570,930
Nelson217,030987313,900
Westland62,875975264,540
Canterbury18793,2305,3941,917,210
Otago—
    Otago portion6433,6502,7131,063,435
    Southland portion6132,6853,3211,236,540
                          Totals1,524773,37554,75220,988,830

Dealing now only with the operations of the Advances to Settlers Branch, it is seen that during the year 1921–22 the advances authorized numbered 987, representing a total amount of £429,845. The number of borrowers and the sums actually advanced during the year, classified according to amount, were,—

Category.Number of Advances.Amount advanced.
  £     
Not exceeding £500521200,995
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £1,000397276,355
Exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £2,0003852,635
                                            Totals956£529,985

The nature of the security upon which these advances were made was as follows:—

Security.Number of Advances.Amount advanced.
  £     
Freehold706365,985
Leasehold242156,805
Freehold and leasehold combined87,195
                                            Totals956£529,985

The advances outstanding, classified according to amount, are as follows:—

Category.Number of Advances.Amount outstanding.
  £     
Not exceeding £50014,0693,134,313
Exceeding £500 but not exceeding £1,0002,4252,082,921
Exceeding £1,000 but not exceeding £2,0001,0071,493,395
Exceeding £2,000 but not exceeding £3,00091233,993
                                            Totals17,592£6,944,622

The nature of the security for the total amount of advances outstanding on the 31st March, 1922, was,—

Security.Number of Advances.Amount outstanding.
  £     
Freehold10,7915,067,783
Leasehold6,6081,758,055
Freehold and leasehold combined193118,784
                                            Totals17,592£6,944,622

The average freehold advance is £470, the average leasehold advance £266, and the average of advances secured on both freehold and leasehold combined £615. Corresponding figures for the year ended the 31st March, 1921, are—Freehold, £464; leasehold, £262; and combined freehold and leasehold, £592.

The number and amounts of current advances on rural and on urban and suburban land are,—

 Number.Amount.
  £     
On rural land10,8974,495,459
On urban and suburban land6,6952,449,163
                                            Totals17,592£6,944,622

The average rural advance is £413, and the average urban and suburban advance is £366.

The gross profits for the year ended the 31st March, 1922, were £54,586, and the cost of management and expenses of the branch £18,308, being 0.197 per cent., or 3s. 11d. per £100 of the capital employed. The net profits amounted to £35,596.

The sinking fund established under the State Advances Act, 1913, amounts to £1,334,789, inclusive of £302,904 held by the Public Trustee.

The liabilities and assets at the 31st March, 1922, of the Settlers Branch of the State Advances Office were,—

Liabilities.£ s.d.
Sundry loans9,283,193110
Temporary advances from Public Debt Sinking Funds Brandt300,96200
Temporary advances from Advances Office Sinking Fund Account219,00000
Advances Suspense Account10,20500
Fire Loss Suspense Account2,64737
Suspense Account2,24434
Reserve Fund52,378135
Interest payable on loans, accrued but not due75,40470
Income-tax Suspense Account31,607165
Sinking Fund849,123180
..     £10,827,15637
Assets.£ s.d.
Investment Account—Total principal owing by mortgagors at 31st March, 19226,944,622110
Interest due37,421129
Interest on mortgages, accrued but not due76,86868
Temporary advances to Local Authorities Branch409,00000
Temporary advances to Workers Branch492,00000
Temporary investments1,424,77379
Interest on temporary investments, accrued out not due19,30825
Insurance Premiums Account344810
Office Furniture and Equipment Account2,224310
Realization Account2,32121
Sinking Funds—
    Public Trustee302,904139
    Advances Office Sinking Fund Account1,019,25019
    Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch12,03445
Cash in bank at 31st March, 192283,423176
..     £10,827,15637

ADVANCES TO WORKERS.

The total of the advances to workers up to the 31st March, 1922 (including moneys repaid and again advanced), was £4,854,265.

The applications received for loans during the year ended the 31st March, 1922, numbered 1,417, the aggregate amount required being £830,810. Advances authorized during 1921–22 numbered 987, representing a total amount of £449,220.

The total number of loans and the aggregate amount authorized in each provincial district are as follows:—

Provincial District.Advances authorized, 1921–22.Total Advances authorized to 31st March, 1922.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £      £     
Auckland342164,1304,9181,605,860
Taranaki3513,950516155,720
Hawke's Bay11653,2551,272435,615
Wellington19184,1204,1951,386,495
Marlborough113,900472144,145
Nelson51,67524862,920
Westland..     ..     19442,030
Canterbury227103,6403,8491,282,650
Otago—
    Otago portion3614,1501,118328,060
    Southland portion2410,400495137,540
                          Totals987449,22017,2775,580,935

Dealing only with the operations of the Advances to Workers Branch and excluding the Advances Office Sinking Fund, it is noticed that the advances actually paid during the year numbered 730 for an aggregate of £357,870. The tenures upon. which these loans were made were,—

Tenure.Number of Loans.Aggregate Amount.
  £     
Freehold701344,725
Leasehold2913,145
                Totals730£357,870

The net amount outstanding at the end of the financial year was £2,855,384, secured upon the following tenures:—

Tenure.Number of Loans outstanding.Aggregate Amount outstanding.
  £     
Freehold9,1582,741,264
Leasehold569114,120
                Totals9,727£2,855,384

The gross profits for the year ended the 31st March, 1922, were £13,477, and the cost of management and expenses of the branch £3,921. The net profits amounted to £8,831.

The following table gives particulars of the transactions for each of the last ten years, and the total transactions since the passing of the Government Advances to Workers Act on the 29th October, 1906:—

ADVANCES TO WORKERS, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £      £     £     £     
19131,805574,4931,254397,175449,26084,771
19141,599528,2401,200339,200272,86080,933
19151,492462,0651,129337,690313,025110,110
19161,079383,365953297,630275,680115,535
1917734266,740658210,995214,965127,450
1918555197,738411129,710125,853139,485
1919562214,415372119,55587,590147,791
19201,660746,5861,083420,465225,055368,597
19211,9201,053,5121,556718,630660,790388,469
19221,417830,810987449,220407,580207,843
Totals from inception to 31/3/192222,2938,044,87817,2775,580,9354,854,2651,949,171

The financial position of the Advances to Workers Branch of the State Advances Office as on the 31st March, 1922, is shown in the following table:—

ADVANCES TO WORKERS BRANCH: LIABHJTIES AND ASSETS, 31ST MARCH, 1922.
Liabilities.£ s.d.
Sundry loans2,419,346141
Temporary loans from Settlers Branch492,00000
Interest payable on loans, accrued but not due25,26299
Advances Suspense Account18,71000
Income-tax Suspense Account7,142175
Fire Loss Suspense Account800
Suspense Account539198
Reserve Fund590147
Sinking Fund45,30754
..     £3,003,908010
Assets.£ s.d.
Investment Account—Total principal owing by mortgagors at 31st March, 19222,855,38431
Interest due9,067710
Interest on mortgages, accrued but not due32,114711
Loan Charges Account11,50000
Insurance Premiums Account139143
Realization Account500131
Sinking Funds—
    Public Trustee2,715179
    Advances Office Sinking Fund Account67,645199
    Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch5,17037
Cash in bank at 31st March. 192219,639137
..     £3,003,908010

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES.

During the eleven years which have elapsed since the system of State advances to local authorities was initiated 2,353 applications under this head have been received for loans totalling £9,577,092. Loans authorized, 1,791 in number, have aggregated £5,387,024, of which £4,636,980 has been actually advanced. Repayments to the 31st March, 1922, have totalled £494,580, leaving an indebtedness of £4,142,400 in respect of principal moneys. Figures for each of the last ten years and to date are as follows:—

ADVANCES TO LOCAL AUTHORITIES, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Applications received.Loans authorized.Amount advanced.Amount repaid.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £      £     £     £     
191393136,51387181,795494,13520,781
1914167166,1657284,970259,43029,600
191577222,07048254,430237,28529,800
1916170263,858164238,970285,41035,192
1917118154,025103127,135152,31038,874
1918110171,110109158,055128,15041,681
1919125225,988119214,300130,57546,615
19202841,041,380229717,160311,88049,034
19213101,865,460194689,225444,82553,926
1922213573,805246725,730780,410138,591
    Totals from inception to 31/3/222,3539,577,0921,7915,387,0244,636,980494,580

As in the case of advances to settlers, advances to local authorities are made from three distinct sources—viz., the funds of the Advances to Local Authorities Branch of the State Advances Office, the Public Debt Sinking Funds, and the Advances Office Sinking Fund. Of the £780,410 advanced in 1921–22 as shown above, only £230,605 came from the Local Authorities Branch, the Advances Office Sinking Fund contributing £49,905, and the Public Debt Sinking Funds £427,900. Of the amount outstanding at the 31at March, the Public Debt Sinking Funds claimed £1,404,643, and the Advances Office Sinking Fund £302,912.

A statement of the liabilities and assets of the Local Authorities Branch as at the 31st March, 1922, is appended.

Liabilities.£ s.d.
Sundry loans2,779,5161210
Temporary advances from Settlers Branch409,00000
Temporary loans from Public Debt Sinking Funds155,03800
Interest on loan-moneys, accrued but not due36,38567
Sinking Fund59,034108
..     £3,439,574101
Assets.£ s.d.
Investment Account, less total repayments2,434,844610
Interest on debentures—
    Local bodies—Overdue at 31st March, 192210,478154
    Accrued but not due at 31st March, 192219,59643
Loan Charges Account32,07250
Temporary investments545,226123
Interest accrued but not due on temporary investments9,85135
Sinking funds—
    Public Trustee48,46105
    Advances Office Sinking Fund Account222,5591310
    Public Debt Sinking Funds Branch11,7601110
Profit and Loss Account76,96834
Cash in band and in bank at 31st March, 192228,249137
..     £3,439,574101

ERECTION AND PURCHASE OF DWELLINGS.

The Workers' Dwellings Acts of 1905 and 1910 made provision for the erection by the State of workers' dwellings on Crown lands purchased for that purpose. Purchase of houses already erected was also provided for.

By the Act of 1910 the maximum salary of a worker entitled to take advantage of the provisions of the Act was £175 per annum. As amended in 1914, the Act stipulated that the maximum capital value of a worker's dwelling should be £750. Dwellings could be leased or purchased on the instalment principle by the worker.

The legislation in regard to the purchase or erection of dwellings for workers is now embodied in the Housing Act, 1919, and its amendment of 1920. The 1919 Act was passed to meet difficulties arising out of a serious shortage of houses due to war conditions. Under this Act dwellings may be provided not only by the State itself, but also by local authorities, employers, associations of public servants, and public-utility societies, the State advancing the money. A brief summary of the 1919 Act, as amended, is given.

Part I (Workers' Dwellings).—This Part is in substitution for the Workers' Dwellings Act, 1910, and its amendments. It provides for the building of houses by the Housing Board on behalf of the Crown, and for the sale or lease of those dwellings to workers as defined in the Act. No person is qualified to acquire a dwelling under this Part of the Act if his annual income exceeds £300 (in the case of a person with not more than two children dependent on him), or £300 increased by £20 in respect of each child or other dependant in excess of two (in the cases of other applicants). The maximum price of a wooden building is fixed at £1,160, and of a stone, concrete, or brick building at £1,250. Buildings may be purchased on a system of time payment, extending over not more than thirty years in the case of a wooden building, and not more than thirty-six and a half years in the case of any other building. Interest is payable by the purchaser on unpaid purchase-money at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum; reducible on punctual payment to 4 1/2 per cent. Buildings disposed of under the Act are for all time subject to certain restrictions on alienation, and attempted dispositions in contravention of the Act are void. For the purposes of the acquisition of land and buildings, and for the erection of dwellings, the Minister of Finance is empowered to borrow annually the sum of £750,000.

Part II (Special Settlements for Public Servants and Public Utility Societies).— This Part of the Act enables the Minister of Finance to borrow annually the sum of £250,000 to be advanced by way of loan to public servants, societies of public servants, “public utility societies,” and the members of such societies, for the purpose of carrying out approved schemes for the establishment of village settlements or garden suburbs. A “public utility society” is defined as an incorporated society, whose object, or one of whose objects, is the formation of village settlements or garden suburbs, or generally the provision of homes for workers under certain limitations as to payment of dividends or interest to shareholders.

Part III (Loans to Employers for Workers' Dwellings).—This Part of the Act enables the Minister of Finance to borrow annually the sum of £250,000 to be advanced to employers for the purpose of the erection of dwellinghouses to be disposed of to their employees on conditions to be approved by the Minister:

Part IV (Erection of Workers' Dwellings by Harbour Boards).—This Part of the Act empowers Harbour Boards to acquire land and to erect dwellings thereon for disposal by way of sale or lease to Harbour Board employees. With respect to such dwellings, Harbour Boards have conferred on them the same powers as they have under the Harbours Act, 1908, with respect to harbour-works. Loans may be raised under the authority of this Part of the Act without a poll of the ratepayers being taken.

Part V (Erection of Workers' Dwellings by other Local Authorities).—This Part enables County Councils and Borough Councils to borrow money from the State Advances Office for the erection of workers' dwellings. Any such loans may be raised without taking a poll of the ratepayers. For the purposes of this Part of the Act the Minister of Finance is empowered to borrow annually an additional sum of £1,000,000.

Part VI (Advances to Workers under State Advances Act).—This Part amends the definition of “worker” in the State Advances Act, 1913, so as to correspond with the definition in Part I. It also increases the maximum amount that may be lent to any one borrower under Part III of the State Advances Act, 1913, from £450 to £750.

Part VII (Restriction on Increase of Rent).—This Part amends in various respects the temporary legislation relating to the restriction of rents.

Part VIII (Erection of Staff Residences by Banks).—This Part empowers banking institutions carrying on business in New Zealand to acquire land and erect dwellings thereon for disposal by sale or lease to officers employed in the service of the bank.

Up to the 31st March, 1922, a total of 1,077 dwellings had been erected or purchased by the State for workers since the inception of the original scheme in 1905. Of these, 223 were erected or purchased under the Housing Ad; during the year ended the 31st March, 1922. Payments have been completed on 35 houses out of the total of 1,077.

STATE ASSISTANCE TO DISCHARGED SOLDIERS.

Information as to the settlement of discharged soldiers on the land, and as to the system of advances to discharged soldiers for the purchase or erection of dwellings, is contained in Section XV(B) of this book. In addition the State provides financial assistance to discharged soldiers and nurses, and to the widows and widowed mothers of discharged soldiers, for the purpose of purchasing or establishing businesses and obtaining furniture, tools, and equipment.

Loans to a maximum of £300 may be made for the purpose of purchasing or establishing businesses, the first £50 free of interest and the balance bearing interest at 5 per cent. Up to the 20th June, 1922, a total of 0,288 business loans had been made, to an aggregate amount of £1,134,587.

For the purchase of furniture amounts up to £75 may be advanced, free of interest. The maximum for the purchase of tools, equipment, &c, is £50, also free of interest. The number of cases and the amounts granted under these headings totalled 14,865 and £704,956 respectively.

Grants' not exceeding £50 may be made to an incapacitated soldier or to a soldier's widow in respect of passage-money beyond New Zealand when such a change of location is recognized as being necessary or desirable. Very few applications have been made for grants under this heading, but many men have been assisted with fares to billets found for them in the Dominion. The finding of employment for discharged soldiers is another function of the Repatriation Department, as is also the provision of training fees, sustenance grants, &c

Exclusive of expenditure for the settlement of discharged soldiers on the land, and by way of advances for the purchase or erection of dwellings, loans and grants to the amount of £2,240,998 had been made to the 20th June, 1922, in respect of 33,011 men, the expenditure under the various categories being—

 Number of Cases.Amount.
  £     
Loans—
        Business6,2881,134,587
        Furniture, tools, equipment, &c14,865704,956
                        Total loans21,1531,839,543
Grants—
      Training fees, sustenance, &c7,483388,348
        Unemployment sustenance1,1235,577
        Transportation3,2527,530
                        Total grants11,858401,455
                        Grand totals33,011£2,240,998

The general policy in regard to repayment of loans is to fix terms that, while not bearing too hardly upon the individual concerned, will nevertheless ensure the liquidation of the loan within three or four years. In most cases terms are fixed for a period of twelve months, at the end of which time the position is reviewed and the conditions varied if necessary. Up to June, 1922, the sum of £1,032,092 (52 per cent, of advances) had been repaid, 4,001 loans (1609 business loans and 2,392 furniture advances) having been repaid in full, and many others nearing their final instalment. In 129 cases only, involving an average of £69, have deficits had to be written off.

OTHER SPHERES OF STATE FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE.

Among other activities of the State in regard to the provision of finance for various purposes may be mentioned—

The draining of areas of land to fit them for settlement:

The making of advances to mineral prospecting parties and mining companies:

The making of advances to fruit-preserving and cold-storage companies:

The supervision of the sale of kauri-gum and the making of advances to the diggers concerned:

The making of advances to enable persons burnt out during the Waimarino bush-fires to re-establish their homes and farms.

Chapter 24. SECTION XXIV.—PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

OLD-AGE PENSIONS.

THE law relating to old-age, military, and widows' pensions is contained in the Pensions Act, 1913, a consolidation of previous enactments, in the Pensions Amendment Act, 1914, and in the Finance Acts of 1919 and 1920. The history of legislation dealing with old-age pensions is given in the 1919 and previous issues of this hook. The first payments were made in the year 1898.

The qualifications for the old-age pension are briefly as follows:—

  1. The applicant, if a male, must have reached the age of sixty-five, or, if a female, must have reached the age of sixty, except in cases where the applicant is the parent of two or more children under fourteen years of age for the maintenance of whom he (or she) is responsible. The pension age in such cases is sixty for men and fifty-five for women, and the pension payable may be any sum up to £13 per annum, in addition to the ordinary pension payable as set out hereunder.

  2. The applicant must have resided continuously in New Zealand for the past twenty-five years. Continuous residence is not interrupted by absences not exceeding two years. An additional six months' period of absence is allowed for every additional year's residence in excess of the twenty-five years immediately preceding the date of application, provided that the applicant has resided in New Zealand during the twelve months immediately preceding the date of application. In the case of a seaman continuous residence is not interrupted by absences on board a ship registered in New Zealand, provided the applicant establishes the fact that his home is in New Zealand.

  3. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have been imprisoned for four months or on four occasions for an offence punishable by twelve months' imprisonment.

  4. The applicant must not during the past twenty-five years have been imprisoned for five years for any offence.

  5. The applicant must not during the past twelve years have deserted his wife (or husband, as the case may be) and children.

  6. The applicant must have lived a sober and reputable life during the past year.

  7. The yearly income of the applicant, if single, must not reach £78, and, if married, £130.

  8. The net value of accumulated property must not be £390 or over.

  9. The applicant must not have deprived himself or herself of property or income to qualify for a pension.

All residents of New Zealand who fulfil the necessary conditions are eligible for the old-age pension, with the exception of—

  1. Maoris who receive votes other than pensions out of the grant appropriated by the Civil List Act, 1908.

  2. Aliens.

  3. Naturalized subjects who have not been naturalized one year.

  4. Chinese or other Asiatics, whether naturalized or not, and whether British subjects by birth or not.

The term “alien” is deemed not to include a woman who ceased to be a British subject by reason of marriage with an alien who is since deceased, or from whom she is legally separated.

The original Act of 1898 provided for a pension of £18 per annum, or 6s. 11d. per week. This amount was, however, increased to £26 per annum (i.e., 10s. a week, or £2 3s. 4d. a month) by the Amendment Act of 1905. Under the Finance Act, 1917, every person in receipt of an old-age pension was paid an additional 5s. a week, or £13 per annum, by way of war bonus, and, in terms of the provisions of the Finance Act, 1920, this bonus was incorporated in the statutory pension, which is now 15s. a week, or £39 per annum. The full pension of £39 is reducible by—

  1. £1 for every complete £1 of income over £39.

  2. £1 for every complete £10 of net accumulated property.

  3. £1 for every year or part of a year by which the age of the applicant is less than sixty-five years.

The income of a married applicant for pension purposes is considered to be half of the joint incomes of husband and wife. The joint incomes of a married couple must not exceed, with pension added, the sum of £130.

Income includes free board and lodging up to £26 per annum, but does not include—

  1. Sick allowance or funeral benefit paid by a friendly society.

  2. Any money received on the sale or exchange of land or property.

  3. Capital expended for the benefit of the applicant or the wife or husband of the applicant.

  4. Money or money's worth received on the intestacy or under the will of a deceased husband or wife.

  5. Any money received under an insurance policy on the destruction or damage by fire or otherwise of a building or other property.

An additional exemption of one of the following is also allowed, whichever provides for the greater amount of pension:—

  1. Relief by way of charity up to £52 in any year.

  2. Any pension payable under the Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915.

  3. Relief by way of gifts or allowances from any relative up to £52 in any year.

  4. Any pension payable under the War Pensions Act, 1915.

  5. Any other moneys received by the applicant not exceeding £39 in any year.

The income chargeable is that received during the twelve months preceding the date of application, the Magistrate dealing with the application having power to exempt all personal earnings earned at a rate not exceeding £2 a week, provided it is shown to his satisfaction that owing to loss of employment or any other cause such earnings have ceased. Income being received when an application is lodged at the rate of the disqualifying amount—i.e., £78 for a single person and £130 for a married person— is a bar to the granting of a pension.

Net accumulated property is the capital value of all real and personal property owned by an applicant, other than life-assurance policies and annuities, or other life interests in the capital sum of which the applicant has no interest beyond the income derived therefrom, less the following deductions:—

  1. The amount of mortgage existing on the property.

  2. £390 from the home, including furniture and personal effects.

  3. £50 from any other property.

The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for pension purposes is half of the total net accumulated properties of both.

The pension is not affected by any increase in the value of property used exclusively as a home, which is taken at the valuation obtaining at the date of the original grant of the pension.

The number of old-age pensions in force on the 31st March, 1922, was 20,491, an increase of 654 on the figures for the previous year. The annual liability was £751,121, being an average of £36 13s. 1d. per pension. The total payment in respect of old-age pensions during the year was £743,620. A decennial summary is—

At 31st March.Pensioners.Amount paid during Year.
  £     
191316,509415,761
191418,050416,776
191519,352460,814
191619,804479,339
191719,697480,230
191819,960643,177
191919,872743,063
192019,993732,968
192119,837731,343
192220,491743,620

The total payments to the 31st March, 1922, aggregated £9,403,751.

WIDOWS' PENSIONS.

The Widows' Pensions Act, 1911, came into operation on the 1st January, 1912. The scope of this Act has been widened from time to time by various amendments.

Applicants for widows' pensions must be British subjects of good character, with at least one child under fourteen, and applications require to be lodged with the local Registrar of Pensions, and to be investigated by a Magistrate, who alone has power to grant pensions. The term “widow” includes a woman whose husband is detained in a mental hospital.

The maximum pension payable is £39 per annum to a widow with one child under fourteen years of age, with £19 10s. per annum added for each additional child under fourteen. The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child legally adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant.

The number of widows' pensions in force on the 31st March, 1922, was 3,343, covering in addition 9,118 children. The annual value of these pensions was £207,029, and the gross payments during the year were £186,457.

The figures for the last five years are as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Number at End of Year.Annual Value.Annual Payments.
  £     £     
19182,19273,87257,952
19193,211112,61830,773
19203,444185,968136,815
19213,421198,767187,430
19223,343207,029186,457

The average pension as at 31st March, 1922, was £61 18s. 7d. The total widows' pension payments since the inauguration of the scheme in 1912 have been £806,573.

MAORI WAR PENSIONS.

The Military Pensions Act, 1912, was enacted to provide for payment of an annual pension of £36 (now £49) to veterans of the Maori War who have been awarded the New Zealand War Medal for active service in that war. This Act is now embodied in the Pensions Act of 1913, which consolidates the law relating to old-age, widows', and Maori War pensions.

The qualifications of an applicant are as follows:—

  1. He must have resided in New Zealand for the ten years immediately preceding the date of his application.

  2. He must not have been imprisoned during the same period for any offence punishable by imprisonment for two years.

  3. He must not during the same period have deserted or failed to provide for his wife and children.

  4. He must be of good character and sober habits.

The number of pensions in force on the 31st March, 1922, was 740, representing an annual value of £36,260. The payments on account of. military pensions during the year aggregated £37.737. The figures for five years are,—

Year ended 31st March.Number at End of Year.Annual Value.Annual Payments.
  £     £     
19181,15353,20850,734
19191,04047,81450,488
192093943,29445,085
192181139,73940,213
192274036,26037,737

The number of pensioners of this class is rapidly decreasing, having fallen from 1,323 in 1916 to 740 in 1922.

MINERS' PENSIONS.

The Miner's Phthisis Act, 1915, as amended by the Finance Acts, 1919 and 1920, provides for a pension to any miner who is totally incapacitated for work owing to miner's phthisis (pneumoconiosis) contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand.

The rates of pension payable are—

To a single man or to a widower without children under fourteen, £1 5s. a week.

To a married man or to a widower with children under fourteen, £1 15s. a week.

The qualifications for this class of pension are—

The applicant must have been a British subject for one year.

The applicant must have resided in New Zealand for five years immediately prior to his application.

The applicant must have been employed as a miner in New Zealand for two years and a half.

The applicant must not have deserted wife or children, nor have been convicted for any offence punishable by imprisonment for two years.

The applicant must be of sober habits and good moral character.

The widow of any miner who is entitled to a pension under the Act and dies of miner's phthisis is entitled to claim a pension of 17s. 6d. a week during widowhood. The reasonable cost of the burial of a miner dying of miner's phthisis is also payable.

The number of pensions in force at 31st March, 1922, was 506, representing an annual liability of £31,505, the average pension being £62 5s. 3d. Pension payments during the year totalled £31,212, bringing the aggregate from the commencement of the scheme to £110,962. Against this the amount of £24,595 has been credited in respect of gold duty.

WAR PENSIONS.

The War Pensions Act, 1915, as amended, provides for the payment of pensions on certain conditions—

  1. To disabled members of the New Zealand Forces:

  2. To dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of the New Zealand Forces.

“Member of the Forces” may include—

  1. A member of any New Zealand Expeditionary Force raised for service beyond New Zealand in the late war:

  2. A member of any New Zealand Naval Force raised for service beyond New Zealand in the late war:

  3. A member of the New Zealand Army Nursing Service who, while domiciled in New Zealand, has served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in the pay of the New Zealand Government:

  4. A member of the New Zealand Defence or Naval Forces temporarily attached to any other portion of His Majesty's Forces who has served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in receipt of pay from the Imperial Government:

  5. Any person, not being a member of any New Zealand Expeditionary or Naval Force, who, while domiciled in New Zealand, has served beyond New Zealand in the late war and was in receipt of pay from the New Zealand Government:

  6. Any person, not being a member of any New Zealand Expeditionary Force, who has been engaged on active military service in any capacity in New Zealand in connection with the late war.

A “dependant” may be wife, child, father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, stepfather, stepmother, grandchild, brother, sister, or mother-in-law, and, except wife or child, must have been wholly or in part dependent upon a member of the Forces at any time during the twelve months immediately preceding the date on which the said member joined the Forces.

A “dependant” may, however, include a father or mother who was not actually dependent during the said twelve months, but is without adequate means of support.

A “child” means a person under the age of sixteen years, being a son, daughter, stepson, stepdaughter, or illegitimate child of a member of the Forces, or a child legally adopted by such member before he became a member of the Forces.

The death or disablement of any member of the Forces must have occurred in the course of his military service in connection with the late war, but may have taken place either in New Zealand or after departure from New Zealand.

The pension may be refused to a disabled applicant if any wilful misconduct contributed to the disablement.

The full scale of pensions was published in the 1920 issue of this book.

The gross annual value of the pensions in force at the 31st March, 1922, was £1,513,263. A summary follows:—

SUMMARY OF ANNUAL LIABILITY AT 31ST MARCH, 1922.
Class of Pension.Number.Annual Value.Average Pension.
  £     £     
Soldiers (permanent)4,650243,46352
Soldiers (temporary)15,302765,69050
Dependants (temporary)1,10379,83372
Widows of soldiers1,986219,542111
Other dependants of deceased soldiers6,050204,73534
                        Totals29,0911,513,26352

Information as to number and rate of war pensions in force at 31st March, 1922, is given in the following table:—

WAR PENSIONS IN FORCE AT EACH RATE ON 31ST MARCH, 1922.
Rate (nearest £1).Soldiers (Permanent).Soldiers (Temporary).Wives and Parents (on Account of Disablement).On Account of Death.
Widows (including. Children's Pensions).Parents and other Dependants.
£     £     
261–300..     ..     ..     7..     
234–260249..     28..     
201–233751165..     
191–200611226..     
181–1906693921103..     
171–18015..     10..     
161–17024..     88..     
151–16010467187..     
141–1503185814..     
131–140817365..     
121–130593169390..     
111–12020713605
101–11057109114357
  91–100911372088
  81–90386114368
  71–80396707266506171
  61–7022246544861
  51–608362,25525665463
  41–501588230153
  31–108643,071114451,697
  21–301,1227,015912353,476
    6–2031283304101
        Totals4,65015,3021,1031,9866,050

The total payments on war pensions to the 31st March, 1922, were £7,335,044, the figures for each year being.—

Year ended 31st March.Pension Payments.
 £     
191613,910
1917180,389
1918515,445
19191,199,755
19201,812,419
19211,880,952
19221,726,174

SOUTH AFRICAN VETERANS' WAR PENSIONS.

Section 13 of the Finance Act, 1919, provides that every person permanently resident in New Zealand who on the passing of that Act was in receipt of a pension or allowance under Part IX of the Defence Act, 1909, in respect of military service in South Africa, shall be entitled to a pension under the War Pensions Act, 1915, in the same manner as if he had been a member of the Forces within the meaning of that Act. Any pension under this section shall not be of such amount that the total amount receivable (including any Imperial pension) would be more than the pension payable if he had been a member of the Forces within the War Pensions Act, 1915.

POLICE PENSIONS.

Section 14 of the Finance Act, 1919, makes provision that, in the event of the death of any Police officer by misadventure suffered in the exercise of his duties, an allowance is payable to or on behalf of his widow and children at rates not exceeding those payable if he were a member of an Expeditionary Force under the Expeditionary Force Act, 1915. This Act is retrospective, but any compensation already paid is taken into account. The scale for disablement is also similar to the war-pensions scale.

Applications are made to the same authorities, and the procedure is the same as in the case of war pensions.

Only five pensions, of an aggregate annual liability of £446, were in force under this head at the 31st March, 1922.

EPIDEMIC PENSIONS.

To relieve distress arising out of the influenza epidemic of 1918 a system of pensions was instituted. The number of pensions in force at the 31st March, 1922, was 683, representing an annual liability of £54,994, the average pension being £80. The amount paid during the financial year 1921–22 in respect of epidemic pensions was £65,486.

The number of pensions is rapidly decreasing, having fallen by 256 since the 31st March, 1920.

SUPERANNUATION FUNDS.

The question of providing pensions for the public and semi-public servants of the Dominion on their retirement has received a good deal of attention in recent years. The schemes now in force embrace the State Railways, Public Service (including Police), and Teachers, while the various local bodies are empowered to establish schemes under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908.

PUBLIC SERVICE SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Public Service Superannuation Act, 1907, now embodied in the Public Service Classification and Superannuation Act, 1908, which with its amendments includes all branches of the Public Service except the Railways Department and so much of the Education Department as is included in Part IX of the Education Act, 1908 (mainly Inspectors and teachers of public schools), came into force on the 1st January, 1903. The scheme, although optional on the part of public servants permanently employed at that date, is compulsory on all persons appointed thereafter.

The Police Provident Fund, which was established on the 1st December, 1899, under the Police Provident Act, 1899, was merged in the Public Service Superannuation Fund on the 1st April, 1910.

The principal benefits are—

  1. A pension for every year of service equal to one-sixtieth of the average annual salary for the last three years, payable (a) after forty years' service, or (b) at age sixty-five, or (c) on retirement owing to ill health. The maximum pension is not to exceed two-thirds of the salary, or, in the case of entrants after the 24th December, 1909, £300 per annum.

  2. A pension of £18 per annum to the widow of a contributor or pensioner during widowhood, and £13 per annum for each child under the age of fourteen.

Females may retire after thirty years' service or at the age of fifty-five, while the retiring-age may be reduced in certain cases for both males and females. Special pensions may be given in the case of members of the Police Force for injuries received on duty.

The contributions vary with the age on joining the fund: For ages under thirty they are 5 per cent, of the salary; ages thirty and under thirty-five, 6 per cent.; thirty-five and under forty, 7 per cent.; forty and under forty-five, 8 per cent.; forty-five and under fifty, 9 per cent.; fifty and over, 10 per cent.

On the 31st December, 1921, there were 15,782 contributors paying £248,020 per annum into the fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 1,949, and were entitled to £163,355 per annum, made up as follows:—

 Number.Pension.
  £     
Retired for age or length of service878136,913
Retired for ill health15111,914
Police injured on duty.4395
Widows4458,010
Children4716,123
 1,949£163,355

The following table contains particulars of the public servants who were contributing to the fund at the end of the year 1921, grouped according to their respective rates of contribution:—

Rate per Cent. Of Contribution.Number.Annual Salary.Annual Contributions.
Male.Female.Total.
    £     £     
58,9982,09411,0922,623,643131,182
61,5611961,757578,41534,705
71,1781361,314453,08831,716
8831110941332,13826,571
945035485180,78016,270
101811219375,7607,576
Totals13,1992,58315,7824,243,824248,020

Accumulated funds at the end of 1921 amounted to £1,716,837. Interest was earned on the mean funds at a rate of £5 6s. per cent.

The report of the Superannuation Board for the year 1921 shows that officers who retired during the year and who possessed compensation rights under the Civil Service. Act, 1866, would have been entitled to receive the sum of £20,956, the amount of compensation accrued to the date when they joined the Superannuation Fund, had they not become participants in the benefits of the fund. The total amount of such compensation for which the fund became liable since the initiation of the scheme is £422,298. To this amount must be added, accretions to the date of retirement, approximately £100,000, for which the Consolidated Fund would otherwise have been liable, and the whole may be fairly set against the total subsidies paid to the fund, amounting to £674,500.

The Government subsidy to the fund was originally £20,000 per annum, rising in 1910 to £22,500, and in the next two years to £23,000. In 1913 it was increased to £48,000, and in 1919 to £86,000. The actuarial report for the triennium 1917–19 shows that on the basis of valuation adopted the subsidies paid for 1911 and 1912 were too low by £25,000 per annum; for the three years 1914–16, too low by £18,000 per annum; and for 1917 and 1918, too low by £38,000 per annum; making a total shortage to 1919 of £180,000, or, with accumulations at 4 per cent, to 1922, £237,264. The valuation of the fund as at the 31st December, 1919, gives the following results:—

 £     
Present value of the liability for benefits7,486,981
Present value of contributions receivable from members£2,055,794
Funds in hand1,288,198
..     3,343,992
Present value of total liability of State4,142,989
Less present value of existing subsidy of £86,0002,150,000
Value of future subsidies to be provided for by the State over and above present subsidy of £86,000£1,992,989

The actuarial report estimates that, apart from making provision for the shortages of past years, an additional £24,000 should be paid by way of subsidy for each of the three years 1920–22. Extraordinary retirements in 1922 are estimated to require a further £15,000 in that year, or £5,000 per annum, and it is pointed out that at least £10,000 per annum should be added to the subsidy to meet the deficiency in past subsidy-payments.

It should be pointed out that, while the rates of interest earned by the fund were £5 3s. 3d. per cent, in 1917, £5 4s. 1d. per cent, in 1918, and £5 5s. 10d. per cent, in 1919, the valuation of the fund has been made on the basis of interest at 4 per cent., it not being considered prudent to anticipate a higher rate for the long period covered by a pension fund.

TEACHERS' SUPERANNUATION FUND.

Since the passing of the Public Service Classification and Superannuation Amendment Act, 1908, the benefits from the Teachers' Superannuation Fund have been brought into line with those of the Public Service Superannuation Fund. Existing contributors had, however, the right of electing to remain subject to the provisions formerly in force.

There are a few slight differences between the Public Service and the Teachers' Funds, the chief being that (1) the service of the teachers need not be continuous; (2) no pensions are payable on retirement for ill health unless the service exceeds fifteen years; and (3) in the case of reduction of status owing to age or infirmity, there is no provision that the pension must be computed on the higher salary as in the Public Service Fund.

The total subsidies paid to the fund by the Government amounted on the 31st December, 1921, to £264,000. On the 31st December, 1921, there were 5,872 contributors, the annual contributions amounting to £96,409.

The retiring and other allowances were 881, representing a charge of £79,355 per annum, made up of—

 Number.Amount of Pension.
  £     
Retired for age or length of service55365,091
Retired for ill health10210,648
Widows1332,407
Children931,209
 881£79,355

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS SUPERANNUATION FUND.

The Government Railways Superannuation Fund was established on the 1st January, 1903, by the Government Railways Superannuation Fund Act, 1902, now embodied in the Government Railways Act, 1908.

The pension is here also one-sixtieth of the annual rate of pay for every year of service, but the retiring-age is sixty for both males and females, instead of ages sixty-five and fifty-five respectively as in the Public, Service. The only other differences of importance are that the annual allowances to widows and children are paid only on the death of contributors before retiring on a pension, and that the pension is computed on the last salary, except where the contributor has served in a lower grade within the previous five years, in which case the average for seven years is taken.

The total amount standing to the credit of the Government Railways Superannuation Fund at the close of the financial year ended 31st March, 1922, was £543,541, an increase of £79,041 on the balance to the credit of the fund for the previous year. The gross income for the year was £233,826, and the outgo £154,785. Of the latter amount, £123,440 represents grants to 1,202 members of the Railway service who have either retired voluntarily or have been retired medically unfit, and allowances amounting to £13,935 were paid in respect to 420 widows and 561 children, dependants of deceased contributors to the fund who were members of the service at the time of their death. The income from the actual contributions of members of the fund totalled £135,884, or £12,208 less than the estimated annual liability. The receipts are, however, augmented by the Government subsidy of £75,000 and amounts received by way of interest on funds invested and fines imposed under the regulations, together with a donation. These amounted to £23,822.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES SUPERANNUATION.

The Local Authorities Superannuation Act, 1908, which came into force on the 10th October, 1908, applies to Borough Councils, County Councils, Town Boards, Road Boards, Harbour Boards, Charitable Aid Boards, tramway companies, or any body possessing rating-powers over any district.

Statistical information as to the various funds which have been initiated under the authority of this statute is not available.

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND.

The National Provident Fund was established by Act in 1910, and came into operation on the 1st March, 1911. The fund is administered by a Board composed of the Minister of Finance as Chairman and four members appointed by the Governor-General, one of whom is the Superintendent of the fund.

The system is open to any person between the ages of sixteen and fifty years residing in New Zealand whose average income during the three years prior to joining has not exceeded £300 per annum. There is no medical examination on entry, and the method of joining is extremely simple, the applicant having merely to fill in a form at a postal money-order office or local office of the fund, and pay a first weekly contribution.

The following benefits are payable:—

  1. After contributing for twelve months, a payment not exceeding £6 for medical attendance and nursing on the birth of a contributor's child or children.

  2. After contributing for five years, an allowance, after three months' incapacity to work, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child of a contributor under fourteen years of age; payable independent of any allowances due from friendly societies. No contributions payable while in receipt of incapacity allowance.

  3. After contributing for five years, an allowance, on the death of a contributor, of 7s. 6d. per week for each child under fourteen years of age, and 7s. 6d. for the widow so long as any child is under fourteen years of age.

  4. On reaching age sixty, a pension of 10s., 20s., 30s., or 40s. per week, according to the scale of contributions. The receipt of a pension under the National Provident Fund Act does not affect a person's claim to the old-age pension under the Pensions Act.

The maternity allowance is payable only if the combined income of a contributor and wife or husband does not exceed £300 per annum at the time of claim, but this limitation does not debar from the other benefits. The incapacity allowance is not to exceed the pecuniary loss which, in the opinion of the Board, the contributor has probably suffered during incapacity, and the income of a contributor during incapacity, independent of the fund, is not to exceed the rate of £4 per week.

The contributions for each 10s. of weekly pension range from 9d. per week in the case of persons joining at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age fifty.

In the event of a contributor leaving the fund or dying, all contributions (less any benefits received) are returnable. If a contributor dies before the first five years are completed his representatives receive the contributions he has paid, less anything he received during lifetime. Should he die after age sixty, before receiving in benefits a sum equal to the contributions paid in during his lifetime, the difference is returnable to his representatives; and, further, if the allowances paid for widow and children do not exhaust the contributions his representatives are entitled to the residue. If a contributor dies before sixty, leaving a widow and no children, all the contributions are returnable, less benefits paid out.

The benefits under the Act are guaranteed by the State, which subsidizes the contributions to the extent of one-fourth of the amount paid into the fund.

An important extension of the fund was authorized by the amending Act of 1914 whereby the employees of local authorities, &c, could be enrolled in the fund for superannuation purposes.

A further amendment was incorporated in the Finance Act, 1916, whereby members of approved friendly societies were granted maternity allowances and offered annuities on reduced terms and under special tables.

The number of contributors for the various pension rates as at 31st December, 1921, were as follows, male and female contributors being shown separately:—

Pension Kate.Males.Females.Total.
10s.14,6751,34016,015
20s.2,8573423,199
30s.29830334
40s.32142363
Other1,726761,802
                        Totals19,8771,83621,713

During the year 1921 maternity allowances aggregating £38,562 were paid out, including £31,740 claimed for members of approved friendly societies. In addition, £3,922 was granted by way of allowances to widows and children, £4,368 on retirement, and £1,187 in respect of incapacity.

The growth of the National Provident Fund scheme for the eleven years it has been in existence is indicated in the following table:—

At End ofNumber of Contributors.Annual Rate of Contribution payable.Amount of Fund.
  £     £     
19115503,1721,826
19122,66011,72710,038
19135,79122,71929,327
19146,85826,52053,718
19158,10131,87583,000
19169,84738,664122,361
191712,12456,707176,210
191813,41069,486246,901
191916,15491,450338,729
192019,724129,003473,361
192121,713142,269632,525

The Revenue Account of the fund for the year ended the 31st December, 1921, is as follows:—

REVENUE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR 1921.
Revenue.£     
Amount of fund at beginning of year473,361
Contributions129,354
Interest26,040
Fines712
Government contribution under Act32,746
Refund of maternity claims by the State38,562
Overpaid contributions48
..     £700,823
Expenditure.£     
Maternity claims (section 18)6,822
Maternity claims (approved friendly societies)31,740
Refund of contributions on lapse, reduction, and withdrawal18,818
Incapacity allowances1,187
Refund of contributions on death1,362
Allowances to widows and children3,922
Allowances on retirement4,368
Refund of overpaid contributions48
Refund of contributions unclaimed or impounded31
Amount of fund at end of year632,525
..     £700,823

The balance-sheet of the fund as at the end of the year 1921 is also given.

BALANCE-SHEET AS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1921.
Liabilities.£     
* Included in Revenue Account.
Fund as per Revenue Account632,525
Claims due and in course of payment*7,433
Refunds in suspense17,763
Suspense Account1,962
One-half contributions of soldiers overpaid by State48
Contributions prepaid4,264
..     £663,995
Assets.£     
Invested with Public Trustee586,789
Balance with Post Office6,571
Balances in transit5,740
Contributions outstanding or in course of transmission*..     
Contributions due but not overdue10,769
Contributions overdue3,114
Government subsidy due under Act*32,746
Refund due in respect of maternity claims*7,226
Fines due389
Interest due2,251
Interest accrued but not duo*8,400
..     £663,995

ACTUARIAL INVESTIGATION.

The third actuarial investigation of the National Provident Fund was made as at 31st December, 1919, when the valuation balance-sheet disclosed the following position:—

Liabilities.
MAIN FUND AND APPROVED-FRIENDLY-SOCIETIES SECTION.
 £     £     
Value of allowances already granted to widows and children14,698 
Value of deferred pensions to survivors of existing contributors648,471 
Value of return of contributions (less benefits) on death or withdrawal, in respect of past and future contributions208,648 
Value of allowance benefits (widows', children's, and incapacity), immediate to 4,672 members, and vesting five years after entry in the case of 10,220 members207,077 
Value of return of balance of contributions where allowances or pensions fall short of the total contributions paid, and of sundry minor benefits3,850 
 1,082,744 
LOCAL-AUTHORITIES SECTION.  
Value of allowances already granted14,903 
Value of prospective pensions in respect of past and future service420,176 
Value of prospective pensions to widows and children55,431 
Value of return of contributions on death or withdrawal22,762 
Value of return of balance of contributions where allowances or pensions fall short of the total contributions paid, and of sundry minor benefits10,475 
 523,747 
 £1,606,491 
Assets.£     
Accumulated funds 338,29
Value of future contributions 1,013,439
Value of future State subsidies (assumed to be received a year later than contributions) 248,389
Balance (deficiency) 5,934
  £1,606,491

The assets and liabilities are seen to be virtually equal, the debit balance, however, having increased from £234 at the first triennial investigation (as at 31st December, 1913) to £5,934. The amounts required to provide maternity allowances are voted by Parliament annually, and these allowances are accordingly regarded as being outside the actuarial aspects of the scheme.

Chapter 25. SECTION XXV.—VALUATION OF LAND.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT.

THE system of separately assessing the value of the land itself and the value of the buildings and improvements effected thereon was first put into practice in New Zealand for the purposes of State taxation on the passing of the Land-tax Act, 1878. under which a tax was levied on land-values, the impost being 1/2d. in the pound on the capital value of real estate, less the assessed value of the improvements.

The Land-tax Act, 1878, was superseded by the Property-tax Act, 1879, which provided for the levy of a uniform tax of 1d. in the pound on the capital value of all property—real and personal—above the amount of £500 in value.

The Property-tax Act, 1879, was in its turn superseded by the Land and Income Assessment Act, 1891. Under this enactment a land-tax was imposed on land and mortgages of land, with an exemption for improvements on land up to £3,000. An exemption from income-tax was also allowed on all incomes derived from land and mortgages of land.

Two years later, under the provisions of the Land and Income Assessment Acts Amendment Act, 1893, all improvements on land were entirely exempted.

An endeavour to extend the principle of general exclusion of improvements to local taxation resulted in the passing of the Rating on Unimproved Value Act, 1896, which gave local authorities the option of deciding that equivalent rates on the unimproved values of lands in their jurisdiction should be substituted for the rates levied on the full capital values or on the annual values.

The valuing of land up to the year 1896 was not conducted on a uniform basis. Each State Department and each local authority worked quite independently, and employed as valuers whom it thought fit. The Land-tax Department periodically employed a small army of temporary valuers when it required a new valuation of lands for taxation purposes, and each local authority had its own particular method of making up its roll for the levying of rates. Estimates of values arrived at by various authorities varied to a dangerous degree. Some values were very high, being based on speculative prices, while many were extremely low. Frequently the same property had several values assigned to it.

In order to overcome as far as possible the obvious defeats of the old system, it was decided to establish a new system of valuation, by which all valuations required by State Departments—whether for loan, taxation, or other purposes—and by local authorities that rate on the capital or unimproved value, should be made by valuers employed by the State at fixed salaries and responsible to the Government alone.

The Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896, was in due course introduced and passed. This Act provided for the setting-up of a separate Department of State charged with the duty of estimating the values of real estate in the Dominion for taxation and other purposes of the General Government and for local rating purposes.

The whole of the existing law relating to the valuation of land in New Zealand is contained in the Valuation of Land Act, 1908 (which is a consolidation of the Government Valuation of Land Act, 1896, and the Acts amending the same), the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1908, and the Valuation of Land Amendment Act, 1912, and the regulations made under these Acts.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND IN NEW ZEALAND.

General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897–98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole Dominion have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures have been revised to include the latest valuations of small divisions.

In the twenty-four years from 1878 to 1902 the value, both of unimproved land and of improvements, increased by slightly over 50 per cent. In the nineteen years from 1902 to 1921, as the effect of a long period of prosperity, the total valuations have more than trebled.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES. 1878–1921.
Year.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 £     £     
187899,566,67962,573,868
1882101,000,000..     
1885113,270,649..     
1888111,137,71475,497,379
1891122,225,02975,832,465
1897138,591,34784,401,244
1902154,816,13294,847,727
1905197,684,475122,937,126
1906218,422,552137,168,548
1907236,644,536149,682,689
1908253,440,172161,324,763
1909271,516,022172,759,948
1910277,630,083175,289,861
1911293,117,065184,062,798
1912315,503,213199,184,261
1913340,559,728212,963,468
1914365,342,237228,493,376
1915371,076,683230,705,147
1916389,164,729241,322,255
1917405,466,071251,087,708
1918421,383,373260,921,812
1919445,533,445275,988,409
1920470,093,697290,880,264
1921518,584,318317,631,245

Information covering the last ten years as to the gross capital and unimproved values in the North and South Islands and in the whole Dominion is given in the following table, which also shows the separate totals for counties, boroughs, and town districts (independent of county jurisdiction):—

GROSS VALUES, 1912–21.
Year.Number.North Island.South Island.*New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
Counties.
..     ..     £     £     £     £     £     £     
1912123117,099,19478,574,76981,014,94460,239,117198,114,138138,813,886
1913124136,946,88287,361,65587,335,15664,912,274218,282,038152,273,929
1914125136,142,91290,381,87793,708,09369,484,292229,851,005159,846,169
1915125137,669,16891,079,54394,296,27569,841,015231,965,443160,920,558
1916125146,242,11897,379,01596,811,08471,199,250243,041,202168,578,265
1917125154,477,641102,981,689100,636,68874,108,106255,114,329177,089,795
1918125164,928,221109,611,569103,714,87976,670,835268,643,100186,282,404
1919131182,705,967120,687,776108,086,61580,086,519290,792,582200,774,295
1920134192,504,367126,201,659114,988,29785,947,072307,492,664212,148,731
1921134206,439,707134,007,675125,642,53193,566,567332,082,328227,574,242
Boroughs.
191211473,385,46841,506,15440,295,80116,856,865113,681,26958,363,019
191311676,763,29841,734,84842,207,28017,354,970118,970,57859,089,818
191411784,945,58247,017,46345,875,02319,367,115130,820,60566,384,578
191511787,671,60948,150,30946,638,66319,396,948134,310,27267,547,257
191611692,902,16050,443,30948,313,99920,050,324141,216,15970,493,733
191711596,207,34551,510,81948,770,85220,018,500144,978,19771,529,319
191811897,648,13951,772,26949,660,41920,358,456147,308,55872,130,725
191911798,520,64451,910,88650,615,52620,737,636149,138,17072,648,522
1920116103,409,09353,707,07752,511,73021,877,277155,920,82375,584,354
1921117119,091,89661,297,94560,050,05225,330,805179,141,94888,628,750
Independent Town Districts.
1912252,925,8711,639,588781,935367,7683,707,8062,007,356
1913242,487,0871,228,438820,025371,2833,307,1121,599,721
1914333,808,3681,880,433862,259382,1964,670,6272,262,629
1915343,916,1011,854,576884,867382,7564,800,9682,237,382
1916354,273,9751,989,761621,393260,4964,895,3682,250,257
1917364,732,9482,207,633640,597260,9615,373,5452,468,594
1918364,820,0832,255,646611,632253,0375,431,7152,508,683
1919374,941,5192,301,302663,174264,2905,604,6932,565,592
1920395,979,3572,851,680700,853295,4996,680,2108,147,179
1921366,663,7463,126,936696,296301,3177,360,0423,428,253
Grand Totals.
1912..     193,410,533121,720,511122,092,68077,463,750315,503,213199,184,261
1913..     210,197,267130,324,941130,362,46182,638,527340,559,728212,963,468
1914..     224,896,862139,259,773140,445,37589,233,603365,342,237228,493,376
1915..     229,256,878141,084,428141,819,80589,620,719371,076,683230,705,147
1916..     243,418,253149,812,085145,746,47691,510,170889,164,729241,322,255
1917..     255,417,934156,700,141150,048,18794,387,567405,466,071251,087,708
1918..     267,396,443163,639,484153,986,93097,232,328421,383,373260,921,812
1919..     286,168,130174,899,964159,365,315101,088,446445,533,445275,938,409
1920..     301,892,817182,760,416168,200,880108,119,848470,098,697290,880,264
1921..     332,195,439198,432,556186,388,879119,198,689518,584,318317,631,245

The values shown in the preceding table are, as stated, the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. A summary of rateable values for the year 1921 is next given.

RATEABLE VALUES, 1921.—SUMMARY.
North Island.South Island.*New Zealand.
Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
* Including Stewart Island and Chatham Islands.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
Counties199,119,382128,595,281120,004,78989,783,522319,12:4,171218,378,803
Boroughs107,763,60454,740,56453,925,40512,993,745161,689,00977,734,309
Town Districts (Independent)6,176,4292,953,440648,300282,3636,824,7293,235,803
    Totals313,059,415186,289,285174,578,494103,059,630487,637,909299,348,915

As has been pointed out above, the figures shown for 1921 and other years subsequent to 1898 do not represent general revaluations of the whole Dominion in the years shown. Revaluations, are made, district by district, as circumstances permit, or as progress of the district renders advisable. An analysis of the gross capital value shown for the year 1921 gives the following results:—

GROSS CAPITAL VALUES.—YEAR OF VALUATION.
Last revised as at April in YearCounties.Boroughs.Town Districts (Independent).Total.
 £     £     £     £     
1897161,627..     ..     161,627
189817,98473,663..     91,647
1904167,62632,021..     199,647
1905..     311,214..     311,214
190641,955352,146..     394,101
1907234,0011,278,870..     1,512,871
1908469,3371,780,69759,0232,309,057
1909..     961,232..     961,232
1910..     989,858..     989,858
19111,505,0368,065,572117,8009,688,408
19123,137,5541,963,262351,2805,452,096
191314,553,1751,963,47434,38216,551,031
191412,519,33012,610,933840,46125,970,724
19153,890,962452,530..     4,343,492
191627,787,42338,130,936123,69266,042,051
191732,906,2925,679,154284,21338,869,659
191839,615,6943,213,355757,52643,586,575
191965,492,7053,393,320..     68,886,025
192052,967,07418,706,8562,102,57573,776,505
192176,614,55379,182,8552,689,090158,486,498
Totals332,082,328179,141,9487,360,042518,584,318

It should be explained that in those few cases where a borough, town district, or local division of a county has been valued partly in one year and partly in another, and information is not available as to the amounts represented by the valuations in the respective years, the whole district has been included in the latest of the years shown. Napier Borough, for instance, was revised partly in 1914 and partly in 1917, but is wholly included in the 1917 figures shown above.

Those districts which have not been revalued during, say, the last ten years may be regarded as having made little or no progress since the last valuation, which has accordingly been allowed to stand. Fiord County, with a gross capital value of £144,293 and a rateable capital value of only £15,851, has not been revalued since 1897, nor have certain islands.

The gross capital and unimproved values for each county, borough, and independent town district as in 1921 are next given. The particulars for component parts of administrative counties—viz., road districts, dependent town districts, and portions of outlying country—are given in the Annual Statistical Report on Local Governing Bodies.

COUNTIES.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH COUNTY IN NEW ZEALAND.
County.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 £     £     
Mongonui947,509562,339
Whangaroa291,186185,024
Bay of Islands1,618,1881,022,682
Hokianga1,271,609772,275
Whangarei4,775,0922,320,298
Hobson2,141,8461,277,654
Otamatea1,722,947959,505
Rodney1,792,849934,069
Waitemata3,946,8372,688,972
Eden4,561,1362,814,270
Manukau4,060,9062,936,458
Franklin5,629,0293,796,426
Great Barrier Island133,758108,440
Islands—
      Little Barrier, Waiheke, &c327,038212,080
Waikato4,680,4763,332,785
Raglan3,164,5071,968,314
Waipa4,980,9833,428,745
Kawhia1,065,138639,976
Awakino953,262551,997
Waitomo4,066,8652,612,557
Ohura1,979,0161,176,312
Coromandel706,233407,629
Hauraki Plains1,904,2991,551,529
Thames661,638446,816
Ohinemuri72,723451,221
Tauranga1,808,1921,062,655
Piako3,623,4352,482,580
Matamata3,099,0241,939,601
Rotorua623,733486,525
Whakatane2,228,1421,506,006
Opotiki2,407,4951,823,905
East Taupo575,083377,337
West Taupo2,180,6391,576,841
Islands—
      Mayor and Motiti19,41512,141
Matakaoa1,031,914585,162
Waiapu3,821,7632,034,436
Uawa1,537,5281,024,060
Waikohu5,122,9483,124,250
Cook6,560,0214,407,042
Wairoa3,832,5202,452,969
Hawke's Bay10,862,6598,176,101
Waipawa2,959,3772,100,346
Waipukurau912,913681,603
Dannevirke3,347,6282,208,457
Woodville2,033,0631,465,161
Patangata4,614,6353,598,961
Weber742,743490,097
Clifton898,301522,423
Taranaki1,428,418841,888
Inglewood966,163485,308
Egmont1,796,820949,068
Stratford3,341,251105,647
Whangamomona1,040,982560,968
Waimate West2,091,2701,535,209
Eltham3,022,1041,783,208
Hawera4,312,8153,116,850
Patea3,605,0202,390,397
Waitotara2,696,7211,833,173
Waimarino2,480,4441,445,278
Wanganui2,914,5721,758,462
Rangitikei10,454,3186,705,013
Kiwitea3,418,1312,233,534
Pohangina1,791,9581,150,845
Kaitieke1,475,444965,717
Manawatu3,627,0712,595,327
Oroua3,155,2922,113,568
Kairanga4,806,9253,362,641
Horowhenua3,454,5652,496,311
Islands—
      Kapiti, Mana, and Somes17,98413,378
Chatham Islands285,942195,901
Pahiatua2,545,2251,433,619
Akitio1,187,712609,001
Castlepoint833,467538,112
Eketahuna1,850,2751,006,814
Mauriceville541,813303,986
Masterton4,298,3902,707,984
Wairarapa South2,307,6191,373,825
Featherston4,680,7262,991,525
Hutt2,294,9551,304,042
Makara1,053,106500,445
Collingwood471,110304,929
Takaka694,189384,784
Waimea3,163,4841,761,487
Sounds794,055478,932
Marlborough4,115,5033,077,731
Awatere2,243,6731,760,573
Kaikoura1,691,1291,237,954
Buller1,415,321734,627
Murchison782,095476,867
Inangahua600,807305,092
Grey1,018,063664,800
Westland1,064,680774,117
Cheviot1,792,1001,469,110
Amuri2,619,3962,133,430
Waipara4,384,0833,787,161
Ashley1,178,795948,690
Kowai1,711,4241,416,706
Oxford1,155,900953,714
Rangiora1,787,1821,454,683
Eyre1,743,2101,416,225
Waimairi3,877,4862,286,618
Paparua2,178,9821,567,438
Malvern2,573,5512,044,775
Tawera580,129483,579
Heathcote1,095,551609,485
Halswell857,044684,384
Selwyn1,728,0021,396,802
Springs1,269,2851,040,190
Ellesmere2,897,3572,376,607
Mount Herbert791,995660,703
Wairewa1,588,9791,320,519
Akaroa2,904,0132,497,583
Ashburton11,675,4709,832,871
Geraldine3,531,3282,870,987
Levels3,665,5972,969,039
Mackenzie2,988,0512,309,956
Waimate6,792,0765,600,628
Waitaki5,386,4274,118,106
Maniototo1,468,2121,034,715
Waihemo806,478598,789
Waikouaiti1,256,001812,303
Peninsula527,149290,505
Taieri2,209,6821,596,735
Tuapeka2,438,4171,660,814
Bruce1,765,9991,172,521
Clutha Islands—3,156,2051,987,267
Islands—
      Quarantine and Goat3,454900
Vincent1,639,4771,071,378
Lake551,689405,147
Fiord144,293137,513
Wallace3,704,8322,559,471
Southland14,695,6139,687,726
Stewart Island167,626129,120
Islands—
    Antipodes, &c13,88013,880

BOROUGHS.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH BOROUGH IN NEW ZEALAND.
Borough.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 £     £     
Whangarei1,099,663543,078
Dargaville452,530232,330
Birkenhead622,240323,135
Devonport2,183,1331,000,901
AUCKLAND CITY
    City Portion18,266,23111,206,530
    Parnell ″1,292,088616,955
    Grey Lynn ″1,335,141516,921
    Arch Hill ″228,675104,910
    Eden Terrace ″327,809140,324
    Point Chevalier ″408,640194,850
    Epsom ″1,322,504599,610
    Remuera ″2,588,5091,187,414
        Total of City25,769,59714,567,514
Newmarket772,740378,475
Onehunga1,134,645512,925
Takapuna1,643,7841,029,064
Northcote344,933185,658
Mount Albert2,531,0551,169,260
Mount Eden2,586,5301,031,950
Otahuhu510,675275,905
Pukekohe419,716223,011
Hamilton4,222,3772,331,372
Cambridge718,190351,920
Ngaruawahia192,04895,218
Te Awamutu607,790342,515
Thames898,289331,481
Tauranga319,525143,566
Paeroa389,835191,999
Waihi419,082147,107
Morrinsville558,235293,365
Te Aroha349,085160,450
Rotorua (Town)785,247460,489
Whakatane483,167246,758
Opotiki281,825152,915
Taumarunui407,652198,499
Te Kuiti560,827332,200
Gisborne4,823,4072,266,815
Wairoa456,667239,958
Napier3,560,7341,677,683
Hastings2,772,6261,524,697
Dannevirke1,232,057501,395
Woodville167,19560,813
Waipawa265,386141,524
Waipukurau345,830160,109
New Plymouth2,180,6331,281,082
Hawera924,315417,793
Patea154,46057,491
Waitara246,44484,499
Inglewood210,09387,972
Stratford597,934239,639
Eltham441,370193,703
Wanganui3,213,1201,925,789
Marton662,527224,415
Ohakune138,09547,896
Taihape611,980330,617
Feilding995,517442,405
Palmerston North3,305,4901,676,795
Foxton283,836115,720
WELLINGTON CITY
    City Portion22,818,79213,606,629
    Wadestown ″549,870234,147
    Northland ″649,842219,947
    Melrose—..     ..     
        Kilbirnie ″3,363,413976,850
        Island Bay ″1,022,222348,312
        Ohiro ″1,915,802564,278
    Onslow ″745,304290,755
    Karori ″615,140299,886
    Miramar ″1,211,369517,379
        Total of City32,891,75417,058,183
Shannon190,35288,404
Levin347,240148,023
Otaki270,250138,904
Pahiatua248,110101,338
Masterton2,112,374856,413
Carterton292,728103,756
Greytown205,36286,017
Lower Hutt1,509,545831,558
Petone1,502,015675,499
Eketahuna156,28366,589
Featherston174,97346,781
Eastbourne336,779144,310
Richmond225,626117,503
Nelson City1,893,423850,747
Picton304,036154,608
Blenheim1,093,400479,523
Motueka317,912157,291
Westport743,414373,532
Greymouth850,283268,085
Brunner73,66314,198
Kumara32,0216,126
Hokitika262,86577,330
Ross24,7787,129
Runanga57,81618,848
Rangiora359,017130,362
Kaiapoi191,24358,753
CHRISTCHURCH CITY
    St. Albans Portion3,463,0251,289,145
    North Richmond ″338,875116,955
    Richmond ″257,66595,835
    North-east ″846,720379,645
    North-west ″2,416,2001,332,545
    South-east ″1,937,315983,420
    South-west ″4,675,4552,793,673
    Sydenham ″2,312,200832,745
    Opawa ″210,87098,960
    St. Martin's ″109,50056,415
    Beckenham-Fisherton ″236,10573,695
    Linwood ″1,628,260579,990
    Avonside ″164,86070,235
    Spreydon ″674,805237,260
        Total of City19,271,8558,940,518
Woolston692,556269,441
New Brighton580,136275,106
Sumner697,710324,005
Lyttelton988,107272,707
Akaroa162,34874,541
Riccarton602,146198,030
Ashburton762,356319,754
Timaru3,255,2251,562,170
Geraldine141,66343,465
Temuka363,590130,880
Waimate438,404129,540
Oamaru1,430,395505,060
Hampden30,9219,647
Naseby20,8632,583
Palmerston92,73924,356
Waikouaiti80,78028,152
Port Chalmers372,461120,692
West Harbour219,38273,807
DUNEDIN CITY
    Valley Portion815,336284,489
    Maori Hill ″744,790245,405
    Roslyn ″1,373,690475,770
    Mornington ″894,455258,330
    Leith ″3,858,9811,808,556
    Central ″4,674,5002,192,870
    Caversham and South Dunedin Portion2,057,100663,085
    Anderson's Bay Portion576,280211,695
Total of City14,995,1326,140,200
St. Kilda1,038,160313,145
Green Island285,28165,835
Mosgiel268,28095,660
Roxburgh42,7605,969
Lawrence111,33929,764
Tapanui41,8159,075
Milton201,99855,946
Balclutha302,725111,595
Kaitangata112,76131,538
Cromwell46,51710,090
Alexandra57,51911,828
Arrowtown21,5193,375
Queenstown65,59514,564
Gore742,023275,654
Mataura206,70274,828
Winton115,24238,765
Invercargill4,022,8811,738,719
South Invercargill290,636136,306
Riverton142,71148,360
Bluff305,322101,100

TOWN DISTRICTS.

TABLE SHOWING GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF EACH TOWN DISTRICT (OUTSIDE THE JURISDICTION OF ANY COUNTY) IN NEW ZEALAND.
Town District.Capital Value (Land and Improvements).Unimproved Value of Land (included in previous Column).
 £     £     
Hikurangi90,82531,020
Warkworth96,37529,015
Helensville117,80037,180
New Lynn212,850106,235
Ellerslie301,025145,750
Waiuku238,805126,260
Papatoetoe399,540226,005
Manurewa266,895157,255
Papakura239,560138,140
Tuakau142,72079,225
Huntly229,70096,100
Te Puke273,775145,502
Matamata450,325256,750
Mangapapa435,611179,670
Taradale228,632135,100
Havelock North289,331137,336
Manaia123,69251,277
Waverley100,41742,033
Gonville855,406294,733
Castlecliff393,778198,700
Raetihi217,930109,071
Rangataua34,38210,238
Mangaweka57,89222,310
Hunterville96,06437,325
Bull's59,02324,449
Manunui71,36325,848
Martinborough178,39953,803
Johnsonville197,865101,007
Upper Hutt263,763129,533
Tahunanui110,83447,601
Tinwald128,24074,665
Pleasant Point105,90551,570
Nightcaps46,47811,506
Otautau127,49950,197
Lumsden53,97615,198
Wyndham123,36450,580

Chapter 26. SECTION XXVI.—BANKING.

BANKS OF ISSUE.

THE Banking Act, 1908, consolidates the law of New Zealand relating to the general business of banking in the Dominion. The Act provides that the incorporation of banks by Royal Charter shall be as effectual within New Zealand as Acts of the General Assembly. The number of directors is prescribed, and authority is given to any bank to increase its capital on a resolution of the shareholders. Transfers of shares on which there is any liability must be approved by the directors or their duly appointed attorney or attorneys. Every bank trading in the Dominion is required to furnish quarterly statements of its business, for publication in the Gazette. A sworn copy of an entry in the books of a bank shall in all legal proceedings be evidence of such entry, and a bank, is not required in any legal proceedings to which it is not a party to produce its books before a Court, unless ordered by a Judge for special cause. Provision is made for bank holidays, and for the destruction of cheques, drafts, bills of exchange, or promissory notes after the expiration of ten years from the date or due date of such documents.

Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1908, consolidates the law relating to cheques on a bank.

The Companies Act, 1908, with the exception of Part IX (re companies incorporated outside New Zealand), and also of the provisions relating to branch registers, does not apply to banking companies formed within and operating only within the Dominion.

There are six banks of issue trading in New Zealand, two of these institutions, the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand, being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of the Dominion. The Bank of New Zealand has branches in London, Australia, Fiji, and Samoa, while its branches and agencies within the Dominion number 207. The other five banks have between them 235 establishments within the Dominion, making a total of 442, or an average of one bank to every 2,824 inhabitants, excluding Maoris.

CAPITAL AND RESERVE FUNDS.

The paid-up capital of the above banks, their reserve funds, and the rate and amount of their last dividend as on the 31st December, 1921, were as follows:—

Bank.Paid-up Capital.Rate per Cent. per Annum of Last Dividend and Bonus.Amount of Last Half-yearly Dividend and Bonus.Reserve Fund.
* Dividend for full year.
Bank of New Zealand—£     Per Cent.£     £     
    4-per-cent. stock guaranteed by New Zealand Government529,988..     ..     1,886,275
    “A” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)500,00010412,500*
    “B” preference shares issued to the Crown (Act of 1920)625,00010
Ordinary shares2,250,00013 1/3
Union Bank of Australia (Limited)2,500,00015187,5002,911,716
Bank of New South Wales5,000,00010249,5842,500,000
Bank of Australasia3,500,00010 and bonus of 3 per cent.227,5003,220,874
National Bank of New Zealand (Limited)1,000,00012 per cent, per annum for half-year, and bonus of 2 per cent.80,0001,246,395
Commercial Bank of Australia (Limited)—
    Ordinary202,3171511,01313,322
    Preference2,117,3504 (preference only)42,347

DEVELOPMENT OF BANKING.

A consideration of the table below indicates that the development of banking in Now Zealand since the year 1857 has been very great. Such a growth has been possible only through a corresponding expansion of trade and industry concomitant with a progressive increase in the population of the country. The figures for each year given below have been arrived at by taking the average of the four quarterly returns of the banks of issue. Deposits include amounts on fixed and current deposit, and Government deposits. Advances comprise notes and bills discounted and debts due to the banks (exclusive of debts abandoned as bad). Formerly the amount of colonial Government securities was included under advances, but this practice has from 1921 been abandoned in order to secure uniformity with other countries, and the figures for preceding years have been brought into fine.

DEPOSITS, ADVANCES, ASSETS, AND LIABILITIES, 1857–1921.
Year.Deposits.Advances.Assets.Liabilities.
 £     £     £     £     
1857343,316..     419,860432,494
18703,127,7694,334,8206,315,3543,819,670
18808,538,93511,228,86514,220,2759,550,177
189012,368,61013,996,08617,735,25913,356,598
190015,570,61011,343,41117,314,53516,964,582
191024,968,76118,439,99926,398,92726,742,081
191742,930,71328,847,74944,979,61548,541,961
191845,562,93931,711,35048,570,12652,048,732
191950,489,44431,717,72048,615,20957,861,393
192059,405,34138,241,93256,111,43367,818,469
192149,397,41150,607,54168,701,28258,808,439

In 1880 deposits represented an average of £18 per head of the mean population, in 1890, £19.92; in 1900, £20.39; in 1910, £25.15; and in 1911, £26.37. In 1912, however, the average fell to £24.66, and in 1913 (the strike year) a further fall was recorded, the rate per head being £24.08. The years 1914 and 1915 showed a recovery, the rates being £25.35 and £28.59 respectively, while for 1916 the rate jumped to £34.34. In 1917 it rose to £39.06, and each successive year showed a substantial increase on the previous year until 1920, when the rate was £50.36. This was followed in 1921 by a sharp fall to £40.35. The ratio of advances to deposits, which was 131.50 per cent, in 1880, reached its maximum in 1883, when it stood at 171.16 per cent. The proportion since that year fell, till in 1903 it was only 70.67 per cent. The 1916 ratio (65.97 per cent.) was the lowest ever recorded. The percentage for 1917 (67.19), though still very low, showed an increase on the figure for 1916, while the 1918 figure was as high as 69.59. A fall to 62.82 was recorded in 1919, but in 1920 the percentage rose to 64.37, and in 1921 to the phenomenal figure of 102.45.

In 1886 the average amount of advances made by the banks was £15,834,877, equal to £27.19 per head of the mean population. The advances gradually declined in amount and proportion to population until 1891, when they were in value £11,448,745, or £18.18 per head. In 1897 advances stood at £10,020,640, or £13.88 per head, which is the lowest average since the year 1872. There was then a continuous rise both in amounts of advances and in rates per head of population until 1908, for which year the figures were £21,172,808, or £22.40 per head. After 1908 the amounts fluctuated, but the tendency was still to rise. The total amount for 1918 (£31,711,350) was up till then by far the highest yet reached. Since then each year has shown a progressive increase, the amount for 1921 being as high as £50,607,541, equal to £41.35 per head. This inflation of deposits and advances during recent years is, of course, a direct result of war conditions.

The largest amount of discounts in any year was £6,061,959, in 1879, a rate of £13.53 per head. In the previous year had occurred the highest rate—£14.22 per head. From 1879 there was a fall, year by year, until 1896, when the sum was £1,756,791, or £2.49 per head, since when there have been further successive falls in the amount per head, which reached the low figure of £1.14 in 1918, rising, however, to £1.26 in 1919, £1.47 in 1920, and £2.01 in 1921.

LIABILITIES.

The liabilities of the banks of issue for the last ten years are shown in the table following, the figures given referring to New Zealand business only. The liabilities shown represent the average of the four quarters of the year, with the exception that in the figures for 1912 only the last quarter is taken in respect of the Commercial Bank of Australia, as this institution did not commence operations in the Dominion until fairly late in that year.

LIABILITIES, 1912–21.
Year.Notes in Circulation.Bills in Circulation.Balances due to other Banks.Deposits.Total Liabilities.
 £     £     £     £     £     
19121,714,667111,87759,72125,622,08327,508,348
19131,674,333108,51875,06125,733,18727,591,099
19141,998,38696,01273,44427,640,50729,808,349
19152,846,277105,75962,58031,433,65334,448,272
19164,049,52796,46873,70737,757,91741,977,619
19175,410,957105,89594,39642,930,71348,541,961
19186,266,768123,34495,68145,562,93952,048,732
19197,087,545173,722110,68250,489,44457,861,393
19207,890,418239,877282,83359,405,34167,818,469
19217,569,319191,2731,650,43649,397,41158,808,439

ASSETS.

The average assets, as shown below, include colonial Government securities, which in 1921 amounted to £5,786,185.

ASSETS, 1912–21.
Year.Coin and bullion.Notes and Bills discounted.Debts due, exclusive of Bad Debts.Balances due from other Banks.All other Assets.Total Assets.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
19125,338,2951,847,01621,062,10147,4172,901,57131,196,400
19135,204,2661,951,66520,950,63352,0662,550,30230,708,932
19145,712,7511,843,21722,407,02957,9132,481,40232,502,312
19156,781,0061,471,80822,167,162231,8932,557,61333,209,483
19167,393,9171,484,35623,427,562147,5144,562,13737,015,486
19178,072,2791,414,58527,433,16496,7127,962,87544,979,615
19188,085,9611,261,20330,450,147153,0918,619,72448,570,126
19198,017,1591,446,29930,271,421211,2912,976,60448,615,209
19207,728,9421,753,07236,388,860344,4513,404,38256,111,433
19217,660,5322,463,39648,144,1451,634,9753,012,04968,701,282

DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES.

The total amount of deposits, the amount per head of mean population, the total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits, taking the average of the four quarters for each of the last ten years, are as follows:—

DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES, 1912–21.
Year.Deposits.Advances.
Total Amount.Per Head of Population.Total Amount.Ratio to Deposits.
 £     £ s.d.£     Per Cent.
191225,622,0832413222,909,11789.41
191325,733,187241722,902,29888.99
191427,640,507257024,250,24687.73
191531,433,65325111023,638,97075.20
191637,757,9173461024,911,91865.97
191742,930,713391228,847,74967.19
191845,562,939416131,711,35069.59
191950,489,444443631,717,72062.82
192059,405,3414916338,241,93264.37
192149,397,411407250,607,541102.45

Deposits per head of population in banks of issue in each of the Australian States during 1920 and the four preceding years are shown, figures for New Zealand are given by way of comparison.

DEPOSITS PER HEAD IN BANKS OF ISSUE IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, 1916–20.
State.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £ s.d.£ s.d.£ s.d.£ s.d.£ s.d.
Queensland379143224913350424420
New South Wales42190441994572480450191
Victoria42064699481055313957156
South Australia31633614742611526647810
Western Australia2511827129319833583787
Tasmania309730253340311993578
Northern Territory45196412107146711917309
    Total, Commonwealth3955421514551481495028
New Zealand346039124161443649163

OVERDRAFT AND DISCOUNT RATES.

The overdraft rates and the rates of discount current in the Dominion were 1/2 per cent, higher in 1920 than the corresponding rates ruling prior to the European War. A further increase of 1/2 per cent., following a period when importations had been made on a larger scale than at any previous time in the Dominion's history, was made in January, 1921, the demand on banks for money being; very considerable. Another aspect of the position, which is apparent from the figures given earlier in this section, was the rapid diminution—from twenty millions to two millions—in the excess of deposits (other than Government) over advances during the closing six months of 1920. It is not surprising accordingly to find a further increase in the overdraft (and the discount) rates as from March, 1921. Up to September, 1922, no alteration in the rates then determined had been made.

Below is given the overdraft rates charged on “best” accounts, and the rates of discount current in New Zealand for best mercantile paper of a currency not exceeding three months:—

 Overdraft Rate per Cent.Rate of Discount per Cent.
At end of 19135 1/25
At end of 192065 1/2
January, 19216 1/26
February, 19216 1/26
March, 1921, to date (September, 1922)76 1/2

ISSUE OF NOTES.

The Banking Act, 1908, deals with the issue of notes generally. The Governor-General may empower any bank to issue and circulate notes, subject to the provisions and restrictions contained in the charter or letters patent under which such bank is incorporated; all such notes to be payable in gold only at the office of the bank at the place of issue, and to be a first charge on all assets of the bank.

The private Acts of the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand (Limited) contain the following clause: “That the total amount of promissory notes payable on demand, issued and in circulation within the Dominion, shall not at any time exceed the amount of coin, bullion, and public securities which shall for the time being be held by the same corporation within the Dominion; nor shall the proportion of coin be less than one-third part of the amount of the coin, bullion, and public securities so held by the said corporation within the Dominion.”

On the 5th August, 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the late war, an amendment to the Banking Act was passed empowering the Governor-General in Council, from time to time, to make a Proclamation declaring “that the notes payable on demand by any bank therein named, and then issued or thereafter to be issued or reissued within New Zealand under any lawful authority in that behalf, shall during the period limited by the Proclamation be everywhere within New Zealand a good and legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable.” Conditions governing the issue of such Proclamation are laid down, and the bank may be required to give adequate security that it will redeem the notes in gold on the expiration of the period covered by the Proclamation. Provision is also made for payment by the State Treasury in case of default by the bank. During the period any such Proclamation is in force gold must not be exported except with the consent of the Minister of Finance, and any gold exported or attempted to be exported in breach of this provision is to be forfeited.

Immediately on the passing of the amendment referred to, a Proclamation was gazetted declaring notes of all six banks of issue doing business in New Zealand to be legal tender from the 6th August to the 6th September, 1914. Further extensions for short periods were made from time to time until the end of 1917, when the notes of the six banks were declared legal tender until the 31st December, 1922.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK.

In connection with the Post Office in New Zealand a savings-bank has been conducted since the 1st February, 1867. The minimum deposit receivable, except in certain specified cases, is 1s., and no interest is given on any sum less than £1 or in excess of £5,000. Interest on sums up to £500 is paid at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum, and on sums between £500 and £5,000 at the rate of 3 1/4 per cent. for the amount over £500.

The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings-bank business at 31st March, 1922, was 831.

There were 89,859 now accounts opened during the year ended the 31st March, 1922, and 75,748 accounts were closed during the period. The total number of open accounts at the 31st March, 1922, was 678,930, or one in every 1.83 of the population, excluding Maoris.

The deposits received during the year amounted to £29,125,997, and the withdrawals to £30,236,231. The total sum standing at credit of all accounts on the 31st March, 1922, was £43,841,704, which gave an average of £64 11s. 6d. to the credit of each open account. Information for each of the last ten years is given below.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK, 1912–21.
Year.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Interest.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Fifteen months ended 31st March, 1921.

Year ended 31st March following.

The minus sign (−) represents excess of withdrawals over deposits.

  £     £     £     £     £     
1912432,19911,725,18311,449,711275,472511,59816,330,257
1913458,59411,286,70211,041,454245,248555,90817,131,414
1914483,26211,904,32310,603,0181,301,305615,31019,048,029
1915509,08513,706,05711,294,9732,411,084707,25222,166,365
1916538,07215,576,40812,957,4202,618,988817,85625,603,209
1917566,35117,106,52914,461,1692,645,360947,82129,196,390
1918590,20518,101,10514,938,8423,162,2631,059,47233,418,125
1919630,78329,758,44725,962,3773,796,0701,178,93538,393,130
1920*664,81944,302,85241,162,4863,140,3661,818,53543,352,031
1921678,93029,125,99730,236,231−1,110,2341,599,90743,841,704

The Post Office Savings-bank commenced operations on the 1st February, 1867, and the progress of the establishment since that date is shown on the next page in graphical representation, the curves representing number of open accounts, total amount to credit, and average amount to credit respectively.

This diagram shows clearly the large increase in the business of the Post Office Savings-bank during recent years.

The amount standing to credit of depositors has increased from £1,813,085 in 1887 to £43,841,704 at 31st March, 1922, and in no year since 1887 has there been a decrease as compared with the preceding year. There has been a corresponding steady increase in the average amount standing to the credit of each depositor, although the amount at the 31st March, 1922, shows a slight decrease on the previous year.

The huge increase in the amount at deposit in recent years has been accompanied by an even greater proportionate increase in interest payments, owing to the rate of interest having substantially advanced. The total interest credited to depositors from 1st February, 1867, to 31st March, 1922, has aggregated £15,286,597, a sum equal to over one-third of the total amount remaining on deposit at 31st March, 1922.

The number of open accounts at the end of each of the last five years, classified according to amounts at credit, is as follows:—

CLASSES OF ACCOUNTS OPEN, 1917 TO 1921–22.
Amount.1917.1918.1919.1920.*1921.*
* At 31st March year following.
Not exceeding £20382,689385,812394,280429,806447,883
Exceeding £20 and up to £5059,68061,46668,33169,13067,812
″ £50 ″ £10043,39248,17856,82852,11450,488
″ £100 ″ £20039,81345,25850,11147,74746,520
″ £200 ″ £30017,24320,98525,34024,32923,831
″ £300 ″ £4009,33011,51813,79614,98414,431
″ £400 ″ £5005,1526,2557,9948,7539,090
″ £500. ″ £6003,6284,1805,3316,2256,625
″ £6005,4246,5538,77211,73112,550
                Totals566,351590,205630,783664,819678,930

Accounts above the £600 mark at 31st March, 1922, included 3,691 between £600 and £700, 2,437 between £700 and £800, 1,632 between £800 and £900, 1,251 between £900 and £1,000, and 3,239 over £1,000.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings-bank Fund on the 31st March, 1922, represented a nominal value of £44,040,894. Most of this fund is invested in Government securities. A summary of the investments is as follows:—

 £     
In New Zealand Government securities42,570,934
In local bodies' securities1,004,550
In other securities465,410
..     £44,040,894

PRIVATE SAVINGS-BANKS.

There are five savings-banks not connected with the Post Office. The total amount deposited in them during the year ended the 31st March, 1922, was £3,191,181, of which the deposits by Maoris comprised £477. The withdrawals reached the sum of £3,265,338. The total amount to the credit of the depositors at the 31st March, 1922, was £3,917,428, of which sum £406 belonged to Maoris. Figures for ten years are as follows:—

PRIVATE SAVINGS-BANKS, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

* Fifteen months ended 31st March.

The minus sign (−) represents excess of withdrawals over deposits.

  £     £     £     £     
1913*71,7281,824,6061,833,390−8,7841,713,283
191474,1201,478,3091,461,51016,7991,792,108
191575,9411,358,8761,340,76018,1161,876,725
191678,0241,449,9381,327,364122,5742,072,602
191781,9001,631,0651,374,114256,9512,412,465
191885,1911,764,7231,551,836212,8872,720,709
191989,2032,058,3601,775,531282,8293,111,529
192095,4723,308,6282,981,887326,7413,557,895
1921100,3423,555,8713,410,456145,4153,841,084
1922104,3953,191,1813,265,338−74,1573,917,428

It is interesting to note that during 1921–22 withdrawals showed an excess over deposits in both the Post Office Savings-bank and in the total operations of all the private savings-banks, reflecting in some measure the general scarcity of money, a characteristic feature of the prevailing industrial depression at the time.

The following table shows the results of the transactions of each of the private savings-banks during the twelve months ended 31st March, 1922. The figures relating to Maoris, which are insignificant in amount, have been included.

Bank.Date of Establishment.Number of Depositors at End of Year.Total Amount of Deposits during Year.Total Amount of Withdrawals during Year.Excess of Deposits over Withdrawals.Total Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year.

The minus sign (−) represents excess of withdrawals over deposits.

   £     £     £     £     
Auckland184790,6952,484,3952,608,630−124,2352,915,638
New Plymouth18502,04457,46839,23018,23867,030
Hokitika18661,30334,61840,647−6,02983,985
Dunedin18646,396395,110359,72335,387690,408
Invercargill18643,957219,590217,1082,482160,367
Totals..     104,3953,191,1813,265,338−74,1573,917,428

SAVINGS-BANKS DEPOSITS IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.

The deposits in the savings-hanks of the Commonwealth on the 30th June, 1921, and of New Zealand on the 31st March, 1921, are shown in the table following. The Australian figures are taken from the Quarterly Summary of Australian Statistics issued by the Commonwealth Statistician. In calculating the deposits per head of population in New Zealand Maoris have been omitted from the population, although the total amount on deposit includes deposits by them. The amount deposited by Maoris is very small in proportion to the number of Maoris in the Dominion.

State.Number of Depositors.Amount on Deposit at End of Year.Average Amount per Depositor at End of Year.Deposits to Credit per Head of Population.
  £     £ s.d.£ s.d.
New South Wales1,126,15757,394,441501942763
Victoria1,072,55448,970,9894513231178
Queensland327,06518,587,942561682435
South Australia396,97016,317,3534121321511
Western Australia217,1367,663,440355102301
Tasmania115,5024,159,522360319125
Northern Territory93553,79057107131311
        Total, Commonwealth3,256,319153,147,47747072816
New Zealand765,16147,193,1156113738151

SUMMARY OF ALL DEPOSITS.

If the total deposits in the hanks of issue at the end of the year be assumed to be equal to the average deposits for the four quarters of the year, then it may be affirmed that, exclusive of Government moneys, the deposits in the said banks of issue and in the two classes of savings-banks amounted at the end of 1921 to £92,021,159, representing an average of £74 4s. 3d. per head of population, or, including Maoris, £71 3s. 8d. per head. In addition there are the deposits with the building societies, referred to further on in this book, and there are also deposits with financial companies of which no particulars are collected.

Chapter 27. SECTION XXVII.—INSURANCE.

SUBSECTION A. — LIFE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE statutory provisions affecting life insurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act, 1908, and Amendment Act, 1921–22. Any association other than a friendly society which issues policies or grants annuities on human life in New Zealand comes within the scope of the enactments. Two classes of companies are recognized—namely, local and foreign, the latter including all offices the principal place of which is situated beyond the Dominion. In both instances securities are required to be deposited with the Public Trustee before business can be carried on. Before the passing of the amending Act of 1921–22 the maximum deposit required from a New Zealand company was £20,000, with a minimum of £5,000, regulated according to the volume of business done, while for a company incorporated overseas the maximum went to £50,000. Both classes of offices, however, are now on the same basis. Every life company carrying en business at the time of the coming into operation of the amending Act, or which commences business thereafter, must deposit with the Public Trustee money or securities of the statutory character, to the value of £5,000; and, in addition to that, for every £100,000 or part thereof that the total amount assured by its policies current in New Zealand exceeds £100,000, a further £5,000 until a maximum of £50,000 is reached. In other respects New Zealand and overseas companies are placed on the same footing as regards deposits.

In the case of composite offices, provision is made for the receipts of life and annuity business to be treated as a separate fund, and the Act safeguards the interest of the policyholder by making such funds available only for liabilities arising from life business.

The law bearing on industrial assurance has received the attention of the Legislature in the Life Insurance Amendment Act, 1920. In this class of insurance the premiums must be payable at shorter intervals than three months. Provision is made for the control by regulation of the activities of this class of business. Companies are required to deposit with the Minister of Finance forms of policy tables, rates, and other documents, and policies must contain only such conditions as have been approved by the Governor-General in Council. Restrictions are placed on the forfeiture of policies in default of payments or other requirements.

Annual returns of life assurance are required to be deposited with the Minister of Finance. It is from these returns that the statistical matter following has been compiled.

The outstanding features of life-assurance business as disclosed by the tables introduced in the succeeding pages is the remarkable increase that has taken place in the amount of new assurances effected during the last three years under review. The growth characterizes both the ordinary life department and the industrial side. No doubt this is in a large measure a reflection of-the prosperous condition of the country. A further reason for the growth of now business is no doubt furnished by the diminished purchasing-power of the sovereign, and the consequent depreciation of the value of policies on a pre-war basis. It is well known, too, that with the increased probate and succession duties payable on large estates life-insurance policies are a means used to provide ready cash when other assets may not be convertible at an advantage. It may be added, in passing, that the substantial growth of business evident is general not only in New Zealand, but also in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

There were at the close of 1920 twelve life-assurance offices represented in New Zealand. Of these only two were purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office and the Provident Life Assurance Company. Six of the other societies have their head offices in Australia, two in England, and two in the United States of America. The Provident Life Assurance Company and four of the Australian offices transact both ordinary life and industrial business. Several of the companies, including the Now Zealand Government Office, have branches for assurance against accident. This class of insurance is dealt with in Subsection B of this section.

The statistics here given relate exclusively to business transacted in the Dominion.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.

Details of the policies issued and discontinued during the calendar year 1920 by the respective offices are contained in the following table, Dealing with the policies issued and discontinued during the year, the aggregate net increase in the sum assured is £4,117,626, and in the annual premiums payable thereon £134,290.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—POLICIES ISSUED AND DISCONTINUED, 1920.
Office.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.
NumberSum assured.Annual Premiums.NumberSum assured.Annual Premiums.
  £     £     £     ..     £     
Australian Temperance and General2,821513,83520,883989159,5026,463
Australian Mutual Provident4,6872,160,41065,9992,730799,26326,249
Australian Provincial1,506440,18916,68136492,2203,656
Colonial Mutual903160,0926,476685110,7094,300
Equitable Life of United States..     ..     ..     4113,952488
Mutual Life and Citizens'1,256356,78511,8351,174280,9869,878
National Mutual2,603915,71735,4971,005276,32010,977
New York Life91,761159216,325349
Norwich Union441420,91212,27413777,9002,426
Provident Life866196,7674,65430861,0341,400
Yorkshire..     ..     171,05050
New Zealand Government Life4,9061,659,66051,2213,355859,24125,154
                Totals19,9986,856,128225,68010,8162,738,50291,390

In the case of the new business transacted, the average sum assured under each policy issued was £343, and the average premium £3 5s. 10d. per cent.

The next table presents an interesting review of the progress of ordinary life-assurance business over a period of ten years. Comparing the latest figures with those of preceding years a considerable expansion is, as indicated earlier in this chapter, recorded in the amount of new policies issued. Taking. 1917 and 1920 figures, the increase amounts to no less than 107 per cent. Discontinuances in 1920 were slightly in excess of the 1919 figures, due to an increase in the number of lapsed policies, but the net result of the year's operations has allowed of a considerable amount being added to the accumulated funds of the companies. It should be added, however, that this follows on a period when, as a result of the ravages of influenza and the toll of war, the discontinuances by death were particularly heavy, amounting in the aggregate to £966,866 for 1918, as compared with the 1920 figure of £392,253.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—PROGRESS OF BUSINESS, 1911–20.
Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  £     £      £     £      £     £     
191116,0293,821,193120,6109,8912,314,18876,844143,65235,323,7421,116,772
191216,5874,203,766127,20310,1602,364,59079,278150,07937,162,9181,164,699
191314,5143,993,777119,09710,9392,590,00884,748153,65438,566,6881,199,047
191413,6383,810,384117,88811,0742,722,28887,639156,21839,654,7841,229,398
191515,5243,947,566131,53211,1742,635,20486,262160,56840,967,1471,274,667
191614,3363,717,981141,53110,6592,531,71385,342164,24542,153,4141,330,855
191712,2723,303,123131,94412,3742,571,10690,523164,14542,885,4331,372,278
191816,5175,233,669228,53311,5712,776,081153,529169,09145,343,0201,447,284
191918,5816,111,362245,93910,6642,681,975114,757177,00849,072,4081,578,464
192019,9986,856,128225,68010,8162,738,50291,390186,19053,190,0341,712,754

The number of ordinary life policies in force at the end of 1910 was 137,514, representing a sum assured of £33,816,736; so that the increases in number and value during the decennium have been 35.39 per cent, and 50.57 per cent, respectively, as compared with an increase of total population of 20.25 per cent, in the same period.

A statement of the income and outgo of all the companies operating in the Dominion, so far as ordinary business only is concerned, further illustrates the increase in the business for the ten years. The ratio of management expenses to premiums and to the total receipts is also given.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—INCOME AND OUTGO.
Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 £     £     £     £     Per Cent.Per Cent.
19111,679,5761,100,297579,279177,07816.0610.54
19121,756,1831,127,743628,440184,10815.9010.48
19131,794,3531,101,013693,340182,66615.4110.18
19141,911,4461,311,661599,785179,26114.809.38
19151,922,4851,397,434525,051176,71514.059.19
19162,016,6071,558,320458,287174,68313.208.66
19172,091,5121,804,647286,865173,40712.638.29
19182,225,8972,054,409171,488215,35114.559.67
19192,348,2631,716,049632,214253,25716.1810.78
19202,513,7071,527,017986,690278,88616.5011.09

A summary of the receipts and expenditure under the various heads is now-given in a five-years table. New premiums, which amounted to £125,314 in 1915, have during the period under review increased by 69.4 per cent. On the expenditure side the payments of death claims, which in 1920 accounted for an expenditure of £582,253, are less by £208,963 than the figure for the-preceding year. Expenses of management show a marked increase in the last three years, amounting in 1920 to 16.50 of the premium receipts.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS), 1916–20.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Revenue.£     £     £     £     £     
Renewal premiums1,186,3741,250,7531,279,7661,320,0231,477,403
New premiums136,565122,566200,388245,238212,370
Consideration for annuities16,64514,32618,87828,86944,043
Interest676,944703,805720,865746,745764,677
Increase in value of investments..     ..     ..     59915,096
Other revenue79626,0006,789118
        Total revenue2,016,6072,091,5122,225,8972,348,2632,513,707
Expenditure...     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Claims by death.776,249887,3651,181,478791,216582,253
Claims by maturity349,331342,148372,261400,666423,672
Annuities35,19333,58533,64734,43736,012
Surrenders140,462153,392140,917169,099147,559
Cash bonuses16,55516,20620,61714,52714,972
Management174,683173,407205,351253,257278,886
Taxes64,83290,03587,39042,40439,702
Depreciation in investments1,015102,5092,7489,2973,591
Other expenditure..     ..     ..     1,146370
        Total expenditure1,558,3201,804,6472,054,4091,716,0491,527,017

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.

Looking now at the other phase of life assurance, the next table shows for 1920 to what extent industrial business was undertaken by each of the offices transacting this class of assurance in the Dominion.

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS, 1920.
Office.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  £     £      £     £     
Australian Temperance and General12,883527,65142,6206,861255,91521,877
Australian Mutual Provident6,524437,67622,0002,868164,2528,706
Colonial Mutual3,016154,1298,5001,53574,5264,162
Mutual Life and Citizens'2,589166,3728,7793,156141,3557,712
Provident Life4,712177,89211,1403,879125,3027,129
                Totals29,7241,463,72093,03918,299761,35049,586

A summary of the progress of industrial business is given in the following table, covering the ten years 1911 to 1920. This class of insurance has only during the last decade attained any magnitude in New Zealand.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE.—PROGRESS OF BUSINESS, 1911–20.
Year.Policies issued.Policies discontinued.Policies existing at End of Year.
Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.Number.Sum assured.Annual Premiums.
  £     £      £     £      £     £     
191125,845811,94551,64317,770533,62634,61672,1941,887,111113,421
191227,731908,67854,50119,506637,51737,23080,4192,158,273130,691
191325,031867,07054,14617,847603,18135,91087,6032,422,161148,928
191423,715760,86351,95717,830584,11937,72193,4882,598,905163,164
191522,937752,72954,90516,685540,37936,53799,7402,811,255181,533
191625,608845,04260,29515,681476,28635,333109,6673,180,011206,495
191724,733888,91564,55115,577536,85337,425118,8233,532,075233,620
191826,9061,020,00873,32616,038553,82740,378129,6913,998,256266,668
191929,7831,283,48987,81918,399670,17747,860141,0754,611,568306,527
192029,7241,463,72093,03918,299761,35049,586152,5005,313,938349,979

The increase in the sum assured in respect of policies issued during the year amounted in 1920 to £180,231, and in the annual premiums £5,220. Between 1911 and 1920 the amount held at risk has increased by £3,426,827.

The total income and outgo for industrial assurance summarized for the ten years 1911–20 are as follows:—

INDUSTRIAL ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—INCOME AND OUTGO.
Year.Receipts and Expenditure.Expenses of Management.
Total Receipts, excluding Transfers.Total Expenditure, excluding Transfers.Excess of Receipts.Amount.Proportion to Premium Receipts.Proportion to Total Receipts.
 £     £     £     £     Per Cent.Per Cent.
1911107,23870,22437,01452,50851.8848.96
1912126,89779,50547,39259,35749.4246.73
1913145,283103,58741,69662,27745.2242.87
1914158,97494,55364,42165,51343.0541.21
1915177,31993,97383,34666,04139.2237.24
1916200,903109,45291,45171,77837.7935.72
1917232,895128,468104,42777,92135.4933.46
1918264,000156,618107,38288,07135.5133.36
1919303,568180,070123,498107,50437.8235.41
1920347,825195,038152,787121,60037.5234.95

A table giving for each of the last five years the main details in connection with the income and outgo referred to above is appended, and affords interesting comparisons in the fluctuation of the various heads of receipts and expenditure. Premium receipts show a steady increase over the whole period. In 1915 this source of income produced £168,383, and the increase over the five years is accordingly 92 per cent. The expenses of management, which in tins class of business are relatively high, amounted in 1920 to 37.52 per cent, of the premium receipts, as compared with 51.62 per cent, ten years earlier.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND BUSINESS.—RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE (EXCLUDING TRANSFERS), 1916–20.
1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
Revenue.£     £     £     £     £     
Premiums189,951219,579248,035284,243324,031
Interest9,78612,04114,43017,04621,330
Other revenue1,1661,2751,5352,2792,464
                Total revenue200,903232,895264,000303,568347,825
Expenditure...     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Claims by death23,43631,62946,14237,26129,067
Claims by maturity4,6907,36313,65024,86931,315
Surrenders2,3632,2591,5814,1652,567
Management71,77877,92188,071107,504121,600
Taxes3,2953,1304,3132,5473,187
Depreciation in investments340483401507849
Other payments3,5505,6832,4603,2176,453
                Total expenditure109,452128,478156,618180,070195,038

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The balance-sheets of the companies transacting industrial business do not in every case apportion their liabilities and assets over ordinary and industrial business although this course will in future be rendered necessary to conform to the legislation of 1920. The figures presented below accordingly refer to both classes of insurance, and, as Indicated earlier in this subsection, relate to New Zealand business only.

Dealing first with liabilities, the position of the various offices over a period of five years is shown.

LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND LIABILITIES, 1916–20.
Office.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.

* Includes accident.

Includes fire, marine, and accident.

 £     £     £     £     £     
Australian Temperance and General260,052293,283345,300409,064511,499
Australian Mutual Provident6,324,5296,103,4526,242,7596,400,6586,689,332
Australian Provincial..     ..     30,75249,20283,332
Colonial Mutual*388,945369,280401,782651,767475,924
Equitable Life of U.S.A.79,30181,38183,36483,93658,238
Mutual Life and Citizens'1,428,2621,461,0601,495,4001,485,1901,504,913
National Mutual1,431,7021,395,2831,471,8531,564,4271,829,496
New York Life66,76668,61068,70470,73976,932
Norwich Union40,93240,01351,18451,96366,849
Provident Life147,340170,969187,846207,576234,169
Yorkshire36,29039,95543,80247,48756,308
New Zealand Government Life5,481,7325,602,8715,672,9815,728,6815,927,557
                  Totals15,685,85115,626,15716,095,72716,750,69017,514,549

The aggregate capital and liabilities at the end of 1920 as compared with 1919 were as follows:—

 1919. £1920. £
Paid-up capital48,18766,886
Life assurance and annuity funds15,880,72216,675,746
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds321,475329,405
Claims admitted but not paid338,033254,825
Other liabilities162,273187,687
                                        Totals£16,750,690£17,514,549

The assets, which in every case balance the liabilities, are as follows:—

LIFE ASSURANCE.—NEW ZEALAND ASSETS, 1916–20.
Assets.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Mortgages on property8,020,6077,483,6606,903,2386,206,2615,858,439
Loans on policies2,257,5382,167,4182,097,9402,039,2932,068,875
New Zealand Government securities2,159,7532,681,9633,810,3805,167,4366,181,818
Indian and colonial securities..     23,59169,88191,1568,831
Railway and other stocks636,045658,393670,913921,503953,806
Landed and house property453,877449,189455,216470,067511,583
Other investments404,092376,694374,593372,941311,578
Loans on personal security2,4331,8692,3502,4901,464
Agents' balances4,7416,7465,79112,4869,708
Outstanding premiums144,696148,079151,819161,837172,032
Interest accrued, &c202,426204,911200,363199,776201,491
Cash275,383258,858277,892169,259248,987
Other assets1,124,2601,164,7871,075,345935,185985,937
                  Totals15,685,35115,626,15716,095,72716,750,69017,514,549

It will be seen that a continued falling-off in mortgages has obtained, the decrease for 1920 as compared with 1916 being £2,162,168. A similar decrease in loans on policies is also evident, although to a less degree. The most striking feature of the figures, however, is the phenomenal increase in the amount invested in securities of the New Zealand Government, which from 1916 to 1920 increased by no less a sum than £4,022,065. This is an illustration of the greater extent to which the New Zealand Government has borrowed locally during the last few years than previously.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.

The Life Insurance Department of the Government of New Zealand was founded in 1869, at a time when New-Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities for the insurance of their lives. The institution possesses the unique advantage of being based on the solid principle of State security, payment of all policies being guaranteed by the Government of the Dominion. Industrial insurance is not transacted by the Department.

At the end of 1921 there were 59,189 policies in force, bearing an annual premium income of £474,151. The number of policies completed in 1921 was 4,963, on which annual premiums to the amount of £50,734 are payable.

The following table gives a synopsis of the activities of the Department for the last five years in so far as the amount of business transacted is concerned:—

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—PROGRESS, 1917–21.
Year.New Business.Policies in Force at End of Year.
Number of Policies.Premiums.Sum assured.Number of Policies.Premiums.Value of Business.
Sum assured.Bonuses.Total.
  £     £      £     £     £     £     
19172,92928,237784,60053,058387,31212,884,5311,304,24314,188,774
19184,23546,7781,252,53853,803404,96513,257,6821,512,86114,770,543
19194,98358,5691,617,75955,770423,06514,123,7281,423,01615,546,744
19204,87251,2211,659,66057,321449,12314,924,1471,235,16316,259,310
19214,96350,7341,631,25059,189474,15115,721,0881,558,64617,279,734

The figures of income and outgo of the Department in 1921 reflect a very' satisfactory year's operations. The year just falls short of constituting a record in respect of the number of new policies issued and the amount assured thereby, while the income is the highest yet recorded.

The total income of the Department for 1921 was £755,519—viz., premium income, £460,302; interest income (less land and income tax), £284,081; annuity purchase-money, £11,136. Each of these items of income, as well as the total, constitutes a record in the Department's operations. The total income for 1921 was £24,611 in excess of the figure for the preceding year.

With regard to the outgo for 1921, there is a return to normal conditions in the claims by death of policyholders. The outgo on this account is smaller than for any year since 1913. During the year 1921 894 policies matured, for £219,756, and 442 policies became claims by death of the holders, the total amount payable being £159,007. Expenses of management totalled £66,036.

The total assurance, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from a special investment reserve of £288,730, amounted at the end of 1921 to £5,726,356, an increase of £183,804 during the year.

The Department's balance-sheet on the 31st December, 1921, shows that the total assets amounted to £6,090,101, and were invested as shown in the following statement, which also gives the distribution of the assets at the end of the previous year for purposes of comparison:—

Class of Investment.At 31st December, 1920.At 31st December, 1921.
Amount.Percentage of Total Assets.Amount.Percentage of Total Assets.
 £      £      
Mortgages on freehold property2,750,02646.42,743,40545.1
Loans on policies735,73912.4794,54613.0
Government securities1,869,80031.61,960,40032.2
Local bodies' debentures210,2413.5224,9093.7
Landed and house property134,7992.3136,0162.2
Miscellaneous assets124,3372.1145,9182.4
Gash in hand and on current account102,6151.784,9071.4
                  Totals5,927,557100.06,090,101100.0

A statement of the liabilities and assets as at the 31st December, 1921, is also given.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1921.
Liabilities.£     
Total Assurance, Annuity, and Endowment Funds (as per Revenue Account)5,726,356
Claims admitted, proofs not yet completed60,842
Annuities413
Commission2,252
Medical fees465
Premium and other deposits3,822
Fire-insurance moneys in suspense850
Sundry accounts owing5,771
Officers' Fidelity Fund600
Investment Fluctuation Reserve288,730
..     £6,090,101
Assets.£     
Loans on policies794,546
Government securities1,960,400
Municipal Corporation debentures131,440
County securities5,981
Harbour Board debentures34,500
Town Board debentures29,200
Road Board debentures21,800
Drainage Board debentures1,988
Landed and house property134,090
Landed and house property (leasehold)1,645
Mortgages on property2,743,405
Properties acquired by foreclosure281
Overdue premiums on policies in force£8,327
Outstanding premiums due but not overdue43,450
..     51,777
Overdue interest8,420
Outstanding interest due but not overdue7,400
Interest accrued but not due70,124
..     85,944
Agents' balances5,259
Sundry debtors2,938
Cash In hand and on current account84,907
..     £6,090,101

The triennial valuation of the Department's liabilities and assets as at the 31st December, 1920, revealed a surplus of assets over liabilities amounting to £238,704. Of this sum £217,706 was allotted in the shape of compound reversionary bonuses upon the sum assured and the bonuses in force, thus giving increasing bonuses to those policyholders who had maintained their previous bonuses intact. The resultant bonuses in the General Section ranged from £1 per cent, per annum of the sum assured in the case of new policies to £1 15s. per cent, per annum in the case of policies with longer durations.

As between the Temperance and General Sections, the more favourable mortality in the Temperance Section resulted in policies in that section becoming entitled to bonuses at a rate 5 per cent, higher than similar policies in the General Section.

The total surpluses distributed since the commencement of business amount to £2,234,382, which sum has been converted into reversionary additions to the sums assured, amounting to £3,907,698.

The actuarial investigation discloses the progress of the Department during the triennium 1918–20, and the figures are given below in conjunction with those for the four preceding triennia.

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—TRIENNIAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Triennium.New Business of Triennium.In Force at End of Triennium.
Number of Policies.Sums assured.Annual Premiums.Number of Policies.Sums assured.Reversionary Bonuses.Annual Premiums.
  £     £      £     £     £     
1906–89,7392,261,76772,80347,03310,955,7491,068,950331,830
1909–1110,4762,487,47277,47749,37611,514,6571,168,620348,285
1912–1411,7213,197,69489,71552,27312,550,4651,246,610370,882
1915–1710,1292,709,16390,01753,05812,884,5311,304,243387,377
1918–2014,1894,529,993156,56857,32114,924,1471,335,163449,123

From the above it will be seen that there has been a considerable increase in the amount of new business.

The rate of interest realized on the mean funds of the Department, after deduction of land and income tax from interest, was as follows for each of the six years 1915–20:—

STATE LIFE INSURANCE.—RATE OF INTEREST.
..     £ s.d.
19154111
19164151
19174162
19184138
1919524
19204192

SUBSECTION B.—ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN terms of the Accident Insurance Companies Act, 1908, accident-insurance policies may be issued by any association, whether incorporated or not, provided such association is not established under any Act relating to friendly societies. The principal contingencies for which policies may be issued are in respect of—

  1. Accident, disease, or mental or physical disability:

  2. Employers' liability;

  3. Charges under the Workers' Compensation Acts for damages incurred in the course of employment.

As a security to the public transacting business with accident insurance offices, a substantial deposit is required to be made with the Public Trustee by any company whose head office is situated overseas. No deposit is necessary in the case of companies incorporated in the Dominion under the New Zealand laws. The amount of the deposit required is dealt with in the next subsection in discussing the cognate matter of fire insurance, to which reference should be made.

The principal Act provides for annual returns to be deposited with the Minister of Finance, and, as in the case of life insurance, these are utilized as a means of statistical information.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

The number of insurance offices transacting accident business in New Zealand in 1920 was 34. The principal registered offices of these companies were distributed as follows: England, 17; Australia, 7; Hong Kong, 1; New Zealand, 9. Returns for the financial years ended during 1920 have been received from all offices, the figures in each case being confined to accident business done in the Dominion.

The total premiums received for 1920 amounted to £533,316, and of this amount £224,899, or 42.2 per cent., represented the business of the nine companies established within the Dominion. The claims paid by the same offices amounted to £113,664, or 47.3 per cent, of the total. It will accordingly be seen that the local companies accounted for nearly half of the accident insurance of the Dominion. The following table gives a summary of the income and outgo of the various offices for 1920, distinguishing the amount received for premiums and the amount paid out on claims:—

ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1920.
Name of Company.Income.Outgo.Per Cent, of Total Expenditure to Premiums.
Premiums.Total Receipts.Claims.Total Expenditure.
British Companies.£     £     £     £      
Alliance13,40113,4014,47610,40977.67
Atlas5,6395,6391,9504,40978.19
Australian Provincial Association6,5226,5221,3183,27750.24
British Traders'6,4766,4762,0684,34467.08
Colonial Mutual4,3834,8441,6423,58981.88
Commercial Union22,60922,6097,83218,80583.17
Eagle, Star, and British Dominions12,81412,8143,9709,30972.64
Guardian10,65110,6514,5318,66681.36
Insurance Office of Australia11,63411,6342,71512,383106.44
Liverpool and London and Globe11,44211,4425,49911,29098.67
London and Lancashire16,29616,5386,14012,86078.91
Mutual Life and Citizens'18,37818,3786,94515,70585.45
North British and Mercantile6,0536,0532,1374,60276.03
Northern9,62310,3864,8228,67790.17
Norwich and London21,08921,11911,05218,81589.21
Ocean34,40534,40515,96130,82889.60
Phoenix4,8014,8011,8353,87180.63
Queensland16,92917,3548,06214,54385.90
Royal17,16517,1658,53015,27288.97
Royal Exchange14,85014,8506,72111,99780.78
Sun4,4864,4861,0353,22071.78
Union8,4558,4553,4045,95070.37
United5,1425,1421,7384,16581.00
Victoria17,55917,5599,72417,682100.70
Yorkshire7,6157,6152,5665,00665.74
                Totals308,417310,338126,673259,6748419
New Zealand Companies...     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Farmers' Co-operative5,3765,3761,8904,56084.82
National28,64828,64814,52225,29488.29
New Zealand34,95334,95320,18035,528101.65
Provident Life2,5082,6108911,68967.34
Sawmillers' Mutual5,6525,9103,7005,777102.21
South British81,39981,39941,37766,85382.13
Standard35,28535,28515,17530,75787.16
Taranaki Farmers'1,2261,2269531,385112.97
New Zealand Government Insurance Department29,85234,80614,97623,42578.47
                1Totals224,899230,213113,664195,26886.82
                Grand totals533,316540,551240,337454,94285.30

In 1920 the ratio of the total expenses to premiums received averaged 85.30 per cent., or to total receipts, including premiums, 84.16 per cent. The expense ratio is slightly higher in the case of New Zealand offices than for British offices.

The table next presented gives in a summary form the aggregate receipts and expenditure for the past decade. During that period the amount of accident business put through the books has practically doubled. The number of offices transacting business increased by eight.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE FOR 1911–20.
Year.Number of Offices.Receipts.Expenditure.
Premiums.Other Receipts.Total.Claims.Commission.Salaries.Other Expenses.Total.
  £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
191126265,8586,615272,473133,02934,67730,00930,495228,210
191227321,8044,898326,702146,13743,09131,63533,195254,058
191327336,0235,928341,951146,50245,71933,71534,660260,596
191427337,19014,004351,194162,70846,26434,96643,574287,512
191527337,7336,907344,640172,04945,94136,71536,929291,634
191630349,2306,059355,289168,32150,61340,67542,595302,204
191731351,1035,377356,480179,51451,87941,13448,450321,027
191834359,9623,711363,673183,29152,98440,04850,401326,724
191935449,7846,270456,054228,03264,97647,33658,192398,536
192034533,3167,235540,551240,33784,29951,82278,483454,941

A remarkable increase in the premium income was recorded in 1920, being no less than £83,532. In the previous year, however, the increase exceeded this figure by £6,290. No similar abnormal increase has been shown since 1912, when the premiums were £55,946 in excess of the previous year's figures. This favourable result has, however, been somewhat discounted by the increase in the amount of claims, which rose by £44,741 in 1919 and £12,305 in 1920.

An interesting review of the expenses incurred in transacting accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of ten years are shown in percentages of income to outgo under six different heads. In this connection the fact that the Government Insurance Department systematically tabulates the experience of the whole of the workers' compensation insurance business in New Zealand upon a scientific actuarial basis has placed that office in a position to regulate effectively the premiums charged in the Dominion in respect of this class of business, keeping them at a rate that is reduced as far as can be consistently done.

ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—EXPENSE RATIO, 1911–20.
Year.Ratio per Cent. of
Claims to Premiums.Commission to Premiums.Salaries to Premiums.Other Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses to Premiums.Total Expenses to Total Receipts.
191150.0413.0411.2911.4785.8483.76
191245.4113.399.8310.3278.9577.77
191343.6013.6110.0310.3177.5676.21
191448.2513.7210.0412.9285.2781.87
191550.9413.6010.8710.9386.3584.62
191648.2014.4911.6512.2086.5485.06
191751.1314.7711.7213.8091.4390.05
191850.9214.7211.1314.0090.7789.84
191950.7014.4410.5212.9488.6187.39
192045.0615.809.7214.7285.3084.16

It will be noted that in no year during the past decade has there been a less expenditure in proportion to the total business than in 1913. From that date until 1917 the percentage of claims and the expenditure under other headings constantly increased, but a falling-off in 1918 and subsequent years is once more apparent.

The appropriation for unexpired risks at the end of 1920 amounted for all offices to £194,310, as compared with £155,580 at the end of 1919 and £130,087 at the end of 1918.

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.

The Accident Branch of the Government Insurance Department was opened in 1901. General accident business is undertaken, but the branch was opened mom especially with a view to relieve employers of labour of the liability imposed upon them by the Workers' Compensation for Accidents Act.

The Department's policies cover the full liability of an employer to his workmen under the Workers' Compensation Act, and the liability under common law to the extent of £750 per man. Personal-accident policies are also issued securing amounts for accidental death and permanent total or partial disablement, and weekly allowances during temporary disablement.

The premium income and claims of the Accident Branch since the commencement of business have been as follows:—

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS.
Year.Gross Premium Income.Claims.
* From 7th June to 31st December.
 £     £     
1901*11,8562,428
190214,1007,364
190324,38113,230
190423,76812,105
190523,97011,242
190620,81513,720
190721,47711,288
190820,89811,926
190926,33712,805
191021,36412,522
191120,75610,497
191223,51312,016
191323,67711,492
191422,2849,633
191523,4669,092
191622,37810,698
191722,1159,270
191821,82310,830
191925,41413,150
192030,26814,975
192136,28816,786

The funds, assets, and liabilities of the Government Insurance Department belonging to its Accident Insurance Branch are kept separate and distinct from the main life-insurance business, and powers are vested in the Governor-General to make regulations in regard to tables fixing rates of premium and other details for the conduct of the Accident Insurance Branch.

The funds at the end of 1921 stood at £11,472, as against £23,212 at the end of 1920. It should be taken into account, however, that during 1921 the large sum of £23,212 was transferred to the Reserve Fund, which now stands at £115,020. The total assets at the end of the year amounted to £157,253.

The liabilities and assets on the 31st December, 1921. were as follows:—

STATE ACCIDENT INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.
Liabilities.£     
Accident Funds, as per Revenue Account11,472
Claims admitted (proofs not yet completed)9,000
Commission345
Premium and other deposits80
Sundry accounts owing1,985
Officers' Fidelity Fund200
Reserve for unearned Premiums16,151
Investment Fluctuation Reserve3,000
Reserve Fund constituted under section 20 of the Government Accident Insurance Act, 1908115,020
 £157,253
Assets.£     
Debentures issued under authority of the Finance Act, 191510,000
New Zealand inscribed stock—War loans97,500
Mortgages on property41,820
Overdue interest£47
Outstanding interest due but not overdue147
Interest accrued but not due1,362
..     1,556
Agents' balances147
Cash in hand and on current account6,230
 £157,253

The investments in war loans were increased by £13,000 in 1921, and these, together with debentures under the Finance Act, 1915, represent 72 per cent, of the total invested funds.

SUBSECTION C.— FIRE INSURANCE.

INTRODUCTORY.

IN the Dominion's legislation four separate classes of fire-insurance offices are distinguished—namely, (1) Local insurance companies established within the limits of New-Zealand; (2) foreign insurance companies established beyond New Zealand; (3) British offices similarly established: and (4) mutual fire-insurance associations. To these may be added the State Fire Insurance Office, established under a separate Act of Parliament.

The Companies Act, 1908, provides for the incorporation with limited liability of local insurance companies formed for the insurance of property other than that of shareholders. Such a company requires a paid-up capital of £50,000 intact, and if the amount of paid-up capital falls below this sum incorporation can only be effected with unlimited liability. Insurance companies established or incorporated overseas require to have a like paid-up capital intact. The transaction of business by such companies is, however, subject to special legislation as set out below. Mutual associations are dealt with by the Mutual Fire Insurance Act, 1908, which allows at least 100 owners of isolated or farm property to subscribe to a declaration and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss by fire to an amount in the aggregate of not less than £40,000. Such associations effect insurance on the premium-note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability.

INSURANCE COMPANIES' DEPOSITS.

Prior to the passing of the Insurance Companies' Deposits Act, 1921–22, and the Amendment Act, 1922, no deposit whatever was required by companies carrying on the business of fire insurance, and practically none was required in respect of the business of employers' liability insurance. Now, however, deposits in cash are to be made with the Public Trustee by fire and accident offices, varying according as to whether the company concerned is established or incorporated in a British country (other than New Zealand) or has its chief office in a foreign country. No deposit is required from a company constituted in New Zealand under the New Zealand laws.

The actual amounts of the deposits required to be made in accordance with the statutory provision of the principal Act were: For British companies carrying on operations in New Zealand—in respect of fire-insurance business, £15,000; in respect of employers' liability business, £15,000: and in respect of all other classes of business (except life and marine), £5,000. Foreign companies were required to deposit a sum of £35,000, which covered all classes of business (except life and marine). Overseas companies becoming established in New Zealand after the passing of the principal Act are required to make deposits on a somewhat higher scale than the foregoing. British offices must deposit the sum of £22,500 on account of fire business, the same amount for employers' liability insurance business, and £5,000 in respect of all other classes (other than life and marine) of insurance business. A newly established foreign company must deposit the sum of £50,000, and this covers all classes of business other than life and marine.

Other general statutory provisions in regard to the investment and management of deposits apply equally to British and to foreign companies. It is estimated that deposits due by companies carrying on business at the time of the passing of the principal Act would amount to close on a million pounds—viz., £895,000 due from thirty-one British companies and £70,000 due from two foreign companies. Interest on such amounts is payable to the respective companies at the rate from time to time payable on investments held in the Common Fund of the Public Trust Office.

COLLECTION OF STATISTICS.

Statistics of fire insurance are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Office. The principal heads of inquiry relate to—(a) Stability of the company as shown by the balance-sheet for whole-world business; (b) the extent to which the office has assets in the Dominion; (c) the amount of business transacted during the year under review; (d) fires and losses; (e) revenue and expenditure; and (f) working-expenses. Statistics wore first collected for the financial year of each company ended nearest the 31st December, 1918, and further annual collections have since been made. Care should be exercised in drawing conclusions from the figures given in the following pages, as the statistics cover a more or less exceptional period in the finances of the country.

OFFICES OPERATING IN NEW ZEALAND.

For 1921 statistics were collected from 39 offices carrying on business in New Zealand. The head offices of these were distributed as follows: England, 20; New Zealand, 11; Australia, 6; Hong Kong, 1; United States of America, 1. Included in the 11 New Zealand companies were 4 mutual fire-insurance associations and the State Fire Office.

The Australian Provincial Assurance Company is the only office appearing for the first time in the statistics given below. The company commenced fire business in New Zealand on the 1st February, 1921.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The following table indicates generally the extent to which fire-insurance offices have funds available to meet losses and liabilities. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act, 1908 (which follows the provisions of the Imperial statute on the subject), life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders, which is not available to other phases of insurance transacted. The amount of funds (other than life) both in New Zealand and elsewhere is, it will be seen, approximately 200 millions.

FIRE INSURANCE.—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS, 1921.
Liabilities.Total Assets.
Overseas Companies.Local Offices.Mutual Associations.
 £     £     £     £     
Paid-up capital18,880,1701,854,762123,62820,858,560
Reserves121,197,6493,176,81525,386124,399,850
Other liabilities47,494,2981,085,89232648,580,516
                  Totals187,572,1176,117,469149,340193,838,926
Life funds139,130,921..     ..     139,130,921
                  Grand totals326,703,0386,117,469149,340332,969,847

New Zealand assets of all offices transacting business amounted in 1921 to more than four and a half millions. In the three years' table given below the figures for 1921 reflect a considerable falling-off in funds lent out on mortgage, while on the other hand investments in Government securities show a continued increase.

FIRE INSURANCE.—ASSETS IN NEW ZEALAND, 1919–21.
Assets in New Zealand.1919.1920.1921.
 £     £     £     
Houses and landed property425,064461,981494,048
New Zealand Government securities—Ordinary246,100234,750289,175
New Zealand Government securities—War loan1,391,8081,588,9981,739,905
New Zealand local-authority securities461,891435,404486,562
Mortgages, &c715,994495,410327,939
Cash and other assets in New Zealand635,228788,6321,365,965
Total New Zealand assets3,876,0854,005,1754,703,594

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS.

Looking now at the general progress of fire-insurance business in the Dominion, a comparison of recent operations is afforded by the table below for 1919, 1920, and 1921.

FIRE INSURANCE.—AMOUNTS UNDERWRITTEN, PREMIUMS, AND LOSSES, 1919–21.
1919.1920.1921.
* Excluding reinsurances accepted from other offices.
Offices in New Zealand...     ..     ..     
Number of separate companies363839
Number of towns in which branches established127135138
Number of towns in which agencies exist6,2867,0878,127
Number of separate agencies in New-Zealand8,6649,2029,915
Amounts underwritten...     ..     ..     
Gross amount of insurance cover in force in New Zealand on 31st December*£207,731,768£255,707,380£286,706,704
Number of policies representing the foregoing*488,088540,651570,622
Gross amount of new and renewal business underwritten during year*£247,707,304£298,399,319£328,354,197
Number of policies representing the foregoing*558,305616,180628,201
Premiums...     ..     ..     
Total gross premiums charged on business (new and renewal) underwritten during year£1,472,734£1,777,465£1,943,954
Percentage of gross premiums to total amount of business underwritten0.590.600.59
Total premiums (as shown above), less premiums refunded to insured other than to other offices£1,351,083£1,622,048£1,768,416
Losses...     ..     ..     
Total number of separate fire losses with which offices were concerned3,1723,0543,725
Gross losses£390,598£448,656£738,638
Percentage of gross loss to amount underwritten (new and renewal) during year (as shown above)0.160.150.22
Percentage of gross loss to total premiums, less refunds to insured (as shown above)28.9027.6641.77
Average loss per fire£123£147£198

A remarkable increase is apparent in the amount of new and renewal business underwritten. The figure for 1921, which exceeds the huge sum of 300 millions, shows an increase of 10 per cent, over the figure for the previous year and of 33 per cent, over that for 1919.

INCOME AND OUTGO.

A statement of the total income and outgo, both gross and net, of all offices in respect of New Zealand business is now given. The gross reserve for unexpired risks, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premiums income as does the not. The amount of fire premiums receivable are exclusive of reinsurance premiums from other offices. These were £259,257 in 1921, as compared with £239,634 in 1920.

FIRE INSURANCE.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1919–21.
1919.1920.1921.
Gross.Net.Gross.Net.Gross.Net.
* Included in New Zealand Government taxes.
Income.£     £     £     £     £     £     
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at beginning of year555,406375,243601,902407,812732,266483,793
Reserve, additional to foregoing14,43014,43019,37319,37318,33918,339
Amount of fire premiums receivable during year1,472,734998,3941,777,4651,174,3351,943,9541,293,741
Interest and dividends on stock, mortgages, &c73,91573,91573,34473,34478,26878,268
Rents13,20613,20611,94311,9439,5719,571
Other revenue1,5161,5162,9102,9103,7573,757
                  Totals2,131,2071,476,7042,486,9371,689,7172,786,1551,887,469
Outgo...     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Amount of lire losses incurred during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage and amounts covered by reinsurance390,598281,040448,656292,289738,638473,643
New Zealand Government taxes98,34297,630127,822123,526167,748162,342
Local-authority rates3,2633,2633,0673,0672,7512,751
License fees****5,4095,194
Fire Board levies25,00822,06430,44925,16837,40531,412
Rents16,23715,15418,22716,61319,79817,532
Allowances and commissions on premiums to agents, sub-agents, and others164,374105,793213,639127,418241,262151,162
Salaries and wages, including commissions on profits or bonuses162,169144,741200,593179,450215,673186,331
Other expenses of management77,32868,068112,76698,471123,923107,237
Reserve to meet unexpired risks as at the end of the year602,611408,521732,266483,793806,027534,601
Reserve, additional to foregoing19,37319,37318,33918,33920,74920,749
Other expenditure12,58212,6821,6031,603737737
                  Totals1,571,8851,178,2291,907,4271,369,7372,385,1201,693,741

In so far as the income was concerned, there was an increase of £119,406 in the net premiums in 1921. The total net income increased by £197,752 in 1921, as compared with £213,016 in the preceding year. With regard to outgo, losses in 1921 show a very great increase as compared with the previous year, and this is reflected in the percentage which the gross loss bears to the total premiums received.

The reserve set aside to meet unexpired risks has, except in five instances, been 40 per cent, of the net premium income.

The net premiums and net losses are set out for each office in the following table. The total receipts and expenditure are also given in each case.

FIRE INSURANCE.—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, 1921.
Name of Fire-insurance Office.Net Revenue.Net Expenditure.
Premiums.Total.Fire Losses.Total.
Overseas Companies.£     £     £     £     
Alliance46,43164,47414,83953,638
Atlas38,01553,74720,20365,692
Australian Alliance3,9786,1431,4944,810
Australian Provincial2,1752,1757558,590
British General9951,3681,9442,790
British Traders'18,60824,7074,88025,043
Commercial Union49,88166,61614,88656,835
Eagle, Star, and British Dominions40,24556,8996,31846,177
Excess21,43724,9309,02828,382
Guardian31,93748,05412,67146,667
Home13,92720,7193,28015,663
Insurance Office of Australia8,75413,6055,51714,347
Liverpool and London and Globe34,69547,88519,71851,953
London Assurance Corporation5,8348,0883,2838,448
London and Lancashire24,15532,6599,19533,068
North British and Mercantile13,61619,5216,43117,019
Northern Assurance25,94439,53110,58231,734
Norwich Union48,46962,33319,66658,409
Ocean11,16214,6131,83012,338
Phoenix44,24761,43314,22055,610
Queensland30,67842,6527,91933,942
Royal51,89893,25317,69085,903
Royal Exchange27,95639,52417,19738,948
Sun42,38556,82133,05566,861
Union18,97426,7833,37518,610
United30,42141,81710,51842,846
Victoria47,85264,99310,50556,243
Yorkshire11,56616,8536,95222,036
        Total (overseas companies)746,2351,052,196287,9511,002,602
Local Companies...     ..     ..     ..     
Farmers' Co-operative11,48021,8273,75017,589
National63,88496,21724,30480,346
New Zealand139,607212,78251,541195,335
South British127,282211,13837,458151,420
Standard59,27982,90126,73979,115
State Fire136,429199,88838,126159,563
Wairarapa Automobile482504..     166
        Total (local companies)538,443825,257181,918683,534
Mutual Associations...     ..     ..     ..     
Hawke's Bay Farmers'11116210167
Otago Farmers' Union1,6902,02331928
Taranaki Farmers'3,8544,3872,6864,314
Wellington Farmers'3,4083,4441,0472,196
        Total (mutual associations)9,06310,0163,7747,605
        Total (all offices)1,293,7411,887,469473,6431,693,741

A favourable result accrued to fire offices in the Dominion as a result of business for the two years 1919 and 1920, and this was so notwithstanding the increased costs of management under every heart, as shown in the figures in the next table. For 1921, however, considerably heavier fire losses have resulted in a comparatively bad year of business.

No information is available for 1919 in respect of the premium income inclusive of reinsurances, and the ratio of working-expenses under that head cannot therefore be given. Sufficient data are available, however, to put beyond doubt the fact that a distinct increase has been in evidence in the expenses of carrying on business. The ratios in the next table are given both with and without taxes included as a working-expense, and although it is recognized that taxes are in no sense a working-expense, yet they are undoubtedly a heavy recurring call on the profits of an institution. The expenses are increased by at least 10 per cent, on this account.

FIRE INSURANCE.—WORKING-EXPENSES, 1919–21.
Items.1919.1920.1921.
* No information available.
 Per Cent.Per Cent.Per Cent.
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income37.1238.3438.78
Net working-expenses (including taxes) to net premium income45.7448.8551.32
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (excluding reinsurances from other offices)31.2332.5633.50
Gross working-expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)*28.6929.56
Gross working-expenses (including taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)*35.0337.17
Net working-expenses (excluding taxes) to total net income (excluding reserve for unexpired risks at beginning of year)32.6035.1236.21
Net working-expenses (including taxes) to total net income (excluding reserve for unexpired risks at beginning of year)41.4644.7547.93

FIRE LOSSES.

The net fire losses for 1921 were £473,643, as compared with £292,289 for 1920 and £281,040 for 1919. In 1921 there were 3,001 fires and 66 conflagrations (cases where three or more buildings are affected). The corresponding figures for the previous year were 2,476 and 55. The total gross loss in 1921 was £738,638, representing 41.77 per cent, of the premiums (less refunds to insured other than fire offices) charged, and 0.22 per cent, of the total risk covered. The corresponding figures for 1920 were £448,656, 27.66 per cent., and 0.15 per cent. The following table shows for each of the four principal urban areas and the remainder of the Dominion the fires and losses for 1921:—

FIRE INSURANCE.—FIRES AND LOSSES, 1921.
Separate Fires.Conflagrations.Buildings affected.Gross Cover.Gross Loss.Ratio of Loss to Cover.
Urban areas—..     ..     ..     £     £     Per Cent.
    Auckland3397380545,268122,41522.45
    Wellington3059388645,37997,76515.15
    Christchurch2565295506,74467,60613.34
    Dunedin2375273446,93427,9566.26
    Rest of Dominion1,864402,2291,942,086422,89621.78
            Totals3,001663,5654,086,411738,63818.08

The lower loss ratio in the cases of the principal urban areas as compared with the rest of the Dominion is to be expected in view of the greater fire-brigade facilities for handling fires in the larger centres. Companies usually allow this factor to influence the premium required.

STATE FIRE INSURANCE.

In the year 1903 an Act was passed “to establish a State Fire Insurance Office and to make other provisions for the insurance and protection of insurable property in New Zealand against loss or damage by fire.” This Act came into operation on the 4th January, 1905, when the State Fire Insurance Office opened for public business.

As a consequence of the operations of the State Fire Office the rates on trade risks and the like have been reduced by 10 per cent., and those on dwellings, offices, and similar risks by 33 1/3 per cent.

The premium rates have remained unaltered during the above years. Debentures to the amount of £2,000 were raised under the authority of the Act governing the Office, but have now been redeemed. That the Office has been accorded an increasing share of public support is evident from the fact that although at the close of the year 1909 the net income amounted to only £35,480, and there was a deficit on the Profit and Loss Account of £1,441, yet at the close of the year 1921 the net income was £150,073, and the net profit £296,567.

In 1922 the State Fire Insurance Office was amalgamated with the Government Life Insurance Office, the object being to secure unity and economy of control.

Under the State Fire Insurance Amendment Act, 1922, provision is made that when the Board considers that the funds of the Office are sufficient to meet liabilities it may direct that a rebate be allowed to insurers in respect of premiums thereafter becoming payable.

The premium income, after deducting premiums on reinsurances, during the ten years 1912–21 has been as follows:—

Year.Amount of Net Premium Income.
 £     
191254,380
191359,418
191464,646
191571,166
191677,609
191785,321
191890,077
1910100,764
1920124,538
1921136,429

RESULT OF OPERATIONS DURING 1921.

The expansion of business during 1921 has been greater than in any previous year, with the exception of 1920. The total amount underwritten shows an increase of £2,823,936, and the gross surplus in 1921, after paying losses and working-expenses, is £69,554. The net' surplus (inclusive of income-tax charges), after appropriating an additional sum of £4,756 to Unearned Premiums Reserve, and a further sum of £1,000 to Investment Fluctuation Reserve, amounted to £39,325, as compared with £62;777 for 1920. The total accumulated profits at the close of 1921 amounted to £296,567, as against £257,242 a year earlier.

The net income from all sources amounted to £150,073, as against £135,670 for 1920, showing an increase of £14,403. The net premium income for 1921 showed an increase of £11,891.

The net losses were £38,126, as compared with £21,182 for 1920, the ratio to premium income being 27.95 per cent, and 17.01 per cent, respectively.

The ratio of working-expenses to premium income, exclusive of income-tax, was 31.07 for 1921 and 31.47 for 1920. These figures are considerably lower in each instance than the average for all offices in the Dominion.

The accumulated funds at the close of 1921 amounted to £361,138, and for 1920 £316,057, a substantial increase of £45,081.

The balance-sheet of the State Fire Insurance Office as at the 31st December, 1921, is appended.

Liabilities.£     £     
Capital authorized by the State Fire Insurance Act, 1908100,000 
Less not raised100,000 
 Nil. 
Reserve Fund 257,242
Investments Fluctuation Reserve Fund 10,000
Reserve for unearned premiums 54,571
Premiums and other deposits 650
Outstanding fire losses 2,565
Government taxes 24,261
Interest accrued but not due on mortgages 64
Other amounts owing by the Office—
    Reinsurance premiums due£14,275 
    Commission1,660 
    Rent20 
    Printing, stationery, and advertising41 
    Postages and sundry charges627 
 16,623 
Fire-insurance funds, as per Revenue Account39,325 
  £405,301
Assets. £     
Government war-loan securities 138,325
Other Government securities 57,050
Local-authority securities 4,800
Fixed deposits and at short call 20,000
Mortgages on property 2,971
Land and buildings£116,916 
Less mortgages taken over on Office premises purchased6,225 
 110,691 
Office equipment1,019 
Outstanding premiums8,187 
Interest accrued but not due2,462 
Cash in Bank of New Zealand at Wellington, or in transit to Wellington£59,205 
Imprest Account balances—
 £      
Head Office 4
Auckland 7
Christchurch 307
Dunedin 155
Palmerston North 39
New Plymouth79591
  59,796
  £405,301

Chapter 28. SECTION XXVIII.—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act, 1909, and its amendments of 1911, 1914, and 1915. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with a central Government officer entitled the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general oversight by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies. The powers, duties, and obligations of societies are set out, as is also a schedule of offences and of penalties therefor.

A scheme for the extension of State benefits to members of friendly societies, on special terms, was embodied in the Finance Act, 1915 (Part IX), and extended and amended by the National Provident Fund Amendment Act, 1919. Information concerning the scheme is given in Section XXIV of this book, in the article dealing with the National Provident Fund.

The 1921–22 issue of this book contains particulars of the various forms of assistance rendered by the State to friendly societies to meet the special difficulties created by the war, and the consequential absence, death, or injury of members of societies.

LODGES AND MEMBERS.

At the 31st December, 1921, there were 875 lodges, courts, &c, on the Register of Friendly Societies, a net decrease of four during the year. The figures for the various orders are as follows:—

Name of Order.Registrations at 1st January, 1921.Established.Closed.Registrations at 31st December, 1921.
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Odd Fellows224..     8216
Independent Order of Odd Fellows1082..     110
National Independent Order of Odd Fellows3..     ..     3
British United Order of Odd Fellows1..     ..     1
Ancient Order of Foresters156..     ..     157
Ancient Order of Shepherds1..     ..     1
United Ancient Order of Druids13511135
Independent Order of Rechabites76..     869
Sons and Daughters of Temperance11..     ..     11
Hibernian Australasian Catholic Benefit Society633..     66
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia13..     ..     13
Isolated friendly societies426..     48
Working-men's clubs16..     ..     16
Independent Order of Good Templars11..     ..     11
Specially authorized societies19..     118
                  Totals8791418875

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c, are required by law, but it would appear that many lodges do not comply with the requirements. For the year 1921 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 731 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 77,814 at the end of the year, as compared with 732 lodges and 74,210 members for 1920. The following table shows the membership at the beginning and end of the year, with the accretions and losses of members during the year, in respect of the 731 lodges returned in 1921:—

Number of members, 1st January74,210
Number admitted by— 
      Initiation, &c7,858
      Clearance1,025
 8,883
 83,093
Number who died615
Number left by— 
      Clearance1,016
      Arrears, &c3,648
 5,279
Number of members at 31st December77,814

The above figures show an increase in membership equal to 4.86 per cent., as compared with 5.12 per cent, for 1920.

The figures of membership of lodges furnishing returns during each of the last ten years are as follows:—

Year.Number of Lodges tabulated.Number of Members.
191266473,243
191368173,691
191471774,074
191572873,027
191672770,360
191773068,771
191873167,527
191973570,598
192073274,210
192173177,814

The figures are of use for comparative purposes, in spite of the comparatively large proportion of lodges which do not furnish returns, as it is found that with few exceptions the same lodges are the delinquents each year. The fall in membership during the war has now been made up, and it will be noticed that although the number of societies returned in 1921 was one less than in 1920, there was an increase of 3,604 in membership.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

The total funds of the societies and branches as on the 31st December, 1921, amounted to £2,445,843, made up as follows: Sick and Funeral Funds (inclusive of amounts transferred to special funds out of surplus), £2,279,979; Medical and Management Funds, goods, &c, £165,864. Dividing the total funds by the number of members at the end of the year it is found the average capital per member is £31 8s. 8d.

The total funds and the average capital per member at the end of each of the last ten years were as under:—

Year.Total Funds.Average Capital.
 £     £ s.d.
19121,553,3392142
19131,643,1772260
19141,744,45623110
19151,852,3552574
19161,954,94027158
19172,052,75329170
19182,100,4433121
19192,184,653301811
19202,321,1763157
19212,445,8433188

These sums are held against the societies' liabilities under their sickness and funeral insurances, and actuarial valuations made by the Friendly Societies Office from time to time indicate how far they are sufficient or otherwise.

The following statement shows the disposal of the total funds (including those of the central bodies) as on the 31st December, 1921:—

Funds.£     
Sick and Funeral Funds2,164,011
Surplus Appropriation Funds, &c115,968
Management Funds, goods, &c105,615
Widow and Orphans' Funds18,787
Distress, Benevolent Funds, &c41,462
 £2,445,843
Assets.£     
Investments at interest2,121,742
Value of land and buildings206,318
Cash not bearing interest76,089
Value of goods14,069
Owing by Management Funds22,690
Other assets4,935
 £2,445,843

The net income from investments credited to the Sick and Funeral Funds for 1921 amounted to £111,825, the average rate being £5 9s. 4d. per cent., as against £5 6s. 8d. in 1920.

Name of Society.Total Worth of Sick and Funeral Funds as onAmount of Interest.Average Kate per Cent.
1st January, 1921.31st December, 1921.
 £     £     £     £     
M.U.I.O.O.F.803,055835,69342,7435.36
I.O.O.F.143,715151,7237,2865.06
N.I.O.O.F.5,2555,3271823.50
B.U.O.O.F.4,0954,2662145.25
A.O.F.483,574509,54025,5085.27
A.O.S.1,2801,303776.15
U.A.O.D.359,831400,67322,4866.09
I.O.R.101,827107,2345,5715.48
S.D.T.25,74627,0001,4155.51
H.A.C.B.S.43,16851,4502,6105.67
P.A.F.S.A.28,23829,3901,5825.65
Other societies37,77040,4122,1515.66
                  Totals2,037,5542,164,011111,8255.47

The receipts and expenditure of the Sick and Funeral Funds for the year 1921 totalled £486,733 and £359,274 respectively, made up as follows:—

SICK AND FUNERAL FUNDS, 1921.
Receipts.£     
Members contributions136,795
Interest and rent111,825
Repayments by central body37,207
Other receipts200,906
 £486,733
Expenditure.£     
Sick-pay90,994
Funeral donations25,267
Contributions and levies to central body231,084
Other expenditure11,929
 £359,274

Members' contributions averaged £1 15s. 11d. per member, and interest and rent receipts amounted to £1 9s. 5d. per member, reckoned on the mean number of members for the year. Sickness benefits paid averaged £7 11s. 5d. per member sick, or £1 3s. 11d. when averaged over all members, while funeral benefits represented 6s. 8d. per member.

The receipts of the Medical and Management Expenses Funds for 1921 totalled £152,850, and the expenditure was £153,906, the details being as follows:—

MEDICAL AND MANAGEMENT EXPENSES FUNDS, 1921.
Receipts.£     
Members' contributions141,647
Interest and rent2,740
Other receipts8,463
 £152,850
Expenditure.£     
Medical attendance and medicine96,836
Management expenses40,351
Levies to central body11,528
Other expenditure5,191
 £153,906

Chapter 29. SECTION XXIX.—BUILDING SOCIETIES.

THE law relating to building societies incorporated in the Dominion is contained in the Building Societies Act, 1908. and is mainly a consolidation of legislation that has been operative since 1880. The Assistant Registrar of Companies in each district acts as Registrar of Building Societies, and before a society can be incorporated the formalities prescribed by the Act and regulations must be completed. Rules, as well as subsequent alterations thereof, must before registration be certified to as conforming to legal requirements by a Revising Barrister appointed by the Governor-General for the purpose. A fee of £5 5s. is payable by the society concerned for this service, but no second fee is payable for amendments made within five years following. The fee payable to the Registrar of Building Societies on incorporation is £3 3s., but no stamp duties are payable on any instruments or documents made under the Act.

Building societies are afforded all the powers of an ordinary mortgagee, and where a mortgagor makes default in payment of moneys the society may exercise the usual power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. No reconveyance is needed to discharge a mortgage made under the Act, a receipt endorsed being a sufficient discharge for this purpose.

The provisions of the Mortgages Extension (Moratorium) Acts apply to mortgages of building societies, and for an outline of the provisions of the law on the subject reference should be made to the section of this book relating to “Mortgages.”

Under the Finance Act, 1920, a building society may be approved by the Governor-General as an institution for the investment of trust funds. This innovation permanently embodies a temporary war measure in the statute law of the Dominion.

The two classes of building and investment societies — viz., permanent and terminating—are distinguished according as to whether the society is by its rules to terminate at a fixed date or when a specified result is attained.

Returns of each society's operations are furnished annually to the Census and Statistics Office. The dates upon which the societies close their accounts vary considerably within the year, but the figures given below may be taken as corresponding approximately to the financial years ended on the 31st March of the years shown.

NUMBER OF SOCIETIES.

The number of societies in existence in 1921–22 was 81. Of these 37 were. permanent and 44 terminating, the latter being comprised of 125 groups. The following table shows the number of societies in operation over a period of five years:—

NUMBER OF BUILDING SOCIETIES, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
Year.Number of Permanent Societies.Number of Terminating Societies.
Societies.Groups.
1917–183549110
1918–193545107
1919–203642110
1920–213741116
1921–223744125

There has been a tendency for individual societies to enlarge their activities, rather than for the number of societies to increase. The number of terminating societies shows a decrease over the five years under review, but the aggregate number of groups of those which have remained in operation has increased.

A synopsis of the extent to which investments have been made in building-society shares during the last five years is contained in the table next presented:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—SHARES AND MEMBERS, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
Investing Shares...     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Number of shares105,898108,071108,479122,589132,343
Members holding24,90825,12524,86826,80931,764
Aggregate value£1,625,795£1,644,281£1,576,070£1,632,802£1,729,514
Paid-up Shares...     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Number of shares37,42039,13057,19863,47370,859
Members holding1,3401,4992,3001,8992,094
Aggregate value£289,020£303,460£472,977£464,743£506,349

The average value in 1921–22 of each investing share paying periodic subscription was £13 1s. 4d., as compared with £15 7s. 0 1/2d. in 1917–18, and of each paid-up share £7 2s. 11d., as compared with £7 14s. 5 1/2d. five years ago. A comparison of the distribution of share-money and the number of holders of shares between permanent and terminating societies yields the following results:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES, PERMANENT AND TERMINATING, 1921–22.
Permanent.Terminating.Total.
                Investing Shares.
Number of shares62,66169,682132,343
Members holding7,13424,63031,764
Aggregate value£701,601£1,027,913£1,729,514
                Paid-up Shares.
Number of shares70,20765270,859
Members holding1,8482462,094
Aggregate value£497,680£8,669£506,349

Of the total aggregate value of both investing and paid-up shares, amounting to £2,235,863, 53 2/3 per cent, is held in permanent societies and 46 1/3 per cent, in terminating societies. On the other hand, the number of members holding shares in permanent societies is only 26 1/2 per cent, of the total, the terminating societies' shareholders representing 73 1/2 per cent. It should be pointed out, however, that one person may hold shares in several groups of a terminating society.

LOANS AND BORROWERS.

The numbers of loans and borrowers, both of permanent and of terminating societies, are as follows:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—LOANS AND BORROWERS, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
Year.Permanent Societies.Terminating Societies.Total.
Borrowers.Amount.Borrowers.Amount.Borrowers.Amount.
  £      £      £     
1917–184,0371,365,7075,3891,605,4129,4262,971,119
1918–195,1431,747,7834,6011,260,5059,7443,008,288
1919–205,2132,037,8104,4861,248,5849,6993,286,394
1920–215,1072,228,1584,1011,241,2389,2083,469,396
1921–224,9022,275,2185,1061,310,52210,0083,585,740

It will be noted that the total amount of money borrowed has steadily increased each year. On the other hand, the number of borrowers has fluctuated considerably, and the figures for the year 1921–22 disclose an increase of no fewer than 800 borrowers, as against a falling-off in the two preceding years. This increase in the number of borrowers has been wholly confined to the terminating societies, the permanent societies, indeed, showing a decrease. The average amount borrowed during the last five years is seen from the next table.

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—AVERAGE AMOUNT BORROWED, 1917–18 TO 1921–22
Class.1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
 £ s.d.£ s.d.£ s.d.£ s.d.£ s.d.
Permanent societies338511339168390194436511464210
Terminating societies2971812731*9327867302134256133
All societies3154130814733816937615735859

INCOME AND OUTGO.

Building societies have experienced a continued demand for money available for household property, partly owing to the high prices ruling for buildings and partly because of the acute shortage of houses from which the Dominion has suffered as a whole during the years immediately following the war. The figures in the table below are accordingly of more than usual interest in so far as they reflect the extent of advances made to shareholders. The decrease in advances in 1921–22 as compared with the two preceding years is doubtless due to the measure of caution with which all lending institutions have made advances on the security of house-properties in anticipation of a falling-off in valuations which became inflated during the war period.

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—INCOME AND OUTGO, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
1917–18.1918–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
Income.£     £     £     £     £     
Investors' subscriptions and paid-up shares245,084250,818274,004320,340364,268
Advances repaid422,496459,572596,414758,242578,618
Deposits received730,367786,861727,3161,266,970979,733
Interest received100,707104,343120,293144,708141,675
Other receipts66,96451,03478,94374,60677,848
                Total income1,565,6181,652,6281,796,9702,564,8662,142,142
Outgo...     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Withdrawals228,614224,739256,441289,747232,311
Advances486,228496,803766,306938,713653,646
Expenses of management27,05127,97928,63540,10436,717
Deposits repaid718,572551,062631,2171,133,2501,074,174
Interest, dividends, and other expenditure123,728116,370113,577193,776155,931
                Total outgo1,584,1931,416,9531,796,1762,595,5902,152,779

The demands which are evident from the above figures, and which arise out of the factors already indicated, have resulted during the last year or two in some societies amending their rules to allow of the limit of group loans being raised.

In 1921–22, for the second year in succession, the aggregate outgo exceeded the income. While this may in a measure be due to increased expenses of management and to withdrawals, yet reference to the table of assets and liabilities will readily show the general soundness of building societies' funds in the Dominion. The position disclosed above is not of special concern in view of the reason that the legitimate function of building societies is to assist members to secure homes of their own by means of loans at easy rates of interest and repayable on the instalment system.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS.

The liabilities and assets of societies operative in New Zealand for each of the years 1917–18 to 1921–22 are as follows:—

LIABILITIES OF BUILDING AND INVESTMENT SOCIETIES, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
Year.To Shareholders (including Reserve Funds and Undivided Profits).Deposits.To Hankers and other Creditors.Total Liabilities.
 £     £     £     £     
1917–182,290,924717,188181,0923,189,204
1918–192,315,378693,890244,4853,253,753
1919–202,441,510803,633309,4353,554,628
1920–212,515,1921,064,316138,2843,717,792
1921–222,679,0351,012,626164,4833,856,144
ASSETS OF BUILDING AND INVESTMENT SOCIETIES, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.
Year.Advances on Mortgage.Other Investments.Cash in Hand and on Deposit.Total Assets.
 £     £     £     £     
1917–182,971,119100,103117,9823,189,204
1918–193,008,28984,732160,7323,253,753
1919–203,286,393113,058155,1773,554,628
1920–213,469,396125,282123,1143,717,792
1921–223,585,740136,105134,2993,856,144

Liabilities to bankers, which in 1920—-21 were £138,284, have for the succeeding year reached £164,483. Advances on mortgage in 1921–22 aggregate £3,585,740, an increase of £116,344 on the previous year's figure.

COMPARATIVE OPERATIONS.

The extent to which building and investment societies are supported in the Dominion is apparent from the table below of similar activities in the Commonwealth of Australia for 1920–21:—

BUILDING SOCIETIES.—OPERATIONS IN 1920–21.
State.Number of Societies.Number of Shareholders.Number of Shares.Number of Borrowers.Amount advanced.
* Not available.
£
New South Wales141***434,741
Victoria307,551*9,537963,211
Queensland124,704920,6334,293208,933
South Australia209,86920,0392,234100,570
Western Australia134,61215,6531,49783,304
Tasmania41,84915,6421,301117,598
New Zealand7828,708186,0629,208938,713

Chapter 30. SECTION XXX.—MORTGAGES.

OUTLINE OF LAW RELATING TO MORTGAGES.

GENERALLY, any class of property in New Zealand may be the subject of a mortgage, and a mortgage may be submortgaged. Certain property, however, cannot be mortgaged, notably property which as a matter of policy is forbidden by law to be mortgaged, such as pensions. Property which a married woman is restrained from anticipating can only be mortgaged with the consent of the Supreme Court.

The distinction between mortgages under the older deeds-registration system and under the more recent Land Transfer Act is chiefly in respect to the form of mortgage and the estate created for the security of the mortgage. Formerly the mortgagor conveyed the land to the mortgagee subject to a right of reconveyance of “equity of redemption” on repayment of the money lent. This is substantially the present law in regard to mortgages under the deeds-registration system, except, perhaps, that the position has been modified by the introduction into New Zealand statute of certain equitable principles. Under the Land Transfer Act the equitable view is taken, and no transfer of the property takes place, but a charge only is created, the mortgagee being specially empowered to sell the land in the event of default being made.

A simple memorandum of discharge vacates the mortgage. This must be on or annexed to the mortgage, otherwise a reconveyance is necessary. If a mortgagee who has no attorney is absent from the Dominion repayment may be made to the Public Trustee.

REMEDIES OF A MORTGAGEE.

The principal remedy of a mortgagee in the case of default of any of the covenants by the mortgagor is a power of sale through the Registrar of the Supreme Court. The Registrar fixes the time and conditions of sale and employs an auctioneer. The mortgagee may be a bidder at the sale and become the purchaser. The Registrar executes the transfer of the property, reciting that the sale is made under these provisions of the Act. A mortgagee may also sue under the covenants contained in the mortgage. The English remedy of foreclosure is, however, abolished in New Zealand by the Property Law Act in respect of realty.

The information given below relates to mortgages registered under one or other of the above systems. In addition to these there are numbers of privately arranged advances which are not so registered, and of the amount of which it is not possible to form any estimate. Further, stock and crop liens, bills of sale, and instruments under the Chattels Transfer Act are not included in the figures.

A note on the special legislation included in the Mortgages Extension (Moratorium) Acts is given at the end of this section.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED.

The total amount for which mortgages were registered, both under the deeds-registration system and under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district during the five years 1917–18 to 1921–22 is given in the subjoined table.

The total amount registered for the year ended 31st March, 1922, approximates the sum of £35,000,000. As mortgages of property situated in more than one registration district are registered for the full amount in each district, there is thus some small degree of duplication. On the other hand, it may be pointed out that in addition to a total of 38,849 mortgages which represent the £35,000,000 referred to there were 1,920 mortgages in which no amount was shown as secured.

The amount advanced in 1921–22 is £32,171,110 less than the figure for the previous year, and represents a decrease of over 92 per cent. This follows on the tremendous increases recorded in the figures for 1919–20 and for 1920–21. The figures for the five years as shown below are arresting, and reflect the extent to which firms and private individuals have found it necessary to borrow during the last few years under review, though, happily, to a much less extent during 1921–22.

MORTGAGES.—TOTAL AMOUNT REGISTERED, 1917–18 TO 1921–22.     
District.1917–18.1018–19.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
 £     £     £     £     £     
Auckland4,992,4415,595,21113,021,46321,659,49112,087,238
Poverty Bay931,7081,009,3602,162,5832,402,0001,942,687
Hawke's Bay1,663,2711,798,0614,074,5665,084,1952,104,734
Taranaki1,397,6861,414,5434,343,9855,573,5912,152,275
Wellington4,043,0994,570,23810,727,21413,980,7768,201,426
Nelson283,438444,9461,207,1901,265,520565,529
Marlborough283,180233,5751,059,8801,418,264398,412
Canterbury2,842,5752,052,7316,413,4179,581,9534,465,252
Otago1 868,400927,1862,912,0003,364,2631,836,442
Southland791,461868,5932,345,2842,434,290912,236
Westland29,66592,842175,318196,091123,093
        Totals18,126,92419,007,28648,442,96066,960,43434,789,324

In every registration district a decrease in the total value of mortgages registered is evident during 1921–22, as compared with all-round increases in the preceding financial year. Taking the districts in which the registration has been effected and placing them in order according to the extent per cent. to which borrowing has decreased in 1921–22, the following result is presented: Marlborough, 255.98; Southland, 166.85; Taranaki, 158.96; Hawke's Bay, 141.56; Nelson, 123.78; Canterbury, 114.59; Otago, 83.19; Auckland, 79.19; Wellington, 70.47; Westland, 59.30; Poverty Bay, 23.64 per cent. The mean decrease in 1921–22 for the Dominion amounted to 92.47 per cent. over the amount shown as registered in 1920–21.

MORTGAGES UNDER EACH REGISTRATION SYSTEM.

A distribution of the above figures according as to whether the registration was made under the deeds system or the Land Transfer Act is now given. The period taken is the three years 1919–20 to 1921–22.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED UNDER DEEDS-REGISTRATION AND LAND-TRANSFER SYSTEMS FOR 1919–20 TO 1921–22.
District.1919–20.1920–21.1921–22.
Deeds RegistrationLand Transfer.Deeds Registration.Land Transfer.Deeds RegistrationLand Transfer.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
Auckland3,264,2789,757,1855,009,70516,649,7862,936,4049,150,834
Poverty Bay75,7112,086,87259,9242,342,07657,4101,885,277
Hawke's Bay844,1163,230,4501,200,8073,883,388482,5521,622,182
Taranaki415,5563,928,429600,9014,972,690374,7731,777,502
Wellington1,465,2619,261,9531,760,50812,220,2681,337,9676,863,459
Nelson353,509853,681455,524809,996139,634425,895
Marlborough290,360769,520323,3971,094,867107,775290,637
Canterbury331,5916,081,826492,5749,089,379323,9384,141,314
Otago493,7382,418,262742,4822,621,781442,5431,393,899
Southland229,2012,116,083199,4322,234,85880,797831,439
Westland9,530165,78833,210162,88117,265105,828
        Totals7,772,85140,670,04910,878,46456,081,9706,301,05828,488,266

It will be noted that of the total of £34,789,324 registered in 1921–22 £28,488,266 came under the Land Transfer Act. This represents approximately 82 per cent. of the total amount registered as advanced on mortgage. This proportion has increased very little over a number of years, and for 1921–22 shows a slight falling off.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED—CLASSIFIED BY AMOUNT.

Of the total amount of £34,789,324 registered for the financial year 1921–22, mortgages up to £500 in value represented 17 per cent. of the total value registered, from £501 to £1,000 23 per cent., from £1,001 to £5,000 34 per cent., and above the latter amount 26 per cent. of the total value registered. The following table gives the number and amount in each registration district according to the sum advanced:—

MORTGAGES.—NUMBER AND AMOUNT ACCORDING TO SUM ADVANCED.
District.£500 and under.£501 to £1,000.£1,001 to £5,000.Over £5,000.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number-Amount.Number.Amount.
  £      £      £      £     
Auckland7,8002,118,0204,1983,380,0622,3814,587,2982102,001,858
Poverty Bay539139,560248203,019139320,015851,280,093
Hawke's Bay995243,511417315,221290538,933901,007,069
Taranaki1,083314,101654474,6445271,023,73352339,797
Wellington4,0331,126,4932,1561,622,3841,1782,556,5062332,896,043
Marlborough25870,78711185,94198205,484436,200
Nelson609154,465199156,208101170,125884,731
Canterbury3,155850,4921,4651,123,4647351,593,086100898,210
Otago2,111538,133602447,135299631,67829219,496
Southland928231,988309225,259198392,319962,670
Westland14735,9774130,2832345,733211,100
    Totals21,6585,823,52710,4008,063,6205,96912,064,9108228,837,267

In addition to the above there were 1,920 mortgages registered for which no amount was shown. Excluding these, the average advance for each mortgage registered was £896, as compared with £1,213 in 1920–21.

MORTGAGES ON URBAN AND RURAL SECURITIES.

Figures are available in the case of Land Transfer registrations showing for each registration district the amount advanced on urban and rural properties. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages registered under the deeds system, but bearing in mind that the latter constitute but 18 per cent. of the total it will be evident that the figures given approximately indicate the character of the securities. The distinction is between “town and suburban” and “country” holdings, but information is not always available to enable a strictly accurate classification to be made. Generally, however, town and suburban mortgages are regarded as such if secured on properties situated within cities or boroughs, and would include also small holdings in the nature of building allotments which are not definitely distinguishable as country properties. From the table on the next page it will be seen that mortgages classified as town and suburban are secured on areas averaging considerably less than half an acre in extent, as compared with an average area of some 393 acres in the case of “country” securities.

Utilizing percentages, which may then be taken as indicative of the position in regard to all mortgages registered, including those under the deeds system, some interesting results are yielded by the figures given. The registered value of mortgages on country property constitute 62.2 per cent. of the total amount secured, and on town and suburban property 37.8 per cent. The position is, however, reversed when the number of mortgages registered is considered, the figures being in the case of country property 41.7 per cent., and for town and suburban areas 58.3 per cent. of the total number registered. The acreage on which these advances are secured represents in the case of country mortgages 99.84 per cent. of the total, and on town and suburban property 0.16 per cent. only. On the other hand, the average amount secured per acre on rural holdings is £3 4s. 11d., as against £1,197 7s. 9d. in the case of town and suburban properties, this, of course, being the natural corollary of the higher valuations ruling in the more populous areas. The average amount of each mortgage on country property is £1,274, as compared with £551 on town and suburban holdings.

MORTGAGES UNDER THE LAND TRANSFER ACT, 1921–22.
District.Town and Suburban.Country.
Number.Area.Amount secured.Number.Area.Amount secured.
  Acres.£      Acres.£     
Auckland6,8842,9923,881,6614,5361,480,8945,269,173
Poverty Bay608315421,158395385,1911,464,119
Hawke's Bay861462411,362646441,4151,210,820
Taranaki903334483,0471,375358,2621,294,455
Wellington4,0522,9842,615,0392,675777,9584,248,420
Nelson254100102,735363135,305323,160
Marlborough14827380,010207288,759210,627
Canterbury3,4408051,755,0712,012856,1682,386,243
Otago1,608481721,542783441,483672,357
Southland643201252,467815263,762578,972
Westland802419,67312140,01586,155
        Totals19,4818,97110,743,76513,9285,469,21217,744,501

A table showing information for each of the last seven years is also given.

MORTGAGES UNDER LAND TRANSFER ACT, 1915–16 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Number.Area.Amount secured.
Town and Suburban.Country.Total.Town and Suburban.Country.Total.
  Acres.Acres.Acres.£     £     £     
191620,5454,8724,608,0144,612,8862,395,96316,032,80918,428,772
191718,8034,3423,714,3953,718,7374,215,26613,389,25817,604,524
191815,8994,1183,559,5173,563,6353,280,23511,599,40514,879,640
191916,06918,7422,830,26012,849,0023,351,59312,539,68415,891,277
192035,63243,3986,050,55116,093,9499,726,82130,948,32840,675,149
192146,80366,2246,821,8086,888,03216,133,64239,948,32856,081,970
192233,4098,9715,469,2125,478,18310,743,76517,744,50128,488,266

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED.

The total amount of mortgages discharged for the years 1919–20, 1920–21, and 1921–22 is as follows:—

MORTGAGES.—NUMBER AND AMOUNT DISCHARGED, 1919–20 TO 1921–22.
District.Year ended 31st March, 1920.Year ended 31st March, 1921.Year ended 31st March, 1922.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
  £      £      £     
Auckland8,8415,178,86511,9807,733,3856,2073,623,553
Poverty, Bay708758,225901856,314504469,353
Hawke's Bay2,0282,206,8912,2822,295,589909707,274
Taranaki2,4491,832,9822,7822,182,4701,148812,476
Wellington6,8805,215,4547,6107,219,6484,5903,691,176
Nelson1,261562,1891,171728,316576330,985
Marlborough634487,599595515,007244158,472
Canterbury5,5603,679,0666,5594,728,0213,4181,910,271
Otago3,3241,772,7703,3871,974,4972,0621,015,877
Southland2,0801,290,5161,8701,162,229817453,914
Westland172102,18918668,65614761,014
        Totals33,93723,086,74639,32329,464,13220,62213,234,365

Of the total amount released in 1921–22 £10,821,276 was under the Land Transfer Act and £2,410,089 under the deeds-registration system. The corresponding figures for the previous year were £24,394,717 and £5,069,361 respectively.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED.

The monthly totals of mortgages registered and discharged during each month from April, 1920, to September, 1922, are next given.

MORTGAGES.—TRANSACTIONS EACH MONTH, APRIL, 1920, TO SEPTEMBER, 1922.
Month.Mortgages registered.Mortgages discharged.
Number.Amount.Number.Amount.
1920...     £     ..     £     
April3,5994,650,0732,8162,129,820
May4,9696,217,9803,8272,879,968
June5.5506,251,4404,2243,626,052
July5,3786,771,2934,0403,008,251
August5,5907,223,0333,9983,092,177
September5,5727,095,1433,7222,791,418
October5,2316,279,1953,6462,683,735
November5,0185,333,1553,3072,430,301
December5,3735,557,1813,2642,287,403
1921...     ..     ..     ..     
January3,3663,576,0711,9841,473,863
February4,0724,325,1852,3841,606,790
March3,6823,680,6852,1111,454,300
April3,8733,755,8042,2081,354,534
May4,3364,193,6192,3461,687,459
June3,6383,199,8651,9831,312,064
July3,8073,160,3661,9111,140,503
August3,9193,908,0331,8471,192,661
September3,3772,781,2811,6701,131,727
October3,3182,483,9711,766965,395
November3,2922,848,0791,6131,051,641
December3,2462,729,0411,5681,056,953
1922...     ..     ..     ..     
January2,1221,515,940992619,009
February2,8091,946,5671,281817,041
March3,0322,266,7581,438905,278
April1,8321,294,202948607,539
May3,2482,313,2331,8251,164,377
June2,9522,434,8691,7191,409,764
July2,9122,211,9121,6171,231,149
August3,1572,555,9191,8791,478,796
September3,0312,364,8671,7161,188,173

It will be noted that during the first nine months of the year 1922 a very marked shrinkage in the value of mortgages registered, as compared with the corresponding period of 1921, has taken place. The decrease indicates that only about half of the amount of money has been lent on mortgage during 1922 as compared with 1921, and a comparison with the 1920 figures shows a still greater falling off. The position is no doubt due to the reluctance of investors to deal in mortgages of real estate, possibly on account of the comparatively high values of such property.

MORTGAGES REMAINING AT 31st MARCH, 1922.

The total amount of mortgages under both registration systems outstanding on the 31st March, 1922, was £231,140,104. This represents a net increase of £21,536,959 during the year, the amount of mortgages paid off since the 1st April, 1920, being £13,234,365, as against mortgages registered to the amount of £34,789,324, as shown in the first table in this section. These transactions are distributed over registrations under the Deeds and Land Transfer Acts respectively as follows:—

MORTGAGES.—AGGREGATE AMOUNT SECURED ON 31ST MARCH, 1922.
Act.Remaining secured on 31st March, 1921.Secured during Year ended 31st March, 1922.Paid off during Year ended 31st March, 1922.Remaining secured on 31st March, 1922.
 £     £     £     £     
Land Transfer192,838,99328,811,31510,824,276210,826,032
Deeds Registration16,764,1525,978,0092,410,08920,314,072
        Totals209,603,14534,789,32413,234,365231,140,104

A table showing the amount outstanding for each of the last ten years is given. This table is illuminating. In view of the fact that the figures cover a term of years, they perhaps afford a better indication of the amount of money borrowed than do the yearly tables of mortgages registered, in which no account is taken, because of the absence of suitable data, of the period for which the capital sums are borrowed.

The figures shown, however, should be accepted with a measure of reserve, as doubtless a proportion of the total value of mortgages represented as outstanding on the 31st March, 1922, includes registration of advances that have subsequently been paid off but not formally registered as discharged. This perhaps more particularly arises when second or other further mortgages have been registered and the first mortgagee has sold the security.

MORTGAGES.—AMOUNTS OUTSTANDING, 1912–13 TO 1921–22.
Year ended 31st March.Amount Outstanding under the Land Transfer Act.Amount outstanding under the Deeds-registration System.Total outstanding on Mortgage.
* Not available separately.
 £     £     £     
1913**97,816,375
1914**106,442,297
1915112,752,1811,796,040114,548,221
1916120,691,3983,517,591124,208,969
1917127,638,9844,632,856532,271,840
1918132,875,7225,906,525138,784,247
1919139,747,1667,003,470146,750,656
1920161,151,74010,955,049172,105,739
1921192,838,99316,764,152209,603,145
1922210,826,03220,314,072231,140,104

In regard to mortgages under the Land Transfer Act, a table is added showing by registration districts the amount remaining secured by such mortgages on the 31st March, 1922. No similar data are available in regard to mortgages under the deeds registration system, but, as pointed out earlier, those registered under the Land Transfer Act approximate 82 per cent. of the total amount.

MORTGAGES.—AMOUNT REMAINING UNDER THE LAND TRANSFER ACT ON 31ST MARCH, 1922.
District.Amount.
 £     
Auckland50,466,892
Poverty Bay9,439,209
Hawke's Bay18,956,652
Taranaki18,126,685
Wellington48,891,758
Nelson3,443,894
Marlborough3,560,699
Canterbury35,386,764
Otago10,525,293
Southland11,303,940
Westland724,246
        Total210,826,032

RATES OF INTEREST.

Classified according to the various rates of interest, the amounts in the mortgage-deeds registered during 1920–21 and 1921–22 were,—

MORTGAGES.—RATES OF INTEREST, 1920–21 AND 1921–22.
Rate per Cent.19200–21.1921–22.
 £     £     
0946440
2845..     
2 1/23,8007,820
35,8881,062
3 2/5..     4,515
3 1/21005,955
3 3/4350300
3 3/5600..     
445,87536,651
4 1/10..     500
4 1/5..     350
4 1/42001,624
4 3/8..     4,000
4 1/294,77434,595
4 3/411,6409,792
4 13/163,627..     
511,053,9554,274,265
5 1/810,000..     
5 1/41,454,54633,716
5 1/213,206,6092,690,357
5 3/41,163,601380,379
5 4/52,537..     
5 7/8..     2,000
625,308,4218,782,517
6 1/20225..     
6 1/480,02039,895
6 1/24,781,0094,252,300
6 2/3..     1,500
6 3/430,29546,533
73,047,7266,425,688
7 1/20..     300
7 1/6..     6,382
7 1/45,11513,100
7 1/2504,3811,103,267
7 3/49003,250
81,977,9801,998,067
8 1/43,1251,050
8 1/3..     320
8 1/2198,947204,693
8 3/4..     24,179
9280,401473,744
9 1/4..     350
9 1/22,65021,155
9 3/4..     2,100
10255,936655,728
10 1/2..     700
11650650
11 9/20..     550
11 1/2..     375
1289010,040
12 1/25503,525
14..     50
14 4/5598..     
151,0861,575
20370630
Unspecified3,418,2663,226,790
        Totals66,960,43414,789,324

A noticeable feature of the above figures is the pronounced increase in the amount raised at the higher rates of interest — i.e., above 5 1/2 per cent. Sums borrowed in 1920–21 and 1921–22 at 6, 6 1/2, 7, 7 1/2, and 8 per cent. are substantially in excess of the amounts raised at similar rates in preceding years.

THE MORATORIUM.

In 1914 the Legislature passed the Mortgages Extension Act, intended to give relief to mortgagors during the currency of the war. This Act was repealed, but re-enacted with modifications in 1919, and by a further amendment made necessary in 1921 by the financial conditions obtaining its provisions are made operative until the close of the year 1924.

By the terms of the Acts at present in force it is unlawful for a mortgagee to call up the principal or any part thereof; to exercise a power of sale or enter into possession; or to commence an action for breach of any covenant in the mortgage except with the leave of the Supreme Court. That Court decides whether a mortgagee shall be entitled to enforce the terms of his mortgage, and assesses the hardship or otherwise that would be inflicted on the mortgagee by the continuance of the mortgage. This protection does not apply, however, to mortgages made after the passing of the 1919 Act, nor to mortgages under the Repatriation Act.

The procedure adopted by the mortgagee to exercise his power of sale or other remedy is to give the mortgagor notice of his intention so to do. If the mortgagor does not object within two months from the receipt of the notice the mortgagee may exercise his powers without further authority. If, however, the mortgagor objects, the mortgagee is, as stated earlier, obliged to obtain the leave of the Supreme Court.

Where the term of a mortgage is extended by the legislation, and the rate of interest secured by the document or by any agreement extending the original term is more than 6 1/2 per cent., that rate shall continue to be the rate for the further extended term. If the rate is 6 1/2 per cent. or less, then interest for the further term brought under the law shall be at the rate of 6 1/2 per cent., which thus becomes a statutory minimum for the mortgages kept alive by the legislation. Trustee mortgagees may, however, come to an agreement with their mortgagors for the extension of the term of mortgages without applying for leave to the Supreme Court, provided that the extension is for not more than five years, and the rate of interest on extension not less than 6 per cent., even though higher rates of interest might be obtained for a new loan.

DEPOSITS.

The 1921 Act also contains provisions in regard to deposits, the most important feature being contained in several clauses restraining firms and companies from increasing their indebtedness while they still have large liabilities under the protection of the moratorium. It is further provided that firms and bodies holding money on deposit, if they take additional money on deposit, must use it first for the repayment of old deposits. Companies making debenture-issues to secure current accounts with the banks must use the proceeds to meet debts incurred by way of borrowing on deposit. The application of money in contravention of these provisions is punishable by a fine of £100.

Chapter 31. SECTION XXXI.—WEALTH AND INCOMES.

Table of Contents

PRIVATE WEALTH.

ESTIMATES of the private wealth of the Dominion are arrived at on the assumption that the wealth per head of the living is approximately equal to that left by the average person dying. The fact that the younger and more numerous members of the population do not possess as much accumulated wealth as the older members, taken in conjunction with the fact that the death-rate varies with age, renders it necessary for this purpose to divide the population into quinquennial age-groups. The average wealth of persons dying within any one age-group being known, the average wealth of living persons belonging to that age-group is assumed to be identical, and an estimate of the total private wealth of the Dominion is arrived at by weighting the average wealth of persons in each age-group by the number of persons in that group.

The actual average wealth of deceased persons is obtained by a consideration of the estates certified for stamp duty. For each person whose estate is dealt with by the Stamp Duties Department a return is forwarded to the Census and Statistics Office showing name, date of death, amount of estate certified, and age. The few instances where the ages of deceased persons are not ascertainable are allocated to each age-group in proportion to its contribution to the total.

If the period under review be short, the infrequency of the appearance of large estates may occasion from time to time large discrepancies in the results according as many or few large estates appear in the returns. Matters are further complicated by the fact that from six to twelve months usually elapse after the date of death before the estate is finally certified, with the result that an abnormal number of deaths towards the end of any one year may swell the number of deaths for the year without affecting the number of estates certified, thus bringing about a fictitiously low average wealth of deceased persons for that year and a fictitiously high average wealth for the following year. The epidemic of influenza in the last quarter of 1918 produced just this effect. For these reasons it is desirable to extend the estimate over a series of years and strike an average. In the 1919 and previous issues of the Year-book an average extending over ten years was taken, but with the rapid increase of values during the last few years so long a period yields an artificial estimate, and in this issue an average is taken over the years 1917–21.

It has been found that the number of estates dealt with in any period is usually equal to about one-third only of the total deaths registered during that period; and as most persons leave some estate, however small, it is necessary to make some allowance for estates which have not passed through the Stamp Duties Office. It should be noted in this connection that up to 1920, estates below £500 were exempt from estate duty, and if under £200 from succession duty also. Since 1920 the exemptions have been widened somewhat, and now estates under £1,000 escape estate duty, and if under £500, succession duty. In many cases, however, estates of a lower value than the figures indicated are passed for probate or letters of administration. The method formerly adopted of making a proportionate allowance of 10 per cent. for all unrecorded estates involved a slight weakness, in that it gave too low an amount for persons dying at early ages and too high an amount for persons dying at advanced ages, so that while these factors balanced each other and did not affect very appreciably the total result it has been deemed better, in order to ensure closer accuracy, to make a fixed allowance, increasing from £20 for the age-group 15 to 20 years to £100 at ages 35 to 40 and over. In such case no distinction is made between the wealth of males and that of females. It has been found that the average for males is generally much higher than that for females; and it would appear that slightly greater accuracy still would be obtained by treating the estates of the two sexes separately, making a fixed allowance for unrecorded estates ranging from £30 for males and £10 for females for the age-group 15 to 20 years to £150 for males and £50 for females at ages 35 to 40 and over. No allowance at all is made for estates of persons under 15. The following tables illustrate the results of the two methods:—

ESTIMATED PRIVATE WEALTH, 1921. (a.) Both Sexes taken together.
Age, in Years.Number of Estates certified, 1917–21Total Amount, including Allowance for Unrecorded EstatesNumber of Deaths registered, 1917–21Average Wealth per Person dyingEstimated Population, 31st December, 1921Estimated Private Wealth, 31st December, 1921.
  £      £      £     
Under 552,8179,334.3018137,87641,610
5 and under 1098,9991,3436.7006132,821889,980
10 and under 15123,6658684.2223116,247490,911
15 and under 206251,6831,32239.0945106,1194,148,669
20 and under 251,193710,7701,864381.3143113,42943,252,099
25 and under 301,8241,364,6732,644516.1395113,08167,516,207
30 and under 351,8992,106,6703,030695.2706111,18977,306,432
35 and under 401,7872,375,8503,285723.242096,73169,959,922
40 and under 451,4682,557,8192,946868.234376,12966,097,809
45 and under 501,3952,808,5142,992938.674460,34356,642,430
50 and under 551,5203,755,1053,0481231.989848,14259,310,453
55 and under 601,5524,308,8273,0261420.630237,68453,535,021
60 and under 651,8375,696,6203,6591564.146929,58046,267,465
65 and under 702,1736,949,6864,2171648.016523,96839,503,218
70 and under 752,2927,984,0724,5411758.218818,19131,983,758
75 and under 802,51310,996,7245,2062112.317311,35523,985,363
80 and under 851,9097,717,1464,1031880.85445,0059,413,676
85 and under 908483,996,3972,2681763.84341,7253,042,629
90 and under 95222986,6816261576.1677290459,088
95 and over57112,586169666.18936140,637
        Totals24,57764,495,30460,4911064.54331,239,966653,887,377
(b.) Sexes taken separately.
MALES.
..     ..     £     ..     £     ..     £     
Under 536285,182.121170,0828,486
5 and under 1056,7367309.227365,225601,851
10 and under 1572,61249253.081356,2312,984,814
15 and under 204943,11272559.449654,2643,125,973
20 and under 251,141659,056970679.439161,16841,559,930
25 and under 301,6571,170,6051,350867.114858,81150,995,388
30 and under 351,6901,885,6011,7261,092.468758,19563,576,217
35 and under 401,4692,015,6091,9401,038.973747,20649,045,793
40 and under 451,1302,240,9131,7641,270.358838,27948,628,064
45 and under 509832,313,4711,8491,251.201129,33336,701,482
50 and under 559802,940,8361,7351,683.478924.57941,378,228
55 and under 609943,519,7081,7751,982.990420,21340,082,185
60 and under 651,2154,674,4922,1792,145.246415,52533,304,950
65 and under 701,4485,555,8002,5262,199.445713,24729,136,057
70 and under 751,5176,488,2162,6342,463.257010,52925,935,633
75 and under 801,6439,176,9333,0103,048.81496,31419,250,217
80 and under 851,3096,533,0142,4772,637.47032,7847,342,717
85 and under 905813,593,7181,3802,604.14349102,369,770
90 and under 95134607,7263271,858.4803121224,677
95 and over2981,892771,063.53242425,524
Totals for males17,98453,510,67834,8481,535.5451633,040496,278,456
FEMALES.
..     ..     £     ..     £     ..     £     
Under 522,1894,152.527267,79435,741
5 and under 1042,2636133.691667,596249,538
10 and under 1551,0533762.800560,016168,074
15 and under 20139,49159715.897851,855824,488
20 and under 255241,71489446.659952,2612,438,492
25 and under 30167178,6781,294138.081954,2707,503,704
30 and under 35209178,7091,304137.046752,9947,262,653
35 and under 40318332,4411,345247.168049,52512,240,995
40 and under 45338306,4061,182259.226737,8509,811,730
45 and under 50412501,7931,143439.013931,01013,617,700
50 and under 55540813,3691,313619.466123,56320,596,480
55 and under 60558793,5191,251634.307717,47111,081,990
60 and under 656221,029,9281,480695.897214,0559,780,835
65 and under 707251,399,4861,691827.608510,7218,872,791
70 and under 757751,495,1061,907784.00947,6626,007,080
75 and under 808701,821,8412,196843.27915,0414,250,970
80 and under 856001,191,2521,626732.62732,2211,627,165
85 and under 90267411,579888463.4898815377,744
90 and under 9588378,0552991,264.3979169223,683
95 and over2829,89492324.91303712,021
Totals for females6,59310,918,76625,643425.7990606,926116,983,874
Grand totals24,57764,429,44460,4911,065.10791,239,966612,262,330

It is seen that under method (a) the estimated private wealth of the Dominion at the 31st December, 1921, was £653,887,377, and under method (b) £612,262,330, which may be taken as the more correct figure. The discrepancy of £41,625,047 between the two amounts is due to the fact that three-quarters of the estates dealt with during the period belonged to males, and, the average wealth per male being higher than that per female, it follows that, under the first method the estimated wealth of the whole population will tend to be somewhat overstated. The estimated wealth per head of the whole population was £494, and per head of persons of twenty years and over (practically the adult population) £809.

An estimate of the private wealth in 1914, taking an average over the years 1908–14, shows £285,485,829; but in this instance the now-abandoned 10-per-cent. method referred to at the beginning of this section was used. This fact, however, does not vitiate the figures to any great extent for comparative purposes, as the system formerly in use was quite applicable in a period during which values did not greatly vary. The enormous increase of over £300,000,000 must not be taken as an indication that the private wealth of the Dominion has more than doubled during the war period. Increase of value as measured in money is possible without increase of wealth, and it would appear that the inflation of the currency is, in a measure, accountable for the wide disparity between the two estimates. At the same time it cannot be overlooked that the figures reflect, largely, the prosperity of the country for the period under review.

A table is now given showing the number of estates finally passed during 1920 and 1921, classified according to amount. Estates of Maoris are included.

Amount.Number of Estates.Aggregate Net Value of Estates.
1920.192119201921.
£                £..     ..     £     £     
                Under 5003,6192,605680,329503,445
  500 and under 1,0001,030978746,718700,756
1,000 and under 2,0008097311,144,6651,046,400
2,000 and under 3,000366376896,517923,277
3,000 and under 4,000195207677,394718,623
4,000 and under 5,000162131723,767592,693
5,000 and under 7,5001922271,178,6531,376,190
7,500 and under 10,00094128816,5601,108,790
10,000 and under 15,00080113960,2981,338,360
15,000 and under 20,0004248736,931833,970
20,000 and over1021236,272,2315,709,966
                Totals6,6915,66714,834,06314,852,470

INCOMES.

The total number of income-tax payers in 1920–21 was 44,597, and the net assessed income of these, including exemptions, amounted to £48,606,887. Information as to the numbers and incomes of taxpayers coming within various categories, and classified further according to income, is given in the following tables:—

NUMBER AND INCOMES OF INCOME-TAX PAYERS, 1920–21.
Net Income.Salaried PersonsTraders, Manufacturers, and Business Men.Professional Persons.Landowners.Other (Investments, Trusts,&c.).Total.
Persons and Firms.Non-resident Traders. 
 Numbers,
£      £    ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
      0- 6505,8876,4188124761,2497,4536,78729,082
  650- 75040276256211569766192,992
  750- 85021753764101305414301,929
  850- 9009125329562331202973
  900- 1,000882875213712862741,071
1,000- 1,5003181,087253712411,1247913,885
1,500- 2,00012541815913993153321,461
2,000- 3,000933432329663102901,348
3,000- 4,00032164117622119157617
4,000- 7,000181261821124130150641
7,000–10,00093688222447208
10,000 and over335273..     73938395
        Totals7,28310,4662,3176372,12911,64810,11744,597
 Incomes.
£        ££     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
      0- 6502,451,5022,800,079292,926130,484546,8043,160,8432,435,47111,818,109
  650- 750279,999528,59639,17314,492109,520683,702431,8222,087,304
  750- 850172,777427,40550,3438,062103,770433,170342,4091,537,936
  850- 90080,715223,37825,5124,35954,825292,115176,192857,096
  900- 1,00084,178269,90949,64812,31267,455264,836259,6991,008,037
1,000- 1,500389,1861,310,263312,05282,820289,9911,363,497970,6734,718,482
1,500- 2,000211,281709,874277,51822,856172,765547,379573,0202,514,693
2,000- 3,000284,024814,110570,39421,169159,878737,877690,0133,217,465
3,000- 4,000106,996561,686403,83421,03176,204406,632539,3522,115,735
4,000- 7,00096,199636,007932,44361,931120,059, 668,056782,0718,296,766..     
7,000–10,00072,560300,470741,779 14,61617,358194,211387,4961,728,490..     
10,000 and over32,050660,25811,645,551152,554600,459615,90213,706,774..     
        Totals4,201,4679,242,03515,341,173394,1321,871,1839,352,7778,204,12048,606,887

It is evident that the class composed of traders, manufacturers, and business men constitutes the most important section of income-tax payers, the income amounting to a little more than one-half of the total. It is interesting to note that within the class itself registered companies earn three-fifths of the income of the class, and of that income three-fourths belongs to companies earning over £10,000 a year. Over half the assessable income of salaried persons paying income-tax pertains to the £650-and-under category, while in the case of landowners and the professional class the income is more evenly distributed throughout the various income groups.

Tables are given below in respect of each class of income-tax payers, showing the number of such payers and the amount of assessable income for the year 1917–18 as compared with 1920–21. Owing to an alteration in the method of classifying incomes, the figures for previous years are, for the greater part, not comparable with those given, and consequently have been omitted. The total assessable income, however, for 1914–15 was £13,850,261, as compared with £36,645,373 for 1917–18 and £48,606,887 in 1920–21. The number of taxpayers for the same years was 13,967, 37,949, and 44,597 respectively. The tremendous increase in the amount since 1914–15 is due in a large measure to currency inflation arising out of war conditions.

Comparative tables for 1917–18 and 1920–21 are now appended. Those interested in earlier years are referred to pages 823–8 of the 1915 issue of this publication, where a comprehensive treatment is given.

SALARIED AND PROFESSIONAL PERSONS PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income1917–18.1920–21.
Number.Net Assessable Income.Number.Net Assessable Income.
Salaried Persons.
£        £..     £     ..     £     
      0- 6507,1632,573,5105,8872,451,502
  650- 750271189,984402279,999
  750- 850172137,157217172,777
  850- 9008372,8249180,715
  900- 1,0008984,9898884,178
1,000- 1,500175212,946318389,186
1,500- 2,00068107,620125211,281
2,000-3072,47093224,024
3,000- 4,00723,44632106,996
4,000- 7,0001048,2841896,199
7,000–10,000215,560972,560
10,000 and over..     ..     332,050
                Totals8,0703,538,7907,2834,201,467
Professional Persons.
£        £..     £     ..     £     
      0- 6501,581691,4301,249546,804
  650- 750205141,817156109,520
  750- 850166134,663130103,770
  850- 9006254,4516254,825
  900- 1,0009087,1967167,455
1,000- 1,500228277,618241289,991
1,500- 2,00098173,74799172,765
2,000- 3,00070159,18466159,878
3,000- 4,0002376,162276,204
4,000- 7,0001153,20224120,059
7,000–10,000216,749217,358
10,000 and over117,5907152,554
                Totals2,5371,883,8102,1291,871,183
TRADERS, MANUFACTURERS, AND BUSINESS MEN PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income1917–18.1920–21.
Number.Net Assessable Income.Number.Net Assessable Income.
(a). Persons and Firms.
  £      £..     £     ..     £     
      0- 6505,2452,263,6166,4182,800,079
  650- 750510356,221762528,596
  750- 850384306,343537427,405
  850- 900166146,763253223,378
  900- 1,000200191,123287269,909
1,000- 1,500558694,2751,0871,310,263
1,500- 2,000230409,018418709,874
2,000- 3,000178423,100343814,110
3,000- 4,00073250,916164561,686
4,000- 7,00064338,505126636,007
7,000–10,00013112,25136300,470
10,000 and over16234,90435660,258
                Totals7,6375,727,03510,4669,242,035
(b.) Registered Companies.
£        £..     £     ..     £     
      0- 650864218,301812292,926
  650- 7506545,7035639,173
  750- 8505846,0976450,343
  850- 9003127,1922925,512
  900- 1,0007168,7275249,648
1,000- 1,500176218,867253312,052
1,500- 2,000105184,961159277,518
2,000- 3,000137335,413232570,394
3,000- 4,00078268,424117403,834
4,000- 7,000128670,093182932,443
7,000–10,00056474,00788741,779
10,000 and over1767,091,38527311,645,551
                Totals1,9459,649,1702,31715,341,173
(c.) Non-resident Traders.
£        £..     £     ..     £     
      0- 65019270,008476130,484
  650- 75096,1522114,492
  750- 85064,822108,062
  850- 90054,40454,359
  900- 1,00032,9111312,312
1,000- 1,5001417,1537182,820
1,500- 2,00046,8491322,856
2,000- 3,000614,533921,169
3,000- 4,00013,936621,031
4,000- 7,000417,9131161,931
7,000–10,000137,313214,616
10,000 and over..     ..     ..     ..     
                Totals245185,994637394,132
LANDOWNERS PAYING INCOME-TAX.
Net Income1917–18.1920–21.
NumberNet Assessable IncomeNumberNet Assessable Income.
£        £..     £     ..     £     
        0- 6507,9053,360,8827,4533,160,843
  650- 750895601,092976683,702
  750- 850596477,834541433,170
  850- 900276243,513331292,115
  900- 1,000349333,549286264,836
1,000- 1,5001,0781,314,8281,1241,363,497
1,500- 2,000474825,247315547,379
2,000- 3,0004311,028,300310737,877
3,000- 4,000199684,843119406,632
4,000- 7,000184946,185130668,056
7,000–10,00086722,86824194,211
10,000 and over751,347,81739600,459
                Totals12,54811,886,95811,6489,352,777
OTHER (INCOME FROM TRUSTS, INVESTMENTS, ETC.).
Net Income1917–18.1920–21.
NumberNet Assessable IncomeNumberNet Assessable Income.
£        £..     £     ..     £     
      0- 6503,3711,127,9436,7872,435,471
  650- 750343176,705619431,822
  750- 850213166,873430342,409
  850- 9008574,695202176,192
  900- 1,000128124,166274259,699
1,000- 1,500379459,808791970,673
1,500- 2,000127218,347332573,020
2,000- 3,000152335,109290690,013
3,000- 4,00054184,244157539,352
4,000- 7,00068351,101150782,071
7,000–10,00026210,28747387,496
10,000 and over21314,33838615,902
                Totals4,9673,773,61610,1178,204,120

During the three years the most noteworthy changes occurred in the traders, manufacturers, and business-men class, the assessable income of persons and firms having increased by over three millions, and that of registered companies by over five millions, while the amount more than doubled in the case of non-resident traders.

Chapter 32. SECTION XXXII.—-PRICES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE investigation of price-changes was undertaken by the Statistical Office of New Zealand early in 1914. Retail prices were collected and tabulated for each year since 1891, and the results of the inquiry, together with a full discussion of the method adopted, were published in the “Report on the Cost of Living in New Zealand, 1891–1914.” Since that date price quotations and index numbers have been continued—first in the Journal of the Department of Labour, and latterly in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

In 1920 the Census and Statistics Office issued its second report, “Prices: An Inquiry into Prices in New Zealand, 1891–1919.” The scope of this inquiry was wider than that of the previous one, and covered retail, wholesale, producers', and export prices. Retail prices especially are given prominence in this volume, and by means of graphs and extensive tables of index numbers as well as actual prices price-movements during the period under review can easily be followed.

Retail-price quotations, upon which index numbers are regularly calculated, are collected each month in twenty-five towns of the Dominion, which were selected as being representative of New Zealand as a whole. These twenty-five towns are distributed over both Islands, from Whangarei in the North to Invercargill in the South, and represent coastal and inland districts and large and small centres. Returns of prices are collected by the local Inspector of Factories from representative retailers, and index numbers are computed in the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. The average prices for each town are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics at the end of each quarter, while index numbers appear in each month's issue.

The commodities considered are almost exclusively articles of food, divided into three groups—groceries, dairy-produce, and meat. Figures regarding house-rents and fuel and lighting are also given. The full list of commodities is as follows:—

Group I: Groceries.—Broad, flour, oatmeal, rice, sago, tapioca, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, salt, pepper, jam, honey, golden syrup, treacle, raisins, currants, tinned apricots, tinned peaches, tinned pears, prunes, dried apricots, potatoes, onions, tinned salmon, tinned herrings, starch, blue, soap, tobacco.

Group II: Dairy-produce. — Milk, butter, cheese, eggs, bacon (shoulder and middle cut), ham.

Group III: Meat. — Beef: Sirloin, brisket, prime ribs, rump steak, top side, stewing-steak, corned round, corned roll, corned brisket. Mutton: Leg, shoulder, loin, neck, chops. Pork: Log, loin, belly, chops. Sausages: Beef, pork. Tripe.

Group IV: Housing.—House-rent.

Group V: Fuel and Light.—Coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas (for lighting), electricity (for lighting), candles.

RETAIL FOOD-PRICES, 1921.

So far as the following tables are concerned, it is necessary to explain that in order that the index numbers for the smaller centres may be comparable with the index numbers given for the four chief centres for past years the same “base” has been retained throughout—viz., the “annual aggregate expenditure” in the four chief centres for the five years 1909–13.

The quarterly index numbers given below are based on the average prices of the three months in the quarter, so that they may differ materially from the prices current at the end of the quarter. In comparing different quarters consideration must be given to the influence of seasonal fluctuations in price and consumption of some commodities, including such important articles as milk, butter, potatoes, and eggs.

The tables are comparable both horizontally and vertically, since each column has the same base. Horizontally they show variations in time, vertically variations according to locality.

INDEX NUMBERS FOR EACH QUARTER OF 1921, AND AVERAGE OF THE FOUR QUARTERS OF 1921 AND 1920, FOR TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13=1000.)
TownFirst Quarter, 1921.Second Quarter, 1921.Third Quarter, 1921.Fourth Quarter, 1921.Average of Four Quarters, 1921.Average of Four Quarters, 1920.
Group I.—Groceries.
Auckland195219971939191519511890
Wellington207720321986191920041991
Christchurch207820101928187519731913
Dunedin207620241931187019751904
Whangarei217521672144211721512055
Hamilton211920502007204820561986
Rotorua214922232230221922052094
Waihi201420581969198420061941
Gisborne223221952148209621682071
Napier200620712025194720121934
Dannevirke210921392106205421021958
New Plymouth195919431898187019181845
Wanganui191019071914185018951840
Taihape215421442094211421272012
Palmerston North206720361937187919801888
Masterton216221692044197420871990
Blenheim221221912140207821552032
Nelson208820602026202220491918
Greymouth205120241993186519831880
Ashburton209919551958186119681925
Timaru213919921935185919811909
Oamaru212820211965193420121957
Alexandra233022882185212622322088
Gore233121102057196321151949
Invercargill204320502017196120181885
Dominion weighted average204620241964191619881925
Group II.—Dairy-produce.
Auckland196320401906171519061776
Wellington195620171894169618911800
Christchurch185018701736146417301723
Dunedin189919121813163018141763
Whangarei194819771877167618701736
Hamilton183718841802169418041733
Rotorua190220931775169218661793
Waihi178018361801169917791667
Gisborne195720401923175719191819
Napier190019271755154017811750
Dannevirke186819811874160118311720
New Plymouth188619271845171418431717
Wanganui183318491739154717421695
Taihape194020141943164218851788
Palmerston North185720131866149218071652
Masterton188219241826154417941705
Blenheim194819581835162118411676
Nelson189919201803170118311694
Greymouth200920371965169019251790
Ashburton176818951805163217751674
Timaru185118671795159017761682
Oamaru190519011827159418071735
Alexandra188018911804161417971726
Gore189618791825158317961766
Invercargill200019911928156518711774
Dominion weighted average191519621844163018381755
Group III.— Meat.
Auckland156013841367122613841611
Wellington146013241336122613371529
Christchurch164614341415138114691726
Dunedin168714681461132514851727
Whangarei161214461359132114351652
Hamilton158214041342117113751672
Rotorua176714601413135014981780
Waihi173614461418141415041712
Gisborne157813731369121713841584
Napier158411531201118512811676
Dannevirke140311201169112412041480
New Plymouth174214741496146315441791
Wanganui158512261301128713501735
Taihape143411461411132713301679
Palmerston North156312811300122713431655
Masterton159612401310124213471592
Blenheim162312401378134913981723
Nelson165614881539146615371753
Greymouth173716331612157416391738
Ashburton174814161395132314711783
Timaru175014771484146915451724
Oamaru158714071443131914391710
Alexandra179815041471132415241774
Gore178413371293121814081824
Invercargill173112261317112213491737
Dominion weighted average159713781381128214101657
Groups I-III.—Food Groups.
Auckland182117981736163417471769
Wellington183917881743163217511789
Christchurch187817811709161117451806
Dunedin190318091744162917711811
Whangarei193118771815174418421844
Hamilton187117921733166717661821
Rotorua196219331846180118861917
Waihi186517981743172417831799
Gisborne194618791831171818441847
Napier183817251682159317101804
Dannevirke181317551733163217331740
New Plymouth186817791749169517731797
Wanganui178216621664158816741770
Taihape185917741826173617991847
Palmerston North184717731704156717231754
Masterton190417961744162517671789
Blenheim195018131810172418241844
Nelson189718331809175918251810
Greymouth193418941857172518531811
Ashburton190317581731162517541819
Timaru194017881749166417851793
Oamaru189217841755164517691821
Alexandra204519291854173418911897
Gore204417931743162118001864
Invercargill192717561758158317561809
Dominion weighted average186317891737163417561794

In general, food-prices show a continuous decline throughout the year 1921, the Dominion index number for the three groups in combination having fallen from 1863 in March quarter to 1634 in December quarter, with intermediate numbers of 1789 and 1737 for the intervening quarters. Successive declines, quarter by quarter, are also disclosed for twenty-two of the twenty-five towns, the exceptions being Wanganui and Invercargill, for both of which the third quarter shows a rise of 2 points over the second, and Taihape, where a much higher rise occurred in September quarter. Nelson and Greymouth are the only towns showing a higher average for 1921 than for 1920, and the Dominion index number for the later year is 38 points lower than for the earlier. Alexandra shows the highest index number for the three food groups in 1921, and Wanganui the lowest.

The groceries group agrees with the three food groups in conjunction in that there is a successive decline in the Dominion index number throughout the year, but the average for the year is higher than for 1920. With one exception (Rotorua), all the towns have a lower index number for December quarter than for March quarter, and in fourteen of the twenty — five cases the fall has been continuous throughout the four quarters. Not a single town shows a lower average for 1921 than for 1920. The highest index number for 1921 is disclosed by Alexandra, and the lowest by Wanganui.

In the dairy-produce group also the Dominion index number for 1921 is higher than for 1920, and in this case the index number for June quarter is higher than that for March quarter, this being due to winter increases in the prices of milk, butter,&c. The dairy-produce group is particularly subject to seasonal influences, an increase in the index number being invariably recorded for June quarter, followed, even during the period of rapidly rising prices, by a fall, in September quarter in most cases. With three exceptions (Oamaru, Gore, and Invercargill—all in Otago), the June quarter index number was higher than that for March quarter, and in every case, including these three, a fall occurred in September quarter, followed by a further fall in December quarter. Each of the twenty-five towns had a higher yearly average in 1921 than in 1920. The dearest town for dairy-produce in 1921 was Greymouth, and the cheapest Christchurch.

The fall in prices began earlier in the case of meat than in the groceries and dairy-produce groups, the Dominion index number for the meat group for the first quarter of 1921 being 60 points lower than the corresponding number for the average of the year 1920. A slight increase in the Dominion index number occurred between June and September quarters, but the former shows a decrease of 219 points as compared with March quarter, and in the December quarter a fall of 99 points below the figure for September quarter is recorded. The Dominion index number for 1921 was 247 points lower than that for 1920, the greatest decrease among the individual towns being shown by Gore (416), and the least by Greymouth (99). The latter town had easily the highest index number for the year (1639, or 229 points above the Dominion number), while the lowest index number was that for Dannevirke (1204).

HOUSE-RENT, 1921.

The cost of housing is an important item in the expenditure of the majority of families, and to obtain a record of fluctuations in this cost may be regarded as essential to a reasonably complete treatment of the subject of “cost of living.” An attempt has accordingly been made to trace the movement of house-rents over a period of years, on the grounds that house-rentals provide a reasonably accurate indication of housing-costs in general, not only for those classes of persons who may be paying rent, but also for those who own or partially own the dwellings they occupy.

By reason of the fact that leases, infrequent changes of residence, and the difficulty of departing from customary rents all tend to make the movement of the general level of rents comparatively slow, it is not necessary to attempt to measure the changes over short periods. The data from which the rent figures given hereafter have been compiled are collected each half-year, in the months of February and August. Figures quoted in reference to rent for the first two quarters of the year are therefore based upon the data obtained in February, and those for the last two quarters on the data obtained in August.

It is advisable to specially mention that the index numbers in respect of rent indicate the movement in the average rentals of a large number of houses, and that they do not purport to convey any statement as to the price at which housing-accommodation may be obtained from time to time. During the last two or three years the exceptional demand for housing-accommodation, accompanied by restrictive legislation against advancement of house-rents, has caused a wide disparity between the rentals of houses which have been let for some time and the rents charged to the new occupants of houses being relet. In so far as the number of “relettings” is relatively small, there has not been the substantial advance in house-rents which might be gathered from an inspection of the prices charged for the occupancy of houses falling vacant.

Latterly an insecurity of tenancy, which is due largely to a severe housing-shortage and the statutory rent-restriction, has led to the purchase of an abnormal number of houses by persons formerly content to remain tenants. In the normal course of events it is the newer and better-class dwelling that has been purchased, thus leaving an unduly large proportion of older and lower-rented dwellings to be covered by the statistical inquiry. The effect of this is to artificially retard the rise of the house-rent index.

AVERAGE RENTS IN THE FOUR CENTRES, 1921.
House ofAuckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.
February.AugustFebruary.August.February.August.February.August.
 s.ds.ds.ds.ds.ds.d.s.d.s.d.
4 rooms138 1/2143 3/4145158 1/4126135119 9/2125 1/2
5 rooms187191190194 1/2176192 3/4145 3/4151 1/4
6 rooms227 3/4234 1/4236 1/2249221 1/42651810 1/2201 3/4
7 rooms279296 1/2298322259 1/22710 1/42311 3/4244 1/2
HOUSE-RENT.—TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS.
Index Numbers for 1920 and 1921 for House-rent in Twenty-five Town.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13 = 1000.)
TownFebruary, 1920.August, 1920.Average for 1920.February, 1921.August, 1921.Average for 1921.
Auckland111712001159125012961273
Wellington135512801318130113701336
Christchurch109611081102118213301256
Dunedin100010151008103210821057
Whangarei909969939102211821102
Hamilton118614581322182217251774
Rotorua105310441049121014121311
Waihi651646649683733708
Gisborne113211371135123913281284
Napier108410981091116612051186
Dannevirke77581579591811681043
New Plymouth9631185107411781261232
Wanganui109711521125122113161269
Taihape119212441218126913441307
Palmerston North107811721125122013641292
Masterton99911111055112411991162
Blenheim8818728779051046976
Nelson98710121000941969955
Greymouth647706677685758722
Ashburton90388389396211261044
Timaru858936897100911621086
Oamaru8168258218021037920
Alexandra681707694676672674
Gore921962942100310181011
Invercargill91692492095410731014
Dominion weighted average110011291115117612651221

A noteworthy feature of the statistics of house-rent disclosed by the foregoing table is the position occupied by Hamilton, whore in 1921 rents were much higher than in Wellington even.

DOMINION INDEX NUMBERS, 1921.

To obtain a general estimate of the course of prices for the whole Dominion it has been necessary to obtain a weighted average of the index numbers for each town. It is obvious that it would not be strictly correct to obtain a simple average of the prices in Alexandra, with a population of a few hundreds, and. in Auckland, with a population of over 150,000. Prices in each town have therefore been weighted in accordance with the number of people concerned, and a composite index number has been obtained, which, though artificial, represents the average level of retail prices in the Dominion.

The twenty-five towns considered have a total population of approximately half that of New Zealand, and they are therefore fully representative of the Dominion. The four chief centres, which include a third of the Dominion's population, account for about 70 per cent. of the population of the twenty-five towns, so that their influence in the Dominion index number is naturally predominating. This, however, is justifiable, since the chief centres not only comprise a great part of the people of the Dominion, but also set the standard which is generally followed throughout the country. The Dominion weighted index numbers obtained are shown in the table below:—

GroupFirst Quarter, 1921.Second Quarter, 1921.Third Quarter, 1921.Fourth Quarter, 1921.Average of Four Quarters, 1921.Average of Four Quarters, 1920.
* Average of four chief centres.
Groceries204620241964191619881925
Dairy-produce191519621844163018381755
Meat159713781381128214101657
Three food groups186317891737163417561794
House-rent117611761265126512211115
Food and rent162015721570150315661553
Fuel and light*202720792090203920591865
Food, rent, fuel, and light166316261625156016191596

The following table gives a comparison between price-levels during 1921 in the four chief centres and in the twenty-one smaller towns from which information is collected:—

GroupWeighted Average of Four Chief Centres. (a.)Weighted Average of Twenty-one Smaller Centres. (b.)Excess of (a) over (b).
* Excess of (b) over (a).
Groceries19732025−52*
Dairy-produce1845182124
Meat-141014091
Three food groups17511768−17*
House-rent1248116484
Food and rent1573155320

These figures indicate that there is no very considerable difference between the general level of food-prices in the four chief towns and in the average of the twenty-one smaller centres, higher grocery prices in the small towns being to some extent offset by lower prices for dairy-produce. House accommodation, however, as may be expected, is considerably cheaper in the country towns than in the more closely populated cities.

PURCHASING-POWER OF MONEY, 1921.

An alternative statement of the difference in price-levels as between each of the twenty-five towns considered is given in the next table. Similar figures may easily be compiled for the various quarters by working from the index numbers and equating 1000 to 20s. The purchasing-power of money in the average of the five years 1909–13 in the four centres is taken as the base and equated to 20s., the indices being worked out proportionately. The amounts displayed in the table may be compared vertically but not horizontally, since the various groups have different bases.

AMOUNT REQUIRED TO PURCHASE IN TWENTY-FIVE REPRESENTATIVE TOWNS IN 1921 WHAT WOULD HAVE COST 20S. IN THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1909–13.
TownGroup I: GroceriesGroup II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Auckland390 1/4381 1/2278 1/43411 1/4255 1/2
Wellington401379 3/4269350 1/4268 3/4
Christchurch395 1/2347 1/4294 1/23410 3/4251 1/2
Dunedin396363 1/4298 1/2355211 3/4
Whangarei430 1/4374 3/4288 1/23610220 1/2
Hamilton411 1/2361276353 3/4355 3/4
Rotorua441 1/4373 3/42911 1/2378 3/4262 3/4
Waihi401 1/2357301358142
Gisborne434 1/4384 1/2278 1/43610 1/2258 1/4
Napier403357 1/2257 1/2342 1/2238 3/4
Dannevirke420 1/2367 1/22413482010 1/4
New Plymouth384 1/43610 1/43010 1/2355 1/2247 3/4
Wanganui3710 3/43410270335 3/4254 1/2
Taihape426 1/2378 1/2267 1/43511 3/4261 3/4
Palmerston North397 1/4361 3/42610 1/4345 1/22510
Masterton4193510 1/22611 1/4354233
Blenheim431 1/4369 3/42711 1/2365 3/4196 1/4
Nelson4011 1/2367 1/2309366191 1/4
Greymouth398386329 1/4370 3/4145 1/4
Ashburton394 1/43562953512010 1/2
Timaru397 1/2356 1/43010 3/4358 1/2218 3/4
Oamaru403361 3/4289 1/4354 1/2184 3/4
Alexandra447 3/43511 1/4305 3/4379 3/4135 3/4
Gore423 1/23511282360202 3/4
Invercargill404 1/43752611 3/4351 1/2203 1/4
Dominion weighted average399369282 1/2351 1/2245

WAR INCREASES IN FOOD-PRICES.

The Monthly Abstract of Statistics published by the Census and Statistics Office gives each month the latest available information on the subject of war increases in food-prices. It is advisable to indicate shortly here the advance in prices in 1921 over those ruling at the outbreak of war.

INCREASE IN FOOD-PRICES BETWEEN 1914 AND 1921.
Group.First Quarter, 1921.Second Quarter, 1921.Third Quarter, 1921.Fourth Quarter, 1921.Average of Year 1921.
Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*Index Number.Percentage Increase.*
* Over July, 1914.
Groceries (index number, July, 1914:1033)204698.06202495.93196490.13191685.48198892.45
Dairy-produce (index number, July, 1914:1057)191581.17196285.62184474.46163054.21183873.89
Meat (index number, July, 1914:1127)159741.70137822.27138122.54128213.75141025.11
Three food groups (index number, July, 1914:1070)186374.11178967.20173762.34163452.71175664.11

The accompanying diagram, showing the course of retail food-prices from July, 1914, to date, is of interest not only as indicating the monthly movement within each year, but as showing clearly the comparison of the movement between one year and another. The diagram strikingly illustrates the steady rate of increase during the war, the comparatively small increase in 1919, and the huge rise in 1920, followed by an even greater fall in 1921.

RETAIL-PRICE MOVEMENTS, 1912–21.

The following general survey of the course of retail prices over a number of years has been brought up to date by the inclusion of the figures for 1921:—

GROUP I.—GROCERIES.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–1.3 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
19121050101398610391022*
19131064102996410361023*
1914103510821046105610551064
1915117212271210121912071206
1916119612691197119212141219
1917126813951279124812981305
1918146115791417150314901488
1919153516441530156015671570
1920189019911913190419251925
1921195120041973197519761988

The outstanding feature illustrated by this table is, of course, the substantial advance in prices since the outbreak of war—the indices for 1920 especially showing a large increase on previous numbers. The average for the year 1921, in spite of substantial decreases during the latter portion of the year as referred to previously, is nevertheless the highest yearly average recorded. Wellington still remains somewhat in advance of the other centres.

The influence which the index numbers of the four chief centres have on the Dominion weighted average index numbers is clearly seen in the table, which shows the comparatively small difference between the average index number for the four chief centres and that for the Dominion. This note is applicable in a varying degree to all the groups with the exception of Group V (Fuel and Light), for which no complete data are obtainable for the twenty-one minor centres.

The items grouped under the heading “Groceries” are varied in nature, and may be treated in three subgroups as under:—

Group IA.—Groceries, excluding bread, flour, oatmeal, potatoes, onions, and sugar.

Group IB.—Bread, flour, oatmeal, potatoes, and onions.

Group IC.—Sugar.

The fundamental distinction is that the items comprising Group IA are almost wholly imported from overseas, while those in the second are almost wholly produced in the country. Sugar is not strictly a product of Now Zealand, the raw material being imported and refined in the Dominion, but it is such an important commodity that it has been deemed advisable to treat it separately.

GROUP IA.—GENERAL GROCERIES.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1912–21.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
1912101395796410731002
19131014104696710891029
19149941097104711141063
19159891066111511321078
191610351121111511321101
191711711227120312191205
191813671493138814591427
191914881624154115901561
192018972037204120322002
192118501758184518801833
GROUP IB.—BREAD, FLOUR, OATMEAL, POTATOES, AND ONIONS.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1912–21.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
1912109210679649871027
1913110010269239571001
191411141173103310741098
191513641408129313561355
191613671416125212201314
191714301588135612491406
191816341733146315671599
191916651727154915511623
192017901834163616401725
192118721871179417321817
GROUP IC.—SUGAR.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres, 1912–21.
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
191210451029111510781092
19131117980107110941065
19149831055114510251052
191511911211129012281230
191612081310130412941279
191712191399134413541329
191812661428135914231369
191913141470144414971431
192021532338238322852290
192127812857287529192858

The above figures show clearly that while imported items were principally responsible for the huge increase in the groceries index number for 1920, their influence kept down the number for 1921 by largely neutralizing the increases for the other subgroups. The increase in sugar-prices accounts for practically the whole of the rise in the groceries index number in 1921 as compared with 1920.

GROUP II.—DAIRY-PRODUCE.

The prices of commodities included in the dairy-produce group have shown an almost continuous increase since 1891—an increase which during the war period has been considerably accelerated. The greatest increase was disclosed in the year 1920, the increase in 1921 over that year being small in comparison with that in 1920 over 1919.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
1912998107699210521029*
191310281124100310441050*
1914101911141016106510541045
1915114011961133114611541153
1916128813501251126312881274
1917136214251318135113641353
1918144314761328143214201415
1919151815531434152915081504
1920177618001723176317661755
1921190618911730181418351838

GROUP III.—MEAT.

The index numbers for the meat group show a steady increase up to 1920, but a considerable fall in the year 1921. For the last six years Wellington index numbers have been considerably below those of the other three centres, while Auckland, which formerly had a substantial lead as the dearest of the four centres, now compares very favourably with Christchurch and Dunedin.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres. 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
19121033102410349151001*
19131104113910279171047*
1914126611121061110311361142
1915129312051191119012201235
1916141312741313128313211348
1917150013801449141714371463
1918157514761540150715251545
1919159615041607158815741591
1920161115291726172716481657
1921138413371469148514191410

THREE FOOD GROUPS COMBINED.

The index numbers given in the following table have been compiled from records of prices of the three separate food groups in such manner as to show the movement of the general level of food-prices, care being taken to give each group its due importance:—

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
191210321031100410001017*
1913106910899959971037*
1914111011001044107410821087
1915120612161176119111971203
1916129112901249124412681276
1917136913971346132813601370
1918149615211438148814861491
1919155215751531156315551561
1920176917891806181117941794
1921174717511745177117541759

It will be noted that food-prices in the four centres, as recorded by the above index numbers, move with considerable uniformity, although the extent of the movement varies as between the different cities.

In pre-war years food-prices were slightly higher in Auckland and Wellington than in the two southern centres, this being mainly due to the difference in prices of agricultural products (flour, oatmeal,&c.) and meat. The position has now been altered, Dunedin being the dearest of the four centres and Christchurch having an index number only slightly lower than those of Auckland and Wellington.

GROUP IV.—HOUSE-RENT.

The following table brings into prominence the high level of weekly rentals in Wellington as compared with the other three centres. During the war period and for some years prior to 1914 the increase in house-rents in Wellington was such as to increase the disparity between the level of rents in that city and in the other three chief centres of the Dominion.

In each of the last three years, however, Auckland and Christchurch showed a far greater increase than did Wellington, but in spite of this the latter city still maintains its position. Dunedin has a much lower figure than the other three centres.

Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres. 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
1912106510939209501007*
1913104411649379581026*
1914104411739619651036984
1910100511869679701032995
191698712169499651029987
1917977124096794510321005
191810051295100798410731033
191910441315105499211011062
1920115913181102100811471115
1921127313361256106712311221
FOOD GROUPS AND RENT, 1912–21.
Index Numbers for Four Chief Centres and Dominion Weighted Average, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.Dominion Weighted Average.
* Not available.
1912104410539749821013*
1913106111159749831033*
1914108711251015103510661050
1915113512011101111411381125
191611861262114411401183113
1917123113391210119412441240
1918132014391281130613371326
1919137214831364136013951384
1920155316221556152615641553
1921157916031571151815681566

The index numbers given in the preceding table show the movement of prices of food and of house-rents combined. Those figures accordingly present concise information as to the movement in the cost of a substantial proportion of the ordinary domestic necessities—food and housing.

GROUP V.—FUEL AND LIGHT.

Considerable difficulties are met with in any attempt to follow accurately the course of prices in this group. It has, in fact, been impossible to settle on any list of commodities which were used during the period under review in anything approaching comparable proportions in the four chief centres. The comparative usages of electric light, gas, kerosene, and candles vary greatly even between the four centres. Coal, too, presents a difficulty for comparative purposes in the several different classes of coal commonly used in the different towns.

However, a small group of seven items—coal, coke, firewood, kerosene, gas for lighting, electricity for lighting, and candles—has been considered, and prices in the four chief centres have been collected for as many past years as possible. Complete index numbers for this group have been compiled for 1907 and subsequent-years. Figures for the last ten years are given in the table below:—

Index Numbers of Costs of Fuel and Lighting (Group V) for Four Chief Centres, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Auckland.Wellington.Christchurch.Dunedin.Average of Four Centres.
1912919109111179201012
1913928110111509601035
1914991115111629251057
1915991114611459651062
191611031203123010731152
191712861306146812141319
191813781408156913311422
191914971514170515041555
192018341873192818251865
192120422049223419102059

Over the average of the four centres a considerable advance in the index numbers of this group has been noticeable. This movement is common to all four cities, and was particularly rapid as between 1916 and 1917, when the general index number increased by 173 points. There were further considerable increases during each of the next three years, and a record rise in 1920 as compared with 1919, followed by another substantial though comparatively smaller rise in 1921.

SUMMARY OF INDEX NUMBERS.

Index Numbers of Retail Prices of All Groups of Commodities for the Average of the Four Chief Centres, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909-13 = 1000.)
Year.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.Groups I-IV: Food and Rent.Group V: Fuel and Light.Groups I-V: Food, Rent, Fuel, and Light.
191210221029100110171007101310121013
191310231050104710371026103310351034
191410551054113610821036106610571065
191512011154122211971032113810621130
191612141288132112681029118311521180
191712981364143713601032124413191251
191814901420152514861073133714221346
191915671508157415551101139515551411
192019251766164817941147156418651596
192119761835141917541231156820591620

The following table, which is based on the average of the index numbers of the four chief centres as set out in the preceding table, gives an indication (in money figures) of the extent to which prices have risen during the period 1912–21. The table shows the amount necessary, on the average, to purchase the same quantity of foodstuffs, house accommodation, and fuel arid lighting as would have cost 20s. on the average in the four chief centres during the base period 1909–13.

Year.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.Groups I-IV: Food and Rent.Group V: Fuel and Light.Groups I-V: Food, Rent, Fuel, and Light.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.sd.
1912205 1/2207200 1/4204201 3/4203203203
1913205 1/22102011 1/4209206 1/4208208 1/2208 1/4
1914211 1/4211228 3/4217 3/4208 3/4213 3/4211 3/4213 1/4
1915240 1/4231245 1/42311 1/4207 3/4229213227 1/4
1916243 1/4259265254 1/4207238230 1/2237 1/4
19172511 1/2273 1/4289272 1/2207 3/42410 1/2264 1/2250 1/4
1918299 1/2284 3/4306298 3/4215 1/2269285 1/42611
19193143023153 3/4311 1/4220 1/42710 3/4311 1/4282 3/4
1920386353 3/43211 1/23510 1/22211 1/4313 1/4373 1/23111
1921396 1/4368 1/2284 1/2351247 1/2314 1/4412 1/4324 3/4
NOTE.—These figures are comparable vertically but not horizontally.

The general increase in prices has materially reduced the purchasing-power of the sovereign, as is shown by the following table, which sets out the relative “worth” in terms of commodities (but stated for convenience in terms of money) represented by twenty shillings during the years 1912–21. The average “worth” in the years 1909–13 has been taken as a base and equated to 20s. The figures throughout are based on the average prices of the four chief centres.

Year.Group I: Groceries.Group II: Dairy-produce.Group III: Meat.Groups I-III: Food Groups.Group IV: House-rent.Groups I-IV: Food and Rent.Group V: Fuel and Light.Groups I-V: Food, Rent, Fuel, and Light.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
1912196 3/4195 1/41911 3/41981910 1/4199199 1/4199
1913196 1/2190 1/2191 1/4193 1/2196194 1/4194194
19141811 1/21811 3/4177 1/4185 3/4193 3/4189 1/41811189 1/4
1915167 3/4174164 1/2168 1/2194 1/21771810178 1/2
19161653 3/4156 1/2151 1/2159 1/4195 1/41610 3/4174 1/21611 1/2
19171551481311148 1/2194 1/21611521511 3/4
1918135141131 1/2135 1/2187 3/41411 1/2140 3/41410 1/4
1919129 1/4133 1/4128 1/21210 1/41821441210 1/4142
1920104 3/4114121 3/4111 3/4175 1/4129 1/2108 3/4126 1/2
1921101 1/21010 3/4141 1/4114 3/416312998 1/2124 1/4
NOTE.—These figures are comparable vertically but not horizontally.

In the consideration of this table care must be taken that the figures are given their correct significance In short, they represent—in money figures—the worth (or purchasing-power) of a sovereign expended in purchasing the commodities shown at the heads of the columns, as compared with twenty shillings of full purchasing-power in the average of the years 1909–13.

Another fact which must be noted is that the figures shown in this table will not rise or fall to equal extent with any movements shown in the index number, and the percentage rise or fall will not be the same both in this table and in the table of index numbers.

This may be explained by pointing out that an index number of 1333 would represent in the above table approximately 15s., 1000 being equal to 20s. In that case prices are 33 1/3 per cent. higher than previously; or, in other words, the sovereign will purchase only 75 per cent. of the amount of goods for which it could have been exchanged in the “base” period. It will accordingly be seen that the index number would reach 2000 before the purchasing — power of money fell another 5s.—i.e., from 15s. to 10s.—and would move as high as 4000 before the purchasing-power of the sovereign fell to 5s. On the other hand, a falling index number will move relatively less rapidly than would the corresponding figure indicating the increasing purchasing-power of the sovereign.

WHOLESALE PRICES.

Since 1917 a system for the regular collection of information regarding wholesale prices has been in operation. A considerable volume of data has also been obtained from merchants and traders by means of retrospective investigations covering the years 1891 to 1917, and sufficient information is available to permit of the computation of index numbers recording the movement of wholesale prices over the period from 1891 to date.

The general index number is based upon the prices of 106 commodities or grades of commodities. From 1909 more detailed information is available, and index numbers for eight groups of commodities can be given. These groups cover the following numbers of articles: Group I, agricultural produce, 15; Group II, flour bran, pollard, and oatmeal, 4; Group III, wool, hides, tallow, butter, and cheese, 14; Group IV, general merchandise and crockery, 44; Group V, building-materials (ironmongery and timber), 31; Group VI, leather, 7; Group VII, chemicals and manures, 21; Group VIII, coal, 4. The group index numbers accordingly represent, in toto, the price — fluctuations of 140 articles or grades of commodities. Each article has been given a weight relative to its average annual pre-war consumption in the Dominion, and, further, relative to its price. This system of weighting, known as the “aggregate-expenditure method,” is the one adopted in the retail-prices inquiry.

The following tables of index numbers have been compiled as indicated above:—

QUARTERLY GROUP INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES FOR THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1914–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Quarter endedGroup I: Agricultural Produce.Group II: Flour, Bran, Pollard, and Oatmeal.Group III: Wool, Hides, Tallow, Butter, and Cheese.Group IV.: General Merchandise and Crockery.Group V: Building material.Group VI: Leather.Group VII: Chemicals and Manures.Group VIII: Coal.
1914.        
March907990112310781103117210641003
June9691031115910771109118010771003
September10331131111510771123118710801003
December 1915.11761326106711251144119810821008
March15421589119611751148128611601016
June16211727130511861192134911951014
September16411605137112161256136812441014
December 1916.15171298131512291273138812721031
March14801361133712711334144013751082
June13051273140213121448145814171118
September14611306143613401485147214941175
December17021300143013451508151014951204
1917...     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
March14991419143113671564167615741267
June15031447145214071676179516501330
September15351459146814631838185317191432
December 191815291436151215512009190117631445
March15821475147015922007189918171461
June17161557146216652077190719651462
September19021573146317272209189120701463
December 1919.21811587146717562300190320711525
March18731573146617352181188719771535
June17271525148017092050191519191557
September18981516154418082000211719161688
December 1920.19741521157119332035234420211809
March21321609163621602190275321641867
June20571727160222252379342723762051
September19511755155824872585297925062119
December 1921.18081754180924872607273524292169
March17101789165723242594235222362229
June15442018160722172484211719182229
September15342029162621802411198817782247
December15732029141320482352196217432206
GROUP INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES FOR THE AVERAGE OF THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1912–21.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Group I: Agricultural Produce.Group II: Flour, Bran, Pollard, and Oatmeal.Group III: Wool, Hides, Tallow, Butter, and Cheese.Group IV.: General Merchandise and Crockery.Group V: Building-material.Group VI: Leather.Group VII: Chemicals and Manures.Group VIII: Coal.
1912108997010291053103799310241011
1913967981104710551063112610351038
191410211120111610891120118410761004
191515801555129712021217134812181019
191614871310140113171444147014451145
191715171440146614471772180616741369
191818451548146616852148190019811478
191918681534151517962067206619581647
192019871711165123402440297423692052
192115901966157621922460210519192228
GENERAL INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES: AVERAGE FOR THE FOUR CHIEF CENTRES, 1891–1921.
(Base: Average aggregate annual expenditure, four chief centres, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Index Number.
1891994
1892972
1893973
1894927
1895920
1896943
1897942
1898972
1899893
1900917
1901931
1902975
1903954
1904922
1905994
19061016
19071016
19081006
1909949
1910983
1911994
19121041
19131032
19141077
19151269
19161380
19171555
19181809
19191834
19202185
19212071

EXPORT PRICES OF MUTTON.

Figures relating to meat are not included above, but the following table showing the average export prices of mutton (per pound) in the Canterbury District during three quarters of 1921, and also the average for the corresponding quarters of 1920, gives an indication of the movement of meat-prices:—

Item.Average of Three Quarters, 1920.First Quarter, 1921.Second Quarter, 1921.Third Quarter, 1921.Average of Three Quarters, 1921.
 d.d.d.d.d.
Prime lambs up to 42 lb.98 1/45 1/25 1/26 1/2
Prime wethers up to 72 lb.7 1/24 1/42 1/22 1/23
Prime ewes up to 72 lb.731 1/21 1/22
NOTE.—Figures for the fourth quarter of each year are not available.

Chapter 33. SECTION XXXIII.—WAGES.

INTRODUCTORY.

INDEX numbers of wages have not previously been officially compiled in New Zealand, although a thesis on this subject, written by Mr. G. W. Clinkard, B. Com., was published as an Appendix to the 1919 number of the Year-book. In the following pages index numbers are published for the years 1909 to 1922, the wage-rates used in every case being as at the 31st March of the respective years.

The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been collected almost entirely from the awards of the Arbitration Court. While it is recognized that the rates specified in such awards are minimum rates, and that wages may in some cases be above the prescribed minimum, yet for the purpose of tracing the movement in wage-rates over any considerable space of time the award rates form a more reliable basis than any information which could be collected directly from employers or trade-union secretaries as to the ruling or predominant rates in any industry. In the case of two important classes of workers—agricultural and pastoral employees and railway employees—no awards exist. Information has been obtained from the Labour Department as to the ruling rates of wages in the former case, and from the Railway Department in the latter case.

The rates used throughout are those paid to adult workers; but no distinction has been made between male and female workers. In the case of most industries included in the compilations only male workers are employed, but in the textile and weaving group and the domestic-service group (which includes hotel and restaurant workers) female workers predominate. The index numbers for these groups are consequently consistently lower than those for other groups.

The award rates for the four principal districts—Northern, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland—have been taken as representative of the ruling wages throughout the Dominion. For such industries as are carried on in the towns these rates are quite satisfactory; in eases where the important centre of an industry is situated outside the geographical boundaries of the four principal districts the award rates for that centre have been used. For instance, the rates used for coal-mining and sawmilling in the Canterbury District are those prescribed by the awards for the Westland Industrial District.

METHOD OF WEIGHTING.

In weighting the rates extracted from the awards for each district in order to obtain index numbers, the occupations for which rates have been obtained have been grouped into fourteen industrial groups, and the number of workers in each industrial group in each district as recorded on the trade-union rolls for December, 1916, has been taken as representative of the total number of workers engaged in each industry. The following table shows the weights adopted for each group:—

WAGE INDEX NUMBERS.
Weights used for each Group in each Industrial District, (00's omitted.)
Group.Northern.Wellington.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Dominion.
Food, drink, and tobacco1721121363
Clothing, boots,&c.131091042
Textiles and weaving2112217
Building2429161584
Wood-manufacture11651133
Printing,&c.474318
Metal-working and engineering9510933
Other manufactures6210220
Mining19..     90546
Agricultural and pastoral63464237188
Land transport28342826116
Shipping and cargo-working193261471
Domestic service19225763
Miscellaneous211914559
                Totals for all groups265244185159853

On examination of the rolls it was apparent that the number enrolled as agricultural and pastoral workers was by no means proportional to the total number of wage-earners employed in that class of work when compared with the numbers enrolled in other industries. It was necessary, therefore, to interpolate the weights for this group, using the census figures of 1916 for wage-earners as a basis.

DOMINION INDEX NUMBERS, 1909–22.

The following table shows the nominal wage index numbers for each group and all groups combined as at 31st March of each year from 1909 to 1922. The base on which the index numbers have been computed is the Dominion weighted average wage for all groups combined for the average of the years 1909–13.

NOMINAL WAGE INDEX NUMBERS, EACH INDUSTRIAL GROUP AND “ALL GROUPS” COMBINED, 1909–22.
Industrial Group.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.
Food, drink, and tobacco1013101910311037105810811073
Clothing, boots,&c.686714714711733739745
Textiles and weaving943947947947947974994
Building1144114711521161116812431247
Wood-manufacture1012105610521062109311021136
Printing,&c.1234123612331233128512821282
Metal-working and engineering1118111411331137115511611172
Other manufacturers9769919991031103410611110
Mining1041104410621063108011521163
Agricultural and pastoral90691892792592210181192
Land transport1004101310071055108210831088
Shipping and cargo-working1043104310441053122412571379
Domestic service8678678748768779611036
Miscellaneous951960949906103010271028
        All groups9819899931004103310781137
                Industrial Group.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Food, drink, and tobacco1114117511911217141016091680
Clothing, boots,&c.741799824874104111901248
Textiles and weaving1031103111011171125313921542
Building1256128012921478156518571937
Wood-manufacture1197120612671357146419011915
Printing,&c.1284138213821503162320292002
Metal-working and engineering1189123513021415154517851865
Other manufactures1151119712171281154817811846
Mining1163120613131342140017721813
Agricultural and pastoral1228131313821468151815261499
Land transport1160119312121365159017291707
Shipping and cargo-working1414150815171653168620232168
Domestic service1054105711021153116215141621
Miscellaneous1053111611711224139716571686
        All groups1169122212641360147016771716
NOTE.—The index numbers in this table are comparable both vertically and horizontally.

From the foregoing table it will be seen that very little, movement took place in the index numbers until 1914, when a gradual rise commenced which continued until the year 1920, followed by two sharp rises from 1920 to 1921 and from 1921 to 1922. Up to the year 1922 the index numbers for the printing and bookbinding group were consistently higher than those for any other group; but during the last two years a considerable rise has taken place in the index numbers for the group covering shipping and cargo-working, until, in 1922, the index number for that group is higher than that for any other group.

In the preceding table Dominion index numbers were given for each individual group and for all groups combined, but no attempt was made to differentiate between the four industrial districts. The following table shows the index numbers for all groups combined for each industrial district for the years 1909 to 1922 and the Dominion weighted average. From this table comparisons may be made between the index numbers for the four principal industrial districts.

NOMINAL WAGE INDEX NUMBERS, FOUR PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS, 1909–22.
(Base: Dominion weighted average wage for all groups, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Year.Northern Industrial District.Wellington Industrial District.Canterbury Industrial District.Otago and Southland Industrial District.Dominion.
1909953992994994981
191096199510091005989
191196899610121009993
19129781004102410241004
19139971036105810601033
191410701078109410711078
191511051084113412741137
191611381124116112991169
191711781200123113191222
191812311219129513501264
191913371312138714391360
192014131447151615511470
192116711638171517041677
192216961691173017691716

From this table it is evident that no considerable differences exist between the index numbers for the four principal districts. In the case of several industries Dominion awards are made which apply to all districts. Such differences as are observed are due to a certain extent to the fact that some industries included in the compilations are not carried on in all districts. For instance, the sugar-refining industry is confined to the Northern District, and, while in the Northern, Canterbury, and Otago and Southland Districts the mining industry is an important one, coalmining at least is not carried, on in the Wellington Industrial District.

AWARD RATES OF WAGES.

In the following table the award rates for certain principal occupations are shown. Limitations of space prevent the publication of the separate rate in each case for each industrial district, and consequently the unweighted average of the rates paid in the four districts is shown. In the case of hotel workers, agricultural and pastoral workers, and shipping and cargo workers the estimated value of food and lodging has been added to the award rates.

Occupation.Average Wage; Four Principal Districts.
1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Bakers-Journeymen509509509509550550550589600600676770946953
                Labourers459459459459480480480514530530554660781 1/27810 1/2
Butchers-First shopmen689713713713726726726726750750807 1/2927 1/21057 1/210710 1/2
                Second shopmen6346136136136266266266266506506910 1/2814 1/2964 1/2991 1/2
Butter-factory employees—
    Churning arid buttermaking—First assistants550526526526526526526526526601 1/2601 1/2713796796
    General hands420436436436436436436453453503 1/2515601 1/2640662 1/4
Flour-milling-Kilnmen454454454468468480480560560560560760846883
                Smuttermen480480480508508520520600600600600740826863
                Rollermen520520520548548560560640640640640780876933
Meat-freezing—
    Freezing-chamber hands6006166306306306406466467207207209209201059 3/4
    General hands420440480480500540546546646646630770770886 1/2
Slaughtermen (competent)—
    Sheep535 1/4571583583598 1/2627 1/2627 1/2627 1/2648 1/2648 1/2648 1/2758 3/4816 1/2919
    Cattle5605605605605605605605605605605606136307010 1/2
Meat-preserving—
    Boners540570580580600620613629720720720811 1/2811 1/21012 1/2
    Meat-preservers530530546546564 3/4596595613706706706793 1/2793 3/4929 1/4
Sausage-casing makers500540540540540588597597667 1/4661166118310 1/4908902 1/4
Aerated — waters and cordial making—
    Cordial-makers584584589589589589589589600600649693792886
    Bottle-washers3810420420420420450450459517 1/2521 1/2546606739791 1/2
Brewing-Labourers46246246104610478 1/2477 1/2492 1/2503 1/2547 1/2547 1/26006010 1/28658710 3/4
                Cellarmen500500550550550550550550603603640640869883
Tailors-Journeymen539539539539539539563563563626626776939980
                Factory hands..     550550550560560560560602 1/4617 1/4617 1/47708718910..     
Tailoresses (shop)-Coat hands2610 1/22802802762903003003003003103503934711482 1/2
                Machinists25..     248 1/4248 1/4259259269269276276292320354 3/44711482 1/2
Tailoresses (factory)-Journeywomen250250250250276276276276296 3/4303303370416450
Boot operators—
    Male, first grade4504610 1/24610 1/24610 1/2526526526526590 3/4590 3/4676750835 1/4918
    Female journey women250276276276276276276276316316350400446516
Woollen-mills—
    Males-Spinners440440440440500510520520520639639713816 3/4939
                General hands420420420420450466480480480596590676779 3/4826
    Females -All adults..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     250263313313313332 1/4332 1/4376409 1/2450
Building—
    Bricklayers685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4685 1/4715 1/4715 1/4715 1/4844880977 1/210711 1/4
    Carpenters5925925926110 1/2617 1/2643 1/266066066073477117999410 1/21011
    Joiners5925925926110 1/2617 1/2643 1/266066066O73477117999410 1/21011
    Plasterers687 1/2687 1/2687 1/2687 1/2679 1/2679 1/2679 1/2679 1/2716748 1/2766 1/287110011057 1/4
    Plumbers (competent)592 1/2592 1/261561560466066066066073478108261025 1/41025 1/4
    Bricklayers' labourers501 1/4516 3/4516 3/4516 3/4520 1/2550550550606606646 1/2734871871
    Carpenters' labourers455 3/4455 3/455 3/4455 3/44610 1/2526 1/2526 1/2532561 1/4575 3/45966710846 3/4846 3/4
Sawmilling—
    Engine-drivers531 3/4531 3/4531 3/4531 3/4540540579579600676676676986966
    Sawyers5111 1/4518519 1/4519 1/4530 1/2530 1/2542 3/4542 3/4585 1/4631656725943 3/49911 3/4
    Tailer-out450 1/4450 1/4445445439439474474535 1/45511 1/4581 3/4633 1/4873 1/4921 1/4
    Yardmen5310 1/4535 1/2549 1/4549 1/454 9 1/4558 3/4558 3/4557 1/25410 3/4596598653 1/2860 1/2887 1/2..     
    General hands45114511 3/44511 3/44711 3/4510510526526537 1/4589 3/4590 1/2653 1/2856 1/2881 3/4
Boatbuilding-Shipwrights589589589628628628662685 1/4692 1/27210 1/27210 1/2746 1/2965 3/4965 3/4
                Boatbuilders541054105410589589589642 1/2651672 3/4721 1/4721 1/4746 3/49111 3/49111 3/4
Metal-works,&c.—
    Blacksmiths, farriers600600600605 1/4614617630 3/4640 1/2646 1/2655 1/26611 1/4756 1/4813813
    Boilermaking-Journeymen626 3/4626 3/4626 3/4628628628628647 1/2663 3/47610 1/2809 1/4871 3/41025 1/41021 1/2
    Iron and brass moulders577 1/4577 1/4577577647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2683 3/4722 1/2771 1/4842 1/210021014 1/2
    Tinsmiths-Journeymen567 1/2567 1/2567 1/2626628628628628651 3/4709784823929 1/41040 3/4
Engineering—
    Fitters,&c.583 3/4583 3/4615 1/2647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2647 1/2671 1/4748 1/4779 1/4842 1/21025 1/410010
    Electrical workers611 1/4611 1/2611 1/2618 3/4618 3/46110 1/26110 1/2633 1/2666 1/46847168261010 3/41019
    Motor mechanics..     ..     ..     ..     6411 1/26411 1/26411 3/46411 1/26411 1/2647 1/2671 1/4667 1/27710 1/4881 1/21010 3/41019
Skin and leather workers—
    Curriers50056056058058058058661462862870890810001000
    Pelt-fleshers480480480490500546573586630640656805 1/2908 1/2908 1/2
    General hands4204204204364504965395311 1/2603613633769859859
Mineral and stone workers—s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s. d...     
    Brickmakers5111 1/25111 1/25111 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/25311 1/2627 3/47011 3/4875 3/41018
    General hands469 3/4469 3/4469 3/4469 3/4469 3/4469 3/4483 3/4506 3/4511151115311606 3/4790 3/4910
Mining (coal)—
    Surface-Tippers537 1/2537 1/2550550509 1/2537 1/2537 1/2537 1/2562 3/4562 3/4672 1/2672 1/2880898
                Labourers469469487 1/2487 1/2489 3/4543 3/4543 3/4543 3/4568 3/4679 1/2679 1/2679 1/2880898
                Engine-drivers514514523523550550550550550628 1/2628 1/2628 1/2628 1/2906
    Miners588588599 3/4599 3/46110 1/2633631 1/2631 1/2662774 1/2774 1/4762 1/4890 1/21041 3/4
    Truckers52152153054105505511551155115706610661066108410 1/295 4 3/4..     
Mining (gold)—
    Dry-shaft battery workers5405405405405505965965965965966211 1/2657 1/4923807 1/4
    Wet-shaft battery workers5105105105105266006166166166166411 1/46710939817
    Cyanide-workers510510510510540570600600616616623660828 1/284 2 1/2..     
    Quarrymen488506504504504 3/4528 1/2560560598 3/46011 1/2632737 1/28710 1/28710 1/2
Agricultural and pastoral workers—
    General farm bands3683610374378400418530549581 1/2587 1/261963053050 4 1/2..     
    Harvesters600600600600640644944951010221132112811281128906
    Ploughmen39039240640104310458594 1/2610650661 1/2693680580541 1/2
    Musterers474476488488524531075478081108388907927921129
    Shepherds40104104164224444666136366610 1/2680706606530567 1/2
    Wool-pressers450452454454474480754754754771 1/2919944 1/21017 1/2990
Railways—
    Engine-drivers, first grade720720720750750750750810810810930114011381078
    Engine-drivers, second grade63063063066069069069075075081087010501055995
    Firemen, first grade540540540570600600600660660660780960963903
    Firemen, second grade510510510510570570570630630630750930936876
    Guards, first grade570570570630630630630690690690810108010821022
    Guards, second grade51051051057057057057063063063075010501055995
Tramways-Motormen513534 1/45205365365365365435435710 1/26510 3/46510 3/4834 1/2837 1/2
                Conductors450 3/4468460477 1/2477 1/2477 1/2481 1/2490490527 3/46110 1/26110 1/2801 1/27910 1/2
Shipping and cargo-working—
    Assistant stewards, first class404 1/2404 1/2404 1/2404 1/2404 1/2404 1/24710 1/2566 1/2566 1/2566 1/2619849 3/4947 1/2947 1/2
    Assistant stewards, second class335 1/2335 1/2335 1/2335 1/2335 1/2335 1/24011 1/2497 1/2497 1/2497 1/2595826923 3/4923 3/4
    Chief cooks704 1/2704 1/2704 1/27507507508268511 1/28511 1/28511 1/298810691166 3/413310
    Second cooks4734734735111511151115956210 3/46210 3/46210 3/4802883980 3/41085 1/2
    A.B. seamen48104810481048104810504 1/25955911733733790871 1/296119611
    Ordinary seamen, first class381381381381381411 3/4502540571571618 1/265273107310
    Waterside workers—Ordinary cargo590 3/4590 3/4590 3/4590 3/4590 3/46246246710734808808808990990
Hotel workers-Chefs (male)826826831 1/2831 1/2831 1/28610 1/2929 3/4929 3/4929 3/4929 3/49511 1/4978 1/41153 3/41200
                Waiters (male)485 1/4485 1/449250105010530589589589597631 1/2641 1/2863950
                Cooks (female)444 1/2444 1/2444 1/2444 1/2444 1/2463526526526550600606741 1/2826
                Housemaids3143143110 1/2327 1/2327 1/23410 1/2417 1/2417 1/2417 1/2433476480604 3/4650
                Waitresses371 3/4371 3/4376374 3/4374 3/4391 3/4453 1/2453 1/2453 1/2457 1/4481 1/4486634 1/4676
Miscellaneous—
    Soft-goods assistants (male)..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     5505505505686186506610 1/2790873866
    Warehouse storemen4404404404464810513 1/4513 1/4513 1/45211 1/4588 1/2649745881 1/2937 1/2
    Grocers' assistants4504504504504895005005395766196710 1/2756 1/4923923

INDEX NUMBERS OF EFFECTIVE WAGES.

The index numbers published in the preceding pages have been based on actual money rates without making any allowance for changes in the purchasing-power of money during the period under review. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wages may be offset by a fall in the purchasing-power of money, while a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing-power of money. It is possible by taking the movement in retail-price index numbers as indicative of the movement in the purchasing-power of the sovereign to make allowance for this factor. It would be desirable to use numbers for “all groups”—food, rent, fuel and light, clothing, and miscellaneous items—in this connection, but, unfortunately, such index numbers are not available prior to the year 1914, and consequently the index numbers for the three food groups have been used throughout. No allowance has been made for changes in hours of labour and other miscellaneous factors affecting the distinction between real and nominal wages.

EFFECTIVE-WAGE INDEX NUMBERS, 1909–22.
Group.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.
Food, drink, and tobacco104210281049102010201018902
Clothing, boots,&c.706720726699707696627
Textiles and weaving970956963931913917836
Building1177115711721142112611701049
Wood-manufacture104110661070104410541038955
Printing,&c.1270124712541212123912071078
Metal-working and engineering115011241153111811141093986
Other manufactures1004100010161014997999934
Wining107110531080104510411085978
Agricultural and pastoral9329269439108899591003
Land transport103310221024103710431020915
Shipping and cargo-working1073105210621035118011841160
Domestic service892875889861846905871
Miscellaneous978969965950993967865
                All groups combined100999810109879961015956
Group.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Food, drink, and tobacco8938738318098158891112
Clothing, boots,&c.594594575581602657826
Textiles and weaving8277667687787247691021
Building100795190198290510261282
Wood-manufacture96089688490284610501267
Printing,&c.1030102796499993811211325
Metal-working and engineering9539189089408939861234
Other manufactures9238898498518959841222
Mining9338969168928099791200
Agricultural and pastoral985975964975877843992
Land transport9308868459079199551130
Shipping and cargo-working113411201058109897511181435
Domestic service8457857687666728361073
Miscellaneous8448298178138089151116
                All groups combined9379088819048509271136

The diagram which follows shows the movement in retail food-prices, nominal wages, and effective wages since 1909. Nominal wages are seen to have lagged behind food-prices while prices were rising, and to have continued to rise between 1921 and 1922 while food-prices were declining. The result is a steady fall in effective wages until 1920, and a sharp rise between 1921 and 1922. It should be stressed, however, that the prices which have been taken into account in computing the effective wages are food-prices only.

HOURS OF LABOUR.

The following table shows index numbers of hours worked in the various industrial groups from 1909 to 1922. The material from which the index numbers have been compiled has been taken from the awards of the Arbitration Court in most cases; but, where hours are not prescribed in the awards, reference has been made to the Factories Acts. The agricultural and pastoral workers group has been omitted from the computations.

INDEX NUMBERS OF HOURS WORKED, 1909–22.
(Base: Dominion weighted average, 1909–13 = 1000.)
Group.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.
Food, drink, and tobacco10019999991000994993965
Clothing, boots,&c.934932932928928928926
Textiles and weaving976976976976976976976
Building917917917917915907904
Wood-manufacture952952952950950951951
Printing,&c.959957961970970977977
Metal-working and engineering961961961961961957957
Other manufactures978973973973973973977
Mining904901906906906957957
Land transport101210039991001100210021002
Shipping and cargo-working1076107610761076107610541054
Domestic service1188122612261217121612021202
Miscellaneous1003990990993988954964
                All groups1000100010001000999994992
Group.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Food, drink, and tobacco989981982982967947951
Clothing, boots,&c.926930929928929919900
Textiles and weaving976976976976972940933
Building902900902900902903902
Wood-manufacture929921920918917914914
Printing,&c.978975975962956892889
Metal-working and engineering952951949953951910910
Other manufactures968968957969903950948
Mining936939941934934867907
Land transport1000999999998998930933
Shipping and cargo-working1095106510541149114910981098
Domestic service120112011202120212021066981
Miscellaneous964969960959959923911
                All groups996991989999997951944

The following table shows the hours worked in certain important occupations selected from the list from which index numbers have been compiled. The figures given are unweighted averages of hours worked in the four principal industrial districts.

Occupation.1909.1910.1911.1912.1913.1914.1915.1916.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.1922.
Bakers51 3/450 1/450 1/449 1/248484848484848484848
Butchers—Shopmen5756565656565656535352 3/451 3/449 3/448
Butter-factory employees48484848484848484848484848 1/248 1/2
Flour-mill employees4848484848484848484848484848
Freezing-works employees4848484848484848484848484444
Aerated-water and cordial making employees47 1/446 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/446 1/446 1/446 1/246 1/446
Brewery workers45 1/245 1/245 1/245 1/245 1/246 1/4464645 3/445 3/445 3/445 3/44545 1/4
Tailors4848484848484848484848484644
Tailoresses45454545454545454545454545 1/444
Boot operatives, male and female4545454545454545454545454544
Woollen-mills employees—
    Male484848484848484848484847 1/44545
    Female484848484848484848484847 1/44545
Bricklayers4545454545454544 1/444 1/444 1/444444444
Carpenters454545454544 3/44444444444444444
Joiners454545454544 3/444 3/444 3/444 3/444 3/444 3/444 3/44444
Plasterers4545454544 1/4444444444444444444
Plumbers44 1/444 1/444 1/444 1/444 1/4444444444444444444
Sawmill hands46 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/246 1/24745 1/446 1/245 1/445 1/445 3/445 3/4
Boatbuilders and shipwrights4747474747474745 1/2454444444444
Blacksmiths474747474746 1/446 1/446 1/4454546 1/446 1/44545
Boilermakers47 3/447 3/447 3/447 3/447 3/447 3/447 3/4474747474744 1/444 1/4
Tinsmiths47 1/247 1/247 1/247474747474747474745 1/245 1/2
Skin and leather workers4848484848484848484848484848
Mineral and stone workers47 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247474747474747 1/44847 3/4
Miners (coal)—
    Surface40 1/240 1/240 1/240 1/240 1/243 1/443 1/443 1/443 1/444 3/444 3/444 1/23843
    Underground38 1/238 1/238 1/238 1/238 1/243 1/443 1/443 1/443 1/442 3/442 3/442 3/43843
Miners (gold)47 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/247 1/2484846 3/446 3/445 1/445 1/4
Quarrymen474848484847 3/447 3/447 3/44847 3/447 3/447 3/446 3/446 3/4
Railway employees—
    Engine-drivers and firemen4848484848484848484848484444
    Guards4848484848484848484848484444
Tramway employees—Conductors and motormen49 1/249 1/2484848484848484848484848
Shipping—
    Stewards..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     70707070706060
    Cooks..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     70707070706060
    Seamen5656565656565656565656565656
Waterside workers47 1/447 1/447 1/447 1/447 1/4444444444444444444
Hotel workers—
    Male6565656565656565656565654848
    Female6565656565656565656565654848
Soft-goods assistants5252525248484848484848484848
Warehouse storemen4444444445 3/445 3/445 3/445 3/44544 1/444 1/4444444
Grocers' assistants52 1/252 1/452 1/452 1/4525252525252525249 3/449 3/4
Restaurant workers—
    Male6062 1/262 1/261 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/461 1/46051
    Female5252525252525252525252524848

Chapter 34. SECTION XXXIV.—INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE collection of information regarding industrial disputes was initiated by the Census and Statistics Office at the beginning of the year 1920. Information concerning disputes prior to that year has been obtained by examination of the records of the Labour Department. From this source fairly complete data have been obtained with regard to the number of disputes, their nature, causes, methods of settlement; and results; in many instances it has been impossible to ascertain the duration of disputes and the number of workers involved in them. Consequently it has been impossible to estimate the number of working-days lost or the loss in wages caused by disputes prior to 1920. Under the system originated in 1920 returns furnished by Inspectors of Factories form the main source from which information is obtained. It is considered that the results based on these reports are less liable to bias than would be the case if private persons were relied on to furnish the information. It is the duty of an Inspector, during the course of a dispute in his industrial district, to collect all available particulars relating to it. The Inspectors have power to demand information from the parties concerned in the dispute, and by exercising this power when necessary they can obtain complete information.

On the termination of a dispute the Inspector in the district in which it has taken place is required to fill in and forward to the Census and Statistics Office and the Head Office of the Labour Department a return showing—(a) The location of the dispute; (b) its nature—direct strike, sympathetic strike, partial strike, or lockout; (c) the number of workers directly and indirectly concerned in the dispute; (d) the dates of commencement and termination of the dispute; (e) the cause, the method of settlement, and the result of the dispute; (f) the estimated loss in wages caused by the dispute; (g) the names of the firms affected and the industry in which the dispute has taken place. If the dispute results in a change of wages or hours, then the hours and wages before and after the dispute are to be shown.

Industrial disputes may be divided into two main classes—strikes and lockouts. Strikes may be further subdivided into three classes—direct strikes, sympathetic strikes, and partial strikes. A direct strike is a concerted refusal on the part of a body of workers to continue work with the purpose of forcing their demands on an employer or for the purpose of resisting demands made by him. A stop-work meeting does not necessarily constitute a strike; it may be held merely to discuss certain matters relating to conditions of employment,&c., or to decide whether or not a strike shall take place. A sympathetic strike occurs when the workers strike not to force their own demands on their employer, but in sympathy with the claims of other workers. A partial strike is a strike which does not involve a complete stoppage of work; a “go-slow” policy adopted by a body of workers may be classified as a partial strike, provided that the fact that they are adopting a “go-slow” policy is soundly established. A lockout occurs when an employer or a body of employers refuses work to a body of workers in order to force certain demands on them or to resist demands made by them.

In these tabulations the term “industrial dispute” refers only to those disputes which result in a strike or a lockout. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes.

LEGISLATION CONCERNING INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

In this country two statutes have been passed with the special purpose of preventing industrial disputes and, where this is not possible, facilitating their speedy settlement. The first of these statutes is the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which was passed in 1894. Its object was to encourage the formation of industrial unions and associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation and arbitration. It provided for the registration as “industrial unions” of societies of workers or employers in the various industrial districts, and, as “industrial associations,” of any council or other body representing any number of such unions; for the making of industrial agreements pursuant to the Act, and the filing of such in the Supreme Court; for the formation of industrial districts, the election of Boards of Conciliation, and the setting-up of a Court of Arbitration.

Disputes may be referred to a Board of Conciliation, which endeavours to effect a settlement of the dispute; but, if it fails to do this, it may refer the dispute to the Court of Arbitration, which is required to make an award, such award being binding on both parties. Although the decisions of the Arbitration Court are binding on unions registered under the Act, such registration is purely voluntary.

There have been many amendments to the principal Act. It was consolidated in 1900; a compiling Act was passed in 1905; and it was again consolidated in 1908. Following is a brief summary of the more important amendments: In 1898 an amendment was passed empowering the Court in its award to prescribe minimum rates of wages, with special provision for a lower rate being paid in the case of workers unable to earn the prescribed minimum. An important amendment was passed in 1903 prohibiting any employer, worker, union of workers, or union of employers from taking proceedings to defeat any of the provisions of an award during its currency. It forbade an employer to dismiss any employee merely because he happened to be entitled to the benefit of an award or merely because he was a member of a union.

In 1905 an amendment was passed providing for the punishment by fine of any employer or worker bound by an award or industrial agreement affecting an industry who takes part in a strike or lockout in that industry. In 1908 an additional penalty was added in the case of certain ″public utility” industries, such as gas-manufacture, the supply of milk or meat, tramway services,&c. By this amendment the constitution of Conciliation Boards was altered to provide for the appointment of four Conciliation Commissioners, whose duty it is to call together representatives of employers and employees in the case of a dispute arising, and to sit with these representatives as a Conciliation Council to endeavour to effect a settlement. The decision of the Council is not binding, but disputes must be referred to a Council before they may be referred to the Arbitration Court.

A further amendment in 1911 empowers the Court to make an industrial agreement into an award, provided such agreement does not conflict with an existing award or is not contrary to the public interest. It also provides that recommendations of Conciliation Councils shall become in effect industrial agreements if none of the parties to a dispute disagrees with such recommendations.

There have been no major amendments to the Act since 1911. Its administration is in the hands of the Labour Department, and Inspectors of Factories are charged with the duty of seeing that the provisions of awards and agreements are carried out.

The Labour Disputes Investigation Act was passed in 1913. It applies only to workers or societies of workers not bound by an award or agreement under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. When a dispute arises, any of the parties may give notice to the Minister of Labour specifying the points at issue. The Minister may refer the matter either to a Conciliation Commissioner appointed under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, or to a Labour Disputes Committee formed under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act, consisting of from three to seven persons on each side appointed by the workers and employers who are parties to the dispute. This committee, after investigating the dispute, is required to report on it to the Minister of Labour; and, in the case of a settlement not being arrived at, the report must include a proposal for the settlement of the dispute. If the dispute is not settled within fourteen days after the delivery of the notice to the Minister the Registrar of Industrial Unions under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act is required to have a secret ballot conducted as to (a) whether the recommendation of the committee (if any) shall be adopted, or (b) whether, in the case of no recommendation being made, a strike or lockout shall take place. The result of this ballot is to be published in the newspapers. If an agreement has been made between the parties with regard to terms of employment it may be filed as an agreement, the penalties for breach of such agreement being the same as those for a breach of an agreement made under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act.

If the members or any of the members of a society of workers to which the Act applies strike (a) without notice to the Minister or before seven days after the publication of the notice of the result of the secret ballot, or (b) during the currency of an agreement filed with the Clerk of Awards, such a strike is deemed an unlawful one, and every party to it is liable to a fine. In the case of a lockout the same provisions apply to employers.

It will be seen that the object of this legislation is to alleviate the severity of industrial disputes when they do occur, and, if possible, to prevent their occurrence at all. In the classification of industrial disputes according to their methods of settlement the numbers of disputes settled by negotiations under these Acts are shown. So far only a few disputes have arisen under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act.

PARTICULARS OF PRINCIPAL DISPUTES DURING 1921.

During the year 1921 seventy-seven disputes occurred, several of which attained serious proportions. Very few disputes, however, in which any considerable number of men were engaged were of long duration, only ninety-six men being involved in disputes which had a duration of over six weeks.

On the 18th February a dispute broke out on the Wellington wharves, the cause being the refusal of the men to work overtime. Two thousand workers were involved in the dispute, which lasted twenty days, the approximate loss in wages being estimated at £23,000. A settlement was effected at a meeting of both parties presided over by the Prime Minister. Almost on the same date a strike broke out on the Auckland wharves, one thousand five hundred watersiders going on strike on the 19th February, claiming the right to cease work at 5 p.m. on five days of the week and at noon on Saturdays. The dispute lasted until the 9th March, when a settlement was effected by the intervention of the Prime Minister. The estimated loss in wages caused by this dispute was £17,000.

A strike broke out in the Point Elizabeth State Coal-mine on the 1st December, 1921, which lasted until the 5th January, 1922, the number of days lost, however, being only twenty-one, as from the 24th December till the 4th January were mine holidays. Three hundred and six men were involved in the dispute, the cause of which was twofold—the refusal of the miners to accept the Mines Department's conditions; and, in some cases, a slight reduction in wages. The dispute was settled by negotiations between the workers and the Minister of Mines. The loss in wages caused by the strike is estimated at £3,000.

On the 1st December the miners in the Shag Point, Taratu, and Green Island mines, in the Otago District, went on strike. One hundred and eighty-four men were involved in the dispute, which lasted fourteen days. Dissatisfaction with an award of the Arbitration Court was the cause of the strike, the men eventually resuming work under the same conditions as before. The estimated loss in wages was £3,500.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

From the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 till the end of 1905 there were no industrial disputes dealt with under the Act; indeed, New Zealand may be said to have been entirely free from industrial disputes during that period.

The following table shows the nature and magnitude of disputes occurring during the years 1906–21. Unfortunately, particulars are not available as to the number of working-days lost for years prior to 1920; and, indeed, the figures showing the number of workers involved are incomplete in many cases. Consequently only a rough idea of the magnitude of disputes occurring in a given year can be gleaned from the table, although the number of disputes and their Classification is complete.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF DISPUTES, 1906–21.
Year.Nature of Dispute.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers involved.
Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lockout.Total.Direct Strike.Sympathetic Strike.Partial Strike.Lockout.Total.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In four cases figures not available.

e In five cases figures not available.

f In six cases figures not available.

g In seven cases figures not available.

h In twelve cases figures not available.

1906..     ..     ..     111..     ..     ..     8888
190733..     ..     67471b87..     ..     558
19082..     ..     ..     2263..     ..     ..     63
19091..     ..     ..     11a..     ..     ..     a
191011..     221515237e..     12b6225
1911193..     ..     22221,361d14b..     ..     1,375
1912212124294,964c75923..     5,746..     
19133339..     1731623,455c9,925b..     2013,400
19144151..     20205293,560a..     4,089
19157..     188295b..     a..     295..     
19161212..     1521696e16043b..     899
191732310..     45532,509ha225e..     2,734
191833..     6140443,984f..     39e334,056
191932112..     45592,938ea1,092g..     4,030
19207032..     751068,524b750b338..     9,612
19216359771128,534917982..     10,433..     
Totals3437546546966238,56016,1722,75414757,633

From this table it will be seen that the number of disputes occurring in any one year was very small until the year 1913, when the number suddenly rose to seventy-three disputes. In that year there was an epidemic of strikes throughout the country, the number of sympathetic strikes being especially large. Although it may appear from the table that a greater number of disputes occurred during 1920 and 1921 than during 1913, this is not the case. On account of the fact that forms showing particulars of disputes are not furnished until the termination of a strike, disputes which begin in one year but end in the next year are tabulated in the second year. In order to secure uniformity the plan has been adopted, in compiling the statistics for back years, of tabulating disputes according to the years of termination, not of commencement. Fourteen sympathetic strikes which began in 1913 continued until the next year, and consequently are tabulated in the year 1914. Only three strikes continued from the year 1921 to the year 1922. Again, as will be seen from the table, the number of workers involved in disputes during 1913 was much greater than the corresponding number in 1921.

The following table shows the nature and magnitude of disputes occurring in each industrial district for the year 1921. The number of working-days lost is shown in this table, and is calculated by multiplying the number of workers involved by the number of days lost (exclusive of Sundays and public holidays). It is assumed that work would have been continuous if no dispute had taken place, and so no allowance is made for unemployment which might have taken place even if there were no dispute. In some cases, such as shearing, there is a definite amount of work to be done, and a stoppage of work does not decrease the total amount of work done but only postpones its completion. In those cases the figures are perhaps more or less fictitious, but in the great majority of cases they represent a real loss.

NATURE AND MAGNITUDE OF DISPUTES IN EACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1921.
Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
* Equivalent of overtime lost.
Number of Disputes.
Direct strike13114..     21311660
Sympathetic strike4..     ..     ..     ..     1..     ..     5
Partial strike4..     1..     ..     13312
Lockout..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
        Totals21115..     21541977
Number of Firms affected.
        Totals27126..     215833112
Number of Workers involved.
Direct strike2,905442,368..     631,579471,2938,299
Sympathetic strike577..     ..     ..     ..     340..     ..     917
Partial strike347..     5..     ..     4002652001,217
Lockout..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
        Totals3,829442,373..     632,3193121,49310,433
Number of Working-days lost.
Direct strike33,1264442,143..     1,07813,1822421,448111,045
Sympathetic strike2,673..     ..     ..     ..     5,440;..     ..     8,113
Partial strike..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     50*..     50*
Lockout..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
        Totals35,7994442,143..     1,07818,6227421,448119,208

The greatest number of disputes in any one district occurred in the Auckland District, where twenty-one disputes took place during the year. Eleven of these were in the mining industry, none of which, however, were serious; the only serious dispute in this district occurring in the shipping and cargo-working industry.

The comparatively large number of disputes in the Otago and Southland District is accounted for by the fact that sixteen disputes in this district took place in the mining industry during the year.

The following table shows the duration of the disputes which occurred during the years 1906–21. Several disputes have been classified as of indefinite duration owing to the lack of information as to their duration. In other cases it has been found possible to assign disputes to a class although their exact duration cannot be ascertained.

DURATIONAND MAGNITUDEOF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES. 1906–21.
Duration1906–16.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.Totals. 1906–21.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
1 day and less32612113320114
2 days and more than 1 day1032710436
3 days and more than 2 days67253831
Over 3 days to 1 week912581035
1 week to 2 weeks154746945
2 weeks to 4 weeks33117571982
4 weeks to 6 weeks11..     212420
6 weeks to 8 weeks1411..     ..     ..     16
8 weeks and over282..     3..     336
Indefinite2910546..     54
                Totals1874540457577469
Number of Workers involved.
1 day and less96073d1,089d766e3,373b1,4367,697
2 days and more than 1 day16516c31b934b1,104792,329
3 days and more than 2 days420340d395114c3875272,183
Over 3 days to 1 week1,151a8662c7141,5904,125
1 week to 2 weeks1,947322b1,712b7921,051b7996,623
2 weeks to 4 weeks6,9741,713d343d4001,9105,61416,954
4 weeks to 6 weeks1,539..     400ba2132922,444
6 weeks to 8 weeks3,728a50..     ..     ..     3,778
8 weeks and over8,815a..     322d..     969,233
Indefinite1,069270e28c40860..     2,267
                Totals26,7682,7344,0564,0309,61210,43357,633
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTESINEACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTCLASSIFIEDACCORDINGTO DURATION, 1921.
Duration.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southand.Totals.
Number of Disputes.
1 day and less515..     ..     21620
2 days and more than 1 day..     ..     1..     111..     4
3 days and more than 2 days4..     1..     ..     21..     8
Over 3 days and less than 1 week4..     2..     ..     21210
1 week and less than 2 weeks..     ..     2..     ..     3..     19
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks4,..     3..     51619..     
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks..     ..     1..     1..     ..     24
8 weeks and over1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     23
                Totals21115..     21541977
Number of Workers involved.
1 day and less71444127..     ..     103474011,436
2 days and more than 1 day..     ..     6..     291925..     79
3 days and more than 2 days381..     65090..     527..     ..     
Over 3 days and less than 1 week749..     82..     ..     730..     291,590
1 week and less than 2 weeks385..     37..     350..     27799..     
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks 1,583..     2,110..     ..     1,067150704..     5,614
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks..     534..     ..     253292..     ..     
8 weeks and over17..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     7996
                Totals3,829442,373..     632,3193121,49310,433
Number of Working-days lost.
1 day and less7064465..     ..     103243511,293
2 days and more than 1 day..     ..     12583850..     158..     
3 days and more than 2 days1,14318..     ..     150..     ..     1,311..     
Over 3 days and less than 1 week3,456410..     3,260..     1167,242..     ..     
1 week and less than 2 weeks679..     296..     ..     2,940..     1894,104
2 weeks and lees than 4 weeks28,81241,342..     12,131..     8,32090,605..     ..     
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks..     ..     ..     ..     1,020..     ..     6,3107,330
8 weeks and over1,003..     ..     ..     ..     ..     6,162..     7,165
                Totals35,7994442,143..     1,07818,6227421,448119208
Estimated Loss in Wages.
..     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
1 day and less8185371..     ..     90235671,622
2 days and more than 1 day..     ..     6..     ..     16293788
3 days and more than 2 days1,411..     9..     ..     66150..     1,636
Over 3 days and less than 1 week2,964..     572..     ..     2,934..     2016,671
1 week and less than 2 weeks1,768..     ..     103..     ..     2,183884,142
2 weeks and less than 4 weeks17,62323,612..     ..     10,1052508,92060,510..     
4 weeks and less than 6 weeks..     ..     ..     1,200..     ..     6,992..     8,192
8 weeks and over1,312..     ..     ..     ..     ..     6,304..     7,616
                Totals25,8965324,373..     1,21615,40746023,07290,477

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that during the period 1906–1921 114 disputes out of a total of 469 lasted for only one day or less than one day. In 1921 twenty disputes out of a total of seventy-seven lasted for only one day or less. Of the other classes the greatest frequency is found in the class two weeks to four weeks, eighty-two disputes being included in that class, nineteen of which occurred during the year 1921. Details for individual years prior to 1917 were given in the 1921–22 Year-book.

The following table shows the number of disputes in each industrial district for the years 1906–21, and also the number of workers involved:—

NUMBERAND MAGNITUDEOF DISPUTESINEACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1906–21.
Year.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

f In five cases figures not available.

g In six cases figures not available.

h In seven cases figures not available.

i In nine cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
1906..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1
19072..     1..     ..     126..     
1908..     ..     2..     ..     ..     ..     2..     
1909..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1..     1..     
19104..     3..     ..     ..     6215
19117..     8..     ..     ..     5222
1912915..     ..     15324
1913213223267973
19142..     2..     312..     120
19151..     5..     ..     2..     ..     8
19161..     4115..     315
19178..     141215245..     
19189..     6..     1191440
19191018..     3153545
192022..     12..     1259675
192121115..     21541977
Totals11761075151164657469
Number of Workers involved.
1906..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     88..     88
190746b..     121..     ..     35041..     558
1908..     ..     63..     ..     ..     ..     ..     63
1909..     ..     ..     ..     ..     a..     a..     
1910179b..     60..     ..     99b255..     
1911404c..     663b..     ..     218b901,375..     
19123,262b61,574..     ..     543128b2335,746
19137,5761011,281b1941461,526610b1,966b13,400
1914510..     455..     1442,874b1064,089..     
1915200..     68b..     ..     ..     27b295..     
191610..     412aa434c43c899..     
1917504c..     269i35581,704h150b14b2,734
1918422b..     75b..     a3,499ga60b4,056
1919394ea118d..     1112,306f8802214,030
19202,991..     1,081c..     105,1062601649,612
19213,829442,373..     632,3193121,49310,433
Total20,3271518,61322953220,7492,6354,39757,633

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS.

In the following table industrial disputes are classified according to the industries in which disputes took place. In the tables for the period 1906–21 the totals for the Dominion only are given; but a more detailed table is also added giving fuller particulars for the disputes occurring during the year 1921. The classification into industrial groups is the same as that used in the compilation of wage statistics. “Wood-manufacture” includes both sawmilling and the secondary stages of manufacture (cabinetmaking, &c). ″Domestic service” includes employees in hotels, restaurants,&c. ″Metal-working” includes all the engineering trades, brassmoulding, fitting,&c. The designations given to the other groups are self-explanatory.

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTESCLASSIFIEDACCORDINGTO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS, 1906–21.
Industrial Group.1906–161917.1918.1919.1920.1921.Totals, 1906–21.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In four cases figures not available.

e In five cases figures not available.

f In seven cases figures not available.

g In ten cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
      I. Food, drink,&c.4361411671
    II. Clothing1..     311..     6
  III. Textile-weaving5113..     ..     10
    IV. Building and contracting12..     ..     21..     15
      V. Wood-manufacture31113514
    VI. Paper-manufacture and printing1..     ..     ..     ..     ..     1
  VII. Metal-working..     1..     2115
VIII. Other manufactures32211211
    IX. Mining431922213037172
      X. Agricultural and pastoral8..     ..     ..     ..     19
    XI. Land transport91341..     18
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working4511452123109
XIII. Domestic service3..     ..     ..     216
  XIV. Miscellaneous113313122
                Totals1874540457577469
Number of Workers involved.
      I. Food, drink,&c.3,287360b3195b4845864,843
    II. Clothing40..     12b2930..     111
  III. Textile-weaving80617033456..     ..     1,054
    IV. Building and contracting1,937..     ..     70b5..     2,012
      V. Wood-manufacture60749175187775
    VI. Paper-manufacture and printing23..     ..     ..     ..     ..     23
  VII. Metal-working..     7..     880b1222921
VIII. Other manufactures284571961937422
    IX. Mining10,2841,886g3,864d2,771e7,2214,97230,998
      X. Agricultural and pastoral27..     ..     ..     ..     229
    XI. Land transport1,448aaa360..     1,808
  XII. Shipping and cargo working5,000250f55c701,327c4,70411,466
XIII. Domestic service868..     ..     ..     156889
  XIV. Miscellaneous2,097a33b4788172,282
                Totals26,7682,7344,0564,0309,61210,43357,633
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTESINEACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, CLASSIFIEDACCORDINGTO INDUSTRIAL GROUPS, 1921.
Industrial District and Group.Number of Disputes.Number of Firms affected.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working days lost.Estimated Loss in Wages.
Directly.Indirectly.Total.
Northern District.£     
      I. Food, drink, tobacco332272164432,8133,110
    IX. Mining11131,605..     1,6053,3544,693
      X. Agricultural and pastoral112..     210..     
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working591,1446181,76229,57918,067
  XIV. Miscellaneous1117..     175116
                Totals21272,9958343,82935,79925,896
        Taranaki District.
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working1144..     444453
Wellington District.£     
  VII. Metal-working and engineering12111122286232
VIII. Other manufacturing2237..     3725680
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working11212,308..     2,30841,58924,055
XIII. Domestic service116..     6126
                Totals15262,362112,37342,14324,373
        Marlborough District.
                Nelson District.
      I. Food, drink, tobacco1129..     295816
    IX. Mining11430341,0201,200
                Totals223330631,0781,216
        Westland District.
      V. Wood-manufacture5579887311180
    IX. Mining992,194302,22418,21515,141
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working118..     89686
                Totals15152,281382,31918,62215,407
        Canterbury District.
    I. Food, drink, tobacco1190..     90..     150
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working37222..     22274310
                Totals48312..     31274460
Otago and Southland District.
      I. Food, drink, tobacco1124..     24..     24
    IX. Mining16248662431,10916,34819,298
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working28360..     3605,1003,750
                Totals19331,2502431,49321,44823,072
All Districts.
      I. Food, drink, tobacco663702165862,8713,300
      V. Wood-manufacture5579887311180
  VII. Metal-working and engineering12111122286232
VIII. Other manufacturing2937..     3725680
    IX. Mining37474,6693034,97238,93740,332
      X. Agricultural and pastoral112..     2210
  XII. Shipping and cargo-working23474,0866184,70476,48246,321
XIII. Domestic service116..     6126
  XIV. Miscellaneous1117..     175116
                Totals771129,2771,15610,433119,20890,477

From the foregoing tables it will be seen that the greatest number of disputes in any one industry during the period 1906–21 occurred in the mining industry. In the year 1921 this is especially noticeable, thirty-seven disputes out of a total of seventy-seven for the year occurring in that industry.

In the group ″Shipping and cargo-working” twenty-three disputes took place during 1921, but. with two exceptions, none of these, wore at all serious.

CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

In the following tables the causes of disputes occurring during the years 1906–21 are shown. Under the heading ″Wages” are included disputes concerning a reduction or increase in the rates of wages in industries where time rates are paid, or concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for piecework in industries' where piece rates are paid. Disputes concerning an increase or decrease in the rates for overtime are also included in this class.

Disputes concerning the number of hours of work are classified under the heading ″Hours.”

Disputes concerning the employment or non-employment of certain classes of persons are included under the heading ″Employment.” This question usually arises in connection with trade-union affairs—the employment of non-unionists, or the dismissal of men when, in the opinion of the other workers, their dismissal is due merely to the fact that they are prominent in union activities.

The heading ″Other working — conditions” includes all causes of disputes relating to conditions of work,&c.

Under the heading ″Sympathy” are included all disputes caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance with their own particular employer, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

″Other causes” refers to all causes of disputes not included in the above classes. The only cases coming under this head during the period under review occurred in 1916 and 1917, when several strikes took place in order to endeavour to obtain the repeal of the Military Service Act, and as a protest against conscription.

CAUSESOF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906–21.
Cause.1906–161917.1918.1919.1920.1921.Totals.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In four cases figures not available.

e In live cases figures not available.

f In six cases figures not available.

g In eight cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
Wages651619222921172
Hours75223524
Employment29512915878
Other working-conditions178611242086
Sympathy623..     141282
Other causes48..     ..     ..     1123
Not stated3..     1..     ..     ..     4
                Totals1874540457577469
Number of Workers involved.
Wages4,853411e2,433c1,970g3,618b2,64315,928
Hours503173daa492,2292,954
Employment4,755577b1,441d605b,1,1799949,551
Other working-conditions1,780101f182c1,455b3,9921,2408,750
Sympathy14,505a..     a774b2,08017,359
Other causes3721,472c..     ..     ..     1,2473,091
Not stateda..     a..     ..     ..     a
                Totals26,7682,7344,0564,0309,61210,43357,633

It will be noticed that twice as many disputes arose out of questions concerning wages than from any other cause. The relatively large number of sympathy strikes occurring during the period is caused by the fact that in 1913 a huge number of strikes occurred throughout the Dominion from that cause. Fuller particulars for the year 1913 as well as for other years prior to 1917 were given in the 1921–22 Year-book.

The following table shows in more detail the causes of disputes occurring during the year 1921:—

CAUSESOF DISPUTESINEACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTDURINGTHE YEAR 1921.
Cause.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
Number of Disputes.
Wages6..     3..     16..     521
Hours..     ..     3..     ..     ..     ..     25
Employment..     ..     1..     12228
Other working — conditions718..     ..     ..     ..     420
Sympathy8..     ..     ..     ..     2..     212
Other causes..     ..     ..     ..     ..     5..     611
                Totals21115..     21541977
Number of Workers involved.
Wages1,976..     115..     29395..     1282,643
Hours..     ..     2,054..     ..     ..     175..     2,229
Employment..     ..     60..     34490137273994
Other working — conditions929 144..     ..     ..     ..     1231,240
Sympathy924..     ..     ..     ..     740..     4162,080
Other causes..     ..     ..     ..     ..     694..     5531,247
                Totals3,829442,373..     632,3193121,49310,433
Number of Working-days lost.
Wages30,386..     1,342..     586,951..     1,04039,777
Hours..     ..     140,261..     ..     ..     50..     40,311
Employment..     ..     15..     10201,660245,9598,678
Other working — conditions2,74044525..     ..     ..     ..     6,2429,551
Sympathy2,673..     ..     ..     ..     5,440..     5,10013,213
Other causes..     ..     ..     ..     ..     4,571..     3,1077,678
                Totals35,7994442,143..     107818,6227421,448119,208
Estimated Loss in Wages.
..     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     ..     
Wages18,843..     537..     163,451..     1,52824,375
Hours..     ..     23,161..     ..     ..     287..     23,448
Employment..     ..     25..     12001,4941736,3709,262
Other working — conditions3,14953650..     ..     ..     ..     6,48010,332
Sympathy3,904..     ..     ..     ..     6,798..     4,58315,285
Other causes..     ..     ..     ..     ..     3,664..     4,1117,775
                Totals25,8965324,373..     121615,40746023,07290,477

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

The methods of settlement of industrial disputes may be classified as follows:—

  1. By negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act:

  2. By negotiations under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act:

  3. By private negotiations between the employers and workers resulting in the framing of a compromise:

  4. By the substitution of other workers for strikers:

  5. By other methods. Under this head are included cases in which the men return to work without definitely settling the points at issue; or where the employers and workers give way without placing the matter before a Labour Disputes Committee or a Conciliation Council: or any other method by which a strike may be settled which does not come under the four preceding heads.

Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes for the years 1906–21:—

METHODSOF SETTLEMENTOF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906–21.
Method of Settlement.1906–161917.1918.1919.1920.1921.Totals. 1906–21.

a Figures not available.

b In one case figures not available.

c In two cases figures not available.

d In three cases figures not available.

e In four cases figures not available.

f In five cases figures not available.

g In twelve cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
Negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act1913411240
Negotiations under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act..     1..     21..     4
Compromise between parties to the dispute21461430681
Substitution432239867
Otherwise873020152851231
Not stated177976..     46
                Totals1874540457577469
Number of Workers involved
Negotiations under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act3,597a15b250b2076744,743
Negotiations under the Labour Disputes Investigation Act..     296..     93b26..     415
Compromise between parties to the dispute2,783181c91d1,344e2,6175247,540
Substitution4,815a6b69942035,187
Otherwise4,8291,893g2,392f1,436d4,515c9,03234,097
Not stated744364d1,552b838e2,153..     5,651
                Totals26,7682,7344,0564,0309,61210,43357,633

The following table shows the methods of settlement of disputes in each industrial district for the year 1921:—

METHODSOF SETTLEMENTOF DISPUTES, 1921.
Method of Settlement.Northern.Taranaki.Wellington.Marlborough.Nelson.Westland.Canterbury.Otago and Southland.Totals.
Number of Disputes
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act5..     6..     ..     ..     1..     12
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Compromise..     ..     1..     ..     1..     46
Substitution3..     1..     ..     2..     28
Otherwise1317..     21231351
                Totals2111521541977..     
Number of Workers involved.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act504..     123..     ..     ..     47..     674
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Compromise..     ..     15..     ..     390..     119524
Substitution43..     32..     ..     49..     79203
Otherwise3,282442,203..     631,8802651,2959,032
                Totals3,829442,373..     632,3193121,49310,433
Number of Working-days lost.
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act2,587..     349..     ..     ..     24..     2,960
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Compromise..     ..     15..     ..     1,560..     3741,949
Substitution365..     256..     ..     222..     6,1627,005
Otherwise32,8474441,523..     107816,8405014,912107,294
                Totals35,7994442,143107818,6227421,448119,208..     
Estimated Loss in Wages.
..     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     £     
Negotiations under Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act3,143..     294..     ..     ..     23..     3,460
Negotiations under Labour Disputes Investigation Act..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Compromise..     ..     12..     ..     1,404..     3481,764
Substitution388..     80..     ..     115..     6,3046,887
Otherwise22,3655323,987..     121613,88843716,42078,366
                Totals25,8965324,373..     121615,40746023,07290,477

In the following table the results of disputes in each industrial district for the year 1921 are shown:—

RESULTS OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES.

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTESINEACH INDUSTRIAL DISTRICT, 1921, CLASSIFIEDACCORDINGTO RESULTS.
District.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.
In Favour of Workers.In Favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.Total.In Favour of Workers.In Favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.Total.In Favour of Workers.In Favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.Total.
Northern44310212402245462,8193,8297691,5322,17031,32835,799
Taranaki..     ..     ..     ..     11..     4444..     ..     ..     ..     4444
Wellington62341589120762,0882,3732221,31229640,31342,143
Marlborough..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Nelson1..     ..     1229..     ..     346358..     ..     1,0201,078
Westland3525151214036961,0992,3193653,0807,9867,19118,622
Canterbury..     ..     134..     ..     47265312..     ..     245074
Otago and Southland155819352962359271,49399,40437411,66121,448
                Totals15161432775141,0431,6007,27610,4331,42315,32810,85091,607119,208

It will be noticed that the number of disputes in 1921 which resulted in favour of the workers is greater than in previous years. Over the whole period more disputes had an indeterminate result than a result either in favour of the employers or in favour of the workers. In the following table the causes and results of disputes occurring during 1921 are correlated:—

Cause.Number of Disputes.Number of Workers involved.Number of Working-days lost.
In Favour of Workers.In favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.In Favour of Workers.In favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.In Favour of Workers.In favour of Employers.Compromise.Indeterminate.
Wages6762882068271,5223482,0338,61028,786
Hours11..     32232..     2,1755256..     40,050
Employment2..     24135..     437422109..     1,5846,985
Other working-conditions65452692861005859617,643296651
Sympathy..     ..     210..     ..     2361,844..     ..     36012,853
Other causes..     3..     8..     519..     728..     5,396..     2,282
                Totals151614325141,0431,6007,2761,42315,32810,85091,607

The results of all industrial disputes are classified under one of the four heads used in the foregoing table. The system of classification is more fully explained by the following notes:—

  1. In favour of workers. All disputes where the demands of the workers are totally conceded come under this category.

  2. In favour of employers. Disputes are classified under this head when the workers give way on the points at issue.

  3. Compromise. Disputes where the demands of the workers are partially but not wholly conceded come under this head.

  4. Disputes are classified as ″indeterminate” when work is resumed without any definite settlement of the questions out of which the trouble arose.

RESULTSOF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES, 1906–21.
Result.1906–16.1917.1918.1919.1920.1921.Total, 1906–21.

a In one case figures not available.

b In two cases figures not available.

c In three cases figures not available.

d In four cases figures not available.

e In five cases figures not available.

f In six cases figures not available.

g In seven cases figures not available.

h In seven cases figures not available.

i In ten cases figures not available.

Number of Disputes.
In favour of workers16101012311594
In favour of employers877551416134
Compromise2444921457
Indeterminate602421192832184
                Totals1874540457577469
Number of Workers involved.
In favour of workers1,933366a686e810d3,868a5148,177
In favour of employers18,19416g1,132a629a1,6271,04322,641
Compromise2,789477b58397d331,6005,354
Indeterminate3,8521,875i2,180e2,194h4,084a7,27621,461
                Totals26,7682,7344,0564,0309,61210,43357,633

Chapter 35. SECTION XXXV.—MISCELLANEOUS.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE.

THE Public Trust Office is designed mainly to afford, at low rates of commission, a secure and convenient recourse in every case where a person residing either in New Zealand or abroad, and desiring to draw a will, form a trust, or appoint an agent or attorney in the Dominion, may be in doubt or difficulty as to the choice of a trustee, executor, agent, or attorney. The Office aims also to relieve those who for various reasons may be unable or unwilling to commence or continue the administration of trust property to which they may have been appointed.

Operations were commenced in 1873, at the end of which year 257 estates, of a total value of £17,500, were administered by the Office. By the 31st March, 1920, the number of estates had risen to 14,679, and the value of estates and funds to £20,860,686. The transfer of Native accounts to the Native Trust Office and the completion of the administration of deceased soldiers' estates led to a fall (to 10,175) in the number of estates at the 31st March, 1921, but in spite of this the value of estates and funds increased to £22,364,319 at the 31st March, 1921, and to £25,497,779 at the 31st March, 1922.

The following table shows the growth of the Public Trust Office during the last ten years:—

Year ended 31st March.Total Value of Estates in Office, including Unrealized Assets.Funds at Credit of Estates and Accounts.Interest credited to Estates.Bonus granted to Estates.Gross Income.Office Reserves.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
191311,268,3115,799,446202,439..     72,067151,011
191412,282,8836,366,707230,062..     82,517212,901
191513,580,9367,096,420256,806..     88,296250,213
191613,598,7447,082,288281,70025,000103,763302,369
191715,065,5838,058,886287,81827,000129,008295,234
191817,153,0319,004,057317,63330,000162,614345,871
191919,242,34710,065,027352,78333,100194,452393,377
192020,860,68611,911,290420,52638,000240,469418,040
192122,364,31913,918,906537,890..     244,090437,414
192225,497,77915,329,125556,557..     220,794451,585

The capital funds of the Public Trust Office invested on the 31st March, 1922, amounted to £13,295,715, made up as follows:—

 £     
Government securities977,505
Local bodies' debentures3,284,469
Mortgages8,409,618
Properties acquired by foreclosure10,286
Advances against the vested share of beneficiaries in estates312,836
Land Settlement Finance Act debentures50,192
Fixed deposits at banks916
Freehold property, office furniture,&c.249,893
                Total£13,295,715

The total interest from investments during the financial year 1921–22 was £682,452. The net profits of the Office during each of the last ten years are shown below:—

Year ended 31st March.Net Profits.
 £     
191327,551
191429,222
191532,508
191646,108
191758,862
191868,602
191970,156
192078,246
192110,691
192211,053

It is evident that the revenue of the Office has grown considerably during the decennium. A variety of causes contributed to the phenomenal fall for 1920–21 and 1921–22, the main factors being the granting of increased benefits to beneficiaries and the necessary provision for the cost-of-living bonus to members of the staff.

The Office reserves, which have been built up out of the profits made by the Office in successive years, amounted on the 31st March, 1922, to the considerable sum of £451,585. They consist of—

 £     
Amounts held in the Assurance and Reserves Fund159,717
Amount held in the Investment Fluctuation Fund to provide against any possible depreciation in the Office securities49,283
Office premises, plant, equipment,&c.242,545
                Total£451,585

An outstanding feature of the work of the Office at the present time is the rapid increase in the number of wills deposited, which affords convincing evidence of the growing confidence on the part of testators of the appointment of the Public Trustee as executor and trustee of their estates. The number of wills on deposit at the 31st March, 1914, was 6,427; by 1920 a remarkable increase to 25,792 had occurred, while 1921 and 1922 showed additional increases to 28,356 and 31,839 respectively.

NATIVE TRUST OFFICE.

In order to better provide for the administration of Native funds and Native reserves formerly conducted by the Public Trustee, legislation was passed transferring the administration from the Public Trustee to the Native Trustee as from the 1st April, 1921. The Native Trustee Act, 1920, which together with the 1921 amendment thereof embodies the legislation relating to the creation of the Native Trust Office, provides for the appointment of a Native Trustee and of the Native Trust Office Board, to consist of the Native Minister, one other members of the Executive Council being either a Native or a half-caste, the Native Trustee, the Under-Secretaries of Native Affairs and of Lands, arid one other person to be appointed by the Governor-General. The Office is subject to the control of the Minister of Native Affairs.

The funds of the Native Trust Office at the 31st March, 1922, amounted to £820,817, made up as follows:—

Amounts held under—£     
        West Coast Settlement Reserves Act, 189286,644
        Native Reserves Act, 188244,977
        Native Land Act, 1909 (Part X)157,171
Miscellaneous funds (including Maori Land Board accounts)518,232
Sundry creditors314
Reserve and Assurance Fund12,194
Investment Fluctuation Fund1,285
                Total£820,817

The interest on investments for the year 1921–22 totalled £14,769, and commissions, fees, and charges brought in a further £4,439. The net profit for the year was £13,479, of which £12,194 was placed to the Reserve and Assurance Fund and £1,285 to the Investment Fluctuation Fund.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

During the year ended the 31st December, 1921, 337 joint-stock companies were registered, with a total nominal capital of £3,498,208, including 262 private companies, with a nominal capital of £2,069,858.

The following table gives the total number of companies and the aggregate nominal capital registered during each of the five years 1917–21:—

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIESREGISTERED, 1917–21.
Year.Private Companies.Public Companies.Total.
Number registered.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number registered.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number registered.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £      £      £     
1917129929,0011324,438,2002615,367,201
19181301,289,320701,766,0312003,055,351
19192482,025,755803,916,8503285,942,605
19203503,573,7331455,990,2005019,563,933
19212622,069,858751,428,3503373,498,208

A huge decrease, particularly in regard to public companies, is disclosed for 1921 when compared with 1920. This is one of the natural results of the financial stress experienced during the later year.

In the next table companies registered in 1921 are classified according to the amount of their nominal capital. Companies with nominal capitals of £20,000 or over numbered only 55 out of the total of 337, but represented 58 per cent, of the aggregate nominal capital.

CLASSIFICATIONOF COMPANIESACCORDINGTO AMOUNTOF NOMINAL CAPITAL, 1921.
Amount.Private Companies.Public Companies.Total.
Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.Number.Aggregate Nominal Capital.
  £      £      £     
Under £1, 000158,90491,1502410,054
  £1,000 and under £2,0003037,60711,2003138,807
  £2,000 and under £3,0003782,071510,5004292,571
  £3,000 and under £4,00036112,60026,50038119,100
  £4,000 and under £5,0001875,850..     ..     1875,850
  £5,000 and under £6,00020100,9501050,00030150,950
  £6,000 and under £7,00017103,050318,50020122,150
  £7,000 and under £8,000750,100214,500964,600
  £8,000 and under £9,000867,10018,000975,100
  £9, 000 and under £10,000654,000..     ..     654,000
£10,000 and under £15,00034360,976888,00042448,976
£15,000 and under £20,00011175,050230,00013205,050
£20,000 and under £50,00017425,00022620,000391,045,000
£50,000 and over6416,00010580,00016996,000
                Total2622,069,858751,428,3503373,498,208

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE-MARKS.

There were 2,115 applications for letters patent during 1921; 1,199 were filed with provisional specifications, and 916 with complete specifications; while 286 complete specifications were lodged in respect of applications with which provisional specifications had been previously filed.

The total number of applications received up to the 31st December, 1921, was 47,231, and the patents in force in New Zealand at that date numbered 5,910. The number of patent agents on the register was 22.

In the following table are shown the countries of residence of persons who applied for patents in New Zealand during the last three years. Owing to applications being received from joint applicants resident in different countries, also from applicants giving two addresses, the figures total more than the actual number of applications received.

APPLICATIONSFOR PATENTSINNEW ZEALAND, 1919–21.
Country.1919.1920.1921.
New Zealand1,1051,1561,291
Australia243293285
United Kingdom276318220
United States200320210
Germany..     1430
Canada111825
France41512
British South Africa889
Holland1039
Belgium2117
Italy267
Sweden1924
Argentine1..     4
Denmark953
Switzerland..     23
Norway551
Egypt..     51
Hawaii..     11
Japan..     11
Mexico..     11
Cuba..     ..     1
Hungary..     ..     1
Tahiti..     1..     
Straits Settlements..     1..     
Finland..     1..     
Fiji1..     ..     

The total number of applications during 1921 in respect of trade-marks was 995, and the fees received totalled £2,088.

Of the 995 applications, 380 were made by residents of New Zealand, 216 came from Great Britain, 230 from the United States, and 109 from Australia.

One hundred and forty-one applications for registration of designs were received, and registration was effected in 135 cases. Twenty-three applications came from Australia, 22 from the United Kingdom, 5 from the United States, 1 from Sweden, and the balance from New Zealand.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade-marks and designs in 1890, 1900, 1910, and each of the last ten years:—

Year.Patents.Trademarks.Designs.
18906161605
19001,00934815
19101,83181846
19121,73777944
19131,77578765
19141,57468755
19151,29956589
19161,261666113
19171,32961983
19181,38669553
19191,8801,27274
19202,1931,391109
19212,115994141

INSPECTION OF MACHINERY.

The Inspection of Machinery Act makes provision for the inspection of all steam boilers and digesters, hydraulic, electric, and other lifts, and of any prime mover such as gas, oil, and air engines used to drive machinery on land, also of machinery used on vessels afloat that are not self-propelled.

It also provides for the issue of certificates to those who pass the prescribed examinations for land engineers and engine-drivers in charge of boilers and machinery, for winding-engine drivers for mining purposes, for drivers employed on locomotives working on railway-lines not under the control of the Government Working Railways Department, and for the drivers of traction-engines on roads. Certificates are also issued to electric-tram drivers as provided by the Tramways Amendment Act, 1910. The issue of these certificates is controlled by a Board of Examiners set up by the Act, the Chairman being the Chief Inspector of Machinery.

During the year ended 31st March, 1922, the following certificates were issued:—

Boiler certificates8,188
Machinery certificates23,688
..     31,876
Steam stationary—
    Service—First class10
    Competency—
        First class35
        Second class233
Steam winding, competency9
Electric winding, competency3
Locomotive and traction—
    Service2
    Competency80
Locomotive, competency1
Traction, competency79
Electric tram, competency72
 524
                Total23,400

CO-OPERATIVE PUBLIC WORKS.

The co-operative contract system adopted in connection with the construction of public works in New Zealand is somewhat as follows: When a length of railway or road is to be constructed on the co-operative principle the formation-work is divided into sections the size of which depends upon the difficulty of the work. Plans and a simple specification of the work are prepared, also an estimate of the cost based on the rate of wages ruling in the district for similar work. The work, at a price reckoned at so-much per unit of quantity or measurement, is offered to a party of men, who, if they accept, become the contractors. The work done by the men is measured periodically, and full payment made to the party, who divide the money amongst themselves according to the time worked by each workman. The engineer in charge of the work has a certain amount of discretion and control in respect of the character of the men employed, the progress of the work, hours of labour,&c.

The constitution of the party is left very much to the men themselves, and they have power, subject to the approval of the engineer, to ballot out any member who proves himself undesirable or inefficient. The Department supplies the men with materials, explosives, &c, at cost price.

When the work is let by direct contract tenders are publicly invited, but the sections of work included in each contract are more extensive than under the cooperative system, yet not too large to enable parties of working contractors to tender.

The number of labourers and artisans employed under the co-operative system during each month of the year ended the 31st March, 1922, was as follows:—

Month.Railways.Roads.Hydro-electric Works.Public Buildings.Other Works.Total.
1921—April1,9511,3625345423524,741
        May1,9091,2555335695824,848
        June1,9561,1645275601,1635,370
        July1,9521,0595225001,5475,580
        August1,9231,0144855481,5645,534
        September1,9169474525361,4035,304
        October1,9328864454451,3035,011
        November1,9979244274111,1894,948
        December1,9089153903481,0894,650
1922—January1,9819284613141,0364,720
        February2,0601,1864093001,0705,031
        March2,0921,0974863511,1715,197
        Averages1,9651,0624724521,1275,078

The (monthly) average number of men employed in 1895, 1900, 1905, 1910, 1915, and each of the last five years was as follows:—

Year ended 31st March.Roads.Railways, Buildings,&c.Total.
18951,1039622,065
19001,8251,2433,068
19051,4072,1193,526
19101,7623,9295,691
19152,4942,2344,728
19187881,4442,232
19191,0421,8412,883
19201,4952,4983,993
19211,6503,2354,885
19221,0624,0165,078

EMPLOYMENT BRANCH OF LABOUR DEPARTMENT.

The total number of men for whom employment has been found by the Department of Labour up to the end of March, 1922, is as given in the following statement, which also shows the number of persons dependent upon the men assisted:—

Year ended 31st March.Men.Dependants.
18953,0308,883
19002,1474,471
19053,1303,425
19108,50610,164
19157,5158,342
19182,9523,675
19193,1993,005
19204,2052,709
19213,3641,806
19224,9894,719
Totals to 31st March,
1922137,177168,875

Of the 137,177 men assisted to the 31st March, 1922, private employment was found for 64,020, while the remaining 73,157 went to works of various kinds for the General Government.

LICENSING.

During the year ended the 31st March, 1921, 1,752 licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors were granted. Of these, 1,141 were publicans' and accommodation licenses, 40 New Zealand wine, 49 packet, 144 wholesale, 347 conditional licenses, and 31 club charters. The fees paid amounted to £40,538, and formed part of the revenue of the local governing bodies of the districts in which the licenses were issued. Particulars are given in the following table:—

NUMBEROF LICENSESGRANTEDDURINGTHE YEAR 1920–21, ANDTHE AMOUNTOF FEESPAIDTO LOCALBODIESTHEREFOR.
Licenses.In Counties.In Boroughs.In Town Districts.Total.
Publicans' licenses32159244957
Accommodation licenses160213184
                Total licensed houses481613471,141
New Zealand wine licenses2911..     40
Packet licenses1138..     49
Wholesale licenses31392144
Conditional licenses189158..     347
Club charters130..     31
                Total licenses granted714989491,752
Amount of license fees paid to local bodies£10,737£27,935£1,866£40,538

The number of publicans' and accommodation licenses granted in counties, boroughs, and independent town districts during each of the last ten years is here given, together with the total amount of fees paid for all licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquor.

Year ended 31st March.Counties.Boroughs.Town Districts.Total.Total Fees, All Licenses.
£
1912617590281,23542,572
1913594592321,21842,456
1914578598421,21842,283
1915564596471,20741,769
1916557598441,19942,978
1917536598491,18346,164
1918540598461,18441,208
1919507606431,15639,817
1920496611491,15640,337
1921481613471,14140,538

The average number of persons to each licensed house in counties, boroughs, and independent town districts respectively for 1920–21 is next shown.

Number of Licensed Houses.*Population Census, 1921.Number of Persons to each Licensed House.
*I.e., houses holding publicans' or accommodation licenses.
Counties481496,7531,033
Boroughs613679,5861,109
Town districts4735,299751
                Totals1,1411,211,6381,062

That the proportion of licensed houses to population has declined steadily in the last decade is evidenced by the following figures:—

Year ended 31st March.Average Persons to a Licensed House.
1912824
1913852
1914895
1915911
1916920
1917918
1918946
1919964
19201,004
19211,062

The annual fees payable for licenses are,—

(1.) For a publican's license—£     
    (a.) Within the limits of a borough or town district40
    (b.) Outside the aforesaid limits25
(2.) For a New Zealand wine license1
(3.) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding20
(4.) For a packet license—
    (a.) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register10
    (b.) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register5
(5.) For a wholesale license20
(6.) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding30

The approximate capital value of the licensed houses in the counties for the year ended 31st March, 1921, was stated at £738,641, in certain of the boroughs at £1,957,700, and in the town districts at £140,797. There was, besides, an annual value of £122,681 for licensed houses in other boroughs, which, capitalized at 6 per cent., would represent £2,044,683. The capital value of all licensed houses may therefore be put down at approximately £4,880,000. Caution should be exercised in this connection, as some of the valuations on which the above total is based are by no means recent, revaluations having been delayed by the war. It is probable that the capital value was at the 31st March, 1921, somewhat above the figure quoted.

LATEST LICENSING POLLS.

The results of the special licensing poll of the 10th April, 1919, held under the authority of the Licensing Amendment Act, 1918, were as follows:—

 Votes.
For national continuance264,189
For national prohibition with compensation253,827

Under the provisions of the Licensing Amendment Act, 1918, three issues were submitted on the 17th December, 1919. The final figures were,—

 Votes.
For national continuance241,251
For State purchase and control32,261
For national prohibition270,250

None of the three issues secured the minimum of more than half of the total valid votes cast.

In the thirteen no-license districts an additional issue was submitted.—viz., local restoration. Local prohibition was maintained in all districts.

LENGTH OF ROADS IN THE DOMINION.

In the annual returns furnished by local bodies for the year ended the 31st March, 1921, information was obtained concerning the mileage of roads in the Dominion. This was the first occasion on which particulars of this nature had been asked for, and the figures must be regarded as approximate only. About 85 per cent, of the local authorities were able to give actual lengths, and the remainder furnished particulars estimated as closely as possible.

ROADSUNDERTHE CONTROLOFTHEVARIOUS LOCAL BODIESASAT 31ST MARCH, 1921.
Under the Control ofRoads formed to not less than Dray-width.Total Formed Roads.Bridle-tracks.Unformed Legal Roads.Grand Total all Roads.
Metalled.Not Metalled.
 Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.Miles.
Counties21,808 1/214,833 1/236,6424,90112,68054,223
Boroughs2,032 3/43062,938 3/416 1/24213,376 1/4
Town districts (independent)295 1/4833781/4137 3/4417
Town districts (dependent)13943 1/4182 1/43 1/249 3/4235 1/2
Road districts2,632 1/41,688 1/24,320 3/43381,4186,076 3/4
                  Totals27,507 3/416,954 1/444,4625,26014,606 1/264,328 1/2

RELATIONSHIP OF DOMINIONS TO GREAT BRITAIN.

In the report of the Hon. Sir John Salmond, delegate for the Dominion of New Zealand to the Conference on the Limitation of Armaments, which was held at Washington from the 12th November, 1921, to the 6th February, 1922, is a passage setting forth clearly the relationship between Great Britain and her self-governing Dominions, and the status of the latter, in international matters. The passage is here quoted in full:—

Questions of interest and importance arise as to the constitutional and international significance of the representation of the oversea Dominions at the Washington Conference. Suggestions have been made in certain quarters that by permitting the presence of the self-governing dependencies of the Crown at international conventions such as those of Versailles and Washington those Dominions have in some manner acquired a new international status—that they are now recognized for international purposes as independent States, although in their constitutional relations they remain portions of the British Empire. It is not easy to attach any definite meaning to this suggestion; but, whatever its precise significance may be, there seems no foundation for it in the facts as to the Washington Conference. The true significance of the presence of representatives of the Dominions at that Conference is not that those Dominions have acquired for either international or constitutional purposes any form of independent status, but that they have now been given a voice in the management of the international relations of the British Empire as a single, undivided unity—relations which were formerly within the exclusive control of the Government of Great Britain.

It is to be noticed that the invitation of the American Government to attend a Conference at Washington on the limitation of armaments and on Pacific questions was an invitation to the Government of Great Britain and to the other seven Powers—namely, France, Italy, Japan, China. Belgium, Holland, and Portugal. There was no invitation to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, or any other Dominion of the Crown. The Government of every State so invited to Washington was left at liberty to send such and so many plenipotentiary delegates as it thought fit. The British Government thought lit to send seven, and to appoint four of these on the recommendation of the Governments of the overseas Dominions. These seven constituted jointly the British Delegation representing the British Empire, just as four plenipotentiaries represented France and three represented Italy.

The appointment of Dominion delegates, though made on the nomination of the Dominion Governments, was made by the King himself, just as in the case of the delegates from Great Britain. The oversea possessions thus represented at Washington were Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and South Africa. The last-named Dominion, however, was represented by Mr. Balfour, and not by a representative specially sent from South Africa. It will be noticed that each Washington Treaty is signed twice by Mr. Balfour—once in his general capacity as representing Great Britain or the Empire at large, and again in his special capacity as representing South Africa. It is to be observed that the list of oversea possessions so represented at Washington is not identical with the list of self-governing Dominions. Newfoundland is a self-governing Dominion, but was unrepresented. India, though represented, is not a self-governing Dominion. It would appear difficult, therefore, to base on such a system of representation any conclusion as to the acquisition of a new international status by the self-governing Dominions.

The procedure of the Washington Conference was in itself a clear indication that the Dominions were there not in their own right as quasi-independent States, but merely as constituent portions of an undivided Empire. When any question came to be voted upon for the purpose of ascertaining whether there existed that unanimous consent which was necessary for a treaty, the question was put to the British Delegation as a whole, and was answered ″Yes” or ″No” by Mr. Balfour as the head and spokesman of that Delegation, and on behalf of the British Empire as a whole. Although in the process of discussion and negotiation the representatives of the Dominions had and exercised the same right of audience as any other delegates, they never voted separately on behalf of their own Dominion on any question. The final decision in every case was that of the British Empire as an indivisible unity.

The position of the Dominions at Washington was essentially different from the position which they occupy at an assembly of the League of Nations. By the special and peculiar organization of that body, self-governing colonies are admitted as members in their own right as if they were independent States. Although by constitutional and international law such colonies arc merely constituent portions of the Empire to which they belong, they are entitled by express agreement to be treated, so far as practicable, as if they were independent. But no such principle was recognized at Washington, or exists except for the special purposes of the League of Nations.

Although in its international aspect the British Delegation constituted a single body representing the Empire as an undivided State, it does not follow that in respect of the constitution of that Delegation and the relations of its members towards each other all of those members possessed an equal status or held co-ordinate authority. This, indeed, was not the case. An examination of the Letters Patent will show that a Dominion delegate is appointed to act only in respect of his own Dominion and not in respect of the Empire as a whole. The authority committed to the delegates from Great Britain is not subject to any corresponding limitation. Mr. Balfour, Lord Lee, and Sir Auckland Geddes were appointed simpliciter as the King's plenipotentiaries for all the purposes of the Conference. Their authority was general with respect to the whole Empire, and was not limited to Great Britain or to such portions of the Empire as were not separately represented. The British Delegation, therefore, did not consist of seven plenipotentiaries possessed jointly of co-ordinate and general authority. It consisted of three such plenipotentiaries, with whom were associated the four Dominion representatives, each of whom had authority in respect of his own Dominion only. The legal significance of this distinction is, as I understand the matter, that the Dominion delegates were present at Washington for the purpose of being heard and consulted as to all matters there in issue concerning the Empire, and of approving and confirming on behalf of their own Dominions the decisions of the King's general plenipotentiaries, and of testifying such approval and confirmation by signing on behalf of their own Dominions the treaties there negotiated.

The fullest opportunity was afforded to the Dominion delegates for the exercise of this right of audience and consultation, not merely by their presence at the plenary and public sessions of the Conference itself, and by their presence as members of the several committees in which the detailed negotiations proceeded, but also by the practice of holding repeated meetings of all the members of the British Delegation itself. At these meetings, of which there were no less than twenty-five during the period of the Conference, the Delegation associated with itself the chief technical advisers of the British Government. Full and free discussion took place as to all questions which had come or were likely to come before the Conference, and decisions were arrived at as to the policy to be adopted on behalf of the Empire at meetings of the Conference and of its committees.

These internal negotiations and discussions of the British Delegation proceeded throughout with the utmost harmony, and with the most ungrudging and courteous recognition on the part of the delegates from Great Britain of the right of the Dominion representatives to participate in the international policy of the Empire. No question ever arose on which it was found impossible to secure ultimate unanimity of decision within the British Delegation. If unfortunately it had been otherwise, and if am Dominion delegate, either of his own motion or under the instructions of his Government, had found himself unable to agree to some proposal which commended itself to the Delegation, it would then have been necessary for His Majesty's general plenipotentiaries from Great Britain to determine in their own discretion the action to be taken. If they were of opinion that the matter in dispute was of such minor importance, or related so exclusively to the Dominion itself, that the views of that Dominion ought to be acceded to for the sake of unanimity, this result could have been attained either by a modification of the terms of the proposed treaty or by excluding the dissentient Dominion from its operation unless and until it chose through its Government or Parliament to give its subsequent adherence. If, on the other hand, it was considered that the matter was of such general importance that dissent on the part of a Dominion should be disregarded in the interests of the whole Empire, it would have been within the authority of the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain to assent to the treaty on behalf of the Empire as a whole, without regard to such dissent. The fact that the delegate of one of the British Dominions had failed to sign the treaty on behalf of that Dominion would have had no effect on the international operation and obligation of the treaty. Any difficulty so unfortunately resulting would have been a matter for negotiation and settlement within the borders of the Empire itself, but would have in no way affected the external relations between the Empire and the other contracting Powers.

No legislation is required in New Zealand for the purpose of giving effect to the Washington Treaties or Resolutions. The only legislative action required is that of the Imperial Parliament, which will presumably find it expedient to legislate as to the building of ships-of-war for foreign Powers, and as to the criminal liability of persons guilty of violating the rides laid down at Washington for submarine warfare. Legislation as to the first of these matters is needless in New Zealand, and legislation on the second would be beyond the competency of a colonial Legislature as being extraterritorial in its operation.

The Washington Treaties, like all others which are negotiated by plenipotentiaries, come into force only on ratification. The ratification required by the constitutional law of the British Empire is that of His Majesty. No action in New Zealand is legally required. In view, however, of the direct participation of New Zealand in the negotiation and execution of those treaties, it may well be thought expedient that the treaties should be submitted to both Houses of the New Zealand Legislature in order that resolutions may be passed approving of their ratification by His Majesty.

THE TOTALIZATOR.

The law relating to the use of the totalizator in New Zealand is contained in the Gaming Act, 1908 (a consolidation of the existing legislation), and its amendments of 1910, 1914, 1915, and 1920 (two).

The Gaming and Lotteries Act, 1881, ″an Act for the suppression of gaming and betting houses, and for the more effectual abolition of lotteries,” marks the first legislative step towards controlling gambling. This Act made gaming and betting houses illegal, and prohibited the use of the totalizator except in conformity with sections 46 and 47 of the Act, which read as follows:—

  • 46. Notwithstanding anything in this Act herein before contained, it shall be lawful for the Colonial Secretary, on the application of any racing club, to grant to such club a license or authority to use the totalizator at horse-racing meetings held under the control or management of such club, subject to the following conditions, namely:—

    1. Before the application of the racing club is disposed of by the Colonial Secretary it shall be referred to the senior Resident Magistrate of the principal town of the provincial district in which the racing club is established for his report and recommendation thereon:

    2. The authority or license shall be in writing, and shall be revocable at any time the Colonial Secretary thinks fit to determine the same, either by written notice to the club or by notice published in the Gazette:

    3. No more than three totalizators shall be used by the club at one time, and none outside the race-grounds within the control or management of the club:

    4. Every totalizator shall be under the care and management of some competent person appointed by the club, and under the direct supervision of the stewards.

      1. ″Totalizator” means the instrument for wagering or betting known by that name, and any other instrument or machine of a like nature and conducted upon the same principles;

      2. ″Racing club” includes any club or association formed for the purpose of promoting horse-racing, or for the management of horse-racing meetings.

  • 47. If the conditions above mentioned are duly complied with, no person shall be liable to any penalty or forfeiture under this Act, or any other law for the time being in force relating to gaming and lotteries, for the use of the totalizator in manner herein before provided.

An amendment to the Gaming and Lotteries Act was passed in 1885, but did not make any direct reference to the totalizator. Its principal object was to further suppress betting, penalties being prescribed for exhibiting placards or otherwise advertising betting-houses, sweepstakes, or lotteries, with certain specified exceptions in regard to the two last mentioned.

The Gaining Act of 1894 was noteworthy for its prohibition of betting with an infant, and for its limitation of totalizator licenses. After the racing-year 1894–95 the number of totalizator licenses was to be not more than two-thirds of the number issued during the twelve months ended the 31st July, 1893. Laying totalizator odds or dealing in totalizator tickets was made an offence, and money paid or promised to be paid in connection with gaining transactions was declared not to be recoverable at law.

The Gaming and Lotteries Amendment Act of 1907 made several distinct changes, being designed to still further control gambling by confining all betting to racecourses. In addition to making much more stringent provisions in regard to gaming-houses, it provided for the closing of ″tote” shops, decreed street betting to be punishable by a heavy fine, or, for a second offence, by imprisonment, and also made betting in factories and on sports-grounds illegal. It further prohibited the use of the ″double” totalizator and the publication of dividends and racing tips, forbade racing clubs to accept any totalizator investments by telegram or telephone, and laid down that the totalizator must be closed not later than the time advertised for the starting of the race concerned. Racing clubs authorized to use the totalizator were empowered to license bookmakers, who, when so licensed, could carry out their business on the racecourse, but not legally elsewhere.

The 1907 Act also directed that, after deduction of 10 per cent. commission, all money received from investments on the totalizator must be paid out (to the last complete sixpence) by way of dividend.

The Gaming Act of 1908 merely consolidated all existing legislation on the subject and involved no change. Two years later, however, the Gaming Amendment Act, 1910, was passed with a view to abolishing the bookmaker altogether, and to further restricting the use of the totalizator. The provisions of the 1907 and 1908 Acts for allowing the bookmaker to operate on the course were cancelled, and further attempts to prevent street betting were made. In future every license issued for the use of the totalizator was to be in respect of a single race meeting, and to specify the number of days on which the totalizator was to be used at such meeting. The aggregate number of days on which the totalizator was to be used throughout New Zealand during any racing-year after 1910–11 was not to exceed 250, the number of days on which the totalizator could be used at any one race meeting was not to exceed four, and not more than eight races were to be run on any one day at any race meeting.

The original provision that applications for licenses to use the totalizator were to be referred to a Magistrate was deleted, and for the purpose of determining the racing clubs to which licenses were to be issued a Commission was appointed, with instructions to give consideration to the claims of those clubs which were using the totalizator at only one meeting during the year. The Commission duly allocated licenses to the number of 138, covering the 250 days' racing provided for. Racing clubs received 109 licenses covering 199 days, and trotting clubs twenty-nine licenses for fifty-one days. Racing clubs lost forty-three days-and trotting clubs eleven days, as compared with the preceding year.

In 1914 the maximum number of days on which the totalizator might be used was increased to 281 by the Gaining Amendment Act, 1914, which authorized the granting of single-day licenses to not more than thirty-one clubs not then holding licenses. Of these, not more than fifteen were to be racing clubs, not more than eight trotting clubs, and not more than eight hunt clubs. Hunt clubs, which had not been provided for in the 1910 Act, were thus catered for.

The Gaming Amendment Act, 1915, permitted clubs to make up in subsequent years any days' racing lost through their lands or buildings being used for military purposes.

In 1917 a reduction of ninety-four days per racing-year was imposed as a war measure, which continued in operation until the end of January, 1919. Racing clubs temporarily lost seventy-four days, and trotting clubs twenty.

In 1918 an Inspector of Totalizators was appointed by the Government, and either he or one of his deputies now attends every race meeting where the totalizator is used. The principal duties of the Inspector and Deputy Inspectors are to see that the totalizator-house is large enough to meet the public requirements, that no commissions received in the totalizator-house are held back to the last moment, that the total investments received on each race are correctly balanced, that the correct figures are shown on the dial of the totalizator before the release signal is given to the starter, that the dividends are computed and paid out on such figures, and that ample provision is made for the paying-out of dividends.

Two amendments of the Gaming Act were passed in 1920. The first of these declared the business or occupation of a bookmaker to be unlawful, and forbade persons to bet with a bookmaker on pain of a heavy fine or a term of imprisonment. Formerly the bookmaker alone was punishable.

The second amendment of 1920 authorized the granting of eight additional single-day licenses—all to hunt clubs—and validated the issue of licenses for certain special race meetings held on the occasion of the visit of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales to New Zealand. This amendment also referred the vexed question of the redistribution of permits to a Commission, upon receipt of whose report the Governor-General was empowered to issue an Order in Council authorizing the granting, for the racing-year 1921–22, of a number of licenses not exceeding the number recommended by the Commission, such Order in Council, however, to cease if not assented to by both Houses of Parliament.

In its report, which was duly presented after a thorough investigator, the Commission embodied the following unanimous conclusions:—

  1. That it is highly undesirable, either by redistribution of the licenses hitherto granted, or by the issue of additional licenses, or otherwise, to materially increase the volume of totalizator betting in the Dominion:

  2. That, considering the configuration of the Dominion and the scattered nature of its population, the number of race-days per year now permitted is not excessive:

  3. That there are anomalies and injustices in the present distribution of licenses which clamour for removal and rectification:

  4. That the population basis for the purpose of distribution is a fallacious one, but that population is an important factor and should have due consideration in every case:

  5. That outlying districts, and especially districts suffering under the disabilities of isolation, should receive special consideration:

  6. That to achieve any approach to accurate justice a certain measure of redistribution is imperative, and the issue of a certain number of additional licenses is unavoidable:

  7. That to effect this redistribution, provide these additional licenses, and remove the anomalies and remedy the injustices now present, without materially increasing the volume of totalizator betting, it is inevitable that certain clubs enjoying privileges beyond their just deserts, or beyond the reasonable recreation requirements of their respective districts, should suffer curtailment, and that others who have outlived their usefulness, or who are not really necessary to the district they purport to serve, should disappear from the racing-map altogether:

  8. That, with regard to what are called the metropolitan clubs, it should be recognized that the larger of these clubs are, in a sense, national institutions, catering according to high standards not only for the population in their immediate vicinity, but for the racing community at large, and should not be interfered with unless for grave reasons: but that the suburban clubs are in quite a different position, and are entitled to much less respect and consideration:

  9. That country clubs, as a class, arc entitled to more sympathetic consideration than they have hitherto received, it being, in our judgment, not only strictly just, but in the public interest, that a sufficiency of recreation should be available for those living at a distance from the larger centres; but that in certain areas a quite unnecessary congestion of country clubs was apparent, and should, to some extent, be relieved.

The Commission recommended that 184 licenses he issued to 120 clubs, covering a total of 316 days, allocated over the three classes of clubs as follows:—

Number of Clubs.Number of Licenses.Number of Days.
Racing clubs72123223
Trotting clubs334678
Hunt clubs101515
                Totals120184316

The recommendations involved a net increase of twenty-seven days' racing. mostly in smaller centres. An analysis of the schedule of recommendations shows that this net increase was to be arrived at by granting licenses for twenty-four days to nineteen clubs not now licensed, by granting licenses covering forty-four additional days to thirty-six clubs with existing licenses, and by not renewing the licenses of twenty-one clubs with an aggregate of forty days.

An Order in Council in terms of the Act was issued, but the authority therein given was not acted on pending parliamentary discussion. A Bill to give effect to the recommendations was introduced into the Lower House, but was negatived on account of opposition to the suggested redistribution of existing licenses. Matters accordingly remain as they were, totalizator licenses covering 288 days being issued annually. The number of days permitted by statute is 289, but only seven hunt clubs were eligible to apply for the eight additional single-day permits provided for by the Act of 1920.

Statistics of totalizator investments, taxation, &c. are given in Section XXIIB of this book.

SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION PASSED IN NEW ZEALAND IN THE SESSIONS OF 1921 AND 1921–22.

The following are brief summaries of the most important enactments of the parliamentary sessions of 1921 and 1921–22. The first-mentioned session extended from the 10th to the 24th March, 1921, and the second from the 22nd September, 1921, to the 13th February, 1922. All legislation of the latter session passed prior to the 31st December, 1921, bears the name-year 1921, and all after that date 1921–22.

SESSION OF 1921.

The Mortgages Extension Amendment Act (1921, No. 1) is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Mortgages.

Part II.— Deposits and other Special Contracts.

Part I (Mortgages) extends the duration of the Mortgages Extension Act, 1919, until the 31st December, 1921.

Part II (Deposits and other Contracts).—Section 3 makes special provisions as to the calling-up of moneys lent on contracts of deposit, existing at the date of the commencement of the Act (21st March, 1921), other than moneys deposited with a bank or savings-bank or an individual.

The due date of all contracts of deposit (as defined in this Part) falling before the 31st May, 1921, is extended to that date. A borrower may at any time before the 31st December, 1924, notify the lender that he requires the due date to be further extended to any day not later than the said 31st December. The notice must contain an offer to pay interest at a rate not less than 1 per cent. in excess of the rate fixed by the contract. The notice has the effect of postponing the due date, and fixing the rate of interest for the period of the extension; but the Supreme Court is given power to grant relief to the lender on his making application therefor.

Section 4 extends the powers of suspending or varying contracts affected by the war conferred on the Supreme Court by section 17 of the War Legislation Act, 1917.

The Shops and Offices Amendment Act (1921, No. 3) amends until the 31st December, 1921, section 11 of the Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1920, by conferring on Magistrates jurisdiction to exempt from the early-closing requirements of that section any shop in which no shop-assistant other than a member of the occupier's family is employed.

The Noxious Weeds Amendment Act (1921, No. 4) is designed to prevent the spread of fireblight. For that purpose ″hawthorn” may be declared a noxious weed under the Noxious Weeds Act, 1908. The planting of hawthorn is prohibited, and it is made an offence to propagate it in any manner, or to sell any seeds, plants, or cuttings of it.

The Finance Act (1921, No. 5) is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Public Revenues.

Part II.—Land and Income Tax.

Part III.—Loans for Public Works.

Part IV.—Local and Public Bodies' Loans.

Part. V.—Miscellaneous.

Part I (Public Revenues).—Section 2 increases to £650,000 the amount of unauthorized expenditure in connection with working railways for the financial year ending on the 31st March, 1921. Section 3 extends to the 31st October. 1921, the appropriations for the year ending 31st March, 1921.

Part II (Land and Income Tax).—Sections 5 and 6 fix the rates of land and income tax at the rates specified in Parts I and II respectively of the schedule to the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1920. Section 7 provides partial exemption from income-tax of life-insurance companies.

Part III (Loans for Public Works) authorizes the borrowing of £2,000,000 for public works.

Part IV (Local and Public Bodies' Loans) contains a number of miscellaneous provisions affecting loans raised by local and public bodies. The only ones of general importance are—Section 11, enabling the Minister of Finance to vary, in respect of rate of interest or duration, the conditions subject to which these bodies are authorized to borrow moneys; section 12, which modifies the provisions (sections 77. 81, and 82 of the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913) as to guarantee by the Government of loans raised by focal authorities: section 13, which authorizes local authorities, with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, to borrow moneys on terms requiring repayment by instalments: and section 14, which enables the Minister of Finance to authorize Borough Councils to pay increased rates of interest on their bank overdrafts.

Part V (Miscellaneous).—Section 21 allows the appointment of members of the Legislative Council to the Board of Health constituted by the Health Act, 1920. Section 23 empowers the Governor-General, for the purpose of giving effect to the Treaty of Berne and generally for the purpose of restoring rights of industrial property affected by the war, to make regulations extending the time within which any act or thing may or is required to be done under or for the purposes of the Patents, Designs. and Trade-marks Act, 1911. Section 25 extends the duration of patents from fourteen to sixteen years. Patents, the original terms of which have expired within the two years immediately before the commencement of this Act, may be brought within the operation of this section.

SESSION OF 1921–22.

The Treaties of Peace Extension Act (1921, No. 7) provides that the Treaties of Peace Act, 1919, shall remain in force until it is specifically repealed. The provisions of that Act relating to Western Samoa are repealed in view of the Samoa Act, 1921.

The Law Practitioners Amendment Act (1921, No. 8) enables law agents enrolled pursuant to the Law Agents (Scotland) Act, 1873, to be admitted as solicitors of the Supreme Court of New Zealand.

The Rabbit Nuisance Amendment Act (1921, No. 9) modifies the provisions of section 2 of the Rabbit Nuisance Amendment Act, 1918. which provides penalties for failure to destroy rabbits on private land.

The Local Bodies' Loans Amendment Act (1921. No. 10) amends in various particulars the Local Bodies' Loans Act, 1913. Section 2 extends to five years the time within which the authority to borrow moneys conferred on local authorities by ratepayers may be exercised. Section 4 contains provisions with respect to the exercise by local authorities of the power to hypothecate or mortgage debentures. Section 5 amends the provisions of the principal Act as to investment of sinking funds held by the Public Trustee. Section 6 makes extensive amendments of section 11 of the Finance Act, 1921. which authorizes the modification of the conditions subject to which a local authority may be empowered to borrow moneys. Section 7 extends Part IV of the principal Act as from the 1st April, 1921, by authorizing the guarantee by the State of a portion as well as the whole of a loan.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act (1921, No. 11) has for its object the making of better provisions for the appointment of the nominated and acting nominated members of the Court of Arbitration, and for the summoning of acting nominated members to act as the nominated members.

The Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act (1921, No. 12) makes provision for the administration by a special Board, of moneys derived from the sale or lease of certain lands conveyed as a gift to the Grown by Sir George Hunter, M.P., for the settlement of discharged soldiers.

The Land-tax Amendment Act (1921, No. 13) amends section 5 of the Finance Act, 1921, by making provision for the granting of a rebate of 10 per cent, for prompt payment of land-tax payable under that section.

The Cook Islands Amendment Act, (1921, No. 14) makes various amendments of the Cook Islands Act, 1915, and provides, inter alia, for the following matters:—

  1. The election of members of Island Councils as representatives of the European population:

  2. Imprisonment for abduction of girls under the age of eighteen years:

  3. Adoptions by native custom in certain cases, and the adoption of children by Natives:

  4. Grounds of divorce (which are to be those for the time being existing in New Zealand), and extending the divorce jurisdiction of the High Court:

  5. Restricting the sale of intoxicating liquor to medicinal, sacramental, and industrial purposes:

  6. Restricting banking:

  7. Applying section 32 of the Board of Trade Act, 1919, to the Cook Islands:

  8. Enabling Resident Commissioners to sell island products on behalf of planters.

The Orchard-tax Amendment Act (1921, No. 15) extends for five years the operation of the Orchard-tax Act, 1910.

The Samoa Act (1921, No. 10) makes permanent provision for the government of Samoa, ft supersedes as from the 1st April, 1922, the Samoa Constitution Order made under the authority of the Treaties of Peace Act, 1919, and of His Majesty's Western Samoa Order in Council, 1920, and for the most part is a statutory enactment of the provisions of the Constitution Order. The Act provides a code of law for the government of Western Samoa, and is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—The Executive Government of Samoa.

Part II.—The Legislative Government of Samoa.

Part III.—The High Court of Western Samoa.

Part IV.—The Supreme Court of New Zealand.

Part V.—Criminal Offences.

Part VI.—Criminal Procedure.

Part VII.—Law of Evidence.

Part VIII.—Crown Suits.

Part IX.—Land.

Part X.—Marriage.

Part XI.—Divorce.

Part XII.—Persons of Unsound Mind.

Part XIII.—Intoxicating Liquor.

Part XIV.—Roads.

Part XV.—The Laws of Samoa: General Provisions.

Part XVI.—Transitory Provisions.

The Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks Act (1921–22, No. 18) is a consolidation and amendment of the Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks Act, 1911, and the other enactments mentioned in the Second Schedule to this Act, and incorporates amendments of the Imperial law made in the Trade-marks Act, 1919, and the Patents and Designs Act, 1919. The Act is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Patents.

Part II.—Designs.

Part III.—Trade-marks.

Part IV.—General.

The Customs Amendment Act (1921, No. 19), besides being an amendment of the Customs Act, 1913, abolishes all existing duties of Customs and excise, and substitutes those set out in the schedules to this Act, the new Customs tariff being contained in the First Schedule. The Customs tariff is, in effect, three different tariffs—the British preferential tariff, the intermediate tariff, and the general tariff. The British preferential tariff is applied to goods the produce or manufacture of some part of His Majesty's dominions; the intermediate tariff to goods the produce or manufacture of any country (whether part of the British dominions or not) to which that tariff is applied by Order in Council; and the general tariff to all dutiable goods to which neither the British preferential nor the intermediate tariff applies. While the Governor-General may by Order in Council apply the intermediate tariff to any part of the British dominions, section 6 provides that he shall not apply the general tariff to the United Kingdom. Section 7 enables the imposition of duties corresponding with the duties imposed on New Zealand goods. Section 8 authorizes the modification by the Governor-General of the three tariffs within these limits: that no such modification shall impose higher duties than those contained in the general tariff, or less than those contained in the British preferential tariff. Section 9 contains provisions as to suspended duties. Section 11 makes provision for a dumping duty for the protection of local industries. Section 12 empowers the Governor-General, in certain special cases, to alter the tariff in protection of local industries. Section 13 (which is amended by section 18 of the Finance Act, 1922) makes provision for the imposition of a special duty on goods imported from countries with depreciated currencies. Section 14 provides for the imposition in certain cases of a special duty on the importation of goods from foreign countries. By section 16 the production of an invoice with a certificate of origin thereon is made a condition precedent to entry of goods at preferential rates: and bisection 17, importers, on making entry of goods, are required to state the country of origin of such goods. Section 23 contains special provisions as to valuation of goods for assessment of Customs duties. Section 28 provides for a refund of duty on materials used in the construction of ships, launches, yachts, or boats in New Zealand, but such refund is restricted to duty paid on materials the produce or manufacture of some part of the British dominions, unless the materials used could not have been obtained at a reasonable price in the British dominions.

The Maintenance Orders (Facilities for Enforcement) Act (1921, No. 20), which is made part of the Destitute Persons Act, 1910, is based on and follows closely the Imperial Maintenance Orders (Facilities for Enforcement) Act, 1920.

The Aid to Public Works and Land Settlement Act (1921, No. 22) authorizes the borrowing of £5,000,000 under and subject to the provisions of the New Zealand Loans Act, 1908, for the public works and purposes specified in the schedule to this Act.

The Finance Act (No. 2) (1921, No. 25) is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Land and Income Tax.

Part II.—Amusements-tax.

Part III.—Duties payable in respect of Pace Meetings.

Part IV.—Excise Duties.

Part I (Land and Income Tax).—Section 3 modifies the provisions of the Land and Income Tax Act, 1916, as to taxation of banking companies. Section 4 makes special provisions applicable where companies prefer to issue debentures free of income-tax; in such cases the income-tax is to be payable by the companies. Section 5 provides for certain deductions from the assessable income of co-operative dairy companies. Bisection 6 the State Advances Superintendent is required to pay income-tax. Section 8 modifies section 24 of the Land and Income Tax Amendment Act, 1920, by relieving local and public authorities, under certain conditions, from the duty of acting as agents of their debenture-holders. Section 9 makes income-tax payable in respect of contracts of insurance effected with persons or foreign companies not carrying on business in New Zealand. Section 11 makes provision for a rebate of 5 per cent, in respect of prompt payment of income-tax, and section 12 for an allowance by way of interest on income-tax paid in advance. Section 13 empowers the Commissioner of Taxes to allow deductions in respect of contributions by employers to superannuation or benefit funds for employees.

Part II (Amusements-tax).—Section 14 provides new rates of amusements-tax, and section 15 repeals the exemption from amusements-tax previously enjoyed by certain societies. The principal effect of this is to impose amusements-tax on charges for admission to sports gatherings.

Part III (Duties payable in respect of Race Meetings).— Section 17 increases from 1 to 10 per cent, the tax on stakes. Section 18 increases dividend duty from 6d. to 1s. in the pound. This Part remains in operation until the 31st March, 1924, but provision is made for an extension of that period.

Part IV (Excise Duties) provides for increased rates of duty on beer brewed and tobacco manufactured in New Zealand.

The Education Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 27) amends in various particulars the Education Act, 1914. Section 2 abolishes urban school districts. Sections 4 and 5 contain provisions restricting expenditure by Education Boards out of their rebuilding funds and for unauthorized objects. Section 7 provides for the registration and inspection of private schools. Section 11 requires teachers to take the oath of allegiance.

The Mental Defectives Amendment Act (1921–22. No. 28) makes a number of amendments of the Mental Defectives Act, 1911. Section 2 provides for the administration by the Native Trustee of the estates of Natives of unsound mind. Section 4 extends the powers of the Public Trustee. The Public Trustee is empowered by section 7 to take proceedings on behalf of mental defectives under the Family Protection Act, 1908: by section 8 he may proceed against the committee of a mental defective for a breach of duty, or apply for an injunction to restrain a breach of trust: by section 9 he is empowered to dissolve a partnership of which a mental defective whose estate he is administering is a member. Sections 10 to 13, which are bused on sections 261 to 265 of Act No. 2687 of the State of Victoria, provide for reciprocity in the matter of administration of the estates of mentally deficient patients between New Zealand and any other British possession wherein similar laws are in force. Section II empowers the Public Trustee, on the certificate, of the proper officer in any such British possession, to administer the property in New Zealand of a mental patient confined in that possession. Section 12 provides that an order or declaration in lunacy in another British possession to which the section has been applied by Proclamation under section 10 shall have the like effect in New Zealand on being resealed in the Supreme Court.

The Mortgages and Deposits Extension Act (1921, No. 30) is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Mortgages.

Part II.—Deposits.

Part III.—Repeals.

Part I (Mortgages) is an amendment of the Mortgages Extension Act, 1919. Section 2 extends the definition of mortgagor contained in the principal Act. Section 3 extends to the 31st December, 1924, the duration of section 4 of the principal Act, which limits the rights of mortgagees under existing mortgages. Sections 5 and 6 repeal subsection (4) of section 6 and section 7 of the principal Act, which respectively empowered the Supreme Court to increase the interest payable under mortgages and to extend the terms of mortgages in certain cases. Section 7 empowers a trustee mortgagee to grant renewal of a mortgage without application to the Court. Section 8 empowers a mortgagor to repay the principal sum secured by the mortgage when the date for repayment has passed and no agreement for renewal or extension has been made. Section 9 prescribes rates of interest in respect of renewed or extended mortgages. Where the rate specified in the mortgage or a subsequent agreement exceeds 6 1/2 per cent., interest shall continue to be payable at such greater rate. Where the rate specified in the mortgage or a subsequent agreement is 6 1/2 per cent, or less, interest is to be payable at 6 1/2 per cent., provided that if the date for repayment is a date prior to the commencement of this Act (1st January. 1922) interest is to be payable at 6 1/2 per cent, as from such commencement, and in any other ease at the rate provided by the mortgage or agreement. Section 10 empowers the Court to direct substituted service of notices or other proceedings in certain cases.

Part II (Deposits) contains a number of special provisions with respect to deposits with certain institutions. Section 11 defines the terms ″bank,” ″borrower.” ″contract of deposit,” ″due date.” And ″lender” for the purposes of this Part. Section 12 extends to the 31st December, 1922, where the amount borrowed from one depositor does not exceed £1,000, and to the 30th June. 1923, where the amount exceeds £1,000, the clue date of the contracts of deposit under which such moneys have been borrowed. This extension is declared to be in relief of the borrower, who is not entitled to claim such relief unless he duly and punctually complies with the special conditions set out in section 13. By section 15 it is provided that the right of the borrower to repay in accordance with the terms of the contract of deposit shall not be affected by this Part. Section 16 provides for the application of moneys received on deposit after the commencement of this Act by borrowers holding moneys upon contracts of deposit affected by this Part. All such first-mentioned moneys are to be applied in payment of the moneys payable under the contracts of deposit. Similarly, where incorporated companies issue debentures (other than mortgage debentures to secure bank accounts) after the commencement of this Act, all moneys received upon such debenture-issue are to be applied in repayment of moneys payable under the terms of contracts of deposit affected by this Part. A fine of £100 is provided for each application of moneys in contravention of this section.

Part III (Repeals).— Section 18 repeals sections 2 and 3 of the Mortgages Extension Amendment Act, 1921.

The Public Holidays Amendment Act (1921, No. 31) amends the Public Holidays Act, 1910, by making special provision for the case of Christmas Day and New Year's Day falling on Sunday.

The Family Protection Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 33) amends section 33 of the Family Protection Act, 1908, by extending to any time before the final distribution of an estate the period within which an application may be made claiming the benefits of that Act in respect of the maintenance of the family of a testator who has not made sufficient provision for them in his will.

The Valuation of Land Amendment Act (1921–22. No. 34) has for its principal object the amendment of the Valuation of Land Act, 1908, to provide for special valuations of show-grounds or sports-grounds, with a view partially to relieving the bodies controlling such grounds of the burden of land-tax and rates of local authorities. The Act applies only to such grounds as are not used for the private pecuniary profit of any individual or individuals, and does not apply to racecourses.

The Companies Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 35) amends section 5 of the Companies Act, 1908, by declaring co-operative parties carrying out public works not to be associations or partnerships within the meaning of that section, and amends section 2 of the Companies Amendment Act, 1920, by extending the powers of dairy companies to engage in associated industries.

The Local Bodies' Finance Act (1921–22, No. 36) was passed to provide for and limit borrowing by local authorities for revenue purposes. Section 3 limits to the extent provided therein the power of local authorities to borrow moneys in anticipation of their revenues, and section 4 prescribes the authorities under which they may borrow for any purpose. Sections 5 and 6 make special provisions requiring local authorities to render to the Minister of Finance statements of their liabilities as at the 31st March, 1922, in respect of moneys borrowed in anticipation of revenue, and empowers them to borrow moneys for the discharge of such liabilities. Section 7 empowers the Minister of Internal Affairs to authorize local authorities to borrow moneys under exceptional circumstances—for example, for the purpose of repairing damage by flood, earthquake, or fire. Section 9 requires local authorities to provide for ordinary expenditure for any year out of revenue for that year.

The Country Telephone-lines Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 39) amends in various particulars the Country Telephone-lines Act, 1912. The rating-powers of local authorities in respect of telephone-lines are extended. In particular they are by section 3 extended to cover the maintenance and control of telephone-lines. Section 4 authorizes local authorities to arrange With the Government to erect lines, indemnifying the latter against loss.

The Insurance Companies' Deposits Act (1921–22, No. 40) repeals the Foreign Insurance Companies' Deposits Act, 1908, and provides for the lodging of deposits by all companies (whether British or foreign), other than New Zealand companies, carrying on in New Zealand the business of insurance against fire, accident, and employers' liability. Part I of this Act provides for deposits by companies already established and carrying on insurance business in New Zealand, and Part II for deposits by companies proposing to commence insurance business in New Zealand. The amounts of the deposits for companies coming within Part 1 are fixed by the First and Second Schedules. Section 5 fixes the amounts of the deposits to be paid by companies coming within Part II. The deposits required to be made by British companies are smaller than those required from foreign companies.

The Life Insurance Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 41) amends the Life Insurance Act, 1908. Section 2 makes new provisions with regard to the lodging of deposits by life-insurance companies. Section 3 makes special provisions as to policies effected on the lives of children, and authorizes insurance companies to return, on the death of a child, the premiums received.

The Factories Act (1921–22, No. 42) is a consolidation (with amendments) of the Factories Act, 1908, and the other enactments mentioned in the Third Schedule to this Act. It comes into force on the 1st April, 1922.

The Forests Act (1921–22, No. 43) repeals the State Forests Act, 1908, and the other enactments mentioned in the schedule to this Act as from the 1st April, 1922. While consolidating the present law, this Act not only reconstructs its form, but makes many new provisions with respect to forests. It is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Administration.

Part II.—State Forests.

Part III.—Licenses, Leases, and Permits.

Part IV.—Financial Provisions.

Part V.—Offences, Penalties, and Incidental Provisions.

Part VI.—Maori Forests.

Part VII.—Miscellaneous.

Part I (Administration).—Section 5 constitutes the State Forest Service, which is divided into two Branches—the Professional Branch (under the Director of Forestry) and the Administrative Branch (under the Secretary of Forestry). The duties of the two branches will be determined by the Ministerial Head, the Commissioner of State Forests. The functions of the State Forest Service are set out in section 6. Sections 7 to 13 make provisions with regard to the officers of the Forest Service. Section 14 establishes a Forest Advisory Board consisting of the Director and the Secretary of Forestry and representatives of various bodies directly interested in forestry, employers and workers in the sawmilling industry, distributors of forest produce, societies whose object is the promotion of forestry, and the counties association.

Part II (State Forests).—Sections 18 to 22 deal with the setting-apart of lands as permanent or provisional State forests. Section 23 empowers the Minister to carry on industries in relation to forest produce. Sections 25 and 26 deal with the preparation of forest maps and working plans. Section 27 provides for the constitution of fire districts for the protection of State forests.

Part III (Licenses, Leases, and Permits) provides for the granting of licenses and other rights over State forests, notably licenses to take forest produce, leases (for terms not exceeding twenty-five years) of forest lands for grazing purposes, and permits for temporary occupation of forest lands. Section 30 provides for the payment of realties and fees in respect of licenses. By section 35 the granting of timber-cutting rights under other Acts is restricted.

Part IV (Financial Provisions).—Section 36 establishes the State Forests Account, into which the moneys specified in section 37 are to be paid. Section 38 specifies the purposes for which moneys may be paid out of the State Forests Account. By section 39 it is provided that revenue from national-endowment lands comprised in State forests shall be paid into the State Forests Account. Section 40 empowers the Minister of Finance to borrow under the New Zealand Loans Act, 1908, a sum not exceeding £500,000 for the acquisition of lands for, and the establishment and maintenance of, State forests.

Part V (Offences, Penalties, and Incidental Provisions) defines various offences and prescribes penalties therefor, and, inter alia, authorizes the seizure of forest produce in certain cases.

Part VI (Maori Forests) contains special provisions with regard to Maori forests. Section 59 empowers the assembled owners of Native land, by resolution, to transfer the control of such land to the State Forest Service.

Part VII (Miscellaneous) gives the Governor-General wide powers of making regulations.

The Anzac Day Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 44) amends the Anzac Day Act, 1920, to provide that Anzac Day shall be in all respects as if it were a Sunday.

The Public Expenditure Adjustment Act (1921–22, No. 45) effects a saving in public expenditure by reducing the salaries or wages of all persons (with the exception of those mentioned in section 3) in the service of the Crown. The principal exceptions are the Governor-General, the Judges of the Supreme Court, the Judge of the Court of Arbitration, and the High Commissioner for New Zealand. By section 4 the salaries and honoraria of Ministers and members of Parliament are reduced 10 per cent. With regard to Public servants, the decline in the cost of living was taken as the basis of the adjustment, which operates on the increased rates of remuneration granted by way of bonus or salary increases at various times since the 1st April, 1916, to meet the increase in the cost of living due to the war with Germany. The first reduction dates from the 1st January, 1922, and by section 7 further reductions may be made in certain cases on the 1st July, 1922, and the 1st January, 1923. It is, provided by section 9 that the graduated reductions shall not operate so as to reduce the salary of any officer below that of any subordinate officer. Section 11 saves the rights of contributors to superannuation funds by enabling those who so desire to continue their contributions as if their salaries had not been reduced, and providing for refund by way of credit to those who do not so elect, of contributions paid in respect of the amount of salary of which they are deprived by this Act.

The Loan Companies Act (1921–22, No. 47) makes special provisions applicable in the liquidation of loan companies, and rendered necessary by the Mortgages and Deposits Extension Act, 1921. Section 3 requires the liquidator of a building society or mortgage company to make application to the Supreme Court for direction before making any call on shareholders. The Court, if satisfied that the liquidation is the result of the postponement by law of the due date for payment of sums secured by mortgages held by the society or company, and that such sums are more than sufficient to satisfy the debts and obligations, may, inter alia, direct the liquidator to collect and get in all sums payable to the society or company under the mortgages. By section 4 it is provided that the Mortgages and Deposits Extension Act, 1921, shall not apply to mortgage companies if the directors so resolve.

The Public Trust Office Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 48) effects a large number of important amendments of the Public Trust Office Act, 1908. Sections 2 to 13 provide for the establishment of local districts and the appointment of District Public Trustees. It is provided by section 8 that each District Public Trustee shall have such of the functions and powers and shall perform such of the duties of the Public Trustee as are delegated to him by writing under the hand of the Public Trustee. Sections 15 to 24 extend the powers of the Public Trustee. The most important of those sections is section 20. Sections 25 to 35 make additional provisions with respect to accounts and investments. Section 36 repeals section 44 of the principal Act, and makes new provisions respecting the registration of shares in companies in the name of the Public-Trustee. Section 37 extends section 4 of the Public Trust Office Amendment Act, 1913, which deals with advisory trustees. Sections 38 to 41 amend the provisions of the principal Act dealing with unclaimed land and unclaimed property. Sections 42 to 108 contain miscellaneous amendments of the principal Act, and, inter alia, extend in various directions the powers of the Public Trustee. Section 59 restricts the power of tenants for life of lands comprised in estates administered by the Public Trustee. Section 61 makes provision for the protection of beneficiaries, creditors, &c., aggrieved by acts, omissions, or decisions of the Public Trustee. Section 66 restricts the liability of the Public Trustee in respect of rents, covenants, and agreements in leases. Section 67 provides for the resealing in New Zealand of elections to administer granted in British possessions. Section 68 provides for reciprocity of administration with the Public Trustee of England and the Australian States.

The Legitimation Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 49) extends the benefits of the Legitimation Act, 1908—firstly, by repealing section 4 thereof, preventing legitimation in the case where at the time of the birth of any child there existed a legal impediment to the intermarriage of the parents: and, secondly, by enabling the mother to secure legitimation where the father has died without availing himself of the provisions of the principal Act.

The Companies Temporary Empowering Act (1921–22, No. 50), which remains in force for five years, enables companies holding existing deposits as defined therein to create preference shares in exchange for such deposits.

The Arms Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 51) modifies in certain particulars the application of the Arms Act, 1920. Special provisions are made with respect to (a) permits issued to licensed dealers to procure firearms, &c.; (b) explosives required in blasting operations: (c) procuring ammunition for sporting-rifles. Section 7 authorizes rifle clubs to procure ammunition from the Defence Department without a permit under the principal Act. Section 12 provides that the principal Act, in so far as it relates to firearms, may be applied to air-guns.

The Harbours Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 52) amends the Harbours Act, 1908. Section 2 extends the powers of Harbour Boards by empowering them to provide waiting-rooms, reading-rooms, dining-rooms, and meals for waterside workers, and to make by-laws in respect thereof. Section 4 grants special powers of leasing to the Governor-General in respect of foreshore lands and lands below high-water mark not required for harbour purposes.

The Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 53) makes special important provisions with regard to interests in land acquired by His Majesty as mortgagee under any mortgage securing moneys advanced under section 6 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Act, 1915, or section 2 of the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Amendment Act, 1917. Section 3 of this. Act provides that where an interest in such mortgaged property is acquired by His Majesty by virtue of the mortgage such interest shall not merge in any other interest possessed by His Majesty, but shall enure as a separate estate or interest available for disposal by His Majesty. Section 4 authorizes the disposal of freehold estates by way of sale or renewable lease, and section 5 makes special provisions with regard to such renewable leases. Section 6 provides for the disposal of leasehold estates in land administered by Land Boards, and section 7 for the disposal of leasehold estates, in land not administered by Land Boards. By section 8 interests or estates subject to this Act may be disposed of not only to discharged soldiers, but in certain special cases to other persons. Section 11 provides for payment into the Discharged Soldiers Settlement Account of moneys receivable under this Act. Section 13 provides that, pending permanent disposal, property may be disposed of under temporary license. Sections 14 to 18 make provision for other matters than those to which sections 2 to 13 relate.

The Dentists Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 54) amends in various particulars the Dentists Act, 1908. Section 2 provides that after the 31st March, 1922, no persons other than registered dentists and those mentioned in subsection (3) shall practise dentistry in New Zealand. Section 3 defines the expression ″practise of dentistry.” Section 7 makes special provision for the registration of certain persons engaged in dental work.

The Urewera Lands Act (1921–22, No. 55) gives effect to arrangements entered into between the Crown and the Natives interested in the Native lands referred to in the schedule to this Act for the consolidation and location of interests in such lands and in certain other lands.

The Land Agents Act (1921–22, No. 515) is the outcome of nine years' experience of the Land Agents Act, 1912, which it repeals. The term ″land agent” is more freely defined than in the repealed Act. Additional restrictions on the licensing and renewal of licenses of land agents are imposed, and better provision generally is made for regulating the carrying-on of the business of land agent. Barristers and solicitors while in practice as such are prohibited from being the holders of land agents' licenses. Under the Act of 1912 the fee for a license was £5. Fees payable under this Act are to be fixed by regulations.

The Animals Protection and Game Act (1921–22, No. 57) repeals the Animals Protection Act, 1908, and the other enactments mentioned in the Fourth Schedule to tins Act. It not only consolidates the present law, but reconstructs its form, and makes a number of new provisions with respect to the protection of animals, the regulation of game-shooting seasons, and the constitution and powers of acclimatization societies. The Act is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Animals Protection.

Part II.—Game.

Part III.—Opossum.

Part IV.—Acclimatization Districts and Societies.

Part V.—General.

The Government Railways Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 58) amends in various particulars the Government Railways Act, 1908. Section 2 provides a new scale of wages for the Second Division of the Railway service, and section 3 provides for the members of that Division to be reclassified. Section 9 makes provision for the appointment by the Minister of a Board of Inquiry as to matters affecting the administration of the Government railways. Section 10 authorizes local authorities to contribute towards the cost of construction or maintenance of railway bridges or subways.

The Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act (1921–22, No. 59) provides for the exchange, sale, reservation, and other disposition of certain reserves, Crown lands, endowments, and other lands, validates certain transactions, and confers certain powers on certain public bodies.

The Housing Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 60) amends in various particulars the Housing Act, 1919. Section 2 increases the maximum price of dwellings erected under the principal Act. Section 4 provides for the transfer of a dwelling on the death of the purchaser or lessee. Section 5 provides for the recovery of dwellings under the principal Act from persons wrongfully in possession. Section 8 amends section 19 of the principal Act by making it an offence punishable with a fine of £100 for any person to stipulate for, or demand or accept, as a condition of the tenancy of a dwellinghouse, payment for furniture or other effects of any sum in excess of the fair selling-value thereof. Section 9 provides further grounds for the recovery of possession of dwelling-houses, subject to Part I of the War Legislation Amendment Act, 1916, and extends the duration of that Part and the several amendments thereof until the 31st December, 1922. Section 10 imposes certain restrictions on the letting or selling of a dwellinghouse when possession thereof has been recovered on the ground that the premises are required for the landlord's own occupation.

The Land Laws Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 61) amends in various particulars the Land Act, 1908, and the several amendments thereof. This Act is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Pastoral Lands.

Part II.—General.

Part I (Pastoral Lands), which is to be read as part of Part VI of the principal Act, makes a number of provisions with respect to pastoral lands. By section 5 the term of a lease of pastoral lands is extended to thirty-five years. Section 6 requires lessees of certain pastoral lands to make certain improvements thereon. Section 8 provides for the extension of pastoral licenses where the licensee has suffered substantial loss arising from any general financial stringency. Sections 10 to 12 make provision for the acquisition of the fee-simple of pastoral lands and national-endowment land held, as pastoral land.

Part II (General).—Section 16 provides for the keeping by the Surveyor-General of a standard or standards of length of a chain and links, and that measurements of length for the purposes of the Land Transfer Act, 1916, shall be expressed in terms of the chain of one hundred link's. Sections 17 and 18 provide for the extension of certain leases and licenses. Section 20 imposes a restriction on the forfeiture of Crown lands.

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 63) amends the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1908, in various particulars. Section 5 empowers the Court, with the consent of all the parties, to amend an award. Section 7 exempts local bodies, with respect to relief works conducted by them, from the operation of any award or industrial agreement. Section 8 provides an alternative method of filling casual vacancies in the office of nominated members of the Court. Section 9, which remains in operation till the 31st December, 1923, empowers the Court to amend awards or industrial agreements with respect to rates of wages, having regard to any increase or decrease in the cost of living since the 30th September, 1920, and certain other considerations.

The Waikato and King-country Counties Act (1921–22, No. 64) gives effect to the report of a Commission appointed under section 91 of the Reserves and other Lands Disposal and Public Bodies Empowering Act, 1920.

The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 65) amends section 4 of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act, 1920, by providing that where, upon the hearing of a petition under that section, the respondent opposes the making of a decree of dissolution of marriage, and the Court is satisfied that the separation was due to the wrongful act or conduct of the petitioner, the Court shall not make upon such petition a decree of dissolution of the marriage.

The Expiring Laws Continuance Act (1921–22, No. 67) extends to the 31st December, 1922, the duration of the enactments mentioned in the schedule thereto, and to the 31st March, 1922, the duration of the Shops and Offices Amendment Act, 1921. Section 3 revives and continues in force until the 31st December, 1922, section 2 of the Acts Interpretation Amendment Act, 1920. Section 4 limits the duration of awards under section 4 of the Sale of Liquor Restriction Act, 1917, such awards having been extended without agreement of parties by reason of the extension of the duration of that Act.

The New Zealand Institute of Architects Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 68) extends the time during which students of architecture may be registered without examination.

The Public Reserves and Domains Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 69) amends the Public Reserves and Domains Act, 1908, to enable charges for admission to public reserves to be made on an increased number of days; to authorize the making of charges for admission to public domains; to enable the building of halls on public domains; to enable trustees of racecourse reserves to make by-laws to exclude persons from such reserves; and to authorize the removal from public reserves generally of persons acting thereon in contravention of the provisions of any law prohibiting betting and gambling.

The Thorndon Reclamation Act (1921–22, No. 70) validates a certain agreement entered into between the Minister of Railways, acting on behalf of His Majesty, and the Wellington Harbour Board in respect of the work of reclaiming certain portions of Wellington Harbour, and repeals the Thorndon Esplanade Act, 1891.

The Finance Act (1921–22, No. 72) is divided into Parts as follows:—

Part I.—Public Revenues.

Part II.—As to Loans for Public Works and other Purposes.

Part III.—Superannuation Funds.

Part IV.—Local Authorities and Public Bodies.

Part V.—General.

Part I (Public Revenues) contains, inter alia, a number of miscellaneous amendments of the Public Revenues Act, 1910, and other Acts dealing with public moneys. Section 9 authorizes the Governor-General to prescribe fees in respect of the issue of letters of naturalization and certified copies thereof. Section 10 provides exemption from gift duty in certain cases of voluntary discharge of mortgage debts. Section 11 corrects a clerical error in the Second Schedule to the Death Duties Act, 1921. Section 12 provides for the payment into a special account, for the purpose of the construction and maintenance of main highways, of Customs duties received on motor-tires, &c. Section 13 constitutes an Advances to other Governments Account. Section 18 amends section 13 of the Customs Amendment Act, 1921, relating to special duty on goods from countries having depreciated currencies.

Part II (As to Loans for Public Works and other Purposes).—Section 19 increases to £4,000,000 the authority to borrow money on the security of Treasury bills. By section 20 interest on the £5,000,000 raised for certain, public works during the current financial year is made payable as from the 1st August, 1921. Section 23 extends the authority to borrow conferred by the enactments mentioned in the schedule to this Act. Section 24 empowers the Minister of Finance to redeem debentures before maturity. Section 25 makes provision for utilizing annual payments into the War Loans Sinking Fund for reduction of the war debt. Section 26 empowers the Minister of Finance to borrow moneys for the purpose of making advances to the Samoan Treasury under clause 34 of the Samoa Constitution Order or section 33 of the Samoa Act, 1921.

Part III (Superannuation Funds).—Section 28 provides for the payment in certain cases of superannuation allowances to public servants compulsorily retired through no fault of their own. This section is to be deemed to have come into operation on the 1st July, 1921, and will expire on the 31st December, 1922, but such expiry is not to affect the continuance of any retiring-allowance granted under this section. Section 29 makes special provision with respect to the period of service for superannuation purposes of certain officers appointed to the High Commissioner's Office. Sections 31 and 32 contain special provisions with respect to contributors to the Teachers' Superannuation Fund.

Part IV (Local Authorities and Public Bodies).—Section 34 increases the rating-powers of Town Boards. Section 39 empowers local authorities to borrow moneys to discharge existing liabilities for the acquisition of land. Section 40 directs the appointment of a Commission to inquire as to the loss of revenue suffered by local authorities from the operation of the Forests Act.

Part V (General).—Section 41 consolidates section 17 of the War Legislation Act, 1917, and its amendments, which authorize the Supreme Court or a Judge thereof to extend, vary, or annul certain contracts affected by the war. Section 46 confers on the Governor-General powers to make additional regulations under the Naval Defence Act, 1913.

The Meat Export Control Act (1921–22, Mo. 73) makes provision for the appointment of a Meat Producers' Board, with power to control the meat-export trade. Section 2 provides that the Board shall consist of two persons as representatives of the Government and five persons as representatives of the producers of meat for export. The Governor-General is empowered to appoint an additional member as a representative of stock and station agents. By section 3 the Board is declared to be a body corporate. Section 7 gives the Board power to appoint officers, and public servants are declared to be eligible for such appointments under certain conditions. Section 8 constitutes a London Agency of the Board. One member of the London Agency is to be appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture. The Board appoints the other members. Section 9 provides that meat shall not be exported from New Zealand save in accordance with the determination of the Board. Section 10 empowers the Board, subject to certain conditions, to assume control of meat intended for export. Section 11 authorizes the Board to make arrangements as to the slaughtering of stock where meat is intended for export. Section 12 provides that, after the constitution of the Board or at such later date as the Board may appoint, no contract for the carriage by sea of meat to be exported from New Zealand shall be made save by the Board as agents of the owners or other authorized persons, or in conformity with conditions approved by the Board. Every person other than the Board who exports meat must satisfy the Customs, on making entry under the Customs Acts, that the contract for shipment has been approved by the Board. With regard to contracts made before the commencement; of this Act, the Board's approval is not required if the meat is exported not later than the 31st October, 1922. Section 13 provides for the making of a levy on meat exported from New Zealand. Proceeds of levies, after certain deductions for services rendered by the Customs, are to form part of the funds of the Board. The particular powers of the Board are defined by section 14. Section 15 provides for the application by the Board of moneys received by it. By section 16 the Board's accounts are to be audited as if the moneys of the Board were public moneys. Section 17 empowers the Minister of Finance to guarantee advances made to the Board or made at the request of the Board. By section 18 it is declared that the mutual rights, obligations, and liabilities of the Board and the owners of which it is agent shall be determined in accordance with the law governing relations between principals and agents. The members of the Board are not to be deemed liable for acts or defaults of the Board. Section 19 authorizes the Governor-General to make regulations.

The Appropriation Act (1921–22, No. 74) appropriates for the use of His Majesty the moneys required for the purposes of the current financial year. In addition it contains certain miscellaneous provisions, most of which validate certain items of unauthorized expenditure incurred by local and other public bodies, or authorize contributions to particular funds by such bodies. Section 10 authorizes the purchase of war material for the post-war equipment of the New Zealand Military Forces. Section 36 provides that special increments may be allowed to officers of the Post and Telegraph Department on account of outstanding merit or ability.

LOCAL ACTS.

The Auckland City Loans Consolidation and Empowering Act (1921, No. 1, Local) authorizes the Auckland City Council to issue a consolidated loan, and to make certain adjustments with reference to loans; to enlarge the Auckland Domain cricket-ground; and validates an agreement between the Corporation of the City of Auckland and the Dilworth Trust Board.

The Dunedin District Drainage and Sewerage Amendment Act (1921, No. 2, Local) amends the Dunedin District Drainage and Sewerage Act, 1900, and the Acts amending the same. Sections 3 to 15 make further provisions with regard to the raising of loans by the Board, and the making and levying of special rates. Section 18 empowers the Board to construct common drains.

The Invercargill Borough Council Special Rate Empowering Amendment Act (1921, No. 3, Local) authorizes the Invercargill Borough Council to expend certain loan-moneys, raised by special loans for sanitary drainage and sewerage works in certain portions of the borough, for completing the sanitary drainage and sewerage of the whole borough.

The Judea Land Drainage Board Empowering Act (1921, No. 4, Local) extends the powers of the Land Drainage Board with respect to the classification for rating-purposes of the lands within its districts.

The Tauranga Borough Council Electric Loan Empowering Act (1921, No. 5, Local) empowers the Tauranga Borough Council to raise on certain special terms a loan of £12,500 for the purpose of completing electric works and for paying certain liabilities already incurred in connection with such works.

The Tauranga Harbour Board Empowering Amendment Act (1921, No. 6, Local) empowers the Board to raise by instalments the loan of £125,000 authorized by the Tauranga Harbour Board Empowering Act, 1919, and allows of the appointment of the Public Trustee as the sole Sinking Fund Commissioner in respect of such loan.

The Tolaga Bay Harbour Board Empowering Act (1921, No. 7, Local) empowers the Tolaga Bay Harbour Board to raise a loan of £100,000 for harbour-works, and vests certain lands in the Board.

The Christchurch Tramway District Amendment Act (1921, No. 8, Local) amends in various particulars the Christchurch Tramway District Act, 1920. Section 9 authorizes the raising by the Board, without the consent of the ratepayers, of loans for certain works. Section 10 authorizes the Board to erect dwellings for its employees, and section 12 empowers it to subsidize the Christchurch Tramway Employees' Sick Benefit Society.

The Taieri River Improvement Amendment Act (1921, No. 9, Local) amends in various particulars the Taieri River Improvement Act, 1920.

The Grey Collection Exchange Act (1921, No. 10, Local) authorizes the Auckland City Council to transfer to the Board of Trustees of the South African Public Library such books and manuscripts in the Grey Collection as relate to South Africa and its people, and to receive in exchange, on behalf of the New Zealand Government, and to hold in trust for the people of New Zealand, any books and manuscripts which having formerly belonged to Sir George Grey are now deposited in the South African Public Library, and which relate to the Maoris of New Zealand and to Polynesia.

The Wellington City Empowering Act (1921, No. 11, Local) authorizes the Wellington City Council to cancel certain debentures, and to issue other debentures in lieu thereof.

The Napier Harbour Board Enabling Act (1921, No. 12, Local) provides for the more convenient and economical collection of the rates authorized by certain special Acts to be levied by the Napier Harbour Board, and for certain other matters affecting the Board.

The Napier Harbour Board and Napier High School Empowering Amendment Act (1921, No. 13, Local) modifies in certain particulars certain agreements ratified by the Napier Harbour Board and Napier High School Empowering Act, 1918.

The Palmerston North Borough Loans Consolidation Act (1921, No. 14, Local) authorizes the Palmerston North Borough Council to consolidate certain loans.

The Inch-Clutha Road, River, and Drainage Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 15, Local) abolishes the Inch-Clutha Road, River, and Drainage Board, merges the Inch-Clutha Road District in the County of Bruce, and constitutes the Inch-Clutha River and Drainage Board.

The Picton Recreation Reserve Amendment Act (1921–22, No. 16, Local) enables the Picton Borough Council to lay out as a public highway certain land vested in the Corporation of the borough as a recreation reserve, and to authorize the sale of another portion of the said reserve.

The Auckland Electric-power Board Act (1921–22, No. 17, Local) constitutes the Auckland Electric-power District and the Board thereof, and confers powers on the Board. These powers are for the most part the same powers as those conferred on other Boards by the Electric-power Boards Act, 1918, but there are also conferred by this Act a number of special powers to meet local requirements.

The Whakatane Harbour Act (1921–22, No. 18, Local) consolidates and amends a number of Acts relating to the Whakatane Harbour.

The Geraldine County River District Act (1921–22, No. 19, Local) constitutes the Geraldine County River District, with the members for the time being of the Geraldine County Council as the River Board thereof, and makes certain special provisions with respect to the powers, duties, and finances of the Board.

The Whangarei Harbour Board Empowering Act (1921–22, No. 20, Local) defines the powers of the Whangarei Harbour Board to construct harbour-works, and authorizes the expenditure for certain purposes of a portion of the moneys borrowed pursuant to the Whangarei Harbour Board Empowering Act, 1914, and the Whangarei Harbour Board Vesting and Empowering Act, 1919.

PRIVATE ACT.

The Roman Catholic Archbishop) Empowering Act (1921–22, No. 1, Private) enables the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Wellington to sell and dispose of certain lands in the Archdiocese of Wellington, and to apply the net proceeds thereof in or towards the purchase of other lands in the Archdiocese, and in or towards the erection of church and school buildings, and to authorize the raising of money on the security of the lands so acquired or any of them.

Chapter 36. SECTION XXXVI.—ISLANDS ATTACHED TO NEW ZEALAND.

INTRODUCTORY.

ON page 1 of this book the islands comprising the Dominion of New Zealand are divided into three groups, viz.:—

Islands forming the Dominion proper, for statistical and general practical purposes.

Outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand as proclaimed in 1847.

Annexed islands.

Only the first of these groups has been covered by the preceding sections of this book. The present section deals briefly with the second and third groups, and also with the mandated territories of Western Samoa and Nauru.

OUTLYING ISLANDS.

The outlying islands included within the geographical boundaries as proclaimed in 1847 are,—

Three Kings Islands.Antipodes Islands.
Auckland Islands.Bounty Islands.
Campbell Island.Snares Islands.

The THREE KINGS ISLANDS (so named by Tasman on account of his having discovered them on the anniversary of the Feast of the Epiphany) are a group of uninhabited islets extending about seven miles in an east-north-east direction, and situated about thirty-eight miles west-north-west of Cape Maria van Diemen, at the northern extremity of the North Island. It was here that the s.s. ″Elingamite” was wrecked on the 9th November, 1902, with heavy loss of life.

The AUCKLAND ISLANDS were discovered on the 18th August, 1806, by Captain Abraham Bristow, in the ship ″Ocean.” The discoverer, who named the group after Lord Auckland, again visited the islands in 1807 and took formal possession of them. They lie about 290 miles south of Bluff Harbour, their accepted position being given as latitude 50° 32' south and longitude 106° 13' east. They have several good harbours. Port Ross, at the northern end of the principal island, was described by the eminent French commander D'Urville as one of the best harbours of refuge in the known world. At the southern end of the island there is a through passage extending from the east to the west coast. It has been variously named Adams Strait and Carnley Harbour, and forms a splendid sheet of water. The largest of the islands is about twenty-seven miles long by about fifteen miles broad, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000 ft. above the sea.

CAMPBELL ISLAND was discovered in 1810 by Frederick Hazelburgh, master of the brig ″Perseverance,” owned by Mr. Robert Campbell, of Sydney. It is mountainous, and of a circumference of about thirty miles. There are several good harbours.

The ANTIPODES ISLANDS are an isolated group, consisting of several detached rocky islands lying nearly north and south over a space of four to five miles: accepted position, 49° 41′ 15″ south, and longitude 178° 43' east.

The BOUNTY ISLANDS, a little cluster of islets, thirteen in number, and without verdure, were discovered in 1788 by Captain Bligh, R.N., of H.M.S. ″Bounty”; position verified by observation, 47° 43' south, longitude 179° 0 1/2' east.

The SNARES ISLANDS are situated about fifty-six miles to the south-west of Stewart Island, and comprise six islets of a total area of about 600 acres.

On each group of outlying islands the New Zealand Government maintains a depot of provisions and clothing for the use of castaways.

KERMADEC ISLANDS.

The KERMADEC ISLANDS, four in number, with some outlying islets, rank as ″annexed islands,” having been annexed to New Zealand by Proclamation dated the 21st July, 1887. The islands are situated between the parallels of 29° 10' and 31° 30' south latitude, and between the meridians of 177° 45' and 179° west longitude. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland, and lies a little more than half-way to Tonga, but 100 miles to the eastward of the direct steam route to that place. It is 300 miles eastward of the steam route to Fiji, and 150 miles westward of the steam route from Auckland to Rarotonga. Macaulay Island (named after the father of Lord Macaulay) and Curtis Islands were discovered in May, 1788, by Lieutenant Watts, in the ″Penrhyn,” a transport ship. The remainder of the group was discovered in 1793 by Rear-Admiral de Bruni, Chevalier d'Entrecasteaux, during the course of his search for the missing La Pérouse. The Admiral gave the name of ″Kermadec” to the whole group of islands, after the captain of his consort ship ″L'Espérance,” and the name of the Admiral's ship, ″La Recherche,” was given to the largest island. The name so given was not continued, but that of ″Raoul” has taken its place, which would appear to have been given after the sailing-master of the ″La Recherche,” whose name was Joseph Raoul. The name of ″Sunday” may have become attached to the island from the fact that it was discovered on a Sunday.

The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than that of the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Espérance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723 ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Throe of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but so difficult of approach as to be practically useless. Various attempts at settlement have been made from time to time, but the islands are now uninhabited.

COOK AND OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS ANNEXED IN 1901.

The COOK ISLANDS, with others included within the extended boundaries of the Dominion as from the 10th June, 1901, are as under:—

RAROTONGA: A magnificent island, rising to a height of 3,000 ft., clothed to the tops of the mountains with splendid vegetation. It has abundant streams, considerable tracts of sloping land, and rich alluvial valleys. The two harbours are poor.

MANGAIA, the south-easternmost of the Cook Group, is of volcanic origin and about thirty miles in circumference. The productions, which are numerous and cheap, are obtained by assiduous labour.

ATIU resembles Mangaia in appearance and extent. It is a mere bank of coral 10 ft. or 12 ft. high, steep and rugged, except where there are small sandy beaches and some clefts, where the ascent is gradual.

AITUTAKI presents a most fruitful appearance, its shores being bordered by flat land on which are innumerable coconut and other trees, the higher ground being beautifully interspersed with lawns. It is eighteen miles in circuit.

MAUKE (or Parry Island) is a low-lying island. It is about two miles in diameter, well wooded, and inhabited.

MITIARO is a low-lying island, from three to four miles long and one mile wide.

HERVEY ISLANDS: This group consists of two islands, surrounded by a reef which is about 10 1/2 miles in circumference.

NIUE (or Savage Island), lying east of the Friendly Islands, is a coral island, thirty-six miles in circumference, rising to a height of 200 ft. It has the usual tropical productions.

PALMERSTON ISLAND, lying about 500 miles east of Niue and about 220 from the nearest island of the Cook Group (Aitutaki), is remarkable as the ″San Pablo” of Magellan, the first island discovered in the South Sea. It has no harbour. The soil is fairly fertile, and there is some good hardwood timber.

MANIHIKI, lying about 400 miles eastward of Danger Island, is an atoll, about thirty miles in circumference, valuable from the extent of the coconut groves. The interior lagoon contains a vast deposit of pearl-shell.

PENRHYN ISLAND (Tongareva) lies about 300 miles north-east of Manihiki. It is one of the most famous pearl-islands in the Pacific, and there is a lagoon with two entrances capable of being made into a harbour fit for a large number of vessels.

RAKAANGA is an atoll, three miles in length and of equal breadth.

DANGER ISLAND (Pukapuka): Next to the 10th parallel, but rather north of the latitude of the Navigators and east of them, are a number of small atolls. Of these, the nearest to the Samoan Group—about 500 miles—is Danger Island, bearing north-west of Suwarrow about 250 miles.

SUWARROW ISLAND lies about 500 miles east of Apia, the capital of Western Samoa. It is a coral atoll, of a triangular form, fifty miles in circumference, the reef having an average width of half a mile across, enclosing a land-locked lagoon eight miles by six, Which is capable of being made into an excellent harbour. The entrance is half a mile wide, and the accommodation permits of ships riding in safety in all weathers, with depths of from 3 to 30 fathoms. It is out of the track of hurricanes, but is at present uninhabited, although visited periodically. As a depot for the collection of trade from the various islands it might in time be very valuable.

CONSTITUTION AND LAWS.

The Constitution and laws of the Cook Islands and Niue have been remodelled by the Cook Islands Act of 1915.

Island Councils were continued or established, consisting either wholly or partly of ex officio, elected, or nominated members. Generally, European officials and Arikis or Native chiefs are Councillors ex officio, and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the Governor-General or for a fixed period not exceeding five years. Women are eligible both as members and as electors of Island Councils.

Each Council is empowered to make laws for the good government of the island, with the proviso that such laws must not be repugnant to Acts of the New Zealand Parliament or regulations made thereunder. The maximum penalties imposed by the Ordinance of an Island Council must not exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine of £50. The Council has no power to deal with Customs duties, to borrow money, to establish Courts of Justice, or to appropriate expenditure of revenue other than that raised under authority of their Ordinance. No Ordinance has effect until it has received the assent of the Resident Commissioner or the Governor-General. The Governor-General may, by notice in the Gazette, disallow any Ordinance within one year after the Commissioner has given his assent.

Laws are enforced through the High Court, which has all jurisdiction, civil or criminal, necessary for the administration of justice. Judges and Commissioners of the High Court are appointed by the Governor-General; the Chief Judge to reside at Rarotonga, a second at Niue. A Commissioner may, with some exceptions, exercise the full powers and functions of a Judge, but rules of Court may allow appeal from his decision to that of a Judge.

A judgment obtained in a civil proceeding in the High Court may be enforced in the Supreme Court of New Zealand. From any decision in the former Court an appeal lies to the Supreme Court in the Dominion.

The manufacture or importation of intoxicating liquor is prohibited absolutely, except that the Resident Commissioner may import liquor for sale or for public purposes. Liquor imported through the Commissioner must not find its way into the hands of a Native. Attempts are made by the Natives to evade the law by illicitly manufacturing ″bush-beer,” an offence which the Administration is endeavouring to check.

POPULATION.

At the census of the 17th April, 1921, the islands had a population of 13,209, made up as shown in the following statement. Uninhabited islands are not included.

Island.Native Population.Population other than Native.Totals.
Males.Females.Both Sexes.Males.Females.*Both Sexes.*Males.Females.Both Sexes.
* Includes 22 Native women married to and living as Europeans.
Aitutaki6826611,3431416306966771,373
Atiu432398830437436401837
Mangaia6255841,2091011216355951,230
Manihiki2242054293..     3227205432
Mauke29626556112517308270578
Mitiaro106101207..     ..     ..     106101207
Palmerston414283..     ..     ..     414283
Penrhyn170200370426174202376
Pukapuka288242530..     ..     ..     288242530
Rakaanga1711383091..     1172138310
Rarotonga1,7681,5193,2871051112161,8731,6303,503
Totals, Cook and northern islands4,8034,3559,1581531483014,9564,5039,459
Niue1,7031,9883,6913326591,7362,0143,750
    Grand totals6,5066,34312,8491861743606,6926,51713,209

The population totals for each of the last five censuses are,—

Island.1902.1906.1911.1916.1921.
* Includes 112 soldiers in camp in New Zealand.
Aitutaki1,1701,1621,2371,3021,373
Atiu918918812759837
Mangaia1,5411,5311,4711,2451,230
Manihiki484521444493432
Manuae (or Hervey)10..     2923..     
Mauke370446457490578
Mitiaro165210199237207
Niue4,0793,8223,9433,8803,750
Palmerston115821079083
Penrhyn445420335326376
Pukapuka505435490474530
Rakaanga400352315295310
Rarotonga2,0602,4412,7593,0643,503
Suwarrow30..     ..     7..     
Totals12,29212,34012,59812,797*13,209

A system of compulsory registration of births, deaths, and marriages is now in force in the islands. The latest available figures are given in the ″Vital Statistics” section of this book.

EDUCATION.

The educational requirements of the islands up to recent years have been largely met by missionary effort. The London Missionary Society has a number of village schools in the various islands, while the Roman Catholic Mission and the Seventh-day Adventists also maintain schools, though to a less extent.

The education provided in this manner is necessarily inadequate, and provision was made by the Cook Islands Act, 1915, for the establishment of public schools.

Regulations which came into force on the 1st January, 1917, make it compulsory for all children between seven and fourteen years of age to attend school if living within three miles of a public school.

In 1916, when education in the Cook Islands was placed under the control of the Minister, there were three schools in the Group, two being in Rarotonga and one at Aitutaki. Since 1916 two new primary schools have been opened in Rarotonga—viz., Avarua and Titikaveka—one at Palmerston Island, one at Mauke, one at Mangaia, and one at Aitutaki.

A technical school, also created since 1916, has been established at Avarua, with classes in agriculture, drawing, and woodwork, and an advanced class in carpentry. In most of the schools classes for simple cookery and for mat and basket weaving are held.

In Niue two schools have been established. Special interest is shown in the technical branch, and additional technical classes are given after school hours. The leading pupils are being trained with a view to taking charge of village schools which it is hoped may soon be established in other districts of Niue.

Scholarships for annual competition, tenable for two years at St. Stephen's College, Auckland, for boys, and Hukarere School for Girls, Napier, have been created by the Administration.

Pour advanced pupils are chosen each year from the Technical School and sent to Wellington to be apprenticed to trades. They are under a bond to return to Rarotonga on the completion of their apprenticeship. By this method the Administration intends to secure the necessary supply of skilled Native artisans required for the Group.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The revenue and expenditure for each of the last ten years are as shown in the table following, separate figures being given for the Cook Islands Administration and the Island of Niue:—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.
Cook Islands.Nine.Total.Cook-Islands.Niue.Total.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
19139,4202,68012,10011,5082,32013,828
191411,7222,49214,21410,1943,06813,262
191510,1181,95712,07510,6172,32412,941
19167,6731,9149,5879,0812,09411,175
19179,7102,06811,7788,5861,74710,333
191811,0682,78713,85512,6152,98715,602
191913,8473,60417,45112,3433,11115,454
192022,8816,56329,44417,0613,66220,723
192127,0996,93834,03727,7455,22132,966
192217,7194,29322,01223,528.8,89332,421

The principal items contributing to the total receipts of £22,012 for the year ended 31st March, 1922, were: Customs duties, £8,218; copra export duty, £1,770; Court fees and fines, £1,711; sale of stamps, £4,871; and sale of liquor, £1,171.

At the 31st March, 1922, the Cook Islands Administration had a credit balance of £2,131, and the Niue Administration £1,358.

TRADE.

The exports of the islands for the year 1921 aggregated £86,082, and imports £139,313, as against corresponding totals of £107,837 and £198,435 for 1920. The figures for each of the last ten years are,—

Year.Exports.Imports.
Cook Islands.Niue.Total.Cook Islands.NiueTotal.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
1912101,70815,709117,41793,81219,119112,931
1913109,92612,170122,096110,28313,761124,044
191477,5129,50387,01591,13211,200102,332
191563,0578,13071,18765,5909,67875,268
191668,1463,37971,52558,4789,51267,990
191760,1909,40069,59080,06113,07993,140
191882,70816,53799,24599,63217,258116,890
1919127,72935,997163,726142,92521,783164,708
192094,69713,140107,837177,91120,524198,435
192169,36116,72186,082112,97426,339139,313

The principal exports from the islands are fruit and copra. The expansion of the fruit trade is, however, greatly retarded by the lack of a good steamer service to New Zealand. The following figures for the year 1921 are exclusive of exports from Niue, details of which are not available:—

 Quantity.Value. £
Copra803 tons11,841
Oranges57,169 cases22,343
Bananas52,388 ″21,680
Tomatoes34,457 ″11,169

Other items are coconuts, pineapples, lemons, kumeras, mangoes, coffee, and arrowroot. Niue also exports considerable numbers of the native hats.

As might naturally be expected, most of the trade of the Group is with New Zealand. The United States has stepped into the second position in recent years. The figures for 1921 are,—

Country.Exports.Imports.
From Cook Islands.From Niue.Total.Into Cook Islands.Into Niue.Total.
* Including £85 exports from Niue to Cook Islands.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
New Zealand59,23814,89174,12997,22622,780120,006
United States6,826..     6,8269,390279,417
Tahiti3,297..     3,2972,830..     2,830
United Kingdom..     ..     ..     2,9475043,451
Australia..     ..     ..     5602,6763,236
Western Samoa..     1,6321,632..     286286
American Samoa..     113113..     5050
France..     ..     ..     11..     11
Canada..     ..     ..     ..     1111
British New Guinea..     ..     ..     8..     8
Tonga..     ..     ..     ..     55
British South Africa..     ..     ..     2..     2
              Totals69,36116,721*80,082*112,97426,339139,313

WESTERN SAMOA.

Four large and many smaller islands, the whole of volcanic origin, form the Group known by its Native name of Samoa. The Native race inhabiting the islands is of typical Polynesian character, with straight hair, brown colouring, good physique, and mild and hospitable disposition.

The first known visit of Europeans to the islands was that of a Dutch expedition, under Jacob Roggeveen, in its voyage around the world in 1721–22. In 1768 De Bougainville called at the islands, and in 1787 La Pérouse, who named them ″Navigators Islands,” a name by which they are still frequently called. The first British vessel to pay a visit was H.M.S. ″Pandora,” in 1790. Missionaries, who were to play an important part in the development of the country, made their advent in the person of two members of the London Missionary Society, arriving at Savaii in 1830.

The first formal recognition of ″whites” took place some eight years later, when Captain Bethune, of the British Navy, concluded a commercial treaty with the Native chiefs, by which harbour dues were to be paid and security to European interests guaranteed in return. Next year (1839) Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, in command of a United States exploring expedition, completed a similar treaty.

Three great nations were to have control of the destinies of the Samoans. Great Britain appointed a Consular Agent in 1847, the United States a Commercial Agent in 1853, and Germany her first representative in 1861.

In 1869 one of the frequent internecine wars of the Natives broke out, a war that was to have far-reaching consequences, for the foreign authorities took for the first time direct measures to ensure peace. The trouble arose over rival claimants to the Native chieftainship, and continued, despite several patched-up truces, for several years.

Petitions were presented to Great Britain in 1877, and the United States in 1878, that the islands should be annexed, but the statesmen of those days did not consider it advisable. That year (1878), however, the United States were given the privilege of forming a naval and coaling station at Pago Pago, in the island of Tutuila, much the best harbour of the Group. Next year similar privileges were granted the other two Powers—Germany at Saluafata, and Great Britain at a place to be settled later.

Finally, at a conference in Berlin in 1889, an Act was, signed by the representatives of the three States, guaranteeing neutrality and independence of the islands. This arrangement lasted until 1898, when, on the death of King Malietoa Laupepa, disturbances again arose over the succession. In accordance with the recommendation of a joint Commission the kingship was abolished. The Anglo-German agreement of the 14th November, 1899, accepted by the United States in January, 1900, gave to Germany all rights over Western Samoa, and to the United States, Tutuila and the other islands of Eastern Samoa.

On the outbreak of war in 1914 between the United Kingdom and Germany a New Zealand Expeditionary Force took possession of Western Samoa, landing at Apia on the 29th August, and remained in occupation until the establishment of Civil government under the aegis of the Dominion.

The islands are now administered by the New Zealand Government under mandate of the League of Nations, which is here quoted in full.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS.—MANDATE FOR GERMAN SAMOA.

THE Council of the League of Nations:

Whereas by Article 119 of the Treaty of Peace with Germany, signed at Versailles on June 28th, 1919, Germany renounced in favour of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers all her rights over her overseas possessions, including therein German Samoa:

And whereas the principal Allied and Associated Powers agreed that, in accordance with Article 22, Part I (Covenant of the League of Nations), of the said treaty, a mandate should be conferred upon His Britannic Majesty, to be exercised on his behalf by the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand, to administer German Samoa, and have proposed that the mandate should be formulated in the following terms:

And whereas His Britannic Majesty, for and on behalf of the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand, has agreed to accept the mandate in respect of the said Territory, and has undertaken to exercise it on behalf of the League of Nations in accordance with the following provisions:

And whereas by the aforementioned Article 22, paragraph (8), it is provided that the degree of authority, control, or administration to be exercised by the Mandatory, not having been previously agreed upon by the members of the League, shall be explicitly defined by the Council of the League of Nations:

Confirming the said mandate, defines its terms as follows:—

Article 1.

The Territory over which a mandate is conferred upon His Britannic Majesty for and on behalf of the Government of the Dominion of New Zealand (hereinafter called the Mandatory) is the former Germany Colony of Samoa.

Article 2.

The Mandatory shall have full power of administration and legislation over the Territory, subject to the present mandate, as an integral portion of the Dominion of New Zealand, and may apply the laws of the Dominion of New Zealand to the Territory, subject to such local modifications as circumstances may require.

The Mandatory shall promote to the utmost the material and moral well-being and the social progress of the inhabitants of the Territory subject to the present mandate.

Article 3.

The Mandatory shall see that the slave trade is prohibited, and that no forced labour is permitted, except for essential public works and services, and then only for adequate remuneration.

The Mandatory shall also see that the traffic in arms and ammunition is controlled in Accordance with principles analogous to those laid down in the Convention relating to the control of the arms traffic, signed on September 10th, 1919, or in any convention amending the same.

The supply of intoxicating spirits and beverages to the Natives shall be prohibited.

Article 4.

The military training of the Natives, otherwise than for purposes of internal police and the local defence of the Territory, shall be prohibited.

Furthermore, no military or naval bases shall be established or fortifications erected in the Territory.

Article 5.

Subject to the provisions of any local law for the maintenance of public order and public morals, the Mandatory shall ensure in the Territory freedom of conscience and the free exercise of all forms of worship, and shall allow all missionaries, nationals of any State member of the League of Nations, to enter into, travel, and reside in the Territory for the purpose of prosecuting their calling.

Article 6.

The Mandatory shall make to the Council of the League of Nations an annual report to the satisfaction of the Council, containing full information with regard to the Territory, and indicating the measures taken to carry out the obligations assumed under Articles 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Article 7.

The consent of the Council of the League of Nations is required for any modification of the terms of the present mandate.

The Mandatory agrees that if any dispute whatever should arise between the Mandatory and another member of the League of Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.

The present declaration shall be deposited in the archives of the League of Nations. Certified copies shall be forwarded by the Secretary-General of the League of Nations to all Powers signatories of the Treaty of Peace with Germany.

Made at Geneva the 17th day of December, 1920.

JEAN MONNET

Deputy Secretary-General.

On the 1st May, 1920, by Orders passed by the Governor-General in Council. provision was made for the civil administration of the Territory; and by the Samoa Act, 1921, the constitution and legal system of the Territory were settled.

Western Samoa is administered by an Administrator appointed by the Governor-General of New Zealand, and responsible to the Minister of External Affairs. There is a Legislative Council, consisting of not less than four official members and of unofficial members not exceeding in number the official members, appointed by the Governor-General. The Administrator, acting with the advice and consent of this Council, is empowered to make Ordinances for the peace, order, and good government of the Territory, subject to disallowance by the Governor-General. A High Court is established, and the Supreme Court of New Zealand is given jurisdiction over Western Samoa.

The Samoan Natives are to a large extent granted domestic self-government.

The Faipule (Native Parliament, leading chiefs representing every district), who are appointed by the Administrator, meet twice yearly, and draft Native orders for submission to the Government.

GEOGRAPHICAL

Western Samoa includes all islands lying between the 13th and 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st and 173rd degrees of longitude west of Greenwich.

The principal islands are Savaii and Upolu. Savaii is the larger of the two, with a length of 48 miles, a breadth of 25 miles, and a total area of 660 square miles. The island is mountainous, rising to a height of over 4,000 ft. Upolu, which extends some 45 miles in length and 13 in breadth, measures nearly 600 square miles in area. Of the two, Upolu is the more fertile and populous, and contains the port and capital of Apia. Rainfall is plentiful throughout the Group.

POPULATION.

At the census of the 17th April, 1921, the total population of Western Samoa was returned as 37,157, made up as follows:—

 Males.Females.Total.
European population1,1289382,066
Native Samoan population16,79516,54133,336
Chinese indentured labourers1,290..     1,290
Melanesian and Polynesian indentured labourers4569465
                                  Totals19,66917,48837,157

At a census taken in July, 1917, and covering only Europeans and Sampans, the population was 37,331 (Europeans 1,927, Samoans 35,404). Samoans thus decreased by over two thousand during the period, the result of a terrible influenza epidemic which swept the islands in 1918–19 at a cost of nearly eight thousand lives.

The following figures of the movement of the population relate to the twelve months ended 31st March, 1922:—

Births.Deaths.Marriages.Immigration.Emigration.
European population451339514573
Native Samoans1,399796254800538
Chinese indentured labourers1171959658
Melanesian and Polynesian indentured labourers..     6..     ..     240
            Totals1,4458322942,2732,009

HEALTH AND HOSPITALS.

By the Samoa Health Ordinance, 1921, which is on the lines of the New Zealand Health Act, 1920, but remodelled to suit local conditions, the control of the medical and sanitary services was placed in the hands of a Board of Health. A Government hospital is maintained at Apia, and a district hospital has been established at Tuasivi (Savaii).

Of the more important tropical diseases only three are prevalent in Western Samoa—viz., uncinariasis (or hookworm disease), frambœsia, and filariasis. It is estimated that 90 per cent, of the Native population harbour hookworms, but the degree of individual infection is not great. The Administration, in conjunction with the International Health Board (Rockefeller Foundation), is taking steps to cope with this disease, and frambœsia is also being systematically dealt with. Filariasis is not regarded as such a pressing problem as the other two diseases, though it is estimated that filarial embryos are present in the blood of 25 per cent. of the Native population.

EDUCATION.

Education is principally in the hands of the missionaries. Practically every Samoan can read and write his own language, and English is also taught in the mission schools, as are also arithmetic, Scripture, and geography, and in some schools history.

According to returns supplied by the missions nearly 10,000 scholars are in attendance at the various mission schools, which include village schools, district schools, high schools, and colleges. The Administration also maintains four schools, which at present have an aggregate roll number of 450.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The revenue for the financial year ended 31st March, 1922, including a subsidy of £16,000 from the New Zealand Government, was £135,569, of which receipts under the head of Customs and Marine contributed £85,129, other principal items being—Court fees, £10,747; Native taxes, £8,725; and Post Office and wireless-telegraphy receipts, £7,969. The ordinary expenditure for the year totalled £137,181, and in addition there was an extraordinary expenditure of £49,229 on a programme of public works. The figures of revenue and expenditure for each of the last five years are,—

Year ended 31st March.Revenue.Expenditure.
Ordinary.Extraordinary.Total.
* Not shown separately.
 £     £     £     £     
191879,712**74,775
191985,98582,2223,27485,496
192080,21580,1151,37481,489
1921149,027136,77929,434166,213
1922135,569137,18149,229186,410

The revenue for the last two years has been augmented by a subsidy of £16,000 per annum from the New Zealand Government, the amount being based on the additional cost of the Medical and Education Departments of Samoa since New Zealand accepted the mandate, and on the cost of the wireless station in excess of revenue.

The total extraordinary expenditure on public works to the 31st March, 1922, inclusive of the value of stores held for completion of the programme which has been mapped out is £111,565. Included in the extraordinary expenditure during 1921–22 were the following items:—

Roads and bridges (including reclamation for protection of roads)£ 16,383
Hospital, Apia, out-stations and leper-station11,362
Apia waterworks4,421
Steam-laundry3,651
Native water-supplies2,605

The exports and imports of Western Samoa (exclusive of specie and military stores) for each year since 1914 are,—

Year.Exports.Imports.
 £     £     
1914220,519236,239
1915262,389267,091
1916235,415180,340
1917320,444301,173
1918306,640309,396
1919532,500291,368
1920386,587561,153
1921241,539408,892

The principal item of export is copra, cocoa coming second. The exports of these two commodities in 1920 and 1921 were,—

Year.Copra.Cocoa.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 Tons.£     Tons.£     
19207,474296,35678590,222
19217,428190,52075036,363

Practically the whole of the decrease in the total exports in 1921 as compared with 1920 is seen to be due to the considerably lower prices prevailing for copra and cocoa in the later year, the decrease in quantity being comparatively insignificant.

Of the total imports of £408,892 in 1921, New Zealand supplied £132,830, Australia £109,226, the United States £73,310, and the United Kingdom £56,032. The United States took exports to the value of £173,351 (or 72 per cent, of the total), all but £231 being represented by copra. Next in order came the United Kingdom (£28,318), Australia (£18,649), and New Zealand (£12,803).

NAURU.

Barely one-third of a degree south of the Equator, and lying 166° 55' east of Greenwich, is the little phosphate island known as Nauru, or Pleasant Island. Prior to the world-wide conflagration' of 1914–19 this rich though little-known island was a German possession. A mandate for the administration of the island was conferred by the Allied and Associated Powers upon the British Empire, to come into operation at the same date as the Treaty of Peace with Germany. The mandate is held jointly by the Imperial Government, the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government.

An agreement between the three parties to the mandate was drawn up and completed on the 2nd July, 1919. The administrative control of the island is vested in an Administrator, whose term of appointment is five years. The first Administrator was appointed by Australia.

The working of the deposits was formerly in the hands of the Pacific Phosphate Company, but this company's interests, both in Nauru and the nearby Ocean Island, were bought out by the three Governments concerned for the sum of £3,500,000. The business is now controlled by the British Phosphate Commission consisting of three members, one appointed by each Government.

The yearly production of phosphates is allocated between the three Governments in the following proportions: United Kingdom, 42 per cent.; Australia, 42 per cent.; New Zealand, 16 per cent. This scale is subject to revision every five years. Any portion of its share not required by any Government may be disposed of either to the other Governments pro rata, or, if they do not require it, to other countries.

Nauru, which is encircled by a road ten miles long, has an area of only 5,000 to 6,000 acres. The island is surrounded by a wide reef. Near the coast is a belt of Hat land, covered with coconut-trees, of an area of about 1,400 acres. Behind this rises higher land covering some 4,250 acres, and enclosing a lagoon of almost fresh water. This higher country consists of a mass of phosphate of great richness.

There are some 1,068 Native inhabitants, who speak a language akin to that of the Gilbert-Islanders. In addition there are 599 Chinese and 227 South-Sea-Islanders, who have been introduced for the working of the phosphate-deposits. Europeans number 91, the total population being thus just under 2,000.

The exports of phosphates during each of the last five years for which information is available have been,—

 Tons.
1916105,012
1917101,267
191876,440
191969,336
1920149,609

In addition a little copra is exported. Royalties of 6d. per ton to the Government and 1/2d. per ton to the Native landowners are paid on all phosphates shipped, while an export duty of 10s. per ton is charged on copra.

Fifty-two vessels, of a total tonnage of 128,289, were entered and cleared in 1920.

Nauru possesses a wireless station, which was erected by the German authorities as part of their chain of wireless stations throughout the Pacific.

The revenue of the Nauru Administration for 1920 was £10,611, and the expenditure £4,818.

Chapter 37. SECTION XXXVII.—STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

I.—POPULATION.
Year.Population (exclusive of Maoris and for Annexed Pacific Islands) on 31st December.Births.Deaths.Marriages.
Males.Females.Totals.
185520,78116,41137,1921,460470406
186045,39434,31779,7113,1461,092690
1865117,37673,231190,6077,4902,7571,908
1870145,732102,668248,40010,2772,7031,851
1875213,294162,562375,85614,4385,7123,209
1880268,364216,500484,86419,3415,4373,181
1885312,125263,101575,22619,6936,0813,813
1890332,557292,951625,50818,2785,9943,797
1895369,725328,981698,70618,5466,8634,110
1900403,628364,650768,27819,5467,2005,860
1905467,366415,096882,46223,6828,0617,200
1910529,928472,7511,002,67925,9849,6398,236
1911539,729485,6771,025,40626,3549,5348,825
1912553,212499,4151,052,62727,5089,2149,149
1913569,109515,5531,084,66227,93510,1198,813
1914568,161527,8331,095,99428,33810,1489,280
1915563,963538,8311,102,79427,8509,96510,028
1916549,895550,6681,100,56328,50910,5968,213
1917537,360560,3121,097,67228,23910,5286,417
1918542,046566,3271,108,37325,86016,3646,227
1919601,888575,5171,177,40524,48310,8089,519
1920617,756590,0791,207,83529,92112,10912,175
1921633,040606,9261,239,96628,56710,68210,635
II.—PRODUCTION.
Year.Occupied and Cultivated Holdings over One Acre in Extent.Land (including Sown Grasses) under Cultivation.Live-stock.Coal-mines, Output from.
Horses.Horned Cattle.Sheep.Pigs.
 Number.Acres.    Tons.
187110,2111,140,27981,028436,5929,700,629151,460..     
187415,8831,651,71299,859494,91711,704,853123,921..     
187820,5193,523,277137,768578,43013,069,338207,337162,218
188124,1474,768,192161,736698,63712,190,215200,083337,262
188631,7636,668,920187,382853,35815,174,263277,901534,353
189138,0838,462,495211,040788,91916,753,752222,553668,794
1896..     10,698,869237,4181,047,90119,138,493239,778792,851
190162,78612,636,035266,2451,256,68020,233,099250,9751,227,638
190669,94214,114,925326,5371,810,93620,108,471249,7271,729,536
191173,87616,154,218404,2842,020,17123,996,126348,7542,066,073
1912..     ..     ..     ..     23,750,153..     2,177,615
1913..     ..     ..     ..     24,191,810..     1,888,005
1914..     ..     ..     ..     24,798,763..     2,275,593
1915..     ..     ..     ..     24,901,421..     2,208,624
191677,22916,984,174371,3312,417,49124,788,150297,5012,257,135
191779,53617,064,797373,6002,575,23025,270,386283,7702,068,419
191880,14617,386,160378,0502,869,46526,538,302258,6942,034,250
191980,46817,613,337363,1883,035,47825,828,554235,3471,847,848
192081,59218,004,776346,4073,101,94523,919,970266,8291,843,705
192184,07618,159,829337,2593,139,22323,285,031349,8921,809,095
III.—TRADE.
Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand)—
Wool.Grain.Frozen Meat.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
 lb.£     Centals.£     Cwt.£     
18551,772,34493,10479,20682,302..     ..     
18606,665,880444,39225,28513,112..     ..     
186519,180,5001,141,76111,1126,076..     ..     
187037,039,7631,703,944431,050141,135..     ..     
187554,401,5403,398,155629,634231,458..     ..     
188066,860,1503,169,3002,907,934906,228..     ..     
188586,507,4313,205,2752,158,604513,937296,473373,857
1890102,817,0774,150,5994,327,7531,030,415898,8941,087,617
1895116,015,1703,662,1311,011,052215,9711,134,0971,262,711
1900140,706,4864,749,1964,485,1551,034,0141,844,8312,123,881
1905139,912,7375,381,3331,149,368294,5741,690,6842,694,432
1910204,368,9578,308,4101,097,952319,0732,654,1963,850,777
1911169,424,8116,491,7071,033,170330,1862,250,5653,503,406
1912188,361,7907,105,4832,348,673741,6002,573,2383,909,569
1913186,533,0368,057,620341,981131,9382,578,6934,449,935
1914220,472,8989,318,114750,904270,0113,229,9695,863,062
1915196,570,11410,387,875405,865215,4633,591,2607,794,395
1916185,506,85912,356,074180,58686,9855,326,0457,271,318
1917178,274,48612,175,36671,04874,6062,446,9455,982,404
1918108,724,5757,527,26656,81973,0882,036,9044,957,576
1919274,246,61319,559,537313,823355,0073,822,6839,628,292
1920162,327,17611,863,827209,595205,7184,629,28211,673,696
1921158,714,8285,221,479318,196214,5884,322,75411,164,345
Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand)—
Butter.Cheese.Phormium-fibre.
Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.Quantity.Value.
* Not available.
 Cwt.£     Cwt.£     Tons.£     
18557855,7864062,1631504,674
18601,0266,6238103,535611,240
1865****375
18703,43512,9952,7359,3275,471132,578
18751046604421,86263911,742
18802,7178,3507171,98389415,617
188524,923102,38715,24535,7421,06316,316
189034,816122,70140,45184,98621,158381,789
189557,964227,60176,743150,9091,80621,040
1900172,583740,620102,849229,11115,906332,182
1905305,7221,408,55788,562205,17127,877696,467
1910356,5351,811,975451,9151,195,37320,645448,414
1911302,3871,576,917439,1741,192,05717,366300,209
1912378,1172,088,809577,0701,680,39318,641376,264
1913372,2582,061,651611,6631,770,29728,092721,924
1914434,0672,338,576863,7762,564,12519,702455,214
1915420,1442,700,625817,2582,730,21123,220571,621
1916358,6322,632,293949,4163,514,31027,6741,001,725
1917254,3972,031,551885,7433,949,25123,5161,197,396
1918431,0233,402,223883,4304,087,27825,1671,387,763
1919345,8183,080,1281,572,3117,790,99022,347866,930
1920312,0093,022,3351,222,0506,160,84018,949647,545
1921898,47811,169,5301,368,7868,199,1839,643293,775
III.—TRADE.
Year.Exports (the Produce of New Zealand)—
Gold.Gum (Kauri).Provisions, Tallow, Timber, &c.Total New Zealand Produce exported.
Quantity.ValueQuantity.ValueValue
 Oz.£     Tons.£     £     £     
1855..     ..     3554,514173,324365,867
18604,53817,5851,0469,85152,795549,133
1865574,5742,226,4741,86746,06082,7293,503,421
1870544,8802,157,5854,391175,074212,0444,544,682
1875355,3221,407,7703,230138,523285,6745,475,844
1880303,2151,220,2634,725242,817537,7426,102,300
1885222,732890,0565,876299,7621,154,5796,591,911
1890187,641751,3607,438378,5631,440,7319,428,761
1895293,4931,162,1817,425418,7661,268,8438,390,153
1900373,6141,439,60210,159622,2931,784,35013,055,249
1905520,4852,093,93610,883561,4442,167,61615,503,530
1910478,2861,896,3188,693465,0443,648,77921,944,163
1911454,8371,815,2517,587395,7073,176,45818,781,898
1912343,1631,345,1317,908401,3053,623,85121,272,405
1913376,1611,459,4998,780549,1063,375,92222,577,890
1914227,954895,3678,473497,4443,782,80425,984,717
1915422,8251,694,5534,575279,1334,668,98631,042,862
1916292,6201,199,2125,456339,8824,544,10832,975,907
1917218,624903,8884,594291,9174,481,57831,087,957
191811,98742,3912,419157,3136,302,11227,937,010
1919320,2101,334,4054,128255,81210,423,28353,304,384
1920212,973883,7486,481556,75610,577,82945,592,294
1921149,595612,1683,901367,1976,373,19343,615,458
Year.Total Exports.Imports.Total Trade.
Total.From United Kingdom.From Australia.From United States.
 £     £     £     £     £     £     
1855365,868813,460328,909..     ..     1,179,328
1860588,9531,548,333870,569649,47318,4742,137,286
18653,401,6675,594,9772,606,9942,565,28545,0848,996,644
18704,822,7564,639,0152,685,7361,655,08660,4979,461,771
18755,828,6278,029,1725,103,6102,355,988213,49213,857,799
18806,352,8926,162,0113,479,2171,930,408238,01112,514,703
18856,819,9397,479,9215,227,5511,254,908401,53214,299,860
18909,811,7206,260,5254,221,2701,087,593355,39516,072,245
18958,550,2246,400,1293,992,3591,261,125394,23314,950,353
190013,246,16110,646,0966,504,4841,776,9781,061,87323,892,257
190515,655,94712,828,8577,795,2841,815,7171,438,50128,484,804
191022,180,20917,051,58310,498,7712,359,3931,399,73739,231,792
191119,028,49019,545,87911,787,3002,944,9911,682,12938,574,369
191221,770,58120,976,57412,499,7872,583,8872,049,61842,747,155
191322,986,72222,288,30213,312,1932,914,8482,107,99045,275,024
191426,261,44721,856,09511,985,9463,376,3712,282,96648,117,542
191531,748,91221,728,83411,141,0673,554,5352,600,24853,477,746
191633,286,93726,339,28313,869,4554,002,1713,969,92559,626,220
191731,587,54720,919,2658,817,5193,660,9313,900,65851,602,418
191828,516,18824,234,0078,977,7255,133,3494,980,74852,707,441
191953,970,07530,671,69811,839,4305,081,9687,576,31484,641,773
192046,441,94661,595,82829,806,41610,555,66711,100,259108,037,774
192144,828,82742,942,44321,448,8176,486,8477,746,45787,771,270
IV.—TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION.
Year.Oversea Shipping.
Inwards.Outwards.Registered Vessels belonging to New Zealand.
Vessels.Tonnage.Vessels.Tonnage.Gross Tonnage.
185537888,61434179,825..     
1860398140,276398140,2938,527
1865862295,625783283,02024,484
1870756273,151766265,40726,743
1875926416,727940417,82042,025
1880730395,675786424,04166,316
1885786519,700780513,00095,887
1890744662,769745649,70598,907
1895611672,951597648,946100,988
1900616854,632613825,275137,767
19056271,139,4106271,141,552170,957
19106091,389,0315881,367,207233,531
19116211,482,3786241,467,402234,084
19126771,672,0926661,668,630245,445
19136451,738,9856351,699,807254,117
19146461,724,8496571,781,981168,552
19156381,641,4256491,635,933150,095
19165741,448,5175901,491,593148,497
19175431,405,7765471,381,882140,039
19185431,279,5485441,310,627141,751
19195641,480,8835741,505,256140,615
19207442,062,3707071,976,255139,945
19216781,940,2366781,944,341147,832
Year.Government Railways. (Figures to 31st March following).Electric Telegraph. (From 1895, figures for 31st March following).
Miles open for Traffic.Miles under Construction.Hallway Receipts.Miles of Line.Number of Messages.Cash and Cash Values, including Telephones.
   £       £     
1870..     ..     ..     1,887238,19527,422
187554246472,0733,156993,32374,420
18801,288192836,0773,7581,304,712100,023
18851,6131791,047,4184,4631,774,273112,778
18901,8421321,121,7015,0601,961,161110,697
18952,0141141,183,0416,2452,124,211148,955
19002,2122081,727,2367,2493,898,128222,305
19052,4072222,349,7048,3555,640,219298,079
19102,7531923,494,18211,3168,360,647438,989
19112,7982053,676,50911,8059,063,133479,289
19122,8511923,971,00212,5089,944,272528,119
19132,8542234,043,32813,04410,694,032579,816
19142,9452114,105,45713,43410,827,968665,938
19152,9702434,548,35613,68410,836,751846,269
19162,9702434,800,81013,89610,875,120855,298
19172,9832314,687,70013,68711,624,720868,182
19182,9832504,988,63213,81312,091,017993,991
19192,9962615,752,48713,72215,074,0671,044,336
19203,0092926,908,53113,72414,000,8511,237,763
19213,0213136,643,59113,76712,934,4651,312,231
V.—FINANCE.
Year.Revenue of General Government.*Expenditure of General Government.*Public Debt: Debentures and Stock in Circulation.*Debt of Local Bodies.*
Out of Revenue Account.Out of Loan Accounts.

* Financial year ended 31st March of year following.

Calendar years prior to 1880; after 1880, for year ended 31st March of year following.

‡ From 1920, year ending 31st March following.

 £     £     £     £     £     
1870..     ..     ..     7,841,891..     
1875..     ..     ..     17,400,031..     
1880..     ..     ..     28,185,7113,039,807
1885..     ..     ..     33,880,7224,943,270
1890..     ..     ..     38,830,3506,042,693
18954,556,0154,370,481..     43,050,7806,737,578
19005,854,1165,479,7041,746,14149,591,2457,563,069
19057,585,0987,122,3402,972,58962,191,04010,718,051
191010,297,2739,343,1063,359,31181,078,12215,727,613
191111,061,16110,340,3684,114,53984,353,91316,590,877
191211,734,27111,082,0384,097,16090,060,76317,483,332
191312,229,66111,825,8644,240,89699,730,42718,923,482
191412,451,94512,379,8036,059,983100,059,91019,454,475
191514,507,53012,493,1079,459,071109,637,39720,754,168
191618,355,19414,058,77017,509,017129,836,10521,432,767
191720,206,22215,120,28819,726,163150,840,05522,260,537
191822,352,37218,673,59925,075,656176,076,26022,673,712
191926,081,34023,781,92430,332,224201,170,75524,608,293
192034,260,96228,128,73019,027,319206,324,31926,186,960
192128,127,00728,466,83812,730,066219,054,385..     
Year.Banks of Issue. (Average of Four Quarters).Savings-banks (Post Office and Private).‡Post Office Money-orders issued.
Deposits.Assets.Liabilities.Number of Depositors.Balance to Credit at End of Year.Number.Amount.
 £     £     £      £      £     
1860644,521992,082801,5881,10412,450..     ..     
18652,638,4145,455,2893,522,1464,30487,40017,23678,576
18703,127,7696,315,3543,819,67012,137388,80431,864140,454
18755,967,20510,987,1786,987,31830,310897,32673,027293,481
18808,538,93514,220,2759,550,17747,4621,148,992135,648465,405
188510,083,29618,811,56711,130,24485,7692,142,560188,622581,395
189012,368,61017,735,25913,356,598118,3443,187,023176,427602,077
189513,544,41518,159,78114,491,627163,5134,620,696243,497812,604
190015,570,61017,314,53516,964,582228,8836,665,344369,8341,214,853
190520,545,60121,770,52522,144,166316,3769,773,954417,4411,541,712
191024,968,76126,398,92726,742,081432,11915,620,515569,6572,457,523
191126,765,12229,433,61428,625,803459,60217,194,461607,7642,759,393
191225,622,08331,196,40027,508,348503,92718,043,540666,4253,231,356
191325,733,18730,708,93227,591,099532,68218,923,522690,7453,357,774
191427,640,50732,502,31229,808,349559,20320,924,754691,5183,427,505.
191531,433,65333,209,48334,448,270587,10924,238,966664,8603,471,818
191637,757,91737,015,48641,977,619619,97228,015,674669,3553,607,087
191742,930,71344,979,61648,541,961651,53231,917,099642,6833,476,646
191845,562,93948,570,12652,048,732679,39836,529,654638,5003,649,371
191950,489,44448,615,20957,861,393726,25541,951,026690,2914,604,059
192059,405,34156,111,43367,818,469765,16247,193,113699,6745,276,776
192149,397,41168,701,28258,808,439783,32547,759,133669,3834,850,821
Year.Government Life insurance Department.Old-age Pensions,31st March of following YearFriendly Societies from which Returns received.Public Trust Office.
Number of PoliciesSums Assured and BonusesNumber of Pensions in Force.Amount representedNumber of Lodges,&c.Number of Members.Value of Estates and Funds.*
* From 1895 on, the figures are for year ended 31st March following.
  £      £       £     
18705930,250..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
18754,9891,836,859..     ..     ..     ..     42,163
188011,6564,171,504..     ..     17914,484117,980
188523,2186,552,242..     ..     30222,794457,620
189028,1027,807,792..     ..     35726,3791,240,097
189533,9689,345,229..     ..     37630,9052,192,594
190040,36810,639,97812,405211,96544340,2573,840,339
190545,13711,725,97712,582313,01850151,1037,358,947
191048,93212,586,79816,020403,02060968,0068,089,930
191149,37612,683,27716,649416,53065871,7719,493,959
191250,45813,271,69916,509412,40866473,24311,268,311
191351,34313,539,46718,050447,76568173,69112,282,883
191452,27313,797,07519,352475,97071774,07413,580,936
191552,95014,220,94519,804484,23272873,02713,598,744
191653,20814,259,37219,697480,55972770,36015,065,583
191753,05814,188,77419,960740,84973068,77117,153,031
191853,80314,770,54319,872731,91073167,52719,242,347
191955,77015,546,74419,993731,73573570,59820,860,686
192057,32116,259,31019,837737,37873274,21022,364,319
192159,18917,279,73420,491751,12173177,81425,497,779
VI.—EDUCATION.
Year.Scholars at Primary Schools. *Scholars at Secondary or High Schools.Scholars at Private Schools.University Students.

* Excluding children attending Native schools and industrial schools.

Including in later years secondary pupils attending technical high schools (3,349 In 1921), but excluding secondary departments of district high schools.

‡ Registered schools only.

187545,562..     7,316..     
188082,4011,63111,238211
1885102,4072,65911,989564
1890117,9122,11713,626596
1895129,8562,52514,659742
1900130,7242,79215,555805
1905137,6234,06016,6391,158
1910156,3247,97018,9811,862
1911161,6486,80619,8681,900
1912166,2647,35720,2382,228
1913172,1687,81521,1152,318
1914178,5098,25722,0802,257
1915183,2148,86022,3392,039
1916185,8849,43823,4121,985
1917190,3549,99525,4911,977
1918194,93410,66726,2372,226
1919196,05911,99420,977‡3,060
1920199,80211,96222,193‡3,822
1921205,18112,20623,924‡4,123

Appendix A. APPENDICES.

(a.) LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION.

POPULATION :—Males.Females.Total.
        Estimated (exclusive of Maoris and residents of Cook and other Pacific islands) at 30th September, 1922640,488615,4601,255,948
MIGRATION :—
        Arrivals, nine months, 1922..     ..     58,229
        Departures, nine months, 1922..     ..     55,942
VITAL STATISTICS :—Males.Females.Total.
        Births, nine months, 192211,42310,67222,095
        Deaths, nine months, 19224,6523,7108,362
        Corresponding yearly rates : Births, 23.55; deaths, 8–91...     ..     ..     
EXPORTS :—
        Total for nine months, 1922..     ..     £35,145,795
        Principal items (N.Z. produce)—..     Quantity.Value. £
                  Buttercwt.695,6585,288,652
                  Cheesecwt.1,022,5204,053,006
                  Beef, frozencwt.412,473451,649
                  Mutton, whole carcases, frozencwt.1,256,8222,344,683
                  Lamb, whole carcases, frozencwt.1,431,0504,770,857
                  Mutton and lamb joints, frozencwt.15,59632,282
                  Woolbales854,04317,140,124
                  HidesNumber407,892314,896
                  Sheep-skins, without woollb.8,670,393768,955
                  Rabbit-skinsNumber11,327,056399,258
                  Tallowton22,899641,446
                  Goldoz.96,943397,184
                  Phormium-fibreton7,116196,359
                  Timber, sawnsup. ft.37,836,067408,738
                  Kauri-gumton4,236378,929
IMPORTS :..     ..     Value.£
        Total for nine months, 1922..     ..     25,292,170
        Principal imports—
                  Apparel..     ..     983,496
                  Boots, shoes, and slippers..     ..     329,886
                  Cigarettes..     ..     384,994
                  Coal..     ..     555,771
                  Drapery..     ..     306,259
                  Hardware n.o.e...     ..     274,879
                  Hosiery..     ..     480,631
                  Iron pipes and fittings..     ..     238,974
                  Machinery, electric..     ..     724,265
                  Oils in bulk—
                          Benzine, benzolene, gasolene, &c...     ..     521,059
                          Motor-spirit n.e.i...     ..     1,014,415
                  Railway and tramway plant n.e.i...     ..     913,932
                  Sugar..     ..     1,073,056
                  Tea..     ..     434,905
                  Textile piece-goods..     ..     2,672,265
                  Timber, sawn and hewn..     ..     423,743
                  Tires, rubber (for motor vehicles)..     ..     371,897
                  Tobacco..     ..     569,196
                  Vehicles, motor..     ..     502,424
                  Whisky..     ..     337,146
SHIPPING (OVERSEAS) :—..     ..     Tons.
        Tonnage entered, nine months, 1922..     ..     1,394,278
        Tonnage cleared, nine months, 1922..     ..     1,435,348
PENSIONS :—..     Number.Annual Value. £
        Old-age, September, 1922..     20,744767,528
        Widows', September, 1922..     3,363208,506
        Military, September, 1922..     70034,300
        War, September, 1922..     28,0001,456,000
        Miners', September, 1922..     52232,494
        Epidemic, September, 1922..     62750,160
RAILWAYS :—..     ..     £     
        Receipts, twenty-four weeks ended 16th September, 1922..     ..     2,847,816
        Expenditure, twenty-four weeks ended 16th September, 1922..     ..     2,648,636
POSTAL :—..     ..     Number.
        Telegrams transmitted, nine months, 1922..     ..     9,486,448
AGRICULTURE :
        Areas sown or intended to be sown, season 1922–23—..     ..     Acres.
                Wheat..     ..     285,000
                Oats..     ..     385,000
MORTGAGES :—..     Number.Amount. £
        Registered, six months ended September, 1922..     17,13213,175,002
        Discharged, six months ended September, 1922..     9,7047,079,798
ESTATES CERTIFIEDFOR STAMP DUTY :—
        Nine months ended September, 1922..     4,04512,065,688
STATE ADVANCES (LOANSAUTHORIZED):—
        To settlers, six months ended September, 1922..     884439,685
        To workers, six months ended September, 1922..     798388,890
        To local authorities, six months ended September, 1922..     95245,585
BANKS :—..     ..     £     
        Liabilities, September quarter, 1922..     ..     53,845,543
        Assets, September quarter, 1922..     ..     59,343,196
        Deposits, September quarter, 1922..     ..     46,957,703
        Advances, September quarter, 1922..     ..     42,994,448
        Bank rate of discount, September, 1922..     ..     6 1/2 per cent.
        Overdraft interest rate, September, 1922..     ..     7 per cent.
POST OFFICE SAVINGS-BANK :—..     ..     £     
        Deposits during six months ended September, 1922..     ..     13,118,869
        Withdrawals during six months ended September, 1922..     ..     13,937,956
CONSOLIDATED FUND :—
        Revenue, twelve months ended September, 1922..     ..     27,912,694
        Expenditure, twelve months ended September, 1922..     ..     26,596,475
RETAIL PRICES, THREE FOOD GROUPS :—
        Dominion index number (taking average of four chief centres, 1909–13, as base = 1000), September, 1922..     ..     1492
        Increase per cent, as compared with July, 1914..     ..     39.44

STATISTICS OF 1921 CENSUS.

The following summaries give various population characteristics as ascertained by the census of the 17th April, 1921. Except in the case of the table relating to conjugal condition the increases or decreases since 1916 are included.

The figures are exclusive of Maoris and of residents of the Cook and other Pacific islands annexed in 1901.

AGES.
Age (in Years).NumbersProportion per Cent.Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Number.Per Cent.
* The minus signs (−) denotes decrease.
Under 565,79063,402129,19210.61−2,863−2.17
  5 and under 1067,10564,720131,88510.839,0677.38
10 and under 15.61,65459,780121,4349.9712,20911.18
15 and under 2054,46152,889107,3508.8215,94617.45
20 and under 2547,98349,22497,2077.9820,02925.95
25 and under 3044,29748,87793,1747.654,5995.19
30 and under 3547,34048,02295,3627.831,7811.90
35 and under 4050,10547,26797,3728.006,9237.65
40 and under 4545,79542,19887,9937.2317,36924.59
45 and under 5037,49132,45069,9415.749,20315.15
50 and under 5530,06425,83255,8964.5910,78623.91
55 and under 6021,28518,55539,8403.275,50116.02
60 and under 6516,86914,78131,6502.602,95910.31
65 and under 7013,44411,02024,4642.013,60817.64
70 and under 758,5267,47916,0051.328315.48
75 and under 805,7264,90816,6340.87870.82
80 and under 853,1892,5785,7670.4788918.22
85 and under 901,1479442,0910.1746228.36
90 and under 952401824220.0312039.74
95 and under 1003640760.011831.04
100 and over358..     −4−33.33
Totals for specified ages622,610595,1531,217,763100.00119,58010.89
Unspecified—
    Adults6165011,117..     −35−3.04
    Minors171633..     −81−71.05
Total population623,243595,6701,218,913..     119,46410.87
BIRTHPLACES.
Birthplaces.NumbersProportion Per Cent.Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Number.Per Cent.

* The minus sign (−) indicates decrease.

† Protectorates are included, but not mandated territories.

‡ Covers also numbers for countries not represented in 1921.

BRITISH EMPIRE.†..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
New Zealand449,151457,132906,28374.35112,14414.12
England81,54067,808149,34812.258,3505.92
Wales1,5301,0452,5750.2137817.21
Scotland28,56123,09351,6544.24−297−0.57
Ireland18,54915,87034,4192.82−2,961−7.92
Australia25,56622,47948,0453.942,4605.40
Malta, Gibraltar90491390.012926.36
India1,3066191,9250.1656641.65
Ceylon62551170.012223.16
Other British possessions in Asia73391120.01..     ..     
Union of South Africa6436431,2860.11685.58
Other British possessions in Africa84711550.01..     ..     
Canada1,0017071,7080.1426518.36
British West Indies139612000.02−3−1.48
Other British possessions in America61461070.01..     ..     
Cook Islands and Niue Island89601490.01..     ..     
Fiji2713326030.0518544.26
Tonga1101182280–02..     ..     
Other British possessions in the Pacific281240..     ..     ..     
                Total608, 854590,2391,199,09398.37121,26511.25
FOREIGN COUNTRIES..     ..     ..     ..     ..     ..     
Franco2982615590.05275.08
Italy3811495300.04−41−7.18
Switzerland4052026070.05−63−9.40
Belgium94641580.0142.60
Netherlands132171490.011511.19
Germany1,3788102,1880.18−711−24.53
Denmark, Iceland1,4226912,1130.17−131−5.84
Norway7762721,0480.09−185−15.00
Sweden1,0331731,2060.10−185−13.30
Finland282323140.03..     ..     
Russia in Europe3461484940.04..     ..     
Poland2291703990.03..     ..     
Czecho-Slovakia68501180.01..     ..     
Austria157512080.02..     ..     
Jugo-Slavia1,4801081,5880.13..     ..     
Greece124191430.01−13−8.33
Other European countries196572530.03..     ..     
Syria2051333380.03−54−13.78
China2,8431432,9860.2494546.30
Japan261440..     −31−43.66
Other Asiatic countries6033930.014386.00
African countries6038980.013350.77
United States of America1,1437291,8720.151116.30
Other American countries123902130.022211.52
Western Samoa91731640.01..     ..     
Other Pacific islands79491280.01..     ..     
                Total13,4314,57618,0071.48−629−3.38
At sea5865741,1600.10−217−15.76
Unspecified or unknown3722816530.05−955−59.39
                Grand total623,243595,6701,218,913100.00119,464‡10.87
RACE.
Race.Numbers FemalesProportion per Cent.Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Males.Females.Per Cent.

* The minus sign (−) Indicates decrease.

† These are half-castes living as Europeans and do not include 3,116 half-castes living as Maoris.

‡ Possibly in the main, Maori half-castes.

§ Covers also races not represented in 1021.

Europeans615,856591,9071,207,76399.0969,22247,11210.64
Unspecified but apparently871724,1,5950.3
    Europeans
Maori half-castes†2,1062,1294,2350.3559342131.48
Half-caste, race unspecified‡3533680.013533..     
Race aliens—
    Chinese—
        Full-blood2,8861993,0850.2595312053.33
        Half-caste88681560.0141715.56
    Syrian—
        Full-blood3492886370.058710242.19
        Half-blood2726530.012220366.67
    Indian—
        Full-blood533195520.0537314234.54
        Half-blood2430540.011721237.50
    Polynesian, n.e.i.—
        Full-blood109401490.016327152.54
        Half-blood89931820.01464497.82
    Negro—
        Full-blood423450.01−71−11.96
        Half-blood281644..     −220.00
    Asiatic Jew—
        Full-blood2636620.0123341,140.00
        Half-blood516..     51..     
    Japanese—
        Full-blood19221..     −332−59.62
        Half-blood10717..     73142.86
    West Indian—
        Full-blood13114..     131..     
        Half-blood71724..     717..     
    Fijian—
        Full-blood8311..     −7−5−52.17
        Half-blood6915..     −8−3−42.31
Siamese—Full-blood21..     21..     20..     2,000.00
    Cingalese—
        Full-blood7..     7..     1..     16.67
        Half-blood5611..     1483.33
    Malay—
        Full-blood12113..     121..     
        Half-blood..     22..     ..     2..     
    Abyssinian—
        Full-blood1..     1..     ..     ..     0.00
        Half-blood617..     4..     133.33
    Australian Aborigine—
        Full-blood2..     2..     1..     100.00
        Half-blood112..     −2..     −50.00
    American Indian—
        Full-blood1..     1..     1..     ..     
        Half-blood3..     3..     2..     200.00
    Javanese—
        Full-blood112..     11..     
        Half-blood..     11..     ..     1..     
Armenian—Full-blood2..     2..     2..     ..     
    Arab—
Full-blood1..     1..     −9..     −90.00
        Half-blood1..     1..     1..     ..     
    Egyptian—
        Full-blood112..     −110.00
    Asiatic Turk1..     1..     1−10.00
    Unspecified but apparently not European-40545..     405..     
Totals, all races623,243595,6701,218,913100.00§71,468§47,996§10.87
ALLEGIANCE.
Nationality.Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Approximate Increase since 1916.*
Males.Females.Total.Number.Per Cent.

* Nationalities in 1916 calculated according to country of birth for those claiming a nationality other than British. The movements shown are therefore approximate only. The minus sign (−) Indicates decrease.

† Covers also nationalities not represented In 1921.

British616,552593,9091,210,46199.31120,65211.07
Foreign—
    Chinese2,6121002,7120.2286046.43
    United States6683451,0130.0814716.97
    Jugo-Slavonic789688570.07..     ..     
    German3142075210.04−528−50.33
    Danish3241564800.04−333−40.96
    Swedish273683410.03−195−36.38
    Norwegian221803010.02−197−39.56
    French1411232640.023515.28
    Italian159702290.02−105−31.44
    Swiss149702190.02−160−42.22
    Russian145521970.02..     ..     
    Finnish126401660.01..     ..     
    Syrian5031810.01−111−57.81
    Polish5425790.01..     ..     
    Greek5916750.01−22−22.68
    Dutch5218700.011220.69
    Belgian4421650.01−14−17.72
    Austrian4713600.01..     ..     
    Spanish17724..     −7−22.58
    Hungarian12921..     ..     ..     
    Czecho-Slovakian9615..     ..     ..     
    Portuguese11213..     −27−67.50
    Argentine4610..     ..     ..     
    Japanese639..     −41−82.00
    Turkish369..     ..     ..     
    Chilian718..     −4−33.33
    Esthonian617..     ..     ..     
    Samoan (Western)527..     ..     ..     
    Latvian516..     ..     ..     
    Rumanian224..     ..     ..     
    Bulgarian213..     ..     ..     
    Peruvian213..     2200.00
    Lithuanian2..     2..     ..     ..     
    Palestinian2..     2..     ..     ..     
    Siberian112..     ..     ..     
    Brazilian112..     −5−71.43
    Other nationalities17724..     ..     ..     
Unknown100461460.016413.14
Unspecified2501554050.03
Totals, all nationalities623,243595,6701,218,913100.00119,464†10.87

CONJUGAL CONDITION.

(a.) Numbers.

Age (in Years).Males.Females.
Unmarried.Married.Widowed.Divorced.Unspecified.Unmarried.Married.Widowed.Divorced.Unspecified.
16 and under 2041,9771561375439,8821,0888..     624
20 and under 219,654310411438,4561,35510..     106
21 and under 2531,7685,70150834425,15313,61619626306
25 and under 3024,26719,4412486527618,32129,448803105200
30 and under 3515,39430,97964012020710,91235,3811,429181119
35 and under 4011,73636,9939651892228,43636,5961,917217101
40 and under 458,58835,5331,2532361856,68732,9162,34716682
45 and under 506,80028,9351,4011981574,92424,6842,65413256
50 and under 555,20522,9631,5721771473,61318,7423,3587049
55 and under 603,43115,9911,6471111052,14312,4103,9145336
60 and under 652,62712,2001,87674921,3698,7484,6082234
65 and under 702,0919,0962,11841987445,3994,8301730
70 and under 751,2575,2691,90919724202,8444,183626
75 and under 808272,9771,85511562331,3723,233119
80 and under 854501,3551,3357421254951,947110
85 and over21845773121849130977..     15
Adults of unspecified age14514126729776149451230
Totals, 16 and over166,435228,49717,6311,2693,215131,542225,37336,5099982,043

(b.) Proportions per Cent.

Age (In Years).Males.Females.
Unmarried.Married.Widowed.Divorced.Unmarried.Married.Widowed.Divorced.
16 and under 2097.870.360.01..     95.872.620.02..     
20 and under 2195.473.070.040.0185.1813.650.10..     
21 and under 2583.8915.050.130.0264.0134.650.500.07
25 and under 3054.7843.890.560.1537.4860.251.640.21
30 and under 3532.5265.441.350.2522.7273.682.980.38
35 and under 4023.4273.831.930.3817.8577.394.560.46
40 and under 4518.7577.592.740.5215.8578.015.560.39
45 and under 5018.1477.183.740.5315.1776.078.180.41
50 and under 5517.3176.385.230.5913.9972.5513.000.27
55 and under 6016.1275.137.740.5211.5466.8821.090.36
60 and under 6515.5772.3211.120.449.2659.1931.180.15
65 and under 7015.5567.6615.750.316.7548.9943.830.15
70 and under 7514.7461.7922.390.225.6238.0355.930.08
75 and under 8014.4451.9932.400.194.7527.9566.890.02
80 and under 8514.1142.4941.860.224.8519.2075.530.04
85 and over15.2932.05851.260.144.1811.1083.43..     
Adults of unspecified age23.5422.894.221.1415.1729.748.980.20
Totals, 16 and over39.9154.794.230.3033.1856.859.210.25

NOTE.—Particulars as to conjugal condition of those under 16 years of ago were not ascertained, the presumption, confirmed by past experience, being that practically all under that age are unmarried. The proportions shown relate to the whole population at the respective age-groups, and not merely to those whose conjugal condition was specified.

RELIGIONS.

Religious Denomination, &c.Numbers.Proportion per Cent.Increase since 1910.*
Males.Females.Total.Number.Per Cent.
* The minus sign (-) indicates decrease.
Christian religion—
    Church of England262,486252,121514,60742.2255,58412.11
    Presbyterian153,092146,453299,54524.5738,87714.92
    Roman Catholic82,32480,979163,30313.4014,0969.45
    Catholic (undefined)4783528300.07−1,569−65.40
    Methodist54,61157,733112,3449.226,3205.96
    Baptist9,28910,63719,9261.63−946−4.53
    Salvation Army5,4516,14011,5910.951,58715.86
    Brethren5,0336,02211,0550.911,25912.85
    Church of Christ4,0024,6388,6400.71−609−8.58
    Congregational3,7224,2557,9770.65−244−2.97
    Lutheran1,6941,0422,7360.22−794−22.49
    Seventh-day Adventist8941,3302,2240.1868844.79
    Unitarian7476761,4230.12211.50
    Christian (undefined)7256551,3800.11908192.37
    Christadelphian4625831,0450.09−105−9.13
    Christian Scientist3005488480.0736776.30
    Protestant (undefined)3802306100.05−1,631−72.78
    Latter-day Saints (Mormon)2422014430.0412840.64
    Society of Friends2501814310.04−1−0.23
    Catholic Apostolic1752053800.03195.26
    Bible Students1191442630.028648.59
    Missions1281182460.027846.43
    Eastern Orthodox (Catholic)117761930.02−55−22.18
    Evangelical761121880.01164683.33
    Church of God69531220.01−23−15.86
    Swedenborgian4156970.01−33−25.38
    Church of Jesus Christ191332..     17113.33
    Cooneyites122032..     32..     
    Brotherhood81119..     10111.11
    Conditional Immortalist81119..     ..     ..     
    Other denominations, &c.106861920.025843.28
        Totals, Christian religion587,060575,6811,162,74195.39114,28910.90
Non-Christian religions—
    Hebrew-1,2371,1432,3800.20351.49
    Confucian2,025752,1000.1769349.25
    Theosophist3774558320.0710.12
    Hindu38243860.03307388.61
    Liberal Catholic45651100.01110..     
    Mohammedan65..     65..     1838.30
    Buddhist43..     43..     −23−34.85
    Sikh34438..     20111.11
    Other non-Christian religions6413770.0157285.00
        Totals, non-Christian religions4,2721,7596,0310.491,21825.31
Other beliefs—
    Object to state24,41714,17438,5913.1713,01450.88
    No religion2,7731,1463,9190.32−265−6.33
    Unspecified1,0297071,7360.14−2,188−55.76
    Spiritualist7048061,5100.1220515.71
    No denomination7106721,3820.11−3,642−72.49
    Freethinker9662431,2090.10−3,240−72.83
    Agnostic5601667260.067411.35
    Rationalist2931374300.04−189−30.53
    Atheist156351910.027666.09
    Uncertain113561690.01108177.05
    Socialist4819670.01711.67
    Deist16319..     758.33
    All ″ Other beliefs ″126661920.02−10−4.95
        Totals, ″ Other beliefs ″31,91118,23050,1414.123,9578.57
        Grand totals, all religions623,243595,6701,218,913100.00119,46410.87

NOTE.—The grouping of religions adopted above is that sanctioned by common usage. No claim is made for its absolute accuracy.

(b.) PRINCIPAL EVENTS.

CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

1642. Discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769. Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1788. Discovery of Macaulay and Curtis Islands (Kermadec Group), and of Bounty Islands.

1791. Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792. First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1793. Discovery of Raoul or Sunday Island (Kermadec Group). Visit of Lieutenant-Governor King, of Norfolk Island, to Doubtless Bay.

1800. Discovery of Antipodes Islands.

1806. Discovery of Auckland Islands.

1807. Defeat of Hongi and the Ngapuhi Tribe.

1810. Discovery of Campbell Island.

1814. Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, oxen, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1818. Hongi's and To Morenga's great expedition to East Cape.

1819–20. Raid on Taranaki and Port Nicholson by Patuone, Nene, and Te Rauparaha. 1820. Hongi's visit to England. Rev. S. Marsden travelled from Waitemata, via Kaipara, to Bay of Islands—the first white man to do so. First vessel entered Auckland Harbour.

1821. Hongi's capture of Mauinaina and Te Totara Pas. Ngati-Toa migration from Kawhia to Otaki.

1822. Fall of Matakitaki Pa, Waikato, to Hongi.

1823. Fall of Mokoia Pa, Rotorua, to Hongi.

1823–28. Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1824. Fall of Te Whetumatarau Pa to Pomare.

1825. First attempt at colonization by an expedition under Captain Herd. Great defeat of Ngati-Whatau by Hongi.

1827. Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1828. Death of Hongi.

1829. Brig ” Hawes” captured by Maoris.

1830. Battles of Taumata-wiwi and Kororareka. Fall of Kaiapohia Pa, Canterbury, to Tc Rauparaha.

1831. Tory Channel whaling-station established. Application of thirteen chiefs for the protection of King William IV. Capture of Pukerangiora Pa, Waitara, by Waikato.

1832. Repulse of Waikato at Nga-motu Pa.

1833. Mr. Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834. Bishop Williams's first visit to East Cape. Battle near Otaki. Waimate Pa shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which H.M. troops employed in Now Zealand.

1835. Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of ″ United Tribes of New Zealand.” Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1836. Battles between Waikato and Te Arawa.

1838. Pelorus Sound discovered. Arrival of Roman Catholic mission under Bishop Pompallier.

1839. Governor of New South Wales authorized to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840. Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. First steamer arrived. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841. Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842. Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843. Affray with Natives at the Wairau, and massacre of persons who had surrendered.

1844. Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845. Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Hoke's war. Native hostilities near Wellington. To Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847. Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848. Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Severe earthquake at Wellington. Otago founded.

1850. Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852. Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854. Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1805. First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856. Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857. Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858. New Provinces Act passed. Hawke's Bay Province constituted.

1859. Establishment of Marlborough Province.

1860. Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861. Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovered at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862. Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. ″ White Swan,” with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863. Wreck of H.M.S. ″ Orpheus” on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Native affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand opened.

1864. Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including Battles of Rangiaohia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. Gold discovered on west coast of South Island.

1865. Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Natives defeated at Wairoa.

1866. Further defeats of rebel Natives. Commencement of Panama steam mail-service. Cook Strait submarine telegraph-cable laid.

1867. Opening of Thames Goldfield. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868. Westland Province established. Maori prisoners, under leadership of To Kooti, seized schooner ″ Rifleman ″ and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland, where they massacred Europeans and were engaged in a series of fights with European forces and friendly Natives. Considerable fighting also with other rebel Natives.

1869. Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit after Te Kooti. Termination of Panama mail-service. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870. Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail-service. Bounty Island taken possession of. Inauguration of Vogel public-works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University. Southland Province reunited with Otago.

1871. Commencement of railway-construction under public-works policy.

1872. Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873. Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Company.

1874. In pursuance of immigration and public-works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants introduced.

1875. Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company. Abolition of Provinces Act passed.

1876. New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877. Education Act passed, providing for free and compulsory education for children.

1879. Trouble with Parihaka Natives, under Te Whiti, and imprisonment of 180 of these. Triennial Parliament Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced.

1880. Release of Parihaka prisoners.

1881. Wreck of s.s. ″Tararua,” with loss of 130 lives. Severe earthquakes in Wellington. Arrest of Te Whiti and Tohu.

1882. First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand. 1883. Amnesty to Maori political offenders proclaimed. Te Whiti and Tohu released. Direct steam communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885. New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886. Tarawera eruption', involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887. Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris. Australian Naval Defence Act passed, providing for additional naval force on the Australian Station.

1888. British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889. South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890. Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891. Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance, succeeded on his death in 1893 by Mr. Seddon. This and following years marked by passage of industrial and social legislation.

1892. Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure.

1893. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. ″ Wairarapa,” with loss of 135 lives.

1895. Government assumed management of Midland Railway.

1896. Brunner Mine explosion, causing sixty-seven deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898. Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899. Labour Day instituted. New Zealand Contingent (the first of ten) sent to South Africa.

1900. Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to seventy-six.

1901. Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Universal penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902. Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. ″ Elingamite.” Conference of colonial Premiers in London, at which New Zealand was represented by Right Hon. R. J. Seddon.

1903. Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1904. New Zealand rifle team competed at Bisley, and won Kolapore Cup.

1905. Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to ″ High Commissioner.”

1906. Death of Right Hon. 11. J. Seddon, Premier since 1893. Government Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christ-church.

1907. New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land-tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908. Through communication established between Wellington and Auckland. Wellington-Manawatu Railway purchased by Government. American Fleet visited Auckland. New Zealand's subsidy to British Navy increased to £100,000 per annum. Second Ballot Act passed.

1909. S.s. ″ Penguin ″ wrecked, with loss of seventy-five lives. Battle-cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910. Field Marshal Lord Kitchener's visit to New Zealand to report and advise on defences. Public Debt Extinction Act, National Provident Fund Act, and Workers' Dwellings Act passed.

1911. Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on. national prohibition taken.

1912. Foundation-stone of new Parliament Buildings laid. Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913. Visit of Dominions Royal Commission. Visit of gift ship H.M.S. ″ New Zealand ″ to Dominion. Aeroplane presented to New Zealand as nucleus of proposed air fleet. Extensive strikes. Second Ballot Act repealed.

1914. Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal-mine disaster, whereby forty-three lives lost.

1915. New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. National register of men compiled.

1916. New Zealand Division transferred to western front, where it took part in heavy fighting during this and two following years, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt, and being later engaged in successful advance into Palestine. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced.

1918. S.S. ″ Wimmera ″ sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast. Otira tunnel pierced. Great influenza epidemic, causing over five thousand deaths.

1919. Visit of French mission under General Pau. Second visit of H.M.S. ″ New Zealand,” bringing Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa. Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. Dissolution of National Ministry. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, P.C., Prime Minister.

1920. Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted a national holiday.

1921. System of compulsory registration of firearms introduced. Samoa Act passed, making provision for ″ peace, order, and good government ″ of Western Samoa in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington, by Hon. Sir John Salmond.

1922. Earth tremors over period of several weeks in Taupo district. British Empire Exhibition Mission visited New Zealand. Anzac Day made observable in all respects as if it were a Sunday. Meat-export trade placed under control of a Board. Enrolment of volunteers in view of possible outbreak of war with Turkey.

(c.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following list contains the names of some of- the principal works dealing with Now Zealand, Samoa, and the Cook Islands, but it does not purport to be a complete list. The year of publication is given in each case, and the list is arranged as far as possible in chronological order of issue.

NEW ZEALAND.

1807. New Zealand. By Dr. Savage. London—J. Murray.

1817. Voyage to New Zealand. By John L. Nicholas London—Black.

1823. Journal of Ten Months' Residence in New Zealand. By Captain Cruise. London—Longmans.

1830. The New-Zealanders (Library of Entertaining Knowledge). London—Chas. Knight.

1832. Nine Months' Residence in New Zealand. By Augustus Earle. London—Longmans.

1836. Two Visits to New Zealand. By Dr. Marshall. London—Nisbet and Co.

1840. Manners and Customs of the New-Zealanders. By J. S. Polack. London—Madden and Co.

1843. Travels in New Zealand. By E. Dieffenbach. London—Murray.

1855 Te-Ika-a-Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. By Rev. Richard Taylor. London—Wertheim and Macintosh. (Second edition, enlarged, 1870.)

1856. Traditions and Superstitions of the New-Zealanders. By Edward Shortland. London—Longmans.

1859. New Zealand and its Colonization. By William Swainson, formerly Attorney-General for New Zealand. London—Smith, Elder, and Co.

1859. Story of New Zealand. By Dr. Thompson. London—John Murray.

1863. Old New Zealand, By Judge Maning. Auckland—Creighton and Scales.

1864. The Maori King, or the Story of our Quarrel with the Natives of New Zealand. By J. E. Gorst, M.A. London—Macmillan and Co.

1874. Life of Henry Williams. By Hugh Carleton. Auckland—Upton.

1879 Reminiscences of the War in New Zealand. By T. W. Gudgeon. London—Sampson Low.

1879. George Augustus Selwyn. By Rev. H. W. Tucker. London—W. W. Gardner.

1885. Polynesian Mythology and Maori legends. By Sir G. Grey.

1887. Mission Commerciale en Nouvelle-Zélande. Par Emile de Harven. Bruxelles—P. Weissenbruch.

1889. Ancient History of the Maori. By John White. London.

1890. Early History'of New Zealand. By R. A. Sherrin and J. H. Wallace. Edited by Thomas W. Leys. (Brett's Historical Series.) Auckland—Brett.

1891. Storia della Nuova Zelanda (2 vols.). Per D. Felice Vaggioli. Parma—Vesc. Fiaccadori.

1893. Captain Cook's Journal during his First Voyage round the World. Edited by Captain W. J. L. Wharton, R.N. London—Elliot Stock.

1895. History of New Zealand. By G. W. Rusden. Melbourne—Melville, Mullen, and Slade.

1896. The Art Workmanship of the Maori Race in New Zealand. By Augustus Hamilton. Dunedin—Fergusson and Mitchell.

1896. Journal of Sir Joseph Banks. Edited by Sir Joseph D. Hooker. London—Macmillan and Co.

1897. New Zealand Rulers and Statesman (1844–97). By W. Gisborne. London.

1898. Abel Janszoon Tasman'a Journal of His Discovery of Van Diemen 's Land and New Zealand in 1642, &c. By J. E. Heeres. Amsterdam—F. Mueller and Co.

1898. Contributions to the Early History of New Zealand. By T. M. Hocken, London.

1898. New Zealand (Story of the Empire Series). By W. P. Reeves. London—Marshall and Sons.

1900. Old Marlborough. By T. L. Buick. Palmerston North—Hart and Keeling.

1901. Newest England. By H. D. Lloyd. London.

1901. New Zealand. By It. A. Loughnan. Wellington.

1902. The Progress of New Zealand in the Century. By R. F. Irvine and O. T. J Alpers. London.

1902. State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand. By W. P. Reeves. London-Grant Richards.

1902. The last Maori War in New Zealand. By Major-General Sir George S. Whitmore, K.C.M.G., M.L.C. London—Sampson, Dow, Marston, and Co.

1903. Old Manawatu. By T. L. Buick. Palmerston North—Buick and Young.

1904. La Démocratie en Nouvelle Zélande. Paris, 1904. Translated by E. V, Burns, 1914. London.

1901. Wars of the Northern against the Southern Tribes of New Zealand in the Nineteenth Century. By S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited). (Second and enlarged edition in 1910.)

1904. La Nouvelle Zélande. Par Comte de Courte. Paris—Hachette et Cie.

1905. The Maori Race. By E. Tregear. Wanganui-A. D. Willis.

1905. The Animals of New, Zealand. An Account of the Colony's Air-breathing Vertebrates. By Captain F. W. Hutton and James Drummond, Third Edition, 1907. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1906. Adrift in New Zealand. By E. W. Elkington. London.

1907. The Plants of New Zealand. By R, M. Laing and E. 'W. Black well. Second and Revised Edition. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1907. Maori and Polynesian. By J. M. Brown. London.

1907. Our Feathered Immigrants. Evidence for and against Introduced Birds in New Zealand, together with Notes on Native Avifauna. Illustrated. By J. Drummond. Wellington—Government Printer.

1908. State Regulation of Labour and Labour Disputes in New Zealand. By Henry Broadhead. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1908. New Zealand. By P. W. Wright and W. P. Reeves. London—Black.

1908. New Zealand. (Romance of Empire Series.) By Reginald Horsley. London—T. C. and E. C. Jack.

1908. Adventures in New Zealand. By E. J. Wakefield. New Edition. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1908. Bibliography of the Literature relating to New Zealand. By T. M Hocken, Wellington.

1908. Historical Records of New Zealand. By the Hon. Dr. Robert McNab, Litt.D Wellington—Government Printer.

1908. New Zealand Revisited. By the Right Hon. Sir John Eldon Gorst. London—Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons (Limited).

1909. New Zealand in Evolution, Industrial, Economic, and Political. By G. H. Scholefield, with an introduction by W. P. Reeves. London—T. F. Unwin.

1909. Murihiku. A History of the South Island of New Zealand and the Islands Adjacent and Lying to the South, from 1642 to 1835. By the Hon. Dr. Robert McNab, Litt.D. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1909. The Dominion of New Zealand. By A. P. Douglas. London.

1910. The Maoris of New Zealand. By J. Cowan.. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1910. The Geology of New Zealand. By James Park. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1910. New Zealand Plants and their Story. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S. Second Edition, 1919. Wellington—Government Printer.

1910. History and Traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand. By S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S. New Plymouth—Polynesian Society.

1911. Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Maori. By S. Percy Smith. Third Edition. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1911. The Course of Prices in New Zealand. By James W. McIlwraith, LL.B., Litt.D. Wellington—Government Printer.

1911. State Socialism in New Zealand. By J. E. Le Rossignol and W. Downie Stewart. London—G. G. Harrop and Co.

1911. New Zealand. By the Right Hon. Sir Robert Stout, P.C., K.C.M.G., LL.D., and J. Logan Stout, LL.B. Cambridge —University Press.

1911. With the Lost Legion, in New Zealand. By Colonel G. Hamilton-Browne. London—T. Werner Laurie.

1913. La Nuova Zelanda. Giuseppe Capra. Scuola Tipografica D. Rosco—S. Benigno Canavese.

1913. New Zealand, its History, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. By S. Playne. London.

1913. Social Welfare in New Zealand. By H. H. Lusk. London.

1913. The Lore of the Whare Wananga. Third Volume of Memoirs of Polynesian Society. On Maori Religion, Myths, Cosmogony, &c.

1914. The Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand. By J. Hight, Litt.D., and H. D. Bamford, LL.D. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1914. The Treaty of Waitangi. By T. Lindsay Buick. Wellington—S. and W. Mackay

1914. The Wilds of Maoriland. By M. J. Bell. London.

1914. Oxford Survey of the British Empire. Vol. v. Australasian Territories. London.

1914. Early Rangitikei. By Sir James G. Wilson, Kt. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1915. The Long White Cloud, Aotearoa. By W. P. Reeves. London—Horace Marshall and Sons. Revised Edition.

1916. Jubilee History of South Canterbury. By Johannes 0. Andersen. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1917. A Natural History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Adjacent Islands. By R. P. Thomson. London.

1917. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. By Herbert L. Williams. Wellington—Government Printer.

1920. Prices : An Inquiry into Prices in New Zealand. By the Census and Statistics Office, Wellington. Wellington—Government Printer.

1921. New Zealand One Hundred Years Ago. By Major Richard A. Cruise. Auckland—Brett Printing and Publishing Company. (A reprint of the book published in 1823.)

1921. Maori and Pakeha. A History of New Zealand. By A. W. Shrimpton, M.A., and A. E. Mulgan. Christchurch—Whitcombe and Tombs (Limited).

1921. The Vegetation of New Zealand. By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst, Leipzig—Wilhelm Engelmann. (Vol. xiv of a work Die Vegetation der Erde.)

1921. The Hot Springs of New Zealand. By Arthur Stanley Herbert. London—H. K. Lewis and Co. (Limited).

1921. Tutira: the Story of a New Zealand Sheep-station. By Henry Guthrie-Smith. London—Blackwood and Sons.

1922. The Naturalization of Animals and Plants in New Zealand. By Hon. George M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.N.Z. Inst., M.L.C. Cambridge University Press.

1922. The Geomorphology of New Zealand. By C. A. Cotton, D.Sc., F.G.S., F.N.Z. Inst. Wellington—Government Printer.

1922. Maori Myth and Religion. Spiritual and Mental Concepts of the Maori. Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori. Maori Division of Time. By Elsdon Best, F.N.Z.Inst. Dominion Museum Monographs 1–4. Wellington—Government Printer.

1922. The New Zealand Wars: a History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Vol. i. 1845–64. By James Cowan. Wellington—Government Printer.

SAMOA.

1845. Quelques Semaines dans l'Arollipel de Samoa. By G. F. de Lurcy. (Extrait du Bulletin de la Société de Geographie.) Paris.

1846. Missionary Life in Samoa. By G. A. Lundie. Glasgow—W. Collins.

1872. Report on the Islands of the Samoa Group. By E. Wakeman. New York—Slote and James.

1875. My Story of Samoan Methodism. By M. Dyson. Melbourne—Ferguson and Moore.

1878. Grammar and Dictionary of the Samoan Language. By G. Pratt. London—Trübner and Co.

1879. Freundsohafts-Vertrag zwischen des Deutschen Reiche und der Regierung von Samoa. (Agreement between Germany and Samoa.)

1884. Samoa a Hundred Years Ago and Long Before. By George Turner. London—Macmillan.

1887. My Consulate in Samoa. By W. B. Churchward. London—Bentley and Son.

1889. Îles Samoa. By A. Marques. Lisbon.

1889. Les Îles des Samoa ou des Navigateurs. By A. de Ganniers. Paris.

1890. Le Missionaire des Samoa. By A. Monfat. Bellecour.

1893. Kurze Anleitung zum Verständnisz der Samoanischen Sprache. By B. Funk. Berlin—Mittler und Sohn.

1895. In Stevenson's Samoa. By Marie Fraser. London—Smith and Elder.

1897. Old Samoa. By Rev. John B. Stair. London—Religious Tract Society.

1899. The Imbroglio in Samoa. By H. C. Ide. (From North American Review, June, 1899.)

1899. Samoan Question. By W. Cooper. Auckland—Wilson and Horton.

1900. Samoa : Das Land, die Leute und die Mission. By G. Kurze. Berlin—M. Warneck.

1902. Samoa Uma. By L. P. Churchill. New York—Forest and Stream Publishing Company.

1902. Manuia Samoa. By Richard Dekken. Oldenburg—G. Stalling.

1902. Samoa. By Dr. F. Reinecke. Berlin—W. Süsserott.

1902–3. Die Samoa-Inseln. By A. Krämer. Stuttgart.

1904. Samoa : die Perle der Südsee. By Otto E. Ehlers. Berlin—H. Paetel.

1906. The Fishes of Samoa. By D. S. Jordan and A. Scale. Bulletin 25, United States Fisheries Bureau.

1910. Beiträge zur Geologie der Samoainseln. By I. Friedlander. München.

1910. Die deutschen Kolonien. By Major A. D. Kurd Schwabe. Berlin—Weller and Hüttich. (Samoa, in Vol. 2.)

1912. Island Reminiscences. By Thomas Trood, British Vice-Consul at Apia, Samoa. Sydney—McCarron, Stewart, and Co.

1918. History of Samoa. By R. M. Watson. Wellington—Whitcombe and Tombs.

1918. Grammar and Vocabulary of the Samoan Language. By H. Neffgen. London—Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co.

COOK ISLANDS.

1892. The South Pacific … with Notes on the Hervey Group. By Rev. W. W. Gill. Sydney—Government Printer.

1893. Phrase Book of the Cook Islands. By F. Nicholas. Wellington.

1905. A Compilation of Acts … relating to the Government of the Cook Islands. N.Z. Crown Law Office.

1916. Rarotongan Records. By Rev. W. W. Gill. (From the Journal of the Polynesian Society.) New Plymouth.

(d.) LIST OF ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS APPEARING IN PREVIOUS ISSUES OF THE YEAR-BOOK.

Article onAppeared for the Last or Only Time in the Year-book or
Year.Page.
Acclimatization1894430
Agriculture in New Zealand (by M. Murphy, F.L.S.)1912809
Building-stones1892194
Cancer mortality in New Zealand1917776
Chatham Islands, the1900531
Cheviot Estate, the1895264
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1899548
Coal-deposits of New Zealand, the1900479
Cook Islands, the laws of1902573
Co-operative system of constructing public works1894234
Exotic trees in Canterbury1904569
External trade of New Zealand, the1915858
Fauna of New Zealand1914957
Forest-trees and the timber industry1899470
Frozen-meat trade, the1894311
Geology of New Zealand1914943
Gold-dredging industry, the1899509
Government training-ship ″Amokura”1913942
Hanmer Thermal Springs1905631
Hemp industry, the1900477
H.M.S. ″New Zealand”1913932
Kauri-gum1900489
Labour in New Zealand1894362
Lakes of New Zealand, the1915963
Land- and income-tax assessment1913884
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1896281
Maori, ancient, his amusements, games, &c1907707
Maori, ancient, his clothing1908734
Maori, chant (tangi)1907711
Maori, colour-sense of the1905637
Maori, marriage customs1906638
Maori, mythology1900536
Maori, neolithic, the1902578
Maori, place-names1919936
Maori, religion1901530
Maori, sociology1903641
Maori, songs1908739
Marlborough Sounds, the1901517
Midland Railway, the1894386
Mineral waters of New Zealand1913896
Moa, heir of the1899517
Mount Cook, a night on1900525
Mount Cook, district, the1899554
Mount Cook, its glaciers, and the Hermitage1898552
Mount Sefton, ascent of1900519
New Zealand Contingents for South Africa1900449
New Zealand International Exhibition1907701
Otago lakes, the1901523
Patents, designs, and trade-marks1893350
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1900486
Railways in New Zealand, their history and progress1894377
Rivers of New Zealand1914948
Scenic wonderland, a1898565
Sheep, crossbreeding of1894308
Sheep-farming1894302
Shipping companies—
    New Zealand Shipping Company1895392
    Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company1895393
    Union Company of New Zealand1895389
Southern Alps, the1894474
State farms1894243
Sydney Pageant, the1901527
Thermal-springs district1905614
Timber-trees of the world1903605
Tokaanu to Raetihi1899539
Topographical nomenclature of the Maori1919936
Tree-planting1906611
Tuhoeland1899546
Varieties of soil1892193
Wages and working-hours in New Zealand1919860
Waihi Gold-mining Company1897432
Waikato district and through to Wanganui1899520
Waiouru to Mangaonoho1899543
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1900509
Wattle-growing in the Auckland Provincial District1897430
Wellington-Manawatu Railway, the1895381
West Coast Sounds, the1894472
White Island, a day on1906637

DETAILED GENERAL INDEX.

A.

Absolute Decrees in Divorce, 192.
Accident Insurance, 543.
Government Office, 545.
Accidents, 120, 144, 194.
Mining, 419.
Railway, 323.
Acclimatization of Fishes, 404.
Accommodation in Mental Hospitals, 162
Accommodation Licenses, 626.
Acreage and Yield of Crops, 357–370.
Acts passed 1921–22, 634–646.
Actuarial Investigation—
National Provident Fund, 518.
Public Service Superannuation Fund, 514.
State Life Insurance, 541.
Ad valorem Duties, 289.
Adenoids: Hospital Cases, 136.
Adjacent Islands, Population of, 70.
Administration, 27–32.
Administrators, 33.
Adopted Children, Registration of, 73.
Adult Suffrage, 30.
Advances—
By Banks, 528.
To Discharged Soldiers, 346, 507.
To Local Authorities, 504.
To Settlers, 500.
To Workers, 503.
Afforestation, 395.
After-lifetime, Average, 101.
Age, Mean, at Death, 100.
Age, Mean, at Marriage, 95.
Ages, 667.
At Death, 99.
Of Hospital Patients, 127.
Of Industries, 434.
Of Inmates of Benevolent Institutions, 158.
Of Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 160.
Of Issue left, 105.
Of Maoris convicted, 211.
Of Mothers of Illegitimate Children, 85.
Of Parents, 81.
Of Persons arrested and convicted, 199.
Of Persons married, 94.
Of Prisoners, 205.
Of Public-school Pupils, 172.
Aggregation of Land, 343.
Agricultural and Pastoral Production, 351–388.
Agricultural Bursaries, 186.
Agricultural College, Lincoln, 185.
Agricultural Produce exported, 228.
Agriculture, 357–370.
Board of, 353.
Department of, 353.
Aid, State—
To Dairy Industry, 383.
To Discharged Soldiers, 346, 507.
To Friendly Societies, 554.
To Immigrants, 56.
To Kauri-gum Industry, 418.
To Local Authorities, 504.
To Mining, 420.
To Settlers, 500.
To Tree-planting, 395.
To Water-power Development, 440.
To Workers, 503.
Aitutaki Island, 648.
Alcoholic Liquors, Consumption of, 214.
Alien Immigrants, 58.
Alienation of Land, 340.
Alienation of Native Lands, 349.
Aliens—
Immigration of, 58.
Naturalization of, 60.
Registration of, 61.
Allegiance, 670.
Oath of, 58, 61.
Allocation of Public Debt, 471.
Alluvial-gold Mining, 408.
Alpine Meadow-land, 390.
Altitude of Mountains, 2.
Amusements-tax, 468.
Angora Goats, 386.
Animals, Domestic, 371–388.
Annexation, 26.
Annexed Islands, 1, 648–652.
Population of, 72.
Anti-dumping Legislation, 291.
Antipodes Islands, 1, 647.
Apia, 653.
Apiculture, 387.
Appeal Court, 202.
Appendicitis Cases in Hospitals, 138.
Applicants for Crown Land, 339.
Arbitration Court, 606.
Area of Indigenous Forests, 390.
Area of New Zealand, 2.
Area under Cultivation, 335.
Arrested Persons convicted, 199.
Arrivals, 55.
Race Aliens, 59.
Articles on Special Subjects in Previous Issues, 680.
Assembly, General, 28.
Asses and Mules, 385.
Assessment of Land and Income Tax, 461.
Assets—
Of Bankrupts, 191.
Of Banks, 527.
Of Building Societies, 560.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 548.
Of Friendly Societies, 556.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 538.
Of Local Bodies, 497.
Of Manufacturing Industries, 433.
Assisted Immigration, 56.
Asylums, 158–162.
Benevolent and Orphan, 158.
Atiu Island, 648.
Atlantic Salmon, 405.
Auckland Fish-market, 406.
Auckland Islands, 1, 647.
Audit of Expenditure, 448.
Australia and New Zealand—
Birth-rates of, 76.
Standardized, 103.
Building Societies in, 560.
Standardized, 103.
Death-rates of, 101.
Standardized, 103.
Debt of, 484.
Deposits in Banks of Issue in, 528.
Illegitimacy Rates of, 86.
Index of Mortality of, 103.
Live-stock in, 371.
Marriage-rates of, 91.
Oat Crop of, 364.
Potato Crop of, 367.
Public Debt of, 484.
Railway Revenue of, 321.
Reciprocity between, 302.
Savings-banks Deposits in, 533.
Sheep in, 376.
Wheat Crop of, 363.
Australia, Reciprocity with, 302.
Automatic Telephones, 327.
Award Rates of Wages, 595.

B.

Balance of Trade, 223.
Balances of Accounts, 457.
Banking, 525–533.
Rank-notes, Issue of, 520.
Bankruptcy, 191.
Banks of Issue, 525.
Banks, Savings—
Post Office, 529.
Private, 532.
Barley, 364.
Barren Land, 331, 335.
Beans and Peas, 365.
Export of, 245.
Beef consumed and exported, 382.
Beer, Consumption of, 214.
Beer Duty, 292, 461.
Bees, 387.
Beeswax produced, 387.
Benevolent Asylums, 158.
Bertillon Classification of Causes of Death, 112.
Betting-houses, 631.
Bibliography, 676.
Birthplaces, 668.
Of Persons arrested and convicted, 199.
Of Persons convicted for Drunkenness, 212.
Of Prisoners, 204.
Births, 73–88.
Boarding of School-children, 172.
Boats, Fishing, licensed, 402.
Bones, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 142.
Bookmakers, 632.
Boroughs, 31.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 523.
Finances of, 485–499.
Population of, 68.
Borrowers from Building Societies, 558.
Boundaries of New Zealand, 1.
Bounty Islands, 1, 647.
Boys' Training-schools, 184.
Bread, Law re Sale of, 152.
Breeding-ewes, 373.
Breeds of Cattle, 381.
Brides and Grooms—
Ages of, 94.
Condition of, 93.
British Sovereignty, 26.
British Trade Representatives, 42.
Bronchitis Cases in Hospital, 136.
Building Societies, 557–560.
Building-stones, 418.
Bullion, Movement of, 224.
Bursaries, 180, 186.
Bush, Virgin, Area of, 335.
Butter—
Exported, 227–255.
Factories, 383.
Production of, 383.
Purchased for Imperial Government, 306.

C.

Cables, Ocean, 329.
Cadets, Senior, 215.
Calf-skins exported, 245.
Campbell Island, 1, 647.
Cancer, 116, 131.
Canterbury Agricultural College, 185.
Capital invested in Railways, 319.
Capital of Banks of Issue, 525.
Capital of Joint-stock Companies, 623.
Capital Value of Land, 519–524.
Rating on, 485–490.
Carry-over of Wheat, 361.
Cash Lands, 340, 345.
Cassiterite, 413.
Casualties in the War, 216.
Cattle, 379.
Causes of Death, 112.
Causes of Insanity, 159.
Census and Statistics Office, 46.
Census Legislation, 44.
Census of 1921, 51, 667.
Cereals, 357.
Certificates, Marine Officers', 314.
Certificates of Title issued. 338.
Chaff, 365.
Character of Organization of Industries, 433.
Character of Stock, 477.
Charges before Magistrates, 195.
Charitable Aid, 154.
Charitable Institutions, 156.
″Chatham,” H.M.S., 216.
Chatham Islands, 1.
Cheese—
Exported, 227–255.
Factories, 383.
Produced, 383.
Purchased for Imperial Government, 305.
Child Welfare, 184.
Childbirth, Deaths in, 119
Childbirth: Hospital Cases, 141.
Children born, Sexes of, 78.
Children, Dependent, Care or, 184.
Children under one Year, Deaths of, 107.
Children's Homes, 184.
Chinese in New Zealand, 60.
Chronological List of Events, 673.
Cinnabar, 413.
Circulatory Diseases treated in Hospitals, 135.
Civil Law Cases, 190.
Civil Marriages, 96.
Class-books, School, 173.
Climate, 8–24.
Clover-seeds, 367.
Exported, 246.
Coal exported, 228, 246.
Coal-miners' Relief Fund, 423
Coal-mining, 414.
Coastwise Shipping, 313.
Cocksfoot, 367.
Coin-in-slot Telephones, 327.
Coleridge, Lake, Water-power, 440.
Colleges, University, 185.
Collieries, 414.
Colonization. 26,
Commerce, 218–308.
Companies, Joint-stock, 623.
Companies, Taxation of, 464.
Compulsory Training, 215.
Conciliation Councils, 606.
Condensed Milk purchased for Imperial Government, 307.
Confinement—
Deaths in, 119.
Hospital Cases, 141.
Maternity Hospital Cases, 157.
Conjugal Condition, 671.
Of Persons marrying, 93
Conjugal Rights, Restitution of, 192.
Consolidated Fund, 448–453.
Constitution, 27.
Of Cook Islands, 649.
Construction of Railways, Cost of, 319.
Consuls, Foreign, 43.
Consumption—
Of Alcoholic Liquors, 214.
Of Beef, 382.
Of Mutton and Lamb, 375.
Of Pork, &c., 386.
Of Timber, 394.
Of Wheat, 361.
Conveyance of Children to School, 172.
Conveyancing, 337.
Convictions in Supreme Court, 200.
Convictions. Summary, 196.
For Drunkenness, 212.
Of Juvenile, 208.
Of Maoris, 211.
Of New-Zealand-born, 210
Of Persons arrested, 199.
Of Women, 209.
Cook and other Pacific Islands, 1, 648–652.
Bibliography, 680.
Births, 88.
Deaths, 122.
Exports to, 256.
Imports from, 287.
Marriages, 97.
Population, 72, 650,
Cook's Visits to New Zealand, 25.
Co-operative Public Works, 625.
Copper, 412.
Corn Crops, Acreage and Yield of, 357.
Cost of Railway-construction, 319.
Council, Executive, 27.
Members of, 35–37.
Council, Legislative, 28.
Members of, 39.
Councils of Conciliation, 606.
Counties, 32.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 523.
Finances of, 485–499.
Population of, 67.
Courts—
Appeal, 202.
Arbitration, 606.
Bankruptcy, 191.
Divorce, 192.
Magistrates', 190, 195.
Native Land, 349.
Supreme, 190, 200.
Cow-testing, 353, 380.
Creameries, 383.
Cream-separators on Farms, 355.
Crime, Law and, 190–214.
Criminal Cases, 195–202.
Criminals, Habitual, 206.
Crops, Principal, 357.
Crown Lands, 339–348.
Cultivation, Area in, 335.
Customary Land, 349.
Customs Tariff and Revenue, 289–303.
Customs Taxation, 293, 461.

D.

Dairy Industry, 383.
Dairying Machinery in Use, 354.
Dairy-produce, 383.
Export of, 227–255.
Grading of, 353, 383
Purchased for Imperial Government, 305.
Retail Prices, 576–590.
Danger Island, 1, 649.
Dates of Maturity of Loans, 479.
Dates of Principal Events, 673.
Deaf, School for the, 185.
Death Duties, 465.
Deaths, 98–122.
In Hospitals, 125.
In Mental Hospitals, 161.
Debentures, 477.
Debt of Local Bodies, 498.
Debt, Public, 470–484.
Deceased Husband's Brother, Marriage with, 89.
Deceased Wife's Sister, Marriage with, 89.
Decrees in Divorce, 192.
Deeds Registration, 337.
Defence, 215–217.
Deferred-payment Lands, 340, 346.
Demography, 51–72.
Denominational Schools, 163, 177.
Dental Treatment for School-children, 153.
Dentists, Registration of, 151.
Departmental Reports, 49.
Departments, Government, 41
Departures, 55.
Deposits, 528, 530–533, 568.
Depreciated Rate of Exchange, Provisions re, 291.
Designs, 624.
Destination of Exports, 235–246.
Detention, Reformative, 206.
Diamond Drills, 421.
Diarrhœa Cases treated in Hospitals, 137.
Differential Tariff, 299.
Diplomas in Public Health, 150.
Direction of Export Trade, 235–246.
Direction of Import Trade, 263.
Direction of Oversea Shipping, 311.
Discharged Mortgages, 564.
Discharged Soldiers—
Financial Assistance 346, 507.
Land for, 345.
Pensions for, 511.
Discharges from Hospitals, 125.
Discharges from Mental Hospitals, 161.
Discount Rates, 528.
Discovery of New Zealand, 25.
Diseases, Notification of, 123, 149.
Diseases, Principal, Deaths from, 113.
Diseases treated in Hospitals, 127–145.
Dislocations treated in Hospitals, 144.
Disputes, Industrial, 605–620.
Dissolution of Marriages, 192.
Dissolution of Parliament, Dates of, 37.
Distinct Criminal Cases, 197.
Distinct Prisoners received under Sentence, 204.
Distribution of—
Marriages over Year, 92.
Population, 63.
Wealth, 569.
District High Schools, 178.
Dividend Duty, 467.
Divorce, 192.
Domestic Servants, Assisted Passages for, 56.
Domestic-science Bursaries, 186.
Drainage Boards, Finances of, 485–499.
Dredging, Gold, 409.
Drills, Prospecting, 421.
Drugs, Sale of, 152.
Drunkenness, 212.
Ducks, 387.
Dumping, 291.
Dunedin Medical School, 157.
Dunes, Reclamation of, 397.
Duration of Marriage and dumber of Previous Issue, 83.
Dutiable Imports, 297.
Duties, Customs and Excise, 289–303.
Duties, Death, 465.
Dwellings—
Soldiers', 346.
Workers', 505.

E.

Early History, 25.
Early Trade, 218.
Earned Income, Reduced Tax on, 464.
Ears, Diseases of the, treated in Hospital, 135.
Earthquakes, 6.
Edible Fishes, List of, 398.
Education, 163–189.
In Cook Islands, 651.
In Western Samoa, 656.
Education Gazette, 174.
Education Test for Race Aliens, 59.
Educational Association, Workers', 187.
Educational Endowments, 341.
Effect of Prices on Exports, 248.
Effective Wages, 600.
Electoral Qualifications, 30.
Electric—
Current, 439.
Power Boards, 444, 485–499.
Telegraph, 326.
Emigration, 55.
Employees—
Factory, 426.
Farm, 354.
Postal, 329.
Railway, 322.
Employers' Liability, 543.
Employment Branch of Labour Department, 626.
Enactments of 1921–22, 634–646.
Endowments, Educational, 341.
Endowments, National, 341.
Engines on Farms, 354.
Ensilage, 365.
Enteritis Cases in Hospital, 137.
Entertainments-tax, 468.
Entrepôt Trade, 225, 247.
Epidemic General Diseases, 128.
Epidemic Pensions, 513.
Erection of Dwellings, 505.
Estate Duty, 465.
Estates acquired for Settlement, 343.
Estates administered by Public Trust Office, 621.
Estates passed for Probate, 571.
Estimated Population, 51.
Ewes, Breeding, 373.
Examinations, Annual, 187.
Exchanges, Telephone, 327.
Excise Duties, 292.
Taxation by means of, 293, 461.
Executive Council, 27.
Members of, 35–37.
Ex-nuptial Births, 85.
Exotic Trees, Planting of, 395.
Expectation of Life, 101.
Expeditionary Forces, 215.
Medical Examination, 145.
Expenditure—
Education, 188.
Hospital, 154.
Local Body, 496.
Mental Hospital, 162.
Postal, 330.
Public, 448–459.
Railway, 321.
Experimental Farms, 353.
Export Duties, 292.
Export Prices, 248.
Of Mutton, 592.
Exports, 227–257.
External Injuries treated in Hospital, 144.
External Migration, 55.
External Trade, 218–308.
Extinction of Public Debt, 482.
Eyes, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 133.

F.

Factories, 425–438.
Farmers—
Assisted Passages for, 56.
Tree-planting by, 395.
Farming, 351–388.
Feeble-minded, Schools for, 184
Female Suffrage, 30.
Fern Lands, 335.
Fibre, Phormium, 368.
Exported, 246.
Grading of, 353.
Finance, Public, 448–499.
Finances of Local Bodies, 485–499.
Financial Assistance to Soldiers, 346, 507
Fire inquests, 194.
Fire Insurance, 547–553.
State, 552.
Fire Losses, 552.
Fireblight Prevention, 635.
Fire-prevention in Forests, 395.
First Offenders' Probation, 206.
First-born, Sexes of, 78.
Fish exported, 401.
Fisheries, 398–406.
Fishes, Edible, 398.
Fish-hatcheries, 404.
Fishing-boats, 402.
Fish-markets, Municipal, 406.
Fixed Assets of Industries, 433.
Flax (Phormium Tenax), 335, 368
Exports, 228, 246.
Fleeces, Average Weight of, 377.
Flocks—
Fowls, 387.
Sheep, 374.
Flotation of Loans, 478.
Fodder Grasses, 365.
Food and Drugs, Sale of, 152.
Food Groups: Index Numbers, 576–590.
Foreign Consuls, 43.
Foreign Insurance Companies, 534.
Foreign Vessels entered and cleared, 311.
Foreigners naturalized, 60.
Forest-produce exported, 230.
Forestry, 389–397.
Foster-homes for Children, 184.
Foundation Scholarships, 180.
Foveaux Strait Oysters, 403.
Fowls, 387.
Fowl-wheat, 362.
Fractions, Totalizator, 468.
Fractures: Hospital Cases, 144.
Franchise, 30.
Free and Dutiable Imports, 297.
Free Secondary Education, 179.
Free University Education, 186.
Freehold, Crown Land made, 342.
Freehold Tenure, 333, 342.
Friendly Societies, 554–556.
Frozen Meat—
Exported, 227–255.
Purchased for Imperial Government, 304.
Fruit Industry, The, 369.
Fruit-preserving, 370.
Fuel and Light: Index Numbers, 587.
Funds of Friendly Societies, 555.

G.

Gaming, 631.
Gaols, Prisoners in, 203.
Gardens, Acreage in, 369.
Gauge, Railway, 317.
Geese, 387.
General Assembly, 28.
Genital Organs, Diseases of, treated in Hospital, 140.
Geographical Distribution of Industries, 434.
Geological Survey, 420.
Geology, 5.
German Samoa, 2, 653–657.
Geysers, 3.
Gift Duty, 466.
Glaciers, 2.
Glasshouses, 369.
″Glaxo” purchased for Imperial Government, 306.
Goats, 386.
Gold exported, 227–255.
Duty on, 292.
Goldfields, Subsidized Roads on, 422.
Gold-mining, 408.
Gonorrhea: Hospital Cases, 130.
Goods carried on Railways, 318.
Government Departments, 41.
Government Insurance—
Accident, 545.
Fire, 552.
Life, 540.
Government, System of, 27.
Government Valuation of Land, &c 519–524.
Government Water-races, 422, 445.
Governor-General, 34.
Powers, Duties, &c., 28.
Governors, Successive, 33.
Grading—
Of Dairy-produce, 353, 383.
Of Fruit, 369.
Of Honey, 388.
Of Phormium-fibre, 353.
Graduated Land-tax, 402.
Grain Crops, 357.
Grapes, 370.
Grass Lands, Acreage of, 335, 370.
Grass-seed, 367.
Exported, 246.
Greasy Wool exported, 378.
Green Fodder, 365.
Greenstone, 418.
Groceries: Index Numbers, 576–590.
Gross Indebtedness, 471.
Grounds for Divorce, 193.
Growth of Population, 51.
Growth of Trade, 218.
Guarantee of Wheat-prices, 363.
Gum, Kauri, 417.
Exported, 227–255.

H.

Habitual Criminals, 206.
Half-castes, 71.
Hands employed in Factories, 426.
Hanmer Springs, 3.
Harbour Boards, Finances of, 485–499.
Hay, 365.
Heads of Government Departments, 41.
Health Act, 148.
Health, Public, 148–153.
Hernia Cases treated in Hospital, 138.
Hervey Islands, 649.
Hides exported, 227–255.
Hides purchased for Imperial Government, 308.
High Schools, 178.
Technical, 183.
Higher Education, 185.
Highway Districts, 31.
Hindu Immigrants, 59.
H.M.S. ″Chatham,” 216.
H.M.S. ″Laburnum,” 217.
H.M.S. ″New Zealand,” 216.
H.M.S. ″Philomel,” 216.
H.M.S. ″Veronica,” 217.
History, 25, 673.
Hogs, 385.
Holdings, Occupied, 331.
Home Separators, 355.
Homes, Children's, 184.
Home-science Bursaries, 186.
Homicide, 121.
Honey, 387.
Hops, 367.
Horahora Electric Power, 442.
Horse-racing, 631.
Horses, 384.
Horticultural Stations, 353.
Hospitals, 125–145, 154–162.
Expenditure on, 154.
Maternity, 157.
Mental, 158.
Private, 156.
Private Mental, 161.
Public, 125–145, 155.
St. Helens, 157.
Hot Springs, 3.
Hours of Labour, 602.
House of Representatives, 29.
Members, of, 40.
House-rent, 579–590.
Housing, 505.
Hunt Clubs, 632.
Hydro-electric Power, 439–447.

I.

Illegitimacy, 85.
Illegitimate Infants, Deaths of, 108.
Immigration, 55.
Assisted, 56.
Restriction, 58.
Imperial Government Supplies, 304–308.
Imports, 258–288.
Free and Dutiable, 297.
Improved-farm Settlements, 340.
Incomes, 572–575.
Income-tax, 403.
Increase in Food-prices during War, 582.
Increase in Public Debt, 475.
Increase, of Population, 51.
Indebtedness of Local Bodies, 498.
Indebtedness, Public, 470–484
Indentured Labourers in Samoa, 72, 655.
Index Numbers, Price, 576–592.
Index of Mortality, 102.
Indigenous Forest, 390.
Individualization of Native Land, 349.
Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 605.
Industrial Disputes, 605–620.
Industrial Life Assurance, 537.
Industrial Manufacture, 425–438.
Industrial Schools, 184.
Industrial Unions, 606.
Industries, 425–438.
Infancy, Diseases of, 111, 143.
Infantile Mortality, 107.
Infant-life Protection, 107, 185.
Infectious Diseases, Notification of, 123.
Infectious Diseases, Prevention of, 149.
Influenza, 113.
Injuries treated in Hospital, 144.
Inland Fisheries, 404.
Inmates—
Of Benevolent and Orphan Asylums, 158.
Of Gaols, 203.
Of Hospitals, 125.
Of Mental Hospitals, 158.
Inquests, 194.
Insanity, 158–102.
Inscribed Stock, 477.
Insolvency, 191.
Inspection, Medical, of Schools, 152.
Inspection of Machinery, 625.
Instruction, Public, 103–189.
Instruments, Registration of, 337.
Insurance, 534–553.
Intercensal Estimates, 51.
Interest on Mortgages, 567.
Interest on Public Debt, 480.
Intermediate Customs Tariff, 291.
Inter-urban Telephones, 326.
Intervals between Births, 83.
Intestinal Obstruction: Hospital Cases, 138.
Intoxicating Liquor, Sale of, 626.
Investment Societies, 557.
Investments, Totalizator, 467.
Iron-ores, 410.
Ironsand, 411.
Islands—
Adjacent, Population of, 70.
Administered on Mandate, 2, 653–658.
Annexed, 1, 648–652.
Outlying, 1, 647.
Issue of Bank-notes, 529.
Issue of Deceased Males, 105.
Under Sixteen Years of Age, 106.
Issue, Previous, of Parents, 82.

J.

Joint-stock Companies, 623.
Journal of Agriculture, 353.
Journal, School, 173.
Judicial Separation, 192.
June Year Exports, 246.
Justice, 190–214.
Juvenile Offenders, 208.

K.

Kaingaroa Plantations, 396.
Kauri-gum, 417.
Exported, 227–255.
Kermadec Islands, 1, 648.
Kidney-diseases in Hospitals, 139.

L.

Labour Department: Employment Branch, 626.
Labour Disputes Investigation Act, 606.
Labour, Hours of, 602.
″Laburnum,” H.M.S., 217.
Lake Coleridge Works, 440.
Lakes, 5.
Lamb consumed and exported, 375.
Land and Income Tax, 461.
Land Boards, 339.
Maori, 350.
Land Districts, 339.
Land Drainage Boards, Finances of, 485–499.
Land for Discharged Soldiers, 345.
Land for Settlements, 343.
Land, Government Valuation of, 519–524.
Land, Occupation of, 331.
Land Offices, 339.
Land Purchase Board, 343.
Land Tenure and Settlement, 331–350.
Land Transfer and Deeds Registration, 337.
Land, Valuation of, 519–524.
Lands opened for Selection, 341.
Land-settlement Finance Associations, 345.
Land-tax, 462.
Latest Statistical Information, 665.
Law and Crime, 190–214.
Lease, Renewable, 340, 346.
Legislation of 1921–22, 634–646.
Legislative Council, 28.
Members of, 39.
Legitimate Births, 81.
Legitimation Act, 86.
Letters of Naturalization, 60.
Letters Patent, 624.
Letters posted, 324.
Liabilities—
Of Bankrupts, 191.
Of Banks, 527.
Of Building Societies, 560.
Of Fire-insurance Companies, 548.
Of Friendly Societies, 556.
Of Life-insurance Companies, 538.
Of Local Bodies, 497.
Libraries, School, 173.
Licensed Houses, 626.
Licenses by Local Bodies, 495, 626.
Licenses, Fishing-boat, 402.
Licenses, Publicans', 626.
Licensing, 626.
Life, Expectation of, 101.
Life Insurance, 534–542.
State, 540.
Light, Fuel and: Index Numbers, 587.
Lighthouses, 315.
Limonite, 410.
Lincoln Agricultural College, 185.
Linseed, 366.
Liver-diseases treated in Hospital, 139.
Live-stock, 371–388.
Loans—
Allocation of, 472.
By Building Societies, 558.
Dates of Maturity of, 479.
Flotation of, 478.
Of Local Bodies, 498.
Local Administration, 30.
Local Bodies, 30.
Advances to, 504.
Finances of, 485–499.
Superannuation, 516.
Taxation by, 468, 494.
Tree-planting by, 397.
Local Option, 628.
Local Taxation, 468, 494.
Location of Industries, 434.
Location of New Zealand, 1.
Lockouts, 605–620.
Locomotives, 317.
Lodges, 554.
London Missionary Society, 651, 653.
Losses from Fires, 552.
Lower Departments of Secondary Schools, 181.
Lunacy, 158–162.

M.

Macaulay Island, 648.
Machinery, Farm, 354.
Machinery, Inspection of, 625.
Magistrates' Courts—
Civil Cases, 190.
Criminal Cases, 195.
Magnetite Ironsand, 411.
Maize, 365.
Male and Female Death-rates, 98.
Malformations: Hospital Cases, 143.
Mandated Territories, 2, 653–658.
Mangahao Hydro-electric Scheme, 443.
Mangaia Island, 648.
Manganese-ore, 412.
Mangolds, 367.
Mangrove Oysters, 403.
Manihiki Island, 1, 649.
Manual Education, 173.
Manual Telephones, 327.
Manufactories and Works, 425–438.
Maori Land Boards, 350.
Maori War Pensions, 510.
Maoris, 25.
Births of, 73, 88.
Children attending Schools, 177.
Deaths of, 73, 121.
Half-castes, 71.
In Mental Hospitals, 160.
Marriages of, 96.
Members of Parliament, 40.
Offences by, 211.
Population, 71.
Schools for, 163, 177.
Marine Fish-hatchery, 404.
Marine Officers' Certificates, 314.
Market-gardens, 369.
Marram-grass, Planting of, 397.
Marriages, 89–97.
Dissolution of, 192.
Massey Ministry, 35.
Materials used in Manufactories, 431.
Maternal Mortality, 119.
Maternity Allowances, 516.
Maternity Hospitals, 157.
Maturity of Loans, Dates of, 479.
Mauke Island, 648.
Meat—
Export Control Act, 644.
Export of, 227–255.
Purchases for Imperial Government, 304.
Retail Prices, 578–590.
Medical Examination for Expeditionary Force, 145.
Medical Inspection of Schools, 152.
Medical Practitioners, Registration of, 150.
Medicine, School of, Dunedin, 157.
Mental Defectives, 158.
Mental Hospitals, 158–162.
Mercury-mines, 413.
Metal-mines, Accidents at, 419.
Meteorology, 8–24.
Midwives, Registration of, 151.
Migration, External, 55.
Military Forces, 215.
Military Pensions, 510.
Milking-machines, 355.
Milk-testing, 353, 380.
Milling-wheat, 361.
Mills, Wool used at, 378.
Minerals, 407–424.
Miners' Pensions, 424, 510.
Mining, 407, 424.
Accidents, 419.
Produce exported, 230, 407.
Mining Act, Board of Examiners under, 423.
Mining Advances, 422.
Ministers of each Denomination, 97.
Marriages by, 96.
Ministries, Successive, 34.
Ministry, Massey, 35.
Minors, Marriages of, 89, 96.
Mission Schools, 163, 651, 656.
Missionaries, Arrival of, 26.
Mitiaro Island, 648.
Money, Purchasing-power of, 582.
Money-orders issued and paid, 325.
Moratorium, 567.
Morbidity, 123–147.
Morioris, 51.
Mortality, Index of, 102.
Mortality, Infantile, 107.
Mortality Investigation, 101.
Mortgages, 561–568.
Mothers, Ages of, 81.
In Illegitimate Cases, 85.
Motive Power in Factories, 429.
Mountains, 2.
Movement of Specie and Bullion, 224.
Mules, 385.
Multiple Births, 80
Municipal Fish-markets, 406.
Mutton consumed and exported, 375.
Mutton, Export Prices of, 592.

N.

National Endowments, 341.
National Prohibition, 628.
National Provident Fund, 516.
National Scholarships, 180.
Nationalities, 670.
Of Aliens, 62.
Nationality of Vessels, 310.
Native Grasses, 335, 370.
Native Land Court, 349.
Native Lands, 349.
Native Schools, 163, 177.
Native Succession Duty, 466.
Native Trust Office, 622.
Native-land Purchase Board, 350.
Natural Increase of Population, 53, 75.
Naturalization, 60.
Nauru Island, 2, 657.
Naval Board, 217.
Naval Defence, 216.
Navigators Islands, 2, 653–657.
Navy, 216.
Nephrite, 418.
Nervous System, Diseases of the, treated in Hospital, 134.
Net Indebtedness, 471.
New Zealand born, Offences by, 210.
″New Zealand,” H.M.S., 216.
New Zealand Produce exported, 227–255.
New Zealand University, 185.
Newspapers—
Posted, 324.
Registered, 325.
Night Letter-telegrams, 327.
Nisi Decrees in Divorce, 192.
Niue Island, 1, 649.
Nomination of Assisted Immigrants, 56.
Note-issue of Banks, 529.
Notification of Births, 73, 107.
Notification of Diseases, 123, 149.
Nullity of Marriage, 192.
Nurseries and Plantations, 369.
State, 395.
Nurses. Registration of, 151.

O.

Oath of Allegiance, 58, 61.
Oats, 364.
Exported, 228, 364.
Occupation of Land, 331, 342.
Occupation with Right of Purchase, 340, 346.
Occupations of Bankrupts, 192.
Occupations of Deceased Males, 104.
Ocean Cables, 329.
Ocean Island, 657.
Offences, 195–206.
Offenders Probation Act, 206.
Officers, Military, 215.
Officiating Ministers, 97.
Oil, 417.
Old Age, Deaths from, in Hospital, 143.
Old-age Pensions, 508.
Orchards, 369.
Origins of Earthquakes, 7.
Ornamental Stones, 418.
Orphan Asylums, 158.
Orphanhood, 105.
Otekaike Special School, 184.
Outlying Islands, 1, 647.
Overdraft Rates, 528.
Oversea Shipping, 309.
Overseas Representatives, 42.
Oyster-beds, 403.

P.

Pacific Cable, 329.
Pacific Islands annexed in 1901, 1, 648–652.
Packet Licenses, 626.
Palmerston Island, 1, 649.
Papatupu Land, 349.
Parapara Iron-ore Deposit, 410.
Parcel-post, 325.
Parents, Ages of, 81.
Parliament, 28.
Parliamentary Elections, 30.
Parliamentary Reports, 49.
Parliaments, Successive, 37.
Parry Island (Mauke), 648.
Party-line Telephones, 327.
Passages at Reduced Rates, 56.
Passengers, Railway, 318.
Passports, 58.
Pastoral Produce exported, 227–255.
Pastoral Production, 371–388.
Pasture Grasses, 370.
Patents, Designs, and Trade-marks, 624.
Patients in Mental Hospitals, 158.
Patients in Public Hospitals, 127.
Payers of Income-tax, 464.
Payers of Land-tax, 463.
Peas and Beans, 365.
Export of, 245.
Pelts, Export of, 227–255.
Penrhyn Island, 1, 649.
Pensions, 508–513.
Permanent Building Societies, 557.
Permanent Heads of Departments, 41
Permanent Military Forces, 215.
Permission to enter New Zealand, 58.
Permits and Passports, 58.
Petroleum, 417.
Philomel, H.M.S., 216.
Phormium Tenax, 335, 368.
Fibre exported, 228–246.
Grading of Fibre, 353.
Phosphate Rock, 418.
From Nauru Island, 658.
Phthisis, 114, 128.
Miners', 424, 510.
Physical Education, 174.
Physiography, 1–24.
Pig-iron Manufacture, 410.
Pigs, 385.
Plantations, 369.
State Forest, 396.
Planting of Oysters, 403.
Platinum, 413.
Pleasant Island, 657.
Plumbers Registration, 151.
Plural Births, 80.
Pneumonia Cases in Hospital, 136.
Police, 194.
Pensions, 513.
Provident Fund, 513.
Policies, Insurance, 534–553.
Poll-tax on Chinese, 60.
Population, 51–72.
Of Cook Islands, 72, 650.
Of Western Samoa, 72, 655.
Pork consumed, 386.
Portobello Marine Fish-hatchery, 404.
Ports—
Exports, 255.
Imports, 259.
Shipping, 312–314.
Post Office Savings-bank, 529.
Postal and Telegraphic, 324–330.
Postal Notes, 325.
Potatoes. 367.
Poultry, 386.
Pounamu, 418.
Power in Factories, 429.
Power, Water. 439–448.
Preferential Tariff, 299.
Premiere, Successive, 34.
Premium Income of Insurance Companies, 534–553.
Pre-natal Influences, 109.
Prevention of Quackery, 152.
Previous Convictions of Prisoners, 205.
Previous Issue of Parents, 82.
Prices, 576–592.
Effect on Exports, 248.
Of Stock. 483.
Of Wheat, 303.
Primary Schools, 163–178.
Principal Events, 673.
Principal Exports, 227–255.
Prisoners, 203.
New-Zealand-born, 210.
Prisons, 203.
Prisons Board, 206.
Private Hospitals, 156.
Private Mental Hospital, 161.
Private Railways, 323.
Private Savings-banks, 532.
Private Scholarships, 180.
Private Schools, 176.
Private Wealth, 569.
Probate, Estates passed for, 571.
Probation, 206.
Proclamation of British Sovereignty, 26.
Production of Wool, 377.
Products of Manufactories, 432.
Prohibited Immigrants, 58.
Prorogation of Parliament, Dates of, 37.
Prospecting-drills, Government, 421.
Protection of Infant Life, 107, 185.
Provident Fund, National, 516.
Provincial Districts, 30.
Educational Systems, 164.
Industries in, 434.
Population of, 64.
Provisional State Forests, 390.
Public Debt, 470–484.
Extinction Fund, 482.
Public Finance. 448–499.
Public Health, 148–153.
Public Hospitals—
Admissions and Discharges, 125.
Ages of Patients, 127.
Diseases treated in, 127–145.
Finances, 154.
Public Instruction, 163–189.
Public Reserves, 341.
Public Schools, 170.
Public Service Superannuation, 513.
Public Trust Office, 621.
Public Works Co-operative System, 625.
Public Works Fund, 453.
Publicans' Licenses, 626.
Publications, 676.
Statistical, 46.
Puerperal Accidents and Diseases, 119, 141.
Pukapuka Island, 1, 649.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis, 114, 128.
Pulse Crops, 357.
Punishments by Magistrates' Courts, 197.
Punishments by Supreme Courts, 201.
Pupils at Public Schools, 170.
Pupil -teachers, 174.
Purchase of Estates for Settlement, 343.
Purchase of Native Lands, 350.
Purchase of Supplies for Imperial Government, 304–308.
Purchase of Workers' Dwellings, 505.
Purchasing-power of Money, 582.

Q.

Quackery Prevention Act, 152.
Quarantine, 149.
Quarries, 418.
Quartz-mining, 408.
Quicksilver-mining, 413.
Quinnat Salmon, 405.
Quinquennial Census, 51.
Quorum—
Executive Council, 27.
House of Representatives, 30.
Quotations, New Zealand Stock, 483.

R.

Rabbit Districts: Rating powers, 490.
Rabbit-skins, Exports of, 245.
Race, 669.
Race Aliens, 59.
Racing, 631.
Tax on, 467.
Radio-telegraph, 328.
Railway Districts, Finances of, 485–499.
Railways, 317–323.
Private, 323.
Superannuation Fund, 515.
Rainfall, 8–24.
Rakaanga Island, 1, 649.
Rarotonga Island, 648.
Rateable Value of Land, 485, 521.
Rates collected by Local Bodies, 494.
Rates of Interest—
On Local Bodies' Debt, 499.
On Mortgages, 567.
On Public Debt, 480.
Rating by Local Bodies, 485–492.
Reapers and Binders, 355.
Rebate of Rent, 340.
Reception of Assisted Immigrants, 57.
Reciprocity, 299.
Reclamation of Sand-dunes, 397.
Reduced Passage-rates for Assisted Immigrants, 56.
Re-exports, 225, 247.
Reformative Detention, 206.
Registered Companies, 623.
Registered Factories, 425.
Registered Mortgages, 561.
Registered Vessels, 309.
Registrars, Marriages before, 96.
Registration—
Of Adopted Children, 73.
Of Aliens, 61.
Of Apiaries, 388.
Of Births, 73.
Of Companies, 623.
Of Dairy Companies, 383.
Of Deaths, 98.
Of Deeds, 337.
Of Dentists, 151.
Of Fishing-boats, 402.
Of Industrial Unions, 606.
Of Marriages, 89.
Of Medical Practitioners, 150.
Of Newspapers, 325.
Of Nurses and Midwives, 151
Of Plumbers, 151.
Of Private Schools, 176
Of Still-births, 73, 87.
Of Vessels, 309.
Under Defence Act, 215
Rejections from Expeditionary Force, Causes of, 146.
Relief Fund, Coal-miners', 423.
Religious Denominations, 672.
Marriages by Ministers of, 96.
Ministers on Marriage List, 97.
Renewable Leases, 340, 346.
Rent, Rebate of, 340.
Rent, Restrictions on, 506.
Rents, House, 579, 590.
Repatriation of Soldiers, 507.
Representatives abroad, 42.
Representatives, Members of House of, 40.
Requisition of Supplies for Imperial Government, 304–308.
Research Scholarships, 186.
Reserve Funds of Banks, 525.
Reserves administered by Land Boards, 341.
Reserves, Public, 341.
Respiratory Diseases treated in Hospital, 136.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights, 192.
Restriction. Immigration, 58.
Restriction, Rent, 506.
Retail Prices, 576–590.
Revenue—
Customs, 293.
Local Body, 493.
Postal, 329.
Public, 448–459.
Railway, 320.
Revocation of Naturalization, 61.
Rhodes Scholarships, 186.
Rifle Clubs, 215.
River Districts, Finances of, 485–499.
Rivers, 4.
Road Districts, 31.
Finances of, 485–499.
Roads, 628.
On Goldfields. Subsidized, 422.
Rock Oysters, 403.
Rolling-stock, Railways, 317.
Roman Catholic Schools. 177.
Root Crops, 366.
Rotorua Thermal Springs, 3.
Rural Population, 64.
Rural Security, Mortgages on, 563.
Rural-mail Deliveries, 324.
Rye, 368.
Rye-grass, 367.

S.

St. Helens Hospitals, 157.
Sale of Food and Drugs, 152.
Salmon, Acclimatization of, 404.
Samoa, 2, 653–657.
San Pablo Island, 649.
Sand-dune Reclamation, 397.
Sanitation, 148.
Sausage-skins, Exports of, 245
Savage Island, 1, 649.
Savaii, Island of, 655.
Savings-banks, 529–533.
Scheelite, 412.
Requisitioned by Imperial Government, 307.
Scholars, 163–185.
Scholarships, 180.
School Journal, 173.
School Libraries and Class-books, 173.
School-children, 163–185.
Dental Treatment for, 153.
Medical Inspection of, 152.
Schools, 163–185.
Medical Inspection of, 152.
Of Mines, 422.
Scoured Wood exported, 378.
Scrub Lands, 335.
Sea-fisheries, 400.
Seals, 404.
Season Tickets, Railway, 318
Secondary Education, 178.
Second-growth Land, 335.
Seed-gardens, 369.
Seeds, Grass and Clover, 367.
Exported, 246.
Seismology, 6.
Selections of Land, 341.
Self-governing Dominions, Status of, 629.
Senior Cadets, 215.
Sentences of Criminals, 197, 201.
Separation, Judicial, 192.
Settlement and Colonization, 26.
Settlement Conditions, Selections under, 341.
Settlements, Land for, 343.
Settlers, Advances to, 500.
Sex Proportions, 52.
Of Children born, 78.
Of First-born, 78.
Of Illegitimate Children, 80.
Of Persons dying, 98.
Of Public-school Children, 172.
Shearing-machines on Farms, 355.
Sheep, 372–379.
Sheep-skins and Pelts exported, 227–255.
Shipping, 309–316.
Ships, Survey of, 315.
Sick and Funeral Funds, 556.
Silver, Production of, 410.
Silvical Research, 395.
Sinking Funds, 481.
Skin-diseases treated in Hospital, 141.
Skins, Export of, 227–255.
Skins purchased for Imperial Government, 308.
Slaughter of Animals for Food—
Cattle, 382.
Pigs, 386.
Sheep and Lambs, 375.
Slaughterhouses, 353.
Sliped Wool exported, 378.
Slot Telephones, 327.
Snares Islands, 1, 647.
Soldiers, 215.
Acquisition of Land by, 345.
Dwellings, 346.
Financial Assistance to, 346, 507.
Pensions, 511.
Settlement of, 345.
War Bursaries for Dependants, 180.
South Africa, Reciprocity with, 300.
South African War Pensions, 513.
Southern Alps, 2.
Sown Grasses, Extent of, 370.
Special Articles in Previous Issues, 680.
Special Schools, 184.
Specie, Movement of, 224.
Spirits, Consumption of, 214.
Springs, Hot, 3.
Stakes, Tax on, 467.
Stamp Duties, 405.
Standardized Death-rates, 102.
Standardized Marriage-rates, 90.
State Accident Insurance, 545.
State Advances, 500–507.
State Afforestation, 395.
State Aid—
To Dairy Industry, 383.
To Discharged Soldiers, 346, 507.
To Friendly Societies, 554.
To Immigrants, 56.
To Kauri-gum Industry, 418.
To Local Authorities, 504.
To Mining, 420.
To Settlers, 500.
To Tree-planting, 395.
To Water-power Development, 440.
To Workers, 503.
State Coal-mines, 416.
State Fire Insurance, 552.
State Forests, 390.
State Indebtedness, 470–484.
State Instruction, 168.
State Insurance—
Accident, 545.
Fire, 552.
Life, 540.
State Railways, 317–323.
State Scheme for Water — power Supply, 443.
State Schools, 170.
Statistical Information, Latest, 605.
Statistical Legislation, 44.
Statistical Organization, 44–50.
Statistical Publications, 46.
Statistical Summary, 659–664.
Status of Dominions, 629.
Stewart Island, 1.
Still-births, 87.
Stipendiary Magistrates' Courts—
Civil Cases, 190.
Criminal Cases, 195.
Stock, Character of, 477.
Stock, Live, 371–388.
Stock, Quotations for, 483.
Stomach-diseases treated in Hospital, 137.
Stones, Building and Ornamental, 418.
Strikes, 605–620.
Subdivision of Land, 343.
Submarine Cable, 329.
Subsidiary Accounts or Funds, 456.
Subsidized Prospecting, 420.
Subsidized Roads on Goldfields, 422.
Succession Duty, 466.
Suffrage, 30.
Sugar-prices, 585.
Suicide, 121, 194.
Sulphur, 414.
Summary Convictions, 196.
Summary of Industries, 435.
Summary of Legislation, 634–646.
Sumner School for Deaf, 185.
Sunday Island, 648.
Sunshine, 8–14.
Superannuation, 513.
Super-tax, 462, 464.
Supplies for Imperial Government, 304–308.
Supreme Court—
Civil Cases, 190.
Criminal Cases, 200.
Surtax, Preferential, 299.
Survey of Ships, 315.
Suwarrow Island. 1, 649.
Sympathetic Strikes, 605–620
Syphilis Cases in Hospitals, 130.

T.

Tallow exported, 227–255.
Taranaki Ironsand, 411.
Tariff, Customs, 289–293.
Tasman's Discovery of New Zealand, 25.
Tax, Land and Income, 461.
Tax on Totalizator Investments, 467.
Taxation, 460–469.
Local, 469, 485.
Taxpayers, 463, 464.
Teachers, Public-school, 174.
Superannuation Fund, 515.
Training of, 176.
Technical Education, 182.
Telegraph, Electric, 326.
Telephones, 327.
Temperature, 8–24.
Tenure of Occupied Lands, 333.
Tenures under which Land selected, 340, 345.
Terminating Building Societies, 557.
Territorial Forces, 215.
Thermal Regions, 3.
Three Kings Islands, 1, 647.
Threshing-machines, 355.
Timber—
Export, 227–255.
Duty, 293.
Output, 394.
Plantations, 396.
Trees, 391.
Tin, 413.
Title, Certificates of, issued, 338.
Tobacco, Excise Duty on, 292.
Tolls, 495.
Tomato-culture, 369.
Tongareva Island, 1, 649.
Tonnage of Vessels entered and cleared, 309–312.
Tonsils and Adenoids: Hospital Cases, 136.
Totalizator, 631.
Taxation, 467.
Tourists, 56.
Town Districts, 31.
Capital and Unimproved Values, 524.
Finances of, 485–499.
Population, 69.
Tractors on Farms, 355.
Trade, 218–308.
Representatives, 42.
Trade-marks, 624.
Training of Defence Forces, 215.
Training of Discharged Soldiers, 507.
Training of Teachers, 176.
Train-miles run, 318.
Tramway Boards, Finances of, 492–499.
Transfer, Land, 337.
Treaty of Waitangi, 26.
Tree-planting, 395.
Trees, Forest, 391.
Triplets, 80.
Trotting Clubs, 632.
Trout, Acclimatization of, 404.
Tuberculosis, 114, 128.
Tungsten-ore, 307, 412.
Turkeys, 387.
Turnips, 367.
Tussock Land, 335.
Twins and Triplets born, 80.

U.

Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion, 58.
Undeveloped Water-power, 446.
Unimproved occupied Land, 335.
Unimproved Value of Land, 519–524.
Rating on, 490.
Unions, Industrial, 606.
University of New Zealand, 185.
Unpaid Totalizator Fractions, 4GS.
Unproductive Land, 331, 335.
Upolu Island, 655.
Urban Areas—
Births, 77.
Deaths, 104.
Population, 66.
Urban Population, 64.
Urban Security, Mortgages on, 563.
Urinary Diseases treated in Hospital, 139.

V.

Valuation of Land, 519–524.
Value of Exports affected by Prices, 248.
Vehicles, Railway, 318.
Venereal Diseases: Hospital Cases, 130.
″Veronica,” H.M.S., 217.
Vessels employed in Fishing Industry, 401.
Vessels entered and cleared, 309.
Nationality of, 310.
Vessels registered, 309.
Vice-Regal Representatives, 33.
Village Settlements, 340.
Vineyards, 370.
Violent Deaths, 120.
Virgin Bush, Area of, 335.
Vital Statistics, 73–147.
Volcanoes, 2.
Voluntary Inmates of Mental Hospitals, 160.

W.

Wages, 593–604.
Of Factory Employees, 428.
Waikato Electric Power, 442.
Waiotapu Forest Plantation, 396.
Waipori Power-supply, 443.
Waitangi, Treaty of, 26.
Wakari Private Mental Hospital, 161.
War, 215.
Bursaries, 180.
Expenditure, 474.
Increases in Food-prices, 582.
Pensions, 511.
Purchase of Supplies, 304–308.
Tax, 464.
War Loans Sinking Fund, 483.
Warships, 216.
Washed Wool exported, 378.
Washington Conference, 629.
Water-power, 439–447.
Water-races, Government, 422, 445.
Water — supply Boards, Finances of, 485–499.
Wealth, Private, 569.
Weather, 8–24.
Welfare of Children, 184.
Wellington Fish-market, 406.
Western Samoa, 2, 653–657.
Bibliography of, 679.
Population of, 72.
Whakarewarewa Forest Plantation, 396.
Whaling, 26, 404.
Wheat, 359.
Export of, 228.
White Island Sulphur, 414.
Wholesale Prices, 590–592.
Widows left by Married Men, 106.
Widows' Pensions, 510.
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 622.
Wine, Consumption of, 214.
Wine Licenses, 626.
Wire (Telegraph), Miles of, 326.
Wireless Telegraphy, 328.
Women, Deaths of, in Childbirth, 119.
Women, Offences by, 209.
Women's Suffrage, 30.
Wool, 377.
Exported, 227–255.
Requisitioned, 307.
Used at Local Mills, 378.
Woolen-mills, Wool purchased by, 378.
Wool-presses on Farms, 355.
Workers, Advances to, 503.
Workers' Compensation, 543.
Workers' Dwellings, 505.
Workers' Educational Association, 187.
Workers' Unions, 606.
Working-hours, 602.
World's Cattle, 382.
World's Coal-production, 417.
World's Gold-production, 409.
World's Sheep Flocks, 376.
Wrecks, 315.

Y.

Year-book, The, 47.
Yields of Crops, 357–370.